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[ [ "Hemlock" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hemlock''' may refer to:" ], [ "Plants", "''Conium maculatum'', a poisonous herbaceous plantmore broadly, other species in the genus ''Conium''; not to be confused with the related water hemlock and hemlock water-dropwort''Tsuga'', a genus of coniferous trees" ], [ "Places", "===Communities in the United States===Hemlock, IndianaHemlock, MichiganHemlock, New YorkHemlock, OhioHemlock, Tillamook County, OregonHemlock, VirginiaHemlock, WashingtonHemlock, Fayette County, West VirginiaHemlock, Jackson County, West VirginiaHemlock, WisconsinHemlock Township, Columbia County, Pennsylvania===Bodies of water===Hemlock Creek (disambiguation)Hemlock Falls (disambiguation)Hemlock Lake, one of the Finger Lakes in New YorkMcKay Lake (Ottawa), formerly known as Hemlock Lake" ], [ "Music", " Hemlock (band), an American heavy metal band* Hemlock Ernst, the moniker used by American singer and rapper Samuel T. Herring* Hemlock Recordings, a British record label founded by musician Untold* \"Hemlock\", a song from Peter Hammill's 1988 album ''In A Foreign Town''" ], [ "Computing", "Hemlock (text editor), a variant of the Emacs text editor for UnixHemlock (Evergreen series / Radeon HD 5970), a graphics card code-name" ], [ "Other", "* Babe and Carla Hemlock, Mohawk visual artists* ''Hemlock'', a 1956 painting by Joan MitchellHemlock Society, an American advocacy groupHemlock Semiconductor Corporation, American manufacturer" ], [ "See also", "* * Ham Lock" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Harmony Society" ], [ "Introduction", "Old Economy Village, PennsylvaniaThe '''Harmony Society''' was a Christian theosophy and pietist society founded in Iptingen, Germany, in 1785.Due to religious persecution by the Lutheran Church and the government in Württemberg, the group moved to the United States, where representatives initially purchased land in Butler County, Pennsylvania.", "On February 15, 1805, the group of approximately 400 followers formally organized the Harmony Society, placing all their goods in common.Under its founder and spiritual leader, Johann Georg Rapp (1757–1847); Frederick (Reichert) Rapp (1775–1834), his adopted son who managed its business affairs; and their associates, the Society existed for one hundred years, roughly from 1805 until 1905.Members were known as Harmonists, Harmonites, or Rappites.", "The Society is best known for its worldly successes, most notably the establishment of three model communities, the first at Harmony, Pennsylvania; the second, also called Harmony, in the Indiana Territory, now New Harmony, Indiana; and the third and final town at Economy, now Ambridge, Pennsylvania." ], [ "Origins in Germany", "Johann Georg Rapp (George Rapp) 1757–1847Johann Georg Rapp (1757–1847), also known as George Rapp, was the founder of the religious sect called Harmonists, Harmonites, Rappites, or the Harmony Society.", "Born in Iptingen, Duchy of Württemberg, Germany, Rapp was a \"bright but stubborn boy\" who was also deeply religious.", "His \"strong personality\" and religious convictions began to concern local church authorities when he refused to attend church services or take communion.", "Rapp and his group of believers began meeting in Iptengen and eventually emigrated to the United States, where they established three communities: Harmony, Butler County, Pennsylvania; Harmony (later named New Harmony), Posey County, Indiana; and Economy, Beaver County, Pennsylvania.Rapp became inspired by the philosophies of Jakob Böhme, Philipp Jakob Spener, Johann Heinrich Jung, and Emanuel Swedenborg among others, and later wrote ''Thoughts on the Destiny of Man'', published in German in 1824 and in English a year later, in which he outlined his ideas and philosophy.", "Rapp lived out his remaining days in Economy, where he died on August 7, 1847, at the age of 89.By the mid-1780s, Rapp had begun preaching to the Separatists, his followers in Iptengen, who met privately and refused to attend church services or take communion.", "As their numbers increased, Rapp's group officially split with the Lutheran Church in 1785 and was banned from meeting.", "Despite warnings from local authorities, the group continued to meet privately and attract even more followers.By 1798 Rapp and his group of followers had already begun to distance themselves from mainstream society and intended to establish a new religious congregation of fellow believers.", "In the Lomersheimer declaration, written in 1798, these religious Separatists presented their statement of faith, based on Christian principles, to the Wurttemberg legislature.", "Rapp's followers declared their desire to form a separate congregation who would meet in members' homes, free from Lutheran Church doctrines.", "The group supported the belief that baptism was not necessary until children could decide for themselves whether they wanted to become a Christian.", "They also believed that confirmation for youth was not necessary and communion and confession would only be held a few times a year.", "Although the Separatists supported civil government, the group refused to make a physical oath in its support, \"for according to the Gospel not oath is allowed him who gives evidence of a righteous life as an upright man.\"", "They also refused to serve in the military or attend Lutheran schools, choosing instead to teach their children at home.", "This declaration of faith, along with some later additions, guided the Harmony Society's religious beliefs even after they had emigrated from Germany to the United States.In the 1790s, Rapp's followers continued to increase, reaching as many as 10,000 to 12,000 members.", "The increasing numbers, which included followers outside of Rapp's village, continued to concern the government, who feared they might become rebellious and dangerous to the state.", "Although no severe actions were initially taken to repress the Separatists, the group began to consider emigration to France or the United States.", "In 1803, when the government began to persecute Rapp's followers, he decided to move the entire group to the United States.", "Rapp and a small group of men left Iptingen in 1803 and traveled to America to find a new home.", "On May 1, 1804, the first group of emigrants departed for the United States.", "The initial move scattered the followers and reduced Rapp's original group of 12,000 to just a few followers.", "Johan Frederich Reichert, who later agreed to become Rapp's adopted son and took the name of Frederick Reichert Rapp, reported in a letter dated February 25, 1804, that there were \"at least 100 families or 500 persons actually ready to go\" even if they had to sacrifice their property.=== Encounter with the Haugeans ===In September 1817 '''', a ship with 500 immigrants from Württemberg, including a number of Rappites, was forced to stop in Norway because of poor weather conditions.", "Staying in Bergen for about a year and provided with housing by the authorities, they were warmly accepted by the followers of the Pietistic Haugean movement.", "The two groups found much in common and held devotions together, with some of the Germans learning Norwegian during their stay.", "Samson Trae, a Haugean leader, noted that \"It gave us extreme joy to realize that the foundation of your faith accords with the true word of God.\"", "After Rapp's followers left to settle in the United States, the two groups remained in contact for at least some time.", "In one letter, the Rappites stated, \"Our hearts have often longed for your loving and edifying company since we came to America.", "We have longed more for Bergen than for Germany because of the love with which you received us and re-freshed us in body and spirit.\"" ], [ "Settlements in the United States", "In 1804, while Rapp and his associates remained in the United States looking for a place to settle, his followers sailed to America aboard several vessels and made their way to western Pennsylvania, where they waited until land had been selected for their new settlement.", "Rapp was able to secure a large tract of land in Pennsylvania and started his first commune, known as Harmonie or Harmony, in Butler County, Pennsylvania, where the Society existed from 1804 to 1815.It soon grew to a population of about 800, and was highly profitable.", "Ten years later, the town was sold and the Harmonists moved westward to the Indiana Territory, where they established the town of Harmony, now called New Harmony, Indiana, and remained there from 1815 to 1825.The Indiana settlement was sold to Robert Owen and was renamed New Harmony.", "Ten years after the move to Indiana the commune moved again, this time returning to western Pennsylvania, and named their third and final town Economy ( in German).", "The Harmonists lived in Economy until the Society was dissolved in 1905.===Articles of association===On February 15, 1805, the settlers at Harmony, Pennsylvania, signed articles of association to formally establish the Harmony Society in the United States.", "In this document, Society members agreed to hold all property in a common fund, including working capital of $23,000 to purchase land, livestock, tools, and other goods needed to establish their town.", "The agreement gave the Society legal status in the United States and protected it from dissolution.", "Members contributed all of their possessions, pledged cooperation in promoting the interests of the group, and agreed to accept no pay for their services.", "In return, the members would receive care as long as they lived with the group.", "Under this agreement, if a member left the Society, their funds would be returned without interest or, if they had not contributed to the Society's treasury, they would receive a small monetary gift.The Society was a religious congregation who submitted to spiritual and material leadership under Rapp and his associates and worked together for the common good of all its members.", "Believing that the Second Coming of Christ would occur during their lifetimes, the Harmonists contented to live simply under a strict religious doctrine, gave up tobacco, and advocated celibacy.===First settlement: Harmony, Pennsylvania===Harmony Society building in Harmony, Pennsylvania, built in 1809.In December 1804 Rapp and a party of two others initially contracted to purchase of land for $11,250 in Butler County, Pennsylvania, and later acquired additional land to increase their holdings to approximately by the time they advertised their property for sale in 1814.Here they built the town of Harmony, a small community that had, in 1805, nearly 50 log houses, a large barn, a gristmill, and more than 150 acres of cleared land to grow crops.Because the climate was not well suited for growing grapes and nearby property was not available to expand their landholdings, the Harmonists submitted a petition to the U.S. government for assistance in purchasing land elsewhere.", "In January 1806 Rapp traveled to Washington, D.C. to hear discussions in Congress regarding the Harmonists' petition for a grant that would allow them to purchase approximately acre of land in the Indiana Territory.", "While the Senate passed the petition on January 29, it was defeated in the House of Representatives on February 18.The Harmonists had to find other financial means to support their plans for future expansion.", "By 1810 the town's population reached approximately 700, with about 130 houses.", "The Society landholdings also increased to .", "In the years that followed, the Society survived disagreements among its members, while shortages of cash and lack of credit threatened its finances.", "Still, the young community had a good reputation for its industry and agricultural production.At Harmony, George Rapp, also known as Father Rapp, was recognized as the spiritual head of the Society, the one that they went to for discussions, confessions, and other matters.", "Rapp's adopted son, Frederick, managed the Society's business and commercial affairs.Rapp let newcomers into the Society and, after a trial period, usually about a year, they were accepted as permanent members.", "While new members continued to arrive, including immigrants from Germany, others found the Harmonists' religious life too difficult and left the group.", "In addition, during a period of religious zeal in 1807 and 1808, most, but not all, of the Harmonists adopted the practice of celibacy and there were also few marriages among the members.", "Rapp's son, Johannes, was married in 1807; and it was the last marriage on record until 1817.Although Rapp did not entirely bar sex initially, it gradually became a custom and there were few births in later years.In 1811 Harmony's population rose to around 800 persons involved in farming and various trades.", "Although profit was not a primary goal, their finances improved and the enterprise was profitable, but not sufficient to carry out their planned expansions.", "Within a few years of their arrival, the Harmonist community included an inn, a tannery, warehouses, a brewery, several mills, stables, and barns, a church/meetinghouse, a school, additional dwellings for members, a labyrinth, and workshops for different trades.", "In addition, more land was cleared for vineyards and crops.", "The Harmonists also produced yarn and cloth.Several factors led to the Harmonists' decision to leave Butler County.", "Because the area's climate was not suitable, they had difficulties growing grapes for wine.", "In addition, as westward migration brought new settlers to the county, making it less isolated, the Harmonists began having troubles with neighbors who were not part of the Society.", "By 1814 Butler County's growing population and rising land prices made it difficult for the Society to expand, causing the group's leaders to look for more land elsewhere.", "Once land had been located that offered a better climate and room to expand, the group began plans to move.", "In 1814 the Harmonites sold their first settlement to Abraham Ziegler, a Mennonite, for $100,000 (~$ in ) and moved west to make a new life for themselves in the Indiana Territory.===Second settlement: Harmony, Indiana===Harmony Society buildings in New Harmony, Indiana.In 1814 the Harmony Society moved to the Indiana Territory, where it initially acquired approximately of land along the Wabash River in Posey County and later acquired more.", "Over the next ten years the Society built a thriving new community they called Harmonie or Harmony on the Wabash in the Indiana wilderness.", "(The town's name was changed to New Harmony after the Harmonists left in 1824.)", "The Harmonists entered into agriculture and manufacture on a larger scale than they had done in Pennsylvania.", "When the Harmonists advertised their Indiana property for sale in 1824, they had acquired of land, of which was under cultivation.During the summer and fall of 1814, many Harmonists fell sick from fever (malaria) and work on the new town nearly ceased.", "During this time the Society lost about 120 people and others fell ill until conditions were improved and the swamps around the area were drained.", "Despite these illnesses, construction of the new town continued.", "By 1819 the Harmonites had built 150 log homes, a church, a community storehouse, barns, stables, and a tavern, along with thriving shops and mills, and cleared land for farming.", "As the new settlement in Indiana grew, it also began to attract new arrivals, including emigrants from Germany, who expected the Harmonists to pay for their passage to America.Visitors to the new town commented on its growing commercial and industrial work.", "In 1819 the town had a steam-operated wool carding and spinning factory, a brewery, distillery, vineyards, and a winery, but not all visitors were impressed with the growing communal town on the frontier.", "The Society also had visitors from another communal religious society, the Shakers.", "In 1816 meetings between the Shakers and Harmonists considered a possible union of the two societies, but religious differences between the two groups halted the union.", "Members of the groups remained, however, in contact over the years.", "George Rapp's daughter and others lived for a time at the Shaker settlement in West Union, Indiana, where the Shakers helped a number of Harmonites learn the English language.The Harmonist community continued to thrive during the 1820s.", "The Society shipped its surplus agricultural produce and manufactured goods throughout the Ohio and Mississippi valleys or sold them through their stores at Harmony and Shawneetown and their agents in Pittsburgh, Saint Louis, Louisville, and elsewhere.", "Under Frederick Rapp's financial management the Society prospered, but he soon wished for a location better suited to manufacturing and commercial purposes.", "They had initially selected the land near the Wabash River for its isolation and opportunity for expansion, but the Harmonites were now a great distance from the eastern markets and trade in this location was not to their liking.", "They also had to deal with unfriendly neighbors.", "As abolitionists, the Harmonites faced disagreeable elements from slavery supporters in Kentucky, only away, which caused them much annoyance.", "By 1824 the decision had been made to sell their property in Indiana and search for land to the east.On January 3, 1825, the Harmonists and Robert Owen, a Welsh-born industrialist and social reformer, came to a final agreement for the sale of the Society's land and buildings in Indiana for $150,000.Owen named the town New Harmony, and by May, the last of the Harmony Society's remaining members returned to Pennsylvania.===Third settlement: Economy, Pennsylvania===Old Economy Village, Pennsylvania.Harmonia in the Harmony Society gardens in Old Economy Village, Pennsylvania.In 1824 Frederick Rapp initially purchased along the Ohio River, northwest of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, for $10,000, and later bought an additional for $33,445, giving the Society more than to develop into a new community.", "The Harmonites named their third and last town Economy, after the spiritual notion of the Divine Economy, \"a city in which God would dwell among men\" and where perfection would be attained.At Economy the Harmonists intended to become more involved in manufacturing and their new town on the Ohio River provided better access to eastern markets and water access to the south and west than they had in Indiana.", "By 1826 the Harmonists had woolen and cotton mills in operation as well as a steam-operated grain mill.", "The Harmonist society also ran a wine press, a hotel, post office, saw mills, stores, and a variety of farms.", "Here, under the business acumen and efficient management of Frederick Rapp, they enjoyed such prosperity that by 1829 they dominated trade and the markets of Pittsburgh and down the Ohio River.", "The Harmonists' competitors accused them of creating a monopoly and called on state government to dissolve the group.", "Despite the attacks, the Harmonists developed Economy into a prosperous factory town, engaged in farming on a large scale, and maintained a brewery, distillery, and wine-making operation.", "They also pioneered the manufacturing of silk in the United States.The community was not neglectful of matters pertaining to art and culture.", "Frederick Rapp purchased artifacts and installed a museum containing fine paintings and many curiosities and antiques, but it proved to be unprofitable and was sold at a loss.", "In addition, the Harmonists maintained a deer park, a floral park, and a maze, or labyrinth.", "The Harmonists were fond of music and many of the members were accomplished musicians.", "They sang, had a band/orchestra, composed songs, and gave much attention to its cultivation.", "By 1830 they had amassed a 360-volume library.In 1832 the Society suffered a serious division.", "Of 750 members, 250 became alienated through the influence of Bernhard Müller (self-styled Count de Leon), who, with 40 followers (also at variance with the authorities in the old country), had come to Economy to affiliate with the Society.", "Rapp and Leon could not agree; a separation and apportionment of the property were therefore agreed upon.", "This secession of one-third of the Society, which consisted mostly of the flower of young manhood and young womanhood who did not want to maintain the custom of celibacy, broke Frederick's heart.", "He died within two years.", "It resulted in a considerable fracturing of the community.", "Nevertheless, the Society remained prosperous in business investments for many more years to come.After Frederick Rapp's death in 1834, George Rapp appointed Romelius Baker and Jacob Henrici as trustees to manage the Society's business affairs.", "After George Rapp's death in 1847, the Society reorganized.", "While a board of elders was elected for the enforcement of the Society's rules and regulations, business management passed to its trustees: Baker and Henrici, 1847–68; Henrici and Jonathan Lenz, 1869–90; Henrici and Wolfel, 1890; Henrici and John S. Duss, 1890–1892; Duss and Seiber, 1892–1893; Duss and Reithmuller, 1893–1897;Duss, 1897–1903; and finally to Suzanna (Susie) C. Duss in 1903.By 1905 membership had dwindled to just three members and the Society was dissolved.The settlements at Economy remained economically successful until the late 19th century, producing many goods in their cotton and woolen factories, sawmill, tannery, and from their vineyards and distillery.", "They also produced high quality silk for garments.", "Rapp's granddaughter, Gertrude, began the silk production in Economy on a small scale from 1826 to 1828, and later expanded.", "This was planned in New Harmony, but fulfilled when they arrived at Economy.", "The Harmonists were industrious and utilized the latest technologies of the day in their factories.", "Because the group chose to adopt celibacy and their members grew older, more work gradually had to be hired out.", "As their membership declined, they stopped manufacturing operations, other than what they needed for themselves, and began to invest in other ventures such as the oil business, coal mining, timber, railroads, land development, and banking.", "The group invested in the construction of the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad, established the Economy Savings Institution and the Economy Brick Works, and operated the Economy Oil Company, as well as the Economy Planing Mill, Economy Lumber Company, and eventually donated some land in Beaver Falls for the construction of Geneva College.", "The Society exerted a major influence on the economic development of Western Pennsylvania.Oil production in the mid-1860s brought the high-water mark of the Society's prosperity.", "By the close of Baker's administration in 1868, The Society's wealth was probably $2 million (~$ in ).", "By 1890, however, the Society was in debt and on the verge of bankruptcy with a depleted and aged membership.", "In addition, the Society faced litigation from previous members and would-be heirs.", "The Society's trustee, John S. Duss, settled the lawsuits, liquidated its business ventures, and paid the Society's indebtedness.", "The great strain which he had undergone at this time undermined his health and he resigned his trusteeship in 1903.With only a few members left, the remaining land and assets were sold under the leadership of Duss's wife, Susanna (Susie), and the Society was formally dissolved in 1905.At the time of the Society's dissolution, its net worth was $1.2 million.In 1916 the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania acquired and 17 buildings of Economy, which became the Old Economy Village historic site.", "The American Bridge Company had already acquired other parts of the Society's land in 1902 to build the town of Ambridge." ], [ "Characteristics", "=== Religious views ===In 1791 George Rapp said, \"I am a prophet, and I am called to be one\" in front of the civil affairs official in Maulbronn, Germany, who promptly had him imprisoned for two days and threatened with exile if he did not cease preaching.", "To the great consternation of church and state authorities, this mere peasant from Iptingen had become the outspoken leader of several thousand Separatists in the southern German duchy of Württemberg.", "By 1802 the Separatists had grown in number to about 12,000 and the Württemberg government decided that they were a dangerous threat to social order.", "Rapp was summoned to Maulbronn for an interrogation, and the government confiscated Separatist books.", "When released in 1803, from a brief time in prison, Rapp told his followers to pool their assets and follow him on a journey for safety to the \"land of Israel\" in the United States, and soon over 800 people were living with him there.The Harmonites were Christian pietist Separatists who split from the Lutheran Church in the late 18th century.", "Under the leadership of George Rapp, the group left Württemberg, Germany, and came to the United States in 1803.Due to the troubles they had in Europe, the group sought to establish a more perfect society in the American wilderness.", "They were nonviolent pacifists who refused to serve in the military and tried to live by George Rapp's philosophy and literal interpretations of the New Testament.", "They first settled and built the town of Harmony, Pennsylvania, in 1804, and established the Harmony Society in 1805 as a religious commune.", "In 1807, celibacy was advocated as the preferred custom of the community in an attempt to purify themselves for the coming Millennium.", "Rapp believed that the events and wars going on in the world at the time were a confirmation of his views regarding the imminent Second Coming of Christ, and he also viewed Napoleon as the Antichrist.", "In 1814, the Society sold their first town in Pennsylvania and moved to the Indiana Territory, where they built their second town.", "In 1824, they decided it was time to leave Indiana, sold their land and town in Indiana, and moved to their final settlement in Western Pennsylvania.Virgin Sophia design on doorway in Harmony, Pennsylvania, carved by Frederick Reichert Rapp (1775–1834).The Harmonites were Millennialists, in that they believed Jesus Christ was coming to earth in their lifetime to help usher in a thousand-year kingdom of peace on earth.", "This is perhaps why they believed that people should try to make themselves \"pure\" and \"perfect\", and share things with others while willingly living in communal \"harmony\" (Acts 4:32-35) and practicing celibacy.", "They believed that the old ways of life on earth were coming to an end, and that a new perfect kingdom on earth was about to be realized.They also practiced forms of Esoteric Christianity, Mysticism (Christian mysticism), and Rapp often spoke of the virgin spirit or Goddess named Sophia in his writings.", "Rapp was very influenced by the writings of Jakob Böhme, Philipp Jakob Spener, and Emanuel Swedenborg, among others.", "Also, at Economy, there are glass bottles and literature that seem to indicate that the group was interested in (and practiced) alchemy.", "Other books found in the Harmony Society's library in Economy, include those by the following authors: Christoph Schütz, Gottfried Arnold, Justinus Kerner, Thomas Bromley, Jane Leade, Johann Scheible (''Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses''), Paracelsus, and Georg von Welling, among others.The Harmonites tended to view unmarried celibate life as morally superior to marriage, based on Rapp's belief that God had originally created Adam as a dual being, having male and female sexual organs.", "According to this view, when the female portion of Adam separated to form Eve, disharmony followed, but one could attempt to regain harmony through celibacy.George Rapp predicted that on September 15, 1829, the three and one half years of the Sun Woman would end and Christ would begin his reign on earth.", "Dissension grew when Rapp's predictions did not come to pass.", "In March 1832, one third of the group left the Society and some began following Bernhard Müller, who claimed to be the Lion of Judah.", "Nevertheless, most of the group stayed and Rapp continued to lead them until he died on August 7, 1847.His last words to his followers were, \"If I did not so fully believe, that the Lord has designated me to place our society before His presence in the land of Canaan, I would consider this my last\".The Harmonites did not mark their graves with headstones or grave markers, because they thought it was unnecessary to do so; however, one exception is George Rapp's son Johannes' stone marker in Harmony, Pennsylvania, which was installed by non-Harmonites many years after the Harmonites left that town.", "Today, Harmonist graveyards are fenced in grassy areas with signs posted nearby explaining this practice.=== Architecture ===The Harmony Society's architecture reflected their Swabian German traditions, as well as the styles that were being developed in America during the 19th century.", "In the early days of the Society, many of the homes were initially log cabins and later, Harmonist craftsmen built timber-frame homes.", "At Economy, their homes were mostly two-story brick houses \"that showed the influence of their American neighbors.\"", "In general, Harmonist buildings, in addition to being sturdy and functional, were centrally heated, economical to maintain, and resistant to fire, weather, and termites.Once established at Harmony, Pennsylvania, the Society planned to replace the log dwellings with brick structures, but the group moved to the Indiana Territory before the plan was completed.", "In Indiana, log homes were soon replaced with one- or two-story houses of timber frame or brick construction in addition to four large rooming houses (dormitories) for its growing membership.", "The new town also included shops, schools, mills, a granary, a hotel, library, distilleries, breweries, a brick kiln, pottery ovens, barn, stables, storehouses, and two churches, one of which was brick.In 1822 William Herbert, a visitor to Harmony, Indiana, described the new brick church and the Harmonists' craftsmanship:\"These people exhibit considerable taste as well as boldness of design in some of their works.", "They are erecting a noble church, the roof of which is supported inthe interior by a great number of stately columns, which have been turned fromtrees in their own forests.", "The kinds of wood made use of for this purpose are, Iam informed, black walnut, cherry and sassafras.", "Nothing I think can exceed thegrandeur of the joinery and the masonry and brickwork seem to be of the firstorder.", "The form of this church is that of a cross, the limbs being short and equal;and as the doors, which there are four, are placed at the end of the limbs, theinterior of the building as seen from the entrance, has a most ample and spacious effect....", "I could scarcely imagine myself to be in the woods of Indiana, on the borders of the Wabash, while pacing the long resounding aisles, and surveying the stately colonnades of this church.", "\"Frame structures were built on piers to keep the air circulating across the area's damp soil, while brick structures had a root cellar with a drainage tunnel.", "Inside, Harmonists built fireplaces to the left or right of center to allow for a long center beam, adding strength to support the structure and its heavy, shingled roof.", "\"Dutch biscuits\" (wood laths wrapped in straw and mud) provided insulation and soundproofing between the ceiling and floors.", "The exterior was insulated with bricks between the exterior's unpainted weatherboards and the interior's lath and plaster walls.", "Structures had standard parts and pre-cut, pre-measured timbers, which were assembled on the ground, adjusted to fit on site, raised in place, and locked into place with pegs and mortise and tenon joints.", "Two-story floor plans for homes included a large living room, kitchen, and entrance hall, with stairs to the second floor and attic.", "In Indiana, Harmonists did their baking in communal ovens, so stoves could be substituted for fireplaces.=== Living styles ===At Harmony, Pennsylvania, four to six members were assigned to a home, where they lived as families, although not all those living in the household were related.", "Even when the house contained those that were married, they would live together as brother and sister, since there was a suggestion and custom of practicing celibacy.", "In Indiana, Harmonists continued to live in homes, but they also built dormitories to house single men and women.Society members woke between 5 a.m. and 6 a.m.", "They ate breakfast between 6 a.m. and 7 a.m., lunch at 9 a.m., dinner at noon, afternoon lunch at 3 p.m., and supper between 6 p.m. and 7 p.m.", "They did their chores and work during the day.", "At the end of the day, members met for meetings and had a curfew of 9 p.m. On Sundays, the members respected the \"Holy day\" and did no unnecessary work, but attended church services, singing groups, and other social activities.=== Clothing ===Their style of dress reflected their Swabian German roots and traditions and was adapted to their life in America.", "Although the Harmonites typically wore plain clothing, made with their own materials by their own tailors, they would wear their fine garments on Sundays and on other special occasions.", "At Economy, on special occasions and Sundays, women wore silk dresses using fabric of their own manufacture.", "Clothing varied in color, but often carried the same design.", "On a typical day, women wore ankle-length dresses, while men wore pants with vests or coats and a hat.=== Technology ===The Harmonites were a prosperous agricultural and industrial people.", "They had many machines that helped them be successful in their trades.", "They even had steam-powered engines that ran the machines at some of their factories in Economy.", "They kept their machines up to date, and had many factories and mills, for example Beaver Falls Cutlery Company which they purchased in 1867.=== Work ===Each member of the Society had a job in a certain craft or trade.", "Most of the work done by men consisted of manual labor, while the women dealt more with textiles or agriculture.As Economy became more technologically developed, Harmonites began to hire others from outside the Society, especially when their numbers decreased because of the custom of celibacy and as they eventually let fewer new members join.", "Although the Harmonites did seek work-oriented help from the outside, they were known as a community that supported themselves, kept their ways of living in their community, mainly exported goods, and tried to import as little as possible." ], [ "Rise and fall of Harmony Society", "George Rapp had an eloquent style, which matched his commanding presence, and he was the personality that led the group through all the different settlements.", "After Rapp's death in 1847, a number of members left the group because of disappointment and disillusionment over the fact that his prophecies regarding the return of Jesus Christ in his lifetime were not fulfilled.", "However, many stayed in the group, and the Harmony Society went on to become an even more profitable business community that had many worldly financial successes under the leadership of Romelius L. Baker and Jacob Henrici.Over time the group became more protective of itself, did not allow many new members, moved further from its religious foundation to a more business-oriented and pragmatic approach, and the custom of celibacy eventually drained it of its membership.", "The land and financial assets of the Harmony Society were sold off by the few remaining members under the leadership of John Duss and his wife, Susanna, by the year 1906.Today, many of the Society's remaining buildings are preserved; all three of their settlements in the United States have been declared National Historic Landmark Districts by the National Park Service." ], [ "See also", "* Ambridge, Pennsylvania* Economy, Pennsylvania* Freedom, Pennsylvania* Geneva College* Harmonie State Park* Harmony, Pennsylvania* Harmony Historic District* Harmony Township, Beaver County, Pennsylvania* New Harmony Historic District* New Harmony, Indiana* New International Encyclopedia* Old Economy Village* Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad* Zoar, Ohio" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Arndt, Karl J. R. ''A Documentary History of the Indiana Decade of the Harmony Society 1814–1824''.", "2 vols.", "Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1975–78.", "* Arndt, Karl J. R. ''Economy on the Ohio, 1826–1834: The Harmony Society During the Period of its Greatest Power and Influence and its Messianic Crisis; George Rapp's Third Harmony: A Documentary History''.", "Worcester, Mass.", ": Harmony Society Press, 1984.", "* Arndt, Karl J. R. ''George Rapp's Harmony Society, 1785–1847''.", "Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1965.", "* Arndt, Karl J. R. ''George Rapp's Re-Established Harmony Society: Letters and Documents of the Baker-Henrici Trusteeship, 1848–1868''.", "New York: P. Lang, 1993.", "* Arndt, Karl J. R. ''George Rapp's Separatists, 1700–1803: The German Prelude to Rapp's American Harmony Society; A Documentary History''.", "Worcester, Mass.", ": Harmonie Society Press, 1980.", "* Arndt, Karl J. R. ''George Rapp's Successors and Material Heirs, 1847–1916''.", "Rutherford, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1971.", "* Arndt, Karl J. R. ''George Rapp's Years of Glory: Economy on the Ohio, 1834–1847''.", "New York: P. Lang, 1987.", "* Arndt, Karl J. R. ''Harmony on the Connoquenessing 1803–1815: George Rapp's First American Harmony''.", "Worcester, Mass.", ": Harmonie Society Press, 1980.", "* Arndt, Karl J. R. ''Harmony on the Wabash in Transition to Rapp's Divine Economy on the Ohio and Owen's New Moral World at New Harmony on the Wabash 1824–1826''.", "Worcester, Mass.", ": Harmonie Society Press, 1984.", "* Arndt, Karl J. R. ''The Harmony Society from its Beginnings in Germany in 1785 to its Liquidation in the United States in 1905''.", "Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1953.", "* Arndt, Karl J. R. ''The Indiana Decade of George Rapp's Harmony Society: 1814–1824''.", "Worcester, Mass.", ": American Antiquarian Society, 1971.", "* Arndt, Karl J. R., Donald Pitzer and Leigh Ann Chamness (eds.)", "''George Rapp's Disciples, Pioneers, and Heirs: A Register of the Harmonists in America''.", "Evansville: University of Southern Indiana, 1992.", "* Baumgartner, Frederic J.", "''Longing for the End: A History of Millennialism in Western Civilization''.", "New York: Saint Martin's Press, 1999.", "* Berry, Brian J. L. ''America's Utopian Experiments: Communal Havens from Long-Wave Crises''.", "Hanover, NH: Dartmouth College and University Press of New England, 1992.", "* Bestor, Arthur.", "''Backwoods Utopias''.", "Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1950.", "* Blair, Don.", "''Harmonist Construction.", "Principally as found in the two-story houses built in Harmonie, Indiana, 1814–1824.''", "''Indiana Historical Society Publications'' 23, no.", "2.", "(1964): 45–82.", "* Bole, John Archibald.", "''The Harmony Society: A Chapter in German American Culture History''.", "Philadelphia: Americana Germanica Press, 1904.", "* Boomhower, Ray E. \"New Harmony: Home to Indiana's Communal Societies.\"", "''Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History'' 14, no.", "4 (2002): 36–37.", "* Bowden, Henry W. ''Dictionary of American Religious Biography''.", "Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1977.", "* Brooks, Joshua Thwing.", "''Jacob Henrici''.", "Sewickley, PA: Gilbert Adams Hays, 1922.", "* Byrd, Cecil K. ''The Harmony Society and Thoughts on the Destiny of Man''.", "Bloomington, IN, 1956.", "* Cross, Frank L. ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'' 2nd ed.", "New York: Oxford University Press, 1974.", "* Dare, Philip N. ''American Communes to 1860: A Bibliography''.", "New York: Garland, 1990.", "* Douglas, Paul S. ''The Material Culture of the Harmony Society.''", "''Pennsylvania Folklife'' 24, no.", "3 (Spring, 1975).", "* Dructor, Robert M. ''Guide to the Microfilmed Harmony Society Records, 1786–1951 in the Pennsylvania State Archives''.", "Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1983.", "* Dructor, Robert M. ''The Harmonists: A Personal History''.", "Pittsburgh: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1970.", "* Dudley, Lavinia P., John H. Archer, Tucker Abbot, et al.", "''The Encyclopedia Americana: The International Reference Work'' New York: Americana Corp., 1963.", "* Durnbaugh, Donald F. \"Radical Pietism as the Foundation of German-American Communitarian Settlements.\"", "In ''Emigration and Settlement Patterns of German Communities in North America'', p. 31–54.Eberhard Reichmann, LaVern J. Rippley and Joerg Nagler, eds.", "Indianapolis: Max Kade German-American Center, Indiana University–Purdue University, Indianapolis, 1995.", "* Duss, J. S. ''George Rapp and His Associates''.", "Indianapolis, IN: Hollenbeck Press, 1914.", "* Duss, J. S. ''The Harmonists: A Personal History''.", "Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Book Service, 1943.", "* English, Eileen A.", "\"A Brief Interlude of Peace for George Rapp's Harmony Society.\"", "''Communal Societies'' 26.1 (2006): 37–45.", "* Federal Writers' Project (Beaver County, PA).", "''The Harmony Society in Pennsylvania''.", "Philadelphia, PA: William Penn Association, 1937.", "* ''Feurige Kohlen, der aufsteigenden Liebesflammen im Lustspiel der Weisheit; einer nachdenkenden Gesellschaft gewidmet''.", "Harmony Society in Oekonomie, Pennsylvania, 1826.", "* Fogarty, Robert S. ''All Things New: American Communes and Utopian Movements, 1860–1914''.", "University of Chicago Press, 1990.", "* Fogarty, Robert S. ''Dictionary of American Communal and Utopian History''.", "Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980.", "* Fritz, Eberhard.", "''Johann Georg Rapp (1757–1847) und die Separatisten in Iptingen.''", "Mit einer Edition der relevanten Iptinger Kirchenkonventsprotokolle.", "Blätter für Wuerttembergische Kirchengeschichte 95/1995.S.", "129–203.", "* Fritz, Eberhard.", "''Radikaler Pietismus in Württemberg.", "Religioese Ideale im Konflikt mit gesellschaftlichen Realitaeten.''", "Quellen und Forschungen zur wuerttembergischen Kirchengeschichte Band 18.Epfendorf 2003.", "* Fritz, Eberhard.", "''Separatistinnen und Separatisten in Wuerttemberg und in angrenzenden Territorien.", "Ein biografisches Verzeichnis.''", "Arbeitsbücher des Vereins für Familien- und Wappenkunde.", "Stuttgart 2005.", "(Register of Separatists in Wuerttemberg, including most of Rapp's followers.", ")* Gormly, Agnes M. Hays.", "''Economy: A Unique Community''.", "Sewickley, PA: Gilbert Adams Hays, 1910.", "* Gormly, Agnes M. Hays.", "''Old Economy: The Harmony Society''.", "Sewickley, PA: Gilbert Adams Hays, 1904.", "* Hays, George A.", "''The Churches of the Harmony Society''.", "Ambridge, PA: Old Economy, 1964.", "* Hays, George A.", "''Founders of the Harmony Society''.", "Ambridge, PA: Old Economy, 1961.", "* Henderson, Lois T. ''The Holy Experiment: A Novel About the Harmonist Society''.", "Fiction.", "Hicksville, NY: Exposition Press, 1974.", "* Hinds, Alfred.", "''American Communities''.", "rev.", "ed.", "Chicago: Charles H. Kerr and Co., 1902.", "* Historic New Harmony.", "(2008).", "\"The Harmonie Society\".", "University of Southern Indiana.", "Retrieved 2012-6-15.", "* Holloway, Mark.", "''Heavens on Earth: Utopian Communities in America, 1680–1880''.", "New York: Dover Publications, 1966.", "* Karl Bernhard of Saxe Weimar Eisenach, ''Travels through North America, during the Years 1825 and 1826'' 2 vols.", "Philadelphia, 1828.", "* Knoedler, Christiana F. ''The Harmony Society: A 19th-Century American Utopia''.", "New York: Vantage Press, 1954.", "* Kring, Hilda.", "''The Harmonists: A Folk-Cultural Approach''.", "Metuchen, NY: The Scarecrow Press and The American Theological Library Association, 1973.", "* Krueger, Nancy.", "\"The Woolen and Cotton Manufactory of the Harmony Society with Emphasis on the Indiana Years 1814–1825.\"", "M.A.", "thesis, State University of New York College at Oneonta, 1983.", "* Larner Jr., John W. \"Nails and Sundrie Medicines: Town Planning and Public Health in the Harmony Society, 1805–1840.\"", "''The Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine'' 45, no.", "2 (June 1962): 115–138.", "* Lockridge Jr., Ross.", "''The Labyrinth''.", "Westport, Conn. Hyperion, 1975.", "* Lockwood, George Browning.", "''The New Harmony Communities''.", "Marion, IN: Chronicle Company, 1902.", "* Mason, Harrison Denning.", "''Old Economy as I knew it: Impressions of the Harmonites, their village and its surroundings, as seen almost a half-century ago''.", "Crafton, PA: Cramer Printing and Publishing Company, 1926.", "* Matter, Evelyn P. ''The Great House George Rapp House Constructed 1826 and Frederick Rapp House Constructed about 1828 at Old Economy''.", "Old Economy, PA: Harmonie Associates, 1970.", "* Miller, Melvin R. \"Education in the Harmony Society, 1805–1905.\"", "Ph.D.", "diss., University of Pittsburgh, 1972.", "* Morris, James Matthew, and Andrea L. Kross.", "''Historical Dictionary of Utopianism''.", "Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 2004.", "* Nordhoff, Charles.", "''Communistic Societies of the United States''.", "New York, 1874.", "* Oved, Yaacov.", "''Two Hundred Years of American Communes''.", "Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1988.", "* Passavant, William A., \"A Visit to Economy in the Spring of 1840.\"", "''Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine'' 4 (July 1921): 144–149.", "* Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission.", "''Bibliography of the Harmony Society: With Special Reference to Old Economy''.", "Ambridge: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1968.", "* Pitzer, Donald E. ''America's Communal Utopias''.", "Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997.", "* Pitzer, Donald E., and Josephine M. Elliott.", "''New Harmony's first Utopians, 1814–1824''.", "Indiana Magazine of History 75, no.", "3 (1979): 225–300.", "* Rapp, George.", "''Thoughts on the Destiny of Man Particularly with Reference to the Present Times''.", "Harmony Society in Indiana, 1824.", "* Rauscher, Julian.", "\"Des Separatisten G. Rapp Leben und Treiben\" ''Theologische Studien aus Württemberg'' 6 (1885): 253–313.", "* Reibel, Daniel B.", "''Bibliography of items related to the Harmony Society with special reference to Old Economy''.", "Ambridge: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1969, rev.", "1977.", "* Reibel, Daniel B.", "''A Guide to Old Economy''.", "Old Economy, PA: Harmonie Associates, 1969.", "* Reibel, Daniel B.", "''Walking tour of the historic area of Ambridge, Pennsylvania: Being the former village of Economy, 1824–1902''.", "Ambridge, PA: Harmonie Associates, 1978.", "* Reibel, Daniel B., and Art Becker.", "''Old Economy Village: Pennsylvania Trail of History Guide''.", "Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2002.", "* Reibel, Daniel B., and Mary Lou Golembeski.", "''Selected Reprints from the Harmonie Herald, 1966–1979''.", "Ambridge: Old Economy Village, Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1980.", "* Reibel, Daniel B., and Patricia B. Reibel.", "''A manual for guides, docents, hostesses, and volunteers of Old Economy''.", "Ambridge, PA: Harmonie Associates, 1974.", "* Reibel, Harold B.", "''Readings concerning the Harmony Society in Pennsylvania: Drawn from the accounts of travelers and articles in the Harmonie Herald''.", "Harrisburg, PA, 1978.", "* Reichmann, Eberhard, and Ruth Reichmann.", "\"The Harmonists: Two Points of View.\"", "In ''Emigration and Settlement Patterns of German Communities in North America'', p. 371–380.Eberhard Reichmann, LaVern J. Rippley, and Joerg Nagler, eds.", "Indianapolis: Max Kade German-American Center, Indiana University–Purdue University, Indianapolis, 1995.", "* Ritter, Christine C. \"Life in early America, Father Rapp and the Harmony Society.\"", "''Early American Life'' 9 (1978): 40–43, 71–72.", "* Sasse, Angela.", "\"The Religious Celibate Community in Indiana: Yesterday and Today\".", "In ''German Influence on Religion in Indiana''.", "Studies in Indiana German Americana Series, Vol.", "2, 1995, p.", "38–52.", "* Schema, Hermann.", "''Gemeinschaftssiedlungen auf religiöser und weltanschaulicher Grundlage''.", "Tübingen, 1969.", "* Schneck, J., and Richard Owen.", "''The Rappites: Interesting Notes about Early New Harmony; George Rapp's reform society based on the New Testament''.", "Evansville, IN: Courier Company, 1890.", "* Schwab, David, comp.", "(2010-5-20).", "\"The Harmony Society\".", "U.S. Army Corps of Engineers–Pittsburgh District.", "2004-12-3.Retrieved 2012-6-3.", "* Slater, Larry R. ''Ambridge'' (Pennsylvania).", "In ''Images of America''.", "Mount Pleasant, SC: Arcadia, 2008.", "* Stewart, Arthur I., and J. O. Gilbert.", "''Harmony; commemorating the centennial of the Borough of Harmony, Pennsylvania, 1838–1938''.", "Harmony, PA: Stewart, 1938.", "* Stewart, Arthur I., and Loran W. Veith.", "''Harmony : commemorating the sesquicentennial of Harmony, Pennsylvania, 1805–1955''.", "Harmony, PA: Stewart, 1955.", "* Stockwell, Foster.", "''Encyclopedia of American Communes, 1663–1963''.", "Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Company, 1998.", "* Straube, Carl Frederick.", "''Rise and Fall of Harmony Society, Economy, PA and Other Poems''.", "Pittsburgh, PA: Press of National Printing Co., 1911.", "* Sutton, Robert Paul.", "''Communal Utopias and the American Experience: Religious Communities, 1732–2000''.", "Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2003.", "* Sutton, Robert Paul.", "''Communal Utopias and the American Experience: Secular Communities, 1824–2000''.", "Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2004.", "* Tate, John Matthew.", "''Some notes, pictures and documents relating to the Harmony Society and its homes at Harmony, Pennsylvania, New Harmony, Indiana and Economy, Pennsylvania''.", "Sewickley, PA, 1925.", "* Taylor, Anne.", "''Visions of Harmony: A Study of Nineteenth-Century Millenarianism''.", "New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.", "* Thies, Clifford F. \"The Success of American Communes.\"", "''Southern Economic Journal'' 67, no.", "1 (July 2000): 186–199.", "* Trahair, Richard C. S. ''Utopias and Utopians: An Historical Dictionary''.", "Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1999.", "* Versluis, Arthur.", "\"Western Esotericism and The Harmony Society\", ''Esoterica I'', Michigan State University, 1999, pp.", "20–47.Retrieved 2012-6-15.", "* Wetzel, Richard D. ''Frontier Musicians on the Connoquenessing, Wabash, and Ohio: A History of the Music and Musicians of George Rapp's Harmony Society (1805–1906)''.", "Athens: Ohio University Press, 1976.", "* Wetzel, Richard D. \"The Music of George Rapp's Harmony Society: 1805–1906.\"", "Thesis/diss., University of Pittsburgh, 1970.", "* Williams, Aaron.", "''The Harmony Society at Economy, Pennsylvania, Founded by George Rapp, A.D. 1805''.", "Pittsburgh: W.S.", "Haven, 1866.", "* Wilson, William E. ''The Angel and the Serpent: The Story of New Harmony''.", "Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1964.", "* Young, Marguerite.", "''Angel in the Forest: A Fairy Tale of Two Utopias''.", "Fiction.", "New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1945.", "* Young, Norman C. ''Old Economy-Ambridge sesqui-centennial historical booklet''.", "Ambridge, PA: The Committee, 1974." ], [ "External links", "* Old Economy Village museum in Old Economy, Pennsylvania, administered by the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, interpreting the history of the Harmony Society.", "* The Harmony Museum of Harmony, Pennsylvania, operated by Historic Harmony, Inc.* Historic New Harmony of New Harmony, Indiana, administered by the University of Southern Indiana and the Indiana State Museum and Historic Sites.", "* Harmony Society Papers, PA State Archives* Account of the Harmony Society and its beliefs* The Harmonist Labyrinths* * John M. Tate, Jr. Collection of Notes, Pictures and Documents relating to the Harmony Society, 1806-1930, DAR.1946.02, Darlington Library, Special Collections Department, University of Pittsburgh" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Huneric" ], [ "Introduction", "Coin of Huneric'''Huneric,''' '''Hunneric''' or '''Honeric''' (died December 23, 484) was King of the (North African) Vandal Kingdom (477–484) and the oldest son of Gaiseric.", "He abandoned the imperial politics of his father and concentrated mainly on internal affairs.", "He was married to Eudocia, daughter of western Roman Emperor Valentinian III (419–455) and Licinia Eudoxia.", "The couple had one child, a son named Hilderic.Huneric was the first Vandal king who used the title ''King of the Vandals and Alans''.", "Despite adopting this style, and that of the Vandals of maintaining their sea-power and their hold on the islands of the western Mediterranean, Huneric did not have the prestige that his father Gaiseric had enjoyed with other states." ], [ "Early life", "Huneric was a son of King Gaiseric, and was sent to Italy as a hostage in 435, when his father made a treaty with the Western emperor Valentinian III.", "Huneric became king of the Vandals on his father's death on 25 January 477.Like Gaiseric he was an Arian, and his reign is chiefly memorable for his persecution of Catholic Christians in his dominions.", "Eudocia, daughter of Valentinian III, was Huneric's wife." ], [ "His reign", "Huneric was a fervent adherent to Arianism.", "Yet his reign opened with making a number of positive overtures towards the local Roman population.", "Following the visit of a diplomatic mission from the Eastern Roman Empire led by Alexander, Huneric restored properties seized by his father from the merchants of Carthage.", "He also lifted the policy of persecuting the local Catholics (Nicene Christians), allowing them to hold a synod wherein they elected a new Catholic bishop of Carthage, Eugenius, after a vacancy of 24 years.", "However, not long after the ordination of Eugenius, Huneric reversed himself and began to once again persecute Catholics.", "Furthermore, he tried to make Catholic property fall to the state, but when this caused too much protest from the Eastern Roman Emperor, he chose to banish a number of Catholics to a faraway province instead.", "On February 1, 484 he organized a meeting of Catholic bishops with Arian bishops, but on February 24, 484 he forcibly removed the Catholic bishops from their offices and banished some to Corsica.", "A few were executed, including the former proconsul Victorian along with Frumentius and other wealthy merchants, who were killed at Hadrumetum after refusing to become Arians.", "Among those exiled was Vigilius, bishop of Thapsus, who published a theological treatise against Arianism.Additionally, Huneric murdered many members of the Hasdingi dynasty and also persecuted Manichaeans.A 17th century engraving depicting the death of Huneric from putrefaction by Jan Luyken, 1685.Towards the end of his reign, the Moors in the Aurès Mountains (in modern-day Algeria) successfully rebelled from Vandal rule.", "Upon his death Huneric was succeeded by his nephew Gunthamund, who reigned until 496.A lurid account of Huneric's death by putrefaction and \"an abundance of worms\" is included in the ''Historia persecutionis Africanae Provinciae, temporibus Genserici et Hunirici regum Wandalorum'' (''History of the African Province Persecution, in the Times of Genseric and Huneric, the Kings of the Vandals''), written by his contemporary, Victor of Vita, although it is probable that this particular section was added at a later date." ], [ "See also", "* Hunericopolis, the Catholic Metropolitan Archbishopric Hadrumetum renamed after him" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hasdingi" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Hasdingi''' were one of the Vandal peoples of the Roman era.", "The Vandals were Germanic peoples, who are believed to have spoken an East Germanic language, and were first reported during the first centuries of the Roman empire in the area which is now Poland, eastern Germany, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia.Famously, the Hasdingi led a successful invasion of Roman North Africa, creating a kingdom with its capital at Carthage in what is now Tunisia.During the Marcomannic wars, the Hasdingi helped the Romans and were able to settle in the Carpathian and Pannonian areas which are now in Hungary and Romania.", "At the end of 406, they participated together with Silingi Vandals and Sarmatian Alans in the crossing of the Rhine.", "Their king Godigisel lost his life in battle against the Franks during the crossing.After some years in Gaul, these peoples moved into the Iberian peninsula.The Hasdingi settled in Gallaecia (today Galicia, Asturias and the north of Portugal) along with the Suebi in 409 AD and their kingdom was one of the earliest Barbarian territories to be founded before the fall of the Western Roman Empire.Gunderic, Godegisel's successor as king of the Hasdingi, lost his kingdom to king Hermeric of the Suebi in 419 after the Battle of the Nervasos Mountains where the Vandals were overwhelmed by an allied force of Suebi and Romans.", "He fled to Baetica with his army where he became king of the Silingi Vandals and of the Alans.Gunderic was succeeded by his brother Gaiseric in 428 AD, who subsequently fled from Iberia to North Africa where he established a kingdom at Carthage." ], [ "See also", "Haddingjar, who appear to be late reflections of the Hasdingi in Norse mythology.", "Migrations periodThe western Alans and VandalsTimeline of Germanic kingdoms" ], [ "References", "* Hydatii Episcopi Chronicon" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hermes" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hermes''' (; ) is an Olympian deity in ancient Greek religion and mythology considered the herald of the gods.", "He is also considered the protector of human heralds, travelers, thieves, merchants, and orators.", "He is able to move quickly and freely between the worlds of the mortal and the divine aided by his winged sandals.", "Hermes plays the role of the psychopomp or \"soul guide\"—a conductor of souls into the afterlife.In myth, Hermes functions as the emissary and messenger of the gods, and is often presented as the son of Zeus and Maia, the Pleiad.", "He is regarded as \"the divine trickster\", about which the ''Homeric Hymn to Hermes'' offers the most well-known account.Hermes' attributes and symbols include the herma, the rooster, the tortoise, satchel or pouch, talaria (winged sandals), and winged helmet or simple petasos, as well as the palm tree, goat, the number four, several kinds of fish, and incense.", "However, his main symbol is the ''caduceus'', a winged staff intertwined with two snakes copulating and carvings of the other gods.In Roman mythology and religion many of Hermes' characteristics belong to Mercury, a name derived from the Latin ''merx'', meaning \"merchandise,\" and the origin of the words \"''mer''chant\" and \"com''merce''.\"" ], [ "Name and origin", "The earliest form of the name ''Hermes'' is the Mycenaean Greek ''hermāhās'', written ''e-ma-a2'' (''e-ma-ha'') in the Linear B syllabic script.", "Most scholars derive \"Hermes\" from Greek ἕρμα (''herma''), \"stone heap.", "\"The etymology of ἕρμα itself is unknown, but is probably not a Proto-Indo-European word.", "R. S. P. Beekes rejects the connection with ''herma'' and suggests a Pre-Greek origin.", "However, the stone etymology is also linked to Indo-European ''ser-'' (\"to bind, put together\").", "Scholarly speculation that \"Hermes\" derives from a more primitive form meaning \"one cairn\" is disputed.", "Other scholars have suggested that Hermes may be a cognate of the Vedic Sarama.It is likely that Hermes is a pre-Hellenic god, though the exact origins of his worship, and its original nature, remain unclear.", "Frothingham thought the god to have existed as a Mesopotamian snake-god, similar or identical to Ningishzida, a god who served as mediator between humans and the divine, especially Ishtar, and who was depicted in art as a Caduceus.", "Angelo (1997) thinks Hermes to be based on the Thoth archetype.", "The absorbing (\"combining\") of the attributes of Hermes to Thoth developed after the time of Homer amongst Greeks and Romans; Herodotus was the first to identify the Greek god with the Egyptian (Hermopolis) (Plutarch and Diodorus also did so), although Plato thought the gods were dissimilar (Friedlander 1992).His cult was established in Greece in remote regions, likely making him originally a god of nature, farmers, and shepherds.", "It is also possible that since the beginning he has been a deity with shamanic attributes linked to divination, reconciliation, magic, sacrifices, and initiation and contact with other planes of existence, a role of mediator between the worlds of the visible and invisible.", "According to a theory that has received considerable scholarly acceptance, Hermes originated as a form of the god Pan, who has been identified as a reflex of the Proto-Indo-European pastoral god ''Péh2usōn'', in his aspect as the god of boundary markers.", "The PIE root ''peh2'' \"protect\" also shows up in Latin ''pastor'' \"shepherd\" (whence the English ''pastoral'').", "A zero grade of the full PIE form--ph2usōn--yields the name of the Sanskrit psychopomp Pushan, who, like Pan, is associated with goats.", "Later, the epithet supplanted the original name itself and Hermes took over the role of psychopomp and as god of messengers, travelers, and boundaries, which had originally belonged to Pan, while Pan himself continued to be venerated by his original name in his more rustic aspect as the god of the wild in the relatively isolated mountainous region of Arcadia.", "In later myths, after the cult of Pan was reintroduced to Attica, Pan was said to be Hermes' son." ], [ "Iconography", "Archaic bearded Hermes from a herm, early 5th century BC.The image of Hermes evolved and varied along with Greek art and culture.", "In Archaic Greece he was usually depicted as a mature man, bearded, and dressed as a traveler, herald, or shepherd.", "This image remained common on the Hermai, which served as boundary markers, roadside markers, and grave markers, as well as votive offerings.In Classical and Hellenistic Greece, Hermes was usually depicted as a young, athletic man lacking a beard.", "When represented as Logios (Greek: Λόγιος, speaker), his attitude is consistent with the attribute.", "Phidias left a statue of a famous Hermes Logios and Praxiteles another, also well known, showing him with the baby Dionysus in his arms.Hermes' winged sandals are evident in this Getty Villa copy of a Roman bronze recovered from the Villa of the Papyri, Naples At all times, however, through the Hellenistic periods, Roman, and throughout Western history into the present day, several of his characteristic objects are present as identification, but not always all together.", "Among these objects is a wide-brimmed hat, the petasos, widely used by rural people of antiquity to protect themselves from the sun, and that in later times was adorned with a pair of small wings; sometimes this hat is not present, and may have been replaced with wings rising from the hair.Statue of Hermes wearing the ''petasos'' and a voyager's cloak, and carrying the caduceus and a purse.", "Roman copy after a Greek original (Vatican Museums).Another object is the caduceus, a staff with two intertwined snakes, sometimes crowned with a pair of wings and a sphere.", "The caduceus, historically, appeared with Hermes, and is documented among the Babylonians from about 3500 BC.", "Two snakes coiled around a staff was also a symbol of the god Ningishzida, who, like Hermes, served as a mediator between humans and the divine (specifically, the goddess Ishtar or the supreme Ningirsu).", "In Greece, other gods have been depicted holding a caduceus, but it was mainly associated with Hermes.", "It was said to have the power to make people fall asleep or wake up, and also made peace between litigants, and is a visible sign of his authority, being used as a sceptre.", "A similar-appearing but distinct symbol is the Rod of Asclepius, associated with the patron of medicine and son of Apollo, Asclepius, which bears only one snake.", "The Rod of Asclepius, occasionally conflated with the caduceus in modern times, is used by most Western physicians as a badge of their profession.", "After the Renaissance, the caduceus also appeared in the heraldic crests of several, and currently is a symbol of commerce.Hermes' sandals, called ''pédila'' by the Greeks and ''talaria'' by the Romans, were made of palm and myrtle branches but were described as beautiful, golden and immortal, made a sublime art, able to take the roads with the speed of wind.", "Originally, they had no wings, but late in the artistic representations, they are depicted.", "In certain images, the wings spring directly from the ankles.", "Hermes has also been depicted with a purse or a bag in his hands, wearing a robe or cloak, which had the power to confer invisibility.", "His weapon was a harpe, which killed Argos; it was also lent to Perseus to kill Medusa and Cetus." ], [ "Functions", "Hermes began as a god with strong chthonic, or underworld, associations.", "He was a psychopomp, leader of souls along the road between \"the Under and the Upper world\".", "This function gradually expanded to encompass roads in general, and from there to boundaries, travelers, sailors, commerce, and travel itself.===As a chthonic and fertility god===Beginning with the earliest records of his worship, Hermes has been understood as a chthonic deity (heavily associated with the earth and/or underworld).", "As a chthonic deity, the worship of Hermes also included an aspect relating to fertility, with the phallus being included among his major symbols.", "The inclusion of phallic imagery associated with Hermes and placed, in the form of ''herma'', at the entrances to households may reflect a belief in ancient times that Hermes was a symbol of the household's fertility, specifically the potency of the male head of the household in producing children.Charon with punt pole standing in his boat, receiving Hermes psychopompos who leads a deceased woman.", "Thanatos Painter, ca.", "430 BCThe association between Hermes and the underworld is related to his function as a god of boundaries (the boundary between life and death), but he is considered a psychopomp, a deity who helps guide souls of the deceased to the afterlife, and his image was commonly depicted on gravestones in classical Greece.===As a god of boundaries===Herm of Hermes.", "Roman copy from the Hermes Propyleia of Alcamenes, 50–100 AD.In Ancient Greece, Hermes was a phallic god of boundaries.", "His name, in the form ''herma'', was applied to a wayside marker pile of stones and each traveler added a stone to the pile.", "In the 6th century BC, Hipparchus, the son of Pisistratus, replaced the cairns that marked the midway point between each village ''deme'' at the central ''agora'' of Athens with a square or rectangular pillar of stone or bronze topped by a bust of a bearded Hermes.", "An erect phallus rose from the base.", "In the more primitive Mount Kyllini or Cyllenian herms, the standing stone or wooden pillar was simply a carved phallus.", "\"That a monument of this kind could be transformed into an Olympian god is astounding,\" Walter Burkert remarked.", "In Athens, herms were placed outside houses, both as a form of protection for the home, a symbol of male fertility, and as a link between the household and its gods with the gods of the wider community.In 415 BC, on the night when the Athenian fleet was about to set sail for Syracuse during the Peloponnesian War, all of the Athenian hermai were vandalized.", "The Athenians at the time believed it was the work of saboteurs, either from Syracuse or from the anti-war faction within Athens itself.", "Socrates' pupil Alcibiades was suspected of involvement, and one of the charges eventually made against Socrates which led to his execution 16 years later was that he had either corrupted Alcibiades or failed to guide him away from his moral corruption.===As a messenger god===In association with his role as a psychopomp and god who is able to easily cross boundaries, Hermes is predominantly worshiped as a messenger, often described as the messenger of the gods (since he can convey messages between the divine realms, the underworld, and the world of mortals).", "As a messenger and divine herald, he wears winged sandals (or, in Roman art influenced by Etruscan depictions of Turms, a winged cap).===As a shepherd god===Kriophoros Hermes (which takes the lamb), late-Roman copy of Greek original from the 5th century BC.", "Barracco Museum, RomeHermes was known as the patron god of flocks, herds, and shepherds, an attribute possibly tied to his early origin as an aspect of Pan.", "In Boeotia, Hermes was worshiped for having saved the town from a plague by carrying a ram or calf around the city walls.", "A yearly festival commemorated this event, during which a lamb would be carried around the city by \"the most handsome boy\" and then sacrificed, in order to purify and protect the city from disease, drought, and famine.", "Numerous depictions of Hermes as a shepherd god carrying a lamb on his shoulders (''Hermes kriophoros'') have been found throughout the Mediterranean world, and it is possible that the iconography of Hermes as \"The Good Shepherd\" had an influence on early Christianity, specifically in the description of Christ as \"the Good Shepherd\" in the Gospel of John." ], [ "Historical and literary sources", "===In the Mycenaean period===The earliest written record of Hermes comes from Linear B inscriptions from Pylos, Thebes, and Knossos dating to the Bronze Age Mycenaean period.", "Here, Hermes' name is rendered as ''e‐ma‐a'' (Ἑρμάhας).", "This name is always recorded alongside those of several goddesses, including Potnija, Posidaeja, Diwja, Hera, Pere, and Ipemedeja, indicating that his worship was strongly connected to theirs.", "This is a pattern that would continue in later periods, as worship of Hermes almost always took place within temples and sanctuaries primarily dedicated to goddesses, including Hera, Demeter, Hecate, and Despoina.===In the Archaic period===In literary works of Archaic Greece, Hermes is depicted both as a protector and a trickster.", "In Homer's ''Iliad'', Hermes is called \"the bringer of good luck\", \"guide and guardian\", and \"excellent in all the tricks\".", "In Hesiod's ''Works and Days'', Hermes is depicted giving Pandora the gifts of lies, seductive words, and a dubious character.The earliest known theological or spiritual documents concerning Hermes are found in the Homeric Hymns.", "In ''Homeric Hymn 4 to Hermes'' describes the god's birth and his theft of Apollo's sacred cattle.", "In this hymn, Hermes is invoked as a god \"of many shifts\" (''polytropos''), associated with cunning and thievery, but also a bringer of dreams and a night guardian.", "He is said to have invented the chelys lyre, as well as racing and the sport of wrestling.===In the Classical period===Hermes wearing a petasos.", "Attic red-figure cup, .", "From Vulci.The cult of Hermes flourished in Attica, and many scholars writing before the discovery of the Linear B evidence considered Hermes to be a uniquely Athenian god.", "This region had numerous Hermai, or pillar-like icons, dedicated to the god marking boundaries, crossroads, and entryways.", "These were initially stone piles, later pillars made of wood, stone, or bronze, with carved images of Hermes, a phallus, or both.", "In the context of these herms, by the Classical period Hermes had come to be worshiped as the patron god of travelers and sailors.", "By the 5th century BC, Hermai were also in common use as grave monuments, emphasizing Hermes' role as a chthonic deity and psychopomp.", "This was probably his original function, and he may have been a late inclusion in the Olympic pantheon; Hermes is described as the \"youngest\" Olympian, and some myths, including his theft of Apollo's cows, describe his initial coming into contact with celestial deities.", "Hermes therefore came to be worshiped as a mediator between celestial and chthonic realms, as well as the one who facilitates interactions between mortals and the divine, often being depicted on libation vessels.Due to his mobility and his liminal nature, mediating between opposites (such as merchant/customer), he was considered the god of commerce and social intercourse, the wealth brought in business, especially sudden or unexpected enrichment, travel, roads and crossroads, borders and boundary conditions or transient, the changes from the threshold, agreements and contracts, friendship, hospitality, sexual intercourse, games, data, the draw, good luck, the sacrifices and the sacrificial animals, flocks and shepherds and the fertility of land and cattle.In Athens, Hermes Eion came to represent the Athenian naval superiority in their defeat of the Persians, under the command of Cimon, in 475 BC.", "In this context, Hermes became a god associated with the Athenian empire and its expansion, and of democracy itself, as well as all of those closely associated with it, from the sailors in the navy, to the merchants who drove the economy.", "A section of the agora in Athens became known as the Hermai, because it was filled with a large number of herms, placed there as votive offerings by merchants and others who wished to commemorate a personal success in commerce or other public affair.", "The Hermai was probably destroyed in the Siege of Athens and Piraeus (87–86 BC).===In the Hellenistic period===''Hermes Fastening his Sandal'', early Imperial Roman marble copy of a Lysippan bronze (Louvre Museum)As Greek culture and influence spread following the conquests of Alexander the Great, a period of syncretism or ''interpretatio graeca'' saw many traditional Greek deities identified with foreign counterparts.", "In Ptolemaic Egypt, for example, the Egyptian god Thoth was identified by Greek speakers as the Egyptian form of Hermes.", "The two gods were worshiped as one at the Temple of Thoth in Khemenu, a city which became known in Greek as Hermopolis.", "This led to Hermes gaining the attributes of a god of translation and interpretation, or more generally, a god of knowledge and learning.", "This is illustrated by a 3rd-century BC example of a letter sent by the priest Petosiris to King Nechopso, probably written in Alexandria c. 150 BC, stating that Hermes is the teacher of all secret wisdoms, which are accessible by the experience of religious ecstasy.An epithet of Thoth found in the temple at Esna, \"Thoth the great, the great, the great\", became applied to Hermes beginning in at least 172 BC.", "This lent Hermes one of his most famous later titles, Hermes Trismegistus (Ἑρμῆς ὁ Τρισμέγιστος), \"thrice-greatest Hermes\".", "The figure of Hermes Trismegistus would later absorb a variety of other esoteric wisdom traditions and become a major component of Hermeticism, alchemy, and related traditions.===In the Roman period===As early as the 4th century BC, Romans had adopted Hermes into their own religion, combining his attributes and worship with the earlier Etruscan god Turms under the name Mercury.", "According to St. Augustin, the Latin name \"Mercury\" may be a title derived from \"''medio currens''\", in reference to Hermes' role as a mediator and messenger who moves between worlds.", "Mercury became one of the most popular Roman gods, as attested by the numerous shrines and depictions in artwork found in Pompeii.", "In art, the Roman Mercury continued the style of depictions found in earlier representations of both Hermes and Turms, a young, beardless god with winged shoes and/or hat, carrying the caduceus.", "His role as a god of boundaries, a messenger, and a psychopomp also remained unchanged following his adoption into the Roman religion (these attributes were also similar to those in the Etruscan's worship of Turms).Hermes on an antique fresco from PompeiiThe Romans identified the Germanic god Odin with Mercury, and there is evidence that Germanic peoples who had contact with Roman culture also accepted this identification.", "Odin and Mercury/Hermes share several attributes in common.", "For example, both are depicted carrying a staff and wearing a wide-brimmed hat, and both are travelers or wanderers.", "However, the reasons for this interpretation appear to go beyond superficial similarities: Both gods are connected to the dead (Mercury as psychopomp and Odin as lord of the dead in Valhalla), both were connected to eloquent speech, and both were associated with secret knowledge.", "The identification of Odin as Mercury was probably also influenced by a previous association of a more Odin-like Celtic god as the \"Celtic Mercurius\".A further Roman Imperial-era syncretism came in the form of Hermanubis, the result of the identification of Hermes with the Egyptian god of the dead, Anubis.", "Hermes and Anubis were both psychopomps the primary attribute leading to their conflation as the same god.", "Hermanubis depicted with a human body and a jackal head, holding the caduceus.", "In addition to his function of guiding souls to the afterlife, Hermanubis represented the Egyptian priesthood the investigation of truth.Beginning around the turn of the 1st century AD, a process began by which, in certain traditions Hermes became euhemerised – that is, interpreted as a historical, mortal figure who had become divine or elevated to godlike status in legend.", "Numerous books of wisdom and magic (including astrology, theosophy, and alchemy) were attributed to this \"historical\" Hermes, usually identified in his Alexandrian form of Hermes Trismegistus.", "As a collection, these works are referred to as the ''Hermetica''.===In the Middle Ages===Though worship of Hermes had been almost fully suppressed in the Roman Empire following the Christian persecution of paganism under Theodosius I in the 4th century AD, Hermes continued to be recognized as a mystical or prophetic figure, though a mortal one, by Christian scholars.", "Early medieval Christians such as Augustine believed that a euhemerised Hermes Trismegistus had been an ancient pagan prophet who predicted the emergence of Christianity in his writings.", "Some Christian philosophers in the medieval and Renaissance periods believed in the existence of a \"''prisca theologia''\", a single thread of true theology that could be found uniting all religions.", "Christian philosophers used Hermetic writings and other ancient philosophical literature to support their belief in the ''prisca theologia,'' arguing that Hermes Trismegistus was a contemporary of Moses, or that he was the third in a line of important prophets after Enoch and Noah.The 10th-century ''Suda'' attempted to further Christianize the figure of Hermes, claiming that \"He was called Trismegistus on account of his praise of the trinity, saying there is one divine nature in the trinity.", "\"===Temples and sacred places===Tomb of Judgement, 4th century BC.There are only three temples known to have been specifically dedicated to Hermes during the Classical Greek period, all of them in Arcadia.", "Though there are a few references in ancient literature to \"numerous\" temples of Hermes, this may be poetic license describing the ubiquitous herms, or other, smaller shrines to Hermes located in the temples of other deities.", "One of the oldest places of worship for Hermes was Mount Cyllene in Arcadia, where some myths say he was born.", "Tradition holds that his first temple was built by Lycaon.", "From there, the Hermes cult would have been taken to Athens, from which it radiated to the whole of Greece.", "In the Roman period, additional temples to Hermes (Mercury) were constructed across the Empire, including several in modern-day Tunisia.", "Mercury's temple in Rome was situated in the Circus Maximus, between the Aventine and Palatine hills, and was built in 495 BC.In most places, temples were consecrated to Hermes in conjunction with Aphrodite, as in Attica, Arcadia, Crete, Samos and in Magna Graecia.", "Several ex-votos found in his temples revealed his role as initiator of young adulthood, among them soldiers and hunters, since war and certain forms of hunting were seen as ceremonial initiatory ordeals.", "This function of Hermes explains why some images in temples and other vessels show him as a teenager.As a patron of the gym and fighting, Hermes had statues in gyms and he was also worshiped in the sanctuary of the Twelve Gods in Olympia where Greeks celebrated the Olympic Games.", "His statue was held there on an altar dedicated to him and Apollo together.A temple within the Aventine was consecrated in 495 BC.Pausanias wrote that during his time, at Megalopolis people could see the ruins of the temple of Hermes Acacesius.In addition, the Tricrena (Τρίκρηνα, meaning Three Springs) mountains at Pheneus were sacred to Hermes, because three springs were there and according to the legend, Hermes was washed in them, after birth, by the nymphs of the mountain.Furthermore, at Pharae there was a water sacred to Hermes.", "The name of the spring was Hermes' stream and the fish in it were not caught, being considered sacred to the god.Sacrifices to Hermes involved honey, cakes, pigs, goats, and lambs.", "In the city of Tanagra, it was believed that Hermes had been nursed under a wild strawberry tree, the remains of which were held there in the shrine of Hermes Promachus, and in the hills Phene ran three waterways that were sacred to him, because he was believed to have been bathed there at birth.===Festivals===Hermes' feast was the Hermaea, which was celebrated with sacrifices to the god and with athletics and gymnastics, possibly having been established in the 6th century BC, but no documentation on the festival before the 4th century BC survives.", "However, Plato said that Socrates attended a Hermaea.", "Of all the festivals involving Greek games, these were the most like initiations because participation in them was restricted to young boys and excluded adults." ], [ "Epithets", "Kapsa, Macedon, c. 400 BC.===Atlantiades===Hermes was also called ''Atlantiades'' (), because his mother, Maia was the daughter of Atlas.=== Argeïphontes ===Hermes' epithet ''Argeïphontes'' (; ), meaning \"slayer of Argus\", recalls the slaying of the hundred-eyed giant Argus Panoptes by the messenger god.", "Argus was watching over the heifer-nymph Io in the sanctuary of Queen Hera, herself in Argos.", "Hermes placed a charm on Argus' eyes with the caduceus to cause the giant to sleep, after which he slew the giant with a harpe.", "The eyes were then put into the tail of the peacock, a symbol of the goddess Hera.=== Cyllenian ===Hermes was called ''Cyllenian'' (), because according to some myths he was born at the Mount Cyllene, and nursed by the Oread nymph Cyllene.===Kriophoros===In ancient Greek culture, ''kriophoros'' () or ''criophorus'', the \"ram-bearer,\" is a figure that commemorates the solemn sacrifice of a ram.", "It becomes an epithet of Hermes.===Messenger and guide===Sarpedon's body carried by Hypnos and Thanatos (Sleep and Death), while Hermes watches.", "Side A of the so-called \"Euphronios krater\", Attic red-figured calyx-krater signed by Euxitheos (potter) and Euphronios (painter), c. 515 BC.The chief office of the god was as messenger.", "Explicitly, at least in sources of classical writings, of Euripides' ''Electra'' and ''Iphigenia in Aulis'' and in Epictetus' ''Discourses''.", "Hermes (''Diactorus'', ''Angelos'') the messenger, is in fact only seen in this role, for Zeus, from within the pages of the ''Odyssey''.", "The messenger divine and herald of the Gods, he wears the gifts from his father, the petasos and talaria.", " '''Hodios''', patron of travelers and wayfarers.", "* '''Oneiropompus''', conductor of dreams.", "* '''Poimandres''', shepherd of men.", "* '''Psychopompos''', conveyor or conductor of souls, and ''psychogogue'', conductor or leader of souls in (or through) the underworld.", "* '''Sokos Eriounios''', a Homeric epithet with a much-debated meaning – probably \"swift, good-running.\"", "But in the Hymn to Hermes ''Eriounios'' is etymologized as \"very beneficial.", "\"* '''Chrysorappis''', \"with golden wand,\" a Homeric epithet.===Trade===So-called \"Logios Hermes\" (''Hermes Orator'').", "Marble, Roman copy from the late 1st century BC – early 2nd century AD after a Greek original of the 5th century BC.", "* ''Agoraeus'', of the agora; belonging to ''the market'' (Aristophanes)* ''Empolaios'', \"engaged in traffic and commerce\"Hermes is sometimes depicted in art works holding a purse.===Dolios (\"tricky\")===Source:No cult to Hermes Dolios existed in Attica, and so this form of Hermes seems to have existed in speech only.Hermes Dolio is ambiguous.", "According to prominent folklorist Yeleazar Meletinsky, Hermes is a deified trickster and master of thieves (\"a plunderer, a cattle-raider, a night-watching\" in the ''Homeric Hymn to Hermes'') and deception (Euripides) and (possibly evil) tricks and trickeries, crafty (from ''lit''.", "god of craft), the cheat, the god of stealth.", "He is also known as the friendliest to man, cunning, treacherous, and a schemer.Hermes Dolios was worshipped at Pellene and invoked through Odysseus.Hermes is ''amoral'' like a baby.", "Zeus sent Hermes as a teacher to humanity to teach them knowledge of and value of justice and to improve inter-personal relationships (\"bonding between mortals\").Considered to have a mastery of rhetorical persuasion and ''special pleading'', the god typically has nocturnal ''modus operandi''.", "Hermes knows the boundaries and crosses the borders of them to confuse their definition.===Thief===Hermes Propylaeus.", "Roman copy of the Alcamenes statue from the entrance of the Athenian Acropolis, original shortly after the 450 BC.In the Lang translation of the ''Homeric Hymn to Hermes'', the god after being born is described as a ''robber'', ''a captain of raiders'', and a ''thief of the gates''.According to the late Jungian psychotherapist López-Pedraza, everything Hermes thieves, he later sacrifices to the gods.====Patron of thieves====Autolycus received his skills as the greatest of thieves due to sacrificing to Hermes as his patron.===Additional===Other epithets included:* ''chthonius'' – at the festival Athenia ''Chytri'' sacrifices are made to this visage of the god only.", "* ''cyllenius'', born on Mount Kyllini* ''epimelios'', guardian of flocks* ''koinos''* ''ploutodotes'', giver of wealth (as inventor of fire)* ''proopylaios'', \"before the gate\", \"guardian of the gate\"; ''Pylaios'', \"doorkeeper\"* ''strophaios'', \"standing at the door post\"* ''Stropheus'', \"the socket in which the pivot of the door moves\" (Kerényi in Edwardson) or \"door-hinge\".", "Protector of the door (that is the boundary), to the temple* ''Agoraios'', the patron of gymnasia* ''Akaketos'' \"without guile,\" \"gracious,\" a Homeric epithet.", "* ''Dotor Eaon'' \"giver of good things,\" a Homeric epithet." ], [ "Mythology", "===Early Greek sources=======Homer and Hesiod====This circular Pyxis or box depicts two scenes.", "The one shown presents Hermes awarding the golden apple of the Hesperides to Aphrodite, whom Paris has selected as the most beautiful of the goddesses.", "The Walters Art Museum.Homer and Hesiod portrayed Hermes as the author of skilled or deceptive acts and also as a benefactor of mortals.", "In the ''Iliad'', he is called \"the bringer of good luck\", \"guide and guardian\", and \"excellent in all the tricks\".", "He was a divine ally of the Greeks against the Trojans.", "However, he did protect Priam when he went to the Greek camp to retrieve the body of his son Hector and accompanied them back to Troy.He also rescued Ares from a brazen vessel where he had been imprisoned by Otus and Ephialtes.", "In the ''Odyssey'', Hermes helps his great-grand son, the protagonist Odysseus, by informing him about the fate of his companions, who were turned into animals by the power of Circe.", "Hermes instructed Odysseus to protect himself by chewing a magic herb; he also told Calypso of Zeus' order to free Odysseus from her island to allow him to continue his journey back home.", "When Odysseus killed the suitors of his wife, Hermes led their souls to Hades.", "In ''Works and Days'', when Zeus ordered Hephaestus to create Pandora to disgrace humanity by punishing Prometheus's act of giving fire to man, every god gave her a gift, and Hermes' gifts were lies, seductive words, and a dubious character.", "Hermes was then instructed to take her as wife to Epimetheus.Hermes with his mother Maia.", "Detail of the side B of an Attic red-figure belly-amphora, c. 500 BC.The ''Homeric Hymn 4 to Hermes'', which tells the story of the god's birth and his subsequent theft of Apollo's sacred cattle, invokes him as the one \"of many shifts (''polytropos''), blandly cunning, a robber, a cattle driver, a bringer of dreams, a watcher by night, a thief at the gates, one who was soon to show forth wonderful deeds among the deathless gods.\"", "The word ''polutropos'' (\"of many shifts, turning many ways, of many devices, ingenious, or much wandering\") is also used to describe Odysseus in the first line of the ''Odyssey''.", "In addition to the chelys lyre, Hermes was believed to have invented many types of racing and the sport of wrestling, and therefore was a patron of athletes.====Athenian tragic playwrights====Aeschylus wrote in ''The Eumenides'' that Hermes helped Orestes kill Clytemnestra under a false identity and other stratagems, and also said that he was the god of searches, and those who seek things lost or stolen.", "In ''Philoctetes'', Sophocles invokes Hermes when Odysseus needs to convince Philoctetes to join the Trojan War on the side of the Greeks, and in Euripides' ''Rhesus'' Hermes helps Dolon spy on the Greek navy.====Aesop====Aesop featured him in several of his fables, as ruler of the gate of prophetic dreams, as the god of athletes, of edible roots, and of hospitality.", "He also said that Hermes had assigned each person his share of intelligence.===Hellenistic Greek sources===Sardonyx cameo of a Ptolemaic prince as Hermes, Cabinet des médailles, ParisOne of the Orphic Hymns Khthonios is dedicated to Hermes, indicating that he was also a god of the underworld.", "Aeschylus had called him by this epithet several times.", "Another is the Orphic Hymn to Hermes, where his association with the athletic games held is mystic in tone.Phlegon of Tralles said he was invoked to ward off ghosts, and Apollodorus reports several events involving Hermes.", "According to Apollodorus, Hermes participated in the Gigantomachy in defense of Olympus; was given the task of bringing baby Dionysus to be cared for by Ino and Athamas and later took him to be cared for by the Nysan nymphs, later called the Hyades; lead Hera, Athena and Aphrodite to Paris to be judged by him in a beauty contest; favored the young Hercules by giving him a sword when he finished his education; and aided Perseus in fetching the head of the Gorgon Medusa.Anyte of Tegea of the 3rd century BC, in the translation by Richard Aldington, wrote, I Hermes stand here at the crossroads by the wind beaten orchard, near the hoary grey coast; and I keep a resting place for weary men.", "And the cool stainless spring gushes out.===Lovers, victims and children===Hermes pursuing a woman, probably Herse.", "Attic red-figure amphora, c. 470 BC.", "Peitho, the goddess of seduction and persuasion, was said by Nonnus to be the wife of Hermes.", "Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty, was wooed by Hermes.", "After she had rejected him, Hermes sought the help of Zeus to seduce her.", "Zeus, out of pity, sent his eagle to take away Aphrodite's sandal when she was bathing, and gave it to Hermes.", "When Aphrodite came looking for the sandal, Hermes seduced her.", "They had a child, Hermaphroditus.", "Daeira, an Oceanid and an underworld goddess, mated with Hermes and gave birth to a son named Eleusis.", "Apemosyne, a princess of Crete, was travelling to Rhodes one day with her brother Althaemenes.", "Hermes saw her and fell in love with her, but Apemosyne fled from him.", "Hermes could not catch her because she ran faster than him.", "The god then devised a plan and laid some freshly skinned hides across her path.", "Later, on her way back from a spring, Apemosyne slipped on those hides and fell.", "At that moment, Hermes caught her and raped her.", "When Apemosyne told her brother what had happened, he became angry, thinking that she was lying about being molested by the god.", "In his anger, he kicked her to death.", "Chione, a princess of Phokis, attracted the attention of Hermes.", "He used his wand to put her to sleep and slept with her.", "To Hermes she bore a son, Autolycus.", "Herse, an Athenian princess, was loved by Hermes and bore a son named Cephalus to him.", "Iphthime, a princess of Doros, was loved by Hermes.", "They had three Satyroi – named Pherespondos, Lykos and Pronomos.", "Penelopeia, an Arcadian nymph, was loved by Hermes.", "It is said that Hermes had sex with her in the form of a goat, which resulted in their son, the god Pan, having goat legs.", "She has been confused or conflated with Penelope, the wife of Odysseus.", "The Oreads, the nymphs of the mountains were said to mate with Hermes in the highlands, breeding more of their kind.", "Tanagra was a nymph for whom the gods Ares and Hermes competed in a boxing match.", "Hermes won and carried her off to Tanagra in Boeotia.According to Hyginus' ''Fabula'', Pan, the Greek god of nature, shepherds and flocks, is the son of Hermes through the nymph Dryope.", "It is likely that the worship of Hermes himself actually originated as an aspect of Pan as the god of boundaries, which could explain their association as parent and child in Hyginus.", "In other sources, the god Priapus is understood as a son of Hermes.According to the mythographer Apollodorus, Autolycus, the Prince of Thieves, was a son of Hermes and Chione, making Hermes a great-grandfather of Odysseus.Once, Hermes chased either Persephone or Hecate with the aim to rape her; but the goddess snored or roared in anger, frightening him off so that he desisted, hence her earning the name \"Brimo\" (\"angry\").Hermes and a young warrior.", "Bendis Painter, c. 370 BC.Hermes also loved young men in pederastic relationships where he bestowed and/or taught something related to combat, athletics, herding, poetry and music.", "Photius wrote that Polydeuces (Pollux), one of the Dioscuri, was a lover of Hermes, to whom he gifted the Thessalian horse Dotor.", "Amphion became a great singer and musician after his lover Hermes taught him to play and gave him a golden lyre.", "Crocus was said to be a beloved of Hermes and was accidentally killed by the god in a game of discus when he unexpectedly stood up; as the unfortunate youth's blood dripped on the soil, the saffron flower came to be.", "Perseus received the divine items (talaria, petasos, and the helm of darkness) from Hermes because he loved him.", "And Daphnis, a Sicilian shepherd who was said to be the inventor of pastoral poetry, is said to be a son or sometimes ''eromenos'' of Hermes.+Offspring and mothers, Table 1 Offspring MotherCydonAcacallisEumolpusAglaurusBounosAlcidameiaEchion, EurytusAntianeira or LaothoeHermaphroditus, Tyche (possibly)AphroditeAstacusAstabeAutolycusChione or Stilbe or TelaugeMyrtilusCleobule or Clymene or Clytie or Myrto or Phaethusa or TheobulaPolybusChthonophyleEleusisDaeiraPanDryope or Penelope (dryad)NoraxErytheiaAethalidesEupolemeia The Cephalonians CalypsoDaphnis''unknown Sicilian nymph''+Offspring and mothers, Table 2 Offspring MotherCephalus, Ceryx (possibly)HerseGigasHiereiaEvanderCarmentis or ThemisPrylisIssaLycus, Abderus, AngeliaIphthimeLibysLibyeCaicusOcyrhoeCeryx (possibly)PandrosusNomiosPenelope (dryad)PharisPhylodameiaEudorusPolymeleSaonRheneLinus (possibly)UraniaAgreusSose (nymph)ArabusThroniaDolops, Eurymachus, Palaestra, Pherespondus, Pronomus''unknown mothers''===Genealogy===" ], [ "In Jungian psychology", "''Souls on the Banks of the Acheron'', oil painting depicting Hermes in the underworld.", "Adolf Hirémy-Hirschl, 1898.For Carl Jung, Hermes's role as messenger between realms and as guide to the underworld made him the god of the unconscious, the mediator between the conscious and unconscious parts of the mind, and the guide for inner journeys.Jung considered the gods Thoth and Hermes to be counterparts.", "In Jungian psychology especially, Hermes is seen as relevant to study of the phenomenon of synchronicity (together with Pan and Dionysus):He is identified by some with the archetype of healer, as the ancient Greeks ascribed healing magic to him.In the context of abnormal psychology Samuels (1986) states that Jung considers Hermes the archetype for narcissistic disorder; however, he lends the disorder a \"positive\" (beneficious) aspect, and represents both the good and bad of narcissism.For López-Pedraza, Hermes is the protector of psychotherapy.", "For McNeely, Hermes is a god of the healing arts.According to Christopher Booker, all the roles Hermes held in ancient Greek thought all considered reveals Hermes to be a guide or observer of transition.For Jung, Hermes's role as trickster made him a guide through the psychotherapeutic process." ], [ "Hermes in popular culture", ":''See Greek mythology in popular culture''" ], [ "See also", "* Hermes Trismegistus* Family tree of the Greek gods" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Apollodorus, ''Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S.", "in 2 Volumes.''", "Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921.. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Burkert, Walter, ''Greek Religion'', Harvard University Press, 1985..* Gantz, Timothy, ''Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources'', Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: (Vol.", "1), (Vol.", "2).", "* Hesiod, ''Theogony'', in ''The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White'', Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Hesiod, ''The Shield.", "Catalogue of Women.", "Other Fragments.", "Edited and translated by Glenn W. Most''.", "Loeb Classical Library 503.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007, .", "* Homer, ''The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes''.", "Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Homer; ''The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes''.", "Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Lay, M. G., James E. Vance Jr.; ''Ways of the World: A History of the World's Roads and of the Vehicles That Used Them'', Rutgers University Press, 1992, .", "* * Pausanias, ''Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S.", "Jones, Litt.D., and H.A.", "Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes.''", "Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Tripp, Edward, ''Crowell's Handbook of Classical Mythology'', Thomas Y. Crowell Co; First edition (June 1970).", "." ], [ "Further reading", "* Allan, Arlene.", "2018.''Hermes.", "Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World''.", "London; New York: Routledge.", "Baudy, Gerhard, and Anne Ley.", "2006.\"Hermes.\"", "In ''Der Neue Pauly''.", "Vol 5.Edited by Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider.", "Stuttgart, and Weimar, Germany: Verlag J.", "B.", "Metzler.", " Bungard, Christopher.", "2011.", "\"Lies, Lyres, and Laughter: Surplus Potential in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes.\"", "''Arethusa'' 44.2: 143–165.", "* Bungard, Christopher.", "2012.", "\"Reconsidering Zeus' Order: The Reconciliation of Apollo and Hermes.\"", "''The Classical World'' 105.4: 433–469.", "* Fowden, Garth.", "1993.", "''The Egyptian Hermes.", "A Historical Approach to the Late Pagan Mind.''", "Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ.", "Press.", "* Johnston, Sarah Iles.", "2002.", "\"Myth, Festival, and Poet: The Homeric Hymn to Hermes and its Performative Context.\"", "''Classical Philology'' 97:109–132.", "* Kessler-Dimini, Elizabeth.", "2008.", "\"Tradition and Transmission: Hermes Kourotrophos in Nea Paphos, Cyprus.\"", "In ''Antiquity in Antiquity: Jewish and Christian Pasts in the Greco-Roman World.''", "Edited by Gregg Gardner and K. L. Osterloh, 255–285.Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck.", "* * Russo, Joseph.", "2000.", "\"Athena and Hermes in Early Greek Poetry: Doubling and Complementarity.\"", "In Poesia e religione in Grecia.", "Studi in onore di G. Aurelio Privitera.", "Vol.", "2.Edited by Maria Cannatà Ferra and S. Grandolini, 595–603.Perugia, Italy: Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane.", "* Schachter, Albert.", "1986.", "''Cults of Boiotia.", "Vol.", "2, Heracles to Poseidon.''", "London: Institute of Classical Studies.", "* Thomas, Oliver.", "2010.", "\"Ancient Greek Awareness of Child Language Acquisition\".", "''Glotta'' 86: 185–223.", "* van Bladel, Kevin.", "2009.", "''The Arabic Hermes: From Pagan Sage to Prophet of Science.", "Oxford Studies in Late Antiquity.''", "Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press." ], [ "External links", "* * Theoi Project, Hermes stories from original sources & images from classical art* Cult of Hermes* The Myths of Hermes * Ventris and Chadwick: Gods found in Mycenaean Greece: a table drawn up from Michael Ventris and John Chadwick, ''Documents in Mycenaean Greek'' second edition (Cambridge 1973)* The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (images of Hermes)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hedge fund" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''hedge fund''' is a pooled investment fund that holds liquid assets and that makes use of complex trading and risk management techniques to improve investment performance and insulate returns from market risk.", "Among these portfolio techniques are short selling and the use of leverage and derivative instruments.", "In the United States, financial regulations require that hedge funds be marketed only to institutional investors and high-net-worth individuals.Hedge funds are considered alternative investments.", "Their ability to use leverage and more complex investment techniques distinguishes them from regulated investment funds available to the retail market, commonly known as mutual funds and ETFs.", "They are also considered distinct from private equity funds and other similar closed-end funds as hedge funds generally invest in relatively liquid assets and are usually open-ended.", "This means they typically allow investors to invest and withdraw capital periodically based on the fund's net asset value, whereas private-equity funds generally invest in illiquid assets and return capital only after a number of years.", "Other than a fund's regulatory status, there are no formal or fixed definitions of fund types, and so there are different views of what can constitute a \"hedge fund\".Although hedge funds are not subject to the many restrictions applicable to regulated funds, regulations were passed in the United States and Europe following the financial crisis of 2007–2008 with the intention of increasing government oversight of hedge funds and eliminating certain regulatory gaps.", "While most modern hedge funds are able to employ a wide variety of financial instruments and risk management techniques, they can be very different from each other with respect to their strategies, risks, volatility and expected return profile.", "It is common for hedge fund investment strategies to aim to achieve a positive return on investment regardless of whether markets are rising or falling (\"absolute return\").", "Hedge funds can be considered risky investments; the expected returns of some hedge fund strategies are less volatile than those of retail funds with high exposure to stock markets because of the use of hedging techniques.A hedge fund usually pays its investment manager a management fee (typically, 2% per annum of the net asset value of the fund) and a performance fee (typically, 20% of the increase in the fund's net asset value during a year).", "Hedge funds have existed for many decades and have become increasingly popular.", "They have now grown to be a substantial portion of the asset management industry, with assets totaling around $3.8 trillion as of 2021.Hedge fund managers can have several billion dollars of assets under management (AUM)." ], [ "Etymology", "The word \"hedge\", meaning a line of bushes around the perimeter of a field, has long been used as a metaphor for placing limits on risk.", "Early hedge funds sought to hedge specific investments against general market fluctuations by shorting other, similar assets.", "Nowadays, however, many different investment strategies are used, many of which do not \"hedge\" risk." ], [ "History", "During the US bull market of the 1920s, there were numerous private investment vehicles available to wealthy investors.", "Of that period, the best known today is the Graham-Newman Partnership, founded by Benjamin Graham and his long-time business partner Jerry Newman.", "This was cited by Warren Buffett in a 2006 letter to the Museum of American Finance as an early hedge fund, and based on other comments from Buffett, Janet Tavakoli deems Graham's investment firm the first hedge fund.The sociologist Alfred W. Jones is credited with coining the phrase \"''hedged'' fund\" and is credited with creating the first hedge fund structure in 1949.Jones referred to his fund as being \"hedged\", a term then commonly used on Wall Street to describe the management of investment risk due to changes in the financial markets.In the 1970s, hedge funds specialized in a single strategy with most fund managers following the long/short equity model.", "Many hedge funds closed during the recession of 1969–1970 and the 1973–1974 stock market crash due to heavy losses.", "They received renewed attention in the late 1980s.Cumulative hedge fund and other risk asset returns (1997–2012)During the 1990s, the number of hedge funds increased significantly with the 1990s stock market rise, the aligned-interest compensation structure (''i.e.", "'', common financial interests), and the promise of above average returns as likely causes.", "Over the next decade, hedge fund strategies expanded to include credit arbitrage, distressed debt, fixed income, quantitative, and multi-strategy.", "US institutional investors, such as pension and endowment funds, began allocating greater portions of their portfolios to hedge funds.During the first decade of the 21st century, hedge funds gained popularity worldwide, and, by 2008, the worldwide hedge fund industry held an estimated US$1.93 trillion in assets under management (AUM).", "However, the financial crisis of 2007–2008 caused many hedge funds to restrict investor withdrawals and their popularity and AUM totals declined.", "AUM totals rebounded and in April 2011 were estimated at almost $2 trillion.", ", 61% of worldwide investment in hedge funds came from institutional sources.In June 2011, the hedge fund management firms with the greatest AUM were Bridgewater Associates (US$58.9 billion), Man Group (US$39.2 billion), Paulson & Co. (US$35.1 billion), Brevan Howard (US$31 billion), and Och-Ziff (US$29.4 billion).", "Bridgewater Associates had $70 billion in assets under management .", "At the end of that year, the 241 largest hedge fund firms in the United States collectively held $1.335 trillion.", "In April 2012, the hedge fund industry reached a record high of US$2.13 trillion total assets under management.", "In the middle of the 2010s, the hedge fund industry experienced a general decline in the \"old guard\" fund managers.", "Dan Loeb called it a \"hedge fund killing field\" due to the classic long/short falling out of favor because of unprecedented easing by central banks.", "The US stock market correlation became untenable to short sellers.", "The hedge fund industry today has reached a state of maturity that is consolidating around the larger, more established firms such as Citadel, Elliot, Millennium, Bridgewater, and others.", "The rate of new fund start ups is now outpaced by fund closings.In July 2017, hedge funds recorded their eighth consecutive monthly gain in returns with assets under management rising to a record $3.1 trillion." ], [ "Notable hedge fund managers", "Tom Steyer, hedge-fund manager of NextGen AmericaGeorge Soros, fund manager of Quantum Group of FundsRay Dalio, fund manager of Bridgewater Associates* John Meriwether of Long-Term Capital Management, most successful returns from 27% to 59% through 1993 to 1998 until its collapse and liquidation.", "* George Soros of Quantum Group of Funds* Ray Dalio of Bridgewater Associates, the world's largest hedge fund firm with US$160 billion in assets under management as of 2017* Steve Cohen of Point72 Asset Management, formerly known as founder of SAC Capital Advisors * John Paulson of Paulson & Co., whose hedge funds as of December 2015 had $19 billion assets under management * David Tepper of Appaloosa Management* Paul Tudor Jones of Tudor Investment Corporation* Daniel Och of Och-Ziff Capital Management Group with more than $40 billion in assets under management in 2013 * Israel Englander of Millennium Management, LLC* Leon Cooperman of Omega Advisors * Michael Platt of BlueCrest Capital Management (UK), Europe's third-largest hedge-fund firm * James Dinan of York Capital Management * Stephen Mandel of Lone Pine Capital with $26.7 billion under management at end June 2015 * Larry Robbins of Glenview Capital Management with $9.2 billion of assets under management as of July 2014 * Glenn Dubin of Highbridge Capital Management* Paul Singer of Elliott Management Corporation, an activist hedge fund with more than US$23 billion in assets under management in 2013, and a portfolio worth $8.1 billion as of the first quarter of 2015 * Michael Hintze of CQS with $14.4 billion of assets under management as of June 2015* David Einhorn of Greenlight Capital as the top 20 billionaire hedge fund managers.", "* Bill Ackman of Pershing Square Capital Management LP* Kenneth Griffin of Citadel with over $62 billion in assets under management as of December 2022." ], [ "Strategies", "A prospectus from the USHedge fund strategies are generally classified among four major categories: global macro, directional, event-driven, and relative value (arbitrage).", "Strategies within these categories each entail characteristic risk and return profiles.", "A fund may employ a single strategy or multiple strategies for flexibility, risk management, or diversification.", "The hedge fund's prospectus, also known as an offering memorandum, offers potential investors information about key aspects of the fund, including the fund's investment strategy, investment type, and leverage limit.The elements contributing to a hedge fund strategy include the hedge fund's approach to the market, the particular instrument use, the market sector the fund specializes in (''e.g.", "'', healthcare), the method used to select investments, and the amount of diversification within the fund.", "There are a variety of market approaches to different asset classes, including equity, fixed income, commodity, and currency.", "Instruments used include equities, fixed income, futures, options, and swaps.", "Strategies can be divided into those in which investments can be selected by managers, known as \"discretionary/qualitative\", or those in which investments are selected using a computerized system, known as \"systematic/quantitative\".", "The amount of diversification within the fund can vary; funds may be multi-strategy, multi-fund, multi-market, multi-manager, or a combination.Sometimes hedge fund strategies are described as \"absolute return\" and are classified as either \"market neutral\" or \"directional\".", "Market neutral funds have less correlation to overall market performance by \"neutralizing\" the effect of market swings whereas directional funds utilize trends and inconsistencies in the market and have greater exposure to the market's fluctuations.===Global macro===Hedge funds using a global macro investing strategy take large positions in share, bond, or currency markets in anticipation of global macroeconomic events in order to generate a risk-adjusted return.", "Global macro fund managers use macroeconomic (\"big picture\") analysis based on global market events and trends to identify opportunities for investment that would profit from anticipated price movements.", "While global macro strategies have a large amount of flexibility (due to their ability to use leverage to take large positions in diverse investments in multiple markets), the timing of the implementation of the strategies is important in order to generate attractive, risk-adjusted returns.", "Global macro is often categorized as a directional investment strategy.Global macro strategies can be divided into discretionary and systematic approaches.", "Discretionary trading is carried out by investment managers who identify and select investments, whereas systematic trading is based on mathematical models and executed by software with limited human involvement beyond the programming and updating of the software.", "These strategies can also be divided into trend or counter-trend approaches depending on whether the fund attempts to profit from following market trend (long or short-term) or attempts to anticipate and profit from reversals in trends.Within global macro strategies, there are further sub-strategies including \"systematic diversified\", in which the fund trades in diversified markets, or sector specialists such as \"systematic currency\", in which the fund trades in foreign exchange markets or any other sector specialisation.", "Other sub-strategies include those employed by commodity trading advisors (CTAs), where the fund trades in futures (or options) in commodity markets or in swaps.", "This is also known as a \"managed future fund\".", "CTAs trade in commodities (such as gold) and financial instruments, including stock indices.", "They also take both long and short positions, allowing them to make profit in both market upswings and downswings.", "Most global macro managers tends to be a CTA from a regulatory perspective and the main divide is between systematic and discretionary strategies.", "A classification framework for CTA/Macro Strategies can be found in the reference.===Directional===borrows shares and immediately sells them.", "The short seller then expects the price to decrease, when the seller can profit by purchasing the shares to return to the lender.Directional investment strategies use market movements, trends, or inconsistencies when picking stocks across a variety of markets.", "Computer models can be used, or fund managers will identify and select investments.", "These types of strategies have a greater exposure to the fluctuations of the overall market than do market neutral strategies.", "Directional hedge fund strategies include US and international long/short equity hedge funds, where long equity positions are hedged with short sales of equities or equity index options.Within directional strategies, there are a number of sub-strategies.", "\"Emerging markets\" funds focus on emerging markets such as China and India, whereas \"sector funds\" specialize in specific areas including technology, healthcare, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, energy, and basic materials.", "Funds using a \"fundamental growth\" strategy invest in companies with more earnings growth than the overall stock market or relevant sector, while funds using a \"fundamental value\" strategy invest in undervalued companies.", "Funds that use quantitative and financial signal processing techniques for equity trading are described as using a \"quantitative directional\" strategy.", "Funds using a \"short bias\" strategy take advantage of declining equity prices using short positions.===Event-driven===Event-driven strategies concern situations in which the underlying investment opportunity and risk are associated with an event.", "An event-driven investment strategy finds investment opportunities in corporate transactional events such as consolidations, acquisitions, recapitalizations, bankruptcies, and liquidations.", "Managers employing such a strategy capitalize on valuation inconsistencies in the market before or after such events, and take a position based on the predicted movement of the security or securities in question.", "Large institutional investors such as hedge funds are more likely to pursue event-driven investing strategies than traditional equity investors because they have the expertise and resources to analyze corporate transactional events for investment opportunities.Corporate transactional events generally fit into three categories: distressed securities, risk arbitrage, and special situations.", "Distressed securities include such events as restructurings, recapitalizations, and bankruptcies.", "A distressed securities investment strategy involves investing in the bonds or loans of companies facing bankruptcy or severe financial distress, when these bonds or loans are being traded at a discount to their value.", "Hedge fund managers pursuing the distressed debt investment strategy aim to capitalize on depressed bond prices.", "Hedge funds purchasing distressed debt may prevent those companies from going bankrupt, as such an acquisition deters foreclosure by banks.", "While event-driven investing, in general, tends to thrive during a bull market, distressed investing works best during a bear market.Risk arbitrage or merger arbitrage includes such events as mergers, acquisitions, liquidations, and hostile takeovers.", "Risk arbitrage typically involves buying and selling the stocks of two or more merging companies to take advantage of market discrepancies between acquisition price and stock price.", "The risk element arises from the possibility that the merger or acquisition will not go ahead as planned; hedge fund managers will use research and analysis to determine if the event will take place.Special situations are events that impact the value of a company's stock, including the restructuring of a company or corporate transactions including spin-offs, share buy backs, security issuance/repurchase, asset sales, or other catalyst-oriented situations.", "To take advantage of special situations the hedge fund manager must identify an upcoming event that will increase or decrease the value of the company's equity and equity-related instruments.Other event-driven strategies include credit arbitrage strategies, which focus on corporate fixed income securities; an activist strategy, where the fund takes large positions in companies and uses the ownership to participate in the management; a strategy based on predicting the final approval of new pharmaceutical drugs; and legal catalyst strategy, which specializes in companies involved in major lawsuits.===Relative value===Relative value arbitrage strategies take advantage of relative discrepancies in price between securities.", "The price discrepancy can occur due to mispricing of securities compared to related securities, the underlying security or the market overall.", "Hedge fund managers can use various types of analysis to identify price discrepancies in securities, including mathematical, technical, or fundamental techniques.", "Relative value is often used as a synonym for market neutral, as strategies in this category typically have very little or no directional market exposure to the market as a whole.", "Other relative value sub-strategies include:Fixed income arbitrage: exploit pricing inefficiencies between related fixed income securities.", "Equity market neutral: exploit differences in stock prices by being long and short in stocks within the same sector, industry, market capitalization, country, which also creates a hedge against broader market factors.", "Convertible arbitrage: exploit pricing inefficiencies between convertible securities and the corresponding stocks.", "Asset-backed securities (fixed-income asset-backed): fixed income arbitrage strategy using asset-backed securities.", "Credit long/short: the same as long/short equity, but in credit markets instead of equity markets.", "Statistical arbitrage: identifying pricing inefficiencies between securities through mathematical modelling techniquesVolatility arbitrage: exploit the change in volatility, instead of the change in price.", "Yield alternatives: non-fixed income arbitrage strategies based on the yield, instead of the price.", "Regulatory arbitrage: exploit regulatory differences between two or more markets.", " Risk arbitrage: exploit market discrepancies between acquisition price and stock price.", "Value investing: buying securities that appear underpriced by some form of fundamental analysis.===Miscellaneous===In addition to those strategies within the four main categories, there are several strategies that do not entirely fit into these categories.", "Fund of hedge funds (multi-manager): a hedge fund with a diversified portfolio of numerous underlying single-manager hedge funds.", "Multi-manager: a hedge fund wherein the investment is spread along separate sub-managers investing in their own strategy.", "Multi-strategy: a hedge fund using a combination of different strategies.", "130-30 funds: equity funds with 130% long and 30% short positions, leaving a net long position of 100%.", "Risk parity: equalizing risk by allocating funds to a wide range of categories while maximizing gains through financial leveraging.", "AI-driven: using sophisticated machine learning models and sometimes big data." ], [ "Risk", "For an investor who already holds large quantities of equities and bonds, investment in hedge funds may provide diversification and reduce the overall portfolio risk.", "Managers of hedge funds often aim to produce returns that are relatively uncorrelated with market indices and are consistent with investors' desired level of risk.", "While hedging can reduce some risks of an investment it usually increases others, such as operational risk and model risk, so overall risk is reduced but cannot be eliminated.", "According to a report by the Hennessee Group, hedge funds were approximately one-third less volatile than the S&P 500 between 1993 and 2010.===Risk management===Investors in hedge funds are, in most countries, required to be qualified investors who are assumed to be aware of the investment risks, and accept these risks because of the potential returns relative to those risks.", "Fund managers may employ extensive risk management strategies in order to protect the fund and investors.", "According to the ''Financial Times'', \"big hedge funds have some of the most sophisticated and exacting risk management practices anywhere in asset management.\"", "Hedge fund managers that hold a large number of investment positions for short periods are likely to have a particularly comprehensive risk management system in place, and it has become usual for funds to have independent risk officers who assess and manage risks but are not otherwise involved in trading.", "A variety of different measurement techniques and models are used to estimate risk according to the fund's leverage, liquidity, and investment strategy.", "Non-normality of returns, volatility clustering and trends are not always accounted for by conventional risk measurement methodologies and so in addition to value at risk and similar measurements, funds may use integrated measures such as drawdowns.In addition to assessing the market-related risks that may arise from an investment, investors commonly employ operational due diligence to assess the risk that error or fraud at a hedge fund might result in a loss to the investor.", "Considerations will include the organization and management of operations at the hedge fund manager, whether the investment strategy is likely to be sustainable, and the fund's ability to develop as a company.===Transparency, and regulatory considerations===Since hedge funds are private entities and have few public disclosure requirements, this is sometimes perceived as a lack of transparency.", "Another common perception of hedge funds is that their managers are not subject to as much regulatory oversight and/or registration requirements as other financial investment managers, and more prone to manager-specific idiosyncratic risks such as style drifts, faulty operations, or fraud.", "New regulations introduced in the US and the EU as of 2010 required hedge fund managers to report more information, leading to greater transparency.", "In addition, investors, particularly institutional investors, are encouraging further developments in hedge fund risk management, both through internal practices and external regulatory requirements.", "The increasing influence of institutional investors has led to greater transparency: hedge funds increasingly provide information to investors including valuation methodology, positions, and leverage exposure.===Risks shared with other investment types===Hedge funds share many of the same types of risk as other investment classes, including liquidity risk and manager risk.", "Liquidity refers to the degree to which an asset can be bought and sold or converted to cash; similar to private-equity funds, hedge funds employ a lock-up period during which an investor cannot remove money.", "Manager risk refers to those risks which arise from the management of funds.", "As well as specific risks such as style drift, which refers to a fund manager \"drifting\" away from an area of specific expertise, manager risk factors include valuation risk, capacity risk, concentration risk, and leverage risk.", "Valuation risk refers to the concern that the net asset value (NAV) of investments may be inaccurate; capacity risk can arise from placing too much money into one particular strategy, which may lead to fund performance deterioration; and concentration risk may arise if a fund has too much exposure to a particular investment, sector, trading strategy, or group of correlated funds.", "These risks may be managed through defined controls over conflict of interest, restrictions on allocation of funds, and set exposure limits for strategies.Many investment funds use leverage, the practice of borrowing money, trading on margin, or using derivatives to obtain market exposure in excess of that provided by investors' capital.", "Although leverage can increase potential returns, the opportunity for larger gains is weighed against the possibility of greater losses.", "Hedge funds employing leverage are likely to engage in extensive risk management practices.", "In comparison with investment banks, hedge fund leverage is relatively low; according to a National Bureau of Economic Research working paper, the average leverage for investment banks is 14.2, compared to between 1.5 and 2.5 for hedge funds.Some types of funds, including hedge funds, are perceived as having a greater appetite for risk, with the intention of maximizing returns, subject to the risk tolerance of investors and the fund manager.", "Managers will have an additional incentive to increase risk oversight when their own capital is invested in the fund." ], [ "Fees and remuneration", "===Fees paid to hedge funds===Hedge fund management firms typically charge their funds both a management fee and a performance fee.Management fees are calculated as a percentage of the fund's net asset value and typically range from 1% to 4% per annum, with 2% being standard.", "They are usually expressed as an annual percentage, but calculated and paid monthly or quarterly.", "Management fees for hedge funds are designed to cover the operating costs of the manager, whereas the performance fee provides the manager's profits.", "However, due to economies of scale the management fee from larger funds can generate a significant part of a manager's profits, and as a result some fees have been criticized by some public pension funds, such as CalPERS, for being too high.The performance fee is typically 20% of the fund's profits during any year, though performance fees range between 10% and 50%.", "Performance fees are intended to provide an incentive for a manager to generate profits.", "Performance fees have been criticized by Warren Buffett, who believes that because hedge funds share only the profits and not the losses, such fees create an incentive for high-risk investment management.", "Performance fee rates have fallen since the start of the credit crunch.Almost all hedge fund performance fees include a \"high water mark\" (or \"loss carryforward provision\"), which means that the performance fee only applies to net profits (''i.e.", "'', profits after losses in previous years have been recovered).", "This prevents managers from receiving fees for volatile performance, though a manager will sometimes close a fund that has suffered serious losses and start a new fund, rather than attempt to recover the losses over a number of years without a performance fee.Some performance fees include a \"hurdle\", so that a fee is only paid on the fund's performance in excess of a benchmark rate (''e.g.", "'', LIBOR) or a fixed percentage.", "The hurdle is usually tied to a benchmark rate such as Libor or the one-year Treasury bill rate plus a spread.", "A \"soft\" hurdle means the performance fee is calculated on all the fund's returns if the hurdle rate is cleared.", "A \"hard\" hurdle is calculated only on returns above the hurdle rate.", "By example the manager sets a hurdle rate equal to 5%, and the fund return 15%, incentive fees would only apply to the 10% above the hurdle rate.", "A hurdle is intended to ensure that a manager is only rewarded if the fund generates returns in excess of the returns that the investor would have received if they had invested their money elsewhere.Some hedge funds charge a redemption fee (or withdrawal fee) for early withdrawals during a specified period of time (typically a year), or when withdrawals exceed a predetermined percentage of the original investment.", "The purpose of the fee is to discourage short-term investing, reduce turnover, and deter withdrawals after periods of poor performance.", "Unlike management fees and performance fees, redemption fees are usually kept by the fund and redistributed to all investors.===Remuneration of portfolio managers===Hedge fund management firms are often owned by their portfolio managers, who are therefore entitled to any profits that the business makes.", "As management fees are intended to cover the firm's operating costs, performance fees (and any excess management fees) are generally distributed to the firm's owners as profits.", "Funds do not tend to report compensation, and so published lists of the amounts earned by top managers tend to be estimates based on factors such as the fees charged by their funds and the capital they are thought to have invested in them.", "Many managers have accumulated large stakes in their own funds and so top hedge fund managers can earn extraordinary amounts of money, perhaps up to $4 billion in a good year.Earnings at the very top are higher than in any other sector of the financial industry, and collectively the top 25 hedge fund managers regularly earn more than all 500 of the chief executives in the S&P 500.Most hedge fund managers are remunerated much less, however, and if performance fees are not earned then small managers at least are unlikely to be paid significant amounts.In 2011, the top manager earned $3 billion, the tenth earned $210 million, and the 30th earned $80 million.", "In 2011, the average earnings for the 25 highest-compensated hedge fund managers in the United States was $576 million while the mean total compensation for all hedge fund investment professionals was $690,786 and the median was $312,329.The same figures for hedge fund CEOs were $1,037,151 and $600,000, and for chief investment officers were $1,039,974 and $300,000, respectively.Of the 1,226 people on the ''Forbes'' World's Billionaires List for 2012, 36 of the financiers listed \"derived significant chunks\" of their wealth from hedge fund management.", "Among the richest 1,000 people in the United Kingdom, 54 were hedge fund managers, according to the ''Sunday Times'' Rich List for 2012.A portfolio manager risks losing his past compensation if he engages in insider trading.", "In ''Morgan Stanley v. Skowron'', 989 F. Supp.", "2d 356 (S.D.N.Y.", "2013), applying New York's faithless servant doctrine, the court held that a hedge fund's portfolio manager engaging in insider trading in violation of his company's code of conduct, which also required him to report his misconduct, must repay his employer the full $31 million his employer paid him as compensation during his period of faithlessness.", "The court called the insider trading the \"ultimate abuse of a portfolio manager's position\".", "The judge also wrote: \"In addition to exposing Morgan Stanley to government investigations and direct financial losses, Skowron's behavior damaged the firm's reputation, a valuable corporate asset.\"" ], [ "Structure", "A hedge fund is an investment vehicle that is most often structured as an offshore corporation, limited partnership, or limited liability company.", "The fund is managed by an investment manager in the form of an organization or company that is legally and financially distinct from the hedge fund and its portfolio of assets.", "Many investment managers utilize service providers for operational support.", "Service providers include prime brokers, banks, administrators, distributors, and accounting firms.===Prime broker===Prime brokers clear trades and provide leverage and short-term financing.", "They are usually divisions of large investment banks.", "The prime broker acts as a counterparty to derivative contracts, and lends securities for particular investment strategies, such as long/short equities and convertible bond arbitrage.", "It can provide custodial services for the fund's assets, and trade execution and clearing services for the hedge fund manager.===Administrator===Hedge fund administrators are typically responsible for valuation services, and often operations, and accounting.Calculation of the net asset value (\"NAV\") by the administrator, including the pricing of securities at current market value and calculation of the fund's income and expense accruals, is a core administrator task, because it is the price at which investors buy and sell shares in the fund.", "The accurate and timely calculation of NAV by the administrator is vital.", "The case of ''Anwar v. Fairfield Greenwich'' (SDNY 2015) is the major case relating to fund administrator liability for failure to handle its NAV-related obligations properly.", "There, the hedge fund administrator and other defendants settled in 2016 by paying the ''Anwar'' investor plaintiffs $235 million.Administrator back office support allows fund managers to concentrate on trades.", "Administrators also process subscriptions and redemptions and perform various shareholder services.", "Hedge funds in the United States are not required to appoint an administrator and all of these functions can be performed by an investment manager.", "A number of conflict of interest situations may arise in this arrangement, particularly in the calculation of a fund's net asset value.", "Most funds employ external auditors, thereby arguably offering a greater degree of transparency.=== Auditor ===An auditor is an independent accounting firm used to perform a complete audit the fund's financial statements.", "The year-end audit is performed in accordance with the standard accounting practices enforced within the country in which the fund it established, typically US GAAP or the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS).", "The auditor may verify the fund's NAV and assets under management (AUM).", "Some auditors only provide \"NAV lite\" services, meaning that the valuation is based on prices received from the manager rather than an independent assessment.===Distributor===A distributor is an underwriter, broker, dealer, or other person who participates in the distribution of securities.", "The distributor is also responsible for marketing the fund to potential investors.", "Many hedge funds do not have distributors, and in such cases, the investment manager will be responsible for the distribution of securities and marketing, though many funds also use placement agents and broker-dealers for distribution.===Domicile and taxation===The legal structure of a specific hedge fund, in particular its domicile and the type of legal entity in use, is usually determined by the tax expectations of the fund's investors.", "Regulatory considerations will also play a role.", "Many hedge funds are established in offshore financial centers to avoid adverse tax consequences for its foreign and tax-exempt investors.", "Offshore funds that invest in the US typically pay withholding taxes on certain types of investment income, but not US capital gains tax.", "However, the fund's investors are subject to tax in their own jurisdictions on any increase in the value of their investments.", "This tax treatment promotes cross-border investments by limiting the potential for multiple jurisdictions to layer taxes on investors.US tax-exempt investors (such as pension plans and endowments) invest primarily in offshore hedge funds to preserve their tax exempt status and avoid unrelated business taxable income.", "The investment manager, usually based in a major financial center, pays tax on its management fees per the tax laws of the state and country where it is located.", "In 2011, half of the existing hedge funds were registered offshore and half onshore.", "The Cayman Islands was the leading location for offshore funds, accounting for 34% of the total number of global hedge funds.", "The US had 24%, Luxembourg 10%, Ireland 7%, the British Virgin Islands 6%, and Bermuda had 3%.Hedge funds take advantage of a tax loopole called carried interest to get around paying too much in taxes by fancy legalistic maneouvres on their part.===Basket options===The US Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations chaired by Carl Levin issued a 2014 report that found that from 1998 and 2013, hedge funds avoided billions of dollars in taxes by using basket options.", "The Internal Revenue Service began investigating Renaissance Technologies in 2009, and Levin criticized the IRS for taking six years to investigate the company.", "Using basket options Renaissance avoided \"more than $6 billion in taxes over more than a decade\".A dozen other hedge funds along with Renaissance Technologies used Deutsche Bank's and Barclays' basket options.", "Renaissance argued that basket options were \"extremely important because they gave the hedge fund the ability to increase its returns by borrowing more and to protect against model and programming failures\".", "In July 2015, the United States Internal Revenue claimed hedge funds used basket options \"to bypass taxes on short-term trades\".", "These basket options will now be labeled as listed transactions that must be declared on tax returns, and a failure to do would result in a penalty.===Investment manager locations===In contrast to the funds themselves, investment managers are primarily located onshore.", "The United States remains the largest center of investment with US-based funds managing around 70% of global assets at the end of 2011.As of April 2012, there were approximately 3,990 investment advisers managing one or more private hedge funds registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission.", "New York City and the Gold Coast area of Connecticut are the leading locations for US hedge fund managers.London was Europe's leading center for hedge fund managers, but since the Brexit referendum some formerly London-based hedge funds have relocated to other European financial centers such as Frankfurt, Luxembourg, Paris, and Dublin, while some other hedge funds have moved their European head offices back to New York City.", "Before Brexit, according to EuroHedge data, around 800 funds located in the UK had managed 85% of European-based hedge fund assets in 2011.Interest in hedge funds in Asia has increased significantly since 2003, especially in Japan, Hong Kong, and Singapore.", "After Brexit, Europe and the US remain the leading locations for the management of Asian hedge fund assets.===Legal entity===Hedge fund legal structures vary depending on location and the investor(s).", "US hedge funds aimed at US-based, taxable investors are generally structured as limited partnerships or limited liability companies.", "Limited partnerships and other flow-through taxation structures assure that investors in hedge funds are not subject to both entity-level and personal-level taxation.", "A hedge fund structured as a limited partnership must have a general partner.", "The general partner may be an individual or a corporation.", "The general partner serves as the manager of the limited partnership, and has unlimited liability.", "The limited partners serve as the fund's investors, and have no responsibility for management or investment decisions.", "Their liability is limited to the amount of money they invest for partnership interests.", "As an alternative to a limited partnership arrangement, U.S. domestic hedge funds may be structured as limited liability companies, with members acting as corporate shareholders and enjoying protection from individual liability.By contrast, offshore corporate funds are usually used for non-US investors, and when they are domiciled in an applicable offshore tax haven, no entity-level tax is imposed.", "Many managers of offshore funds permit the participation of tax-exempt US investors, such as pensions funds, institutional endowments, and charitable trusts.", "As an alternative legal structure, offshore funds may be formed as an open-ended unit trust using an unincorporated mutual fund structure.", "Japanese investors prefer to invest in unit trusts, such as those available in the Cayman Islands.The investment manager who organizes the hedge fund may retain an interest in the fund, either as the general partner of a limited partnership or as the holder of \"founder shares\" in a corporate fund.", "For offshore funds structured as corporate entities, the fund may appoint a board of directors.", "The board's primary role is to provide a layer of oversight while representing the interests of the shareholders.", "However, in practice board members may lack sufficient expertise to be effective in performing those duties.", "The board may include both affiliated directors who are employees of the fund and independent directors whose relationship to the fund is limited.===Types of funds===Open-ended hedge funds continue to issue shares to new investors and allow periodic withdrawals at the net asset value (\"NAV\") for each share.", "Closed-ended hedge funds issue a limited number of tradeable shares at inception.", "Shares of Listed hedges funds are traded on stock exchanges, such as the Irish Stock Exchange, and may be purchased by non-accredited investors.===Side pockets===A side pocket is a mechanism whereby a fund compartmentalizes assets that are relatively illiquid or difficult to value reliably.", "When an investment is side-pocketed, its value is calculated separately from the value of the fund's main portfolio.", "Because side pockets are used to hold illiquid investments, investors do not have the standard redemption rights with respect to the side pocket investment that they do with respect to the fund's main portfolio.", "Profits or losses from the investment are allocated on a ''pro rata'' basis only to those who are investors at the time the investment is placed into the side pocket and are not shared with new investors.", "Funds typically carry side pocket assets \"at cost\" for purposes of calculating management fees and reporting net asset values.", "This allows fund managers to avoid attempting a valuation of the underlying investments, which may not always have a readily available market value.Side pockets were widely used by hedge funds during the financial crisis of 2007–2008 amidst a flood of withdrawal requests.", "Side pockets allowed fund managers to lay away illiquid securities until market liquidity improved, a move that could reduce losses.", "However, as the practice restricts investors' ability to redeem their investments it is often unpopular and many have alleged that it has been abused or applied unfairly.", "The SEC also has expressed concern about aggressive use of side pockets and has sanctioned certain fund managers for inappropriate use of them." ], [ "Regulation", "Hedge funds must abide by the national, federal, and state regulatory laws in their respective locations.", "The U.S. regulations and restrictions that apply to hedge funds differ from those that apply to its mutual funds.", "Mutual funds, unlike hedge funds and other private funds, are subject to the Investment Company Act of 1940, which is a highly detailed and extensive regulatory regime.", "According to a report by the International Organization of Securities Commissions, the most common form of regulation pertains to restrictions on financial advisers and hedge fund managers in an effort to minimize client fraud.", "On the other hand, U.S. hedge funds are exempt from many of the standard registration and reporting requirements because they only accept accredited investors.", "In 2010, regulations were enacted in the US and European Union which introduced additional hedge fund reporting requirements.", "These included the U.S.'s Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform Act and European Alternative Investment Fund Managers Directive.In 2007, in an effort to engage in self-regulation, 14 leading hedge fund managers developed a voluntary set of international standards in best practice and known as the ''Hedge Fund Standards'' they were designed to create a \"framework of transparency, integrity and good governance\" in the hedge fund industry.", "The Hedge Fund Standards Board was set up to prompt and maintain these standards going forward, and by 2016 it had approximately 200 hedge fund managers and institutional investors with a value of US$3tn investment endorsing the standards.", "The Managed Funds Association is a US-based trade association, while the Alternative Investment Management Association is the primarily European counterpart.===United States===Hedge funds within the US are subject to regulatory, reporting, and record-keeping requirements.", "Many hedge funds also fall under the jurisdiction of the Commodity Futures Trading Commission, and are subject to rules and provisions of the 1922 Commodity Exchange Act, which prohibits fraud and manipulation.", "The Securities Act of 1933 required companies to file a registration statement with the SEC to comply with its private placement rules before offering their securities to the public, and most traditional hedge funds in the United States are offered effectively as private placement offerings.", "The Securities Exchange Act of 1934 required a fund with more than 499 investors to register with the SEC.", "The Investment Advisers Act of 1940 contained anti-fraud provisions that regulated hedge fund managers and advisers, created limits for the number and types of investors, and prohibited public offerings.", "The Act also exempted hedge funds from mandatory registration with the SEC when selling to accredited investors with a minimum of US$5 million in investment assets.", "Companies and institutional investors with at least US$25 million in investment assets also qualified.In December 2004, the SEC began requiring hedge fund advisers, managing more than US$25 million and with more than 14 investors, to register with the SEC under the Investment Advisers Act.", "The SEC stated that it was adopting a \"risk-based approach\" to monitoring hedge funds as part of its evolving regulatory regime for the burgeoning industry.", "The new rule was controversial, with two Commissioners dissenting, and was later challenged in court by a hedge fund manager.", "In June 2006, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia overturned the rule and sent it back to the agency to be reviewed.", "In response to the court decision, in 2007 the SEC adopted Rule 206(4)-8, which unlike the earlier-challenged rule, \"does not impose additional filing, reporting or disclosure obligations\" but does potentially increase \"the risk of enforcement action\" for negligent or fraudulent activity.", "Hedge fund managers with at least US$100 million in assets under management are required to file publicly quarterly reports disclosing ownership of registered equity securities and are subject to public disclosure if they own more than 5% of the class of any registered equity security.", "Registered advisers must report their business practices and disciplinary history to the SEC and to their investors.", "They are required to have written compliance policies, a chief compliance officer, and their records and practices may be examined by the SEC.The U.S.'s Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform Act was passed in July 2010 and requires SEC registration of advisers who manage private funds with more than US$150 million in assets.", "Registered managers must file Form ADV with the SEC, as well as information regarding their assets under management and trading positions.", "Previously, advisers with fewer than 15 clients were exempt, although many hedge fund advisers voluntarily registered with the SEC to satisfy institutional investors.", "Under Dodd-Frank, investment advisers with less than US$100 million in assets under management became subject to state regulation.", "This increased the number of hedge funds under state supervision.", "Overseas advisers who managed more than US$25 million were also required to register with the SEC.", "The Act requires hedge funds to provide information about their trades and portfolios to regulators including the newly created Financial Stability Oversight Council.", "In this regard, most hedge funds and other private funds, including private-equity funds, must file Form PF with the SEC, which is an extensive reporting form with substantial data on the funds' activities and positions.", "Under the \"Volcker Rule\", regulators are also required to implement regulations for banks, their affiliates, and holding companies to limit their relationships with hedge funds and to prohibit these organizations from proprietary trading, and to limit their investment in, and sponsorship of, hedge funds.===Europe===Within the European Union (EU), hedge funds are primarily regulated through their managers.", "In the United Kingdom, where 80% of Europe's hedge funds are based, hedge fund managers are required to be authorised and regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA).", "Each country has its own specific restrictions on hedge fund activities, including controls on use of derivatives in Portugal, and limits on leverage in France.In the EU, managers are subject to the EU's Directive on Alternative Investment Fund Managers (AIFMD).", "According to the EU, the aim of the directive is to provide greater monitoring and control of alternative investment funds.", "AIFMD requires all EU hedge fund managers to register with national regulatory authorities and to disclose more information, on a more frequent basis.", "It also directs hedge fund managers to hold larger amounts of capital.", "AIFMD also introduced a \"passport\" for hedge funds authorised in one EU country to operate throughout the EU.", "The scope of AIFMD is broad and encompasses managers located within the EU as well as non-EU managers that market their funds to European investors.", "An aspect of AIFMD which challenges established practices in the hedge funds sector is the potential restriction of remuneration through bonus deferrals and clawback provisions.===Offshore===Some hedge funds are established in offshore centres, such as the Cayman Islands, Dublin, Luxembourg, Singapore the British Virgin Islands, and Bermuda, which have different regulations concerning non-accredited investors, client confidentiality, and fund manager independence.=== South Africa ===In South Africa, investment fund managers must be approved by, and register with, the Financial Services Board (FSB)." ], [ "Performance", "===Measurement===Performance statistics for individual hedge funds are difficult to obtain, as the funds have historically not been required to report their performance to a central repository, and restrictions against public offerings and advertisement have led many managers to refuse to provide performance information publicly.", "However, summaries of individual hedge fund performance are occasionally available in industry journals and databases.One estimate is that the average hedge fund returned 11.4% per year, representing a 6.7% return above overall market performance before fees, based on performance data from 8,400 hedge funds.", "Another estimate is that between January 2000 and December 2009 hedge funds outperformed other investments and were substantially less volatile, with stocks falling an average of 2.62% per year over the decade and hedge funds rising an average of 6.54% per year; this was an unusually volatile period with both the 2001-2002 dot-com bubble and a recession beginning mid 2007.However, more recent data show that hedge fund performance declined and underperformed the market from about 2009 to 2016.Hedge funds performance is measured by comparing their returns to an estimate of their risk.", "Common measures are the Sharpe ratio, Treynor measure and Jensen's alpha.", "These measures work best when returns follow normal distributions without autocorrelation, and these assumptions are often not met in practice.New performance measures have been introduced that attempt to address some of theoretical concerns with traditional indicators, including: modified Sharpe ratios; the Omega ratio introduced by Keating and Shadwick in 2002; Alternative Investments Risk Adjusted Performance (AIRAP) published by Sharma in 2004; and Kappa developed by Kaplan and Knowles in 2004.===Sector-size effect===There is a debate over whether alpha (the manager's skill element in performance) has been diluted by the expansion of the hedge fund industry.", "Two reasons are given.", "First, the increase in traded volume may have been reducing the market anomalies that are a source of hedge fund performance.", "Second, the remuneration model is attracting more managers, which may dilute the talent available in the industry.===Hedge fund indices===Indices play a central and unambiguous role in traditional asset markets, where they are widely accepted as representative of their underlying portfolios.", "Equity and debt index fund products provide investable access to most developed markets in these asset classes.Hedge fund indices are more problematic.", "The typical hedge fund is not traded on exchange, will accept investments only at the discretion of the manager, and does not have an obligation to publish returns.", "Despite these challenges, Non-investable, Investable, and Clone indices have been developed.====Non-investable indices====Non-investable indices are indicative in nature and aim to represent the performance of some database of hedge funds using some measure such as mean, median, or weighted mean from a hedge fund database.", "The databases have diverse selection criteria and methods of construction, and no single database captures all funds.", "This leads to significant differences in reported performance between different indices.Although they aim to be representative, non-investable indices suffer from a lengthy and largely unavoidable list of biases.", "Funds' participation in a database is voluntary, leading to self-selection bias because those funds that choose to report may not be typical of funds as a whole.", "For example, some do not report because of poor results or because they have already reached their target size and do not wish to raise further money.The short lifetimes of many hedge funds mean that there are many new entrants and many departures each year, which raises the problem of survivorship bias.", "If we examine only funds that have survived to the present, we will overestimate past returns because many of the worst-performing funds have not survived, and the observed association between fund youth and fund performance suggests that this bias may be substantial.When a fund is added to a database for the first time, all or part of its historical data is recorded ex-post in the database.", "It is likely that funds only publish their results when they are favorable, so that the average performances displayed by the funds during their incubation period are inflated.", "This is known as \"instant history bias\" or \"backfill bias\".====Investable indices====Investable indices are an attempt to reduce these problems by ensuring that the return of the index is available to shareholders.", "To create an investable index, the index provider selects funds and develops structured products or derivative instruments that deliver the performance of the index.", "When investors buy these products the index provider makes the investments in the underlying funds, making an investable index similar in some ways to a fund of hedge funds portfolio.To make the index investable, hedge funds must agree to accept investments on the terms given by the constructor.", "To make the index liquid, these terms must include provisions for redemptions that some managers may consider too onerous to be acceptable.", "This means that investable indices do not represent the total universe of hedge funds.", "Most seriously, they under-represent more successful managers, who typically refuse to accept such investment protocols.====Hedge fund replication====The most recent addition to the field approaches the problem in a different manner.", "Instead of reflecting the performance of actual hedge funds, they take a statistical approach to the analysis of historic hedge fund returns and use this to construct a model of how hedge fund returns respond to the movements of various investable financial assets.", "This model is then used to construct an investable portfolio of those assets.", "This makes the index investable, and in principle, they can be as representative as the hedge fund database from which they were constructed.", "However, these clone indices rely on a statistical modelling process.", "Such indices have too short a history to state whether this approach will be considered successful.=== Closures ===In March 2017, HFR – a hedge fund research data and service provider – reported that there were more hedge-fund closures in 2016 than during the 2009 recession.", "According to the report, several large public pension funds pulled their investments in hedge funds, because the funds' subpar performance as a group did not merit the high fees they charged.Despite the hedge fund industry topping $3 trillion for the first time ever in 2016, the number of new hedge funds launched fell short of levels before the financial crisis of 2007–2008.There were 729 hedge fund launches in 2016, fewer than the 784 opened in 2009, and dramatically fewer than the 968 launches in 2015." ], [ "Debates and controversies", "===Systemic risk===Systemic risk refers to the risk of instability across the entire financial system, as opposed to within a single company.", "Such risk may arise following a destabilizing event or events affecting a group of financial institutions linked through investment activity.", "Organizations such as the European Central Bank have charged that hedge funds pose systemic risks to the financial sector, and following the failure of hedge fund Long-Term Capital Management (LTCM) in 1998 there was widespread concern about the potential for systemic risk if a hedge fund failure led to the failure of its counterparties.", "(As it happens, no financial assistance was provided to LTCM by the US Federal Reserve, so there was no direct cost to US taxpayers, but a large bailout had to be mounted by a number of financial institutions.", ")However, these claims are widely disputed by the financial industry, who typically regard hedge funds as \"small enough to fail\", since most are relatively small in terms of the assets they manage and operate with low leverage, thereby limiting the potential harm to the economic system should one of them fail.", "Formal analysis of hedge fund leverage before and during the financial crisis of 2007–2008 suggests that hedge fund leverage is both fairly modest and counter-cyclical to the market leverage of investment banks and the larger financial sector.", "Hedge fund leverage decreased prior to the financial crisis, even while the leverage of other financial intermediaries continued to increase.", "Hedge funds fail regularly, and numerous hedge funds failed during the financial crisis.", "In testimony to the US House Financial Services Committee in 2009, Ben Bernanke, the Federal Reserve Board Chairman said he \"would not think that any hedge fund or private-equity fund would become a systemically critical firm individually\".This does leave the possibility that hedge funds collectively might contribute to systemic risk if they exhibit herd or self-coordinating behavior, perhaps because many hedge funds make losses in similar trades.", "This coupled with the extensive use of leverage could lead to forced liquidations in a crisis.Hedge funds are also closely connected to their prime brokers, typically investment banks, which could contribute to their instability in a crisis, though this works both ways and failing counterparty banks can freeze hedge funds assets, as Lehman brothers did in 2008.An August 2012 survey by the Financial Services Authority concluded that risks were limited and had reduced as a result, ''inter alia'', of larger margins being required by counterparty banks, but might change rapidly according to market conditions.", "In stressed market conditions, investors might suddenly withdraw large sums, resulting in forced asset sales.", "This might cause liquidity and pricing problems if it occurred across a number of funds or in one large highly leveraged fund.===Transparency===Hedge funds are structured to avoid most direct regulation (although their managers may be regulated), and are not required to publicly disclose their investment activities, except to the extent that investors generally are subject to disclosure requirements.", "This is in contrast to a regulated mutual fund or exchange-traded fund, which will typically have to meet regulatory requirements for disclosure.", "An investor in a hedge fund usually has direct access to the investment adviser of the fund, and may enjoy more personalized reporting than investors in retail investment funds.", "This may include detailed discussions of risks assumed and significant positions.", "However, this high level of disclosure is not available to non-investors, contributing to hedge funds' reputation for secrecy, while some hedge funds have very limited transparency even to investors.Funds may choose to report some information in the interest of recruiting additional investors.", "Much of the data available in consolidated databases is self-reported and unverified.", "A study was done on two major databases containing hedge fund data.", "The study noted that 465 common funds had significant differences in reported information (''e.g.", "'', returns, inception date, net assets value, incentive fee, management fee, investment styles, etc.)", "and that 5% of return numbers and 5% of NAV numbers were dramatically different.", "With these limitations, investors have to do their own research, which may cost on the scale of US$50,000 for a fund that is not well-established.A lack of verification of financial documents by investors or by independent auditors has, in some cases, assisted in fraud.", "In the mid-2000s, Kirk Wright of International Management Associates was accused of mail fraud and other securities violations which allegedly defrauded clients of close to US$180 million.", "In December 2008, Bernard Madoff was arrested for running a US$50 billion Ponzi scheme that closely resembled a hedge fund and was incorrectly described as one.", "Several feeder hedge funds, of which the largest was Fairfield Sentry, channeled money to it.", "Following the Madoff case, the SEC adopted reforms in December 2009 that subjected hedge funds to an audit requirement.The process of matching hedge funds to investors has traditionally been fairly opaque, with investments often driven by personal connections or recommendations of portfolio managers.", "Many funds disclose their holdings, strategy, and historic performance relative to market indices, giving investors some idea of how their money is being allocated, although individual holdings are often not disclosed.", "Investors are often drawn to hedge funds by the possibility of realizing significant returns, or hedging against volatility in the market.", "The complexity and fees associated with hedge funds are causing some to exit the market – CalPERS, the largest pension fund in the US, announced plans to completely divest from hedge funds in 2014.Some services are attempting to improve matching between hedge funds and investors: HedgeZ is designed to allow investors to easily search and sort through funds; iMatchative aims to match investors to funds through algorithms that factor in an investor's goals and behavioral profile, in hopes of helping funds and investors understand the how their perceptions and motivations drive investment decisions.===Links with analysts===In June 2006, prompted by a letter from Gary J. Aguirre, the U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee began an investigation into the links between hedge funds and independent analysts.", "Aguirre was fired from his job with the SEC when, as lead investigator of insider trading allegations against Pequot Capital Management, he tried to interview John Mack, then being considered for chief executive officer at Morgan Stanley.", "The Judiciary Committee and the US Senate Finance Committee issued a scathing report in 2007, which found that Aguirre had been illegally fired in reprisal for his pursuit of Mack, and in 2009 the SEC was forced to re-open its case against Pequot.", "Pequot settled with the SEC for US$28 million, and Arthur J. Samberg, chief investment officer of Pequot, was barred from working as an investment advisor.", "Pequot closed its doors under the pressure of investigations.The systemic practice of hedge funds submitting periodic electronic questionnaires to stock analysts as a part of market research was reported by ''The New York Times'' in July 2012.According to the report, one motivation for the questionnaires was to obtain subjective information not available to the public and possible early notice of trading recommendations that could produce short-term market movements.===Value in a mean/variance efficient portfolio===According to modern portfolio theory, rational investors will seek to hold portfolios that are mean/variance efficient (that is, portfolios that offer the highest level of return per unit of risk).", "One of the attractive features of hedge funds (in particular market neutral and similar funds) is that they sometimes have a modest correlation with traditional assets such as equities.", "This means that hedge funds have a potentially quite valuable role in investment portfolios as diversifiers, reducing overall portfolio risk.However, there are at least three reasons why one might not wish to allocate a high proportion of assets into hedge funds.", "These reasons are:* Hedge funds are highly individual, making it hard to estimate the likely returns or risks.", "* Hedge funds' correlation with other assets tends to rise during stressful market events, making them much less useful for diversification in bad times than they may appear in good times.", "* Hedge fund returns are reduced considerably by the high fees that are typically charged.Several studies have suggested that hedge funds are sufficiently diversifying to merit inclusion in investor portfolios, but this is disputed for example by Mark Kritzman who performed a mean-variance optimization calculation on an opportunity set that consisted of a stock index fund, a bond index fund, and ten hypothetical hedge funds.", "The optimizer found that a mean-variance efficient portfolio did not contain any allocation to hedge funds, largely because of the impact of performance fees.", "To demonstrate this, Kritzman repeated the optimization using an assumption that the hedge funds took no performance fees.", "The result from this second optimization was an allocation of 74% to hedge funds.Hedge funds tend to perform poorly during equity bear markets, just when an investor needs part of their portfolio to add value.", "For example, in January–September 2008, the Credit Suisse/Tremont Hedge Fund Index returned -9.87%.", "According to the same index series, even \"dedicated short bias\" funds returned −6.08% in September 2008, when Lehman Brothers collapsed." ], [ "See also", "* Activist shareholder* Alternative investment* Naked Capitalism* Corporate governance* Fund governance* Investment banking* List of hedge funds* Vulture fund" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "Thomas P. Lemke, Gerald T. Lins, Kathryn L. Hoenig & Patricia S. Rube, ''Hedge Funds and Other Private Funds: Regulation and Compliance'' (Thomson West 2014 ed.).", "Thomas P. Lemke & Gerald T. Lins, ''Regulation of Investment Advisers'' (Thomson West 2014 ed.).", "Thomas P. Lemke, Gerald T. Lins & A. Thomas Smith III, ''Regulation of Investment Companies'' (Matthew Bender 2014 ed.).", "Marcel Kahan & Edward B.", "Rock, 'Hedge Funds in Corporate Governance and Corporate Control' (2007) 155 University of Pennsylvania Law Review 1021Makrem Boumlouka, 'Regulation and Transparency in US OTC Derivative Markets', ''Original Thoughts Series #1'', August 2010, Hedge Fund Society Hedge Fund Society***" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hydrocodone" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hydrocodone''', also known as '''dihydrocodeinone''', is a semisynthetic opioid used to treat pain and as a cough suppressant.", "It is taken by mouth.", "Typically it is dispensed as the combination acetaminophen/hydrocodone or ibuprofen/hydrocodone for pain severe enough to require an opioid and in combination with homatropine methylbromide to relieve cough.", "It is also available by itself in a long-acting form under the brand name Zohydro ER, among others, to treat severe pain of a prolonged duration.", "Hydrocodone is a controlled drug: in the United States a Schedule II Controlled Substance." ], [ "Side effects and mechanisms", "Common side effects include dizziness, sleepiness, nausea, and constipation.", "Serious side effects may include low blood pressure, seizures, QT prolongation, respiratory depression, and serotonin syndrome.", "Rapidly decreasing the dose may result in opioid withdrawal.", "Use during pregnancy or breastfeeding is generally not recommended.", "Hydrocodone is believed to work by activating opioid receptors, mainly in the brain and spinal cord.", "Hydrocodone 10 mg is equivalent to about 10 mg of morphine by mouth." ], [ "History and culture", "Hydrocodone was patented in 1923, while the long-acting formulation was approved for medical use in the United States in 2013.It is most commonly prescribed in the United States, which consumed 99% of the worldwide supply as of 2010.In 2018, it was the 402nd most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 400,000 prescriptions.", "Hydrocodone is a semisynthetic opioid, converted from codeine or less often from thebaine.", "Production using genetically engineered yeasts has been developed but is not used commercially." ], [ "Medical uses", "Hydrocodone is used to treat moderate to severe pain.", "In liquid formulations, it is used to treat cough.", "In one study comparing the potency of hydrocodone to that of oxycodone, it was found that it took 50% more hydrocodone to achieve the same degree of miosis (pupillary contraction).", "The investigators interpreted this to mean that oxycodone is about 50% more potent than hydrocodone.However, in a study of emergency department patients with fractures, it was found that an equal amount of either drug provided about the same degree of pain relief, indicating that there is little practical difference between them when used for that purpose.", "Some references state that the analgesic action of hydrocodone begins in 20–30 minutes and lasts about 4–8 hours.", "The manufacturer's information says onset of action is about 10-30 minutes and duration is about 4-6 hours.", "Recommended dosing interval is 4–6 hours.", "Hydrocodone reaches peak serum levels after 1.3 hours.===Available forms===Hydrocodone is available in a variety of formulations for oral administration:* The original oral form of hydrocodone alone, Dicodid, as immediate-release 5- and 10-mg tablets is available for prescription in Continental Europe per national drug control and prescription laws and Title 76 of the Schengen Treaty, but dihydrocodeine has been more widely used for the same indications since the beginning in the early 1920s, with hydrocodone being regulated the same way as morphine in the German Betäubungsmittelgesetz, the similarly named law in Switzerland and the Austrian Suchtmittelgesetz, whereas dihydrocodeine is regulated like codeine.", "For a number of decades, the liquid hydrocodone products available have been cough medicines.", "* Hydrocodone plus homatropine (Hycodan) in the form of small tablets for coughing and especially neuropathic moderate pain (the homatropine, an anticholinergic, is useful in both of those cases and is a deterrent to intentional overdose) was more widely used than Dicodid and was labelled as a cough medicine in the United States whilst Vicodin and similar drugs were the choices for analgesia.", "* Extended-release hydrocodone in a time-release syrup also containing chlorphenamine/chlorpheniramine is a cough medicine called Tussionex in North America.", "In Europe, similar time-release syrups containing codeine (numerous), dihydrocodeine (Paracodin Retard Hustensaft), nicocodeine (Tusscodin), thebacon, acetyldihydrocodeine, dionine, and nicodicodeine are used instead.", "* Immediate-release hydrocodone with paracetamol (acetaminophen) (Vicodin, Lortab, Lorcet, Maxidone, Norco, Zydone)* Immediate-release hydrocodone with ibuprofen (Vicoprofen, Ibudone, Reprexain)* Immediate-release hydrocodone with aspirin (Alor 5/500, Azdone, Damason-P, Lortab ASA, Panasal 5/500)* Controlled-release hydrocodone (Hysingla ER by Purdue Pharma, Zohydro ER)Hydrocodone is not available in parenteral or any other non-oral forms." ], [ "Side effects", "Common side effects of hydrocodone are nausea, vomiting, constipation, drowsiness, dizziness, lightheadedness, anxiety, abnormally happy or sad mood, dry throat, difficulty urinating, rash, itching, and contraction of the pupils.", "Serious side effects include slowed or irregular breathing and chest tightness.Several cases of progressive bilateral hearing loss unresponsive to steroid therapy have been described as an infrequent adverse reaction to hydrocodone/paracetamol misuse.", "This adverse effect has been considered by some to be due to the ototoxicity of hydrocodone.", "Other researchers have suggested that paracetamol is the primary agent responsible for the ototoxicity.The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) assigns the drug to pregnancy category C, meaning that no adequate and well-controlled studies in humans have been conducted.", "A newborn of a mother taking opioid medications regularly prior to the birth will be physically dependent.", "The baby may also exhibit respiratory depression if the opioid dose was high.", "An epidemiological study indicated that opioid treatment during early pregnancy results in increased risk of various birth defects.Symptoms of hydrocodone overdose include narrowed or widened pupils; slow, shallow, or stopped breathing; slowed or stopped heartbeat; cold, clammy, or blue skin; excessive sleepiness; loss of consciousness; seizures; or death.Hydrocodone can be habit forming, causing physical and psychological dependence.", "Its abuse liability is similar to morphine and less than oxycodone." ], [ "Interactions", "Hydrocodone is metabolized by the cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP2D6 and CYP3A4, and inhibitors and inducers of these enzymes can modify hydrocodone exposure.", "One study found that combination of paroxetine, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) and strong CYP2D6 inhibitor, with once-daily extended-release hydrocodone, did not modify exposure to hydrocodone or the incidence of adverse effects.", "These findings suggest that hydrocodone can be coadministered with CYP2D6 inhibitors without dosage modification.", "Conversely, combination of hydrocodone/acetaminophen with the antiviral regimen of ombitasvir, paritaprevir, ritonavir, and dasabuvir for treatment of hepatitis C increased peak concentrations of hydrocodone by 27%, total exposure by 90%, and elimination half-life from 5.1hours to 8.0hours.", "Ritonavir is a strong CYP3A4 inhibitor as well as inducer of CYP3A and other enzymes, and the other antivirals are known to inhibit drug transporters like organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP) 1B1 and 1B3, P-glycoprotein, and breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP).", "The changes in hydrocodone levels are consistent with CYP3A4 inhibition by ritonavir.", "Based on these findings, a 50% lower dose of hydrocodone and closer clinical monitoring was recommended when hydrocodone is used in combination with this antiviral regimen.People consuming alcohol, other opioids, anticholinergic antihistamines, antipsychotics, anxiolytics, or other central nervous system (CNS) depressants together with hydrocodone may exhibit an additive CNS depression.", "Hydrocodone taken concomitantly with serotonergic medications like SSRI antidepressants may increase the risk of serotonin syndrome." ], [ "Pharmacology", "===Pharmacodynamics===+ Hydrocodone (and metabolite) at opioid receptors Compound Affinities () Ratio Ref MOR:DOR:KOR Hydrocodone 11.1 nM 962 nM 501 nM 1:87:45 Hydromorphone 0.47 nM 18.5 nM 24.9 nM 1:39:53 + Equivalent analgesia doses Compound Route Dose Codeine 200 mg Hydrocodone 20–30 mg Hydromorphone 7.5 mg Hydromorphone 1.5 mg Morphine 30 mg Morphine 10 mg Oxycodone 20 mg Oxycodone 10 mg Oxymorphone 10 mg Oxymorphone 1 mgHydrocodone is a highly selective full agonist of the μ-opioid receptor (MOR).", "This is the main biological target of the endogenous opioid neuropeptide β-endorphin.", "Hydrocodone has low affinity for the δ-opioid receptor (DOR) and the κ-opioid receptor (KOR), where it is an agonist similarly.Studies have shown hydrocodone is stronger than codeine but only one-tenth as potent as morphine at binding to receptors and reported to be only 59% as potent as morphine in analgesic properties.", "However, in tests conducted on rhesus monkeys, the analgesic potency of hydrocodone was actually higher than morphine.", "Oral hydrocodone has a mean equivalent daily dosage (MEDD) factor of 0.4, meaning that 1 mg of hydrocodone is equivalent to 0.4 mg of intravenous morphine.", "However, because of morphine's low oral bioavailability, there is a 1:1 correspondence between orally administered morphine and orally administered hydrocodone.===Pharmacokinetics=======Absorption====Hydrocodone is only pharmaceutically available as an oral medication.", "It is well-absorbed, but the oral bioavailability of hydrocodone is only approximately 25%.", "The onset of action of hydrocodone via this route is 10 to 20 minutes, with a peak effect (Tmax) occurring at 30 to 60 minutes, and it has a duration of 4 to 8 hours.", "The FDA label for immediate-release hydrocodone with acetaminophen does not include any information on the influence of food on its absorption or other pharmacokinetics.", "Conversely, coadministration with a high-fat meal increases peak concentrations of different formulations of extended-release hydrocodone by 14 to 54%, whereas area-under-the-curve levels are not notably affected.====Distribution====The volume of distribution of hydrocodone is 3.3 to 4.7 L/kg.", "The plasma protein binding of hydrocodone is 20 to 50%.====Metabolism====In the liver, hydrocodone is transformed into several metabolites, including norhydrocodone, hydromorphone, 6α-hydrocodol (dihydrocodeine), and 6β-hydrocodol.", "6α- and 6β-hydromorphol are also formed, and the metabolites of hydrocodone are conjugated (via glucuronidation).", "Hydrocodone has a terminal half-life that averages 3.8 hours (range 3.3–4.4 hours).", "The hepatic cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP2D6 converts hydrocodone into hydromorphone, a more potent opioid (5-fold higher binding affinity to the MOR).", "However, extensive and poor cytochrome 450 CYP2D6 metabolizers had similar physiological and subjective responses to hydrocodone, and CYP2D6 inhibitor quinidine did not change the responses of extensive metabolizers, suggesting that inhibition of CYP2D6 metabolism of hydrocodone has no practical importance.", "Ultra-rapid CYP2D6 metabolizers (1–2% of the population) may have an increased response to hydrocodone; however, hydrocodone metabolism in this population has not been studied.Norhydrocodone, the major metabolite of hydrocodone, is predominantly formed by CYP3A4-catalyzed oxidation.", "In contrast to hydromorphone, it is described as inactive.", "However, norhydrocodone is actually a MOR agonist with similar potency to hydrocodone, but has been found to produce only minimal analgesia when administered peripherally to animals (likely due to poor blood–brain barrier and thus central nervous system penetration).", "Inhibition of CYP3A4 in a child who was, in addition, a poor CYP2D6 metabolizer, resulted in a fatal overdose of hydrocodone.", "Approximately 40% of hydrocodone metabolism is attributed to non-cytochrome P450-catalyzed reactions.====Elimination====Hydrocodone is excreted in urine, mainly in the form of conjugates." ], [ "Chemistry", "===Detection in body fluids===Hydrocodone concentrations are measured in blood, plasma, and urine to seek evidence of misuse, to confirm diagnoses of poisoning, and to assist in investigations into deaths.", "Many commercial opiate screening tests react indiscriminately with hydrocodone, other opiates, and their metabolites, but chromatographic techniques can easily distinguish hydrocodone uniquely.", "Blood and plasma hydrocodone concentrations typically fall into the 5–30 µg/L range among people taking the drug therapeutically, 100–200 µg/L among recreational users, and 100–1,600 µg/L in cases of acute, fatal overdosage.", "Co-administration of the drug with food or alcohol can very significantly increase the resulting plasma hydrocodone concentrations that are subsequently achieved.===Synthesis===Hydrocodone is most commonly synthesized from thebaine, a constituent of opium latex from the dried poppy plant.", "Once thebaine is obtained, the reaction undergoes hydrogenation using a palladium catalyst.=== Structure ===There are three important structures in hydrocodone: the amine group, which binds to the tertiary nitrogen binding site in the central nervous system's opioid receptor, the hydroxy group that binds to the anionic binding side, and the phenyl group which binds to the phenolic binding site.", "This triggers a G protein activation and subsequent release of dopamine." ], [ "History", "Hydrocodone was first synthesized in Germany in 1920 by Carl Mannich and Helene Löwenheim.", "It was approved by the Food and Drug Administration on 23 March 1943 for sale in the United States and approved by Health Canada for sale in Canada under the brand name Hycodan.Hydrocodone was first marketed by Knoll as Dicodid, starting in February 1924 in Germany.", "This name is analogous to other products the company introduced or otherwise marketed: Dilaudid (hydromorphone, 1926), Dinarkon (oxycodone, 1917), Dihydrin (dihydrocodeine, 1911), and Dimorphan (dihydromorphine).", "Paramorfan is the trade name of dihydromorphine from another manufacturer, as is Paracodin, for dihydrocodeine.The name Dicodid was registered in the United States and appears without a monograph as late as 1978 in the Physicians' Desk Reference; Dicodid may have been marketed to one extent or another in North America in the 1920s and early 1930s.", "The drug was pure hydrocodone in small 5 and 10 mg tablets, physically similar to the Dilaudid tablets.", "It is no longer manufactured by Knoll in Germany, nor is a generic available.", "Hydrocodone was never as common in Europe as it is in North America—dihydrocodeine is used for its spectrum of indications.", "Germany was the number two consumer of hydrocodone until the manufacture of the drug was discontinued there.", "Now, the world outside the United States accounts for less than 1% of annual consumption.", "It was listed as a ''Suchtgift'' under the German Betäubungsmittelgesetz and regulated like morphine.", "It became available in the Schengen Area of the European Union as of 1 January 2002 under Title 76 of the Schengen Treaty." ], [ "Society and culture", "===Formulations===Several common imprints for hydrocodone are M365, M366, M367.====Combination products====Hydrocodone and paracetamol (acetaminophen) 10-325 tablets (Mallinckrodt)Most hydrocodone formulations include a second analgesic, such as paracetamol (acetaminophen) or ibuprofen.", "Examples of hydrocodone combinations include Norco, Vicodin, Vicoprofen and Riboxen.===Legal status=======United States====The US government imposed tougher prescribing rules for hydrocodone in 2014, changing the drug from Schedule III to Schedule II.", "In 2011, hydrocodone products were involved in around 100,000 abuse-related emergency department visits in the United States, more than double the number in 2004." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hashish" ], [ "Introduction", "1.5 grams (1/16 oz) pressed hashish'''Hashish''' (, ()), commonly shortened to '''hash''', is an oleoresin made by compressing and processing parts of the cannabis plant, typically focusing on flowering buds (female flowers) containing the most trichomes.", "It is consumed as a psychoactive drug by smoking, typically in a pipe, bong, vaporizer or joint, or via oral ingestion.", "Hash has a long history of usage in countries such as Afghanistan, Morocco, Egypt, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Iran, and Lebanon.", "Hash consumption is also popular in Europe.", "In the United States, dried flowers or concentrates are more popular, though hash has seen a rise in popularity following changes in law.", "Like many recreational drugs, multiple synonyms and alternative names for hash exist, and vary greatly depending on the country and native language.Hash is a cannabis concentrate product composed of compressed or purified preparations of stalked resin glands, called trichomes, from the plant.", "It is defined by the 1961 UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (Schedule I and IV) as \"the separated resin, whether crude or purified, obtained from the cannabis plant\".", "The resin contains ingredients such as tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and other cannabinoids—but often in higher concentrations than the unsifted or unprocessed cannabis flower.", "Purities of confiscated hashish in Europe (2011) range between 3% and 15%.", "Between 2000 and 2005, the percentage of hashish in cannabis end product seizures was at 18%.", "With the strength of unprocessed cannabis flowers having increased greatly in recent years—with flowers containing upwards of 25% THC by weight—the strength of hashish produced today and in the future is likely to be far more potent than in these older records.The consistency and appearance of hash vary depending on the process and amount of leftover plant material (e.g.", "chlorophyll).", "It is typically solid, though its consistency ranges from brittle to malleable.", "It is most commonly light or dark brown in color, though may appear transparent, yellow, black, or red." ], [ "History", "Hashish has been consumed for many centuries, though there is no clear evidence as to its first appearance.", "North India and Nepal have a long social tradition in the production of hashish, known locally as ''charas''.The first attestation of the term \"hashish\" is in a pamphlet published in Cairo in 1123 CE, accusing Nizari Muslims of being \"hashish-eaters\".", "The cult of Nizari militants which emerged after the fall of the Fatimid Caliphate is commonly called the sect of the Assassins—a corruption of ''hashishin,'' Persian for \"hashish-smokers.\"", "The 13th-century jurist Ibn Taymiyyah prohibited the use of hashish; he mentioned that it was introduced to Levant with the Mongol invasion (throughout the 13th century).", "Smoking did not become common in the Old World until after the introduction of tobacco; until the 1500s, hashish was consumed as an edible in the Muslim world.In 1596, Dutchman Jan Huyghen van Linschoten spent three pages on \"Bangue\" (''bhang'') in his historic work documenting his journeys in the East.", "He particularly mentioned the Egyptian hashish.", "He said, \"Bangue is likewise much used in Turkie and Egypt, and is made in three sorts, having also three names.", "The first by the Egyptians is called Assis (Hashish (Arab.", ")), which is the poulder of Hemp, or of Hemp leaves, which is water made in paste or dough, they would eat five pieces, (each) as big as a Chestnut (or larger); This is used by the common people, because it is of a small price, and it is no wonder, that such vertue proceedeth from the Hempe, for that according to Galens opinion, Hempe excessively filleth the head.", "\"Hashish arrived in Europe from the East during the 18th century, and is first mentioned scientifically by Gmelin in 1777.The Napoleonic campaigns introduced French troops to hashish in Egypt and the first description of its useful stems was in 1830 by pharmacist and botanist Theodor Friedrich Ludwig Nees von Esenbeck.In 1839, O’Shaughnessy wrote a comprehensive study of Himalayan hemp, which was recognised by the European school of medicine and describes hashish as relief for cramps and causing the disappearance of certain symptoms from afflictions such as rabies, cholera, and tetanus.", "This led to high hopes in the medical community.", "In 1840, Louis Aubert-Roche reported his successful use of hashish against pestilence.", "Also psychiatric experiments with hashish were done at the same time with Jacques-Joseph Moreau being convinced that it is the supreme medicament for use in psychiatry.In the 19th century, hashish was embraced in some European literary circles.", "Most famously, the Club des Hashischins was a Parisian club dedicated to the consumption of hashish and other drugs; its members included writers Théophile Gautier, Dr. Moreau de Tours, Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas, Charles Baudelaire and Honoré de Balzac.", "Baudelaire later wrote the 1860 book ''Les paradis artificiels'', about the state of being under the influence of opium and hashish.", "At around the same time, American author Fitz Hugh Ludlow wrote the 1857 book ''The Hasheesh Eater'' about his youthful experiences, both positive and negative, with the drug.Hashish was also mentioned and used as an anaesthetic in Germany in 1869.It was imported in great quantities especially from India where it was called charas.", "However, there were also people who did not deem cannabis as harmless.", "Between 1880 and 1900 was the peak of the medicinal use, where hashish compounds were most commonplace in almost all European countries and the USA.", "Evidence of misuse at that time was practically non-existent (as opposed to widespread reports in Asia and Africa).", "Hashish played a significant role in the treatment of pain, migraine, dysmenorrhea, pertussis, asthma and insomnia in Europe and USA towards the end of the 19th century.", "Rare applications included stomach ache, depression, diarrhea, diminished appetite, pruritus, hemorrhage, Basedow syndrome and malaria.", "The use was later prohibited worldwide as the use as a medicine was made impossible by the 1961 UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.At the beginning of the 20th century, the majority of hashish in Europe came from Kashmir and other parts of India, Afghanistan, as well as Greece, Syria, Nepal, Lebanon, and Turkey.", "Larger markets developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s when most of the hashish was imported from Pakistan and Afghanistan.", "In Greece, Hashish was prevalent in the early decades of the 20th century, and although locally produced for hundreds of years prior, it reached its peak with the coming of two and a half million Greek refugees, expelled from Turkey following the disastrous 1919-21 war.", "Many of these refugees had habitually smoked hashish in Turkey, using waterpipes, (hookas) called \"arghilethes,\" and due to extreme poverty upon arriving in Greece, and living in overcrowded and poor refugee communities, many hashish dens, called \"tekethes\" sprung up in Greece's larger cities, the port city of Piraeus, and the northern city of Thessaloniki (where many refugees lived.)", "This gave rise to a substantial urban underclass and sub culture of hashish smokers called \"hasiklithes,\" and a musical genre \"rembetika\" (oriental sounding), \"urban blues\" played on the bouzouki, tzoura, and oriental instruments such as the baglama, outi (oud) and kanonaki (kanun) that spoke of life as a hashish user in the \"tekethes\", as well as about life as refugees, society's unfairness, lack of financial opportunities, prejudice against the refugees, and the deceit of lovers and others in the community.", "The \"tekethes\" were closed down in the 1930s by the Greek police and the \"rembetes\" were jailed and ostracized.", "In succeeding decades, there has been a strong 20+ year resurgence in Greece of \"rembetika\" music with the songs of the rembetes and hasiklithes being contuinually performed publicly by many including the younger generation, as a form of cultural heritage, and have gained respectability and popoularity for their frank expressions of that period, and Greek society in general.", "Due to disruptive conflicts in the regions, Morocco took over and was the sufficient exporter until lately.", "It is believed that massive hashish production for international trade originated in Morocco during the 1960s, where the cannabis plant was widely available.", "Before the coming of the first hippies from the Hippie Trail, only small pieces of Lebanese hashish were found in Morocco.However, since the 2000s there has been a dramatic shift in the market due to an increase of homegrown cannabis production.", "While Morocco held a quasi-monopoly on hashish in the 1990s with the 250g so-called \"soap bar\" blocks, which were of low quality, Afghanistan is now regarded as the biggest producer of higher quality hashish.", "Since then, hashish quality in Europe has increased while its prices have remained stable, with an exception of the COVID-19 pandemic, where the cannabis street prices surged due to various national lockdowns.Hashish remains in high demand in most of the world while quality continues to increase, due to many Moroccan and western farmers in Morocco and other hash producing countries using more advanced cultivation methods as well as cultivating further developed cannabis strains which increases yields greatly, as well as improving resin quality with higher ratios of psychoactive ingredients (THC).", "A tastier, smoother and more aromatic terpenes and flavanoids profile is seen as an indicator of a significant rise in hashish quality in more recent years.", "Hashish production in Spain has also become more popular and is on the rise, however the demand for relatively cheap and high quality Moroccan hash is still extremely high.Changes to regulations around the world have contributed greatly to more and more countries becoming legitimate hashish producing regions, with countries like Spain effecting more lenient laws on cannabis products such as hashish.", "Washington State followed by Colorado started regulating cultivation, manufacturing and distribution of cannabis and cannabis derived products such as hashish in the United States, followed by many other places in the US (such as Humboldt, California), and around the world." ], [ "European market", "According to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), Western Europe is the biggest market for cannabis resin with 70% of global seizures.", "The European hashish market is changing though: Cannabis cultivation increased throughout the 1990s until 2004, with a noticeable decrease reported in 2005 according to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction.", "Morocco has been the major source, however lately there has been a shift in the market and Afghanistan has been named the major producer of Hashish.", "Even though a drop in usage and production has been reported, Morocco produced around 6600 tonnes of resin in 2005.As 641 tonnes of hashish were consumed in the EU in 2013, the European market is currently the world's largest and most profitable.", "Therefore, many players are involved in the business, including organised crime groups.", "The largest cannabis resin seizures in Europe happen in Portugal, due to its proximity to Northern Africa.The 1990s \"soap bars\" disappeared and the physical shapes of hashish changed to melon shaped, tablets or olive shaped pellets.", "Overall the general trend of domestically grown cannabis displacing the imported resin leads to a market reaction of potency changes while the prices remain stable while soap-bar potency increased from 8% to up to 20.7% in 2014.Generally, more resin than herb is consumed in Europe." ], [ "Substance properties", "Hashish is made from cannabinoid-rich glandular hairs known as trichomes, as well as varying amounts of cannabis flower and leaf fragments.", "The flowers of a mature female plant contain the most trichomes, though trichomes are also found on other parts of the plant.", "Certain strains of cannabis are cultivated specifically for their ability to produce large amounts of trichomes.", "The resin reservoirs of the trichomes, sometimes erroneously called pollen (vendors often use the euphemism \"pollen catchers\" to describe screened kief-grinders in order to skirt paraphernalia-selling laws), are separated from the plant through various methods.Hashish samples from India, Lebanon and Morocco confiscated in Europe and Israel in 2005 contained all appreciable amounts of cannabidiol (CBD), and cannabinol (CBN), in addition to tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).", "In some samples the CBD-content was significantly higher than the THC-content.", "The simultaneous occurrence of these three cannabinoids constitute the typical, chemical profile of hashish consumed in Europe and Northern Africa.", "In comparison, most high-potency marijuana products contain only THC.", "It is believed that the psychotropic effects of hashish are therefore more subtle, and sedative.In a study conducted in 2014 by Jean-Jaques Filippi, Marie Marchini, Céline Charvoz, Laurence Dujourdy and Nicolas Baldovini (''Multidimensional analysis of cannabis volatile constituents: Identification of 5,5-dimethyl-1-vinylbicyclo2.1.1hexane as a volatile marker of hashish, the resin of Cannabis sativa L.'') the researchers linked the characteristic flavour of hashish with a rearrangement of myrcene caused during the process of manufacture.Depending on the production process, the product can be contaminated with different amounts of dirt and plant fragments, varying greatly in terms of appearance, texture, odour and potency.", "Also, adulterants may be added in order to increase weight or modify appearance." ], [ "Short-term effects", "Sebsi, a Moroccan long-drawtube one-hitterHashish can be consumed by oral ingestion or smoking.", "When smoked, it may be smoked in a pipe, bong, vaporizer or joints, where it is often mixed with tobacco, as pure hashish will burn poorly alone.", "THC has a low water solubility therefore it is most effective when ingested alongside a fatty meal or snack.", "Not all hashish can be consumed orally as some is not decarboxylated during manufacture.", "Generally the methods are similar to overall cannabis consumption.As hashish’s active ingredient is THC, it has the same effects as cannabis.", "The onset is felt within 15 minutes when smoking, and about 30 to 60 minutes when eaten.", "Common effects include:* changes in perception; including a feeling of relaxation, pleasure (“high” or euphoria)Blood-shot eyes are a sign of cannabis use.", "* poor short-term memory* increased appetite* altered feeling in the senses (the ability to see colors, hear sounds and taste food more clearly), as a result of the drug increasing the activity of the senses* altered sense of time and space (feeling that time is slow and the distances are longer)* dry mouth and throat* impaired motor skills* cognitive impairment, including poor reactions* blood-shot eye* fast heartbeat* orthostatic hypotension (a drop in blood pressure when standing)Side effects with overdose may include anxiety, paranoia and panic." ], [ "Manufacturing processes", "Making charas from fresh ''cannabis'' resin, Uttarakhand, IndiaThe sticky resins of the fresh flowering female cannabis plant are collected.", "Traditionally this was, and still is, done in remote locations by pressing or rubbing the flowering plant between two hands and then forming the sticky resins into a small ball of hashish called charas.", "This method produces the highest amount of cannabinoids (THC content up to 60%) without chemical solvents or distillation.", "The best quality charas is produced in Central Asia, and sold in sausage-like shapes.Mechanical separation methods use physical action to remove the trichomes from the dried plant material, such as sieving through a screen by hand or in motorized tumblers.", "This technique is known as \"drysifting\".", "The resulting powder, referred to as \"kief\" or \"drysift\", is compressed with the aid of heat into blocks of hashish; if pure, the kief will become gooey and pliable.", "When a high level of pure THC is present, the end product will be almost transparent and will start to melt at the point of human contact.Ice-water separation is another mechanical method of isolating trichomes.", "Newer techniques have been developed such as heat and pressure separations, static-electricity sieving or acoustical dry sieving.Trichomes isolated with ice-water extraction methodTrichomes may break away from supporting stalks and leaves when plant material becomes brittle at low temperatures.", "After plant material has been agitated in an icy slush, separated trichomes are often dense enough to sink to the bottom of the ice-water mixture following agitation, while lighter pieces of leaves and stems tend to float.The ice-water method requires ice, water, agitation, filtration bags with various-sized screens and plant material.", "With the ice-water extraction method the resin becomes hard and brittle and can easily be separated.", "This allows large quantities of pure resins to be extracted in a very clean process without the use of solvents, making for a more purified hashish.Chemical separation methods generally use a solvent such as ethanol, butane or hexane to dissolve the lipophilic desirable resin.", "Remaining plant materials are filtered out of the solution and sent to the compost.", "The solvent is then evaporated, or boiled off (purged) leaving behind the desirable resins, called honey oil, \"hash oil\", or just \"oil\".", "Honey oil still contains waxes and essential oils and can be further purified by vacuum distillation to yield \"red oil\".", "The product of chemical separations is more commonly referred to as \"honey oil.\"", "This oil is not really hashish, as the latter name covers trichomes that are extracted by sieving.", "This leaves most of the glands intact.Morocco has been the major hashish producer globally with €10.8 billion earned from Moroccan resin in 2004, but some so-called \"Moroccan\" may actually be European-made.", "The income for the farmers was around €325 million in 2005.While the overall number of plants and areas shrank in size, the introduction of more potent hybrid plants produced a high resin rate.", "The range of resin produced is estimated between 3800 and 9500 tonnes in 2005.The largest producer today is Afghanistan, however studies suggest there is a \"hashish revival\" in Morocco.Solventless Rosin Method was discovered by Phil Salazar in 2015.Rosin is created by pressing Cannabis Flower, Dry sift, or Ice water hash in between parchment paper using a pneumatic or hydrolic press with heated plates to create force and pressure to expel the oil from the product.", "The moisture present in the flower, Dry Sift, or ice water hash will create steam pressure and force the oil from the source creating a solventless hash product." ], [ "Quality", "Tiny pieces of leaf matter may be accidentally or even purposely added; adulterants introduced when the hashish is being produced will reduce the purity of the material and often resulting in green finished product.", "If hash is particularly sticky, this can mean that additional oils have been added to increase the overall weight of the product.", "The most common quality indicator is the smell.", "High-quality hash will smell fragrant and aromatic, whereas hash of low quality may have a distinct mouldy or musty aroma.", "The tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content of hashish comes in wide ranges from almost none to 65% and that of hash oil from 30% to 90%.", "Hashish can also contain appreciable amounts of CBD, CBN and also contain trace amounts of other cannabinoidsAs mentioned above, there has been a general increase in potency as the competition has grown bigger and new hybrid plants have been developed." ], [ "See also", "* Cannabis concentrate* Cannabis culture* Cannabis (drug)* Charas* Club des Hashischins* Hash oil* Hemp oil" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Hashish!''", "by Robert Connell Clarke, * ''The Hasheesh Eater'' by Fitz Hugh Ludlow; first edition 1857* ''Marihuana The first twelve thousand years'' by Ernest L. Abel, 1980, * Starks, Michael.", "''Marijuana Potency''.", "Berkeley, California: And/Or Press, 1977.Chapter 6 \"Extraction of THC and Preparation of Hash Oil\" pp.", "111–122.." ], [ "External links", "* Bibliography of scholarly histories on cannabis and hashish* Altered States Database" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hypnosis" ], [ "Introduction", "''Hypnotic Séance'' (1887) by Richard Bergh''Photographic Studies in Hypnosis, Abnormal Psychology'' (1938)'''Hypnosis''' is a human condition involving focused attention (the selective attention/selective inattention hypothesis, SASI), reduced peripheral awareness, and an enhanced capacity to respond to suggestion.There are competing theories explaining hypnosis and related phenomena.", "''Altered state'' theories see hypnosis as an altered state of mind or trance, marked by a level of awareness different from the ordinary state of consciousness.", "In contrast, ''non-state'' theories see hypnosis as, variously, a type of placebo effect, a redefinition of an interaction with a therapist or a form of imaginative role enactment.During hypnosis, a person is said to have heightened focus and concentration and an increased response to suggestions.Hypnosis usually begins with a hypnotic induction involving a series of preliminary instructions and suggestions.", "The use of hypnosis for therapeutic purposes is referred to as \"hypnotherapy\", while its use as a form of entertainment for an audience is known as \"stage hypnosis,\" a form of mentalism.Hypnosis-based therapies for the management of irritable bowel syndrome and menopause are supported by evidence.", "Use of hypnosis for treatment of other problems has produced mixed results, such as with smoking cessation.", "The use of hypnosis as a form of therapy to retrieve and integrate early trauma is controversial within the scientific mainstream.", "Research indicates that hypnotising an individual may aid the formation of false memories, and that hypnosis \"does not help people recall events more accurately\".", "Medical hypnosis is considered pseudoscience or quackery." ], [ "Etymology", "The words ''hypnosis'' and ''hypnotism'' both derive from the term ''neuro-hypnotism'' (nervous sleep), all of which were coined by Étienne Félix d'Henin de Cuvillers in the 1820s.", "The term ''hypnosis'' is derived from the ancient Greek ὑπνος ''hypnos'', \"sleep\", and the suffix -ωσις -''osis'', or from ὑπνόω ''hypnoō'', \"put to sleep\" (stem of aorist ''hypnōs''-) and the suffix -''is''.", "These words were popularised in English by the Scottish surgeon James Braid (to whom they are sometimes wrongly attributed) around 1841.Braid based his practice on that developed by Franz Mesmer and his followers (which was called \"Mesmerism\" or \"animal magnetism\"), but differed in his theory as to how the procedure worked." ], [ "History", "=== Precursors ===People have been entering into hypnotic-type trances for thousands of years.", "In many cultures and religions, it was regarded as a form of meditation.", "The earliest record of a description of a hypnotic state can be found in the writings of Avicenna, a Persian physician who wrote about \"trance\" in 1027.Modern-day hypnosis started in the late 18th century and was made popular by Franz Mesmer, a German physician who became known as the father of 'modern hypnotism'.", "Hypnosis was known at the time as 'Mesmerism' being named after Mesmer.Mesmer held the opinion that hypnosis was a sort of mystical force that flows from the hypnotist to the person being hypnotised, but his theory was dismissed by critics who asserted that there is no magical element to hypnotism.Abbé Faria, a Luso-Goan Catholic monk, was one of the pioneers of the scientific study of hypnotism, following on from the work of Franz Mesmer.", "Unlike Mesmer, who claimed that hypnosis was mediated by \"animal magnetism\", Faria believed that it worked purely by the power of suggestion.Before long, hypnotism started finding its way into the world of modern medicine.", "The use of hypnotism in the medical field was made popular by surgeons and physicians like Elliotson and James Esdaile and researchers like James Braid who helped to reveal the biological and physical benefits of hypnotism.", "According to his writings, Braid began to hear reports concerning various Oriental meditative practices soon after the release of his first publication on hypnotism, ''Neurypnology'' (1843).", "He first discussed some of these oriental practices in a series of articles entitled ''Magic, Mesmerism, Hypnotism, etc., Historically & Physiologically Considered''.", "He drew analogies between his own practice of hypnotism and various forms of Hindu yoga meditation and other ancient spiritual practices, especially those involving voluntary burial and apparent human hibernation.", "Braid's interest in these practices stems from his studies of the ''Dabistān-i Mazāhib'', the \"School of Religions\", an ancient Persian text describing a wide variety of Oriental religious rituals, beliefs, and practices.Although he rejected the transcendental/metaphysical interpretation given to these phenomena outright, Braid accepted that these accounts of Oriental practices supported his view that the effects of hypnotism could be produced in solitude, without the presence of any other person (as he had already proved to his own satisfaction with the experiments he had conducted in November 1841); and he saw correlations between many of the \"metaphysical\" Oriental practices and his own \"rational\" neuro-hypnotism, and totally rejected all of the fluid theories and magnetic practices of the mesmerists.", "As he later wrote:==== Avicenna ====Avicenna (980–1037), a Persian physician, documented the characteristics of the \"trance\" (hypnotic trance) state in 1027.At that time, hypnosis as a medical treatment was seldom used; the German doctor Franz Mesmer reintroduced it in the 18th century.==== Franz Mesmer ====Franz Mesmer (1734–1815) believed that there is a magnetic force or \"fluid\" called \"animal magnetism\" within the universe that influences the health of the human body.", "He experimented with magnets to affect this field in order to produce healing.", "By around 1774, he had concluded that the same effect could be created by passing the hands in front of the subject's body, later referred to as making \"Mesmeric passes\".In 1784, at the request of King Louis XVI, two Royal Commissions on Animal Magnetism were specifically charged with (separately) investigating the claims made by one Charles d'Eslon (1750–1786), a disaffected student of Mesmer, for the existence of a substantial (rather than metaphorical, as Mesmer supposed) \"animal magnetism\", ''''''le magnétisme animal'''''', and of a similarly physical \"magnetic fluid\", ''''''le fluide magnétique''''''.", "Among the investigators were the scientist, Antoine Lavoisier, an expert in electricity and terrestrial magnetism, Benjamin Franklin, and an expert in pain control, Joseph-Ignace Guillotin.The Commissioners investigated the practices of d'Eslon; and, although they accepted, without question, that Mesmer's \"cures\" were, indeed, \"cures\", they did not investigate whether (or not) Mesmer was the agent of those \"cures\".", "Significantly, in their investigations of d'Eslon's procedures, they conducted an expansive series of randomized controlled trials, the experimental protocols of which were designed by Lavoisier, including the application of both \"sham\" and \"genuine\" procedures and, significantly, the first use of \"blindfolding\" of both the investigators and their subjects.From their investigations both Commissions concluded that there was no evidence of any kind to support d'Eslon's claim for the substantial physical existence of either his supposed \"animal magnetism\" or his supposed \"magnetic fluid\"; and, in the process, they determined that all of the effects they had observed could be directly attributed to a physiological (rather than metaphysical) agency—namely, that all of the experimentally observed phenomena could be directly attributed to \"contact\", \"imagination\", and/or \"imitation\".Eventually, Mesmer left Paris and went back to Vienna to practise mesmerism.==== James Braid ====James BraidBraid's \"upwards and inwards squint\" induction method, as demonstrated by James Coates (1843–1933) in 1904Following the French committee's findings, Dugald Stewart, an influential academic philosopher of the \"Scottish School of Common Sense\", encouraged physicians in his ''Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind'' (1818) to salvage elements of Mesmerism by replacing the supernatural theory of \"animal magnetism\" with a new interpretation based upon \"common sense\" laws of physiology and psychology.", "Braid quotes the following passage from Stewart:In Braid's day, the Scottish School of Common Sense provided the dominant theories of academic psychology, and Braid refers to other philosophers within this tradition throughout his writings.", "Braid therefore revised the theory and practice of Mesmerism and developed his own method of hypnotism as a more rational and common sense alternative.Despite briefly toying with the name \"rational Mesmerism\", Braid ultimately chose to emphasise the unique aspects of his approach, carrying out informal experiments throughout his career in order to refute practices that invoked supernatural forces and demonstrating instead the role of ordinary physiological and psychological processes such as suggestion and focused attention in producing the observed effects.Braid worked very closely with his friend and ally the eminent physiologist Professor William Benjamin Carpenter, an early neuro-psychologist who introduced the \"ideo-motor reflex\" theory of suggestion.", "Carpenter had observed instances of expectation and imagination apparently influencing involuntary muscle movement.", "A classic example of the ideo-motor principle in action is the so-called \"Chevreul pendulum\" (named after Michel Eugène Chevreul).", "Chevreul claimed that divinatory pendulae were made to swing by unconscious muscle movements brought about by focused concentration alone.Braid soon assimilated Carpenter's observations into his own theory, realising that the effect of focusing attention was to enhance the ideo-motor reflex response.", "Braid extended Carpenter's theory to encompass the influence of the mind upon the body more generally, beyond the muscular system, and therefore referred to the \"ideo-dynamic\" response and coined the term \"psycho-physiology\" to refer to the study of general mind/body interaction.In his later works, Braid reserved the term \"hypnotism\" for cases in which subjects entered a state of amnesia resembling sleep.", "For other cases, he spoke of a \"mono-ideodynamic\" principle to emphasise that the eye-fixation induction technique worked by narrowing the subject's attention to a single idea or train of thought (\"monoideism\"), which amplified the effect of the consequent \"dominant idea\" upon the subject's body by means of the ideo-dynamic principle.==== Hysteria vs. suggestion ====For several decades Braid's work became more influential abroad than in his own country, except for a handful of followers, most notably Dr. John Milne Bramwell.", "The eminent neurologist Dr. George Miller Beard took Braid's theories to America.", "Meanwhile, his works were translated into German by William Thierry Preyer, Professor of Physiology at Jena University.", "The psychiatrist Albert Moll subsequently continued German research, publishing ''Hypnotism'' in 1889.France became the focal point for the study of Braid's ideas after the eminent neurologist Dr. Étienne Eugène Azam translated Braid's last manuscript (''On Hypnotism'', 1860) into French and presented Braid's research to the French Academy of Sciences.", "At the request of Azam, Paul Broca, and others, the French Academy of Science, which had investigated Mesmerism in 1784, examined Braid's writings shortly after his death.Azam's enthusiasm for hypnotism influenced Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault, a country doctor.", "Hippolyte Bernheim discovered Liébeault's enormously popular group hypnotherapy clinic and subsequently became an influential hypnotist.", "The study of hypnotism subsequently revolved around the fierce debate between Bernheim and Jean-Martin Charcot, the two most influential figures in late 19th-century hypnotism.Charcot operated a clinic at the Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital (thus, known as the \"Paris School\" or the \"Salpêtrière School\"), while Bernheim had a clinic in Nancy (known as the \"Nancy School\").", "Charcot, who was influenced more by the Mesmerists, argued that hypnotism was an abnormal state of nervous functioning found only in certain hysterical women.", "He claimed that it manifested in a series of physical reactions that could be divided into distinct stages.", "Bernheim argued that anyone could be hypnotised, that it was an extension of normal psychological functioning, and that its effects were due to suggestion.", "After decades of debate, Bernheim's view dominated.", "Charcot's theory is now just a historical curiosity.==== Pierre Janet ====Pierre Janet (1859–1947) reported studies on a hypnotic subject in 1882.Charcot subsequently appointed him director of the psychological laboratory at the Salpêtrière in 1889, after Janet had completed his PhD, which dealt with psychological automatism.", "In 1898, Janet was appointed psychology lecturer at the Sorbonne, and in 1902 he became chair of experimental and comparative psychology at the Collège de France.", "Janet reconciled elements of his views with those of Bernheim and his followers, developing his own sophisticated hypnotic psychotherapy based upon the concept of psychological dissociation, which, at the turn of the century, rivalled Freud's attempt to provide a more comprehensive theory of psychotherapy.==== Sigmund Freud ====Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), the founder of psychoanalysis, studied hypnotism at the Paris School and briefly visited the Nancy School.At first, Freud was an enthusiastic proponent of hypnotherapy.", "He \"initially hypnotised patients and pressed on their foreheads to help them concentrate while attempting to recover (supposedly) repressed memories\", and he soon began to emphasise hypnotic regression and ab reaction (catharsis) as therapeutic methods.", "He wrote a favorable encyclopedia article on hypnotism, translated one of Bernheim's works into German, and published an influential series of case studies with his colleague Joseph Breuer entitled ''Studies on Hysteria'' (1895).", "This became the founding text of the subsequent tradition known as \"hypno-analysis\" or \"regression hypnotherapy\".However, Freud gradually abandoned hypnotism in favour of psychoanalysis, emphasising free association and interpretation of the unconscious.", "Struggling with the great expense of time that psychoanalysis required, Freud later suggested that it might be combined with hypnotic suggestion to hasten the outcome of treatment, but that this would probably weaken the outcome: \"It is very probable, too, that the application of our therapy to numbers will compel us to alloy the pure gold of analysis plentifully with the copper of direct hypnotic suggestion.", "\"Only a handful of Freud's followers, however, were sufficiently qualified in hypnosis to attempt the synthesis.", "Their work had a limited influence on the hypno-therapeutic approaches now known variously as \"hypnotic regression\", \"hypnotic progression\", and \"hypnoanalysis\".==== Émile Coué ====Émile Coué developed autosuggestion as a psychological technique.Émile Coué (1857–1926) assisted Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault for around two years at Nancy.", "After practising for several months employing the \"hypnosis\" of Liébeault and Bernheim's Nancy School, he abandoned their approach altogether.", "Later, Coué developed a new approach (c.1901) based on Braid-style \"hypnotism\", direct hypnotic suggestion, and ego-strengthening which eventually became known as ''La méthode Coué''.", "According to Charles Baudouin, Coué founded what became known as the New Nancy School, a loose collaboration of practitioners who taught and promoted his views.", "Coué's method did not emphasise \"sleep\" or deep relaxation, but instead focused upon autosuggestion involving a specific series of suggestion tests.", "Although Coué argued that he was no longer using hypnosis, followers such as Charles Baudouin viewed his approach as a form of light self-hypnosis.", "Coué's method became a renowned self-help and psychotherapy technique, which contrasted with psychoanalysis and prefigured self-hypnosis and cognitive therapy.==== Clark L. Hull ====The next major development came from behavioural psychology in American university research.", "Clark L. Hull (1884–1952), an eminent American psychologist, published the first major compilation of laboratory studies on hypnosis, ''Hypnosis & Suggestibility'' (1933), in which he proved that hypnosis and sleep had nothing in common.", "Hull published many quantitative findings from hypnosis and suggestion experiments and encouraged research by mainstream psychologists.", "Hull's behavioural psychology interpretation of hypnosis, emphasising conditioned reflexes, rivalled the Freudian psycho-dynamic interpretation which emphasised unconscious transference.==== Dave Elman ====Although Dave Elman (1900–1967) was a noted radio host, comedian, and songwriter, he also made a name as a hypnotist.", "He led many courses for physicians, and in 1964 wrote the book ''Findings in Hypnosis'', later to be retitled ''Hypnotherapy'' (published by Westwood Publishing).", "Perhaps the most well-known aspect of Elman's legacy is his method of induction, which was originally fashioned for speed work and later adapted for the use of medical professionals.==== Milton Erickson ====Milton Erickson (1901–1980), the founding president of the American Society for Clinical Hypnosis and a fellow of the American Psychiatric Association, the American Psychological Association, and the American Psychopathological Association, was one of the most influential post-war hypnotherapists.", "He wrote several books and journal articles on the subject.", "During the 1960s, Erickson popularised a new branch of hypnotherapy, known as Ericksonian therapy, characterised primarily by indirect suggestion, \"metaphor\" (actually analogies), confusion techniques, and double binds in place of formal hypnotic inductions.", "However, the difference between Erickson's methods and traditional hypnotism led contemporaries such as André Weitzenhoffer to question whether he was practising \"hypnosis\" at all, and his approach remains in question.", "But during numerous witnessed and recorded encounters in clinical, experimental, and academic settings Erickson was able to evoke examples of classic hypnotic phenomena such as positive and negative hallucinations, anesthesia, analgesia (in childbirth and even terminal cancer patients), catalepsy, regression to provable events in subjects' early lives and even into infantile reflexology.", "Erickson stated in his own writings that there was no correlation between hypnotic depth and therapeutic success and that the quality of the applied psychotherapy outweighed the need for deep hypnosis in many cases.", "Hypnotic depth was to be pursued for research purposes.==== Cognitive-behavioural ====In the latter half of the 20th century, two factors contributed to the development of the cognitive-behavioural approach to hypnosis:# Cognitive and behavioural theories of the nature of hypnosis (influenced by the theories of Sarbin and Barber) became increasingly influential.# The therapeutic practices of hypnotherapy and various forms of cognitive behavioural therapy overlapped and influenced each other.Although cognitive-behavioural theories of hypnosis must be distinguished from cognitive-behavioural approaches to hypnotherapy, they share similar concepts, terminology, and assumptions and have been integrated by influential researchers and clinicians such as Irving Kirsch, Steven Jay Lynn, and others.At the outset of cognitive behavioural therapy during the 1950s, hypnosis was used by early behaviour therapists such as Joseph Wolpe and also by early cognitive therapists such as Albert Ellis.", "Barber, Spanos, and Chaves introduced the term \"cognitive-behavioural\" to describe their \"nonstate\" theory of hypnosis in ''Hypnosis, imagination, and human potentialities''.", "However, Clark L. Hull had introduced a behavioural psychology as far back as 1933, which in turn was preceded by Ivan Pavlov.", "Indeed, the earliest theories and practices of hypnotism, even those of Braid, resemble the cognitive-behavioural orientation in some respects." ], [ "Definition", "A person in a state of hypnosis has focused attention, and has increased suggestibility.It could be said that hypnotic suggestion is explicitly intended to make use of the placebo effect.", "For example, in 1994, Irving Kirsch characterized hypnosis as a \"non-deceptive placebo\", i.e., a method that openly makes use of suggestion and employs methods to amplify its effects.A definition of hypnosis, derived from academic psychology, was provided in 2005, when the Society for Psychological Hypnosis, Division 30 of the American Psychological Association (APA), published the following formal definition:Michael Nash provides a list of eight definitions of hypnosis by different authors, in addition to his own view that hypnosis is \"a special case of psychological regression\":# Janet, near the turn of the century, and more recently Ernest Hilgard ..., have defined hypnosis in terms of dissociation.# Social psychologists Sarbin and Coe ... have described hypnosis in terms of role theory.", "Hypnosis is a role that people play; they act \"as if\" they were hypnotised.# T. X. Barber ... defined hypnosis in terms of nonhypnotic behavioural parameters, such as task motivation and the act of labeling the situation as hypnosis.# In his early writings, Weitzenhoffer ... conceptualised hypnosis as a state of enhanced suggestibility.", "Most recently ... he has defined hypnotism as \"a form of influence by one person exerted on another through the medium or agency of suggestion.", "\"# Psychoanalysts Gill and Brenman ... described hypnosis by using the psychoanalytic concept of \"regression in the service of the ego\".# Edmonston ... has assessed hypnosis as being merely a state of relaxation.# Spiegel and Spiegel... have implied that hypnosis is a biological capacity.# Erickson ... is considered the leading exponent of the position that hypnosis is a special, inner-directed, altered state of functioning.Joe Griffin and Ivan Tyrrell (the originators of the human givens approach) define hypnosis as \"any artificial way of accessing the REM state, the same brain state in which dreaming occurs\" and suggest that this definition, when properly understood, resolves \"many of the mysteries and controversies surrounding hypnosis\".", "They see the REM state as being vitally important for life itself, for programming in our instinctive knowledge initially (after Dement and Jouvet) and then for adding to this throughout life.", "They attempt to explain this by asserting that, in a sense, all learning is post-hypnotic, which they say explains why the number of ways people can be put into a hypnotic state are so varied: according to them, anything that focuses a person's attention, inward or outward, puts them into a trance." ], [ "Induction", "Hypnosis is normally preceded by a \"hypnotic induction\" technique.", "Traditionally, this was interpreted as a method of putting the subject into a \"hypnotic trance\"; however, subsequent \"nonstate\" theorists have viewed it differently, seeing it as a means of heightening client expectation, defining their role, focusing attention, etc.", "The induction techniques and methods are dependent on the depth of hypnotic trance level and for each stage of trance, the number of which in some sources ranges from 30 stages to 50 stages, there are different types of inductions.", "There are several different induction techniques.", "One of the most influential methods was Braid's \"eye-fixation\" technique, also known as \"Braidism\".", "Many variations of the eye-fixation approach exist, including the induction used in the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale (SHSS), the most widely used research tool in the field of hypnotism.", "Braid's original description of his induction is as follows:Braid later acknowledged that the hypnotic induction technique was not necessary in every case, and subsequent researchers have generally found that on average it contributes less than previously expected to the effect of hypnotic suggestions.", "Variations and alternatives to the original hypnotic induction techniques were subsequently developed.", "However, this method is still considered authoritative.", "In 1941, Robert White wrote: \"It can be safely stated that nine out of ten hypnotic techniques call for reclining posture, muscular relaxation, and optical fixation followed by eye closure.\"" ], [ "Suggestion", "When James Braid first described hypnotism, he did not use the term \"suggestion\" but referred instead to the act of focusing the conscious mind of the subject upon a single dominant idea.", "Braid's main therapeutic strategy involved stimulating or reducing physiological functioning in different regions of the body.", "In his later works, however, Braid placed increasing emphasis upon the use of a variety of different verbal and non-verbal forms of suggestion, including the use of \"waking suggestion\" and self-hypnosis.", "Subsequently, Hippolyte Bernheim shifted the emphasis from the physical state of hypnosis on to the psychological process of verbal suggestion:Bernheim's conception of the primacy of verbal suggestion in hypnotism dominated the subject throughout the 20th century, leading some authorities to declare him the father of modern hypnotism.Contemporary hypnotism uses a variety of suggestion forms including direct verbal suggestions, \"indirect\" verbal suggestions such as requests or insinuations, metaphors and other rhetorical figures of speech, and non-verbal suggestion in the form of mental imagery, voice tonality, and physical manipulation.", "A distinction is commonly made between suggestions delivered \"permissively\" and those delivered in a more \"authoritarian\" manner.", "Harvard hypnotherapist Deirdre Barrett writes that most modern research suggestions are designed to bring about immediate responses, whereas hypnotherapeutic suggestions are usually post-hypnotic ones that are intended to trigger responses affecting behaviour for periods ranging from days to a lifetime in duration.", "The hypnotherapeutic ones are often repeated in multiple sessions before they achieve peak effectiveness.=== Conscious and unconscious mind ===Some hypnotists view suggestion as a form of communication that is directed primarily to the subject's conscious mind, whereas others view it as a means of communicating with the \"unconscious\" or \"subconscious\" mind.", "These concepts were introduced into hypnotism at the end of the 19th century by Sigmund Freud and Pierre Janet.", "Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory describes conscious thoughts as being at the surface of the mind and unconscious processes as being deeper in the mind.", "Braid, Bernheim, and other Victorian pioneers of hypnotism did not refer to the unconscious mind but saw hypnotic suggestions as being addressed to the subject's ''conscious'' mind.", "Indeed, Braid actually defines hypnotism as focused (conscious) attention upon a dominant idea (or suggestion).", "Different views regarding the nature of the mind have led to different conceptions of suggestion.", "Hypnotists who believe that responses are mediated primarily by an \"unconscious mind\", like Milton Erickson, make use of indirect suggestions such as metaphors or stories whose intended meaning may be concealed from the subject's conscious mind.", "The concept of subliminal suggestion depends upon this view of the mind.", "By contrast, hypnotists who believe that responses to suggestion are primarily mediated by the conscious mind, such as Theodore Barber and Nicholas Spanos, have tended to make more use of direct verbal suggestions and instructions.=== Ideo-dynamic reflex ===The first neuropsychological theory of hypnotic suggestion was introduced early by James Braid who adopted his friend and colleague William Carpenter's theory of the ideo-motor reflex response to account for the phenomenon of hypnotism.", "Carpenter had observed from close examination of everyday experience that, under certain circumstances, the mere idea of a muscular movement could be sufficient to produce a reflexive, or automatic, contraction or movement of the muscles involved, albeit in a very small degree.", "Braid extended Carpenter's theory to encompass the observation that a wide variety of bodily responses besides muscular movement can be thus affected, for example, the idea of sucking a lemon can automatically stimulate salivation, a secretory response.", "Braid, therefore, adopted the term \"ideo-dynamic\", meaning \"by the power of an idea\", to explain a broad range of \"psycho-physiological\" (mind–body) phenomena.", "Braid coined the term \"mono-ideodynamic\" to refer to the theory that hypnotism operates by concentrating attention on a single idea in order to amplify the ideo-dynamic reflex response.", "Variations of the basic ideo-motor, or ideo-dynamic, theory of suggestion have continued to exercise considerable influence over subsequent theories of hypnosis, including those of Clark L. Hull, Hans Eysenck, and Ernest Rossi.", "In Victorian psychology the word \"idea\" encompasses any mental representation, including mental imagery, memories, etc." ], [ "Susceptibility", "Braid made a rough distinction between different stages of hypnosis, which he termed the first and second conscious stage of hypnotism; he later replaced this with a distinction between \"sub-hypnotic\", \"full hypnotic\", and \"hypnotic coma\" stages.", "Jean-Martin Charcot made a similar distinction between stages which he named somnambulism, lethargy, and catalepsy.", "However, Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault and Hippolyte Bernheim introduced more complex hypnotic \"depth\" scales based on a combination of behavioural, physiological, and subjective responses, some of which were due to direct suggestion and some of which were not.", "In the first few decades of the 20th century, these early clinical \"depth\" scales were superseded by more sophisticated \"hypnotic susceptibility\" scales based on experimental research.", "The most influential were the Davis–Husband and Friedlander–Sarbin scales developed in the 1930s.", "André Weitzenhoffer and Ernest R. Hilgard developed the Stanford Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility in 1959, consisting of 12 suggestion test items following a standardised hypnotic eye-fixation induction script, and this has become one of the most widely referenced research tools in the field of hypnosis.", "Soon after, in 1962, Ronald Shor and Emily Carota Orne developed a similar group scale called the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility (HGSHS).Whereas the older \"depth scales\" tried to infer the level of \"hypnotic trance\" from supposed observable signs such as spontaneous amnesia, most subsequent scales have measured the degree of observed or self-evaluated ''responsiveness'' to specific suggestion tests such as direct suggestions of arm rigidity (catalepsy).", "The Stanford, Harvard, HIP, and most other susceptibility scales convert numbers into an assessment of a person's susceptibility as \"high\", \"medium\", or \"low\".", "Approximately 80% of the population are medium, 10% are high, and 10% are low.", "There is some controversy as to whether this is distributed on a \"normal\" bell-shaped curve or whether it is bi-modal with a small \"blip\" of people at the high end.", "Hypnotisability Scores are highly stable over a person's lifetime.", "Research by Deirdre Barrett has found that there are two distinct types of highly susceptible subjects, which she terms fantasisers and dissociaters.", "Fantasisers score high on absorption scales, find it easy to block out real-world stimuli without hypnosis, spend much time daydreaming, report imaginary companions as a child, and grew up with parents who encouraged imaginary play.", "Dissociaters often have a history of childhood abuse or other trauma, learned to escape into numbness, and to forget unpleasant events.", "Their association to \"daydreaming\" was often going blank rather than creating vividly recalled fantasies.", "Both score equally high on formal scales of hypnotic susceptibility.Individuals with dissociative identity disorder have the highest hypnotisability of any clinical group, followed by those with post-traumatic stress disorder." ], [ "Applications", "There are numerous applications for hypnosis across multiple fields of interest, including medical/psychotherapeutic uses, military uses, self-improvement, and entertainment.", "The American Medical Association currently has no official stance on the medical use of hypnosis.Hypnosis has been used as a supplemental approach to cognitive behavioral therapy since as early as 1949.Hypnosis was defined in relation to classical conditioning; where the words of the therapist were the stimuli and the hypnosis would be the conditioned response.", "Some traditional cognitive behavioral therapy methods were based in classical conditioning.", "It would include inducing a relaxed state and introducing a feared stimulus.", "One way of inducing the relaxed state was through hypnosis.Hypnotism has also been used in forensics, sports, education, physical therapy, and rehabilitation.", "Hypnotism has also been employed by artists for creative purposes, most notably the surrealist circle of André Breton who employed hypnosis, automatic writing, and sketches for creative purposes.", "Hypnotic methods have been used to re-experience drug states and mystical experiences.", "Self-hypnosis is popularly used to quit smoking, alleviate stress and anxiety, promote weight loss, and induce sleep hypnosis.", "Stage hypnosis can persuade people to perform unusual public feats.Some people have drawn analogies between certain aspects of hypnotism and areas such as crowd psychology, religious hysteria, and ritual trances in preliterate tribal cultures.=== Hypnotherapy ===Hypnotherapy is a use of hypnosis in psychotherapy.", "It is used by licensed physicians, psychologists, and others.", "Physicians and psychologists may use hypnosis to treat depression, anxiety, eating disorders, sleep disorders, compulsive gambling, phobias and post-traumatic stress, while certified hypnotherapists who are not physicians or psychologists often treat smoking and weight management.", "Hypnotherapy was historically used in psychiatric and legal settings to enhance the recall of repressed or degraded memories, but this application of the technique has declined as scientific evidence accumulated that hypnotherapy can increase confidence in false memories.Hypnotherapy is viewed as a helpful adjunct by proponents, having additive effects when treating psychological disorders, such as these, along with scientifically proven cognitive therapies.", "The effectiveness of hypnotherapy has not yet been accurately assessed, and, due to the lack of evidence indicating any level of efficiency, it is regarded as a type of alternative medicine by numerous reputable medical organisations, such as the National Health Service.Preliminary research has expressed brief hypnosis interventions as possibly being a useful tool for managing painful HIV-DSP because of its history of usefulness in pain management, its long-term effectiveness of brief interventions, the ability to teach self-hypnosis to patients, the cost-effectiveness of the intervention, and the advantage of using such an intervention as opposed to the use of pharmaceutical drugs.Modern hypnotherapy has been used, with varying success, in a variety of forms, such as:* Addictions* Age regression hypnotherapy (or \"hypnoanalysis\")* Cognitive-behavioural hypnotherapy, or clinical hypnosis combined with elements of cognitive behavioural therapy* Ericksonian hypnotherapy* Fears and phobia* Habit control* Pain management* Psychotherapy* Relaxation* Reduce patient behavior (e.g., scratching) that hinders the treatment of skin disease* Soothing anxious surgical patients* Sports performance* Weight lossIn a January 2001 article in ''Psychology Today'', Harvard psychologist Deirdre Barrett wrote: Barrett described specific ways this is operationalised for habit change and amelioration of phobias.", "In her 1998 book of hypnotherapy case studies, she reviews the clinical research on hypnosis with dissociative disorders, smoking cessation, and insomnia, and describes successful treatments of these complaints.In a July 2001 article for ''Scientific American'' titled \"The Truth and the Hype of Hypnosis\", Michael Nash wrote that, \"using hypnosis, scientists have temporarily created hallucinations, compulsions, certain types of memory loss, false memories, and delusions in the laboratory so that these phenomena can be studied in a controlled environment.", "\"==== Menopause ====There is evidence supporting the use of hypnotherapy in the treatment of menopause related symptoms, including hot flashes.", "The North American Menopause Society recommends hypnotherapy for the nonhormonal management of menopause-associated vasomotor symptoms, giving it the highest level of evidence.==== Irritable bowel syndrome ====Hypnotherapy has been studied for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome.", "Hypnosis for IBS has received moderate support in the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence guidance published for UK health services.", "It has been used as an aid or alternative to chemical anesthesia, and it has been studied as a way to soothe skin ailments.==== Pain management ====A number of studies show that hypnosis can reduce the pain experienced during burn-wound debridement, bone marrow aspirations, and childbirth.", "The ''International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'' found that hypnosis relieved the pain of 75% of 933 subjects participating in 27 different experiments.Hypnosis is effective in decreasing the fear of cancer treatment reducing pain from and coping with cancer and other chronic conditions.", "Nausea and other symptoms related to incurable diseases may also be managed with hypnosis.", "Some practitioners have claimed hypnosis might help boost the immune system of people with cancer.", "However, according to the American Cancer Society, \"available scientific evidence does not support the idea that hypnosis can influence the development or progression of cancer.", "\"Hypnosis has been used as a pain relieving technique during dental surgery, and related pain management regimens as well.", "Researchers like Jerjes and his team have reported that hypnosis can help even those patients who have acute to severe orodental pain.", "Additionally, Meyerson and Uziel have suggested that hypnotic methods have been found to be highly fruitful for alleviating anxiety in patients with severe dental phobia.For some psychologists who uphold the altered state theory of hypnosis, pain relief in response to hypnosis is said to be the result of the brain's dual-processing functionality.", "This effect is obtained either through the process of selective attention or dissociation, in which both theories involve the presence of activity in pain receptive regions of the brain, and a difference in the processing of the stimuli by the hypnotised subject.The American Psychological Association published a study comparing the effects of hypnosis, ordinary suggestion, and placebo in reducing pain.", "The study found that highly suggestible individuals experienced a greater reduction in pain from hypnosis compared with placebo, whereas less suggestible subjects experienced no pain reduction from hypnosis when compared with placebo.", "Ordinary non-hypnotic suggestion also caused reduction in pain compared to placebo, but was able to reduce pain in a wider range of subjects (both high and low suggestible) than hypnosis.", "The results showed that it is primarily the subject's responsiveness to suggestion, whether within the context of hypnosis or not, that is the main determinant of causing reduction in pain.==== Other uses of hypnotherapy====The success rate for habit control is varied.", "A meta-study researching hypnosis as a quit-smoking tool found it had a 20 to 30 percent success rate, while a 2007 study of patients hospitalised for cardiac and pulmonary ailments found that smokers who used hypnosis to quit smoking doubled their chances of success.", "In 2019, a Cochrane review was unable to find evidence of benefit of hypnosis in smoking cessation, and suggested if there is, it is small at best.Hypnosis may be useful as an adjunct therapy for weight loss.", "A 1996 meta-analysis studying hypnosis combined with cognitive behavioural therapy found that people using both treatments lost more weight than people using cognitive behavioural therapy alone.", "The virtual gastric band procedure mixes hypnosis with hypnopedia.", "The hypnosis instructs the stomach that it is smaller than it really is, and hypnopedia reinforces alimentary habits.", "A 2016 pilot study found that there was no significant difference in effectiveness between VGB hypnotherapy and relaxation hypnotherapy.American psychiatric nurses, in most medical facilities, are allowed to administer hypnosis to patients in order to relieve symptoms such as anxiety, arousal, negative behaviours, uncontrollable behaviour, and to improve self-esteem and confidence.", "This is permitted only when they have been completely trained about their clinical side effects and while under supervision when administering it.===Forensic hypnosis===The use of hypnosis to exhume information thought to be buried within the mind in the investigative process and as evidence in court became increasingly popular from the 1950s to the early 1980s with its use being debated into the 1990s when its popular use mostly diminished.", "Forensic hypnosis's uses are hindered by concerns with its reliability and accuracy.", "Controversy surrounds the use of hypnotherapy to retrieve memories, especially those from early childhood or (supposed) past-lives.", "The American Medical Association and the American Psychological Association caution against recovered-memory therapy in cases of alleged childhood trauma, stating that \"it is impossible, without corroborative evidence, to distinguish a true memory from a false one.\"", "Past life regression, meanwhile, is often viewed with skepticism.=== Military ===A 2006 declassified 1966 document obtained by the US Freedom of Information Act archive shows that hypnosis was investigated for military applications.", "The full paper explores the potentials of operational uses.", "The overall conclusion of the study was that there was no evidence that hypnosis could be used for military applications, and no clear evidence whether \"hypnosis\" is a definable phenomenon outside ordinary suggestion, motivation, and subject expectancy.", "According to the document:Furthermore, the document states that:The study concluded that there are no reliable accounts of its effective use by an intelligence service in history.Research into hypnosis in military applications is further verified by the Project MKUltra experiments, also conducted by the CIA.", "According to Congressional testimony, the CIA experimented with utilising LSD and hypnosis for mind control.", "Many of these programs were done domestically and on participants who were not informed of the study's purposes or that they would be given drugs.=== Self-hypnosis ===Self-hypnosis happens when a person hypnotises oneself, commonly involving the use of autosuggestion.", "The technique is often used to increase motivation for a diet, to quit smoking, or to reduce stress.", "People who practise self-hypnosis sometimes require assistance; some people use devices known as mind machines to assist in the process, whereas others use hypnotic recordings.Self-hypnosis is claimed to help with stage fright, relaxation, and physical well-being.=== Stage hypnosis ===Stage hypnosis is a form of entertainment, traditionally employed in a club or theatre before an audience.", "Due to stage hypnotists' showmanship, many people believe that hypnosis is a form of mind control.", "Stage hypnotists typically attempt to hypnotise the entire audience and then select individuals who are \"under\" to come up on stage and perform embarrassing acts, while the audience watches.", "However, the effects of stage hypnosis are probably due to a combination of psychological factors, participant selection, suggestibility, physical manipulation, stagecraft, and trickery.", "The desire to be the centre of attention, having an excuse to violate their own fear suppressors, and the pressure to please are thought to convince subjects to \"play along\".", "Books by stage hypnotists sometimes explicitly describe the use of deception in their acts; for example, Ormond McGill's ''New Encyclopedia of Stage Hypnosis'' describes an entire \"fake hypnosis\" act that depends upon the use of private whispers throughout.=== Music ===The idea of music as hypnosis developed from the work of Franz Mesmer.", "Instruments such as pianos, violins, harps and, especially, the ''glass harmonica'' often featured in Mesmer's treatments; and were considered to contribute to Mesmer's success.Hypnotic music became an important part in the development of a 'physiological psychology' that regarded the hypnotic state as an 'automatic' phenomenon that links to physical reflex.", "In their experiments with sound hypnosis, Jean-Martin Charcot used gongs and tuning forks, and Ivan Pavlov used bells.", "The intention behind their experiments was to prove that physiological response to sound could be automatic, bypassing the conscious mind.=== Satanic brainwashing ===In the 1980s and 1990s, a moral panic took place in the US fearing Satanic ritual abuse.", "As part of this, certain books such as ''The Devil's Disciples'' claimed that some bands, particularly in the musical genre of heavy metal, brainwashed American teenagers with subliminal messages to lure them into the worship of the devil, sexual immorality, murder, and especially suicide.=== Crime ===Various people have been suspected of or convicted for hypnosis-related crimes, including robbery and sexual abuse.In 1951, Palle Hardrup shot and killed two people during a botched robbery in Copenhagen - see Hypnosis murders.", "Hardrup claimed that his friend and former cellmate Bjørn Schouw Nielsen had hypnotised him to commit the robbery, inadvertently causing the deaths.", "Both were sentenced to jail time.In 2011, a Russian \"evil hypnotist\" was suspected of tricking customers in banks around Stavropol into giving away thousands of pounds' worth of money.", "According to the local police, he would approach them and make them withdraw all of the money from their bank accounts, which they would then freely give to the man.", "A similar incident was reported in London in 2014, where a video seemingly showed a robber hypnotising a shopkeeper before robbing him.", "The victim did nothing to stop the robber from looting his pockets and taking his cash, only calling out the thief when he was already getting away.In 2013, the then-40-year-old amateur hypnotist Timothy Porter attempted to sexually abuse his female weight-loss client.", "She reported awaking from a trance and finding him behind her with his pants down, telling her to touch herself.", "He was subsequently called to court and included on the sex offender list.", "In 2015, Gary Naraido, then 52, was sentenced to 10 years in prison for several hypnosis-related sexual abuse charges.", "Besides the primary charge by a 22-year-old woman who he sexually abused in a hotel under the guise of a free therapy session, he also admitted to having sexually assaulted a 14-year-old girl.", "In December 2018, a Brazilian medium named João Teixeira de Faria (also known as \"João de Deus\"), famous for performing Spiritual Surgeries through hypnosis techniques, was accused of sexual abuse by 12 women.", "In 2016 an Ohio lawyer was sentenced to 12 years of prison after hypnotizing a dozen different clients into committing sexual acts under the guise of a mindfulness exercise.=== Sexual ===" ], [ "State vs. nonstate", "The central theoretical disagreement regarding hypnosis is known as the \"state versus nonstate\" debate.", "When Braid introduced the concept of hypnotism, he equivocated over the nature of the \"state\", sometimes describing it as a specific sleep-like neurological state comparable to animal hibernation or yogic meditation, while at other times he emphasised that hypnotism encompasses a number of different stages or states that are an extension of ordinary psychological and physiological processes.", "Overall, Braid appears to have moved from a more \"special state\" understanding of hypnotism toward a more complex \"nonstate\" orientation.State theorists interpret the effects of hypnotism as due primarily to a specific, abnormal, and uniform psychological or physiological state of some description, often referred to as \"hypnotic trance\" or an \"altered state of consciousness\".", "Nonstate theorists rejected the idea of hypnotic trance and interpret the effects of hypnotism as due to a combination of multiple task-specific factors derived from normal cognitive, behavioural, and social psychology, such as social role-perception and favorable motivation (Sarbin), active imagination and positive cognitive set (Barber), response expectancy (Kirsch), and the active use of task-specific subjective strategies (Spanos).", "The personality psychologist Robert White is often cited as providing one of the first nonstate definitions of hypnosis in a 1941 article:Put simply, it is often claimed that, whereas the older \"special state\" interpretation emphasises the difference between hypnosis and ordinary psychological processes, the \"nonstate\" interpretation emphasises their similarity.Comparisons between hypnotised and non-hypnotised subjects suggest that, if a \"hypnotic trance\" does exist, it only accounts for a small proportion of the effects attributed to hypnotic suggestion, most of which can be replicated without hypnotic induction.=== Hyper-suggestibility ===Braid can be taken to imply, in later writings, that hypnosis is largely a state of heightened suggestibility induced by expectation and focused attention.", "In particular, Hippolyte Bernheim became known as the leading proponent of the \"suggestion theory\" of hypnosis, at one point going so far as to declare that there is no hypnotic state, only heightened suggestibility.", "There is a general consensus that heightened suggestibility is an essential characteristic of hypnosis.", "In 1933, Clark L. Hull wrote:=== Conditioned inhibition ===Ivan Pavlov stated that hypnotic suggestion provided the best example of a conditioned reflex response in human beings; i.e., that responses to suggestions were learned associations triggered by the words used:He also believed that hypnosis was a \"partial sleep\", meaning that a generalised inhibition of cortical functioning could be encouraged to spread throughout regions of the brain.", "He observed that the various degrees of hypnosis did not significantly differ physiologically from the waking state and hypnosis depended on insignificant changes of environmental stimuli.", "Pavlov also suggested that lower-brain-stem mechanisms were involved in hypnotic conditioning.Pavlov's ideas combined with those of his rival Vladimir Bekhterev and became the basis of hypnotic psychotherapy in the Soviet Union, as documented in the writings of his follower K.I.", "Platonov.", "Soviet theories of hypnotism subsequently influenced the writings of Western behaviourally oriented hypnotherapists such as Andrew Salter.=== Neuropsychology ===Changes in brain activity have been found in some studies of highly responsive hypnotic subjects.", "These changes vary depending upon the type of suggestions being given.", "The state of light to medium hypnosis, where the body undergoes physical and mental relaxation, is associated with a pattern mostly of alpha waves.", "However, what these results indicate is unclear.", "They may indicate that suggestions genuinely produce changes in perception or experience that are not simply a result of imagination.", "However, in normal circumstances without hypnosis, the brain regions associated with motion detection are activated both when motion is seen and when motion is imagined, without any changes in the subjects' perception or experience.", "This may therefore indicate that highly suggestible hypnotic subjects are simply activating to a greater extent the areas of the brain used in imagination, without real perceptual changes.", "It is, however, premature to claim that hypnosis and meditation are mediated by similar brain systems and neural mechanisms.Another study has demonstrated that a colour hallucination suggestion given to subjects in hypnosis activated colour-processing regions of the occipital cortex.", "A 2004 review of research examining the EEG laboratory work in this area concludes:Studies have shown an association of hypnosis with stronger theta-frequency activity as well as with changes to the gamma-frequency activity.", "Neuroimaging techniques have been used to investigate neural correlates of hypnosis.The induction phase of hypnosis may also affect the activity in brain regions that control intention and process conflict.", "Anna Gosline claims:=== Dissociation ===Pierre Janet originally developed the idea of ''dissociation of consciousness'' from his work with hysterical patients.", "He believed that hypnosis was an example of dissociation, whereby areas of an individual's behavioural control separate from ordinary awareness.", "Hypnosis would remove some control from the conscious mind, and the individual would respond with autonomic, reflexive behaviour.", "Weitzenhoffer describes hypnosis via this theory as \"dissociation of awareness from the majority of sensory and even strictly neural events taking place.", "\"=== Neodissociation ===Ernest Hilgard, who developed the \"neodissociation\" theory of hypnotism, hypothesised that hypnosis causes the subjects to divide their consciousness voluntarily.", "One part responds to the hypnotist while the other retains awareness of reality.", "Hilgard made subjects take an ice water bath.", "None mentioned the water being cold or feeling pain.", "Hilgard then asked the subjects to lift their index finger if they felt pain and 70% of the subjects lifted their index finger.", "This showed that, even though the subjects were listening to the suggestive hypnotist, they still sensed the water's temperature.=== Social role-taking theory ===The main theorist who pioneered the influential role-taking theory of hypnotism was Theodore Sarbin.", "Sarbin argued that hypnotic responses were motivated attempts to fulfill the socially constructed roles of hypnotic subjects.", "This has led to the misconception that hypnotic subjects are simply \"faking\".", "However, Sarbin emphasised the difference between faking, in which there is little subjective identification with the role in question, and role-taking, in which the subject not only acts externally in accord with the role but also subjectively identifies with it to some degree, acting, thinking, and feeling \"as if\" they are hypnotised.", "Sarbin drew analogies between role-taking in hypnosis and role-taking in other areas such as method acting, mental illness, and shamanic possession, etc.", "This interpretation of hypnosis is particularly relevant to understanding stage hypnosis, in which there is clearly strong peer pressure to comply with a socially constructed role by performing accordingly on a theatrical stage.Hence, the ''social constructionism and role-taking theory'' of hypnosis suggests that individuals are enacting (as opposed to merely ''playing'') a role and that really there is no such thing as a hypnotic trance.", "A socially constructed relationship is built depending on how much rapport has been established between the \"hypnotist\" and the subject (see Hawthorne effect, Pygmalion effect, and placebo effect).Psychologists such as Robert Baker and Graham Wagstaff claim that what we call hypnosis is actually a form of learned social behaviour, a complex hybrid of social compliance, relaxation, and suggestibility that can account for many esoteric behavioural manifestations.=== Cognitive-behavioural theory ===Barber, Spanos, and Chaves (1974) proposed a nonstate \"cognitive-behavioural\" theory of hypnosis, similar in some respects to Sarbin's social role-taking theory and building upon the earlier research of Barber.", "On this model, hypnosis is explained as an extension of ordinary psychological processes like imagination, relaxation, expectation, social compliance, etc.", "In particular, Barber argued that responses to hypnotic suggestions were mediated by a \"positive cognitive set\" consisting of positive expectations, attitudes, and motivation.", "Daniel Araoz subsequently coined the acronym \"TEAM\" to symbolise the subject's orientation to hypnosis in terms of \"trust\", \"expectation\", \"attitude\", and \"motivation\".Barber et al.", "noted that similar factors appeared to mediate the response both to hypnotism and to cognitive behavioural therapy, in particular systematic desensitisation.", "Hence, research and clinical practice inspired by their interpretation has led to growing interest in the relationship between hypnotherapy and cognitive behavioural therapy.=== Information theory ===An approach loosely based on information theory uses a brain-as-computer model.", "In adaptive systems, feedback increases the signal-to-noise ratio, which may converge towards a steady state.", "Increasing the signal-to-noise ratio enables messages to be more clearly received.", "The hypnotist's object is to use techniques to reduce interference and increase the receptability of specific messages (suggestions).=== Systems theory ===Systems theory, in this context, may be regarded as an extension of Braid's original conceptualisation of hypnosis as involving \"the brain and nervous system generally\".", "Systems theory considers the nervous system's organisation into interacting subsystems.", "Hypnotic phenomena thus involve not only increased or decreased activity of particular subsystems, but also their interaction.", "A central phenomenon in this regard is that of feedback loops, which suggest a mechanism for creating hypnotic phenomena.=== Societies ===There is a huge range of societies in England who train individuals in hypnosis; however, one of the longest-standing organisations is the British Society of Clinical and Academic Hypnosis (BSCAH).", "It origins date back to 1952 when a group of dentists set up the 'British Society of Dental Hypnosis'.", "Shortly after, a group of sympathetic medical practitioners merged with this fast-evolving organisation to form 'The Dental and Medical Society for the Study of Hypnosis'; and, in 1968, after various statutory amendments had taken place, the 'British Society of Medical and Dental Hypnosis' (BSMDH) was formed.", "This society always had close links with the Royal Society of Medicine and many of its members were involved in setting up a hypnosis section at this centre of medical research in London.", "And, in 1978, under the presidency of David Waxman, the Section of Medical and Dental Hypnosis was formed.", "A second society, the British Society of Experimental and Clinical Hypnosis (BSECH), was also set up a year before, in 1977, and this consisted of psychologists, doctors and dentists with an interest in hypnosis theory and practice.", "In 2007, the two societies merged to form the 'British Society of Clinical and Academic Hypnosis' (BSCAH).", "This society only trains health professionals and is interested in furthering research into clinical hypnosis.The American Society of Clinical Hypnosis (ASCH) is unique among organisations for professionals using hypnosis because members must be licensed healthcare workers with graduate degrees.", "As an interdisciplinary organisation, ASCH not only provides a classroom to teach professionals how to use hypnosis as a tool in their practice, it provides professionals with a community of experts from different disciplines.", "The ASCH's missions statement is to provide and encourage education programs to further, in every ethical way, the knowledge, understanding, and application of hypnosis in health care; to encourage research and scientific publication in the field of hypnosis; to promote the further recognition and acceptance of hypnosis as an important tool in clinical health care and focus for scientific research; to cooperate with other professional societies that share mutual goals, ethics and interests; and to provide a professional community for those clinicians and researchers who use hypnosis in their work.", "The ASCH also publishes the ''American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis''." ], [ "See also", "* List of hypnotists and list of fictional hypnotists=== Historical figures ===* Alfred Binet* James Braid* John Milne Bramwell* Emile Dantinne* John Elliotson* George Estabrooks* Abbé Faria* Ainslie Meares* Franz Anton Mesmer* Julian Ochorowicz* Charles Lloyd Tuckey* Otto Georg Wetterstrand=== Modern researchers ===* Etzel Cardeña* Alan Gauld* Jack Stanley Gibson* Ernest Hilgard* Albert Abraham Mason* Ainslie Meares* Dylan Morgan* Michel Weber=== Related subjects ===* Covert hypnosis* Guided meditation* Highway hypnosis* Hypnagogia* Hypnoid state* Hypnosis in popular culture* Hypnosurgery* List of ineffective cancer treatments* Psychonautics* Recreational hypnosis* Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism* Scientology and hypnosis* Sedative (also known as sedative-hypnotic drug)* ''The Zoist: A Journal of Cerebral Physiology & Mesmerism, and Their Applications to Human Welfare''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Baudouin, C. (Paul, E & Paul, C.", "trans.", "), ''Suggestion and Autosuggestion: A Psychological and Pedagogical Study Based on the Investigations made by the New Nancy School'', George Allen & Unwin, (London), 1920.", "* * * Coates, James (1904), ''Human Magnetism; or, How to Hypnotise: A Practical Handbook for Students of Mesmerism'', London: Nichols & Co.* * Glueck, B., \"New Nancy School\", ''The Psychoanalytic Review'', Vol.", "10, (January 1923), pp. 109–12.", "* Harte, R., ''Hypnotism and the Doctors, Volume I: Animal Magnetism: Mesmer/De Puysegur'', L.N.", "Fowler & Co., (London), 1902.", "* Harte, R., ''Hypnotism and the Doctors, Volume II: The Second Commission; Dupotet And Lafontaine; The English School; Braid's Hypnotism; Statuvolism; Pathetism; Electro-Biology'', L.N.", "Fowler & Co., (London), 1903.", "* * Yeates, L.B., ''James Braid: Surgeon, Gentleman Scientist, and Hypnotist'', Ph.D. Dissertation, School of History and Philosophy of Science, Faculty of Arts & Social Sciences, University of New South Wales, January 2013.", "* Yeates, Lindsay B.", "(2016a), \"Émile Coué and his ''Method'' (I): The Chemist of Thought and Human Action\", ''Australian Journal of Clinical Hypnotherapy & Hypnosis'', Volume 38, No.", "1, (Autumn 2016), pp. 3–27.", "* Yeates, Lindsay B.", "(2016b), \"Émile Coué and his ''Method'' (II): Hypnotism, Suggestion, Ego-Strengthening, and Autosuggestion\", ''Australian Journal of Clinical Hypnotherapy & Hypnosis'', Volume 38, No.1, (Autumn 2016), pp. 28–54.", "* Yeates, Lindsay B.", "(2016c), \"Émile Coué and his ''Method'' (III): Every Day in Every Way\", ''Australian Journal of Clinical Hypnotherapy & Hypnosis'', Volume 38, No.", "1, (Autumn 2016), pp.", "55–79." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Henry Chadwick (writer)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Henry Chadwick''' (October 5, 1824 – April 20, 1908) was an English-American sportswriter, baseball statistician and historian, often called the \"Father of Baseball\" for his early reporting on and contributions to the development of the game.", "He edited the first baseball guide that was sold to the public.", "He is credited with creating box scores, as well as creating the abbreviation \"K\" that designates a strikeout.", "He is said to have created the statistics of batting average and earned run average (ERA).", "He was posthumously inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1938." ], [ "Early life", "Chadwick was born on October 5, 1824, in Exeter, England.", "His grandfather, Andrew Chadwick, had been a close friend of theologian John Wesley.", "His father, James Chadwick, was a supporter of the French Revolution who also tutored John Dalton in music and botany.", "James Chadwick had served as editor of a publication known as the ''Western Times''.", "Edwin Chadwick's mother had made James Chadwick a widower shortly after Edwin's birth.Chadwick was the younger half-brother of Sir Edwin Chadwick, England's sanitary philosopher who developed environmental measures and laws designed to counteract the effects of the Industrial Revolution.", "Chadwick moved to Brooklyn with his family at the age of 12.Biographer Andrew Schiff writes that Henry Chadwick \"was not brought up to value possessions or with an understanding of commerce and trade; rather he received an education that was drenched in moral philosophy and science.\"", "He began to write music and to teach piano and guitar.In 1848, Chadwick married Jane Botts from Richmond, Virginia.", "Botts' father Alexander had been president of the Virginia State Council.", "She was also related to politician John Botts.", "Chadwick edited John Botts' work titled ''The Great Rebellion''.", "Chadwick and his wife had three children, Richard Westlake Chadwick, in 1849, Susan Mary Chadwick, in 1851, and Rose Virginia Chadwick, 1853.Chadwick became a frequent player of cricket and similar ball games such as rounders.", "He began covering cricket for numerous local newspapers such as the ''Long Island Star''.", "He first came across organized baseball in 1856 as a cricket reporter for ''The New York Times'', watching a match played between New York's Eagles and Gothams at the Elysian Fields in Hoboken, New Jersey.", "He focused his attention as a journalist and writer on baseball after joining the ''New York Clipper'' in 1857, and was also soon hired on to provide coverage for other New York papers including the ''Sunday Mercury''." ], [ "Contributions to baseball", "===Promotion of the game===Chadwick was one of the prime movers in the rise of baseball to its popularity at the turn of the 20th century.", "A keen amateur statistician and professional writer, he helped sculpt the public perception of the game, as well as providing the basis for the records of teams' and players' achievements in the form of baseball statistics.", "He also served on baseball rules committees and influenced the game itself.", "He is sometimes referred to as \"the father of baseball\" because he facilitated the popularity of the sport in its early days.Early baseball had a provision known as the \"bound rule\", which held that a fielder could catch a batted ball on one bounce and that it would still be recorded as an out.", "Chadwick was an outspoken critic of the rule for many years, stating that fielders should have to catch a ball on the fly for it to count as an out.", "In 1864, the bound rule was eliminated for balls hit into fair territory.", "The bound rule for foul balls persisted into the 1880s.Chadwick edited ''The Beadle Dime Base-Ball Player'', the first annual baseball guide on public sale, as well as the Spalding and Reach annual guides for a number of years and in this capacity promoted the game and influenced the infant discipline of sports journalism.", "In his 1861 ''Beadle'' guide, he listed totals of games played, outs, runs, home runs, and strikeouts for hitters on prominent clubs, the first database of its kind.", "His goal was to provide numerical evidence to prove which players helped a team to win.In 1867 he accompanied the National Base Ball Club of Washington, D.C., on their inaugural national tour, as their official scorer.", "The next year, Chadwick wrote the first hardcover baseball book, ''The Game of Base Ball''.", "In 1874 was instrumental in organizing a tour of England which included games of both baseball and cricket.", "In his role as journalist, he campaigned against the detrimental effects on the game of both alcohol and gambling.Despite a friendship with Albert Spalding, Chadwick was scornful of the attempts to have Abner Doubleday declared the inventor of baseball.", "\"He means well\", said Chadwick, \"but he don't know\".", "Chadwick later willed his baseball library to Spalding.Author William Cook wrote that \"Chadwick was at times a bit self-aggrandizing, but his heart was always deeply rooted in looking after the best interest of the game.\"", "An 1876 ''Chicago Tribune'' article attacked Chadwick's status as the father of baseball, saying in part that Chadwick \"has had enough experience to have made himself a man of respect had heaven but given him a head ... he proceeded to call himself the '\"Father of the Game,' and to assume much on the strength of the title.", "But he found an unruly child, and one which disinherited him with rapidity and ease.\"", "Cook writes that Chadwick may have been a victim of \"Western journalism\", a sensationalized style of writing.===Box scores and statistics=== Box score from 1876Chadwick is credited with devising the baseball box score (which he adapted from the cricket scorecard) for reporting game events.", "The first box score appeared in an 1859 issue of the ''Clipper''.", "It was a grid with nine rows for players and nine columns for innings.", "The original box scores also created the often puzzling abbreviation for strikeout as \"K\" – \"K\" being the last letter of \"struck\" in \"struck out\".", "Chadwick assigned numbers to each defensive position for scorekeeping purposes, a system that remains in modern baseball scorekeeping.Newspapers had previously tallied runs scored, but Chadwick's 1859 box score looked similar in structure to modern ones.", "Baseball researcher Bill James credits Chadwick's creation of the box score with his interest in the game, but he criticized Chadwick's omission of the walk from calculation of a player's batting average: \"\"What they failed to understand is that actually the batter has as much or a little more to do with when the walk occurs as the pitcher does.", "They ignored that element of it and that did distort the game for a lot of people.\"", "The box score was popularized in 1925 when ''Baseball Magazine'' republished Chadwick's 1859 ''Clipper'' article.Chadwick is credited with devising statistical measures such as batting average and earned run average (ERA).", "He felt that batting average was the best representation of a batter's offensive skills.", "He initially scored walks as errors charged to the pitcher.", "Walks did not exist in cricket (though there is a penalty run for a wide) and upon learning about them in baseball, he felt that they did not have anything to do with offensive skill.", "He later removed walks entirely from baseball statistics.", "ERA originated not in the goal of measuring a pitcher's worth but to differentiate between runs caused by batting skill (hits) and lack of fielding skill (errors).", "He is also noted as believing fielding range to be a superior skill to avoiding errors.===Journalistic style===The following description of a game was written by Henry Chadwick and appeared in his ''Base Ball Memoranda''.", "It is typical of his style of sports journalism, and that of his time:A Base Ball tourney had been held in Chicago on July 4, 1867, in which the Excelsiors of that city and the Forest City Club, of Rockford, had been the leading contestants.", "The former had defeated the Forest City nine in two games, by the very close scores of 45–41 in one, and 28–25 in another, when the Forest Citys were invited to meet the Nationals at Chicago on July 25, a day which proved the most notable of the tour.", "The contest took place at Dexter Park, before a vast crowd of spectators, the majority of whom looked to see the Nationals have almost a walk-over.", "In the game A. G. Spalding was pitcher and Ross Barnes shortstop for the Forest City nine; these two afterwards becoming famous as star players of the Boston professional team of the early seventies.", "Williams was pitcher for the Nationals and Frank Norton catcher.", "The Nationals took the lead in the first innings by 3 to 2; but in the next two innings they added but five runs to their score, while the Forest Citys added thirteen to theirs, thereby taking the lead by a score of fifteen to eight, to the great surprise of the crowd and the delight of the Rockfords.", "The Nationals tried hard to recover the lost ground.", "The final result, however, was the success of the Forest Citys by a score of 29 to 23 in a nine innings game, twice interrupted by rain." ], [ "Later life", "Late in life, Chadwick continued editing the ''Spalding Base Ball Guides'' and producing a column for the ''Brooklyn Daily Eagle''.", "In late 1905, he wrote the editor of ''The New York Times'' to propose widening of the baseball bat to overcome the advantage that pitchers had established in the game.", "In his letter, Chadwick noted that some cricket experts had advocated for the narrowing of the cricket bat to bring balance to the advantage that belonged to the batter in that game.In the winter before the 1908 baseball season, Chadwick was struck by an automobile and was bedridden for several weeks.", "He recovered and attended an exhibition game at the Polo Grounds the week before the season began.", "He caught a cold while at the game, and the illness worsened when he attended an Opening Day game at Washington Park in Brooklyn.On April 19, Chadwick was moving furniture from the fourth floor of his apartment to the second floor when he fell unconscious.", "He was diagnosed with pneumonia and heart failure.", "He awakened briefly and asked about the game between Brooklyn and New York, but he died the next day.", "Henry Chadwick is interred at Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York." ], [ "Legacy", "For his contributions to the game of baseball, he was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame by the Veterans Committee in 1938.He was inducted in the same ceremony as Alexander Cartwright.In 2009, the Society for American Baseball Research (SABR) established the Henry Chadwick Award to honor the outstanding contributions of baseball researchers.", "Bill James and John Thorn are among the award's recipients.A collection of historical baseball items, which featured a letter written by Chadwick on the origins of baseball, sold at auction in 2004 for $310,500.Chadwick was inducted to the Suffolk Sports Hall of Fame during 2020.Chadwick, through the Spalding Athletic Library collection, added \"The Ancient History of Base Ball\" in 1867 and \"Technical Terms of Base Ball\" in 1897." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "Tygiel, Jules.", "''Past Time''.", "Schwarz, Alan (2004).", "''The Numbers Game: Baseball's Lifelong Fascination With Statistics''.", "New York: Thomas Dunne Books.", "Schiff, Andrew (2008).", "''\"The Father of Baseball\": A Biography of Henry Chadwick''.", "Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland." ], [ "External links", "* Hall of Fame graves – Gravesites of Baseball Hall of Famers* * * The Game of Base Ball (1868) – Complete text of Chadwick's 1868 book* Review of \"The Father of Baseball: A Biography of Henry Chadwick\"* * Green-Wood Cemetery Burial Search" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Higher education" ], [ "Introduction", "Harvard University, founded in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1636, is the oldest higher education institution in the United States and routinely ranked as one of the best universities in the world.", "'''Higher education''' is tertiary education leading to the award of an academic degree.", "Higher education, which makes up a component of post-secondary, third-level, or tertiary education, is an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after completion of secondary education.", "It represents levels 5, 6, 7, and 8 of the 2011 version of the International Standard Classification of Education structure.", "Tertiary education at a nondegree level is sometimes referred to as further education or continuing education as distinct from higher education." ], [ "The right of access to higher education", "The right of access to higher education is mentioned in a number of international human rights instruments.", "The UN International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 declares, in Article 13, that \"higher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of capacity, by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education\".", "In Europe, Article 2 of the First Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights, adopted in 1950, obliges all signatory parties to guarantee the right to education." ], [ "Definition", "A post-secondary graduate receives a diploma during a graduation ceremony at Germanna Community College in Virginia.Higher education, also called post-secondary education, third-level or tertiary education, is an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after completion of secondary education.", "This consists of universities, colleges and polytechnics that offer formal degrees beyond high school or secondary school education.The International Standard Classification of Education in 1997 initially classified all tertiary education together in the 1997 version of its schema.", "They were referred to as level 5 and doctoral studies at level 6.In 2011, this was refined and expanded in the 2011 version of the structure.", "Higher education at undergraduate level, masters and doctoral level became levels 6, 7, and 8.Nondegree level tertiary education, sometimes referred to as further education or continuing education was reordered as level 4, with level 5 for some higher courses.In the days when few pupils progressed beyond primary education or basic education, the term \"higher education\" was often used to refer to secondary education, which can create some confusion.", "This is the origin of the term ''high school'' for various schools for children between the ages of 14 and 18 (United States) or 11 and 18 (United Kingdom and Australia).===Providers===Deakin University, one of Australia's 43 universitiesIn the U.S., higher education is provided by universities, academies, colleges, seminaries, conservatories, and institutes of technology, and certain college-level institutions, including vocational schools, universities of applied sciences, trade schools, and other career-based colleges that award degrees.", "Tertiary education at a nondegree level is sometimes referred to as further education or continuing education as distinct from higher education.Higher education includes teaching, research, exacting applied work, as exists in medical schools and dental schools, and social services activities of universities.Within the realm of teaching, it includes both the ''undergraduate'' level, and beyond that, ''graduate-level'' (or ''postgraduate'' level).", "The latter level of education is often referred to as graduate school, especially in North America.", "In addition to the skills that are specific to any particular degree, potential employers in any profession are looking for evidence of critical thinking and analytical reasoning skills, teamworking skills, information literacy, ethical judgment, decision-making skills, fluency in speaking and writing, problem solving skills, and a wide knowledge of liberal arts and sciences." ], [ "History", "Bologna University in Italy, established in 1088 A.D., is the world's oldest university in continuous operation.Established in 1224 by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, University of Naples Federico II in Italy is the world's oldest state-funded university in continuous operation.The oldest known institutions of higher education are credited to Dynastic Egypt, with Pr-Anx (houses of life) built as libraries and scriptoriums, containing works on law, architecture, mathematics, and medicine, and involved in the training of \"swnw\" and \"swnwt\" (male and female doctors); extant Egyptian papyri from the 3rd millennia BC are in several collections.In the Greek world, Plato's Academy ( - 86 BC), Aristotle's Lyceum ( - 86 BC) and other philosophical-mathematical schools became models for other establishments, particularly in Alexandria of Egypt, under the Ptolemies.", "In South Asia, the city of Taxila, later the great Buddhist monastery of Nalanda ( - 1197 CE), attracted students and professors even from distant regions.", "In China, the Han dynasty established chairs to teach the Five Confucean Classics, in the Grand School, Taixue ( - 1905 CE), to train cadres for the imperial administration.", "All these higher-learning institutions became models for other schools within their sphere of cultural influence.In 425 CE, the Byzantine emperor Theodosius II innovated as he established the Pandidakterion, with a faculty of 31 professors, to train public servants.", "In the 7th and 8th centuries, \"cathedral schools\" were created in Western Europe.", "Meanwhile, the first Medresahs were founded in the Moslem empire – initially mere primary schools in the premises of major mosques, which gradually evolved toward secondary, later higher education.", "However high the intellectual level of these schools could be, it would be anachronistic to call them \"universities\".", "Their organization and purposes were markedly different from the corporations of students and teachers, independent from both the Church and the State, which established themselves from the 12th century in Western Europe as ''Universitas Studiorum''.According to UNESCO and ''Guinness World Records'', the University of al-Qarawiyyin in Fez, Morocco is the oldest existing continually operating higher educational institution in the world.", "and is occasionally referred to as the oldest university by scholars.", "Undoubtedly, there are older institutions of higher education, for example, the University of Ez-Zitouna in Montfleury, Tunis, was first established in 737.The University of Bologna, Italy, founded in 1088, is the world's oldest university in continuous operation, and the first university in the sense of a higher-learning and degree-awarding institute, as the word ''universitas'' was coined at its foundation.", "===20th century===Since World War II, developed and many developing countries have increased the participation of the age group who mostly studies higher education from the elite rate, of up to 15 per cent, to the mass rate of 16 to 50 per cent.", "In many developed countries, participation in higher education has continued to increase towards universal or, what Trow later called, open access, where over half of the relevant age group participate in higher education.", "Higher education is important to national economies, both as an industry, in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy.", "College educated workers have commanded a measurable wage premium and are much less likely to become unemployed than less educated workers.===21st century===In recent years, universities have been criticized for permitting or actively encouraging grade inflation.", "Also, the supply of graduates in many fields of study is exceeding the demand for their skills, aggravating graduate unemployment, underemployment, overqualification and educational inflation.", "Some commentators have suggested that the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education is rapidly making certain aspects of the traditional higher education system obsolete.", "The involvement and funding by foreign regimes in higher education in the US and Europe raised concerns regarding the erosion of democratic norms and hate speech on campuses." ], [ "Statistics", "A 2014 report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development states that by 2014, 84 percent of young people were completing upper secondary education over their lifetimes, in high-income countries.", "Tertiary-educated individuals were earning twice as much as median workers.", "In contrast to historical trends in education, young women were more likely to complete upper secondary education than young men.", "Additionally, access to education was expanding and growth in the number of people receiving university education was rising sharply.", "By 2014, close to 40 percent of people aged 25–34 (and around 25 percent of those aged 55–64), were being educated at university.===Recognition of studies===The Lisbon Recognition Convention stipulates that degrees and periods of study must be recognised in all of the Signatory Parties of the convention." ], [ "See also", "* :Category:Higher education by country* List of higher education associations and alliances* College and university rankings* Governance in higher education* Graduation* Higher education accreditation* Higher education bubble* Higher education policy* Higher Education Price Index* Institute* UnCollege* ''Hochschule''* League of European Research Universities* Technical and Further Education (TAFE)===Higher education by country===Tertiary education in AustraliaHigher education in CanadaHigher education in UkraineUniversities in the United KingdomHigher education in the United StatesHigher education in the PhilippinesHigher education in Portugal" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " * * Council of Europe Higher Education Series" ], [ "External links", "* Association for the Study of Higher Education* American Educational Research Association* World Bank Tertiary Education" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Heather Fargo" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Heather Fargo''' (born December 12, 1952) is an American politician who served as mayor and was a former City Council Member of Sacramento, California.", "She was sworn in as mayor in November 2000, replacing Jimmie R. Yee, and served until December 2008, when she was defeated for reelection by Kevin Johnson." ], [ "Early life and education", "Born in Oakland, California, Fargo grew up in Santa Maria and graduated from Stagg High School.", "She received a Bachelor of Science degree in environmental planning and management from the University of California, Davis in 1975.In 1981, Fargo earned a Certificate of Completion from the Revenue Sources Management School in Boulder, Colorado.", "She also completed the State and Local Government Executive Program at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University in 1991." ], [ "Career", "Fargo was first elected to the Sacramento City Council in 1989 to a five-year term as Sacramento was transitioning to even year citywide elections.", "Fargo represented District One which includes Downtown and Natomas.", "In the September primary, she came in second place to businesswoman Kate Karpilow but beat future City Councilman Ray Tretheway who came in third place and incumbent David Shore who came in fourth place.", "However, Fargo came back to beat Karpilow in November.Upon Grantland Johnson's resignation from the Sacramento County Board of Supervisors in 1994, Fargo decided to run for the Board.", "In that election, she faced attorney and community activist Roger Dickinson.", "In a closely fought election, Dickinson narrowly beat Fargo.", "After that loss she was re-elected in 1994 and 1998.While serving on the city council, (prior to becoming Mayor full-time), she was employed as a manager of the California State Parks Volunteer Program.=== 2000 mayoral campaign ===Upon the sudden death in November 1999 of Mayor Joe Serna, Jr., Land Park City Councilman Jimmie Yee became the acting mayor.", "Several candidates announced their intentions to run.", "Other than Fargo, three other council members were also seeking the mayorship.", "North Sacramento City Councilman Rob Kerth who represented an area immediately adjacent to Fargo's also decided to run.", "In addition, Steve Cohn, the city councilman for East Sacramento ran along with Robbie Waters who represents the Pocket and Greenhaven areas decided to run along with several lesser known candidates that included businessman and attorney Joe Genshlea and community activist Julie Padilla.", "Fargo, who won 22% of the vote in the primary and Kerth who won 20% of the vote made it into the November runoff, where Fargo was elected with just 53% of the vote.", "In winning, Fargo became the second elected mayor of Sacramento, and the first mayor from north of the American River.=== 2004 mayoral campaign ===Fargo did not face as stiff competition in her 2004 re-election.", "Her main opponent was Ross W. Relles, Jr., a businessman.", "Other candidates were Deputy Attorney General Mark Soble and Lorenzo Patino Law School President Leonard Padilla.", "Virtually unopposed against candidates far less funded, Fargo won solidly in the primary election, thus no runoff was necessary.=== 2008 mayoral campaign ===The primary election for mayor took place on June 3, 2008.Fargo received 39% of the vote, while former NBA star and Sacramento native Kevin Johnson received 46% of the vote.", "Since neither received a majority of the votes, a run off election was scheduled for November 2008, where she was defeated by a margin of 58% to 42%.During the primary election campaign, Fargo initially claimed that she had the support of all the city councilmembers.", "Yet, Councilman Robbie Waters, Steve Cohn, and Sandra Sheedy all ended up endorsing Johnson during the primary.", "On September 4, 2008, only Councilman Kevin McCarty endorsed Heather Fargo." ], [ "Political positions", "===Environment===Fargo was a founding member and the first secretary of the Sacramento Tree Foundation, which is considered an important voice in Sacramento's environmental community.", "===Gun control===During her tenure Mayor Fargo became a member of the Mayors Against Illegal Guns Coalition, an organization formed in 2006 and co-chaired by New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg and Boston mayor Thomas Menino.=== Women's rights ===Fargo is a long term advocate for women in politics.", "After she left office Fargo has continued to encourage women to run for office.", "Fargo is also active in promoting awareness about the history of women's suffrage." ], [ "Mayoral tenure", "Mayor Fargo's tenure as mayor included disagreements with the Maloof family, owners of the NBA's Sacramento Kings, over the building of a new arena.In 2006, 2007, and 2008, Mayor Fargo was named \"Best Local Elected Official\" by the readers of ''Sacramento Magazine'' in their annual poll." ], [ "Electoral history", "===2000 primary election for mayor of Sacramento=== Name Percentage of the Vote Heather Fargo 21.76% Rob Kerth 20.19% Robbie Waters 18.23% Joe Genshlea 14.68% Julie Padilla 11.68% Steve Cohn 9.08%===2000 general election for mayor of Sacramento=== Name Percentage of the Vote Heather Fargo 54.07% Rob Kerth 45.93%=== 2004 primary election for mayor of Sacramento === Name Percentage of the Vote Heather Fargo 59.77% Ross W. Relles, Jr. 20.91% Mark Soble 11.54% Leonard Padilla 7.78%Because Fargo received a majority of the votes in the primary election, no general election was necessary.=== 2008 primary election for mayor of Sacramento === Name Percentage of the Vote Kevin Johnson 46.58% Heather Fargo 39.65% Leonard Padilla 5.83% Shawn D. Eldredge 3.44% Muriel Strand 2.79%Johnson and Fargo proceeded to a runoff election on November 5.===2008 general election for mayor of Sacramento=== Name Percentage of the Vote Kevin Johnson 54% Heather Fargo 46%Precincts Reporting - 215 out of 391" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Henotheism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Henotheism''' is the worship of a single, supreme god that does not deny the existence or possible existence of other deities that may not be worshipped.", "Friedrich Schelling (1775–1854) coined the word, and Friedrich Welcker (1784–1868) used it to depict primitive monotheism among ancient Greeks.Max Müller (1823–1900), a German philologist and orientalist, brought the term into wider usage in his scholarship on the Indian religions, particularly Hinduism whose scriptures mention and praise numerous deities as if they are one ultimate unitary divine essence.", "Müller made the term central to his criticism of Western theological and religious exceptionalism (relative to Eastern religions), focusing on a cultural dogma which held \"monotheism\" to be both fundamentally well-defined and inherently superior to differing conceptions of God." ], [ "Definition and terminology", "Friedrich Schelling coined the German term ''Henotheismus'' and German ''Theismus'' 'theism' (which comes ).", "The term refers to a form of theism focused on a single god.", "Related terms are monolatry and kathenotheism.", "The latter term is an extension of \"henotheism\", .", "Henotheism refers to a pluralistic theology wherein different deities are viewed to be of a unitary, equivalent divine essence.", "Another term related to henotheism is \"equitheism\", referring to the belief that all gods are equal.", "Further, the term henotheism does not exclude monism, nondualism or dualism.Various scholars prefer the term monolatry to henotheism, to discuss religions where a single god is central, but the existence or the position of other gods is not denied.", "According to Christoph Elsas, henotheism in modern usage connotes a syncretic stage in the development of religions in late antiquity.", "A henotheist may worship a single god from a pantheon of deities at a given time, depending on his or her choice, while accepting other deities and concepts of god.", "Henotheism and inclusive monotheism are terms that refer to a middle position between unlimited polytheism and exclusive monotheism." ], [ "Zoroastrianism", "Ahura Mazda is the supreme god, but Zoroastrianism does not deny other deities.", "Ahura Mazda has yazatas (\"good agents\") some of which include Anahita, Sraosha, Mithra, Rashnu, and Tishtrya.", "Richard Foltz has put forth evidence that Iranians of Pre-Islamic era worshipped all these figures, especially Mithra and Anahita.Prods Oktor Skjærvø states Zoroastrianism is henotheistic, and \"a dualistic and polytheistic religion, but with one supreme god, who is the father of the ordered cosmos\".", "Other scholars state that this is unclear, because historic texts present a conflicting picture, ranging from Zoroastrianism's belief in \"one god, two gods, or a best god henotheism\"." ], [ "Hinduism", "Henotheism was the term used by scholars such as Max Müller to describe the theology of Vedic religion.", "Müller noted that the hymns of the ''Rigveda'', the oldest scripture of Hinduism, mention many deities, but praises them successively as the \"one ultimate, supreme God\", alternatively as \"one supreme Goddess\", thereby asserting that the essence of the deities was unitary (''ekam''), and the deities were nothing but pluralistic manifestations of the same concept of the divine (God).The Vedic era conceptualization of the divine or the One, states Jeaneane Fowler, is more abstract than a monotheistic God, it is the Reality behind and of the phenomenal universe.", "The Vedic hymns treat it as \"limitless, indescribable, absolute principle\", thus the Vedic divine is something of a panentheism rather than simple henotheism.", "In late Vedic era, around the start of Upanishadic age (~800 BCE), theosophical speculations emerge that develop concepts which scholars variously call nondualism or monism, as well as forms of non-theism and pantheism.", "An example of the questioning of the concept of God, in addition to henotheistic hymns found therein, are in later portions of the ''Rigveda'', such as the Nasadiya Sukta.", "Hinduism calls the metaphysical absolute concept as Brahman, incorporating within it the transcendent and immanent reality.", "Different schools of thought interpret Brahman as either personal, impersonal or transpersonal.", "Ishwar Chandra Sharma describes it as \"Absolute Reality, beyond all dualities of existence and non-existence, light and darkness, and of time, space and cause.\"" ], [ "Hellenistic religion", "While Greek and Roman religion began as polytheism, during the Classical period, under the influence of philosophy, differing conceptions emerged.", "Often Zeus (or Jupiter) was considered the supreme, all-powerful and all-knowing king and father of the Olympian gods.", "According to Maijastina Kahlos, \"monotheism was pervasive in the educated circles in Late Antiquity\" and \"all divinities were interpreted as aspects, particles or epithets of one supreme God\".", "Maximus Tyrius (2nd century C.E.)", "stated:: \"In such a mighty contest, sedition and discord, you will see one according law and assertion in all the earth, that there is one God, the king and father of all things, and many gods, sons of God, ruling together with him.", "\"The Neoplatonic philosopher Plotinus taught that above the gods of traditional belief was \"The One\".", "Maximus, the polytheist grammarian of Madauros, even stated that ''only a madman would deny the existence of the supreme God''." ], [ "Canaanite religion and Yahwism", "Second Temple Judaism and Rabbinical Judaism are emphatically monotheistic.", "However, its predecessor—the cult of Yahweh as it was practiced in ancient Israel during the 8th and 7th centuries BCE (Yahwism)—has been described as henotheistic or monolatric.For example, the Moabites worshipped the god Chemosh, the Edomites, Qaus, both of whom were part of the greater Canaanite pantheon, headed by the chief god, El.", "The Canaanite pantheon consisted of El and Asherah as the chief deities, with 70 sons who were said to rule over each of the nations of the earth.", "These sons were each worshiped within a specific region.", "Kurt Noll states that \"the Bible preserves a tradition that Yahweh used to 'live' in the south, in the land of Edom\" and that the original god of Israel was El Shaddai.Several biblical stories allude to the belief that the Canaanite gods all existed and were thought to possess the most power in the lands by the people who worshiped them and their sacred objects; their power was believed to be real and could be invoked by the people who patronized them.", "There are numerous accounts of surrounding nations of Israel showing fear or reverence for the Israelite God despite their continued polytheistic practices.", "For instance, in 1 Samuel 4, the Philistines fret before the second battle of Aphek when they learn that the Israelites are bearing the Ark of the Covenant, and therefore Yahweh, into battle.", "The Israelites were forbidden to worship other deities, but according to some interpretations of the Bible, they were not fully monotheistic before the Babylonian captivity.", "Mark S. Smith refers to this stage as a form of monolatry.", "Smith argues that Yahweh underwent a process of merging with El and that acceptance of cults of Asherah was common in the period of the Judges.", "2 Kings 3:27 has been interpreted as describing a human sacrifice in Moab that led the invading Israelite army to fear the power of Chemosh." ], [ "In Christianity", "Paul the Apostle, in his First Epistle to the Corinthians, writes that \"we know that an idol is nothing\" and \"that there is none other God but one\".", "He argues in verse 5 that \"for though there be that are called gods, whether in heaven or in earth\", \"but to us there is but one God\".", "Some translators of verse 5 put the words \"gods\" and \"lords\" in quotes to indicate that they are gods or lords only ''so-called''.In his Second Epistle to the Corinthians, Paul refers to \"the god of this world\", which the 18th-century theologian John Gill interpreted as a reference to Satan or the material things put before God, such as money, rather than acknowledging any separate deity from God.===The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints===Some scholars have written that the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) can be characterized as henotheistic, but others have rejected that stance.Eugene England, a professor at Brigham Young University, asserted that LDS Presidents Brigham Young and Joseph Fielding Smith along with the LDS scholar B. H. Roberts used the LDS interpretation of 1 Corinthians 8:5–6 as \"a brief explanation of how it is possible to be both a Christian polytheist (technically a henotheist) and a monotheist\".", "BYU Professor Roger R. Keller rejected descriptions of the LDS Church as polytheistic by countering, as summarized by a reviewer, \"Mormons are fundamentally monotheistic because they deal with only one god out of the many which exist.", "\"In their book, ''Mormon America: The Power and the Promise'', Richard and Joan Ostling, wrote that some Mormons are comfortable describing themselves as henotheists.Kurt Widmer, professor at the University of Lethbridge, described LDS beliefs as a \"cosmic henotheism\".", "A review of Widmer's book by Bruening and Paulsen in the ''FARMS Review of Books'' countered that Widmer's hypothesis was \"strongly disconfirmed in light of the total evidence\".Van Hale has written, \"Mormonism teaches the existence of gods who are not the Father, Son, or Holy Ghost\" and \"the existence of more than one god is clearly a Mormon doctrine\", but he also said that defining this belief system in theological terms was troublesome.", "Henotheism might appear to be \"promising\" in describing LDS beliefs, Hale wrote, but it is ultimately not accurate because henotheism was intended to describe the worship of a god that was restricted to a specific geographical area." ], [ "See also", "* Comparative religion* Henosis, mystical \"oneness\", \"union\", or \"unity\" in classical Greek* King of the gods, a tendency for one divinity, usually male, to achieve preeminence." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* What are Henotheism and Monolatry?", "in About Religion* On Henotheism in Sofiatopia" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hedwig of Silesia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hedwig of Silesia''' (), also '''Hedwig of Andechs''' (, ; 1174 – 15 October 1243), a member of the Bavarian comital House of Andechs, was Duchess of Silesia from 1201 and of Greater Poland from 1231 as well as High Duchess consort of Poland from 1232 until 1238.She was canonized by the Catholic Church in 1267 by Pope Clement IV." ], [ "Life", "The daughter of Count Berthold IV of Andechs, margrave of Carniola and Istria and his second wife Agnes of Wettin, she was born at Andechs Castle in the Duchy of Bavaria.", "Her elder sister, Agnes, married King Philip II of France (annulled in 1200) and her sister Gertrude (killed in 1213) married King Andrew II of Hungary, while the youngest Matilda, (Mechtild) became abbess at the Benedictine Abbey of Kitzingen in Franconia, where Hedwig also received her education.", "Hedwig's brother was Bishop , Count of Andechs-Meranien.", "Another brother was Berthold, Archbishop of Kalocsa and Patriarch of Aquileia, while her brother Henry, Margrave of Istria was the first lord of Carniola.Through her sister Gertrude, she was the aunt of Elizabeth of Hungary.===Duchess consort===At the age of twelve, Hedwig married Henry I the Bearded, son and heir of the Piast duke Boleslaus the Tall of Silesia.", "As soon as Henry succeeded his father in 1201, he had to struggle with his Piast relatives, at first with his uncle Duke Mieszko IV Tanglefoot who immediately seized the Upper Silesian Duchy of Opole.", "In 1206 Henry and his cousin Duke Władysław III Spindleshanks of Greater Poland agreed to swap the Silesian Lubusz Land against the Kalisz region, which met with fierce protest by Władysław's III nephew Władysław Odonic.", "When Henry went to Gąsawa in 1227 to meet his Piast cousins, he narrowly saved his life, while High Duke Leszek I the White was killed by the men of the Pomerelian Duke Swietopelk II, instigated by Władysław Odonic.Hedwig intercedes between Henry and Konrad, 19th century depictionThe next year Henry's ally Władysław III Spindleshanks succeeded Leszek I as High Duke; however as he was still contested by his nephew in Greater Poland, he made Henry his governor at Kraków, whereby the Silesian duke once again became entangled in the dispute over the Seniorate Province.", "In 1229 he was captured and arrested at Płock Castle by rivaling Duke Konrad I of Masovia.", "Hedwig proceeded to Płock pleading for Henry and was able to have him released.Her actions promoted the reign of her husband: upon the death of the Polish High Duke Władysław III Spindleshanks in 1231, Henry also became Duke of Greater Poland and the next year prevailed as High Duke at Kraków.", "He thereby was the first of the Silesian Piast descendants of Władysław II the Exile to gain the rule over Silesia and the Seniorate Province in accord with the 1138 Testament of Bolesław III Krzywousty.===Widow===Upon his death in 1238, Henry was buried at a Cistercian monastery of nuns, Trzebnica Abbey (''Kloster Trebnitz''), which he had established in 1202 at Hedwig's request.", "Hedwig accepted the death of her beloved husband with faith.", "She said:The widow moved into the monastery, which was led by her daughter Gertrude, assuming the religious habit of a lay sister, but she did not take vows.", "She invited numerous German religious people from the Holy Roman Empire into the Silesian lands, as well as German settlers who founded numerous cities, towns and villages in the course of the ''Ostsiedlung'', while cultivating barren parts of Silesia for agriculture.Hedwig and Henry had several daughters, though only one surviving son, Henry II the Pious, who succeeded his father as Duke of Silesia and Polish High Duke.", "The widow, however, had to witness the killing of her son, vainly awaiting the support of Emperor Frederick II, during the Mongol invasion of Poland at the Battle of Legnica (''Wahlstatt'') in 1241.The hopes for a re-united Poland were lost, and even Silesia fragmented into numerous Piast duchies under Henry II's sons.", "Hedwig and her daughter-in-law, Henry II's widow Anna of Bohemia, established a Benedictine abbey at the site of the battle in Legnickie Pole, settled with monks coming from Opatovice in Bohemia.Breslau, around 1430, restored in 1929, National Museum WarsawHedwig and Henry had lived very pious lives, and Hedwig had great zeal for her faith.", "She had supported her husband in donating the Augustinian provostry at Nowogród Bobrzański (''Naumburg'') and the commandery of the Knights Templar at Oleśnica Mała (''Klein Oels'').", "Hedwig always helped the poor, the widows and the orphans, founded several hospitals for the sick and the lepers and donated all her fortune to the Church.", "She allowed no one to leave her uncomforted, and one time she spent ten weeks teaching the Our Father to a poor woman.", "According to legend, she went barefoot even in winter, and when she was urged by the Bishop of Wrocław to wear shoes, she carried them in her hands.", "On 15 October 1243, Hedwig died and was buried in Trzebnica Abbey with her husband, while relics of her are preserved at Andechs Abbey and St. Hedwig's Cathedral in Berlin." ], [ "Veneration", "Monument in WrocławHedwig was canonized in 1267 by Pope Clement IV, a supporter of the Cistercian order, at the suggestion of her grandson Prince-Archbishop Władysław of Salzburg.", "She is the patron saint of Silesia, of Andechs, and of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Wrocław and the Roman Catholic Diocese of Görlitz.", "Her feast day is celebrated on the General Roman Calendar on 16 October.", "The Order of Saint Paul the First Hermit, who count her as a great benefactor, celebrate it on 8 June.", "A 17th-century legend has it that Hedwig, while on a pilgrimage to Rome, stopped at Bad Zell in Austria, where she had healing waters spring up at a source which today still bears her name.In 1773 the Prussian king Frederick the Great, having conquered and annexed the bulk of Silesia in the First Silesian War, had St. Hedwig in Berlin built for the Catholic Upper Silesian immigrants, since 1930 the cathedral of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Berlin.", "After the expulsion of almost all Germans from Silesia, German Silesians carried Hedwig's veneration to all over remaining Germany.In March 2020 the discovery of Hedwig's remains, that had been missing for centuries, was reported.", "The remains were found in her sanctuary in Trzebnica, in a silver casket bearing a lead tablet with an inscription confirming Hedwig's identity.Hedwig glasses are named after Hedwig of Silesia." ], [ "Children", "Hedwig and Henry I had seven children:#Agnes (ca.", "1190 – before 11 May 1214).#Bolesław (ca.", "1191 – 10 September 1206/08).#Henry II the Pious (ca.", "1196 – killed in Battle of Legnica, 9 April 1241).#Konrad the Curly (ca.", "1198 – Czerwony Kosciol, 4 September 1213).#Sophie (ca.", "1200 – before 22/23 March 1214).#Gertrude (ca.", "1200 – Trebnitz, 6/30 December 1268), Abbess of Trebnitz.#A son Władysław?", "(before 25 December 1208 – 1214/17)." ], [ "See also", "* Saint Hedwig of Silesia, patron saint archive" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hasidic Judaism" ], [ "Introduction", "tish'' of the Boyan Hasidic dynasty in Jerusalem, holiday of Sukkot, 2009\|300px '''Hasidism''', sometimes spelled '''Chassidism''', and also known as '''Hasidic Judaism''' (Ashkenazi Hebrew: חסידות ''Ḥăsīdus'', ; originally, \"piety\"), is a religious movement within Judaism that arose as a spiritual revival movement in the territory of contemporary Western Ukraine, then Poland, during the 18th century, and spread rapidly throughout Eastern Europe.", "Today, most of those affiliated with the movement, known as ''hassidim'', reside in Israel and in the United States.Israel Ben Eliezer, the \"Baal Shem Tov\", is regarded as its founding father, and his disciples developed and disseminated it.", "Present-day Hasidism is a sub-group within Haredi Judaism and is noted for its religious conservatism and social seclusion.", "Its members adhere closely both to Orthodox Jewish practice – with the movement's own unique emphases – and the traditions of Eastern European Jews.", "Many of the latter, including various special styles of dress and the use of the Yiddish language, are nowadays associated almost exclusively with Hasidism.Hasidic thought draws heavily on Lurianic Kabbalah, and, to an extent, is a popularization of it.", "Teachings emphasize God's immanence in the universe, the need to cleave and be one with Him at all times, the devotional aspect of religious practice, and the spiritual dimension of corporeality and mundane acts.", "''Hasidim'', the adherents of Hasidism, are organized in independent sects known as \"courts\" or dynasties, each headed by its own hereditary male leader, a Rebbe.", "Reverence and submission to the Rebbe are key tenets, as he is considered a spiritual authority with whom the follower must bond to gain closeness to God.", "The various \"courts\" share basic convictions, but operate apart and possess unique traits and customs.", "Affiliation is often retained in families for generations, and being Hasidic is as much a sociological factor – entailing birth into a specific community and allegiance to a dynasty of Rebbes – as it is a religious one.", "There are several \"courts\" with many thousands of member households each, and hundreds of smaller ones.", ", there were over 130,000 Hasidic households worldwide, about 5% of the global Jewish population." ], [ "Etymology", "The terms ''hasid'' and ''hasidut'', meaning \"pietist\" and \"piety\", have a long history in Judaism.", "The Talmud and other old sources refer to the \"Pietists of Old\" (''Hasidim haRishonim'') who would contemplate an entire hour in preparation for prayer.", "The phrase denoted extremely devoted individuals who not only observed the Law to its letter, but performed good deeds even beyond it.", "Adam himself is honored with the title, in tractate Eruvin 18b by Rabbi Meir: \"Adam was a great ''hasid'', having fasted for 130 years.\"", "The first to adopt the epithet collectively were apparently the ''hasidim'' in Second Temple period Judea, known as Hasideans after the Greek rendering of their name, who perhaps served as the model for those mentioned in the Talmud.", "The title continued to be applied as an honorific for the exceptionally devout.", "In 12th-century Rhineland, or ''Ashkenaz'' in Jewish parlance, another prominent school of ascetics named themselves ''hasidim''; to distinguish them from the rest, later research employed the term Ashkenazi Hasidim.", "In the 16th century, when Kabbalah spread, the title also became associated with it.", "Jacob ben Hayyim Zemah wrote in his glossa on Isaac Luria's version of the Shulchan Aruch that, \"One who wishes to tap the hidden wisdom, must conduct himself in the manner of the Pious.", "\"The movement founded by Israel Ben Eliezer in the 18th century adopted the term ''hasidim'' in the original connotation.", "But when the sect grew and developed specific attributes, from the 1770s, the names gradually acquired a new meaning.", "Its common adherents, belonging to groups each headed by a spiritual leader, were henceforth known as Hasidim.", "The transformation was slow: The movement was at first referred to as \"New Hasidism\" by outsiders (as recalled in the autobiography of Salomon Maimon), to separate it from the old one, and its enemies derisively mocked its members as ''Mithasdim'', \"those who pretend to be ''hasidim''\".", "Yet, eventually, the young sect gained such a mass following that the old connotation was sidelined.", "In popular discourse, at least, \"Hasid\" came to denote someone who follows a religious teacher from the movement.", "It also entered Modern Hebrew as such, meaning \"adherent\" or \"disciple\".", "One was not merely a ''Hasid'' anymore, observed historian David Assaf, but a Hasid of someone or some dynasty in particular.", "This linguistic transformation paralleled that of the word ''tzaddik'', \"righteous\", which the Hasidic leaders adopted for themselves – though they are known colloquially as Rebbes or by the honorific ''Admor''.", "Originally denoting an observant, moral person, in Hasidic literature, ''tzaddik'' became synonymous with the often hereditary master heading a sect of followers." ], [ "Hasidic philosophy", "===Distinctions===The lengthy history of Hasidism, the numerous schools of thought therein, and its definitive use of homiletic literature and sermons – comprising numerous references to earlier sources in the Torah, Talmud, and exegesis as a means to grounding itself in tradition – to convey its ideas make the isolation of a common doctrine highly challenging to researchers.", "As noted by Joseph Dan, \"Every attempt to present such a body of ideas has failed\".", "Even motifs presented by scholars in the past as unique Hasidic contributions were later revealed to have been common among both their predecessors and opponents, all the more so regarding many other traits that are widely extant – these play, Dan added, \"a prominent role in modern non-Hasidic and anti-Hasidic writings as well\".", "The difficulty of separating the movement's philosophy from that of its main inspiration, Lurianic Kabbalah, and determining what was novel and what merely a recapitulation, also baffled historians.", "Some, like Louis Jacobs, regarded the early masters as innovators who introduced \"much that was new if only by emphasis\"; others, primarily Mendel Piekarz, argued to the contrary that but a little was not found in much earlier tracts, and the movement's originality lay in the manner it popularized these teachings to become the ideology of a well-organized sect.Among the traits particularly associated with Hasidism in common understanding which are in fact widespread, is the importance of joy and happiness at worship and religious life – though the sect undoubtedly stressed this aspect and still possesses a clear populist bent.", "Another example is the value placed on the simple, ordinary Jew in supposed contradiction with the favouring of elitist scholars beforehand; such ideas are common in ethical works far preceding Hasidism.", "The movement did for a few decades challenge the rabbinic establishment, which relied on the authority of Torah acumen, but affirmed the centrality of study very soon.", "Concurrently, the image of its Opponents as dreary intellectuals who lacked spiritual fervour and opposed mysticism is likewise unfounded.", "Neither did Hasidism, often portrayed as promoting healthy sensuality, unanimously reject the asceticism and self-mortification associated primarily with its rivals.", "Joseph Dan ascribed all these perceptions to so-called \"Neo-Hasidic\" writers and thinkers, like Martin Buber.", "In their attempt to build new models of spirituality for modern Jews, they propagated a romantic, sentimental image of the movement.", "The \"Neo-Hasidic\" interpretation influenced even scholarly discourse to a great degree, but had a tenuous connection with reality.A further complication is the divide between what researchers term \"early Hasidism\", which ended roughly in the 1810s, and established Hasidism since then onwards.", "While the former was a highly dynamic religious revival movement, the latter phase is characterized by consolidation into sects with hereditary leadership.", "The mystical teachings formulated during the first era were by no means repudiated, and many Hasidic masters remained consummate spiritualists and original thinkers; as noted by Benjamin Brown, Buber's once commonly accepted view that the routinization constituted \"decadence\" was refuted by later studies, demonstrating that the movement remained very much innovative.", "Yet many aspects of early Hasidism were indeed de-emphasized in favour of more conventional religious expressions, and its radical concepts were largely neutralized.", "Some Rebbes adopted a relatively rationalist bent, sidelining their explicit mystical, theurgical roles, and many others functioned almost solely as political leaders of large communities.", "As to their Hasidim, affiliation was less a matter of admiring a charismatic leader as in the early days, but rather birth into a family belonging to a specific \"court\".===Immanence===Rebuilt synagogue of the 300pxThe most fundamental theme underlying all Hasidic theory is the immanence of God in the universe, often expressed in a phrase from Tikunei haZohar, (Aramaic: \"no site is devoid of Him\").", "This panentheistic concept was derived from Lurianic discourse, but greatly expanded in the Hasidic one.", "In the beginning, in order to create the world, God contracted (''Tzimtzum'') His omnipresence, the ''Ein Sof'', leaving a Vacant Void (), bereft of obvious presence and therefore able to entertain free will, contradictions and other phenomena seemingly separate from God Himself.", "These would have been impossible within His original, perfect existence.", "Yet, the very reality of the world which was created in the Void is entirely dependent on its divine origin.", "Matter would have been null and void without the true, spiritual essence it possesses.", "Just the same, the infinite ''Ein Sof'' cannot manifest in the Vacant Void, and must limit itself in the guise of measurable corporeality that may be perceived.Thus, there is a dualism between the true aspect of everything and the physical side, false but ineluctable, with each evolving into the other: as God must compress and disguise Himself, so must humans and matter in general ascend and reunite with the Omnipresence.", "Rachel Elior quoted Shneur Zalman of Liadi, in his commentary ''Torah Or'' on Genesis 28:22, who wrote that \"this is the purpose of Creation, from Infinity to Finitude, so it may be reversed from the state of Finite to that of Infinity\".", "Kabbalah stressed the importance of this dialectic, but mainly (though not exclusively) evoked it in cosmic terms, referring for example to the manner in which God progressively diminished Himself into the world through the various dimensions, or ''Sephirot''.", "Hasidism applied it also to the most mundane details of human existence.", "All Hasidic schools devoted a prominent place in their teaching, with differing accentuation, to the interchanging nature of ''Ein'', both infinite and imperceptible, becoming ''Yesh'', \"Existent\" – and vice versa.", "They used the concept as a prism to gauge the world, and the needs of the spirit in particular.", "Elior noted: \"Reality lost its static nature and permanent value, now measured by a new standard, seeking to expose the Godly, boundless essence, manifest in its tangible, circumscribed opposite.", "\"One major derivative of this philosophy is the notion of ''devekut'', \"communion\".", "As God was everywhere, connection with Him had to be pursued ceaselessly as well, in all times, places and occasions.", "Such an experience was in the reach of every person, who only had to negate his inferior impulses and grasp the truth of divine immanence, enabling him to unite with it and attain the state of perfect, selfless bliss.", "Hasidic masters, well versed in the teachings concerning communion, are supposed not only to gain it themselves, but to guide their flock to it.", "''Devekut'' was not a strictly defined experience; many varieties were described, from the utmost ecstasy of the learned leaders to the common man's more humble yet no less significant emotion during prayer.Closely linked with the former is ''Bitul ha-Yesh'', \"Negation of the Existent\", or of the \"Corporeal\".", "Hasidism teaches that while a superficial observance of the universe by the \"eyes of the flesh\" (''Einei ha-Basar'') purportedly reflects the reality of all things profane and worldly, a true devotee must transcend this illusory façade and realize that there is nothing but God.", "It is not only a matter of perception, but very practical, for it entails also abandoning material concerns and cleaving only to the true, spiritual ones, oblivious to the surrounding false distractions of life.", "The practitioner's success in detaching from his sense of person, and conceive himself as ''Ein'' (in the double meaning of 'naught' and 'infinite'), is regarded as the highest state of elation in Hasidism.", "The true divine essence of man – the soul – may then ascend and return to the upper realm, where it does not possess an existence independent from God.", "This ideal is termed ''Hitpashtut ha-Gashmi'yut'', \"the expansion (or removal) of corporeality\".", "It is the dialectic opposite of God's contraction into the world.To be enlightened and capable of ''Bitul ha-Yesh'', pursuing the pure spiritual aims and defying the primitive impulses of the body, one must overcome his inferior \"Bestial Soul\", connected with the Eyes of the Flesh.", "He may be able to tap into his \"Divine Soul\" (''Nefesh Elohit''), which craves communion, by employing constant contemplation, ''Hitbonenut'', on the hidden Godly dimension of all that exists.", "Then he could understand his surroundings with the \"Eyes of the Intellect\".", "The ideal adherent was intended to develop equanimity, or ''Hishtavut'' in Hasidic parlance, toward all matters worldly, not ignoring them, but understanding their superficiality.Hasidic masters exhorted their followers to \"negate themselves\", paying as little heed as they could for worldly concerns, and thus, to clear the way for this transformation.", "The struggle and doubt of being torn between the belief in God's immanence and the very real sensual experience of the indifferent world is a key theme in the movement's literature.", "Many tracts have been devoted to the subject, acknowledging that the \"callous and rude\" flesh hinders one from holding fast to the ideal, and these shortcomings are extremely hard to overcome even in the purely intellectual level, a fortiori in actual life.Another implication of this dualism is the notion of \"Worship through Corporeality\", ''Avodah be-Gashmiyut''.", "As the ''Ein Sof'' metamorphosed into substance, so may it in turn be raised back to its higher state; likewise, since the machinations in the higher ''Sephirot'' exert their influence on this world, even the most simple action may, if performed correctly and with understanding, achieve the reverse effect.", "According to Lurianic doctrine, the netherworld was suffused with divine sparks, concealed within \"husks\", ''qlippoth''.", "The glints had to be recovered and elevated to their proper place in the cosmos.", "\"Materiality itself could be embraced and consecrated\", noted Glenn Dynner, and Hasidism taught that by common acts like dancing or eating, performed with intention, the sparks could be extricated and set free.", "''Avodah be-Gashmiyut'' had a clear, if not implicit, antinomian edge, possibly equating sacred rituals mandated by Judaism with everyday activities, granting them the same status in the believer's eyes and having him content to commit the latter at the expense of the former.", "While at some occasions the movement did appear to step at that direction – for example, in its early days, prayer and preparation for it consumed so much time that adherents were blamed of neglecting sufficient Torah study – Hasidic masters proved highly conservative.", "Unlike in other, more radical sects influenced by kabbalistic ideas, like the Sabbateans, Worship through Corporeality was largely limited to the elite and carefully restrained.", "The common adherents were taught they may engage it only mildly, through small deeds like earning money to support their leaders.The complementary opposite of corporeal worship, or the elation of the finite into infinite, is the concept of ''Hamshacha'', \"drawing down\" or \"absorbing\", and specifically, ''Hamshachat ha-Shefa'', \"absorption of effluence\".", "During spiritual ascension, one could siphon the power animating the higher dimensions down into the material world, where it would manifest as benevolent influence of all kinds.", "These included spiritual enlightenment, zest in worship and other high-minded aims, but also the more prosaic health and healing, deliverance from various troubles and simple economic prosperity.", "Thus, a very tangible and alluring motivation to become followers emerged.", "Both corporeal worship and absorption allowed the masses to access, with common actions, a religious experience once deemed esoteric.Yet another reflection of the ''Ein''-''Yesh'' dialectic is pronounced in the transformation of evil to goodness and the relations between these two poles and other contradicting elements – including various traits and emotions of the human psyche, like pride and humility, purity and profanity, et cetera.", "Hasidic thinkers argued that in order to redeem the sparks hidden, one had to associate not merely with the corporeal, but with sin and evil.", "One example is the elevation of impure thoughts during prayer, transforming them to noble ones rather than repressing them, advocated mainly in the early days of the sect; or \"breaking\" one's own character by directly confronting profane inclinations.", "This aspect, once more, had sharp antinomian implications and was used by the Sabbateans to justify excessive sinning.", "It was mostly toned down in late Hasidism, and even before that, leaders were careful to stress that it was not exercised in the physical sense, but in the contemplative, spiritual one.", "This kabbalistic notion, too, was not unique to the movement and appeared frequently among other Jewish groups.===Righteous One===Rebbe Yisroel Hopsztajn, a great promulgator of Hasidism in Poland, blessing acolytes .", "Hasidism gave the elite Tzadik a social mystical role.\|300pxWhile its mystical and ethical teachings are not easily sharply distinguished from those of other Jewish currents, the defining doctrine of Hasidism is that of the saintly leader, serving both as an ideal inspiration and an institutional figure around whom followers are organized.", "In the movement's sacral literature, this person is referred to as the ''Tzaddiq'', the Righteous One – often also known by the general honorific ''Admor'' (acronym of Hebrew for \"our master, teacher and Rabbi\"), granted to rabbis in general, or colloquially as ''Rebbe''.", "The idea that, in every generation, there are righteous persons through whom the divine effluence is drawn to the material world is rooted in the kabbalistic thought, which also claims that one of them is supreme, the reincarnation of Moses.", "Hasidism elaborated the notion of the ''Tzaddiq'' into the basis of its entire system – so much that the very term gained an independent meaning within it, apart from the original which denoted God-fearing, highly observant people.When the sect began to attract following and expanded from a small circle of learned disciples to a mass movement, it became evident that its complex philosophy could be imparted only partially to the new rank and file.", "As even intellectuals struggled with the sublime dialectics of infinity and corporeality, there was little hope to have the common folk truly internalize these, not as mere abstractions to pay lip service to.", "Ideologues exhorted them to have faith, but the true answer, which marked their rise as a distinct sect, was the concept of the ''Tzaddiq''.", "A Hasidic master was to serve as a living embodiment of the recondite teachings.", "He was able to transcend matter, gain spiritual communion, Worship through Corporeality and fulfill all the theoretical ideals.", "As the vast majority of his flock could not do so themselves, they were to cleave to him instead, acquiring at least some semblance of those vicariously.", "His commanding and often – especially in the early generations – charismatic presence was to reassure the faithful and demonstrate the truth in Hasidic philosophy by countering doubts and despair.", "But more than spiritual welfare was concerned: Since it was believed he could ascend to the higher realms, the leader was able to harvest effluence and bring it down upon his adherents, providing them with very material benefits.", "\"The crystallization of that theurgical phase\", noted Glenn Dynner, \"marked Hasidism's evolution into a full-fledged social movement.", "\"In Hasidic discourse, the willingness of the leader to sacrifice the ecstasy and fulfillment of unity in God was deemed a heavy sacrifice undertaken for the benefit of the congregation.", "His followers were to sustain and especially to obey him, as he possessed superior knowledge and insight gained through communion.", "The \"descent of the Righteous\" (''Yeridat ha-Tzaddiq'') into the matters of the world was depicted as identical with the need to save the sinners and redeem the sparks concealed in the most lowly places.", "Such a link between his functions as communal leader and spiritual guide legitimized the political power he wielded.", "It also prevented a retreat of Hasidic masters into hermitism and passivity, as many mystics before them did.", "Their worldly authority was perceived as part of their long-term mission to elevate the corporeal world back into divine infinity.", "To a certain extent, the Saint even fulfilled for his congregation, and for it alone, a limited Messianic capacity in his lifetime.", "After the Sabbatean debacle, this moderate approach provided a safe outlet for the eschatological urges.", "At least two leaders radicalized in this sphere and caused severe controversy: Nachman of Breslov, who declared himself the only true ''Tzaddiq'', and Menachem Mendel Schneerson, whom many of his followers believed to be the Messiah.", "The ''Rebbe''s were subject to intense hagiography, even subtly compared with Biblical figures by employing prefiguration.", "It was argued that since followers could not \"negate themselves\" sufficiently to transcend matter, they should instead \"negate themselves\" in submission to the Saint (''Hitbatlut la-Tzaddiq''), thus bonding with him and enabling themselves to access what he achieved in terms of spirituality.", "The Righteous served as a mystical bridge, drawing down effluence and elevating the prayers and petitions of his admirers.The Saintly forged a well-defined relationship with the masses: they provided the latter with inspiration, were consulted in all matters, and were expected to intercede on behalf of their adherents with God and ensure they gained financial prosperity, health and male offspring.", "The pattern still characterizes Hasidic sects, though prolonged routinization in many turned the ''Rebbes'' into de facto political leaders of strong, institutionalized communities.", "The role of a Saint was obtained by charisma, erudition and appeal in the early days of Hasidism.", "But by the dawn of the 19th century, the Righteous began to claim legitimacy by descent to the masters of the past, arguing that since they linked matter with infinity, their abilities had to be associated with their own corporeal body.", "Therefore, it was accepted \"there can be no ''Tzaddiq'' but the son of a ''Tzaddiq''\".", "Virtually all modern sects maintain this hereditary principle.", "For example, the ''Rebbe''s' families maintain endogamy and marry almost solely with scions of other dynasties.===Schools of thought===Some Hasidic \"courts\", and not a few individual prominent masters, developed distinct philosophies with particular accentuation of various themes in the movement's general teachings.", "Several of these Hasidic schools had lasting influence over many dynasties, while others died with their proponents.", "In the doctrinal sphere, the dynasties may be divided along many lines.", "Some are characterized by Rebbes who are predominantly Torah scholars and decisors, deriving their authority much like ordinary non-Hasidic rabbis do.", "Such \"courts\" place great emphasis on strict observance and study, and are among the most meticulous in the Orthodox world in practice.", "Prominent examples are the House of Sanz and its scions, such as Satmar, or Belz.", "Other sects, like Vizhnitz, espouse a charismatic-populist line, centered on the admiration of the masses for the Righteous, his effervescent style of prayer and conduct and his purported miracle-working capabilities.", "Fewer still retain a high proportion of the mystical-spiritualist themes of early Hasidism, and encourage members to study much kabbalistic literature and (carefully) engage in the field.", "The various Ziditchover dynasties mostly adhere to this philosophy.Others still focus on contemplation and achieving inner perfection.", "No dynasty is wholly devoted to a single approach of the above, and all offer some combination with differing emphasis on each of those.In 1812, a schism occurred between the Seer of Lublin and his prime disciple, the Holy Jew of Przysucha, due to both personal and doctrinal disagreements.", "The Seer adopted a populist approach, centered on the Righteous' theurgical functions to draw the masses.", "He was famous for his lavish, enthusiastic conduct during prayer and worship, and extremely charismatic demeanour.", "He stressed that as ''Tzaddiq'', his mission was to influence the common folk by absorbing Divine Light and satisfying their material needs, thus converting them to his cause and elating them.", "The Holy Jew pursued a more introspective course, maintaining that the Rebbe's duty was to serve as a spiritual mentor for a more elitist group, helping them to achieve a senseless state of contemplation, aiming to restore man to his oneness with God which Adam supposedly lost when he ate the fruit of the Lignum Scientiae.", "The Holy Jew and his successors did neither repudiate miracle working, nor did they eschew dramatic conduct; but they were much more restrained in general.", "The Przysucha School became dominant in Central Poland, while populist Hasidism resembling the Lublin ethos often prevailed in Galicia.", "One extreme and renowned philosopher who emerged from the Przysucha School was Menachem Mendel of Kotzk.", "Adopting an elitist, hard-line attitude, he openly denounced the folky nature of other ''Tzaddiqim'', and rejected financial support.", "Gathering a small group of devout scholars who sought to attain spiritual perfection, whom he often berated and mocked, he always stressed the importance of both somberness and totality, stating it was better to be fully wicked than only somewhat good.The Chabad school, limited to its namesake dynasty, but prominent, was founded by Shneur Zalman of Liadi and was elaborated by his successors, until the late 20th century.", "The movement retained many of the attributes of early Hasidism, before a clear divide between Righteous and ordinary followers was cemented.", "Chabad Rebbes insisted their adherents acquire proficiency in the sect's lore, and not relegate most responsibility to the leaders.", "The sect emphasizes the importance of intellectually grasping the dynamics of the hidden divine aspect and how they affect the human psyche; the very acronym Chabad is for the three penultimate ''Sephirot'', associated with the cerebral side of consciousness.Another famous philosophy is that formulated by Nachman of Breslov and adhered to by Breslov Hasidim.", "In contrast to most of his peers who believed that God must be worshiped through enjoyment of the physical world, Nachman portrayed the corporeal world in grim colors, as a place devoid of God's immediate presence from which the soul yearns to liberate itself.", "He mocked the attempts to perceive the nature of infinite-finite dialectics and the manner in which God still occupies the Vacant Void albeit not, stating these were paradoxical, beyond human understanding.", "Only naive faith in their reality would do.", "Mortals were in constant struggle to overcome their profane instincts and had to free themselves from their limited intellects to see the world as it truly is.Tzvi Hirsh of Zidichov, a major Galician ''Tzadik'', was a disciple of the Seer of Lublin, but combined his populist inclination with a strict observance even among his most common followers, and great pluralism in matters pertaining to mysticism, as those were eventually emanating from each person's unique soul.Mordechai Yosef Leiner of Izbica promulgated a radical understanding of free will, which he considered illusory and also derived directly from God.", "He argued that when one attained a sufficient spiritual level and could be certain evil thoughts did not derive from his animalistic soul, then sudden urges to transgress revealed Law were God-inspired and may be pursued.", "This volatile, potentially antinomian doctrine of \"Transgression for the Sake of Heaven\" is found also in other Hasidic writings, especially from the early period.", "His successors de-emphasized it in their commentaries.", "Leiner's disciple Zadok HaKohen of Lublin also developed a complex philosophic system which presented a dialectic nature in history, arguing that great progress had to be preceded by crisis and calamity." ], [ "Practice and culture", "===Rebbe and \"court\"===Kaliver Rebbe, Holocaust survivor, inspiring his court on the festival of SukkotKvitel requests for blessing piled on the graves of the last Lubavitcher RebbesThe Hasidic community is organized in a sect known as \"court\" (; ; from German ).", "In the early days of the movement, a particular Rebbe's following usually resided in the same town, and Hasidim were categorized by their leaders' settlement: a Hasid of Belz, Vizhnitz, and so forth.", "Later, especially after World War II, the dynasties retained the names of their original Eastern European settlements when moving to the West or Israel.", "Thus, for example, the \"court\" established by Joel Teitelbaum in 1905 at Transylvania remained known after its namesake town, Sathmar, even though its headquarters lay in New York, and almost all other Hasidic sects likewise – albeit some groups founded overseas were named accordingly, like the Boston Hasidic Dynasty.Akin to his spiritual status, the Rebbe is also the administrative head of the community.", "Sects often possess their own synagogues, study halls and internal charity mechanisms, and ones sufficiently large also maintain entire educational systems.", "The Rebbe is the supreme figure of authority, and not just for the institutions.", "The rank-and-file Hasidim are also expected to consult with him on important matters, and often seek his blessing and advice.", "He is personally attended by aides known as ''Gabbai'' or ''Mashbak''.Many particular Hasidic rites surround the leader.", "On the Sabbath, holidays, and celebratory occasions, Rebbes hold a ''Tisch'' (table), a large feast for their male adherents.", "Together, they sing, dance, and eat, and the head of the sect shakes the hands of his followers to bless them, and often delivers a sermon.", "A ''Chozer'', \"repeater\", selected for his good memory, commits the text to writing after the Sabbath (any form of writing during the Sabbath itself being forbidden).", "In many \"courts\", the remnants of his meal, supposedly suffused with holiness, are handed out and even fought over.", "Often, a very large dish is prepared beforehand, and the Rebbe only tastes it before passing it to the crowd.", "Apart from the gathering at noon, the third repast on Sabbath and the \"Melaveh Malkah\" meal when it ends are also particularly important and an occasion for song, feasting, tales, and sermons.", "A central custom, which serves as a major factor in the economics of most \"courts\", is the ''Pidyon'', \"Ransom\", better known by its Yiddish name ''Kvitel'', \"little note\": Adherents submit a written petition, which the master may assist with on behalf of his sanctity, adding a sum of money for either charity or the leader's needs.", "Occasions in the \"court\" serve as pretext for mass gatherings, flaunting the power, wealth and size of each.", "Weddings of the leader's family, for example, are often held with large multistoried stands (פארענטשעס, ''Parentches'') filled with Hasidim surround the main floor, where the Rebbe and his relatives dine, celebrate, and perform the Mitzvah tantz.", "This is a festive dance with the bride: Both parties hold one end of a long sash, a Hasidic gartel, for reasons of modesty.Allegiance to the dynasty and Rebbe is also sometimes a cause for tension.", "Notable feuds between \"courts\" include the 1926–1934 strife after Chaim Elazar Spira of Munkatch cursed the deceased Yissachar Dov Rokeach I of Belz; the 1980–2012 Satmar-Belz collision after Yissachar Dov Rokeach II broke with the Orthodox Council of Jerusalem, which culminated when he had to travel in a bulletproof car; and the 2006–present Satmar succession dispute between brothers Aaron Teitelbaum and Zalman Teitelbaum, which saw mass riots.As in other Haredi groups, apostates may face threats, hostility, violence, and various punitive measures, among them separation of children from their disaffiliated parents, especially in divorce cases.", "Due to their strictly religious education and traditionalist upbringing, many who leave their sects have few viable work skills or even command of the English language, and their integration into the broader society is often difficult.", "The segregated communities are also a comfortable setting for sexual abuse of children, and numerous incidents have been reported.", "While Hasidic leadership has often been accused of silencing the matter, awareness of it is rising within the sects.Another related phenomenon is the recent rise of ''Mashpi'im'' (\"influencers\").", "Once a title for an instructor in Chabad and Breslov only, the institutionalized nature of the established \"courts\" led many adherents to seek guidance and inspiration from persons who did not declare themselves new leaders, but only ''Mashpi'im''.", "Technically, they fill the original role of Rebbes in providing for spiritual welfare; yet, they do not usurp the title, and are therefore countenanced.===Liturgy===Most Hasidim use some variation of ''Nusach Sefard'', a blend of Ashkenazi and Sephardi liturgies, based on the innovations of Rabbi Isaac Luria.", "Many dynasties have their own specific adaptation of Nusach Sefard; some, such as the versions of the Belzer, Bobover, and Dushinsky Hasidim, are closer to Nusach Ashkenaz, while others, such as the Munkacz version, are closer to the old Lurianic.", "Many sects believe that their version reflects Luria's mystical devotions best.", "The Baal Shem Tov added two segments to Friday services on the eve of Sabbath: Psalm 107 before afternoon prayer, and Psalm 23 at the end of evening service.Hasidim use the Ashkenazi pronunciation of Hebrew and Aramaic for liturgical purposes, reflecting their Eastern European background.", "Wordless, emotional melodies, ''nigunim'', are particularly common in their services.Hasidim lend great importance to ''kavana'', devotion or intention, and their services tend to be extremely long and repetitive.", "Some courts nearly abolished traditional specified times by which prayers must be conducted (''zemanim''), to prepare and concentrate.", "This practice, still enacted in Chabad for one, is controversial in many dynasties, which do follow the specifics of Jewish Law on praying earlier, and not eating beforehand.", "Chabad makes use of the permission granted in Jewish law to eat before prayer in certain circumstances, and to have later praying times, as a result of longer periods of preparatory study and contemplation beforehand.", "A common saying to explain this (attributed to the Third Chabad Rebbe, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson I) goes, \"Better to eat in order to pray, than to pray in order to eat\", implying it is better to eat before prayer if due to the later time of prayers finishing one will be hungry and unable to properly concentrate.", "Another reglement is daily immersion in a ritual bath by males for spiritual cleansing, at a rate much higher than is customary among other Orthodox Jews.===Melody===Hasidism developed a unique emphasis on the spirituality of melody (''Nigunim'') as a means to reach Deveikut Divine communion, during prayer and communal gatherings.", "Ecstatic, often wordless Hasidic melodies developed new expressions and depths of the soul in Jewish life, often drawing from folk idioms of the surrounding gentile culture, which were adapted to elevate their concealed sparks of divinity, according to Lurianic theology.===Appearance===Hasidic family in Borough Park, Brooklyn.", "The man is wearing a shtreimel, and either a bekishe or a rekel.", "The woman is wearing a wig, called a sheitel, as according to Jewish law, she is forbidden to show her hair to anyone after marriage.Rabbi Moshe Leib Rabinovich, Munkacser Rebbe, wearing a ''kolpik''The Dorohoi Rebbe in his traditional rabbinical Sabbath garbWithin the Hasidic world, it is possible to distinguish different Hasidic groups by subtle differences in dress.", "Some details of their dress are shared by non-Hasidic Haredim.", "Much of Hasidic dress was historically the clothing of all Eastern European Jews, influenced by the style of Polish–Lithuanian nobility.", "Furthermore, Hasidim have attributed religious origins to specific Hasidic items of clothing.Hasidic men most commonly wear dark overclothes.", "On weekdays, they wear a long, black, cloth jacket called a rekel, and on Jewish Holy Days, the bekishe (Yiddish; lit., satin caftan), a similarly long, black jacket, but of satin fabric traditionally silk.", "Indoors, the colorful tish bekishe is still worn.", "Some Hasidim wear a satin overcoat, known as ''rezhvolke''.", "Most Hasidim do not wear neckties.On the Sabbath, the Hasidic Rebbes traditionally wore a white bekishe.", "This practice has fallen into disuse among most.", "Many of them wear a black silk bekishe that is trimmed with velvet, known as ''stro-kes'' or ''samet'', and in Hungarian ones, gold-embroidered.Various symbolic and religious qualities are attributed to Hasidic dress, though they are mainly apocryphal, and the clothes' origin is cultural and historical.", "For example, the long overcoats are considered modest, the shtreimel is supposedly related to shaatnez and keeps one warm, without using wool, and Sabbath shoes are laceless in order not to have to tie a knot, a prohibited action.", "A ''gartel'' divides the Hasid's lower parts from his upper parts, implying modesty and chastity, and for kabbalistic reasons, Hasidim button their clothes right over left.", "Hasidic men customarily wear black hats during the weekdays, as do nearly all Haredi men today.", "A variety of hats are worn depending on the group: Chabad men often pinch their hats to form a triangle on the top, Satmar men wear an open-crown hat with rounded edges, and ''Samet'' (velvet) or ''biber'' (beaver) hats are worn by many Galician and Hungarian Hasidic men.Married Hasidic men don a variety of fur headdresses on the Sabbath, once common among all wedded Eastern European Jewish males and still worn by non-Hasidic Perushim in Jerusalem.", "The most ubiquitous is the ''shtreimel'', which is seen especially among Galician and Hungarian sects like Satmar or Belz.", "A taller ''spodik'' is donned by Polish dynasties such as Ger.", "A ''kolpik'' is worn by unmarried sons and grandsons of many Rebbes on the Sabbath.", "Some Rebbes don it on special occasions.There are many other distinct items of clothing.", "Such are the Gerrer ''hoyznzokn –'' long black socks into which the trousers are tucked.", "Some Hasidic men from Eastern Galicia wear black socks with their breeches on the Sabbath, as opposed to white ones on weekdays, particularly Belzer Hasidim.Following a Biblical commandment not to shave the sides of one's face (Leviticus 19:27), male members of most Hasidic groups wear long, uncut sidelocks called payot (or ''peyes'').", "Some Hasidic men shave off the rest of their hair.", "Not every Hasidic group requires long peyos, and not all Jewish men with peyos are Hasidic, but all Hasidic groups discourage the shaving of one's beard.", "Most Hasidic boys receive their first haircuts ceremonially at the age of three years (only the Skverrer Hasidim do this at their boys' second birthday).", "Until then, Hasidic boys have long hair.Hasidic women wear clothing adhering to the principles of modest dress in Jewish law.", "This includes long conservative skirts and sleeves past the elbow, as well as covered necklines.", "Also, the women wear stockings to cover their legs; in some Hasidic groups, such as Satmar or Toldot Aharon, the stockings must be opaque.", "In keeping with Jewish law, married women cover their hair, using either a ''sheitel'' (wig), a ''tichel'' (headscarf), a ''shpitzel'', a snood, a hat, or a beret.", "In some Hasidic groups, such as Satmar, women may wear two headcoverings – a wig and a scarf, or a wig and a hat.===Families===Hasidic Jews, like many other Orthodox Jews, typically produce large families; the average Hasidic family in the United States has 8 children.", "This is followed out of a desire to fulfill the Biblical mandate to \"be fruitful and multiply\".===Languages===Most Hasidim speak the language of their countries of residence but use Yiddish among themselves as a way of remaining distinct and preserving tradition.", "Thus, children are still learning Yiddish today, and the language, despite predictions to the contrary, has not died.", "Yiddish newspapers are still published, and Yiddish fiction is being written, primarily aimed at women.", "Even films in Yiddish are being produced within the Hasidic community.", "Some Hasidic groups, such as Satmar and Toldot Aharon, actively oppose the everyday use of Hebrew, which they consider a holy tongue.", "The use of Hebrew for anything other than prayer and study is, according to them, profane, and so, Yiddish is the vernacular and common tongue for most Hasidim around the world.===Literature===Sculpture of the Hasidic movement's celebration of spirituality on the Knesset MenorahHasidic Tales are a literary genre, concerning both hagiography of various Rebbes and moralistic themes.", "Some are anecdotes or recorded conversations dealing with matters of faith, practice, and the like.", "The most famous tend to be terse and carry a strong and obvious point.", "They were often transmitted orally, though the earliest compendium is from 1815.Many revolve around the righteous.", "The Baal Shem, in particular, was subject to excess hagiography.", "Characterized by vivid metaphors, miracles, and piety, each reflects the surrounding and era it was composed in.", "Common themes include dissenting the question what is acceptable to pray for, whether or not the commoner may gain communion, or the meaning of wisdom.The tales were a popular, accessible medium to convey the movement's messages.Additional to these tales, Hasidim study the numerous mystical / spiritual works of Hasidic philosophy.", "(Chabad Hasidim, for example, daily study the Tanya, the Likutei Torah, and the voluminous works of the Rebbes of Chabad; Breslovers study the teachings of Rabbi Nachman, additional to his \"tales\".)", "These works draw on the earlier esoteric theology of ''Kabbalah'' but articulate this in terms of inner psychological awareness and personal analogies.", "Additional to its formal, intellectual component, this study thus makes Jewish mysticism accessible and tangible, so that it inspires emotional ''dveikus'' (cleaving to God) and embeds a deep spiritual element in daily Jewish life." ], [ "Organization and demographics", "The various Hasidic groups may be categorized along several parameters, including their geographical origin, their proclivity for certain teachings, and their political stance.", "These attributes are quite often, but by no means always, correlated, and there are many instances when a \"court\" espouses a unique combination.", "Thus, while most dynasties from the former Greater Hungary and Galicia are inclined to extreme conservatism and anti-Zionism, Rebbe Yekusiel Yehudah Halberstam led the Sanz-Klausenburg sect in a more open and mild direction; and though Hasidim from Lithuania and Belarus are popularly perceived as prone to intellectualism, David Assaf noted this notion is derived more from their Litvak surroundings than their actual philosophies.Apart from those, each \"court\" often possesses its unique customs, including style of prayer, melodies, particular items of clothing, and the like.On the political scale, \"courts\" are mainly divided on their relations to Zionism.", "The right-wing, identified with Satmar, are hostile to the State of Israel, and refuse to participate in the elections there or receive any state funding.", "They are mainly affiliated with the Edah HaChareidis and the Central Rabbinical Congress.", "The great majority belong to ''Agudas Israel'', represented in Israel by the United Torah Judaism party.", "Its Council of Torah Sages now includes a dozen Rebbes.", "In the past, there were Religious Zionist Rebbes, mainly of the Ruzhin line, but there are virtually none today.In 2016, a study conducted by Prof. Marcin Wodziński, drawing from the courts' own internal phone-books and other resources, located 129,211 Hasidic households worldwide, about 5% of the estimated total Jewish population.", "Of those, 62,062 resided in Israel and 53,485 in the United States, 5,519 in Britain and 3,392 in Canada.", "In Israel, the largest Hasidic concentrations are in the Haredi neighbourhoods of Jerusalem – including Ramot Alon, Batei Ungarin, et cetera – in the cities of Bnei Brak and El'ad, and in the West Bank settlements of Modi'in Illit and Beitar Illit.", "There is considerable presence in other specifically Orthodox municipalities or enclaves, like Kiryat Sanz, Netanya.", "In the United States, most Hasidim reside in New York, though there are small communities across the entire country.", "Brooklyn, particularly the neighborhoods of Borough Park, Williamsburg, and Crown Heights, has an especially large population.", "Another large population resides in the hamlet of Monsey in the Hudson Valley region of New York; in the same region, New Square and Kiryas Joel are rapidly growing all-Hasidic enclaves, one founded by the Skver dynasty and the other by Satmar.", "In Britain, Stamford Hill is home to the largest Hasidic community in the country, and there are others in London and Manchester.", "In Canada, Kiryas Tosh is a settlement populated entirely by Tosh Hasidim, and there are more adherents of other sects in and around Montreal.There are more than a dozen Hasidic dynasties with a large following, and over a hundred which have small or minuscule adherence, sometimes below twenty people, with the presumptive Rebbe holding the title more as a matter of prestige.", "Many \"courts\" became completely extinct during the Holocaust, like the Aleksander (Hasidic dynasty) from Aleksandrów Łódzki, which numbered tens of thousands in 1939, and barely exists today.The largest sect in the world, with some 26,000 member households, which constitute 20% of all Hasidim, is Satmar, founded in 1905 in the namesake city in Hungary and based in Williamsburg, Brooklyn, and Kiryas Joel.", "Satmar is known for its extreme conservatism and opposition to both ''Agudas Israel'' and Zionism, inspired by the legacy of Hungarian Haredi Judaism.", "The sect underwent a schism in 2006, and two competing factions emerged, led by rival brothers Aaron Teitelbaum and Zalman Teitelbaum.", "The second-largest \"court\" worldwide, with some 11,600 households (or 9% of all Hasidism), is Ger, established in 1859 at Góra Kalwaria, near Warsaw.", "For decades, it was the dominant power in ''Agudas'', and espoused a moderate line toward Zionism and modern culture.", "Its origins lay in the rationalist Przysucha School of Central Poland.", "The current Rebbe is Yaakov Aryeh Alter.", "The third-largest dynasty is Vizhnitz, a charismatic sect founded in 1854 at Vyzhnytsia, Bukovina.", "A moderate group involved in Israeli politics, it is split into several branches, which maintain cordial relations.", "The main partition is between Vizhnitz-Israel and Vizhnitz-Monsey, headed respectively by Rebbes Israel Hager and the eight sons of the late Rebbe Mordecai Hager.", "In total, all Vizhnitz sub-\"courts\" constitute over 10,500 households.", "The fourth major dynasty, with some 7,000 households, is Belz, established 1817 in namesake Belz, north of Lviv.", "An Eastern Galician dynasty drawing both from the Seer of Lublin's charismatic-populist style and \"rabbinic\" Hasidism, it espoused hard-line positions, but broke off from the Edah HaChareidis and joined ''Agudas'' in 1979.Belz is led by Rebbe Yissachar Dov Rokeach.The Bobover dynasty, founded 1881 in Bobowa, West Galicia, constitutes some 4,500 households in total, and has undergone a bitter succession strife since 2005, eventually forming the \"Bobov\" (3,000 households) and \"Bobov-45\" (1,500 households) sects.", "Sanz-Klausenburg, divided into a New York and Israeli branches, presides over 3,800 households.", "The Skver sect, established in 1848 in Skvyra, near Kyiv, constitutes 3,300.The Shomer Emunim dynasties, originating in Jerusalem during the 1920s and known for their unique style of dressing imitating that of the Old Yishuv, have over 3,000 families, almost all in the larger \"courts\" of Toldos Aharon and Toldos Avraham Yitzchak.", "Karlin Stolin, which rose already in the 1760s in a quarter of Pinsk, encompasses 2,200 families.There are two other populous Hasidic sub-groups, which do not function as classical Rebbe-headed \"courts\", but as de-centralized movements, retaining some of the characteristics of early Hasidism.", "Breslov rose under its charismatic leader Nachman of Breslov in the early 19th century.", "Critical of all other Rebbes, he forbade his followers to appoint a successor upon his death in 1810.His acolytes led small groups of adherents, persecuted by other Hasidim, and disseminated his teachings.", "The original philosophy of the sect elicited great interest among modern scholars, and that led many newcomers to Orthodox Judaism (\"repentants\") to join it.", "Numerous Breslov communities, each led by its own rabbis, now have thousands of full-fledged followers, and far more admirers and semi-committed supporters; Marcin Wodziński estimated that the fully committed population of Breslovers may be estimated at 7,000 households.", "Chabad-Lubavitch, originating in the 1770s, did have hereditary leadership, but always stressed the importance of self-study, rather than reliance on the Righteous.", "Its seventh, and last, leader, Menachem Mendel Schneerson, converted it into a vehicle for Jewish outreach.", "By his death in 1994, it had many more semi-engaged supporters than Hasidim in the strict sense, and they are still hard to distinguish.", "Chabad's own internal phone-books list some 16,800 member households.", "None succeeded Schneerson, and the sect operates as a large network of communities with independent leaders." ], [ "History", "===Background===In the late 17th century, several social trends converged among the Jews who inhabited the southern periphery of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, especially in contemporary Western Ukraine.", "These enabled the emergence and flourishing of Hasidism.The first, and most prominent, was the popularization of the mystical lore of Kabbalah.", "For several centuries, an esoteric teaching practiced surreptitiously by few, it was transformed into almost household knowledge by a mass of cheap printed pamphlets.", "The kabbalistic inundation was a major influence behind the rise of the heretical Sabbatean movement, led by Sabbatai Zevi, who declared himself Messiah in 1665.The propagation of Kabbalah made the Jewish masses susceptible to Hasidic ideas, themselves, in essence, a popularized version of the teaching – indeed, Hasidism actually emerged when its founders determined to openly practice it, instead of remaining a secret circle of ascetics, as was the manner of almost all past kabbalists.", "The correlation between publicizing the lore and Sabbateanism did not escape the rabbinic elite, and caused vehement opposition to the new movement.Another factor was the decline of the traditional authority structures.", "Jewish autonomy remained quite secured; later research debunked Simon Dubnow's claim that the Council of Four Lands' demise in 1746 was a culmination of a long process which destroyed judicial independence and paved the way for the Hasidic rebbes to serve as leaders (another long-held explanation for the sect's rise advocated by Raphael Mahler, that the Khmelnytsky Uprising effected economic impoverishment and despair, was also refuted).", "However, the magnates and nobles held much sway over the nomination of both rabbis and communal elders, to such a degree that the masses often perceived them as mere lackeys of the land owners.", "Their ability to serve as legitimate arbiters in disputes – especially those concerning the regulation of leasehold rights over alcohol distillation and other monopolies in the estates – was severely diminished.", "The reduced prestige of the establishment, and the need for an alternative source of authority to pass judgement, left a vacuum which Hasidic charismatics eventually filled.", "They transcended old communal institutions, to which all the Jews of a locality were subordinate, and had groups of followers in each town across vast territories.", "Often supported by rising strata outside the traditional elite, whether nouveau riche or various low-level religious functionaries, they created a modern form of leadership.Historians discerned other influences.", "The formative age of Hasidism coincided with the rise of numerous religious revival movements across the world, including the First Great Awakening in New England, German Pietism, Wahhabism in Arabia, and the Russian Old Believers who opposed the established church.", "Hasidism rejected the existing order, decrying it as stale and overly hierarchic.", "They offered what they described as more spiritual, candid, and simple substitutes.", "Gershon David Hundert noted the considerable similarity between the Hasidic conceptions and this contemporary background, rooted in the growing importance attributed to the individual's consciousness and choices.===Israel ben Eliezer===Israel ben Eliezer's autographIsrael ben Eliezer (ca.", "1698–1760), known as the ''Baal Shem Tov'' (\"Master of the ''Good'' Name\", acronym: \"Besht\"), is considered the founder of Hasidism.", "Supposedly born south of the Prut, in the northern frontier of Moldavia, he earned a reputation as a Baal Shem, \"Master of the Name\".", "These were common folk healers who employed mysticism, amulets and incantations as their trade.", "Little is known for certain about Israel ben Eliezer.", "Though not a scholar, he was sufficiently learned to become notable in the communal hall of study and marry into the rabbinic elite, his wife being the divorced sister of a rabbi; in his later years, he became wealthy and famous, as attested by contemporary chronicles.", "Apart from that, most information about him is derived from Hasidic hagiographic accounts.", "These claim that as a boy he was recognized by one \"Rabbi Adam Baal Shem Tov\" who entrusted him with great secrets of the Torah, passed in his illustrious family for centuries; that the Besht later spent a decade in the Carpathian Mountains as a hermit, where he was visited by the Biblical prophet Ahijah the Shilonite who taught him more; and that at the age of thirty-six, he was granted heavenly permission to reveal himself as a great kabbalist and miracle worker.By the 1740s, it is verified that he relocated to the town of Medzhybizh and became recognized and popular in Podolia and beyond.", "It is well attested that he emphasized several known kabbalistic concepts, formulating his own teachings to some degree.", "The Besht stressed the immanence of God and His presence in the material world, and that therefore, physical acts, such as eating, have an actual influence on the spiritual sphere and may serve to hasten the achievement of communion with the divine (''devekut'').", "He was known to pray ecstatically and with great intention, in order to provide channels for the divine light to flow into the Earthly realm.", "The Besht stressed the importance of joy and contentment in the worship of God, rather than the abstinence and self-mortification deemed essential to becoming a pious mystic, and of fervent and vigorous prayer as a means of spiritual elation instead of severe asceticism, but many of his immediate disciples reverted in part to the older doctrines, especially in disavowing sexual pleasure even in marital relations.In that, the \"Besht\" laid the foundation for a popular movement, offering a far less rigorous course for the masses to gain a significant religious experience.", "And yet, he remained the guide of a small society of elitists, in the tradition of former kabbalists, and never led a large public as his successors did.", "While many later figures cited him as the inspiration behind the full-fledged Hasidic doctrine, the Besht himself did not practice it in his lifetime.===Consolidation===''Shivchei HaBesht'' (Praises of the Baal Shem Tov), the first compilation of Hasidic hagiographic storytelling, was printed from manuscripts in 1815.Israel ben Eliezer gathered a considerable following, drawing to himself disciples from far away.", "They were largely of elitist background, yet adopted the populist approach of their master.", "The most prominent was Rabbi Dov Ber the ''Maggid'' (preacher).", "He succeeded the former upon his death, though other important acolytes, mainly Jacob Joseph of Polonne, did not accept his leadership.", "Establishing himself in Mezhirichi, the Maggid turned to greatly elaborate the Besht's rudimentary ideas and institutionalize the nascent circle into an actual movement.", "Ben Eliezer and his acolytes used the very old and common epithet ''Hasidim'', \"pious\"; in the latter third of the 18th century, a clear differentiation arose between that sense of the word and what was at first described as \"New Hasidism\", propagated to a degree by the Maggid and especially his successors.Doctrine coalesced as Jacob Joseph, Dov Ber, and the latter's disciple, Rabbi Elimelech of Lizhensk, composed the three magna opera of early Hasidism, respectively: the 1780 ''Toldot Ya'akov Yosef'', the 1781 ''Maggid d'varav le-Ya'akov'', and the 1788 ''No'am Elimelekh''.", "Other books were also published.", "Their new teaching had many aspects.", "The importance of devotion in prayer was stressed to such degree that many waited beyond the prescribed time to properly prepare; the Besht's recommendation to \"elevate and sanctify\" impure thoughts, rather than simply repress them during the service, was expanded by Dov Ber into an entire precept, depicting prayer as a mechanism to transform thoughts and feelings from a primal to a higher state in a manner parallel to the unfolding of the ''Sephirot''.", "But the most important was the notion of the ''Tzaddiq'' – later designated by the general rabbinic honorific ''Admor'' (our master, teacher, and rabbi) or by the colloquial Rebbe – the Righteous One, the mystic who was able to elate and achieve communion with the divine, but, unlike kabbalists past, did not practice it in secret, but as leader of the masses.", "He was able to bring down prosperity and guidance from the higher ''Sephirot'', and the common people who could not attain such a state themselves would achieve it by \"clinging\" to and obeying him.", "The ''Tzaddiq'' served as a bridge between the spiritual realm and the ordinary folk, as well as a simple, understandable embodiment of the esoteric teachings of the sect, which were still beyond the reach of most just as old-style Kabbalah before.The various Hasidic ''Tzaddiqim'', mainly the Maggid's disciples, spread across Eastern Europe with each gathering adherents among the people and learned acolytes who could be initiated as leaders.", "The Righteous' \"courts\" in which they resided, attended by their followers to receive blessing and council, became the institutional centers of Hasidism, serving as its branches and organizational core.", "Slowly, various rites emerged in them, like the Sabbath ''Tisch'' or \"table\", in which the Righteous would hand out food scraps from their meals, considered blessed by the touch of ones imbued with godly Light during their mystical ascensions.", "Another potent institution was the ''Shtibel'', the private prayer gatherings opened by adherents in every town which served as a recruiting mechanism.", "The ''Shtibel'' differed from the established synagogues and study halls, allowing their members greater freedom to worship when they pleased, and also serving recreational and welfare purposes.", "Combined with its simplified message, more appealing to the common man, its honed organizational framework accounted for the exponential growth of Hasidic ranks.", "Having ousted the old communal model, and replaced it with a less-hierarchical structure and more individually-oriented religiosity, Hasidism was, in fact, the first great modern – albeit not modernist; its self-understanding was grounded in a traditional mindset – Jewish movement.From its original base in Podolia and Volhynia, the movement was rapidly disseminated during the Maggid's lifetime, and after his 1772 death.", "Twenty or so of Dov Ber's prime disciples each brought it to a different region, and their own successors followed: Aharon of Karlin (I), Menachem Mendel of Vitebsk, and Shneur Zalman of Liadi were the emissaries to the former Lithuania in the far north, while Menachem Nachum Twersky headed to Chernobyl in the east, and Levi Yitzchok of Berditchev remained nearby.", "Elimelech of Lizhensk, his brother Zusha of Hanipol, and Yisroel Hopsztajn established the sect in Poland proper.", "Vitebsk and Abraham Kalisker later led a small group of followers to Ottoman Palestine, establishing a Hasidic presence in the Galilee.The spread of Hasidism also incurred organized opposition.", "Rabbi Elijah of Vilnius, one of the greatest authorities of the generation and a ''hasid'' and secret kabbalist of the old style, was deeply suspicious of their emphasis on mysticism, rather than mundane Torah study, threat to established communal authority, resemblance to the Sabbatean movement, and other details he considered infractions.", "In April 1772, he and the Vilnius community wardens launched a systematic campaign against the sect, placing an anathema upon them, banishing their leaders, and sending letters denouncing the movement.", "Further excommunication followed in Brody and other cities.", "In 1781, during a second round of hostilities, the books of Jacob Joseph were burned in Vilnius.", "Another cause for strife emerged when the Hasidim adopted the Lurianic prayer rite, which they revised somewhat to Nusach Sefard; the first edition in Eastern Europe was printed in 1781 and received approbation from the anti-Hasidic scholars of Brody, but the sect quickly embraced the Kabbalah-infused tome and popularized it, making it their symbol.", "Their rivals, named ''Misnagdim'', \"opponents\" (a generic term which acquired an independent meaning as Hasidism grew stronger), soon accused them of abandoning the traditional Nusach Ashkenaz.In 1798, Opponents made accusations of espionage against Shneur Zalman of Liadi, and he was imprisoned by the Russian government for two months.", "Excoriatory polemics were printed and anathemas declared in the entire region.", "But Elijah's death in 1797 denied the ''Misnagdim'' their powerful leader.", "In 1804, Alexander I of Russia allowed independent prayer groups to operate, the chief vessel through which the movement spread from town to town.", "The failure to eradicate Hasidism, which acquired a clear self-identity in the struggle and greatly expanded throughout it, convinced its adversaries to adopt a more passive method of resistance, as exemplified by Chaim of Volozhin.", "The growing conservatism of the new movement – which at some occasions drew close to Kabbalah-based antinomian phraseology, as did the Sabbateans, but never crossed the threshold and remained thoroughly observant – and the rise of common enemies slowly brought a rapprochement, and by the second half of the 19th century, both sides basically considered each other legitimate.The turn of the century saw several prominent new, fourth generation ''tzaddiqim''.", "Upon Elimelech's death in the now-partitioned Poland, his place in Habsburg Galicia was assumed by Menachem Mendel of Rimanov, who was deeply hostile to the modernization the Austrian rulers attempted to force on the traditional Jewish society (though this same process also allowed his sect to flourish, as communal authority was severely weakened).", "The rabbi of Rimanov hearkened the alliance the Hasidim would form with the most conservative elements of the Jewish public.", "In Central Poland, the new leader was Jacob Isaac Horowiz, the \"Seer of Lublin\", who was of a particularly populist bent and appealed to the common folk with miracle working and little strenuous spiritual demands.", "The Seer's senior acolyte, Jacob Isaac Rabinovitz, the \"Holy Jew\" of Przysucha, gradually dismissed his mentor's approach as overly vulgar, and adopted a more aesthetic and scholarly approach, virtually without theurgy to the masses.", "The Holy Jew's \"Przysucha School\" was continued by his successor Simcha Bunim, and especially the reclusive, morose Menachem Mendel of Kotzk.", "The most controversial fourth generation ''tzaddiq'' was the Podolia-based Nachman of Breslov, who denounced his peers for becoming too institutionalized, much like the old establishment their predecessors challenged decades before, and espoused an anti-rationalist, pessimistic spiritual teaching, very different from the prevalent stress on joy.===Routinization===Ruzhin dynasty, known for its \"royal\" mannerism, in SadhoraThe opening of the 19th century saw the Hasidic sect transformed.", "Once a rising force outside the establishment, the ''tzaddiqim'' now became an important and often dominant power in most of Eastern Europe.", "The slow process of encroachment, which mostly begun with forming an independent ''Shtibel'' and culminated in the Righteous becoming an authority figure (either alongside or above the official rabbinate) for the entire community, overwhelmed many towns even in ''Misnagdic'' stronghold of Lithuania, far more so in Congress Poland and the vast majority in Podolia, Volhynia and Galicia.", "It began to make inroads into Bukovina, Bessarabia and the westernmost frontier of autochthonic pre-WWII Hasidism, in northeastern Hungary, where the Seer's disciple Moses Teitelbaum (I) was appointed in Ujhely.Less than three generations after the Besht's death, the sect grew to encompass hundreds of thousands by 1830.As a mass movement, a clear stratification emerged between the court's functionaries and permanent residents (''yoshvim'', \"sitters\"), the devoted followers who would often visit the Righteous on Sabbath, and the large public which prayed at Sefard Rite synagogues and was minimally affiliated.All this was followed by a more conservative approach and power bickering among the Righteous.", "Since the Maggid's death, none could claim the overall leadership.", "Among the several dozen active, each ruled over his own turf, and local traditions and customs began to emerge in the various courts which developed their own identity.", "The high mystical tension typical of a new movement subsided, and was soon replaced by more hierarchical, orderly atmosphere.The most important aspect of the routinization Hasidism underwent was the adoption of dynasticism.", "The first to claim legitimacy by right of descent from the Besht was his grandson, Boruch of Medzhybizh, appointed 1782.He held a lavish court with Hershel of Ostropol as jester and demanded the other Righteous acknowledge his supremacy.", "Upon the death of Menachem Nachum Twersky of Chernobyl, his son Mordechai Twersky succeeded him.", "The principle was conclusively affirmed in the great dispute after Liadi's demise in 1813: his senior acolyte Aharon HaLevi of Strashelye was defeated by his son, Dovber Schneuri, whose offspring retained the title for 181 years.By the 1860s, virtually all courts were dynastic.", "Rather than single ''tzaddiqim'' with followings of their own, each sect would command a base of rank-and-file Hasidim attached not just to the individual leader, but to the bloodline and the court's unique attributes.", "Israel Friedman of Ruzhyn insisted on royal splendour, resided in a palace and his six sons all inherited some of his followers.", "With the constraints of maintaining their gains replacing the dynamism of the past, the Righteous or Rebbes/''Admorim'' also silently retreated from the overt, radical mysticism of their predecessors.", "While populist miracle working for the masses remained a key theme in many dynasties, a new type of \"Rebbe-Rabbi\" emerged, one who was both a completely traditional ''halakhic'' authority as well as a spiritualist.", "The tension with the ''Misnagdim'' subsided significantly.But it was an external threat, more than anything else, that mended relations.", "While traditional Jewish society remained well entrenched in backward Eastern Europe, reports of the rapid acculturation and religious laxity in the West troubled both camps.", "When the ''Haskalah'', the Jewish Enlightenment, appeared in Galicia and Congress Poland in the 1810s, it was soon perceived as a dire threat.", "The ''maskilim'' themselves detested Hasidism as an anti-rationalist and barbaric phenomenon, as did Western Jews of all shades, including the most right-wing Orthodox such as Rabbi Azriel Hildesheimer.", "In Galicia especially, hostility towards it defined the ''Haskalah'' to a large extent, from the staunchly observant Rabbi Zvi Hirsch Chajes and Joseph Perl to the radical anti-Talmudists like Osias Schorr.", "The Enlightened, who revived Hebrew grammar, often mocked their rivals' lack of eloquence in the language.", "While a considerable proportion of the ''Misnagdim'' were not averse to at least some of the ''Haskala'''s goals, the Rebbes were unremittingly hostile.The most distinguished Hasidic leader in Galicia in the era was Chaim Halberstam, who combined Talmudic erudition and the status of a major decisor with his function as ''tzaddiq''.", "He symbolized the new era, brokering peace between the small Hasidic sect in Hungary to its opponents.", "In that country, where modernization and assimilation were much more prevalent than in the East, the local Righteous joined forces with those now termed Orthodox against the rising liberals.", "Rabbi Moses Sofer of Pressburg, while no friend to Hasidism, tolerated it as he combated the forces which sought modernization of the Jews; a generation later, in the 1860s, the Rebbes and the zealot ultra-Orthodox rabbi Hillel Lichtenstein allied closely.Around the mid-19th century, over a hundred dynastic courts related by marriage were the main religious power in the territory enclosed between Hungary, former Lithuania, Prussia and inner Russia, with considerable presence in the former two.", "In Central Poland, the pragmatist, rationalist Przysucha school thrived: Yitzchak Meir Alter founded the court of Ger in 1859, and in 1876 Jechiel Danziger established Alexander.", "In Galicia and Hungary, apart from Halberstam's House of Sanz, Tzvi Hirsh of Zidichov's descendants each pursued a mystical approach in the dynasties of Zidichov, Komarno and so forth.", "In 1817, Sholom Rokeach became the first Rebbe of Belz.", "At Bukovina, the Hager line of Kosov-Vizhnitz was the largest court.The ''Haskalah'' was always a minor force, but the Jewish national movements which emerged in the 1880s, as well as Socialism, proved much more appealing to the young.", "Progressive strata condemned Hasidism as a primitive relic, strong, but doomed to disappear, as Eastern European Jewry underwent slow yet steady secularization.", "The gravity of the situation was attested to by the foundation of Hasidic yeshivas (in the modern, boarding school-equivalent sense) to enculturate the young and preserve their loyalty: The first was established at Nowy Wiśnicz by Rabbi Shlomo Halberstam (I) in 1881.These institutions were originally utilized by the ''Misnagdim'' to protect their youth from Hasidic influence, but now, the latter faced a similar crisis.", "One of the most contentious issues in this respect was Zionism; the Ruzhin dynasties were quite favourably disposed toward it, while Hungarian and Galician courts reviled it.===Calamity and renaissance===Belzer Rebbe Aharon Rokeach (depicted 1934), who was hidden from the Nazis and smuggled out of EuropeOutside pressure was mounting in the early 20th century.", "In 1912, many Hasidic leaders partook in the creation of the Agudas Israel party, a political instrument intended to safeguard what was now named Orthodox Judaism even in the relatively traditional East; the more hard-line dynasties, mainly Galician and Hungarian, opposed the Aguda as \"too lenient\".", "Mass immigration to America, urbanization, World War I, and the subsequent Russian Civil War uprooted the ''shtetl''s in which the local Jews had lived for centuries, and which were the bedrock of Hasidism.", "In the new Soviet Union, civil equality first achieved and a harsh repression of religion caused a rapid secularization.", "Few remaining Hasidim, especially of Chabad, continued to practice underground for decades.", "In the new states of the Interbellum era, the process was only somewhat slower.", "On the eve of World War II, strictly observant Jews were estimated to constitute no more than a third of the total Jewish population in Poland, the world's most Orthodox country.", "While the Rebbes still had a vast base of support, it was aging and declining.The Holocaust hit the Hasidim particularly hard because they were easily identifiable and because they were almost unable to disguise themselves among the larger populace due to cultural insularity.", "Hundreds of leaders perished with their flock, while the flight of many notable ones as their followers were being exterminated – especially Aharon Rokeach of Belz and Joel Teitelbaum of Satmar – elicited bitter recrimination.", "In the immediate post-war years, the entire movement seemed to teeter on the precipice of oblivion.", "In Israel, the United States, and Western Europe, the survivors' children were at best becoming Modern Orthodox.", "While a century earlier, the ''Haskalah'' depicted it as a medieval, malicious power, now, it was so weakened that the popular cultural image was sentimental and romantic, what Joseph Dan termed \"Frumkinian Hasidism\", for it began with the short stories of Michael Levi Rodkinson (Frumkin).", "Martin Buber was the major contributor to this trend, portraying the sect as a model of a healthy folk consciousness.", "\"Frumkinian\" style was very influential, later inspiring the so-called \"Neo-Hasidism\", and also utterly ahistorical.Yet, the movement proved resilient.", "Talented and charismatic Hasidic masters emerged, who re-invigorated their following and drew new crowds.", "In New York, the Satmar Rebbe Joel Teitelbaum formulated a fiercely anti-Zionist Holocaust theology and founded an insular, self-sufficient community which attracted many immigrants from Greater Hungary.", "By 1961, 40% of families were newcomers.", "Yisrael Alter of Ger created robust institutions, fortified his court's standing in ''Agudas Israel'', and held ''tisch'' every week for 29 years.", "He halted the hemorrhage of his followers, and retrieved many Litvaks (the contemporary, less adverse epithet for ''Misnagdim'') and Religious Zionists whose parents were Gerrer Hasidim before the war.", "Chaim Meir Hager similarly restored Vizhnitz.", "Moses Isaac Gewirtzman founded the new Pshevorsk (Hasidic dynasty) in Antwerp.The most explosive growth was experienced in Chabad-Lubavitch, whose head, Menachem Mendel Schneerson, adopted a modern (he and his disciples ceased wearing the customary Shtreimel) and outreach-centered orientation.", "At a time when most Orthodox Jews, and Hasidim in particular, rejected proselytization, he turned his sect into a mechanism devoted almost solely to it, blurring the difference between actual Hasidim and loosely affiliated supporters until researchers could scarcely define it as a regular Hasidic group.", "Another phenomenon was the revival of Breslov, which remained without an acting ''Tzaddiq'' since the rebellious Rebbe Nachman's 1810 death.", "Its complex, existentialist philosophy drew many to it.High fertility rates, increasing tolerance and multiculturalism on the part of surrounding society, and the great wave of newcomers to Orthodox Judaism which began in the 1970s all cemented the movement's status as very much alive and thriving.", "The clearest indication for that, noted Joseph Dan, was the disappearance of the \"Frumkinian\" narrative which inspired much sympathy towards it from non-Orthodox Jews and others, as actual Hasidism returned to the fore.", "It was replaced by apprehension and concern due to the growing presence of the reclusive, strictly religious Hasidic lifestyle in the public sphere, especially in Israel.", "As numbers grew, \"courts\" were again torn apart by schisms between Rebbes' sons vying for power, a common occurrence during the golden age of the 19th century." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " Balog, Yeshayahu P./Morgenstern, Matthias (2010), Hasidism: A Mystical Movement Within Eastern European Judaism, EGO - European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, retrieved: March 25, 2021 ( pdf).", "" ], [ "External links", "** Map of the spread of Hasidism from 1730 and 1760–75, and its encroachment on the Lithuanian centre of Rabbinic opposition * Satmar Hasidic Williamsburg photo-series by Suzanne Stein" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Harmonic series (music)" ], [ "Introduction", "Harmonics of a string showing the periods of the pure-tone harmonics (period = 1/frequency)A '''harmonic series''' (also '''overtone series''') is the sequence of harmonics, musical tones, or pure tones whose frequency is an integer multiple of a ''fundamental frequency''.Pitched musical instruments are often based on an acoustic resonator such as a string or a column of air, which oscillates at numerous modes simultaneously.", "At the frequencies of each vibrating mode, waves travel in both directions along the string or air column, reinforcing and canceling each other to form standing waves.", "Interaction with the surrounding air causes audible sound waves, which travel away from the instrument.", "Because of the typical spacing of the resonances, these frequencies are mostly limited to integer multiples, or harmonics, of the lowest frequency, and such multiples form the harmonic series.The musical pitch of a note is usually perceived as the lowest partial present (the fundamental frequency), which may be the one created by vibration over the full length of the string or air column, or a higher harmonic chosen by the player.", "The musical timbre of a steady tone from such an instrument is strongly affected by the relative strength of each harmonic." ], [ "Terminology {{anchor\|Partial}}", "===Partial, harmonic, fundamental, inharmonicity, and overtone===A \"complex tone\" (the sound of a note with a timbre particular to the instrument playing the note) \"can be described as a combination of many simple periodic waves (i.e., sine waves) or ''partials,'' each with its own frequency of vibration, amplitude, and phase\".", "(See also, Fourier analysis.", ")A '''partial''' is any of the sine waves (or \"simple tones\", as Ellis calls them when translating Helmholtz) of which a complex tone is composed, not necessarily with an integer multiple of the lowest harmonic.A '''harmonic''' is any member of the harmonic series, an ideal set of frequencies that are positive integer multiples of a common fundamental frequency.", "The '''fundamental''' is a harmonic because it is one times itself.", "A '''harmonic partial''' is any real partial component of a complex tone that matches (or nearly matches) an ideal harmonic.An '''inharmonic partial''' is any partial that does not match an ideal harmonic.", "''Inharmonicity'' is a measure of the deviation of a partial from the closest ideal harmonic, typically measured in cents for each partial.Many pitched acoustic instruments are designed to have partials that are close to being whole-number ratios with very low inharmonicity; therefore, in music theory, and in instrument design, it is convenient, although not strictly accurate, to speak of the partials in those instruments' sounds as \"harmonics\", even though they may have some degree of inharmonicity.", "The piano, one of the most important instruments of western tradition, contains a certain degree of inharmonicity among the frequencies generated by each string.", "Other pitched instruments, especially certain percussion instruments, such as marimba, vibraphone, tubular bells, timpani, and singing bowls contain mostly inharmonic partials, yet may give the ear a good sense of pitch because of a few strong partials that resemble harmonics.", "Unpitched, or indefinite-pitched instruments, such as cymbals and tam-tams make sounds (produce spectra) that are rich in inharmonic partials and may give no impression of implying any particular pitch.An '''overtone''' is any partial above the lowest partial.", "The term overtone does not imply harmonicity or inharmonicity and has no other special meaning other than to exclude the fundamental.", "It is mostly the relative strength of the different overtones that give an instrument its particular timbre, tone color, or character.", "When writing or speaking of overtones and partials numerically, care must be taken to designate each correctly to avoid any confusion of one for the other, so the second overtone may not be the third partial, because it is the second sound in a series.", "Some electronic instruments, such as synthesizers, can play a pure frequency with no overtones (a sine wave).", "Synthesizers can also combine pure frequencies into more complex tones, such as to simulate other instruments.", "Certain flutes and ocarinas are very nearly without overtones." ], [ "Frequencies, wavelengths, and musical intervals in example systems", "Even-numbered string harmonics from 2nd up to the 64th (five octaves)One of the simplest cases to visualise is a vibrating string, as in the illustration; the string has fixed points at each end, and each harmonic mode divides it into an integer number (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.)", "of equal-sized sections resonating at increasingly higher frequencies.", "Similar arguments apply to vibrating air columns in wind instruments (for example, \"the French horn was originally a valveless instrument that could play only the notes of the harmonic series\"), although these are complicated by having the possibility of anti-nodes (that is, the air column is closed at one end and open at the other), conical as opposed to cylindrical bores, or end-openings that run the gamut from no flare, cone flare, or exponentially shaped flares (such as in various bells).In most pitched musical instruments, the fundamental (first harmonic) is accompanied by other, higher-frequency harmonics.", "Thus shorter-wavelength, higher-frequency waves occur with varying prominence and give each instrument its characteristic tone quality.", "The fact that a string is fixed at each end means that the longest allowed wavelength on the string (which gives the fundamental frequency) is twice the length of the string (one round trip, with a half cycle fitting between the nodes at the two ends).", "Other allowed wavelengths are reciprocal multiples (e.g.", ", , times) that of the fundamental.Theoretically, these shorter wavelengths correspond to vibrations at frequencies that are integer multiples of (e.g.", "2, 3, 4 times) the fundamental frequency.", "Physical characteristics of the vibrating medium and/or the resonator it vibrates against often alter these frequencies.", "(See inharmonicity and stretched tuning for alterations specific to wire-stringed instruments and certain electric pianos.)", "However, those alterations are small, and except for precise, highly specialized tuning, it is reasonable to think of the frequencies of the harmonic series as integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.The harmonic series is an arithmetic progression (''f'', 2''f'', 3''f'', 4''f'', 5''f'', ...).", "In terms of frequency (measured in cycles per second, or hertz, where ''f'' is the fundamental frequency), the difference between consecutive harmonics is therefore constant and equal to the fundamental.", "But because human ears respond to sound nonlinearly, higher harmonics are perceived as \"closer together\" than lower ones.", "On the other hand, the octave series is a geometric progression (2''f'', 4''f'', 8''f'', 16''f'', ...), and people perceive these distances as \"the same\" in the sense of musical interval.", "In terms of what one hears, each octave in the harmonic series is divided into increasingly \"smaller\" and more numerous intervals.The second harmonic, whose frequency is twice the fundamental, sounds an octave higher; the third harmonic, three times the frequency of the fundamental, sounds a perfect fifth above the second harmonic.", "The fourth harmonic vibrates at four times the frequency of the fundamental and sounds a perfect fourth above the third harmonic (two octaves above the fundamental).", "Double the harmonic number means double the frequency (which sounds an octave higher).cents – from equal temperament (rounded to the nearest integer).", "Blue notes are very flat and red notes are very sharp.", "Listeners accustomed to more tonal tuning, such as meantone and well temperaments, notice many other notes are \"off\".extended just notation by Ben JohnstonFile:Harmonics to 32.midA (110 Hz) and 15 of its partials prime harmonics\".File:Notation of partials 1-19 for 1-1.midMarin Mersenne wrote: \"The order of the Consonances is natural, and ... the way we count them, starting from unity up to the number six and beyond is founded in nature.\"", "However, to quote Carl Dahlhaus, \"the interval-distance of the natural-tone-row overtones ..., counting up to 20, includes everything from the octave to the quarter tone, (and) useful and useless musical tones.", "The natural-tone-row harmonic series justifies everything, that means, nothing.\"" ], [ "Harmonics and tuning", "If the harmonics are octave displaced and compressed into the span of one octave, some of them are approximated by the notes of what the West has adopted as the chromatic scale based on the fundamental tone.", "The Western chromatic scale has been modified into twelve equal semitones, which is slightly out of tune with many of the harmonics, especially the 7th, 11th, and 13th harmonics.", "In the late 1930s, composer Paul Hindemith ranked musical intervals according to their relative dissonance based on these and similar harmonic relationships.Below is a comparison between the first 31 harmonics and the intervals of 12-tone equal temperament (12TET), octave displaced and compressed into the span of one octave.", "Tinted fields highlight differences greater than 5 cents ( of a semitone), which is the human ear's \"just noticeable difference\" for notes played one after the other (smaller differences are noticeable with notes played simultaneously).", "Harmonic Interval as a ratio Interval in binary 12TET interval Note Variance cents 1 2 4 8 16 1, 2 1 prime (octave) C 0 17 17/16 (1.0625) 1.0001 minor second C, D +5 9 18 9/8 (1.125) 1.001 major second D +4 19 19/16 (1.1875) 1.0011 minor third D, E −2 5 10 20 5/4 (1.25) 1.01 major third E −14 21 21/16 (1.3125) 1.0101 fourth F −29 11 22 11/8 (1.375) 1.011 tritone F, G −49 23 23/16 (1.4375) 1.0111 +28 3 6 12 24 3/2 (1.5) 1.1 fifth G +2 25 25/16 (1.5625) 1.1001 minor sixth G, A −27 13 26 13/8 (1.625) 1.101 +41 27 27/16 (1.6875) 1.1011 major sixth A +6 7 14 28 7/4 (1.75) 1.11 minor seventh A, B −31 29 29/16 (1.8125) 1.1101 +30 15 30 15/8 (1.875) 1.111 major seventh B −12 31 31/16 (1.9375) 1.1111 +45The frequencies of the harmonic series, being integer multiples of the fundamental frequency, are naturally related to each other by whole-numbered ratios and small whole-numbered ratios are likely the basis of the consonance of musical intervals (see just intonation).", "This objective structure is augmented by psychoacoustic phenomena.", "For example, a perfect fifth, say 200 and 300 Hz (cycles per second), causes a listener to perceive a combination tone of 100 Hz (the difference between 300 Hz and 200 Hz); that is, an octave below the lower (actual sounding) note.", "This 100 Hz first-order combination tone then interacts with both notes of the interval to produce second-order combination tones of 200 (300 − 100) and 100 (200 − 100) Hz and all further nth-order combination tones are all the same, being formed from various subtraction of 100, 200, and 300.When one contrasts this with a dissonant interval such as a tritone (not tempered) with a frequency ratio of 7:5 one gets, for example, 700 − 500 = 200 (1st order combination tone) and 500 − 200 = 300 (2nd order).", "The rest of the combination tones are octaves of 100 Hz so the 7:5 interval actually contains four notes: 100 Hz (and its octaves), 300 Hz, 500 Hz and 700 Hz.", "The lowest combination tone (100 Hz) is a seventeenth (two octaves and a major third) below the lower (actual sounding) note of the tritone.", "All the intervals succumb to similar analysis as has been demonstrated by Paul Hindemith in his book ''The Craft of Musical Composition'', although he rejected the use of harmonics from the seventh and beyond.The Mixolydian mode is consonant with the first 10 harmonics of the harmonic series (the 11th harmonic, a tritone, is not in the Mixolydian mode).", "The Ionian mode is consonant with only the first 6 harmonics of the series (the seventh harmonic, a minor seventh, is not in the Ionian mode).", "The Rishabhapriya ragam is consonant with the first 14 harmonics of the series." ], [ "Timbre of musical instruments", "The relative amplitudes (strengths) of the various harmonics primarily determine the timbre of different instruments and sounds, though onset transients, formants, noises, and inharmonicities also play a role.", "For example, the clarinet and saxophone have similar mouthpieces and reeds, and both produce sound through resonance of air inside a chamber whose mouthpiece end is considered closed.", "Because the clarinet's resonator is cylindrical, the ''even''-numbered harmonics are less present.", "The saxophone's resonator is conical, which allows the even-numbered harmonics to sound more strongly and thus produces a more complex tone.", "The inharmonic ringing of the instrument's metal resonator is even more prominent in the sounds of brass instruments.Human ears tend to group phase-coherent, harmonically-related frequency components into a single sensation.", "Rather than perceiving the individual partials–harmonic and inharmonic, of a musical tone, humans perceive them together as a tone color or timbre, and the overall pitch is heard as the fundamental of the harmonic series being experienced.", "If a sound is heard that is made up of even just a few simultaneous sine tones, and if the intervals among those tones form part of a harmonic series, the brain tends to group this input into a sensation of the pitch of the fundamental of that series, even if the fundamental is not present.Variations in the frequency of harmonics can also affect the ''perceived'' fundamental pitch.", "These variations, most clearly documented in the piano and other stringed instruments but also apparent in brass instruments, are caused by a combination of metal stiffness and the interaction of the vibrating air or string with the resonating body of the instrument." ], [ "Interval strength", "David Cope (1997) suggests the concept of interval strength, in which an interval's strength, consonance, or stability (see consonance and dissonance) is determined by its approximation to a lower and stronger, or higher and weaker, position in the harmonic series.", "See also: Lipps–Meyer law.Thus, an equal-tempered perfect fifth () is stronger than an equal-tempered minor third (), since they approximate a just perfect fifth () and just minor third (), respectively.", "The just minor third appears between harmonics 5 and 6 while the just fifth appears lower, between harmonics 2 and 3." ], [ "See also", "Fourier seriesKlang (music)Otonality and UtonalityPiano acousticsScale of harmonicsUndertone series" ], [ "Notes", "'''Sources'''" ], [ "Further reading", " * * (see ''Sensations of Tone'')* * * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hasid" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ḥasīd''' (, \"pious\", \"saintly\", \"godly man\"; plural \"Hasidim\") is a Jewish honorific, frequently used as a term of exceptional respect in the Talmudic and early medieval periods.", "It denotes a person who is scrupulous in his observance of Jewish law, and often one who goes beyond the legal requirements of ritual and ethical Jewish observance in daily life.", "In the Mishnah, the term is used thirteen times, the majority of which being in the Tractate ''Pirkei Avot''." ], [ "Hebrew etymology", "The Hebrew word ''Ḥasīd'' appears for the first time in the Torah (Deuteronomy 33:8) with respect to the tribe of Levi, and all throughout the Hebrew Book of Psalms, with its various declensions.", "In classic rabbinic literature it differs from \"Tzadik\" (\"righteous\") by instead denoting one who goes beyond his ordinary duty.", "The literal meaning of ''Ḥasīd'' derives from Chesed () (= \"kindness\"), the outward expression of love (lovingkindness) for God and other people.", "This spiritual devotion motivates pious conduct beyond everyday limits.", "The devotional nature of its description lent itself to a few Jewish movements in history being known as \"Hasidim\".", "Two of these derived from the Jewish mystical tradition, as it could tend towards piety over legalism.Rabbi Saadia Gaon, the medieval Hebrew linguist and biblical exegete, translated the Hebrew word ''Ḥasīd'' in Psalm 18:25 into the Judeo-Arabic word , meaning, \"he that does good.\"" ], [ "Usage in rabbinic texts", "As a personal honorific, both \"Ḥasīd\" and \"Tzadik\" could be applied independently to the same individual with both different qualities.", "The 18th-century Vilna Gaon, for instance, at that time the chief opponent of the new Jewish mystical movement that became known as \"Hasidism\", was renowned for his righteous life.", "In tribute to his scholarship, he became popularly honored with the formal title of \"Genius\", while amongst the Hasidic movement's leadership, despite his fierce opposition to their legalistic tendencies, he was respectfully referred to as \"The Gaon, the Ḥasīd from Vilna\".A general dictum in the Talmud (''Baba Kama'' 30a) states: \"He that wishes to be pious (Aramaic: ''ḥasīda''), let him uphold the things described under the indemnity laws in the Mishnaic Order of ''Neziqin''.\"", "Rava, differing, said: \"Let him observe the things transcribed in ''Pirkei Avot''.\"", "(ibid.", ")Of the few known pious men in the early 2nd century, the Talmud acknowledges the following: \"Wherever we read (in Talmudic writings), 'It is reported of a pious man', either R. Juda b. Baba it meant or R. Judah, the son of R.", "Ilai.\"" ], [ "Other uses", "In the aggregate, \"Ḥasīd\" may also refer to members of any of the following Jewish movements:* the Hasideans of the Maccabean period, around the 2nd century BCE* the New Testament twice refers to Jesus of Nazareth as the Davidic ḥasīd foretold in (Book of Acts 2:27; 13:35 ὅσιος, quoting Ps 15:10 Greek Septuagint translation; \"ḥasīd\" is here used in the Hebrew NT translations of Delitzsch, Salkinson-Ginsburg, “The Way,” etc., and is paralleled by the Syriac Peshitta).", "Followers of this royal ḥasīd were commanded to practice ḥesed among themselves (Gospel of Luke 10:37, using Septuagintal ''poiein eleos meta'' from Hebrew ''asah ḥesed ʿim'').", "* the Ashkenazi Hasidim, an ascetic German mystical-ethical movement of the 12th and 13th centuries* Hasidic Judaism (Yiddish: \"Chassidische movement\"), a movement which began in Ukraine in the 18th century" ], [ "See also", "* Amidah* Illui* Tzadik" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hoosier hysteria" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hoosier hysteria''' is the state of excitement surrounding basketball in Indiana or, more specifically, the Indiana high school basketball tournament.", "The most famous example occurred in 1954, when Milan (enrollment 161) defeated Muncie Central (enrollment over 1,600) to win the state title.Indiana's passion for basketball was observed and written about by basketball's inventor, James Naismith, who wrote that while it was invented in Massachusetts, \"basketball really had its origin in Indiana, which remains the center of the sport.\"" ], [ "High school basketball", "===Homegrown talent===Indiana high schools boast a tradition of producing top caliber basketball players.", "Through the 2009-2010 NBA season, 152 Hoosier athletes have played professional basketball in the world's top league.", "Considering the size of the state (population 6.4 million), this makes Indiana high schools by far the most successful at developing NBA players per capita.", "Today there are 22 Hoosiers in the NBA - more than one for every 150,000 male residents.", "The state's unparalleled ability to produce NBA talent, both statewide and specifically in smaller towns, is featured in this Deadspin article.", "In 2017, Indiana natives won the NBA and D-league Dunk Contests, NBA and D-league 3-point contests, and won runner-up in the NBA Skills Challenge.===One-class tradition===Historically, each of the several hundred small towns of Indiana had its own small school system.", "Before consolidation of many of these rural school districts in the last half of the twentieth century, Indiana high schools had fewer students than those of most other states; basketball was a natural game for these schools since it only required five starters and a few reserves.", "Even one or two great basketball players could make a high school team a powerhouse, and nearly every Indiana town dreamt of such glory.The Franklin Wonder Five was the first team to win the state championship in three consecutive years, from 1920 to 1922.This accomplishment would not be matched for over six decades.", "The team was led by Fuzzy Vandivier.After Milan's Miracle in the 1950s, no school with an enrollment of less than 500 won another boys' State title under the all-comers format.", "As school consolidation became more common and as more rural residents migrated to cities making large high schools grow even larger, smaller high schools had only a mismatch to look forward to come tournament time, as success concentrated in Indiana's large urban and suburban schools.", "Starting with the 1997–1998 season, Indiana established a controversial four-class system for its basketball championship, although many other sports remain single-class.", "The state's move to this new system has, to some extent, diminished the phenomenon and public opinion is widely split on the merits of \"class basketball.", "\"Aside from the \"Milan Miracle,\" the story of Crispus Attucks High School ranks as one of the greatest in Indiana high school basketball tradition.", "In 1955, the year after Attucks had lost in the semistate final (state quarterfinals) to Milan's championship team, Attucks gained fame by winning the Indiana state championship, becoming the first all-black school in the nation to win a state title open to all schools regardless of race.", "Crispus Attucks repeated as champions in 1956, becoming the first Indiana high school team to complete a season undefeated.", "The Attucks teams of 1954 through 1956 were led by Oscar Robertson.", "Both stories, Milan and Crispus Attucks, are memorialized for their accomplishments and tradition at the Indiana State Museum as well as at the Indiana Basketball Hall of Fame in New Castle.A highlight of the single-class tournament was the 1990 State Championship game, in which the paid attendance was over 40,000 fans.", "This phenomenal turnout of fans who witnessed Damon Bailey's Bedford-North Lawrence Stars win the State Championship stands as the largest crowd ever to witness a high school basketball game.After the 1997 season (when Bloomington North won the final single-class State Championship), the IHSAA controversially did away with the single-class system, ending the run of single-class champions in Indiana.", "There are many in Indiana who lament this loss, and who know that Hoosier hysteria has been dramatically and significantly lessened thereby.", "Hoosier hysteria has not completely diminished however.", "For example, in 2003, DeKalb High School (1200 students) nearly defeated Pike High School (3000 students).", "Also, the Indiana tournament is still the most attended in the nation, with final four games for the two larger divisions regularly selling out Gainbridge Fieldhouse (formerly Conseco Fieldhouse and Bankers Life Fieldhouse).===High school gymnasiums===Perhaps one of the more telling signs of the passion and commitment to basketball at the high school level is the number and size of large basketball gymnasiums in the state.", "With considerable cost and effort, Indiana boasts nine of the ten largest high school gyms in the country, and a purported eighteen of the top twenty.", "Seventeen venues in Indiana today boast a capacity of over 6,000, the largest being the New Castle Fieldhouse, seating 9,325." ], [ "College basketball", "Hoosier hysteria may have its roots firmly planted in the high school game, but the college tradition brings its own depth to Indiana's passion.", "In NCAA Division I basketball, Indiana's colleges and universities have a storied past.", "Big Ten rivals Purdue University and Indiana University and the University of Notre Dame are the most notable, with national and conference championships to boast.", "Smaller schools such as Indiana State University, Ball State University, Butler University, the University of Evansville, IUPUI, Purdue Fort Wayne, the University of Southern Indiana, and Valparaiso University add to the mix.", "Vincennes University boasts an outstanding national tradition in the junior college ranks.", "And in Division II St. Joseph's and the University of Indianapolis have added their own successes to the legend of Indiana basketball.", "Wabash College won the Men's Division III NCAA Championship in 1982 and their 1905 24-0 team was considered World Champions; DePauw University and Manchester College were Div III National Finalists.", "It is safe to say that the terms \"Final Four\" and \"March Madness\" have grown out of the tradition of Hoosier hysteria.===Ball State Cardinals===The Ball State Cardinals have won several conference championships and earned a number of NCAA Tournament berths over the years, including:Seven Mid-American Conference Season ChampionshipsSeven Mid-American Conference (MAC) Tournament Championships (and subsequent NCAA Tournament appearances)Bonzi Wells, a Muncie, Indiana native, was a four-year letterwinner at Ball State, finishing his career as the Mid-American Conference's all-time leading scorer, and leading the NCAA in steals.", "Ball State's highest finish in the NCAA Tournament came in 1990, when they defeated Gary Payton's Oregon State Beavers and Coach Denny Crum's Louisville Cardinals before falling to eventual champion UNLV by 2, 69–67.===Butler Bulldogs===* Home of the legendary Hinkle Fieldhouse, the largest basketball arena in the world from 1928 to 1950 (including professional arenas).", "Hinkle hosted the Indiana High School Athletic Association Championships for many years (including Milan's 1954 championship), Butler University also is notable for its men's and women's basketball teams.", "The Bulldogs advanced to the Sweet 16 of the NCAA Tournament in the 2003 and 2007 seasons.", "* In 2006, the Bulldogs won the 2006 Preseason NIT, beating most notably Indiana and Notre Dame to reach the semifinals in New York City.", "Behind a strong performance from guard A.J.", "Graves, the Bulldogs defeated Tennessee and Gonzaga at Madison Square Garden.", "* In 2010, Butler reached their first Final Four as a #5 seed, beating #12 seeded UTEP in the first round behind a flurry of 3-pointers, edging out a very good #13 seed Murray State (who upset #4 seed Vanderbilt in the first round), and then in the Sweet 16, Butler upset #1 seed Syracuse, and in a thrilling Elite Eight game Butler upset #2 seed Kansas State.", "The Bulldogs made it to the Finals of the NCAA Tournament after defeating #5 seed Michigan State from the Midwest division.", "The Bulldogs played against #1 seeded Duke from the South in the finals but lost in a close game, with a potential game-winning shot by Gordon Hayward from just inside half-court rimming out.", "* In 2011, Butler returned to the NCAA title game for a second straight year.", "However, Butler lost 53–41 to Connecticut, shooting a historically low 18.8 percent from the field — the worst in any NCAA title game and the worst in any NCAA tourney game since Harvard against Ohio State in 1946.===Evansville Purple Aces===The Evansville Purple Aces have won five national championships in the NCAA College Division (now known as Division II): 1959, 1960, 1964, 1965 (29–0 record), and 1971.This ranks second all-time.", "After joining the NCAA's Division I in 1977, Evansville was a charter member of the Midwest Collegiate Conference, now known as the Horizon League.", "The Aces won or shared the MCC regular season title in 1982, 1987, 1989, 1992, and 1993.They also won the conference tournament title in 1982, 1992, and 1993.", "The Aces are now a member of the Missouri Valley Conference, and won the 1999 regular season title.", "Legendary Aces coach Arad McCutchan was the first NCAA College Division coach selected to the Naismith Basketball Hall of Fame.===Franklin College Grizzlies===* Franklin College (total enrollment of around 350 students), known as the \"Franklin Wonder Five\", declared '''national college champions''' in 1922–1923 season, staying undefeated against teams from major universities, including Notre Dame, Illinois, Purdue, and Wisconsin.", "* Had a string of 50 consecutive victories over a 2-season span that ended in February 1924, after the team suffered its first defeat by Butler University.", "* In 1924, turned down an offer to play the Original Celtics, the top professional team in the nation, for a claim to the ''\"undisputed national championship\"''.", "* Two '''Indiana State Collegiate Championships''' (1923, 1924).===Indiana Hoosiers===Indiana's collegiate basketball squad, the Indiana Hoosiers men's basketball team has several championships to their credit:Five NCAA National Championships (1940, 1953, 1976, 1981, 1987), placing them in a tie for fourth most all-timeOne NIT Championship (1979) over rival Purdue; and one Runner-up finish (1985) to a UCLA team featuring future member of the Indiana Pacers, Reggie MillerTwenty-two Big Ten Championships (including four in a row from 1973 to 1976), currently two behind rival Purdue for the most all-timeAlso, Indiana completed the most recent undefeated season in Division I men's college basketball, going 32–0 in the 1975–76 season under Hall of Fame coach Bob Knight.The Hoosiers' five NCAA Championships are the fourth in history, tied with Duke, and trailing UCLA (11) Kentucky (8) and North Carolina (6).", "Their eight trips to the Final Four ranks seventh on the all-time list.", "The Hoosiers have made 32 appearances in the NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament (fifth-most in NCAA history).", "In those 32 appearances, Indiana has posted 52 victories, the sixth-most in NCAA history.===Indiana State Sycamores===Led by the legendary French Lick standout Larry Bird, Indiana State was the runner-up in the 1979 NCAA tournament.", "They lost to Magic Johnson's Michigan State Spartans.", "Their final record was 33–1.", "Indiana State, led by All-American Jerry Newsom, was the 1968 NCAA College Division Runner-up.", "They lost to perennial power Kentucky Wesleyan.", "Their final record was 23–8.", "Indiana State won the 1950 NAIA Championship.", "Eight players from the 1950 team played for Head Coach John Longfellow as the United States' Gold Medal Basketball team at the inaugural 1951 Pan-American Games.", "Indiana State was the runner-up in the 1946 and 1948 NAIA championship games.", "The 1948 team was coached by the legendary John Wooden; it is the only Championship game loss in Coach Wooden's career.", "In 1947, Wooden's basketball team won the conference title and received an invitation to the NAIA National Tournament in Kansas City.", "Wooden refused the invitation citing the NAIA's policy banning African American players.", "A member on the Indiana State Sycamores' team was Clarence Walker, an African-American athlete from East Chicago, Indiana.", "In 1948 the NAIA changed this policy and Wooden guided his team to the NAIA final, losing to Louisville.", "That year, Walker became the first African-American to play in ANY post-season intercollegiate basketball tournament.", "Indiana State finished third in the 1953 NAIA tourney and fourth in the 1949 NAIA tourney* In 1936, Indiana State was the runner-up in the U.S. Olympics Trials for basketball.", "* Two MVC Regular Season Championships and three MVC Tournament Championships.", "* Four Indiana Collegiate Conference (ICC) Regular Season Championships.", "* Four Indiana Intercollegiate Conference (IIC) Regular Season Championships===Notre Dame Fighting Irish===* The Notre Dame Men's Basketball team was crowned National Champions of the 1926-1927 basketball season as well as the 1935-1936 basketball season by the Helms Athletic Foundation.", "* The Notre Dame Men have a history of upsetting number 1 ranked teams as they have beaten 12 teams ranked No.", "1 in the polls.", "The most notable of these upsets was the 1974 upset of UCLA, who had won their previous 88 contests.", "* The Notre Dame Men's Basketball team currently has the 9th most wins in College Basketball History.", "* Led by Coach Digger Phelps, the Irish made a trip to the 1978 Final Four where they lost to the Duke Blue Devils.", "* The Irish have appeared in the Elite 8 on 7 different occasions.", "These include 1953, 1954, 1958, 1978 (Final Four),1979, 2015 and 2016.", "* Since joining the Big East in 1995, a Notre Dame basketball player has been crowned Big East Player of the year 5 times.", "* 10 Notre Dame players have been named consensus All Americans.", "Three of those players were named to the team in 3 different years.", "(Only 18 players have been named as consensus All-Americans three times.", ")* Notre Dame all-time leading scorer Austin Carr currently holds the record for the most points in an NCAA tournament game, scoring 61 against Ohio in 1971.", "* The Irish women won the National Championship in 2001 and 2018.", "* The Irish women went to five consecutive Final Fours from 2011 through 2015, finishing as national runner-up in four of those years—2011, 2012, 2014, and 2015.The Irish were also runners-up in 2019.===Purdue Boilermakers===With their only men's national championship coming in the days before the NCAA Tournament, the Purdue Boilermakers have a basketball history:National championship in 1932, led by three-time All-American player and Indiana native John Wooden.", "(Championship retroactively awarded by the Helms Athletic Foundation, seven years before the NCAA sponsored a basketball championship)NCAA Tourney runner-up in 1969, semifinalist in 1980One NIT Championship (1974); the first for the Big Ten Conference and two Runner-up finishes (1979, 1982) and a third-place finish (1981)Twenty-Four (24) Big Ten Championships (including a \"Three-Pete\" - a play on their mascot - from 1994 to 1996 and from 1934 to 1936.", ")The most all-time.", "Currently first all-time in Big Ten Conference victories with 992.The Boilermaker women have one National Championship (1999), one national runner-up finish (2001 to Notre Dame), seven Big Ten Championships, and have won nine of the 25 women's Big Ten tournaments.===Valparaiso Beacons===Nine Summit League regular season championships.", "Eight Summit League tournament championships.", "Memorable run in the 1998 NCAA tournament following The Shot by Bryce Drew.===Indianapolis Greyhounds===The Indianapolis Greyhounds, representing the University of Indianapolis (UIndy), have a storied basketball history.", "The Greyhounds were led by UIndy Hall of Famer Angus Nicoson throughout the 1950s and 60s, and Nicoson's teams won 8 Hoosier Conference Championships.", "More recent success has seen the Hounds ranked No.", "1 in the country in Division II basketball in 2014, led by former USI standout, Stan Gouard.===St.", "Joseph's Pumas===The Saint Joseph's Pumas, led by current coach Richard Davis, returned to the NCAA Elite Eight for the fourth time in 2010.The Pumas have numerous conference championships and 10 appearances in the NCAA Division II Tournament.They are members of the Great Lakes Valley Conference, the top Division II conference in the nation.", "Four Great Lakes Valley Conference regular season championships.", "One Great Lakes Valley Conference tournament championships.", "One Indiana Collegiate Conference regular season championship.", "Memorable run in the 2010 NCAA tournament reaching the Elite Eight by make the tournament as an 'at-large' bid and preceding to win the Midwest Regional (3 games) by a total of 5 point.", "They won the Regional Championship by 1 point in a thrilling triple-overtime game, defeating Quincy University.===USI Screaming Eagles===The USI Screaming Eagles, led by current Auburn coach Bruce Pearl, won the 1995 Division II National Championship and were runners-up in 1994 and 2004.===Vincennes Trailblazers===The Vincennes University men's basketball program is the 4th winningest junior college program in the country, with 1,470 victories.", "The Trailblazers trail Southeastern Iowa Community College (1,519), Moberly, Mo., (1,505) and Hutchinson, Kan., with 1,490.The Trailblazers' 4 National Titles place them tied with Moberly Area Community College and San Jacinto College - Central, which each have four titles.", "The Vincennes program began in 1903, however, no teams were formed from 1910 to 1912 and 1931–1950.", "4 NJCAA National Championships; 1965, 1970, 1972, 2019National Finalist in 1986National Semi-Finalist in 1974, 1983, 1992, 1993*National Tournament Top 10 finishes: 1967, 1968, 1969, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1988, 1989, 1995, 1997, 1998 and 200030 appearances in the NJCAA National Tournament*28 appearances in the NJCAA finals.", "34 NJCAA Region 12 championships.", "9 NJCAA District 12 championships.", "7 Inter-region playoffs===Bethel College (Mishawaka)===3 NAIA National Championships (Men's DII Basketball)29 NCCAA National Championships15 NAIA National Players of the Week" ], [ "Professional basketball", "===Indiana Pacers===The Indiana Pacers are a professional basketball team that plays in the National Basketball Association (NBA).", "The team is based in the state's capital and largest city, Indianapolis, located in the center of the state.", "The Indiana Fever of the WNBA, also owned by Melvin & Herb Simon, are the Pacers' sister team and also play in the Gainbridge Fieldhouse.", "Founded in 1967 as a charter ABA team.", "Joined NBA in 1976Won 3 ABA Championships (1969, 1970, 1972)Won 5 ABA Conference Championships (1969, 1970, 1972, 1973, 1975)Won 3 ABA Division Championships (1969, 1970, 1971)Won 1 NBA Conference Championship (2000)Won 5 NBA Division Championships (1995, 1999, 2000, 2004, 2013)Home-Gainbridge FieldhouseMascots-Boomer and BowserReggie MillerBobby \"Slick\" LeonardLarry BirdDanny GrangerPaul GeorgeVictor Oladipo===Indiana Fever===The Indiana Fever is a professional women's basketball team that plays in the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA).", "The Fever are based in Indiana's capital and largest city, Indianapolis.", "The Fever normally play at Gainbridge Fieldhouse, located in downtown Indianapolis, but will be displaced for the entire 2020 and 2021 seasons, plus at least part of the 2022 season, by a major renovation of that venue.", "During that time, the Fever will play home games at the Butler Bulldogs' Hinkle Fieldhouse.", "The team is the sister team of the NBA's Indiana Pacers.", "Founded in 2000Home — Gainbridge Fieldhouse (permanent), Hinkle Fieldhouse (2020–2022)Tamika CatchingsKatie DouglasMascot-Freddy Fever Won 2012 WNBA Championship" ], [ "National profile", "===Big Ten tournament===At the conclusion of the regular Big Ten season, a tournament is held to determine the conference winner, who receives the conference's automatic bid to the NCAA tournament.", "Indianapolis has hosted all but one of the women's tournaments since its inception in 1995, and Gainbridge Fieldhouse has hosted every tournament since 2002, as well as the 2000 edition.", "The Big Ten Conference men's basketball tournament began a five-year stint at the then Conseco Fieldhouse in 2008.===Final Four===Indianapolis, headquarters of the National Collegiate Athletic Association and often referred to as the \"Amateur Sports Capital of the World\" has hosted a number of collegiate basketball events.", "Aside from the multitude of regional games held during the NCAA tournament, Indianapolis is tied with New York City for having hosted the second most NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championships (1980, 1991, 1997, 2000, 2006, 2010, 2015, and 2021).", "The city will host the men's Final Four next in 2026 and 2029.Previous events were held in the Market Square Arena or the RCA Dome, but given the new stadium built for the Indianapolis Colts, Lucas Oil Stadium began hosting Final Four events in 2010.When the NCAA Headquarters relocated to Indianapolis, it was stated that Indianapolis would then host the men's Final Four once every five years.===World championships===In 2002, Indianapolis hosted the FIBA World Championship (now known as the FIBA Basketball World Cup), an event that takes place on even years opposite the Olympic Games.", "Since inaugural event in 1950, Indianapolis is the only city in the United States to have hosted the event." ], [ "Firsts", "In a game on December 9, 1916, Purdue became the first to use glass backboard on its hoops.", "Afterwards Coach Mefford, of the Rose Poly team, claimed that the glass backboards in the Purdue gym handicapped his team...\"Patent no.", "1,757,350 granted on May 6, 1930 to William Wallace of Lafayette, Indiana for a \"Basket-Ball-Ball Suspension\" is an improvement on earlier removable goals.", "In this instance, the goal merely folds up against the ceiling.", "This innovation provides the flexibility seen in gymnasiums today where basketball goals are simply raised and lowered by the flip of a switch." ], [ "Local basketball stars", "Here follows a list of notable Indiana natives, as well as non-natives who were raised in the state, who have achieved success in basketball.Non-natives (i.e., those who did not arrive in Indiana before college) who gained basketball fame in Indiana's tradition include:" ], [ "See also", "''Hoosiers'', a 1986 film about a small-town Indiana high school basketball team that wins the state championship.", "Loosely based on the 1954 Milan state championship team.", "''Blue Chips'' - a 1994 basketball movie telling the tale of a by-the-books coach who turns to \"friends of the program\" to secure the talents of incoming freshman players; it contains roles by NBA stars Shaquille O'Neal, Anfernee Hardaway, and cameos by Larry Bird, Rick Pitino, George Raveling, Jim Boeheim, Jerry Tarkanian, Rick Fox and current Purdue Head Coach Matt Painter.", "The game segments were filmed in Frankfort, Indiana.", "Numerous other segments of the film were shot around the state of Indiana.", "Indiana High School Boys Basketball ChampionsIndiana \"Mr. Basketball\" awardIllinois high school boys basketball championship, known as \"America's Original March Madness\"; the neighboring state of Illinois has a similar relationship and history with basketball.", " Sweet Sixteen, the boys' and girls' high school championship tournaments of another neighboring state, Kentucky, which also has a similar relationship with basketball.", "Most notably, Kentucky's Sweet Sixteen still uses the single-class model that Indiana abandoned in the late 1990s." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Indiana's Mr. Basketball* USA Today Article on New Castle Fieldhouse* Indiana High School Athletic Association* A synopsis of the State Championship tournament brackets for each year 1911-1997* ''Booknotes'' interview with William Gildea on ''Where the Game Matters Most'', February 22, 1998." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hardcore" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hardcore''', '''hard core''' or '''hard-core''' may refer to:" ], [ "Arts and media", "===Film===* ''Hardcore'' (1977 film), a British comedy film* ''Hardcore'' (1979 film), an American crime drama film starring George C Scott* ''Hardcore'' (2001 film), a British documentary film directed by Stephen Walker* ''Hardcore'' (2004 film), a Greek drama film directed by Dennis Iliadis* ''Hardcore Henry'', a Russian first-person action adventure/sci-fi film directed by Ilya Naishuller of the band Biting Elbows===Music=======Sub-Genres====* Gabber* Breakbeat hardcore * Jumpstyle* Hardstyle* Hardbass* Digital hardcore, a fusion of hardcore punk and electronic dance music* Hardcore dancing, a style of dance related to moshing, sometimes performed at hardcore punk shows* Hardcore (electronic dance music genre) Early hardcore Happy hardcore** Mainstream hardcore* Hardcore hip hop* Hardcore punk Beatdown hardcore harDCore, a portmanteau abbreviation for hardcore punk music in Washington, D.C.** List of hardcore punk subgenres====Albums====* ''Hardcore'' (Daddy Freddy album), 2004* ''Hard Core'' (Paul Dean album), 1989* ''Hard Core'' (Lil' Kim album), 1996* ''Hard Core'' (Lil' Kim mixtape), 2014* ''Hardcore '81'', a 1981 album by D.O.A.====Songs====* \"Hardcore\" (song), a 2022 song by Tove Styrke* \"This Is Hardcore\", a song by Pulp===Video games===* Hardcore mode, also permadeath, a video game mechanic which does not allow a dead character to be restored* ''Hardcore'' (video game), original name of the 1994 game ''Ultracore''===Other uses in media===* Hardcore (comics), a fictional character in the Marvel Multiverse* Hardcore pornography, a form of explicit pornography* Hardcore wrestling, a form of professional wrestling* Hardcore Holly, the ring name of American professional wrestler Robert Howard (born 1963)" ], [ "Technology", "* Construction aggregate, often referred to as \"hardcore\"* Hard core, a type of semiconductor intellectual property core* Hard-core predicate, a concept in cryptography" ], [ "See also", "* Hard Corps (disambiguation)***" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Harold Rupert Leofric George Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis''' , (10 December 1891 – 16 June 1969) was a senior and highly decorated British Army officer who served in both of the world wars.", "In addition, following the end of his military career, he served as Governor General of Canada and became the first Lord Lieutenant of Greater London in 1965.Alexander was born in London and was educated at Harrow before moving on to the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, for training as an army officer of the Irish Guards.", "He rose to prominence through his service in the First World War, and continued his military career through various British campaigns across Europe and Asia during the interwar period.", "In the Second World War, Alexander, initially in command of a division, oversaw the final stages of the Allied evacuation from Dunkirk and subsequently held field commands in Britain, Burma, North Africa and Italy, including serving as Commander-in-Chief Middle East and commanding the 18th Army Group in Tunisia.", "He then commanded the 15th Army Group for the capture of Sicily and again in Italy before being promoted to field marshal and being made Supreme Allied Commander Mediterranean in late 1944.In 1946 he was appointed as Governor General of Canada by King George VI, on the recommendation of the Prime Minister of Canada, William Lyon Mackenzie King, to replace the Earl of Athlone as viceroy, and he occupied the post until he was succeeded by Vincent Massey in 1952.Alexander proved to be enthusiastic about the Canadian wilderness and popular with Canadians.", "He was the last Governor General who was born in the United Kingdom as well as the last Governor General to be a peer.After the end of his viceregal tenure, Alexander was sworn into the Queen's Privy Council for Canada and thereafter, in order to serve as the British Minister of Defence in the Cabinet of Winston Churchill, into the Imperial Privy Council.", "Alexander retired in 1954 and died in 1969." ], [ "Early life and military career", "Alexander was born in London into an aristocratic family from County Tyrone of Anglo-Irish descent.", "He was the third son of James Alexander, 4th Earl of Caledon, and Lady Elizabeth Graham-Toler, Countess of Caledon, a daughter of the 3rd Earl of Norbury.", "Alexander was educated at Hawtreys and Harrow School, there participating as the 11th batsman in the sensational Fowler's Match against Eton College in 1910.Though Alexander toyed with the notion of becoming an artist, he went instead on to the Royal Military College, Sandhurst in 1910.Members of the Irish Guards, pictured here sometime before 1914.Alexander, wearing civilian clothes, is stood fourth on the left.After passing out from Sandhurst he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Irish Guards on 23 September 1911.He was promoted to lieutenant on 5 December 1912." ], [ "First World War", "A platoon of the 1st Battalion, Irish Guards, pictured upon the outbreak of the First World War, 1914.Lieutenant Alexander is seated seventh from the right, with his arms folded and wearing a peaked cap.Alexander spent most of the First World War on the Western Front.", "As a 22-year-old platoon commander in the 1st Battalion, Irish Guards, he served with the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in 1914.He took part in the retreat from Mons and was wounded at First Ypres and invalided home.", "He was promoted to temporary captain on 15 November 1914 and permanent captain in the newly raised 2nd Battalion on 7 February the following year.Alexander returned to the Western Front in August 1915, fought at the Battle of Loos and was, for ten days in October 1915, an acting major and acting Commanding Officer (CO) of the 1st Battalion, Irish Guards, as a \"Battle Casualty Replacement\".", "He then returned to the 2nd Battalion as a company officer and, in January 1916, received the Military Cross for his bravery at Loos.", "For service in the Battle of the Somme on 15 September 1916, he was, in October, appointed to the Distinguished Service Order (DSO), the citation for which read:In the same month, Alexander was further honoured with induction into the French Légion d'honneur.On 10 December 1916, his twenty-fifth birthday, Alexander became second-in-command (2-i-c) of the 1st Battalion, Irish Guards, as an acting major.", "By May, he was briefly acting CO of the 1st Battalion, as an acting lieutenant colonel, while still only a substantive captain.", "He became a permanent major on 1 August 1917, and was again promoted acting lieutenant colonel, this time confirmed as CO of the 2nd Battalion, Irish Guards, on 15 October.", "Alexander commanded his battalion at Third Ypres, where he was slightly wounded, then at Bourlon Wood (part of the battle of Cambrai), where his battalion suffered 320 casualties out of 400 men.", "Alexander, between 23 and 30 March 1918, had to assume command of the 4th Guards Brigade, during the British retreat from the German Army's Spring Offensive.", "He once again commanded the 2nd Battalion, Irish Guards, at Hazebrouck in April 1918, where it took such severe casualties that it saw no further action.", "Still an acting lieutenant colonel, he then commanded a corps infantry school in October 1918, a month before the war ended on 11 November 1918.Rudyard Kipling, who wrote a history of the Irish Guards, in which his own son, Jack Kipling, fought and was killed in action, noted that, \"it is undeniable that Colonel Alexander had the gift of handling the men on the lines to which they most readily responded... His subordinates loved him, even when he fell upon them blisteringly for their shortcomings; and his men were all his own.\"" ], [ "Between the wars", "Officers of the Baltic Landeswehr in Latvia 1920 – Alexander stands right in the middle.Alexander in 1919 served with the Allied Control Commission in Poland.", "As a temporary lieutenant-colonel, he led the Baltic German Landeswehr in the Latvian War of Independence, commanding units loyal to Latvia in the successful drive to eject the Bolsheviks from Latgalia.", "During service there, he was accidentally wounded by one of his own sentries on 9 October 1919.Alexander returned to Britain in May 1920 as a major, second in command of the 1st Battalion, Irish Guards; in May 1922, he was promoted substantive lieutenant-colonel and appointed commanding officer.", "He commanded the battalion at Constantinople (a sensitive posting in the runup to the Chanak Crisis), then Gibraltar from October 1922, then in London from April 1923 until January 1926, when he was released from that role to attend the Staff College at Camberley, England, from 1926 to 1927.By now Alexander had gained an excellent reputation for himself.", "In addition, he was older than many of his fellow students—and even some of his instructors—at the college.", "Among his many fellow students were Douglas Wimberley, who would later become a major-general and command the 51st (Highland) Division from 1941—1943, including at the Second Battle of El Alamein, who formed a high opinion of Alexander, who, despite his outstanding war record, showed little sign of being overly pleased with himself.", "Instead, he showed \"simplicity, directness and kindness\" and gained the respect of all at the college, with two notable exceptions—the future field marshals Alan Brooke and Bernard Montgomery—who did not come away with a particularly favourable impression of him.After graduating from the Staff College, Alexander was then, in February 1928, promoted to colonel (backdated to 14 May 1926) and was the next month appointed Officer Commanding the Irish Guards Regimental District and 140th (4th London) Infantry Brigade, part of the 47th (1/2nd London) Division, in the Territorial Army (TA), a post he held until January 1930, when he again returned to study, attending the Imperial Defence College in London for one year.Alexander then held staff appointments as (from January 1931) GSO2 in the Directorate of Military Training at the War Office and (1932–1934) GSO1 at HQ Northern Command in York, before being made in October 1934 a temporary brigadier and given command of the Nowshera Brigade, on the Northwest Frontier in India.", "For his service there, and in particular for his actions in the Loe-Agra operations against the Pathans in Malakand between February and April 1935, Alexander was that year made a Companion of the Order of the Star of India and was mentioned in dispatches.", "He was mentioned once more for his service during the Second Mohmand Campaign in Northwest Frontier Province from August to October of the same year, serving under Brigadier Claude Auchinleck.", "Alexander had a reputation for leading from the front and for reaching mountain crests with or even ahead of his troops.In March 1937, Alexander was appointed as one of the aides-de-camp to the recently acceded King George VI and in May returned to the United Kingdom to take part in this capacity in the state procession through London during the King's coronation.", "Alexander would have been seen in this event by two of his Canadian viceregal successors: Vincent Massey, who was then the Canadian high commissioner to the United Kingdom, and Massey's secretary, Georges Vanier, who watched the procession from the roof of Canada House on Trafalgar Square.", "Following the coronation celebration, Alexander returned to India, where he was made the honorary colonel of the 3rd Battalion, 2nd Punjab Regiment, and then in October 1937 was promoted to the rank of major-general, making Alexander the youngest general in the British Army.", "He relinquished command of his brigade in January 1938, and in February returned to the United Kingdom to take command of the 1st Infantry Division.", "In June 1938 he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath." ], [ "Second World War", "===Belgium and France 1939−1940===King George VI inspecting men of the 2nd Battalion, Hampshire Regiment, part of the 1st Infantry Brigade (Guards) of Alexander's 1st Division, near Bachy, France, December 1939.Following the outbreak of the Second World War, in September 1939, Alexander brought the 1st Division to France, where it became part of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) and served there for the next eight months.", "In May 1940, when the German Army invaded France, he successfully led the division's withdrawal to Dunkirk, where it was evacuated to England, along with the rest of the BEF.", "Shortly after Major-General Bernard Montgomery had been appointed to command II Corps (and before that the 3rd Division), Alexander was, while still on the beachhead, placed in command of I Corps, and left the eastern mole on the destroyer ''Venomous'' late on 2 June after ensuring that all British troops had been evacuated.", "In recognition of his services in the field from March to June 1940, Alexander was again mentioned in despatches.===United Kingdom 1940−1942===After Dunkirk, Alexander returned to the United Kingdom and continued to command I Corps, now guarding the coasts of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire as part of Northern Command.", "He was promoted acting lieutenant-general in July 1940, and in December 1940 he was appointed to succeed Claude Auchinleck as General Officer Commanding-in-Chief (GOC-in-C) of Southern Command, which was responsible for the defence of south-west England.", "His rank of lieutenant-general was made permanent in December 1940.While he was here he came into contact with Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery, who was then serving under his command as GOC of V Corps.", "Montgomery and Auchinleck had never seen eye-to-eye on much but Alexander, believing Montgomery, who had been one of Alexander's instructors at the Staff College in the mid-1920s, knew what he was doing, simply allowed Montgomery (or \"Monty\") to continue with what he was doing.", "The two men got along well and their relationship would continue in a similar manner later on in the war.It was during this period and most of 1941 where Alexander came to the attention of his superiors, the most notable among them being General Sir Alan Brooke, then the Commander-in-Chief, Home Forces (and in December 1941 succeeding John Dill as Chief of the Imperial General Staff), and Winston Churchill, the Prime Minister.", "Churchill in particular became a great admirer of Alexander and visited him numerous times throughout 1941, nominating him as the commander of Force 110.Created on paper as the first expeditionary force since the BEF's evacuation from France the year before, Force 110 was considered for several projects throughout the year of 1941, such as landings in the Azores, the Canary Islands and Sicily, but these were, perhaps fortunately, all ultimately abandoned.===Burma and India 1942===John Harding.On 1 January 1942 he was knighted and appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath, and in February, after the Japanese invasion of Burma, was sent to India to become GOC-in-C of British Forces in Burma as a full general.", "Alexander was unable to fulfil his orders to hold Rangoon, which was abandoned on 6–7 March.", "He took personal charge of some small local engagements, and was encircled by the Japanese troops in the Battle of Yenangyaung.", "Rescued by Chinese troops commanded by General Sun Li-jen, Alexander was able to escape.", "Following that, Alexander increasingly left much of the tactical conduct of the campaign to his corps commander, Lieutenant-General William Slim, while he himself handled the more political aspects of relations with Joseph Stilwell, the nominal commander of the Chinese forces.", "Alexander was promoted to Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) of Allied Land Forces in Burma, March 1942, and ordered Slim to abandon Mandalay and retreat to India.===The Middle East and North Africa 1942−1943===The Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, with military leaders during his visit to Tripoli in February 1943.The group includes: Lieutenant-General Sir Oliver Leese, General Sir Harold Alexander, General Sir Alan Brooke and General Sir Bernard Montgomery.By July 1942, the British and Indian forces in Burma had completed their fighting retreat into India, and Alexander, having yet again been mentioned in despatches for his Burma service, was recalled to the United Kingdom.", "He was at first selected to command the British First Army, which was to take part in Operation Torch, the Anglo-American invasion of French North Africa.", "However, following a visit in early August to Egypt by the British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, and the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS), General Sir Alan Brooke, Alexander flew to Cairo on 8 August to replace General Claude Auchinleck, Alexander's predecessor at Southern Command in the United Kingdom, as C-in-C of Middle East Command, the post responsible for the overall conduct of the campaign in the desert of North Africa.", "At the same time, Lieutenant-General Montgomery replaced Auchinleck as GOC of the British Eighth Army.", "Alexander presided over Montgomery's victory at the Second Battle of El Alamein and the advance of the Eighth Army to Tripoli, for which Alexander was elevated to a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, and, after the Anglo-American forces of the First Army (under Lieutenant-General Kenneth Anderson) from Operation Torch and the Eighth Army converged in Tunisia in February 1943, they were brought under the unified command of a newly formed 18th Army Group headquarters, commanded by Alexander and reporting to General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean theatre at Allied Forces Headquarters (AFHQ).", "The American General Omar Bradley, who fought in the Tunisian campaign, then commanding the U.S. II Corps, credited Alexander's patience and experience with helping an inexperienced United States \"field command mature and eventually come of age.", "\"The Axis forces in Tunisia surrendered by May 1943, with some 250,000 Axis troops surrendering, the largest surrender yet in the war.", "Alexander telegraphed Churchill in response, stating:===Sicily and Italy 1943−1945===General Dwight D. Eisenhower, Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder, General Sir Harold Alexander, Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham, (top row, left to right) Harold Macmillan, Major General Walter Bedell Smith and unidentified British officers.After the Tunisian campaign, Alexander's command became the 15th Army Group, which became responsible (under General Eisenhower) for mounting the July 1943 Allied invasion of Sicily (codenamed Operation Husky).", "Once again, Alexander directed two field armies, both commanded by strong-willed characters who were not easy to control: General Montgomery's British Eighth Army and Lieutenant General George S. Patton's U.S.", "Seventh Army.", "The campaign did not portray Alexander at his best and he failed to grip his two commanders.", "Montgomery's Eighth Army found itself in a slogging match against typically skilful German opposition on the Catanian plain and on the slopes of Mount Etna.", "Patton, resentful in his belief that he and his Seventh Army had been given a secondary role in the campaign, confronted Alexander and successfully argued for his army to be allowed to drive to the northwest and to capture Palermo.", "Although initially reluctant to allow Patton such a role, Alexander eventually, but reluctantly, allowed the Seventh Army commander to have his way, although Palermo did not appear to have much strategic significance.", "Despite this, it turned out to be the key to unlocking the Axis forces' defences and gave the Americans an easier route towards Messina.", "The brief campaign in Sicily proved largely successful, but some (with Montgomery among the loudest of the critics) believed that the campaign lacked direction - and blamed Alexander.", "Furthermore, although the Axis forces had been forced to withdraw from Sicily, they had managed to do so in relatively good order, crossing the Straits of Messina into Italy.After Sicily, planning began for the Allied invasion of Italy, which began on 3 September 1943 (the fourth anniversary of Britain's entry into the war).", "Montgomery's Eighth Army launched Operation Baytown, crossing over into Calabria but initially facing little real opposition and slowly making its way up the Italian peninsula.", "Six days later the U.S. Fifth Army (which, despite its name, included the British X Corps under Lieutenant-General Richard McCreery, under its command) under Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark landed at Salerno as part of Operation Avalanche, which, initially at least, started off well, before encountering heavy resistance and almost being thrown back into the sea.", "He supported McCreery when he refused to consider evacuation plans that Clark had been considering.", "Alexander was also instrumental in convincing Clark to replace the U.S. VI Corps commander, Major General Ernest J. Dawley - who had not performed well and whom Alexander described as \"a broken reed\" - with Major General John P. Lucas.", "Despite the heavy casualties sustained at Salerno, the Allies managed to force the Axis forces back and, with both the Fifth and Eighth Armies now united at last, began pursuing the retreating enemy.", "By December 1943 progress had virtually ground to a halt as the Axis had Alexander's 15th Army Group held up at the Winter Line (also known as the Gustav Line) and ground was gained only at the expense of heavy casualties.", "At around this time there were numerous Allied command changes, with Montgomery handing over the Eighth Army to Lieutenant-General Sir Oliver Leese and departing for the United Kingdom to take up command of the 21st Army Group, which controlled all Allied land forces for the planned invasion of Normandy, whilst General Sir Henry Wilson replaced Eisenhower as the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean in January 1944.8th Indian Infantry Division HQ, Italy, 15 December 1943The fighting in Italy would continue to prove even more difficult for Alexander's forces over the following few months.", "Between January and May 1944, numerous Allied attacks were repulsed at Monte Cassino (which was also bombed in February 1944, with Alexander taking responsibility for the decision to bomb it) and the Anzio landings of January 1944 by Lucas's U.S. VI Corps began well but did not live up to expectations and eventually ended up in a stalemate, like the rest of the Italian fighting so far.", "Alexander had a large part in planning the landings (code-named \"Operation Shingle\"), and intended to draw German strength away from the Winter Line and to cut their lines of communication.", "The scheme was supported by Prime Minister Churchill, who had very high expectations for Shingle.", "However, the operation was flawed in many ways.", "In particular, Alexander's plan of seizing the Alban Hills might possibly have led to the entire Allied force (comprising only two infantry divisions, elements of the U.S. 1st Armored Division, and other smaller units in support) being wiped out.", "Despite Churchill's and Alexander's intentions, the Allied forces at Anzio did not achieve the somewhat unrealistic expectations, and were essentially cut off from any support, although they did manage to lure German reserves from elsewhere, which might otherwise have been available for service on the Eastern Front or during the impending Allied invasion of Normandy.General Sir Harold Alexander, commanding the 15th Army Group, talks to British and American officers at Anzio, Italy, 14 February 1944.When Eisenhower was appointed in December 1943 as Supreme Allied Commander for the planned Normandy landings, he suggested that Alexander become ground-forces commander, as he was popular with both British and American officers.", "Omar Bradley (who had commanded U.S. II Corps in Sicily, and later the U.S. First Army and then the U.S. 12th Army Group) remarked that he would have preferred to work with Alexander rather than Montgomery, as he regarded the former as \"a restrained, self-effacive and punctilious soldier\".", "Of the problems that subsequently surfaced with Montgomery's command of the Anglo-Canadian 21st Army Group, Bradley suspected they would not have occurred with Alexander in command.", "Brooke, however, applied pressure to keep Alexander in Italy, considering him unfit for the assignment in France.", "Thus Alexander remained in command of the 15th Army Group, and, with the support of numerous Allied commanders, controversially authorised the bombing of the historic abbey at Monte Cassino (February 1944), which resulted in little advance on the German Winter Line defences, which had managed to halt the Allied advance in Italy.", "It was not until the fourth attempt that the Winter Line was breached by the Allies, and Alexander's forces moved on to capture Rome in June 1944, thereby achieving one of the strategic goals of the Italian campaign.", "However, the U.S. VI Corps, now under Major General Lucian Truscott, in the Anzio beachhead, under U.S. Fifth Army commander Clark's orders, failed to follow their original break-out plan that would have trapped the German 10th Army escaping northwards in the aftermath of the Battle of Monte Cassino, instead favouring an early and highly publicised entry into Rome two days before the Allied landings in Normandy.", "Although Alexander was angry at Clark for deliberately disobeying his specific orders in order to reach Rome first, he chose to say nothing, believing that it would do nothing for the Allied cause if he were to do so.Field Marshal Sir Harold Alexander, pictured here as Supreme Allied Commander of the Mediterranean Forces, at his Headquarters in the Palace of Caserta, ItalyAlexander remained in command of the 15th Army Group, as well as of its successor, the Allied Armies in Italy (AAI), for most of the Italian campaign, until December 1944, when he relinquished his command to Clark and took over as the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces Headquarters, responsible for all military operations in the Mediterranean theatre.", "Alexander was concurrently promoted to the rank of field marshal, though this was backdated to the fall of Rome on 4 June 1944, so that Alexander would once again be senior to Montgomery, who had himself been made a field marshal on 1 September 1944, after the end of the Battle of Normandy.Alexander received the German surrender in Italy on 29 April 1945.As a reward for his leadership in North Africa and Italy, Alexander, along with a number of other prominent British Second World War military leaders, was elevated to the peerage on 1 March 1946 by King George VI; he was created Viscount Alexander of Tunis and of Errigal in the County of Donegal.General Sir Harold Alexander with Major General Lucian Truscott and other senior Allied commanders at Anzio, Italy, 5 May 1944.Major-General John Hawkesworth is pictured on the far right wearing a parachutist helmet, and to the left of him is Major-General Philip Gregson-Ellis.Brooke felt that Alexander needed an able chief of staff \"to think for him\", while Montgomery (Alexander's subordinate in North Africa, Sicily and Italy) claimed to think of Alexander as \"incompetent\" and believed that success was attained in Tunisia only because Montgomery lent Lieutenant-General Brian Horrocks, the commander of IX Corps of Anderson's First Army, to organise the ''coup de grace''.", "However, Harold Macmillan (British Minister Resident in the Mediterranean from 1942 to 1945) was impressed by Alexander's calm and style - the general conducted dinners in his mess like those at an Oxbridge high table, discussing architecture and the campaigns of Belisarius, rather than the current war.", "Macmillan thought Alexander's urbane manner and willingness to discuss and compromise were a sensible way to maintain inter-Allied cooperation, but Alexander's reserve was such that some thought him empty of strategic ideas and unable to make decisions.", "Graham and Bidwell, however, wrote that Alexander's impenetrable reserve made it hard to judge whether or not he had any military ideas.", "They state that he was \"unable or unwilling\" to assert his will over his army commanders, and that Mark Clark, who often referred to Alexander scornfully as a \"peanut\" and a \"feather duster\", exploited this weakness." ], [ "Governor General of Canada", "With the cessation of hostilities, Alexander was under serious consideration for appointment to the post of Chief of the Imperial General Staff, the British Army's most senior position beneath the sovereign.", "He was invited, though, by Canadian prime minister William Lyon Mackenzie King to be his recommendation to the King for the post of Governor General of Canada.", "Alexander thus chose to retire from the army and take up the new position, in anticipation of which he was on 26 January 1946 appointed Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Michael and Saint George and created Viscount Alexander of Tunis, of Errigal in the County of Donegal, on 1 March.", "On 21 March 1946, the commission under the royal sign-manual and signet appointing Alexander was issued.", "Alexander was subsequently sworn in during a ceremony in the Senate chamber on 12 April that year.The Viscount and Viscountess Alexander of Tunis are greeted by Prime Minister of Canada Mackenzie King upon the viceregal couple's arrival in Ottawa, 12 April 1946Alexander took his duties as the viceroy quite seriously, feeling that as governor general, he acted as a connection between Canadians and their King, and spent considerable time travelling Canada during his term; he eventually logged no less than 294,500 km (184,000 mi) during his five years as governor general.", "On these trips, he sought to engage with Canadians through various ceremonies and events; he was keenly interested in his role as Chief Scout of Canada and, in preparation for his kicking of the opening ball in the 1946 Grey Cup final, practised frequently on the grounds of the royal and viceregal residence, Rideau Hall.", "Also, in commemoration of Alexander being named the first non-aboriginal chief of the Kwakiutl tribe, he was given a totem pole on 13 July 1946; crafted by Mungo Martin, it remains on the grounds of Rideau Hall today.", "By the end of the year, Alexander was also distinguished with his induction as a Knight Companion of the Order of the Garter.In 1947, the King issued letters patent granting his Canadian governor general permission to exercise all those powers belonging to the monarch in respect of Canada and, at the Commonwealth Prime Ministers Conference of 1949, the decision was reached to use the term 'member of the Commonwealth' instead of 'Dominion' to refer to the non-British member states of the Commonwealth of Nations.", "That same year, Alexander oversaw the admission of the Newfoundland (a dominion by name but not self-governing) into the Canadian Confederation and toured the new province that summer.", "Then, during a later visit to Alberta, the Governor General was admitted to the Blackfoot tribe as Chief Eagle Head.", "However, though the post-war period saw a boom in prosperity for Canada, the country was again at war by 1950, with Alexander, in his role as acting commander-in-chief, deploying to the Korean War soldiers, sailors, and airmen, whom he would visit prior to their departure for north-east Asia.", "In May 1951, as Commander-in-Chief of Canada, he was deemed a fitting inaugural recipient of the Canadian Forces' Decoration, starting a long tradition of every governor general accepting the CD, usually shortly after their installation as the Sovereign's personal representative in Canada.", "In the Governor General's study at Rideau Hall, Alexander (centre) receives for his signature the bill finalising the union of Newfoundland and Canada, 31 March 1949The Viscount travelled abroad on official trips—in 1947 visiting US president Harry S. Truman and in June 1948 Brazilian president Eurico Gaspar Dutra—as well as hosting a number of dignitaries.", "The visit of the Irish Taoiseach, John A. Costello, in 1948 caused Alexander some embarrassment when Costello chose the occasion to announce that most of Ireland would leave the Commonwealth (Northern Ireland would remain a constituent part of the United Kingdom).", "Although the decision had been taken in principle earlier, the sudden announcement caused a diplomatic storm and Costello, to deflect criticism, claimed that he had been provoked into making the announcement by a series of diplomatic snubs by Lord Alexander.", "In his memoirs, Costello was to admit that Alexander's behaviour had in fact been perfectly civil and could have had no bearing on a decision which had already been made to declare the Republic of Ireland.The Alexanders' relatively informal lifestyle at Rideau Hall was demonstrated when during the Canadian tour of Princess Elizabeth and her husband, the Duke of Edinburgh, the Viscount and Viscountess hosted a square dance in the palace's ballroom.", "Alexander painted (creating a personal studio in the former dairy at Rideau Hall and mounting classes in art at the National Gallery of Canada), partook in a number of sports (including golf, ice hockey, and rugby), and enjoyed the outdoors, particularly during Ontario and Quebec's maple syrup harvest, himself overseeing the process on Rideau Hall's grounds.", "The Viscount was known to escape from official duties to partake in his most favourite pastime of fishing, once departing from the 1951 royal tour of Princess Elizabeth to take in a day's fishing at Griffin Island, in Georgian Bay, and granting a day off for students in the town of Drayton, Ontario, where his train briefly stopped.", "He presented the Alexander Cup to the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association in November 1950; the cup became the championship trophy of the Major Series of senior ice hockey.Among Canadians, Alexander proved to be a popular viceroy, despite the calls for a Canadian-born governor general that had preceded his appointment.", "He not only had a much praised military reputation (he was considered to be the best military strategist since the 1st Duke of Wellington) but also was a charismatic figure, with an easy ability to communicate with people.", "Others, however, did not fully approve of Alexander; editor Hugh Templin, from Fergus, Ontario, met with Alexander during Templin's time as a special correspondent with the Canadian Press during the Second World War, and he said of the encounter: \"Lord Alexander impressed us considerably, if not too favourably.", "He was an aristocratic type, who didn't like newspaper men.\"" ], [ "British Minister of Defence", "Lord Alexander gave up the office of Governor General of Canada officially on 28 January 1952 after Churchill asked him to return to London to take the post of Minister of Defence in the British government.", "The aging Churchill had found it increasingly difficult to cope with holding that portfolio concurrently with that of prime minister, although he still took many major decisions himself, leaving Alexander with little real power.", "George VI died on the night of 5–6 February and Alexander, in respect of the King's mourning, departed quietly for the United Kingdom, leaving Chief Justice of Canada Thibaudeau Rinfret as administrator of the government in his place.", "After his return to the UK, Alexander was on 14 March 1952 elevated in the peerage by Queen Elizabeth II, becoming Earl Alexander of Tunis, Baron Rideau of Ottawa and Castle Derg.", "He was also appointed to the organising committee for the Queen's coronation and was charged with carrying the Sovereign's Orb in the state procession on that occasion in 1953." ], [ "Retirement", "The Earl served as the British defence minister until 1954, when he retired from politics.", "In 1959 the Queen appointed Alexander to the Order of Merit.", "From 1960 to 1965, he served as Constable of the Tower of London.", "Alexander was an active freemason.Canada remained a favourite second home for the Alexanders and they returned frequently to visit family and friends until Alexander died on 16 June 1969 of a perforated aorta.", "His funeral was held on 24 June 1969, at St. George's Chapel, in Windsor Castle, and his remains are buried in the churchyard of Ridge, near Tyttenhanger, his family's Hertfordshire home." ], [ "Marriage and children", "Alexander married Lady Margaret Bingham, daughter of George Bingham, 5th Earl of Lucan, on 14 October 1931.They had three children together and adopted a fourth:* Lady Rose Maureen Alexander (born 28 October 1932, died 21 August 2017)* Shane William Desmond Alexander, 2nd Earl Alexander of Tunis (born 30 June 1935)* Hon.", "Brian James Alexander, CMG (born 31 July 1939)* Lady Susan Mary Alexander (born 26 February 1948) (adopted)" ], [ "Honours", "Appointments7 February 1936 – 16 June 1969: Companion of the Order of the Star of India (CSI) 1938 – 1 January 1942: Companion of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (CB) 1 January 1942 – 11 November 1942: Knight Commander of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (KCB) 11 November 1942 – 16 June 1969: Knight Grand Cross of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (GCB)* 1 January 1946 – 16 June 1969: Knight of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem (KStJ)* 16 September 1946 – 28 January 1952: Knight of Justice, Prior, and Chief Officer in Canada of the Venerable Order of Saint John of Jerusalem (KStJ)* 20 January 1946 – 25 March 1960: Knight Grand Cross of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (GCMG) 25 March 1960 – 12 October 1967: Grand Master of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George 12 October 1967 – 16 June 1969: Knight Grand Cross of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (GCMG)* 12 April 1946 – 28 January 1952: Chief Scout of Canada* 13 July 1946 – 16 June 1969: Honorary Chief of the Kwakiutl Tribe* 3 December 1946 – 16 June 1969: Knight Companion of the Most Noble Order of the Garter (KG)* 1950 – 16 June 1969: Chief of the Blackfoot Tribe* 29 January 1952 – 16 June 1969: Member of the King's Privy Council for Canada (PC (Can))* 17 May 1957 – 1 April 1965: Lord Lieutenant of the County of London* 1 April 1965 – 28 December 1966: Lord Lieutenant of Greater London* 1960–1965: Constable of the Tower of London* 1 January 1959 – 16 June 1969: Member of the Order of Merit (OM)Decorations* 14 January 1916: Military Cross (MC)* 20 October 1916: Companion of the Distinguished Service Order (DSO)* 7 June 1951: Canadian Forces' Decoration (CD)Medals* 1919: 1914 Star with clasp* 1919: British War Medal* 1919: Victory Medal* 1935: King George V Silver Jubilee Medal* 1935: India General Service Medal (1909)* 1937: King George VI Coronation Medal* 1945: 1939–45 Star* 1945: Burma Star* 1945: Africa Star* 1945: Italy Star* 1945: War Medal 1939–1945* 1953: Queen Elizabeth II Coronation MedalAwards* 4 January 1917: Mentioned in Despatches* 27 December 1918: Mentioned in Despatches* 8 July 1919: Mentioned in Despatches* 3 February 1920: Mentioned in Despatches* 7 February 1936: Mentioned in Despatches* 8 May 1936: Mentioned in Despatches* 20 December 1940: Mentioned in Despatches* 28 October 1942: Mentioned in Despatches* 1945 Freedom of the City of Manchester* 25 March 1946 Freedom of the City of London* Freedom of the City of Edinburgh===Foreign honours and decorations===* 20 October 1916: Knight of the ''Légion d'honneur''* : Member Second Class with Swords of the Order of St. Anna* 10 August 1943: Chief Commander of the Legion of Merit* 29 February 1944: Member First Class of the Order of Suvorov* 20 June 1944: Member Grand Cross of the Royal Order of George I* 5 December 1944: Member Fifth Class of the Order Virtuti Militari* 2 August 1945: Distinguished Service Medal=== Honorary military appointments ===* 7 March 1936 – 19 November 1937: Aide-de-Camp to His Majesty the King (ADC)* 2 July 1937 – 14 August 1947: Colonel of the 3rd Battalion 2nd Punjab Regiment* 20 July 1944 – 2 August 1946: Aide-de-Camp General to His Majesty the King (ADC General)* 28 August 1946 – 16 June 1969: Colonel of the Irish Guards* 10 November 1949 – n/a: Colonel of the Royal Ulster Rifles (London Irish Rifles)* 10 July 1951 – n/a: Colonel of the Oxford University Contingent of the University Training Corps=== Honorary degrees ===* 22 May 1946: McGill University, Quebec Doctor of Laws (LLD)* 1946: Queen's University, Ontario Doctor of Laws (LLD)* 1946: University of Toronto, Ontario Doctor of Laws (LLD)* 13 May 1948: University of British Columbia, Doctor of Laws (LLD)* 21 March 1949: University of California Los Angeles, Doctor of Laws (LLD)* 22 October 1949: University of Western Ontario, Doctor of Laws (LLD)* 1953: University of Liverpool, Doctor of Laws (LLD)* 1955: University of Nottingham, Doctor of Laws (LLD)=== Unofficial === Alberta* ''Chief Eagle Head''=== Honorific eponyms ===Geographic locations* : Viscount Alexander Park, OttawaSchools* : Viscount Alexander Public School, Ottawa* : École Viscount Alexander, Winnipeg===Arms===" ], [ "List of works", "* * " ], [ "See also", " Mediterranean, Middle East and African theatres of World War II" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "****************" ], [ "External links", " * * Website of the Governor General of Canada entry for Harold Alexander* The Canadian Encyclopedia entry for Harold Alexander* * British Army Officers 1939–1945* Generals of World War II" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Henry Moseley" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley''' (; 23 November 1887 – 10 August 1915) was an English physicist, whose contribution to the science of physics was the justification from physical laws of the previous empirical and chemical concept of the atomic number.", "This stemmed from his development of Moseley's law in X-ray spectra.Moseley's law advanced atomic physics, nuclear physics and quantum physics by providing the first experimental evidence in favour of Niels Bohr's theory, aside from the hydrogen atom spectrum which the Bohr theory was designed to reproduce.", "That theory refined Ernest Rutherford's and Antonius van den Broek's model, which proposed that the atom contains in its nucleus a number of positive nuclear charges that is equal to its (atomic) number in the periodic table.", "When World War I broke out in Western Europe, Moseley left his research work at the University of Oxford behind to volunteer for the Royal Engineers of the British Army.", "Moseley was assigned to the force of British Empire soldiers that invaded the region of Gallipoli, Turkey, in April 1915, as a telecommunications officer.", "Moseley was shot and killed during the Battle of Gallipoli on 10 August 1915, at the age of 27.Experts have speculated that Moseley could otherwise have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1916." ], [ "Biography", "Henry G. J. Moseley, known to his friends as Harry, was born in Weymouth in Dorset in 1887.His father Henry Nottidge Moseley (1844–1891), who died when Moseley was quite young, was a biologist and also a professor of anatomy and physiology at the University of Oxford, who had been a member of the ''Challenger'' Expedition.", "Moseley's mother was Amabel Gwyn Jeffreys, the daughter of the Welsh biologist and conchologist John Gwyn Jeffreys.", "She was also the British women's champion of chess in 1913.Moseley had been a very promising schoolboy at Summer Fields School (where one of the four \"leagues\" is named after him), and he was awarded a King's scholarship to attend Eton College.", "In 1906 he won the chemistry and physics prizes at Eton.", "In 1906, Moseley entered Trinity College of the University of Oxford, where he earned his bachelor's degree.", "While an undergraduate at Oxford, Moseley became a Freemason by joining the Apollo University Lodge.", "Immediately after graduation from Oxford in 1910, Moseley became a demonstrator in physics at the University of Manchester under the supervision of Sir Ernest Rutherford.", "During Moseley's first year at Manchester, he had a teaching load as a graduate teaching assistant, but following that first year, he was reassigned from his teaching duties to work as a graduate research assistant.", "He declined a fellowship offered by Rutherford, preferring to move back to Oxford, in November 1913, where he was given laboratory facilities but no support." ], [ "Scientific work", "Experimenting with the energy of beta particles in 1912, Moseley showed that high potentials were attainable from a radioactive source of radium, thereby inventing the first atomic battery, though he was unable to produce the 1MV necessary to stop the particles.In 1913, Moseley observed and measured the X-ray spectra of various chemical elements (mostly metals) that were found by the method of diffraction through crystals.", "This was a pioneering use of the method of X-ray spectroscopy in physics, using Bragg's diffraction law to determine the X-ray wavelengths.", "Moseley discovered a systematic mathematical relationship between the wavelengths of the X-rays produced and the atomic numbers of the metals that were used as the targets in X-ray tubes.", "This has become known as Moseley's law.Before Moseley's discovery, the atomic numbers (or elemental number) of an element had been thought of as a semi-arbitrary sequential number, based on the sequence of atomic masses, but modified somewhat where chemists found this modification to be desirable, such as by the Russian chemist, Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev.", "In his invention of the Periodic Table of the Elements, Mendeleev had interchanged the orders of a few pairs of elements to put them in more appropriate places in this table of the elements.", "For example, the metals cobalt and nickel had been assigned the atomic numbers 27 and 28, respectively, based on their known chemical and physical properties, even though they have nearly the same atomic masses.", "In fact, the atomic mass of cobalt is slightly larger than that of nickel, so nickel would be placed in the Periodic Table before cobalt if they were placed purely according to atomic mass.", "However Moseley's experiments in X-ray spectroscopy showed directly from their physics that cobalt and nickel have the different atomic numbers, 27 and 28, and that they are placed in the Periodic Table correctly by Moseley's objective measurements of their atomic numbers.", "Hence, Moseley's discovery demonstrated that the atomic numbers of elements are not just rather arbitrary numbers based on chemistry and the intuition of chemists, but rather, they have a firm experimental basis from the physics of their X-ray spectra.In addition, Moseley showed that there were gaps in the atomic number sequence at numbers 43, 61, 72, and 75.These spaces are now known, respectively, to be the places of the radioactive synthetic elements technetium and promethium, and also the last two quite rare naturally occurring stable elements hafnium (discovered 1923) and rhenium (discovered 1925).", "Nothing was known about these four elements in Moseley's lifetime, not even their very existence.", "Based on the intuition of a very experienced chemist, Dmitri Mendeleev had predicted the existence of a missing element in the Periodic Table, which was later found to be filled by technetium, and Bohuslav Brauner had predicted the existence of another missing element in this Table, which was later found to be filled by promethium.", "Henry Moseley's experiments confirmed these predictions, by showing exactly what the missing atomic numbers were, 43 and 61.In addition, Moseley predicted the existence of two more undiscovered elements, those with the atomic numbers 72 and 75, and gave very strong evidence that there were no other gaps in the Periodic Table between the elements aluminium (atomic number 13) and gold (atomic number 79).This latter question about the possibility of more undiscovered (\"missing\") elements had been a standing problem among the chemists of the world, particularly given the existence of the large family of the lanthanide series of rare earth elements.", "Moseley was able to demonstrate that these lanthanide elements, i.e.", "lanthanum through lutetium, must have exactly 15 members – no more and no less.", "The number of elements in the lanthanides had been a question that was very far from being settled by the chemists of the early 20th Century.", "They could not yet produce pure samples of all the rare-earth elements, even in the form of their salts, and in some cases they were unable to distinguish between mixtures of two very similar (adjacent) rare-earth elements from the nearby pure metals in the Periodic Table.", "For example, there was a so-called \"element\" that was even given the chemical name of \"didymium\".", "\"Didymium\" was found some years later to be simply a mixture of two genuine rare-earth elements, and these were given the names neodymium and praseodymium, meaning \"new twin\" and \"green twin\".", "Also, the method of separating the rare-earth elements by the method of ion exchange had not been invented yet in Moseley's time.Moseley's method in early X-ray spectroscopy was able to sort out the above chemical problems promptly, some of which had occupied chemists for a number of years.", "Moseley also predicted the existence of element 61, a lanthanide whose existence was previously unsuspected.", "Quite a few years later, this element 61 was created artificially in nuclear reactors and was named promethium.===Contribution to understanding of the atom===Before Moseley and his law, atomic numbers had been thought of as a semi-arbitrary ordering number, vaguely increasing with atomic weight but not strictly defined by it.", "Moseley's discovery showed that atomic numbers were not arbitrarily assigned, but rather, they have a definite physical basis.", "Moseley postulated that each successive element has a nuclear charge exactly one unit greater than its predecessor.", "Moseley redefined the idea of atomic numbers from its previous status as an ''ad hoc'' numerical tag to help sorting the elements into an exact sequence of ascending atomic numbers that made the Periodic Table exact.", "(This was later to be the basis of the Aufbau principle in atomic studies.)", "As noted by Bohr, Moseley's law provided a reasonably complete experimental set of data that supported the (new from 1911) conception by Ernest Rutherford and Antonius van den Broek of the atom, with a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons in which the atomic number is understood to be the exact physical number of positive charges (later discovered and called protons) in the central atomic nuclei of the elements.", "Moseley mentioned the two scientists above in his research paper, but he did not actually mention Bohr, who was rather new on the scene then.", "Simple modifications of Rydberg's and Bohr's formulas were found to give a theoretical justification for Moseley's empirically derived law for determining atomic numbers.===Use of X-ray spectrometer===Moseley in the Balliol-Trinity Laboratories in 1910X-ray spectrometers are the foundation-stones of X-ray crystallography.", "The X-ray spectrometers as Moseley knew them worked as follows.", "A glass-bulb electron tube was used, similar to that held by Moseley in the photo here.", "Inside the evacuated tube, electrons were fired at a metallic substance (i.e.", "a sample of pure element in Moseley's work), causing the ionization of electrons from the inner electron shells of the element.", "The rebound of electrons into these holes in the inner shells next causes the emission of X-ray photons that were led out of the tube in a semi-beam, through an opening in the external X-ray shielding.", "These are next diffracted by a standardized salt crystal, with angular results read out as photographic lines by the exposure of an X-ray film fixed at the outside the vacuum tube at a known distance.", "Application of Bragg's law (after some initial guesswork of the mean distances between atoms in the metallic crystal, based on its density) next allowed the wavelength of the emitted X-rays to be calculated.Moseley participated in the design and development of early X-ray spectrometry equipment, learning some techniques from William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg at the University of Leeds, and developing others himself.", "Many of the techniques of X-ray spectroscopy were inspired by the methods that are used with visible light spectroscopes and spectrograms, by substituting crystals, ionization chambers, and photographic plates for their analogs in light spectroscopy.", "In some cases, Moseley found it necessary to modify his equipment to detect particularly soft (lower frequency) X-rays that could not penetrate either air or paper, by working with his instruments in a vacuum chamber." ], [ "Death and aftermath", "Sometime in the first half of 1914, Moseley resigned from his position at Manchester, with plans to return to Oxford and continue his physics research there.", "However, World War I broke out in August 1914, and Moseley turned down this job offer to instead enlist with the Royal Engineers of the British Army.", "His family and friends tried to persuade him not to join, but he thought it was his duty.", "Moseley served as a technical officer in communications during the Battle of Gallipoli, in Turkey, beginning in April 1915, where he was killed by a sniper on 10 August 1915.Blue plaque erected by the Royal Society of Chemistry on the Townsend Building of Oxford's Clarendon Laboratory, commemorating Moseley's work on X-rays emitted by elementsOnly twenty-seven years old at the time of his death, Moseley could, in the opinion of some scientists, have contributed much to the knowledge of atomic structure had he survived.", "Niels Bohr said in 1962 that Rutherford's work \"was not taken seriously at all\" and that the \"great change came from Moseley.", "\"Robert Millikan wrote, \"In a research which is destined to rank as one of the dozen most brilliant in conception, skillful in execution, and illuminating in results in the history of science, a young man twenty-six years old threw open the windows through which we can glimpse the sub-atomic world with a definiteness and certainty never dreamed of before.", "Had the European War had no other result than the snuffing out of this young life, that alone would make it one of the most hideous and most irreparable crimes in history.", "\"George Sarton wrote, \"His fame was already established on such a secure foundation that his memory will be green forever.", "He is one of the immortals of science, and though he would have made many other additions to our knowledge if his life had been spared, the contributions already credited to him were of such fundamental significance, that the probability of his surpassing himself was extremely small.", "It is very probable that however long his life, he would have been chiefly remembered because of the 'Moseley law' which he published at the age of twenty-six.", "\"Isaac Asimov wrote, \"In view of what he Moseley might still have accomplished … his death might well have been the most costly single death of the War to mankind generally.", "\"Rutherford believed that Moseley's work would have earned him the Nobel Prize (which however is never awarded posthumously).Memorial plaques to Moseley were installed at Manchester and Eton, and a Royal Society scholarship, established by his will, had as its second recipient the physicist P. M. S. Blackett, who later became president of the Society.The Institute of Physics Henry Moseley Medal and Prize is named in his honour." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex''' (Henry Charles Albert David; born 15 September 1984), is a member of the British royal family.", "As the younger son of King Charles III and Diana, Princess of Wales, Harry is fifth in the line of succession to the British throne.Educated at Wetherby School, Ludgrove School, and Eton College, Harry completed army officer training at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst.", "He was commissioned as a cornet into the Blues and Royals and served temporarily with his older brother, William.", "Harry was separately deployed on active duty to Afghanistan on two occasions; the first was in 2007–2008 for ten weeks in Helmand Province.", "The second was for twenty weeks in 2012–2013 with the Army Air Corps.Inspired by the Warrior Games in the United States, Harry launched the Invictus Games in 2014 as founding patron and now remains involved in a non-royal capacity.", "Two years later, alongside his brother William and sister-in-law Catherine, Harry jointly initiated the mental health awareness campaign \"Heads Together\".In 2018, Harry was made Duke of Sussex prior to his wedding to American actress Meghan Markle.", "They have two children: Archie and Lilibet.", "Harry and Meghan stepped down as working royals in January 2020, moved to Meghan's native Southern California, and launched Archewell Inc., a Beverly Hills-based mix of for-profit and not-for-profit (charitable) business organisations.", "In March 2021, Harry sat for ''Oprah with Meghan and Harry'', a much-publicised American television interview with his wife and Oprah Winfrey.", "The couple filmed ''Harry & Meghan'', a Netflix docuseries, which was released in December 2022." ], [ "Early life", "A 1985 Seychellois stamp depicting Harry with his great-grandmother Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother at his christeningPrince Harry was born in the Lindo Wing of St Mary's Hospital in Paddington, London, on 15 September 1984 as the second child of Charles, Prince of Wales (later King Charles III), and his first wife, Diana, Princess of Wales, during the reign of his grandmother Queen Elizabeth II.", "He was christened Henry Charles Albert David on 21 December 1984 at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Robert Runcie.", "Growing up, he was referred to as \"Harry\" by family, friends, and the public, and was nicknamed \"Harold\" by his brother.", "Harry and his elder brother, William, were raised at Kensington Palace in London, and Highgrove House in Gloucestershire.", "Diana wanted her sons to have a broader range of experiences and a better understanding of ordinary life than previous royal children.", "She took them to venues that ranged from Walt Disney World and McDonald's to AIDS clinics and homeless shelters.", "Harry began accompanying his parents on official visits at an early age; his first overseas tour was with his parents to Italy in 1985.He also travelled with his family to Canada in 1991 and 1998.Harry's parents divorced in 1996.His mother died in a car crash in Paris the following year.", "Harry and William were staying with their father at Balmoral at the time, and the Prince of Wales told his sons about their mother's death.", "At his mother's funeral, Harry, then aged 12, accompanied his father, brother, paternal grandfather Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, and maternal uncle Charles Spencer, 9th Earl Spencer, in walking behind the funeral cortège from Kensington Palace to Westminster Abbey.", "Harry and his brother William inherited the \"bulk\" of the £12.9 million left by their mother on their respective 30th birthdays, a figure that had grown since her 1997 death to £10 million each in 2014.In 2014, Harry and William inherited their mother's wedding dress along with many of her other personal possessions, including dresses, diamond tiaras, jewels, letters, and paintings.", "The brothers also received the original lyrics and score of \"Candle in the Wind\", by Bernie Taupin and Elton John, as performed by John at Diana's funeral.", "In 2002, ''The Times'' reported that Harry would also share with his brother a disbursement of £4.9 million from trust funds established by their great-grandmother, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, on their respective 21st birthdays and would share a disbursement of £8 million upon their respective 40th birthdays.", "It was reported that Harry would inherit the bulk of the money left by the Queen Mother for the two brothers, as William is set to ascend to the throne, which will bring him additional financial benefits." ], [ "Education", "Like his father and brother, Harry was educated at private schools.", "He started at London's Jane Mynors' nursery school and the pre-preparatory Wetherby School.", "Following this, he attended Ludgrove School in Berkshire.", "After passing entrance exams, he was admitted to Eton College.", "The decision to place Harry at Eton went against the past practice of the Mountbatten-Windsors to send children to Gordonstoun, which Harry's grandfather, father, two uncles, and two cousins had attended.", "It did, however, see Harry follow in his older brother's footsteps and the Spencer family's, as both Diana's father and brother attended Eton.", "As was the case with his brother, the royal family and the tabloid press agreed Harry would be allowed to study free from intrusion in exchange for occasional photograph opportunities in what became known as the \"pressure cooker agreement\".In June 2003, Harry completed his education at Eton with two A-Levels, achieving a grade B in art and D in geography, having decided to drop history of art after AS level.", "He has been described as \"a top tier athlete\", having played competitive polo and rugby union.", "One of his former teachers, Sarah Forsyth, has asserted that he was a \"weak student\" and that staff at Eton conspired to help him cheat on examinations.", "Both Eton and Harry denied the claims.", "While a tribunal made no ruling on the cheating claim, it \"accepted the prince had received help in preparing his A-level 'expressive' project, which he needed to pass to secure his place at Sandhurst.\"", "Harry also joined the Combined Cadet Force while studying at Eton and was made cadet officer in his final year, leading the corps' annual parade at the Eton tattoo.After school, Harry took a gap year, during which he spent time in Australia working as a jackaroo on a cattle station, and participating in the Young England vs Young Australia Polo Test match.", "He also travelled to Lesotho, where he worked with orphaned children and produced the documentary film ''The Forgotten Kingdom: Prince Harry in Lesotho''." ], [ "Military career", "===Sandhurst; Blues and Royals; deployment to Afghanistan===Sandhurst, 21 June 2005Harry passed the Regular Commissions Board (RCB) in September 2004 and entered the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst on 8 May 2005, where he was known as Officer Cadet Wales, and joined Alamein Company.", "His entry into the academy had to be delayed for 4 months as he recovered from an injury to his left knee.", "In April 2006, Harry completed his officer training and was commissioned as a Cornet (second lieutenant) in the Blues and Royals, a regiment of the Household Cavalry in the British Army.", "On 13 April 2008, when he reached two years' seniority, Harry was promoted to lieutenant.In 2006, it was announced that Harry's unit was scheduled to be deployed in Iraq the following year.", "A public debate ensued as to whether he should serve there.", "In April 2006, the Ministry of Defence announced that Harry would be shielded from the front line if his unit was sent to war, with a spokeswoman stating that he was expected to \"undertake the fullest range of deployments\", but his role needed to be monitored as \"his overt presence might attract additional attention\" that would put him or those he commanded at risk.", "Defence Secretary John Reid said that he should be allowed to serve on the front line of battle zones.", "Harry agreed saying, \"If they said 'no, you can't go front line' then I wouldn't drag my sorry ass through Sandhurst and I wouldn't be where I am now.\"", "Harry completed the Troop Leaders' Course in October 2006 and rejoined his regiment in Windsor, where he was put in charge of a troop of 11 soldiers and four Scimitar reconnaissance vehicles.", "The Ministry of Defence and Clarence House made a joint announcement on 22 February 2007 that Harry would be deployed with his regiment to Iraq, as part of the 1st Mechanised Brigade of the 3rd Mechanised Divisiona move supported by Harry, who had stated that he would leave the army if he was told to remain in safety while his regiment went to war.The head of the British army at the time, General Sir Richard Dannatt, said on 30 April 2007 that he had personally decided that Harry would serve with his unit in Iraq as a troop commander, and Harry was scheduled for deployment in May or June 2007 to patrol the Maysan Governorate.", "By 16 May, however, Dannatt announced that Harry would not serve in Iraq; concerns included Harry being a high-value target (as several threats by various groups had already been made against him) and the dangers the soldiers around him would face should any attempt be made on his life or if he were captured.", "Clarence House made public Harry's disappointment with the decision, though he said he would abide by it.In the summer of 2007, Harry was trained as a joint terminal attack controller at RAF Leeming.", "In early June 2007, it was reported that Harry had arrived in Canada to train alongside soldiers of the Canadian Forces and British Army, at CFB Suffield near Medicine Hat, Alberta.", "It was said that this was in preparation for a tour of duty in Afghanistan, where Canadian and British forces were participating in the NATO-led Afghan War.", "This was confirmed in February of the following year when the British Ministry of Defence revealed that Harry had been secretly deployed as a joint terminal attack controller to Helmand Province in Afghanistan for the previous ten weeks.", "The revelation came after the medianotably, German newspaper ''Bild'' and Australian magazine ''New Idea''breached the blackout placed over the information by the Canadian and British authorities.", "He was immediately pulled out due to the fear that the media coverage would put his security and the security of fellow soldiers at risk.", "It was later reported that Harry helped Gurkha troops repel an attack from Taliban insurgents, and performed patrol duty in hostile areas while in Afghanistan.Harry's tour made him the first member of the British royal family to serve in a war zone since his uncle Prince Andrew, who flew helicopters during the Falklands War.", "For Harry's service, his aunt Princess Anne presented him with an Operational Service Medal for Afghanistan at the Combermere Barracks in May 2008.===Army Air Corps and second deployment to Afghanistan===In October 2008, it was announced that Harry would follow his brother, father and uncle in learning to fly military helicopters.", "Harry attended the Defence Helicopter Flying School at RAF Shawbury, where he joined his brother.", "Prince Charles presented him with his flying brevet (wings) on 7 May 2010 at a ceremony at the Army Air Corps Base (AAC), Middle Wallop.", "Harry was awarded his Apache Flying Badge on 14 April 2011.On 16 April 2011, it was announced that Harry had been promoted to captain.", "In June 2011, Clarence House announced that Harry would be available for deployment in current operations in Afghanistan as an Apache helicopter pilot.", "The final decision rested with the Ministry of Defence's senior commanders, including principally the Chief of the Defence Staff in consultation with the wishes of Harry, the Prince of Wales, and the Queen.", "In October, he was transferred to a US military base in California to complete his helicopter gunship training.", "This final phase included live-fire training and \"environmental and judgment training\" at naval and air force facilities in California and Arizona.", "In the same month, it was reported that Harry was top of his class in extensive training undertaken at the Naval Air Facility, El Centro, California.", "While training in Southern California, he spent time in San Diego.", "In November 2011, Harry returned to England.", "He went to Wattisham Airfield in Suffolk, in the east of England, to complete his training to fly Apache helicopters.On 7 September 2012, Harry arrived at Camp Bastion in southern Afghanistan as part of the 100-strong 662 Squadron, 3 Regiment, Army Air Corps, to begin a four-month combat tour as a co-pilot and gunner for an Apache helicopter.", "On 10 September, within days of arriving in Afghanistan, it was reported that the Taliban had threatened his life.", "On 18 September 2012, it was reported that Harry had been moved to a safe location after an attack by the Taliban on Camp Bastion that killed two US marines.", "Defence Secretary Philip Hammond stated that \"additional security arrangements\" were put in place, for Harry could be a potential target, but added that he would face \"the same risk as any other Apache pilot\" while in combat.", "In files obtained on the incident, Major General Gregg A. Sturdevant was quoted as saying \"The night of the attack, he slept through the entire thing.", "We didn't do anything special for him.", "He came and went, and you never would have known he was there\" and \"the only thing special we did for him was we had a place identified as a safe house in case the base came under attack.\"", "On 21 January 2013, it was announced that Harry was returning from a 20-week deployment in Afghanistan.", "On 8 July 2013, the Ministry of Defence announced that Harry had successfully qualified as an Apache aircraft commander.", "Harry compared operating the Apache's weapons systems in Afghanistan to playing video games.Harry later revealed in his 2023 memoir ''Spare'' that he flew on six missions that resulted in him killing 25 Taliban members, writing that he felt he was trained to not view them as \"people\" but instead as \"chess pieces\" that had been taken off the board.", "He added that \"It's not a number that gave me any satisfaction.", "But neither was it a number that made me feel ashamed.\"", "Following the publishing of Harry's claims, Pen Farthing, a British former Royal Marines commando and founder of the Nowzad Dogs charity, was evacuated from Kabul on 6 January 2023 to avoid \"potential reprisal attacks on ex-forces people.\"", "Harry's revelations prompted backlash from both Taliban members and British politicians and military figures.===HQ London District and Invictus Games===Harry (left) talking to an injured soldier at the Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, Maryland, US; 15 May 2013On 17 January 2014, the Ministry of Defence announced that Harry had completed his attachment to 3 Regiment Army Air Corps, and would take up a staff officer role, SO3 (Defence Engagement) in HQ London District.", "His responsibilities would include helping to coordinate significant projects and commemorative events involving the Army in London.", "He was based at Horse Guards in central London.On 6 March 2014, Harry launched Invictus Games, a Paralympic-style sporting event for injured servicemen and women, which was held on 10–14 September 2014.Harry met British hopefuls for the Invictus Games at Tedworth House in Wiltshire for the start of the selection process on 29 April 2014.On 15 May 2014, Harry attended a ticket sale launch for Invictus Games at BT Tower, from where he tweeted on the Invictus Games' official Twitter account as the president of the Games.", "To promote the Games, he was interviewed by BBC Radio 2's Chris Evans along with two Invictus Games hopefuls.", "He said: \"The Invictus Games is basically my full-time job at the moment, making sure that we pull this off.\"", "The show aired on 31 July 2014.Harry later wrote an article in ''The Sunday Times'' about his experiences in Afghanistan: how they had inspired him to help injured personnel and how, after the trip to the Warrior Games, he had vowed to create the Invictus Games.", "Harry and officials attended the British Armed Forces Team announcement for Invictus Games at Potters Field Park in August 2014.As president of the Invictus Games, he attended all events related to the Games from 8 to 14 September 2014.In January 2015, it was reported that Harry would take on a new role in supporting wounded service personnel by working alongside members of the London District's Personal Recovery Unit for the MOD's Defence Recovery Capability scheme to ensure that wounded personnel have adequate recovery plans.", "The palace confirmed weeks later that the scheme was established in partnership with Help for Heroes and the Royal British Legion.", "In late January 2015, Harry visited The Battle Back Centre set up by the Royal British Legion, and Fisher House UK at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital Birmingham.", "A partnership between Help for Heroes, the Fisher House Foundation and the Queen Elizabeth Hospital Birmingham (QEHB) Charity created the Centre.", "Fisher House Foundation is one of the Invictus Games' sponsors.", "In February and March 2015, Harry visited Phoenix House in Catterick Garrison, North Yorkshire, a recovery centre run by Help for Heroes.", "He also visited Merville Barracks in Colchester, where Chavasse VC House Personnel Recovery Centre is located, run by Help for Heroes in partnership with the Ministry of Defence and Royal British Legion.===Secondment to Australian Defence Force===Harry in New South Wales, May 2015On 17 March 2015, Kensington Palace announced that Harry would leave the Armed Forces in June.", "Before then, he would spend four weeks throughout April and May at army barracks in Darwin, Perth and Sydney whilst seconded to the Australian Defence Force (ADF).", "After leaving the Army, while considering his future, he would return to work in a voluntary capacity with the Ministry of Defence, supporting Case Officers in the Ministry's Recovery Capability Programme.", "He would be working with both those who administer and receive physical and mental care within the London District area.On 6 April 2015, Harry reported for duty to Australia's Chief of the Defence Force, Air Chief Marshal Mark Binskin at the Royal Military College, Duntroon in Canberra, Australia.", "Harry flew to Darwin later that day to begin his month-long secondment to the ADF's 1st Brigade.", "His visit included detachments to NORFORCE as well as to an aviation unit.", "While in Perth, he trained with Special Air Service Regiment (SASR), participating in the SASR selection course, including a fitness test and a physical training session with SASR selection candidates.", "He also joined SASR members in Perth for live-fire shooting exercises with numerous Special Forces weapons at a variety of ranges.", "Harry completed an insertion training exercise using a rigid-hull inflatable boat.", "In Sydney, he undertook urban operations training with the 2nd Commando Regiment.", "Training activities included remotely detonating an Improvised Explosive Device (IED) and rappelling from a building.", "He also spent time flying over Sydney as co-pilot of an Army Black Hawk helicopter and participated in counter-terrorism training in Sydney Harbour with Royal Australian Navy clearance divers.Harry's attachment with the ADF ended on 8 May 2015, and on 19 June 2015 he resigned his short service commission.===Post-military service===In 2021, Harry described his 10 years (2005–2015) in the army as \"the happiest times in my life\".", "Since leaving the army, he has been closely involved with the armed forces through the Invictus Games, honorary military appointments and other official engagements.", "On 19 December 2017, he succeeded his grandfather Prince Philip as the Captain General Royal Marines.", "In May 2018, he was promoted to the substantive ranks of Lieutenant Commander of the Royal Navy, Major of the British Army and Squadron Leader of the Royal Air Force.On 18 January 2020, Buckingham Palace announced that an agreement had been reached for Harry \"to step back from Royal duties, including official military appointments\".", "In February 2021, the Palace confirmed that the Duke would give up his position as Captain General Royal Marines and hand back all the other honorary military appointments." ], [ "Personal life", "===Bachelorhood===Chelsy Davy, the daughter of Zimbabwean, South Africa-based businessman Charles Davy, was referred to as Harry's girlfriend in an interview conducted for his 21st birthday, and Harry said he \"would love to tell everyone how amazing she is but once I start talking about that, I have left myself open....", "There is truth and there is lies and unfortunately I cannot get the truth across.\"", "Davy was present when Harry received his Operational Service Medal for Afghanistan and also attended his graduation ceremony when he received his flying wings from his father.", "In early 2009, it was reported the pair had parted ways after a relationship that had lasted for five years.In his 2023 memoir, Harry states that months after breaking up with Davy he was introduced to Caroline Flack, whom he described as \"funny\", \"sweet\", and \"cool\".", "The two saw each other for a while before press intrusion \"tainted\" their relationship \"irredeemably\" according to Harry.", "Flack had discussed the relationship in her own autobiography as well.In May 2012, Harry's cousin Princess Eugenie introduced him to Cressida Bonas, an actress and model who is the granddaughter of Edward Curzon, 6th Earl Howe.", "On 30 April 2014, it was reported that the couple had parted amicably.===Marriage and fatherhood===Prince Harry and Markle on Christmas Day, 2017In mid-2016, Prince Harry began a relationship with American actress Meghan Markle.", "According to the couple, they first connected with each other via Instagram, though they have also said that they were set up on a blind date by a mutual friend in July 2016.On 8 November, eight days after the relationship was made public by the press, the prince directed his communications secretary to release a statement on his behalf to express personal concern about pejorative and false comments made about his girlfriend by mainstream media and internet trolls.", "In September 2017, Prince Harry and Markle first appeared together in public at the Invictus Games in Toronto.", "Their engagement was announced on 27 November 2017 by Harry's father.", "The announcement prompted generally positive comments about having a mixed-race person as a member of the royal family, especially in regard to Commonwealth countries with populations of blended or native ancestry.", "On 19 May 2018, the marriage ceremony was held at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle.", "The couple later revealed in the 2021 television interview ''Oprah with Meghan and Harry'' that, three days prior to the ceremony, they had privately exchanged vows in their garden, in the presence of the Archbishop of Canterbury.", "However, this earlier exchange of vows was not an official religious or legally recognised marriage.The Duke and Duchess initially lived at Nottingham Cottage in London, in the grounds of Kensington Palace.", "In May 2018, it was reported that they had signed a two-year lease on WestfieldLarge, located on the Great Tew Estate in the Cotswolds.", "They gave up the lease after photos of the house and its interior were published by a paparazzi agency.", "The couple considered settling at the 21-room Apartment 1 within the grounds of Kensington Palace, but moved to Frogmore Cottage in the Home Park of Windsor Castle instead.", "The Crown Estate refurbished the cottage at a cost of £2.4 million, paid out of the Sovereign Grant, with the Duke later reimbursing expenses beyond restoration and ordinary maintenance, a part of which was offset against rental payments that were due at the time.", "On 6 May 2019, the Duke and Duchess's son, Archie, was born.", "Their office was moved to Buckingham Palace and officially closed on 31 March 2020 when the Sussexes ceased \"undertaking official engagements in support of the Queen\".", "After some months in Canada and the United States, the couple bought a house in June 2020 on the former estate of Riven Rock in Montecito, California.", "The next month, the Duchess suffered a miscarriage.", "On 4 June 2021, their daughter, Lilibet, was born.", "The Duke and Duchess own a Labrador named Pula, and two Beagles named Guy and Mamma Mia.In 2017, Harry stated that he had \"five or six\" godchildren, some of whom later attended his wedding.===Health===In May 1988, Harry underwent a surgery for a minor hernia.", "In November 2000, he broke his thumb while playing football at Eton and underwent a minor operation.", "In his memoir, ''Spare'', Harry admits that he took cocaine at the age of 17.In 2002, it was reported that, with Charles's encouragement, Harry had paid a visit to a drug rehabilitation unit to talk to drug addicts after it had emerged that he had been smoking cannabis and drinking at his father's Highgrove House and at a local pub in the summer of 2001.He adds in his memoir that he smoked cannabis at Eton and in Kensington Palace gardens, but he later told a court that \"he never smoked in his father's house\".", "In the memoir, he also detailed taking magic mushrooms at a party at Courteney Cox's house in January 2016.In 2017 and during an appearance on Bryony Gordon's podcast ''Mad World'', Harry acknowledged that with the support of his brother he had sought counselling years after his mother's death.", "He added that he had struggled with aggression, had suffered from anxiety during royal engagements, and had been \"very close to a complete breakdown on numerous occasions\".", "He later added that he had taken up boxing as a way of coping with mental stress and \"letting out aggression\".", "In other interviews he stated that besides therapy he took alcohol to cope and used experimental drugs recreationally, including \"psychedelics, Ayahuasca, psilocybin, mushrooms.\"", "He also stated that what he experienced after his mother's death \"was very much\" post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).In his mental-health television documentary, ''The Me You Can't See'', which premiered in 2021, he added that he had undergone four years of therapy to address his mental health issues, having been encouraged to do so by his future wife after they had started dating.", "He also mentioned that he had suffered from \"panic attacks and severe anxiety\" in his late 20s and that the heavy load of official visits and functions had eventually \"led to burnout\".", "In an episode of ''Armchair Expert'', Harry attributed his mental health issues to the ineffective parenting style of previous generations and to the \"genetic pain and suffering\" passed down in his family, adding that he believed his issues stemmed from \"the pain or suffering that perhaps my father or my parents had suffered\".", "In his 2023 memoir, Harry described himself as an agoraphobe.", "In March 2023, the Heritage Foundation sent a dossier on Harry's drug use to different government entities, asking whether he had admitted to past drug use on his U.S. visa application.", "The following month, they filed a lawsuit against the U.S. Department of Homeland Security demanding his immigration records.===Political views===In September 2020, Harry and his wife released a video addressing American voters to \"reject hate speech, misinformation and online negativity\" in the 2020 United States presidential election, which was seen by some as an implicit endorsement of Joe Biden.", "Harry was the subject of a prank by the Russian comedy duo Vovan and Lexus, who posed as climate activist Greta Thunberg and her father during two phone calls on New Year's Eve and 22 January 2020.During the conversations, Harry described his decision to leave the monarchy as \"not easy\" and criticised Donald Trump's stance on climate change and his support of the coal industry.In May 2021, Harry was a guest on Dax Shepard and Monica Padman's podcast ''Armchair Expert'' during which he talked about the freedom of speech and laws related to it in the United States, stating \"I've got so much I want to say about the First Amendment as I sort of understand it, but it is bonkers.\"", "He added that it was \"a huge subject and one which he didn't understand\", emphasising that one could \"capitalise or exploit what's not said rather than uphold what is said.\"", "The comments were met by backlash from conservative Americans and Britons, prompting figures such as Ted Cruz, Dan Crenshaw, Nigel Farage, Candace Owens, Jack Posobiec, and Laura Ingraham to criticise him publicly.In November 2021, in a panel at ''Wired''s Re:Wired Conference, Harry claimed that a day before the January 6 United States Capitol attack he emailed Jack Dorsey, CEO of Twitter, and 'warned' of potential civil unrest, but had not received a response.", "In the same month, Conservative politician and MP Johnny Mercer, who was leading the efforts to waive visa fees for foreign-born UK veterans and their families, announced in the Commons that the Duke of Sussex was supportive of their proposal and viewed it as \"morally right\" and not as \"a political intervention\".In June 2022, in an interview with Jessica Yellin for ''Vogue'', Meghan described Harry's reaction to the Supreme Court of the United States's decision that abortion is not a protected constitutional right as \"guttural\".", "Harry later condemned the decision as \"rolling back of constitutional rights\" in his address to the United Nations on Mandela Day in July 2022.Associate justice of the Supreme Court Samuel Alito, who wrote the majority decision for the case, criticised foreign figures including Harry for their comments on \"American law\" during a speech.In June 2023, Harry broke royal protocol by criticising the UK government in his witness statement to a court.", "He argued that both the British press and the government were \"at rock bottom\" and instead of scrutinising the government the press got \"into bed with them so they can ensure the status quo\"." ], [ "Public life", "At Trooping the Colour, June 2013At the age of 21, Harry became a Counsellor of State and began his duties in that capacity.", "On 6 January 2009, the Queen granted Harry and William their own royal household.", "Previously, William and Harry's affairs had been handled by their father's office at Clarence House in central London.", "The new household released a statement announcing they had established their own office at nearby St James's Palace to look after their public, military and charitable activities.", "In March 2012, Harry led an official visit to Belize as part of the Queen's Diamond Jubilee celebrations.", "He continued to the Bahamas and Jamaica, where the Prime Minister, Portia Simpson-Miller, was considering initiating a process of turning Jamaica into a republic.", "He then visited Brazil to attend the GREAT Campaign.", "Harry also played tambourine and took part in the music video for the song \"Sing\", which was released in May 2012 to commemorate the Diamond Jubilee.Between 9 and 15 May 2013, he made an official visit to the United States.", "The tour promoted the rehabilitation of injured American and UK troops, publicised his own charities and supported British interests.", "It included engagements in Washington, DC, Colorado, New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut.", "He met survivors of Hurricane Sandy in New Jersey.", "In October 2013, he undertook his first official tour of Australia, attending the International Fleet Review at Sydney Harbour.", "He also paid a visit to the Australian SAS HQ in Perth.", "In May 2014, he visited Estonia and Italy.", "In Estonia, he visited Freedom Square in the capital Tallinn to honour fallen Estonian soldiers.", "He also attended a reception at the Estonian Parliament and a NATO military exercise.", "In Italy, Harry attended commemorations of the 70th anniversary of the Monte Cassino battles, in which Polish, Commonwealth and British troops fought.", "On 6 November 2014, he opened the Field of Remembrance at Westminster Abbey, a task usually performed by Prince Philip.Before reporting for duty to the Australian Defence Force (ADF), Harry visited the Australian War Memorial in Canberra on 6 April 2015.On 7 May 2015, he made a farewell walkabout at the Sydney Opera House and visited Macquarie University Hospital.", "On 24–25 April 2015, he joined his father in Turkey to attend commemorations of the centenary of the Gallipoli Campaign.", "On 28 October 2015, he carried out one day of engagements in the US.", "He launched the Invictus Games Orlando 2016 with First Lady Michelle Obama and Second Lady Jill Biden at Fort Belvoir.", "He later attended an Invictus Games board meeting and a reception to celebrate the launch at the British Ambassador's Residence.", "On 26 November 2015, as patron of Sentebale, Harry travelled to Lesotho to attend the opening of the Mamohato Children's Centre.", "From 30 November to 3 December 2015, he made an official visit to South Africa.", "He visited Cape Town, where he presented the insignia of the Order of the Companions of Honour to the Archbishop on behalf of the Queen.", "Harry also played the Sentebale Royal Salute Polo Cup, at Val de Vie Estate in Cape Town, fundraising for Sentebale.", "He visited Nepal 19–23 March 2016.He stayed until the end of March 2016 to help rebuild a secondary school with Team Rubicon UK, and visited a Hydropower Project in Central Nepal.The Duke with British prime minister Boris Johnson at the 2020 UK–Africa Investment SummitIn April 2018, he was appointed Commonwealth youth ambassador, a position which he held until March 2020.Also in that month, Harry became a patron of Walk of America, a campaign which brings together a number of veterans who will take part in a 1,000-mile expedition across the US in mid-2018.The Prince was appointed the president of The Queen's Commonwealth Trust, which focuses on projects involving children and welfare of prisoners, in April.", "Periodically, online QCT chat sessions were conducted and uploaded to YouTube for general public viewing.", "He remained the charity's president until February 2021.In July 2018, Harry travelled to Dublin, Ireland, alongside his wife Meghan, which marked their first overseas visit as a couple.", "In October 2018, the Duke and Duchess of Sussex travelled to Sydney, for the 2018 Invictus Games.", "This formed part of a Pacific tour that included Australia, Fiji, Tonga and New Zealand.Harry identifies as a feminist.", "During their visit to Morocco in February 2019, the Duke and Duchess focused on projects centred on \"women's empowerment, girls' education, inclusivity and encouragement of social entrepreneurship\".", "As part of establishing a separate office from Kensington Palace in 2019, the Duke and Duchess created an Instagram social media account, which broke the record for the fastest account at the time to reach a million followers.", "During his trip to Angola in 2019, the Duke visited the Born Free to Shine project in Luanda, an initiative by First Lady Ana Dias Lourenço which aims to \"prevent HIV transmission from mothers to babies\" through education, medical testing and treatment.", "He also met HIV+ youth and teenagers during his visit.", "During his visit to the Luengue-Luiana National Park, the Duke unveiled an initiative by the Queen's Commonwealth Canopy to help with protecting \"an ancient elephant migration route\" by providing safe passage for them in the forest.", "In September and October 2019, a Southern African tour included Malawi, Angola, South Africa and Botswana.", "Because infant son Archie travelled with the Sussexes, this was \"their first official tour as a family\".", "Harry completed 1,190 engagements between 2006 and 2019.===Stepping back===In January 2020, the Duke and Duchess announced that they were stepping back from their role as senior members of the royal family, and would balance their time between the United Kingdom and North America.", "A statement released by the Palace confirmed that the Duke and Duchess were to become financially independent and cease to represent the Queen.", "At the time of the announcement of Harry and Meghan's decision to \"step back\" as senior members of the royal family in 2020, 95% of the couple's income derived from the £2.3 million given to them annually by Harry's father, Charles, as part of his income from the Duchy of Cornwall.", "The couple retain their HRH stylings but are not permitted to use them.", "The formal role of the Duke and Duchess was subject to a twelve-month review period, ending in March 2021.In March 2020, Harry attended the opening of the Silverstone Experience in Silverstone Circuit together with racing driver Lewis Hamilton.", "Harry's appearance at the museum was his final solo engagement as a senior royal.", "He and Meghan attended the Commonwealth Day service at Westminster Abbey on 9 March 2020, which was their last engagement as a couple before they officially stepped down on 31 March.", "Harry's personal wealth was estimated at £30 million by ''The Daily Telegraph'' in 2020.Two years later, they made their first official appearance in the UK in June 2022 while attending the Platinum Jubilee National Service of Thanksgiving.The Sussexes visited the UK and Germany in September 2022 for a number of charity events in Manchester and Düsseldorf.", "On 8 September 2022, while Harry and Meghan were in London preparing to attend a charity event, Queen Elizabeth II died at Balmoral Castle in Scotland.====Publicly funded police security====Harry faced difficulties with obtaining and maintaining publicly funded security, both in Canada and the United Kingdom, after he and Meghan announced their self-demotion within the royal family.", "While the couple resided on Vancouver Island, the Canadian Taxpayers Federation launched a petition calling for the Royal Canadian Mounted Police to cease providing security to the Sussexes.", "The Government of Canada announced RCMP security would not be provided after March 2020 when the couple's status changed.", "A similar petition circulated in the UK in mid-March 2020.The backlash in the two countries led President Donald Trump to preemptively assert that the United States would not pay either; though, the couple never intended to ask for it while in the US.In January 2022, it was reported that Harry had been in a legal fight since September 2021 over the Home Office's refusal to allow him to pay for police protection.", "He had made the offer to pay during the Sandringham Summit and \"self-evidently believed\" that it would be passed on to the government.", "Following the first court hearing of the case, it was revealed that Harry had 'exceptional status' and the Royal and VIP Executive Committee (RAVEC) still determined his personal protective security on a case-by-case basis.", "After receiving applications by the Duke and the Home Office to keep parts of the case private, the High Court ruled in March 2022 that some parts of it would remain confidential.", "Mr Justice Swift also reacted to the Duke's legal team sending a copy of the ruling to someone who was not a lawyer, describing it as \"entirely unacceptable\".", "In July 2022, Mr Justice Swift granted permission for part of Harry's claim to proceed for a judicial review.Harry filed a lawsuit against the Home Office and the Metropolitan Police in August 2022, challenging the decision by RAVEC from January 2022 which stated that State security could not be made available to private individuals even if they wished to pay for it themselves.", "In February 2023, a judge ruled that the second case should be thrown out, however, the decision was later appealed by Harry's legal team.", "He lost the legal challenge in May 2023, meaning that he will not be allowed to make private payments for police protection.", "In June 2023, a Freedom of Information request revealed that Harry's legal fight with the Home Office had cost £502,236, with £492,000 covered by the state and the remaining £10,000 covered by Harry." ], [ "Civilian career and investments", "In summer 2019, before announcing their decision to step back in January 2020, Harry and his wife were involved in talks with Jeffrey Katzenberg, the founder of the now-defunct streaming platform Quibi, over a possible role in the service without gaining personal profits, but they eventually decided against joining the project.", "In September 2019, it was reported that the couple had hired New York-based PR firm Sunshine Sachs, which represented them until 2022.The couple has also been associated with Adam Lilling's Plus Capital, a venture capital fund designed to connect early stage companies with influencers and investors.", "In June 2020, they signed with the Harry Walker Agency, owned by media company Endeavor, to conduct paid public speaking engagements.", "In September 2020, the Sussexes signed a private commercial deal with Netflix.", "In December 2020, the Duke and Duchess signed a multi-year deal with Spotify to produce and host their own programs through their audio producing company, Archewell Audio.", "A holiday special was released by the couple on the service in December 2020.In June 2023, Spotify announced they would not proceed with the deal, cancelling ''Archetypes'' which had run for a single season of 12 episodes.", "''Harry & Meghan'', a docuseries about the Sussexes, was produced by Netflix and the couple's Archewell Productions and premiered on 8 December 2022.It is directed by Liz Garbus.", "The series received mixed reviews.In March 2021, San Francisco-based mental health start-up BetterUp, a company that helps people get in contact with coaches or counsellors, said that Harry would become its first chief impact officer.", "In the same month, Harry was appointed as a commissioner for the Aspen Institute's Commission on Information Disorder to carry out a six-month study on the state of misinformation and disinformation in the United States.", "The study was published in November 2021 as a report with 15 recommendations.", "In the following month, in his capacity as BetterUp's chief impact officer, Harry was interviewed by ''Fast Company'', stating that the recent trend of people leaving their jobs (known as the Great Resignation) was something that needed to be celebrated, though his remarks were criticised for coming from a position of privilege.", "In April 2022, reports emerged of criticism by the company's coaches over the new metrics placed for evaluating their services and over the opacity surrounding Harry's actual role in the firm.In April 2019, it was announced that Harry was working as co-creator and executive producer on a documentary series about mental health together with Oprah Winfrey, which was initially set to air in 2020 on Apple TV+.", "It was later announced that the series, titled ''The Me You Can't See'', would be released on 21 May 2021.In the following month, UCAS reported an increase in the percentage of students declaring mental health issues on their university applications, citing self-help books and Harry's statements on his struggles with \"panic attacks and anxiety\" as contributing factors.", "In October 2021, Harry and Meghan announced their partnership with Ethic, a sustainable investment firm based in New York City, which also manages the couple's investments.", "According to state filings from Delaware, where the couple's Archewell foundation is registered, Harry and Meghan incorporated 11 companies and a trust beginning in early 2020 which include Orinoco Publishing LLC and Peca Publishing LLC to hold the rights for their books as well as Cobblestone Lane LLC and IPHW LLC which are holders of their foundation's logos.In July 2021, it was announced that Harry was set to publish his memoir ''Spare'' via Penguin Random House, with Harry reportedly earning an advance of at least $20 million.", "''Spare'' was ghostwritten by novelist J. R. Moehringer.", "The memoir is reportedly the first of a four-book publishing deal that is set to include a second book by Harry and a wellness guide by Meghan.", "''Spare'' was officially published on 10 January 2023 in 16 languages, and it has since become the UK's fastest selling non-fiction book with 400,000 confirmed sales in all formats on publication day.", "Harry announced that $1.5 million of the proceeds from the memoir were pledged to the charity Sentebale, while £300,000 would be given to WellChild." ], [ "Charity work", "=== Humanitarian and environmental activities ===In 2006, he was in Lesotho to visit Mants'ase Children's Home near Mohale's Hoek, which he first toured in 2004.Along with Prince Seeiso of Lesotho, he launched Sentebale: The Princes' Fund for Lesotho, a charity to aid children orphaned by HIV/AIDS.", "He has granted his patronage to organisations including WellChild, Dolen Cymru, MapAction and the London Marathon Charitable Trust; he stepped down from MapAction in 2019 and the London Marathon Charitable Trust in 2021.In 2007, William and Harry organised the Concert for Diana, in memory of their mother, which benefited the charities and patronages of Diana, William, and Harry.", "In October 2008, Harry and his brother embarked on the 1,000 mile eight-day Enduro Africa motorbike ride across South Africa to raise money for Sentebale, UNICEF and the Nelson Mandela Children's Fund.", "In September 2009, William and Harry set up The Foundation of Prince William and Prince Harry to enable them to take forward their charitable ambitions.", "Harry left the charity in June 2019.After taking part in an unfinished trip to the North Pole with Walking With The Wounded in 2011, Harry joined the charity's 200-mile expedition to the South Pole in December 2013, accompanying twelve injured servicemen and women from the UK, the US and the Commonwealth.", "As patron of Walk of Britain, he walked with the team on 30 September and 20 October 2015.To raise awareness for HIV testing, Harry took a test live on the royal family Facebook page on 14 July 2016.He later attended the 21st International AIDS Conference in Durban, South Africa, on 21 July 2016.On World AIDS Day, Harry and Rihanna helped publicise HIV testing by taking the test themselves.", "Since 2016, Harry has been working with Terrence Higgins Trust to raise awareness about HIV and sexual health.", "In November 2019, to mark the National HIV Testing Week, the Duke interviewed HIV+ Rugby player Gareth Thomas on behalf of the trust.In December 2017, Harry guest edited BBC Radio 4's ''Today'' programme, conducting interviews with his father, then Prince of Wales, former US president Barack Obama, and others on issues such as youth violence, the Armed Forces, mental health, the Commonwealth, conservation and the environment.", "On 27 December 2017, Harry was officially appointed the new president of African Parks (a conservation NGO), a position which he held until 2023 when he was appointed a member of the board of directors.", "He previously spent three weeks in Malawi with African Parks where he joined a team of volunteers and professionals to carry out one of the largest elephant translocations in history.", "The effort to repopulate areas decimated due to poaching and habitat loss moved 500 elephants from Liwonde and Majete National Parks to Nkhotakota Wildlife Reserve.", "Harry had previously helped with relocating rhinos in the Okavango Delta and later became patron of the Rhino Conservation Botswana.", "In July 2018, the Elton John AIDS Foundation announced that the Duke of Sussex and British singer Elton John were about to launch a global coalition called MenStar that would focus \"on treating HIV infections in men\".Harry and Meghan visiting Catalyst Inc, 2018In May 2019, the Duke and Duchess of Sussex together with Harry's brother and sister-in-law launched Shout, the UK's first 24/7 text messaging service for those who suffer from mental issues.", "In September 2019, the Duke launched Travalyst during his visit to the Netherlands after two years of development.", "The initiative is set \"to encourage sustainable practices in the travel industry\" and \"tackle climate change and environmental damage\", in collaboration with a number of companies, including Tripadvisor, Booking.com, Ctrip, Skyscanner, and Visa Inc.", "The organisation later announced a partnership with Google in 2021.In October 2019, along with other members of the royal family, Harry voiced a Public Health England announcement, for the \"Every Mind Matters\" mental health program.In February 2020, Harry recorded a new version of the song \"Unbroken\" with Jon Bon Jovi.", "The new version features backing vocals from members of the Invictus Choir.", "The song was released on 27 March 2020, the proceeds of which were donated to the Invictus Games Foundation.", "In April 2020, Harry launched a new initiative named HeadFIT, a platform designed to provide mental support for members of the armed forces.", "The initiative was developed mutually by the Royal Foundation's Heads Together campaign, the Ministry of Defence, and King's College London.", "In June 2020, the Duke and Duchess backed the Stop Hate for Profit campaign and encouraged CEOs of different companies to join the movement.Harry and Meghan with the U.S. ambassador to the UN Linda Thomas-Greenfield at the 2021 Global Citizen live eventIn April 2021, Harry and Meghan were announced as campaign chairs for Vax Live: The Concert to Reunite the World, an event organised by Global Citizen to increase access to COVID-19 vaccinations.", "They also announced their support for a vaccine equity fundraiser initiated by the same organisation, and penned an open letter to the pharmaceutical industry CEOs urging them to address the vaccine equity crisis.", "Later that month, he narrated \"Hope Starts Here\", a special video rereleased by African Parks to mark the Earth Day in which he urged organisations and communities to preserve biodiversity and paid tribute to his grandfather Prince Philip for his efforts as a conservationist.", "He helped with the establishment of Peak State, a mental fitness programme aimed at providing tools and resources for managing mental health, to which he publicly lent his support in May 2021.Like his mother, Harry has worked with the HALO Trust, an organisation that removes debris—particularly landmines—left behind by war.", "He had previously visited a minefield in Mozambique with the charity and spent two days learning about their work and mine-clearing techniques.", "In 2013 he was named as patron of the charity's 25th Anniversary Appeal.", "In April 2017, he hosted the Landmine Free 2025 reception at Kensington Palace, during which the UK government announced an increase in its financial support for de-mining efforts.", "In September 2019, he walked through a de-mining site in Angola, the same country visited by his mother 22 years earlier.", "In June 2021, after ten members of the trust were killed by an armed group at a mine clearance camp in Afghanistan, Harry issued a statement saying the attack \"was nothing less than an act of barbarism\".In September 2021, together with First Lady Jill Biden, he hosted a virtual event for the Warrior Games, which were cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "In October 2021, he spoke against oil drilling in the Okavango River in an op-ed for ''The Washington Post''.", "In the same month and ahead of the 2021 G20 Rome summit, Harry and his wife penned an open letter together with the Director-General of the World Health Organization Tedros Adhanom, asking the G20 leaders to expedite efforts for the global distribution of COVID-19 vaccines.", "In March 2022, they were among more than a hundred people who signed an open letter published by the People's Vaccine Alliance, asking for free global access to COVID-19 vaccines and calling out the UK, EU and Switzerland for opposing a waiver that would allow vaccine intellectual property protections to be lifted.", "In April 2022 and in a video featuring Rhys Darby and Dave Fane on Māori Television, Harry launched an eco-travel campaign through his non-profit Travalyst, encouraging people to travel sustainably.=== Sport ===Harry competes in an exhibition sitting volleyball match between the UK and the US teams during the Warrior Games, 2013Harry has enjoyed playing sports, such as competitive polo, skiing, and motocross.", "Like his brother and father, he has participated in polo matches to raise money for charitable causes.", "Harry is also a keen Rugby football fan and supported England's bid to host rugby union's 2015 Rugby World Cup, and presented the trophy at rugby league's 2019 Challenge Cup finals.", "In 2004, Harry trained as a Rugby Development Officer for the Rugby Football Union and coached students in schools to encourage them to learn the sport.", "He, along with former rugby player Brian Moore, both argued that in response to Black Lives Matter, the song \"Swing Low, Sweet Chariot\" should no longer be sung in rugby context.", "Between December 2016 and February 2021, he was patron of both the Rugby Football Union (RFU) and Rugby Football League (RFL), Rugby League's governing body in England.", "He had served as the RFU's vice-royal patron since 2010, supporting the Queen as patron.In 2012, Harry launched Coach Core alongside his brother and sister-in-law, the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge.", "The program was set up following the 2012 Olympics and provides apprenticeship opportunities for people who desire to pursue a career as a professional coach.", "In January 2017, Harry visited the Running Charity and its partner Depaul UK to highlight the role of sport in helping homeless and vulnerable people.", "In June 2019, the Duke was present at the launch of Made by Sport, a charity coalition set to raise money to boost sport in disadvantaged communities.", "In his statement, he lent his support to the charity by arguing that its role in bringing sport into the life of disadvantaged people would save \"hundreds of millions of pounds\" towards treating the issues among young people.=== Sussex Royal and Archewell ===In June 2019, it was announced that the Duke and Duchess of Sussex would split from The Royal Foundation and establish their own charity foundation by the end of 2019.Nevertheless, the couple would collaborate with Harry's brother and his wife on mutual projects, such as the mental health initiative Heads Together.", "In July 2019, Harry and Meghan's new charity was registered in England and Wales under the title \"Sussex Royal The Foundation of The Duke and Duchess of Sussex\".", "On 21 February, it was confirmed that \"Sussex Royal\" would not be used as a brand name for the couple following their withdrawal from public life.", "On 5 August 2020, Sussex Royal Foundation was renamed \"MWX Foundation\" and dissolved the same day.In March 2021, it was reported that the Charity Commission for England and Wales was conducting a review of the Sussex Royal organisation in a \"regulatory and compliance case\" regarding its conduct under charity law during dissolution.", "Representatives for the couple claimed that Sussex Royal was \"managed by a board of trustees\" and that \"suggestion of mismanagement\" directed exclusively at the Duke and Duchess would be incorrect.", "The commission later concluded that the foundation did not act unlawfully, but criticised the board of directors for expending a \"substantial proportion of funds\" to setting up and closing the charity.In April 2020, Meghan and Harry confirmed their new foundation (in lieu of Sussex Royal) would be called \"Archewell\".", "The name stems from the Greek word \"arche\", which means \"source of action\"; the same word that inspired the name of their son.", "Archewell was registered in the United States.", "Its website was officially launched in October 2020." ], [ "Public image", "In his youth, Harry earned a reputation for being rebellious, leading the tabloid press to label him a \"wild child\".", "At the age of 17, he was seen smoking cannabis, drinking underage with friends, and clashing physically with paparazzi outside nightclubs.", "In early 2005, he was photographed at a \"Colonial and Native\"-themed birthday party in Wiltshire wearing a Nazi German Afrika Korps uniform with a swastika armband.", "His choice sparked a backlash from the media, politicians, and religious figures.", "Clarence House later issued a public statement in which Harry apologised for his behaviour.", "In an interview for his 21st birthday he stated that it \"was a very stupid thing to do and I've learnt my lesson\".In January 2005, in response to an inquiry about his Zimbabwean girlfriend Chelsy Davy, Harry responded \"She's not black or anything, you know\".", "In January 2009, the British tabloid, the ''News of the World'', revealed a video made by Harry three years earlier in which he referred to a Pakistani fellow officer cadet as \"our little Paki friend\" and called a soldier wearing a camouflage hood a \"raghead\".", "These terms were described by the Leader of the Opposition at the time David Cameron as \"unacceptable\", and by ''The Daily Telegraph'' as \"racist\".", "A British Muslim youth organisation called Harry a \"thug\".", "Further extracts showed him telling a comrade \"I love you\" before giving him a kiss on the cheek and licking his face, and asking another whether he felt gay, queer, or on the side.", "Clarence House immediately issued an apology from Harry, who stated that no malice was intended in his remarks.", "Subsequently, it was reported that the military had instructed Harry to attend a diversity course.", "In the same year, British stand-up comedian Stephen K. Amos alleged that after a stand-up show for Charles's 60th birthday celebrations in November 2008 Harry had commented on his performance by saying, \"You don't sound like a black chap\", though he hoped that the remarks were made in jest.In October 2007, a video from Harry's trip to Namibia with his friends surfaced, which showed him snorting vodka and licking a male friend's nipples.", "While on holiday in Las Vegas in August 2012, Harry and an unknown young woman were photographed naked in a Wynn Las Vegas hotel room, reportedly during a game of strip billiards.", "The pictures were leaked by American celebrity website TMZ on 21 August 2012, and reported worldwide by mainstream media on 22 August 2012.The photographs were shown by the American media, but British media were reluctant to publish them.", "Royal aides suggested Clarence House would contact the Press Complaints Commission (PCC) if British publications used the pictures.", "St James's Palace confirmed that Harry was in the photographs, saying that he was essentially a victim whose privacy had been invaded and contacted the PCC upon hearing that a number of British newspapers were considering publishing the photographs.", "On 24 August 2012, ''The Sun'' newspaper published the photographs.In December 2021, reports emerged about Harry's meetings with Saudi businessman Mahfouz Marei Mubarak bin Mahfouz, whose receipt of a CBE became the subject of an investigation by the Scottish Charity Regulator.", "Mahfouz had met Harry in 2013 and 2014 and donated £50,000 to his charity Sentebale and £10,000 to Walking With The Wounded, of which Harry is patron.", "''The Sunday Times'' claimed that the meetings with Harry opened the way for Mahfouz to get access to the Prince of Wales.", "Harry referred to the incident as the \"CBE scandal\" in December 2021 and stated that he severed ties with Mahfouz in 2015 after expressing \"growing concerns\" about his motives, though aides from his father's household denied having any discussions with him regarding Mahfouz.", "A spokesperson for Sentebale defended the meetings and added that there was not any impropriety regarding the donations.===Public opinion===In view of their environmental activism, Harry and Meghan were criticised in August 2019 for reportedly taking four private jet journeys in 11 days, including one to Elton John's home in Nice, France.", "The criticism was in line with the reactions the royal family faced in June 2019, after it was revealed that they \"had doubled their carbon footprint from business travel\".", "Harry received backlash again in August 2021 and 2022 for taking a two-hour flight on private jets between California and Aspen, Colorado, to participate in an annual charity polo tournament.", "In June 2022 and on their way to California after the Queen's Platinum Jubilee, Harry and Meghan boarded a private jet that was estimated to have emitted \"ten times more carbon than flying commercial\".After his marriage, Harry's popularity skyrocketed above all the other royals as he was deemed likable by 77 per cent of respondents in a poll of 3,600 Britons conducted by statistics and polling company YouGov.", "However, his popularity fell after stepping back from royal duties, and it plummeted after the release of his controversial interview with Oprah Winfrey, his Netflix docuseries, and his memoir.", "In December 2022, Harry was found to be the 3rd most disliked member of the British royal family by YouGov, preceded by his uncle Prince Andrew and his wife Meghan.", "Writing for ''The New York Times'', Sarah Lyall noted that following the release of his memoir Harry and his wife lost support within segments of the American public and press.", "It has been suggested by critics that this fall from public esteem is due to Harry and Meghan's frequent attempts to achieve ongoing relevancy, and their perceived hypocrisy and selfishness.", "Harry and Meghan's exit from the royal family was satirized in a 2023 episode of ''South Park''.In 2018 and 2021, Harry was selected as one of the 100 Most Influential People in the World by ''Time'' magazine.", "In 2019, the magazine named Harry and his wife as among the 25 Most Influential People on the Internet.", "In 2021, the couple was featured on one of the magazine's seven worldwide ''Time 100'' covers.", "In 2023, ''People'' named him as one of the \"25 Most Intriguing People of the Year\"." ], [ "Privacy and the media", "===Legal issues and incidents=======Associated Newspapers====On 30 January 2020, the Independent Press Standards Organisation (IPSO) sided with the ''Mail on Sunday'' over a dispute between the Duke and the newspaper regarding an Instagram photo involving Harry in which, according to the newspaper, elephants were in fact \"tranquilised\" and \"tethered\" during a relocating process.", "The IPSO rejected Harry's claim that the paper's description was \"inaccurate\" or \"misleading\".In December 2020, Harry's legal team sued Associated Newspapers Limited (ANL) for publishing a story in the ''Mail on Sunday'' claiming his working relationship with the Royal Marines had suffered post-royal departure.", "The newspaper subsequently accepted the claims were false and issued an apology.", "The prince's lawyer said the \"substantial damages\" paid by the publisher would be donated to the Invictus Games Foundation.In November 2021, Harry and Meghan's former communications secretary Jason Knauf gave a statement to the court following ANL's appeal against a judge's ruling that accused the media company of breaching Meghan's privacy for publishing a letter she had sent to her father.", "Knauf mentioned the Duchess of Sussex directly gave him briefing points to share with ''Finding Freedom''s authors Omid Scobie and Carolyn Durand and added that the Duke of Sussex had welcomed the suggestion that they should conceal their involvement with the process of writing the book, while they both discussed the book \"on a routine basis\".", "ANL had previously applied to use the book in their defense, arguing that the Duke and Duchess had \"co-operated with the authors of the recently published book ''Finding Freedom'' to put out their version of certain events\".In February 2022, Harry filed a libel suit in the High Court against ANL for a ''Mail on Sunday'' article which alleged he was trying to keep his legal battle against the Home Office to restore his police protection secret from the public through requesting a confidentiality order on the case and that he offered to pay for police protection only after filing a lawsuit against the government.", "In June 2022, Mr Justice Nicklin ruled that parts of the article were potentially defamatory, though Nicklin rejected claims by Harry's lawyers that the article portrayed him as a liar.", "Harry attempted to have the publisher's defence thrown out, but the judge rejected his motion in December 2023 and decided that the case should proceed to trial.", "He later ordered Harry to pay ''Mail on Sunday'' £48,447 in legal costs.", "Harry withdrew the libel claim in January 2024 and became liable for the publisher's £250,000 legal costs.In October 2022, the Duke of Sussex joined Doreen Lawrence, Sir Elton John, David Furnish, Sadie Frost, and Elizabeth Hurley in launching a legal action against ANL for their alleged \"abhorrent criminal activity\", which was said to involve listening to and recording people's phone calls and daily activities, obtaining sensitive information and medical records, and accessing bank accounts and financial transactions.", "In a statement, ANL described the allegations as \"preposterous smears\", and Gavin Burrows, the private investigator whose alleged 2021 statement was used as a key element in the case, said that the statement was not signed by him and was \"a cut and paste from my evidence\" of other publishers targeting individuals.", "In November 2023, Mr Justice Nicklin ruled that the case brought by Harry and the other claimants could proceed but unpublished material provided to the Leveson Inquiry was inadmissible as proof in this case.====News Group and Mirror Group newspapers====In October 2019, it was announced that Harry had sued the ''Daily Mirror'', ''The Sun'' and the now-defunct ''News of the World'' \"in relation to alleged phone-hacking\".", "Former ''News of the World'' royal editor Clive Goodman had previously stated that he had hacked Harry's phone on nine occasions.", "He sought damages in excess of £200,000 from the publisher of the ''News of the World'' and ''The Sun'' and alleged an earlier agreement between News Group Newspapers and the royal family which would see he and William not take legal action in return for an apology had not been honoured.", "A palace source denied the existence of any secret agreements.", "Both brothers brought a claim privately through their mutual attorneys, but Harry decided to pursue his case separately with a new solicitor in 2019.In April 2023, a High Court judge said there were inconsistencies in Harry's claim, including the time when he became aware of the issue's full scale and his failure to mention an alleged agreement between the publisher and the palace.", "In July 2023, the judge ruled that part of Harry's case involving allegations of illegal information gathering would go to trial but his phone-hacking claims were dismissed for being made too late.Lawyers for the ''Mirror'' denied accessing Harry's voicemail messages and other allegations, but admitted to instructing \"private investigators to unlawfully obtain private information\" about Harry on a single occasion that involved him visiting Chinawhite.", "In January 2023, a High Court judge ruled that Harry's lawsuit against Mirror Group Newspapers (MGN) as well as other similar lawsuits against the publisher would go to trial in May 2023.At the beginning of trial, MGN apologised for one instance of unlawful information gathering against Harry and added that his legal challenge \"warrants compensation\".", "In June 2023, Harry testified in the court case accusing former ''Daily Mirror'' editor Piers Morgan of horrific personal attacks and claimed that his phone had been hacked dating back to when he was still at Eton.", "His appearance marked the first time a member of the royal family had been cross-examined in court since Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, appeared as a witness in court in 1891.On 15 December 2023, the High Court ruled in favour of Harry for 15 of the 33 sample stories used in his claims of phone hacking against MGN and awarded him £140,600 of the £440,000 he sought in damages.", "Mr Justice Fancourt concluded Piers Morgan and other editors knew about the phone hacking at their publications and were involved in it.", "Harry through his lawyer David Sherborne called the ruling \"vindicating and affirming\" and urged the authorities to further investigate and prosecute the company.", "An additional 115 articles from Harry's claim might have been the focus of two further trials, but in February 2024 he settled his claim with MGN.", "The publisher agreed to cover Harry's legal costs and pay damages reported to be in the region of £300,000.====Other cases====In October 2013, Jo Brand appeared on ''Have I Got News for You'' and while talking about Prince George's christening she said: \"George's godparents include Hugh van Cutsem ...", "I presume that's a nickname as in Hugh van cuts 'em and Harry then snorts 'em.\"", "Representatives of Kensington Palace contacted the BBC after the programme aired, pointing out the error and the implications of the joke.", "The BBC wrote to Kensington Palace apologising for the \"factual inaccuracy\" as George's godfather was William van Cutsem, but it did not apologise for the comment itself as it was part of the show's \"irreverent humor\".In February 2014, a judge sentenced the convicted criminal Ashraf Islam to three years in prison, as he had plotted to murder Harry and had given it \"considerable thought\" due to his belief that Harry had \"a moral guilt\" since he was in the army.", "In June 2019, two members of the neo-Nazi group Sonnenkrieg Division were jailed for eighteen months and four years, respectively, for sharing propaganda posters among which was one that labelled Harry as a \"race traitor\" with a gun pointed at his head.In May 2019, Splash News issued a formal apology to the Sussexes for sending photographers to their Cotswolds residence, which put their privacy at risk.", "The agency also agreed to pay damages and legal costs associated with the case.", "In January 2020, lawyers issued a legal warning to the press after paparazzi photographs were published in the media.", "In March 2020, the couple took Splash UK to court after the Duchess and their son were photographed without permission during a \"private family outing\" while staying in Canada.", "The case was settled later that year with Splash UK agreeing to no longer take unauthorised photos of the family.", "On 20 April 2020, the Duke and Duchess announced that they would no longer cooperate with the ''Daily Mail'', the ''Sun'', the ''Mirror'' and the ''Express''.", "They won an apology in October from American news agency X17 for taking photographs of their son at their home using drones.In June 2020, it was reported that Harry's lawyers had issued a 'letter before action', threatening to sue the ''Sun'' and Dan Wootton, based on the allegations that they had paid money to associates of palace officials to secure their stories.", "It was alleged that the ''Sun'' had made two payments amounting to £4,000 to the partner of a royal official in relation to stories published in June and July 2019 which detailed the nannying and god-parenting arrangements for Harry and Meghan's son Archie.", "News Group Newspapers, publisher of the ''Sun'', emphasised that they had done nothing \"unlawful\" in sourcing the stories and no illegal payments were made.", "Wootton's lawyers denied that any payments were made unlawfully to a public official or a proxy and described the claims as \"a smear campaign by unknown bad actors.\"", "Wootton has been credited with breaking the story about Megxit and Harry and Meghan's initial plans for moving to Canada in the ''Sun'' on 8 January 2020, which prompted the couple to issue an announcement within hours, confirming their plans for stepping back from their royal duties.", "Sources close to the couple later spoke to ''The New York Times'', stating that they \"felt forced to disclose their plans prematurely\" as they learned about the ''Sun''s intentions to publish the story.", "Wootton disputed the claim as \"They released the statement after we had published the story and had so much notice.", "\"A September 2020 article by ''The Times'' claiming an Invictus Games fundraiser had been cancelled due to its affiliation with a competitor of Netflix, Harry's business partner, became the subject of a legal complaint issued by the Duke.", "In January 2022, the couple mutually filed a legal complaint against ''The Times'' for an article reporting on Archewell raising less than $50,000 in 2020.Despite the palace congratulating the Duke and Duchess on the birth of their daughter Lilibet in June 2021, a few days later the BBC reported that Harry and Meghan had not sought the permission of the Queen before naming their daughter with her personal family nickname.", "Lawyers for the couple subsequently accused the BBC of defamation and sent letters out to various media organisations saying the report was false and defamatory, and the allegations should not be repeated as Harry had spoken to the Queen before announcing their daughter's name.In January 2024, two neo-Nazis, Christopher Gibbons and Tyrone Patten-Walsh, were given prison sentences between eight and 11 years for terrorism, which included calling for the deaths of Harry and his son Archie on their podcast.===Interviews===Harry and his wife were interviewed by Oprah Winfrey in a television special for CBS, broadcast on 7 March 2021.Meghan spoke about marriage, motherhood, and the pressures of public life.", "Harry joined her later, and the pair talked about the initial difficulties associated with their move to the United States in 2020 and their plans for the future.", "During the interview, Harry criticised his father's parenting style, mentioned his father did not answer his calls and had cut him off financially, and he had no relationship with his brother.", "There was a wide and polarised reaction to the interview.In April 2022, Harry sat down for an interview with ''Today''s Hoda Kotb during the Invictus Games, during which he claimed that he had visited his grandmother the Queen earlier to make sure that she was \"protected and got the right people around her.\"", "In January 2023 and ahead of the release of his memoir ''Spare'', Harry sat down for a series of interviews, including an interview by Anderson Cooper on ''60 Minutes'', another one by Tom Bradby titled ''Harry: The Interview'' on ITV1, and a third interview by Michael Strahan on ''Good Morning America'', titled ''Prince Harry: In His Own Words''.", "In the interview with Bradby, Harry said that he \"would like to get my father back, I would like to have my brother back\".", "Referring to the press as \"the devil\", he also alleged that \"certain members\" of his family were \"in the bed\" with them to \"rehabilitate their image\".In a live-streamed interview in March 2023, Gabor Maté, a physician, suggested publicly that Harry could be suffering from PTSD, ADD, anxiety, and depression based on his conversation with him and having read his autobiography ''Spare''.===Twitter trolling===In October 2021, Twitter analytics service Bot Sentinel released their analysis of more than 114,000 tweets about the Duke and Duchess of Sussex, which states that 83 accounts with a combined number of 187,631 followers responsible for approximately 70% of the negative content posted about the couple.", "The report prompted an investigation by Twitter.", "Twitter stated that it found no evidence of \"widespread coordination\" between the accounts, and said that it had taken action against users who violated Twitter's conduct policy.", "Bot Sentinel also released three more reports in the following months, arguing that the accounts were part of a \"bot network\" and a similar network could be found on YouTube.", "In January 2022, the BBC named Harry and Meghan among people whose photos and videos were used in fake instant profits advertisements and bitcoin-related investment schemes." ], [ "Titles, styles, honours and arms", "===Titles and styles===Harry was originally styled \"His Royal Highness Prince Henry of Wales\".", "He used Wales as his surname for military purposes and was known as \"Captain Harry Wales\" in such contexts.On the morning of his wedding, Queen Elizabeth II granted him the Dukedom of Sussex, the Earldom of Dumbarton and Barony of Kilkeel.", "He thus became known as \"His Royal Highness The Duke of Sussex\".", "He uses the earldom in Scotland and the barony in Northern Ireland.On 18 January 2020, Buckingham Palace announced that, following their decision to step back from royal duties, from 31 March 2020 the Duke and Duchess would not use their Royal Highness styles in practice.", "They are still referred to as \"His/Her Royal Highness\" in legal settings.===Military ranks===;* 8 May 2005: Officer cadet, The Royal Military Academy Sandhurst* 13 April 2006: Cornet (Second Lieutenant), The Blues and Royals* 13 April 2008: Lieutenant, The Blues and Royals* 16 April 2011: Captain, The Blues and Royals* 14 May 2018: Lieutenant Commander, Royal Navy* 14 May 2018: Major, Army* 14 May 2018: Squadron Leader, Royal Air Force===Honours===* 45px 6 February 2002: Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal* 45px 5 May 2008: Operational Service Medal for Afghanistan* 45px 6 February 2012: Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal* 45px 4 June 2015: Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (KCVO)* 45px 6 February 2022: Queen Elizabeth II Platinum Jubilee Medal45px 6 May 2023: King Charles III Coronation Medal;Foreign 12 July 2017: Order of Isabella the Catholic====Appointments====* 13 October 2018 – 19 February 2021: Personal Aide-de-Camp to Her Majesty The Queen (ADC);Fellowships* 6 March 2012present: Honorary Fellow of the University of the West Indies====Former honorary military appointments====; United Kingdom* 8 August 200619 February 2021: Commodore-in-Chief of Small Ships and Diving* 3 October 200819 February 2021: Honorary Air Commandant of RAF Honington* 19 December 201719 February 2021: Captain General Royal MarinesIn February 2021, it was announced via written confirmation that Harry's honorary military appointments mentioned above were returned to Queen Elizabeth II.", "; Canada* 10 November 2009present: Honorary Canadian Ranger====Awards====In December 2010, the German charity (\"A Heart for Children\") awarded him its Golden Heart Award, in recognition of his \"charitable and humanitarian efforts\".", "On 7 May 2012, the Atlantic Council awarded him its Distinguished Humanitarian Leadership Award.", "In August 2018, the Royal Canadian Legion granted him the 2018 Founders Award for his role in founding the Invictus Games.", "In October 2018, he was presented with the RSA Badge in Gold, the organisation's highest honour, for his work with injured veterans.", "In July 2021, Harry and Meghan were among people who were selected by UK-based charity Population Matters to receive the Change Champions Award for their decision to have only two children and help with maintaining a smaller and more sustainable population.", "In February 2022, Harry and Meghan were selected to receive the NAACP's President's Award for their work on causes related to social justice and equity.", "In October 2022, the couple were named as Ripple of Hope Award laureates for their work on racial justice, mental health, and other social initiatives through their foundation Archewell.", "Harry was inducted into the Living Legends of Aviation in January 2024.===Arms===" ], [ "Ancestry", "Agnatically, Harry is a member of the House of Glücksburg, a cadet branch of the House of Oldenburg, one of Europe's oldest royal houses.", "Harry's paternal grandmother, Queen Elizabeth II, issued letters patent on 8 February 1960 declaring his father to be a member of the House of Windsor.Ancestors on Harry's father's side include most of the royal families of Europe, and on his mother's side, the earls Spencer—a cadet branch of the Spencer family descended from the earls of Sunderland; the senior branch are now also dukes of Marlborough; the Barons Fermoy; and more anciently from Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton, and Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond—two illegitimate sons of King Charles II.Harry and his brother William descend matrilineally from Eliza Kewark, who is variously described in contemporary documents as \"a dark-skinned native woman\", \"an Armenian woman from Bombay\", and \"Mrs. Forbesian\".", "Genealogist William Addams Reitwiesner assumed Kewark was Armenian.", "In June 2013, BritainsDNA announced that genealogical DNA tests on two of Harry and William's distant matrilineal cousins confirm Kewark was matrilineally of Indian descent." ], [ "Filmography", "+ Television appearances Year Title Network Notes 2004 ''The Forgotten Kingdom: Prince Harry in Lesotho'' ITN / ITV Also producer 2012 ''The Diamond Queen'' BBC 2014 ''Harry's South Pole Heroes'' ITV 2016 ''Our Queen at 90'' ''Elizabeth at 90: A Family Tribute'' BBC ''Prince Harry in Africa'' ITV 2017 ''Diana, Our Mother: Her Life and Legacy'' ''Diana, 7 Days'' BBC 2018 ''Queen of the World'' HBO 2019 ''Harry & Meghan: An African Journey'' ITV 2020 ''Rising Phoenix'' Netflix 2021 ''Oprah with Meghan and Harry'' CBS ''The Me You Can't See'' Apple TV Also producer 2022 ''Harry & Meghan'' Netflix ''Live to Lead'' Executive producer and presenter 2023 ''Harry: The Interview'' ITV1 ''60 Minutes'' CBS ''Prince Harry: In His Own Words'' ABC ''Heart of Invictus'' Netflix Also producer" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Books===* Prince Harry, The Duke of Sussex, \"Foreword\", in: * ===Authored articles and letters===* * * * * " ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " * * * " ], [ "External links", " * The Duke of Sussex at the official website of the British royal family* The Duke of Sussex at the website of the Government of Canada* * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hail" ], [ "Introduction", "A large hailstone, about in diameter'''Hail''' is a form of solid precipitation.", "It is distinct from ice pellets (American English \"sleet\"), though the two are often confused.", "It consists of balls or irregular lumps of ice, each of which is called a '''hailstone'''.", "Ice pellets generally fall in cold weather, while hail growth is greatly inhibited during low surface temperatures.Unlike other forms of water ice precipitation, such as graupel (which is made of rime ice), ice pellets (which are smaller and translucent), and snow (which consists of tiny, delicately crystalline flakes or needles), hailstones usually measure between and in diameter.", "The METAR reporting code for hail or greater is '''GR''', while smaller hailstones and graupel are coded '''GS'''.Hail is possible within most thunderstorms (as it is produced by cumulonimbus), as well as within of the parent storm.", "Hail formation requires environments of strong, upward motion of air within the parent thunderstorm (similar to tornadoes) and lowered heights of the freezing level.", "In the mid-latitudes, hail forms near the interiors of continents, while, in the tropics, it tends to be confined to high elevations.There are methods available to detect hail-producing thunderstorms using weather satellites and weather radar imagery.", "Hailstones generally fall at higher speeds as they grow in size, though complicating factors such as melting, friction with air, wind, and interaction with rain and other hailstones can slow their descent through Earth's atmosphere.", "Severe weather warnings are issued for hail when the stones reach a damaging size, as it can cause serious damage to human-made structures, and, most commonly, farmers' crops." ], [ "Definition", "Any thunderstorm which produces hail that reaches the ground is known as a '''hailstorm'''.", "An ice crystal with a diameter of > is considered a '''hailstone'''.", "Hailstones can grow to and weigh more than .Unlike ice pellets, hailstones are layered and can be irregular and clumped together.", "Hail is composed of transparent ice or alternating layers of transparent and translucent ice at least thick, which are deposited upon the hailstone as it travels through the cloud, suspended aloft by air with strong upward motion until its weight overcomes the updraft and falls to the ground.", "Although the diameter of hail is varied, in the United States, the average observation of damaging hail is between and golf-ball-sized .Stones larger than are usually considered large enough to cause damage.", "The Meteorological Service of Canada issues severe thunderstorm warnings when hail that size or above is expected.", "The US National Weather Service has a diameter threshold, effective January 2010, an increase over the previous threshold of hail.", "Other countries have different thresholds according to local sensitivity to hail; for instance, grape-growing areas could be adversely impacted by smaller hailstones.", "Hailstones can be very large or very small, depending on how strong the updraft is: weaker hailstorms produce smaller hailstones than stronger hailstorms (such as supercells), as the more powerful updrafts in a stronger storm can keep larger hailstones aloft." ], [ "Formation", "Hail forms in strong thunderstorm clouds, particularly those with intense updrafts, high liquid-water content, great vertical extent, large water droplets, and where a good portion of the cloud layer is below freezing ().", "These types of strong updrafts can also indicate the presence of a tornado.", "The growth rate of hailstones is impacted by factors such as higher elevation, lower freezing zones, and wind shear.=== Layer nature of the hailstones ===Hail shaftLike other precipitation in cumulonimbus clouds, hail begins as water droplets.", "As the droplets rise and the temperature goes below freezing, they become supercooled water and will freeze on contact with condensation nuclei.", "A cross-section through a large hailstone shows an onion-like structure.", "This means that the hailstone is made of thick and translucent layers, alternating with layers that are thin, white and opaque.", "Former theory suggested that hailstones were subjected to multiple descents and ascents, falling into a zone of humidity and refreezing as they were uplifted.", "This up and down motion was thought to be responsible for the successive layers of the hailstone.", "New research, based on theory as well as field study, has shown this is not necessarily true.The storm's updraft, with upwardly directed wind speeds as high as , blows the forming hailstones up the cloud.", "As the hailstone ascends, it passes into areas of the cloud where the concentration of humidity and supercooled water droplets varies.", "The hailstone's growth rate changes depending on the variation in humidity and supercooled water droplets that it encounters.", "The accretion rate of these water droplets is another factor in the hailstone's growth.", "When the hailstone moves into an area with a high concentration of water droplets, it captures the latter and acquires a translucent layer.", "Should the hailstone move into an area where mostly water vapor is available, it acquires a layer of opaque white ice.Severe thunderstorms containing hail can exhibit a characteristic green colorationFurthermore, the hailstone's speed depends on its position in the cloud's updraft and its mass.", "This determines the varying thicknesses of the layers of the hailstone.", "The accretion rate of supercooled water droplets onto the hailstone depends on the relative velocities between these water droplets and the hailstone itself.", "This means that generally the larger hailstones will form some distance from the stronger updraft, where they can pass more time growing.", "As the hailstone grows, it releases latent heat, which keeps its exterior in a liquid phase.", "Because it undergoes \"wet growth\", the outer layer is ''sticky'' (i.e.", "more adhesive), so a single hailstone may grow by collision with other smaller hailstones, forming a larger entity with an irregular shape.Hail can also undergo \"dry growth\", in which the latent heat release through freezing is not enough to keep the outer layer in a liquid state.", "Hail forming in this manner appears opaque due to small air bubbles that become trapped in the stone during rapid freezing.", "These bubbles coalesce and escape during the \"wet growth\" mode, and the hailstone is more clear.", "The mode of growth for a hailstone can change throughout its development, and this can result in distinct layers in a hailstone's cross-section.The hailstone will keep rising in the thunderstorm until its mass can no longer be supported by the updraft.", "This may take at least 30 minutes, based on the force of the updrafts in the hail-producing thunderstorm, whose top is usually greater than 10 km high.", "It then falls toward the ground while continuing to grow, based on the same processes, until it leaves the cloud.", "It will later begin to melt as it passes into air above freezing temperature.Thakurgaon, Northern Bangladesh (April 2022)Thus, a unique trajectory in the thunderstorm is sufficient to explain the layer-like structure of the hailstone.", "The only case in which multiple trajectories can be discussed is in a multicellular thunderstorm, where the hailstone may be ejected from the top of the \"mother\" cell and captured in the updraft of a more intense \"daughter\" cell.", "This, however, is an exceptional case.=== Factors favoring hail ===Hail is most common within continental interiors of the mid-latitudes, as hail formation is considerably more likely when the freezing level is below the altitude of .", "Movement of dry air into strong thunderstorms over continents can increase the frequency of hail by promoting evaporational cooling, which lowers the freezing level of thunderstorm clouds, giving hail a larger volume to grow in.", "Accordingly, hail is less common in the tropics despite a much higher frequency of thunderstorms than in the mid-latitudes because the atmosphere over the tropics tends to be warmer over a much greater altitude.", "Hail in the tropics occurs mainly at higher elevations.Hail growth becomes vanishingly small when air temperatures fall below , as supercooled water droplets become rare at these temperatures.", "Around thunderstorms, hail is most likely within the cloud at elevations above .", "Between and , 60% of hail is still within the thunderstorm, though 40% now lies within the clear air under the anvil.", "Below , hail is equally distributed in and around a thunderstorm to a distance of ." ], [ "Climatology", "Hail occurs most frequently within continental interiors at mid-latitudes and is less common in the tropics, despite a much higher frequency of thunderstorms than in the mid-latitudes.", "Hail is also much more common along mountain ranges because mountains force horizontal winds upwards (known as orographic lifting), thereby intensifying the updrafts within thunderstorms and making hail more likely.", "The higher elevations also result in there being less time available for hail to melt before reaching the ground.", "One of the more common regions for large hail is across mountainous northern India, which reported one of the highest hail-related death tolls on record in 1888.China also experiences significant hailstorms.", "Central Europe and southern Australia also experience a lot of hailstorms.", "Regions where hailstorms frequently occur are southern and western Germany, northern and eastern France, southern and eastern Benelux, and northern Italy.", "In southeastern Europe, Croatia and Serbia experience frequent occurrences of hail.", "Some mediterranean countries register the maximum frequency of hail during the Fall season.In North America, hail is most common in the area where Colorado, Nebraska, and Wyoming meet, known as \"Hail Alley\".", "Hail in this region occurs between the months of March and October during the afternoon and evening hours, with the bulk of the occurrences from May through September.", "Cheyenne, Wyoming is North America's most hail-prone city with an average of nine to ten hailstorms per season.", "To the north of this area and also just downwind of the Rocky Mountains is the Hailstorm Alley region of Alberta, which also experiences an increased incidence of significant hail events.Example of a three-body spike: the weak triangular echoes (pointed by the arrow) behind the red and white thunderstorm core are related to hail inside the storm.=== Short-term detection ===Weather radar is a very useful tool to detect the presence of hail-producing thunderstorms.", "However, radar data has to be complemented by a knowledge of current atmospheric conditions which can allow one to determine if the current atmosphere is conducive to hail development.Modern radar scans many angles around the site.", "Reflectivity values at multiple angles above ground level in a storm are proportional to the precipitation rate at those levels.", "Summing reflectivities in the Vertically Integrated Liquid or VIL, gives the liquid water content in the cloud.", "Research shows that hail development in the upper levels of the storm is related to the evolution of VIL.", "VIL divided by the vertical extent of the storm, called VIL density, has a relationship with hail size, although this varies with atmospheric conditions and therefore is not highly accurate.", "Traditionally, hail size and probability can be estimated from radar data by computer using algorithms based on this research.", "Some algorithms include the height of the freezing level to estimate the melting of the hailstone and what would be left on the ground.Certain patterns of reflectivity are important clues for the meteorologist as well.", "The three body scatter spike is an example.", "This is the result of energy from the radar hitting hail and being deflected to the ground, where they deflect back to the hail and then to the radar.", "The energy took more time to go from the hail to the ground and back, as opposed to the energy that went directly from the hail to the radar, and the echo is further away from the radar than the actual location of the hail on the same radial path, forming a cone of weaker reflectivities.More recently, the polarization properties of weather radar returns have been analyzed to differentiate between hail and heavy rain.", "The use of differential reflectivity (), in combination with horizontal reflectivity () has led to a variety of hail classification algorithms.", "Visible satellite imagery is beginning to be used to detect hail, but false alarm rates remain high using this method." ], [ "Size and terminal velocity", "Hailstones ranging in size from few millimetres to over a centimetre in diameter Large hailstone with concentric ringsThe size of hailstones is best determined by measuring their diameter with a ruler.", "In the absence of a ruler, hailstone size is often visually estimated by comparing its size to that of known objects, such as coins.", "Using the objects such as hen's eggs, peas, and marbles for comparing hailstone sizes is imprecise, due to their varied dimensions.", "The UK organisation, TORRO, also scales for both hailstones and hailstorms.When observed at an airport, METAR code is used within a surface weather observation which relates to the size of the hailstone.", "Within METAR code, GR is used to indicate larger hail, of a diameter of at least .", "GR is derived from the French word ''grêle''.", "Smaller-sized hail, as well as snow pellets, use the coding of GS, which is short for the French word ''grésil''.Terminal velocity of hail, or the speed at which hail is falling when it strikes the ground, varies.", "It is estimated that a hailstone of in diameter falls at a rate of , while stones the size of in diameter fall at a rate of .", "Hailstone velocity is dependent on the size of the stone, its drag coefficient, the motion of wind it is falling through, collisions with raindrops or other hailstones, and melting as the stones fall through a warmer atmosphere.", "As hailstones are not perfect spheres, it is difficult to accurately calculate their drag coefficient - and, thus, their speed.=== Size comparisons to objects ===In the United States, the National Weather Service reports hail size as a comparison to everyday objects.", "Hailstones larger than 1 inch in diameter are denoted as \"severe.", "\"+NWS Hail Conversion Chart Diameter (inches) Everyday Object 0.25 - 0.375 Pea 0.50 Small Marble 0.75 Penny 0.88 Nickel 1.00 (15/16\") Quarter 1.25 Half Dollar 1.50 Walnut/Ping Pong Ball 1.75 Golf Ball 2.00 Lime 2.50 Tennis Ball 2.75 Baseball 3.00 Large Apple 4.00 Softball 4.50 Grapefruit 4.75 - 5.00 Computer CD/DVDThe largest recorded hailstone in the United States===Hail records===Megacryometeors, large rocks of ice that are not associated with thunderstorms, are not officially recognized by the World Meteorological Organization as \"hail\", which are aggregations of ice associated with thunderstorms, and therefore records of extreme characteristics of megacryometeors are not given as hail records.", "* '''Heaviest:''' ; Gopalganj District, Bangladesh, 14 April 1986.", "* '''Largest diameter officially measured:''' diameter, circumference; Vivian, South Dakota, 23 July 2010.", "* '''Largest circumference officially measured:''' circumference, diameter; Aurora, Nebraska, 22 June 2003.", "* '''Greatest average hail precipitation:''' Kericho, Kenya experiences hailstorms, on average, 50 days annually.", "Kericho is close to the equator and the elevation of contributes to it being a hot spot for hail.", "Kericho reached the world record for 132 days of hail in one year." ], [ "Hazards", "Early automobiles were not equipped to deal with hail.Hail can cause serious damage, notably to automobiles, aircraft, skylights, glass-roofed structures, livestock, and most commonly, crops.", "Hail damage to roofs often goes unnoticed until further structural damage is seen, such as leaks or cracks.", "It is hardest to recognize hail damage on shingled roofs and flat roofs, but all roofs have their own hail damage detection problems.", "Metal roofs are fairly resistant to hail damage, but may accumulate cosmetic damage in the form of dents and damaged coatings.Hail is one of the most significant thunderstorm hazards to aircraft.", "When hailstones exceed in diameter, planes can be seriously damaged within seconds.", "The hailstones accumulating on the ground can also be hazardous to landing aircraft.", "Hail is a common nuisance to drivers of automobiles, severely denting the vehicle and cracking or even shattering windshields and windows unless parked in a garage or covered with a shielding material.", "Wheat, corn, soybeans, and tobacco are the most sensitive crops to hail damage.", "Hail is one of Canada's most expensive hazards.Rarely, massive hailstones have been known to cause concussions or fatal head trauma.", "Hailstorms have been the cause of costly and deadly events throughout history.", "One of the earliest known incidents occurred around the 9th century in Roopkund, Uttarakhand, India, where 200 to 600 nomads seem to have died of injuries from hail the size of cricket balls." ], [ "Accumulations", "Accumulated hail in Sydney, Australia (April 2015)Narrow zones where hail accumulates on the ground in association with thunderstorm activity are known as hail streaks or hail swaths, which can be detectable by satellite after the storms pass by.", "Hailstorms normally last from a few minutes up to 15 minutes in duration.", "Accumulating hail storms can blanket the ground with over of hail, cause thousands to lose power, and bring down many trees.", "Flash flooding and mudslides within areas of steep terrain can be a concern with accumulating hail.Depths of up to have been reported.", "A landscape covered in accumulated hail generally resembles one covered in accumulated snow and any significant accumulation of hail has the same restrictive effects as snow accumulation, albeit over a smaller area, on transport and infrastructure.", "Accumulated hail can also cause flooding by blocking drains, and hail can be carried in the floodwater, turning into a snow-like slush which is deposited at lower elevations.On somewhat rare occasions, a thunderstorm can become stationary or nearly so while prolifically producing hail and significant depths of accumulation do occur; this tends to happen in mountainous areas, such as the July 29, 2010 case of a foot of hail accumulation in Boulder County, Colorado.", "On June 5, 2015, hail up to four feet deep fell on one city block in Denver, Colorado.", "The hailstones, described as between the size of bumble bees and ping pong balls, were accompanied by rain and high winds.", "The hail fell in only the one area, leaving the surrounding area untouched.", "It fell for one and a half hours between 10:00 pm and 11:30 pm.", "A meteorologist for the National Weather Service in Boulder said, \"It's a very interesting phenomenon.", "We saw the storm stall.", "It produced copious amounts of hail in one small area.", "It's a meteorological thing.\"", "Tractors used to clear the area filled more than 30 dump truck loads of hail.Hand holding hail in a strawberry patchResearch focused on four individual days that accumulated more than of hail in 30 minutes on the Colorado front range has shown that these events share similar patterns in observed synoptic weather, radar, and lightning characteristics, suggesting the possibility of predicting these events prior to their occurrence.", "A fundamental problem in continuing research in this area is that, unlike hail diameter, hail depth is not commonly reported.", "The lack of data leaves researchers and forecasters in the dark when trying to verify operational methods.", "A cooperative effort between the University of Colorado and the National Weather Service is in progress.", "The joint project's goal is to enlist the help of the general public to develop a database of hail accumulation depths." ], [ "Suppression and prevention", "Hail cannon in an old castle in Banska Stiavnica, SlovakiaDuring the Middle Ages, people in Europe used to ring church bells and fire cannons to try to prevent hail, and the subsequent damage to crops.", "Updated versions of this approach are available as modern hail cannons.", "Cloud seeding after World War II was done to eliminate the hail threat, particularly across the Soviet Union, where it was claimed a 70–98% reduction in crop damage from hail storms was achieved by deploying silver iodide in clouds using rockets and artillery shells.", "But these effects have not been replicated in randomized trials conducted in the West.", "Hail suppression programs have been undertaken by 15 countries between 1965 and 2005." ], [ "See also", "* Sleet (disambiguation)* Cumulonimbus and aviation" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * " ], [ "External links", " Hail Storm Research Tools at hailtrends.com* Hail Factsheet (archived) from ucar.edu* U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters at NOAA.gov*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hypnotherapy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hypnotherapy''', also known as '''hypnotic medicine''', is a use of hypnosis in psychotherapy.", "Hypnotherapy is viewed as a helpful adjunct therapy by proponents, having additive effects when treating psychological disorders, such as depression, anxiety, eating disorders, sleep disorders, compulsive gambling, phobias and post-traumatic stress, along with cognitive therapies.", "The effectiveness of hypnotherapy is not adequately supported by scientific evidence, and due to the lack of evidence indicating any level of efficiency, it is regarded as a type of alternative medicine by reputable medical organisations such as the National Health Service." ], [ "Definition", "The United States Department of Labor's ''Dictionary of Occupational Titles'' (DOT) describes the job of the hypnotherapist:\"Induces hypnotic state in client to increase motivation or alter behavior patterns: Consults with client to determine nature of problem.", "Prepares client to enter hypnotic state by explaining how hypnosis works and what client will experience.", "Tests subject to determine degree of physical and emotional suggestibility.", "Induces hypnotic state in client, using individualized methods and techniques of hypnosis based on interpretation of test results and analysis of client's problem.", "May train client in self-hypnosis conditioning.", "\"=== Traditional ===The form of hypnotherapy practiced by most Victorian hypnotists, including James Braid and Hippolyte Bernheim, mainly employed direct suggestion of symptom removal, with some use of therapeutic relaxation and occasionally aversion to alcohol, drugs, etc.=== Ericksonian ===In the 1950s, Milton H. Erickson developed a radically different approach to hypnotism, which has subsequently become known as \"Ericksonian hypnotherapy\" or \"Neo-Ericksonian hypnotherapy.\"", "Based on his belief that dysfunctional behaviors were defined by social tension, Erickson coopted the subject's behavior to establish rapport, a strategy he termed \"utilization.\"", "Once rapport was established, he made use of an informal conversational approach to direct awareness.", "His methods included complex language patterns and client-specific therapeutic strategies (reflecting the nature of utilization).", "He claimed to have developed ways to suggest behavior changes during apparently ordinary conversation.This divergence from tradition led some, including Andre Weitzenhoffer, to dispute whether Erickson was right to label his approach \"hypnosis\" at all.", "Erickson's foundational paper, however, considers hypnosis as a mental state in which specific types of \"work\" may be done, rather than a technique of induction.The founders of neuro-linguistic programming (NLP), a method somewhat similar in some regards to some versions of hypnotherapy, claimed that they had modelled the work of Erickson extensively and assimilated it into their approach.", "Weitzenhoffer disputed whether NLP bears any genuine resemblance to Erickson's work.=== Solution-focused ===In the 2000s, hypnotherapists began to combine aspects of solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT) with Ericksonian hypnotherapy to produce therapy that was goal-focused (what the client wanted to achieve) rather than the more traditional problem-focused approach (spending time discussing the issues that brought the client to seek help).", "A solution-focused hypnotherapy session may include techniques from NLP.=== Cognitive/behavioral ===Cognitive behavioral hypnotherapy (CBH) is an integrated psychological therapy employing clinical hypnosis and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT).", "The use of CBT in conjunction with hypnotherapy may result in greater treatment effectiveness.", "A meta-analysis of eight different researches revealed \"a 70% greater improvement\" for patients undergoing an integrated treatment to those using CBT only.In 1974, Theodore X. Barber and his colleagues published a review of the research which argued, following the earlier social psychology of Theodore R. Sarbin, that hypnotism was better understood not as a \"special state\" but as the result of normal psychological variables, such as active imagination, expectation, appropriate attitudes, and motivation.", "Barber introduced the term \"cognitive-behavioral\" to describe the nonstate theory of hypnotism, and discussed its application to behavior therapy.The growing application of cognitive and behavioral psychological theories and concepts to the explanation of hypnosis paved the way for a closer integration of hypnotherapy with various cognitive and behavioral therapies.Many cognitive and behavioral therapies were themselves originally influenced by older hypnotherapy techniques, e.g., the systematic desensitisation of Joseph Wolpe, the cardinal technique of early behavior therapy, was originally called \"hypnotic desensitisation\" and derived from the ''Medical Hypnosis'' (1948) of Lewis Wolberg.=== Curative ===Dr.", "Peter Marshall, author of ''A Handbook of Hypnotherapy'', devised the Trance Theory of Mental Illness, which asserts that people suffering from depression, or certain other kinds of neuroses, are already living in a trance.", "He asserts that this means the hypnotherapist does not need to induce trance, but instead to make them understand this and lead them out of it.=== Mindful ===Mindful hypnotherapy is therapy that incorporates mindfulness and hypnotherapy.", "A pilot study was made at Baylor University, Texas, and published in the ''International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis''.", "Dr. Gary Elkins, director of the Mind-Body Medicine Research Laboratory at Baylor University called it \"a valuable option for treating anxiety and stress reduction” and \"an innovative mind-body therapy\".", "The study showed a decrease in stress and an increase in mindfulness.===Relationship to scientific medicine===Hypnotherapy practitioners occasionally attract the attention of mainstream medicine.", "Attempts to instill academic rigor have been frustrated by the complexity of client suggestibility, which has social and cultural aspects, including the reputation of the practitioner.", "Results achieved in one time and center of study have not been reliably transmitted to future generations.In the 1700s Anton Mesmer offered pseudoscientific justification for his practices, but his rationalizations were debunked by a commission that included Benjamin Franklin." ], [ "Uses", "Clinicians choose hypnotherapy to address a wide range of circumstances; however, according to Yeates (2016), people choose to have hypnotherapy for many other reasons:::\"Ignoring specific issues such as performance anxiety, road rage, weight, smoking, drinking, unsafe sex, etc., those seeking hypnotherapy today do so because of ill-defined, vague feelings that: (a) their health is far from optimal; (b) their worry about past/present/future events is excessive and debilitating; (c) they are not comfortable with who they are; (d) they're not performing up to the level of their true potential; and/or (e) their lives are lacking some significant (but unidentified) thing.", "\"=== Menopause ===There is evidence supporting the use of hypnotherapy in the treatment of menopause related symptoms, including hot flashes.", "The North American Menopause Society recommends hypnotherapy for the nonhormonal management of menopause-associated vasomotor symptoms, giving it the highest level of evidence.=== Irritable bowel syndrome ===The use of hypnotherapy in treating the symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome is supported by research, including randomized controlled trials.", "A 2015 audit of 1000 patients undertaking gut-focused hypnotherapy in normal clinical practice found that hypnotherapy was an effective intervention for refractory IBS.", "Gut-directed hypnotherapy is recommended in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome by the American College of Gastroenterology clinical guideline for the management of IBS.===Childbirth===Hypnotherapy is often applied in the birthing process and the post-natal period, but there is insufficient evidence to determine if it alleviates pain during childbirth and no evidence that it is effective against post-natal depression.===Bulimia===Literature shows that a wide variety of hypnotic interventions have been investigated for the treatment of bulimia nervosa, with inconclusive effect.", "Similar studies have shown that groups suffering from bulimia nervosa, undergoing hypnotherapy, were more exceptional to no treatment, placebos, or other alternative treatments.===Anxiety===Hypnotherapy is shown to be comparable in effectiveness to other forms of therapy, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, that utilize relaxation techniques and imagery.", "It has also shown to be successful when used to reduce anxiety in those with dental anxiety and phobias.=== PTSD ===Professor Charcot, his students, and a woman experiencing hysteria.Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and its symptoms have been shown to improve due to implementation of hypnotherapy, in both long and short term.", "As research continues, hypnotherapy is being more openly considered as an effective intervention for those with PTSD.=== Depression ===Hypnotherapy has been shown to be effective when used to treat long term depressive symptoms.", "It has been shown to be comparable to the efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy, and when used in tandem, efficacy seems to increase.===Other uses===Among its many other applications in other medical domains, hypnotism was used therapeutically, by some alienists in the Victorian era, to treat the condition then known as hysteria.Modern hypnotherapy is widely accepted for the treatment of certain habit disorders, to control irrational fears, as well as in the treatment of conditions such as insomnia and addiction.", "Hypnosis has also been used to enhance recovery from non-psychological conditions such as after surgical procedures, in breast cancer care and even with gastro-intestinal problems." ], [ "Efficacy", "* A 2003 meta-analysis on the efficacy of hypnotherapy concluded that \"the efficacy of hypnosis is not verified for a considerable part of the spectrum of psychotherapeutic practice.", "\"* In 2007, a meta-analysis from the Cochrane Collaboration found that the therapeutic effect of hypnotherapy was \"superior to that of a waiting list control or usual medical management, for abdominal pain and composite primary IBS symptoms, in the short term in patients who fail standard medical therapy\", with no harmful side-effects.", "However the authors noted that the quality of data available was inadequate to draw any firm conclusions.", "* Two Cochrane reviews in 2012 concluded that there was insufficient evidence to support its efficacy in managing the pain of childbirth or post-natal depression.", "* A 2014 meta-analysis that focused on hypnotherapy's efficacy on irritable bowel syndrome found that it was beneficial for short term abdominal pain and other gastrointestinal issues.", "''''''* In 2016, a literature review published in ''La Presse Médicale'' found that there is not sufficient evidence to \"support the efficacy of hypnosis in chronic anxiety disorders\".", "* In 2019, a Cochrane review was unable to find evidence of benefit of hypnosis in smoking cessation, and suggested if there is, it is small at best.", "* A 2019 meta-analysis of hypnosis as a treatment for anxiety found that \"the average participant receiving hypnosis reduced anxiety more than about 79% of control participants,\" also noting that \"hypnosis was more effective in reducing anxiety when combined with other psychological interventions than when used as a stand-alone treatment.", "\"* In a 2022 meta-analysis on hypnotherapy's efficacy on dental anxiety, it was found that \"hypnosis can also be regarded as powerful and successful method for anxiety reduction,\" but also stated that further research is required." ], [ "Occupational accreditation", "=== United States ===The laws regarding hypnosis and hypnotherapy vary by state and municipality.", "Some states, like Colorado, Connecticut and Washington, have mandatory licensing and registration requirements, while many other states have no specific regulations governing the practice of hypnotherapy.===United Kingdom=======UK National Occupational Standards====In 2002, the Department for Education and Skills developed National Occupational Standards for hypnotherapy linked to National Vocational Qualifications based on the then National Qualifications Framework under the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority.", "NCFE, a national awarding body, issues level four national vocational qualification diploma in hypnotherapy.", "Currently AIM Awards offers a Level 3 Certificate in Hypnotherapy and Counselling Skills at level 3 of the Regulated Qualifications Framework.====UK Confederation of Hypnotherapy Organisations (UKCHO)====The regulation of the hypnotherapy profession in the UK is at present the main focus of UKCHO, a non-profit umbrella body for hypnotherapy organisations.", "Founded in 1998 to provide a non-political arena to discuss and implement changes to the profession of hypnotherapy, UKCHO currently represents 9 of the UK's professional hypnotherapy organisations and has developed standards of training for hypnotherapists, along with codes of conduct and practice that all UKCHO registered hypnotherapists are governed by.", "As a step towards the regulation of the profession, UKCHO's website now includes a National Public Register of Hypnotherapists who have been registered by UKCHO's Member Organisations and are therefore subject to UKCHO's professional standards.", "Further steps to full regulation of the hypnotherapy profession will be taken in consultation with the Prince's Foundation for Integrated Health.====The National Council for Hypnotherapy (NCH)====The National Council for Hypnotherapy is a Professional Association, established in 1973 to create a National Membership Organisation for independent Hypnotherapy Practitioners.", "The organisation is not for profit, with a Board of around 12 people (this can vary slightly) composed of volunteer Directors, usually in practice Hypnotherapists and paid executives.NCH membership meet the hypnotherapy training standards and agree to follow the CECP; the NCH’s ethical code of practice, all members are expected to be insured to practice and meet supervision requirements and annual CPD expectations.", "=== Australia ===Professional hypnotherapy and use of the occupational titles ''hypnotherapist'' or ''clinical hypnotherapist'' are not government-regulated in Australia.In 1996, as a result of a three-year research project led by Lindsay B. Yeates, the Australian Hypnotherapists Association (founded in 1949), the oldest hypnotism-oriented professional organization in Australia, instituted a peer-group accreditation system for full-time Australian professional hypnotherapists, the first of its kind in the world, which \"accredited specific individuals on the basis of their actual demonstrated knowledge and clinical performance; instead of approving particular 'courses' or approving particular 'teaching institutions'\" (Yeates, 1996, p.iv; 1999, p.xiv).", "The system was further revised in 1999.Australian hypnotism/hypnotherapy organizations (including the Australian Hypnotherapists Association) are seeking government regulation similar to other mental health professions.", "However, currently hypnotherapy is not subject to government regulation through the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency (AHPRA)." ], [ "See also", "* * * * Autosuggestion* Doctor of Clinical Hypnotherapy* Hypnotherapy in the United Kingdom* Hypnosis* Hypnosurgery* ''The Pregnant Man and Other Cases from a Hypnotherapist's Couch''* Psychotherapy* Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism* Scientific skepticism* Subconscious mind* Suggestibility* ''The Zoist: A Journal of Cerebral Physiology & Mesmerism, and Their Applications to Human Welfare''" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hangman (game)" ], [ "Introduction", "Example game in which the letters ''A'' and ''N'' but not the whole word ''HANGMAN'' were guessed – incorrect guesses are noted at the bottom'''Hangman''' is a guessing game for two or more players.", "One player thinks of a word, phrase, or sentence and the other(s) tries to guess it by suggesting letters or numbers within a certain number of guesses.", "Originally a paper-and-pencil game, there are now electronic versions." ], [ "History", "Though the origins of the game are unknown, a variant is mentioned in a book of children's games assembled by Alice Gomme in 1894 called Birds, Beasts, and Fishes.", "This version lacks the image of a hanged man, instead relying on keeping score as to the number of attempts it took each player to fill in the blanks.A version which incorporated hanging imagery was described in a 1902 article in ''The Philadelphia Inquirer'', which stated that it was popular at \"White Cap\" parties hosted by Vigilance Committees where guests would wear \"white peaked caps with masks\"." ], [ "Overview", "The word to guess is represented by a row of dashes representing each letter or number of the word.", "Rules may permit or forbid proper nouns, such as names, places, brands, or slang.", "If the guessing player suggests a letter which occurs in the word, the other player writes it in all its correct positions.", "If the suggested letter does not occur in the word, the other player removes (or alternatively, adds) one element of a hanged stick figure as a tally mark.", "Generally, the game ends once the word is guessed, or if the stick figure is complete — signifying that all guesses have been used.", "The player guessing the word may, at any time, attempt to guess the whole word.", "If the word is correct, the game is over and the guesser wins.", "Otherwise, the other player may choose to penalize the guesser by adding an element to the diagram.", "On the other hand, if the guesser makes enough incorrect guesses to allow the other player to complete the diagram, the guesser loses.", "However, the guesser can also win by guessing all the letters that appear in the word, thereby completing the word, before the diagram is completed." ], [ "Variants", "A classroom game of hangmanAs the name of the game suggests, the diagram is designed to look like a hanging man.", "This has led to some controversy.", "An alternative for teachers is to draw an apple tree with ten apples, erasing or crossing out the apples as the guesses are used up.Some modifications to game play (house rules) to increase the difficulty level are sometimes implemented, such as limiting guesses on high-frequency consonants and vowels.", "Another alternative is to give the definition of the word; this can be used to facilitate the learning of a foreign language.How many incorrect guesses are allowed in the game can also be modified.", "This can be done by adding extra elements to the stick figure, like a face or shoes, or by first drawing elements of the gallows for every mistake before starting to draw the stick figure." ], [ "Strategy", "The fact that the twelve most commonly occurring letters in the English language are e-t-a-o-i-n-s-h-r-d-l-u (from most to least), along with other letter-frequency lists, are used by the guessing player to increase the odds when it is their turn to guess.", "On the other hand, the same lists can be used by the puzzle setter to stump their opponent by choosing a word that deliberately avoids common letters (e.g.", "''rhythm'' or ''zephyr'') or one that contains rare letters (e.g.", "''jazz'').Another common strategy is to guess vowels first, as English only has five vowels (a, e, i, o, and u, while y may sometimes, but rarely, be used as a vowel) and almost every word has at least one.According to a 2010 study conducted by Jon McLoone for Wolfram Research, the most difficult words to guess include ''jazz'', ''buzz'', ''hajj'', ''faff'', ''fizz'', ''fuzz'' and variations of these.", "In speaking with Dr. Richard Davis, his favorite winning word is ''syzygy.''" ], [ "Derivations", "The American game show ''Wheel of Fortune'' was inspired by hangman.", "Merv Griffin conceived of the show after recalling long car trips as a child, on which he and his sister played the game.Brazil also had a show in the 1960s and again from 2012–2013 called 'Let's Play Hangman', hosted by Silvio Santos.", "Brazil would later get its own version of ''Wheel of Fortune'', running from 1980 to 1993, again from 2003 to 2012 (during which the new ''Let's Play Hangman'' aired), and again since 2013 to the present.", "These shows were also hosted by Santos.In July 2017, the BBC introduced a game show of its own called ''Letterbox'', which is also based on hangman." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Harmonic mean" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, the '''harmonic mean''' is one of several kinds of average, and in particular, one of the Pythagorean means.", "It is sometimes appropriate for situations when the average rate is desired.The harmonic mean can be expressed as the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals of the given set of observations.", "As a simple example, the harmonic mean of 1, 4, and 4 is:" ], [ "Definition", "The harmonic mean ''H'' of the positive real numbers is defined to be:It is the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals, and vice versa::where the arithmetic mean is defined as The harmonic mean is a Schur-concave function, and dominated by the minimum of its arguments, in the sense that for any positive set of arguments, .", "Thus, the harmonic mean cannot be made arbitrarily large by changing some values to bigger ones (while having at least one value unchanged).", "The harmonic mean is also concave, which is an even stronger property than Schur-concavity.One has to take care to only use positive numbers though, since the mean fails to be concave if negative values are used." ], [ "Relationship with other means", "The harmonic mean is one of the three Pythagorean means.", "For all ''positive'' data sets ''containing at least one pair of nonequal values'', the harmonic mean is always the least of the three means, while the arithmetic mean is always the greatest of the three and the geometric mean is always in between.", "(If all values in a nonempty dataset are equal, the three means are always equal to one another; e.g., the harmonic, geometric, and arithmetic means of {2, 2, 2} are all 2.", ")It is the special case ''M''−1 of the power mean:Since the harmonic mean of a list of numbers tends strongly toward the least elements of the list, it tends (compared to the arithmetic mean) to mitigate the impact of large outliers and aggravate the impact of small ones.The arithmetic mean is often mistakenly used in places calling for the harmonic mean.", "In the speed example below for instance, the arithmetic mean of 40 is incorrect, and too big.The harmonic mean is related to the other Pythagorean means, as seen in the equation below.", "This can be seen by interpreting the denominator to be the arithmetic mean of the product of numbers ''n'' times but each time omitting the ''j''-th term.", "That is, for the first term, we multiply all ''n'' numbers except the first; for the second, we multiply all ''n'' numbers except the second; and so on.", "The numerator, excluding the ''n'', which goes with the arithmetic mean, is the geometric mean to the power ''n''.", "Thus the ''n''-th harmonic mean is related to the ''n''-th geometric and arithmetic means.", "The general formula isIf a set of non-identical numbers is subjected to a mean-preserving spread — that is, two or more elements of the set are \"spread apart\" from each other while leaving the arithmetic mean unchanged — then the harmonic mean always decreases." ], [ "Harmonic mean of two or three numbers", "===Two numbers===A geometric construction of the three Pythagorean means of two numbers, ''a'' and ''b''.", "The harmonic mean is denoted by ''H'' in purple, while the arithmetic mean is ''A'' in red and the geometric mean is ''G'' in blue.", "''Q'' denotes a fourth mean, the quadratic mean.", "Since a hypotenuse is always longer than a leg of a right triangle, the diagram shows that ''Q'' > ''A'' > ''G'' > ''H''.For the special case of just two numbers, and , the harmonic mean can be written: or In this special case, the harmonic mean is related to the arithmetic mean and the geometric mean by:Since by the inequality of arithmetic and geometric means, this shows for the ''n'' = 2 case that ''H'' ≤ ''G'' (a property that in fact holds for all ''n'').", "It also follows that , meaning the two numbers' geometric mean equals the geometric mean of their arithmetic and harmonic means.===Three numbers===For the special case of three numbers, , and , the harmonic mean can be written:Three positive numbers ''H'', ''G'', and ''A'' are respectively the harmonic, geometric, and arithmetic means of three positive numbers if and only if the following inequality holds:" ], [ "Weighted harmonic mean", "If a set of weights , ..., is associated to the dataset , ..., , the '''weighted harmonic mean''' is defined by :The unweighted harmonic mean can be regarded as the special case where all of the weights are equal." ], [ "Examples", "===In physics=======Average speed====In many situations involving rates and ratios, the harmonic mean provides the correct average.", "For instance, if a vehicle travels a certain distance ''d'' outbound at a speed ''x'' (e.g.", "60 km/h) and returns the same distance at a speed ''y'' (e.g.", "20 km/h), then its average speed is the harmonic mean of ''x'' and ''y'' (30 km/h), not the arithmetic mean (40 km/h).", "The total travel time is the same as if it had traveled the whole distance at that average speed.", "This can be proven as follows:Average speed for the entire journey = However, if the vehicle travels for a certain amount of ''time'' at a speed ''x'' and then the same amount of time at a speed ''y'', then its average speed is the arithmetic mean of ''x'' and ''y'', which in the above example is 40 km/h.", "Average speed for the entire journey The same principle applies to more than two segments: given a series of sub-trips at different speeds, if each sub-trip covers the same ''distance'', then the average speed is the ''harmonic'' mean of all the sub-trip speeds; and if each sub-trip takes the same amount of ''time'', then the average speed is the ''arithmetic'' mean of all the sub-trip speeds.", "(If neither is the case, then a weighted harmonic mean or weighted arithmetic mean is needed.", "For the arithmetic mean, the speed of each portion of the trip is weighted by the duration of that portion, while for the harmonic mean, the corresponding weight is the distance.", "In both cases, the resulting formula reduces to dividing the total distance by the total time.", ")However, one may avoid the use of the harmonic mean for the case of \"weighting by distance\".", "Pose the problem as finding \"slowness\" of the trip where \"slowness\" (in hours per kilometre) is the inverse of speed.", "When trip slowness is found, invert it so as to find the \"true\" average trip speed.", "For each trip segment i, the slowness si = 1/speedi.", "Then take the weighted arithmetic mean of the si's weighted by their respective distances (optionally with the weights normalized so they sum to 1 by dividing them by trip length).", "This gives the true average slowness (in time per kilometre).", "It turns out that this procedure, which can be done with no knowledge of the harmonic mean, amounts to the same mathematical operations as one would use in solving this problem by using the harmonic mean.", "Thus it illustrates why the harmonic mean works in this case.====Density====Similarly, if one wishes to estimate the density of an alloy given the densities of its constituent elements and their mass fractions (or, equivalently, percentages by mass), then the predicted density of the alloy (exclusive of typically minor volume changes due to atom packing effects) is the weighted harmonic mean of the individual densities, weighted by mass, rather than the weighted arithmetic mean as one might at first expect.", "To use the weighted arithmetic mean, the densities would have to be weighted by volume.", "Applying dimensional analysis to the problem while labeling the mass units by element and making sure that only like element-masses cancel makes this clear.====Electricity====If one connects two electrical resistors in parallel, one having resistance ''x'' (e.g., 60 Ω) and one having resistance ''y'' (e.g., 40 Ω), then the effect is the same as if one had used two resistors with the same resistance, both equal to the harmonic mean of ''x'' and ''y'' (48 Ω): the equivalent resistance, in either case, is 24 Ω (one-half of the harmonic mean).", "This same principle applies to capacitors in series or to inductors in parallel.However, if one connects the resistors in series, then the average resistance is the arithmetic mean of ''x'' and ''y'' (50 Ω), with total resistance equal to twice this, the sum of ''x'' and ''y'' (100 Ω).", "This principle applies to capacitors in parallel or to inductors in series.As with the previous example, the same principle applies when more than two resistors, capacitors or inductors are connected, provided that all are in parallel or all are in series.The \"conductivity effective mass\" of a semiconductor is also defined as the harmonic mean of the effective masses along the three crystallographic directions.====Optics====As for other optic equations, the thin lens equation = + can be rewritten such that the focal length ''f'' is one-half of the harmonic mean of the distances of the subject ''u'' and object ''v'' from the lens.===In finance===The weighted harmonic mean is the preferable method for averaging multiples, such as the price–earnings ratio (P/E).", "If these ratios are averaged using a weighted arithmetic mean, high data points are given greater weights than low data points.", "The weighted harmonic mean, on the other hand, correctly weights each data point.", "The simple weighted arithmetic mean when applied to non-price normalized ratios such as the P/E is biased upwards and cannot be numerically justified, since it is based on equalized earnings; just as vehicles speeds cannot be averaged for a roundtrip journey (see above).For example, consider two firms, one with a market capitalization of $150 billion and earnings of $5 billion (P/E of 30) and one with a market capitalization of $1 billion and earnings of $1 million (P/E of 1000).", "Consider an index made of the two stocks, with 30% invested in the first and 70% invested in the second.", "We want to calculate the P/E ratio of this index.Using the weighted arithmetic mean (incorrect):: Using the weighted harmonic mean (correct):: Thus, the correct P/E of 93.46 of this index can only be found using the weighted harmonic mean, while the weighted arithmetic mean will significantly overestimate it.===In geometry===In any triangle, the radius of the incircle is one-third of the harmonic mean of the altitudes.For any point P on the minor arc BC of the circumcircle of an equilateral triangle ABC, with distances ''q'' and ''t'' from B and C respectively, and with the intersection of PA and BC being at a distance ''y'' from point P, we have that ''y'' is half the harmonic mean of ''q'' and ''t''.In a right triangle with legs ''a'' and ''b'' and altitude ''h'' from the hypotenuse to the right angle, is half the harmonic mean of and .Let ''t'' and ''s'' (''t'' > ''s'') be the sides of the two inscribed squares in a right triangle with hypotenuse ''c''.", "Then equals half the harmonic mean of and .Let a trapezoid have vertices A, B, C, and D in sequence and have parallel sides AB and CD.", "Let E be the intersection of the diagonals, and let F be on side DA and G be on side BC such that FEG is parallel to AB and CD.", "Then FG is the harmonic mean of AB and DC.", "(This is provable using similar triangles.", ")Crossed ladders.", "''h'' is half the harmonic mean of ''A'' and ''B''One application of this trapezoid result is in the crossed ladders problem, where two ladders lie oppositely across an alley, each with feet at the base of one sidewall, with one leaning against a wall at height ''A'' and the other leaning against the opposite wall at height ''B'', as shown.", "The ladders cross at a height of ''h'' above the alley floor.", "Then ''h'' is half the harmonic mean of ''A'' and ''B''.", "This result still holds if the walls are slanted but still parallel and the \"heights\" ''A'', ''B'', and ''h'' are measured as distances from the floor along lines parallel to the walls.", "This can be proved easily using the area formula of a trapezoid and area addition formula.In an ellipse, the semi-latus rectum (the distance from a focus to the ellipse along a line parallel to the minor axis) is the harmonic mean of the maximum and minimum distances of the ellipse from a focus.=== In other sciences ===In computer science, specifically information retrieval and machine learning, the harmonic mean of the precision (true positives per predicted positive) and the recall (true positives per real positive) is often used as an aggregated performance score for the evaluation of algorithms and systems: the F-score (or F-measure).", "This is used in information retrieval because only the positive class is of relevance, while number of negatives, in general, is large and unknown.", "It is thus a trade-off as to whether the correct positive predictions should be measured in relation to the number of predicted positives or the number of real positives, so it is measured versus a putative number of positives that is an arithmetic mean of the two possible denominators.A consequence arises from basic algebra in problems where people or systems work together.", "As an example, if a gas-powered pump can drain a pool in 4 hours and a battery-powered pump can drain the same pool in 6 hours, then it will take both pumps , which is equal to 2.4 hours, to drain the pool together.", "This is one-half of the harmonic mean of 6 and 4: .", "That is, the appropriate average for the two types of pump is the harmonic mean, and with one pair of pumps (two pumps), it takes half this harmonic mean time, while with two pairs of pumps (four pumps) it would take a quarter of this harmonic mean time.In hydrology, the harmonic mean is similarly used to average hydraulic conductivity values for a flow that is perpendicular to layers (e.g., geologic or soil) - flow parallel to layers uses the arithmetic mean.", "This apparent difference in averaging is explained by the fact that hydrology uses conductivity, which is the inverse of resistivity.In sabermetrics, a baseball player's Power–speed number is the harmonic mean of their home run and stolen base totals.In population genetics, the harmonic mean is used when calculating the effects of fluctuations in the census population size on the effective population size.", "The harmonic mean takes into account the fact that events such as population bottleneck increase the rate genetic drift and reduce the amount of genetic variation in the population.", "This is a result of the fact that following a bottleneck very few individuals contribute to the gene pool limiting the genetic variation present in the population for many generations to come.When considering fuel economy in automobiles two measures are commonly used – miles per gallon (mpg), and litres per 100 km.", "As the dimensions of these quantities are the inverse of each other (one is distance per volume, the other volume per distance) when taking the mean value of the fuel economy of a range of cars one measure will produce the harmonic mean of the other – i.e., converting the mean value of fuel economy expressed in litres per 100 km to miles per gallon will produce the harmonic mean of the fuel economy expressed in miles per gallon.", "For calculating the average fuel consumption of a fleet of vehicles from the individual fuel consumptions, the harmonic mean should be used if the fleet uses miles per gallon, whereas the arithmetic mean should be used if the fleet uses litres per 100 km.", "In the USA the CAFE standards (the federal automobile fuel consumption standards) make use of the harmonic mean.In chemistry and nuclear physics the average mass per particle of a mixture consisting of different species (e.g., molecules or isotopes) is given by the harmonic mean of the individual species' masses weighted by their respective mass fraction." ], [ "Beta distribution", "Harmonic mean for Beta distribution for 0 1 − X) also exists for this distribution:This harmonic mean with ''β'' < 1 is undefined because its defining expression is not bounded in 0, 1 .Letting ''α'' = ''β'' in the above expression:showing that for ''α'' = ''β'' the harmonic mean ranges from 0, for ''α'' = ''β'' = 1, to 1/2, for ''α'' = ''β'' → ∞.The following are the limits with one parameter finite (non zero) and the other approaching these limits:: Although both harmonic means are asymmetric, when ''α'' = ''β'' the two means are equal." ], [ "Lognormal distribution", "The harmonic mean ( ''H'' ) of the lognormal distribution of a random variable ''X'' is: where ''μ'' and ''σ''2 are the parameters of the distribution, i.e.", "the mean and variance of the distribution of the natural logarithm of ''X''.The harmonic and arithmetic means of the distribution are related by: where ''C''v and ''μ''* are the coefficient of variation and the mean of the distribution respectively..The geometric (''G''), arithmetic and harmonic means of the distribution are related by:" ], [ "Pareto distribution", "The harmonic mean of type 1 Pareto distribution is: where ''k'' is the scale parameter and ''α'' is the shape parameter." ], [ "Statistics", "For a random sample, the harmonic mean is calculated as above.", "Both the mean and the variance may be infinite (if it includes at least one term of the form 1/0).===Sample distributions of mean and variance===The mean of the sample ''m'' is asymptotically distributed normally with variance ''s''2.", ":The variance of the mean itself is: where ''m'' is the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals, ''x'' are the variates, ''n'' is the population size and ''E'' is the expectation operator.===Delta method===Assuming that the variance is not infinite and that the central limit theorem applies to the sample then using the delta method, the variance is: where ''H'' is the harmonic mean, ''m'' is the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals: ''s''2 is the variance of the reciprocals of the data: and ''n'' is the number of data points in the sample.===Jackknife method===A jackknife method of estimating the variance is possible if the mean is known.", "This method is the usual 'delete 1' rather than the 'delete m' version.This method first requires the computation of the mean of the sample (''m''): where ''x'' are the sample values.A series of value ''wi'' is then computed where: The mean (''h'') of the ''w''i is then taken:: The variance of the mean is: Significance testing and confidence intervals for the mean can then be estimated with the t test.===Size biased sampling===Assume a random variate has a distribution ''f''( ''x'' ).", "Assume also that the likelihood of a variate being chosen is proportional to its value.", "This is known as length based or size biased sampling.Let ''μ'' be the mean of the population.", "Then the probability density function ''f''( ''x'' ) of the size biased population is: The expectation of this length biased distribution E( ''x'' ) is: where ''σ''2 is the variance.The expectation of the harmonic mean is the same as the non-length biased version E( ''x'' ): The problem of length biased sampling arises in a number of areas including textile manufacture pedigree analysis and survival analysisAkman ''et al.''", "have developed a test for the detection of length based bias in samples.===Shifted variables===If ''X'' is a positive random variable and ''q'' > 0 then for all ''ε'' > 0: ===Moments===Assuming that ''X'' and E(''X'') are > 0 then: This follows from Jensen's inequality.Gurland has shown that for a distribution that takes only positive values, for any ''n'' > 0: Under some conditions: where ~ means approximately equal to.===Sampling properties===Assuming that the variates (''x'') are drawn from a lognormal distribution there are several possible estimators for ''H'':: where: : Of these ''H''3 is probably the best estimator for samples of 25 or more.===Bias and variance estimators===A first order approximation to the bias and variance of ''H''1 are: where ''C''v is the coefficient of variation.Similarly a first order approximation to the bias and variance of ''H''3 are: In numerical experiments ''H''3 is generally a superior estimator of the harmonic mean than ''H''1.", "''H''2 produces estimates that are largely similar to ''H''1." ], [ "Notes", "The Environmental Protection Agency recommends the use of the harmonic mean in setting maximum toxin levels in water.In geophysical reservoir engineering studies, the harmonic mean is widely used." ], [ "See also", "* Contraharmonic mean* Generalized mean* Harmonic number* Rate (mathematics)* Weighted mean* Parallel summation* Geometric mean* Weighted geometric mean* HM-GM-AM-QM inequalities* Harmonic mean p-value" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Averages, Arithmetic and Harmonic Means at cut-the-knot" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hellbender" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''hellbender''' ('''''Cryptobranchus alleganiensis'''''), also known as the '''hellbender salamander,''' is a species of aquatic giant salamander endemic to the eastern and central United States.", "It is the largest salamander in North America.", "A member of the family Cryptobranchidae, the hellbender is the only extant member of the genus ''Cryptobranchus''.", "Other closely related salamanders in the same family are in the genus ''Andrias'', which contains the Japanese and Chinese giant salamanders.", "The hellbender, which is much larger than all other salamanders in its geographic range, employs an unusual means of respiration (which involves cutaneous gas exchange through capillaries found in its lateral skin folds), and fills a particular niche—both as a predator and prey—in its ecosystem, which either it or its ancestors have occupied for around 65 million years.", "The species is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species due to the impacts of disease and widespread habitat loss and degradation throughout much of its range." ], [ "Etymology", "The origin of the name \"hellbender\" is unclear.", "The Missouri Department of Conservation says:The name 'hellbender' probably comes from the animal's odd look.", "One theory claims the hellbender was named by settlers who thought \"it was a creature from hell where it's bent on returning.\"", "Another rendition says the undulating skin of a hellbender reminded observers of \"horrible tortures of the infernal regions.\"", "In reality, it's a harmless aquatic salamander.In a study conducted in Indiana, informing the public about the rarity and locality of the hellbender resulted in more positive attitudes toward this species than were previously held.", "Other vernacular names include snot otter, lasagna lizard, devil dog, mud-devil, mud dog, water dog, grampus, Allegheny alligator, and leverian water newt.The generic name, ''Cryptobranchus'', is derived from the Ancient Greek (hidden) and (gill).", "The subspecific name ''bishopi'' is in honor of American herpetologist Sherman C. Bishop." ], [ "Description", "''C.", "alleganiensis'' has a flat body and head, with beady dorsal eyes and slimy skin.", "Like most salamanders, it has short legs with four toes on the front legs and five on its back limbs, and its tail is keeled for propulsion.", "Their tail is shaped like a rudder, but it is rarely used for swimming; these salamanders use pads on their toes instead to grip rocks and walk up and down streams instead of swimming.", "The hellbender has working lungs, but gill slits are often retained, although only immature specimens have true gills; the hellbender absorbs oxygen from the water through capillaries of its side frills.", "Only occasionally leaving the water, the hellbender makes little use of these lungs and the juveniles lose their external gills after around 18 months Hellbenders use their lungs for buoyancy more than breathing.", "It is blotchy brown or red-brown in color, with a paler underbelly.Both males and females grow to an adult length of from snout to vent, with a total length of , making them the fourth-largest aquatic salamander species in the world (after the South China giant salamander, the Chinese giant salamander and the Japanese giant salamander, respectively) and the largest amphibian in North America, although this length is rivaled by the reticulated siren of the southeastern United States (although the siren is much leaner in build).", "An adult weighs , making them the fifth heaviest living amphibian in the world after their South China, Chinese and Japanese cousins and the goliath frog, while the largest cane toads may also weigh as much as a hellbender.", "Hellbenders reach sexual maturity at about five years of age, and may live 30 years in captivity.The hellbender has a few characteristics that make it distinguishable from other native salamanders, including a gigantic, dorsoventrally flattened body with thick folds travelling down the sides, a single open gill slit on each side, and hind feet with five toes each.", "Easily distinguished from most other endemic salamander species simply by their size, hellbenders average up to 60 cm or about 2 ft in length; the only species requiring further distinction (due to an overlap in distribution and size range) is the common mudpuppy (''Necturus maculosus'').", "This demarcation can be made by noting the presence of external gills in the mudpuppy, which are lacking in the hellbender, as well as the presence of four toes on each hind foot of the mudpuppy (in contrast with the hellbender's five).", "Furthermore, the average size of ''C.", "a. alleganiensis'' has been reported to be 45–60 cm (with some reported as reaching up to 74 cm or 30 in), while ''N.", "m. maculosus'' has a reported average size of in length, which means that hellbender adults will still generally be notably larger than even the biggest mudpuppies." ], [ "Taxonomy", "The genus ''Cryptobranchus'' has historically only been considered to contain one species, ''C.", "alleganiensis'', with two subspecies, ''C.", "a. alleganiensis'' and ''C.", "a. bishopi''.", "A recent decline in population size of the Ozark subspecies ''C.", "a. bishopi'' has led to further research into populations of this subspecies, including genetic analysis to determine the best method for conservation.Crowhurst et al., for instance, found that the \"Ozark subspecies\" denomination is insufficient for describing genetic (and therefore evolutionary) divergence within the genus ''Cryptobranchus'' in the Ozark region.", "They found three equally divergent genetic units within the genus: ''C.", "a. alleganiensis'', and two distinct eastern and western populations of ''C.", "a. bishopi''.", "These three groups were shown to be isolated, and are considered to most likely be \"diverging on different evolutionary paths\"." ], [ "Distribution", "Hellbenders are present in a number of Eastern US states, from southern New York to northern Georgia, including parts of Ohio, Pennsylvania, Maryland, West Virginia, Virginia, Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana, Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Missouri, and extending into Oklahoma and Kansas.", "The subspecies (or species, depending on the source) ''C.", "a. bishopi'' is confined to the Ozarks of northern Arkansas and southern Missouri, while ''C.", "a. alleganiensis'' is found in the rest of these states.Some hellbender populations—namely a few in Missouri, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee—have historically been noted to be quite abundant, but several man-made threats have converged on the species such that it has seen a serious population decline throughout its range.", "In Missouri, it is estimated that the populations have declined by 77% since the 1980s.", "Hellbender populations were listed in 1981 as already extinct or endangered in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, and Maryland, decreasing in Arkansas and Kentucky, and generally threatened as a species throughout their range by various human activities and developments." ], [ "Ecology", "The hellbender salamander, considered a \"habitat specialist\", has adapted to fill a specific niche within a very specific environment, and is labeled as such \"because its success is dependent on a constancy of dissolved oxygen, temperature and flow found in swift water areas\", which in turn limits it to a narrow spectrum of stream/river choices.", "As a result of this specialization, hellbenders are generally found in areas with large, irregularly shaped, and intermittent rocks and swiftly moving water, while they tend to avoid wider, slow-moving waters with muddy banks and/or slab rock bottoms.", "This specialization likely contributed to the decline in their populations, as collectors could easily identify their specific habitats.", "One collector noted, at one time, \"one could find a specimen under almost every suitable rock\", but after years of collecting, the population had declined significantly.", "The same collector noted, he \"never found two specimens under the same rock\", corroborating the account given by other researchers that hellbenders are generally solitary; they are thought to gather only during the mating season.", "On average, their home range is estimated to be 198 square meters as of 2005.Both subspecies, ''C.", "a. alleganiensis'' and ''C.", "a. bishopi'' undergo a metamorphosis after around a year and a half of life.", "At this point, when they are roughly long, they lose the gills present during their larval stage.", "Until then, they are easily confused with mudpuppies, and can be differentiated often only through toe number.", "After this metamorphosis, hellbenders must be able to absorb oxygen through the folds in their skin, which is largely behind the need for fast-moving, oxygenated water.", "If a hellbender ends up in an area of slow-moving water, not enough of it will pass over its skin in a given time, making it difficult to garner enough oxygen to support necessary respiratory functions.", "A below-favorable oxygen content can make life equally difficult.Hellbenders are preyed upon by diverse predators, including various fish and reptiles (including both snakes and turtles).", "Cannibalism of eggs is also considered a common occurrence." ], [ "Life history and behavior", "===Behavior===Once a hellbender finds a favorable location, it generally does not stray too far from it—except occasionally for breeding and hunting—and will protect it from other hellbenders both in and out of the breeding season.", "While the range of two hellbenders may overlap, they are noted as rarely being present in the overlapping area when the other salamander is in the area.", "The species is at least somewhat nocturnal, with peak activity being reported by one source as occurring around \"two hours after dark\" and again at dawn (although the dawn peak was recorded in the lab and could be misleading as a result).", "Nocturnal activity has been found to be most prevalent in early summer, perhaps coinciding with highest water depths.===Diet===''C.", "alleganiensis'' feeds primarily on crayfish and small fish, but also insects, worms, molluscs, tadpoles and smaller salamanders.", "A study conducted in 2017 found that larval hellbenders eat mayfly and caddisfly nymphs.", "One report, written by a commercial collector in the 1940s, noted a trend of more crayfish predation in the summer during times of higher prey activity, whereas fish made up a larger part of the winter diet, when crayfish are less active.", "There seems to be a specific temperature range in which hellbenders feed, as well: between .", "Cannibalism—mainly on eggs—has been known to occur within hellbender populations.", "One researcher claimed perhaps density is maintained, and density dependence in turn created, in part by intraspecific predation.===Reproduction===The hellbenders' breeding season begins in late August or early- to mid-September and can continue as late as the end of November, depending on region.", "They exhibit no sexual dimorphism, except during the fall mating season, when males have a bulging ring around their cloacal glands.", "Unlike most salamanders, the hellbender performs external fertilization.", "Before mating, each male excavates a brood site, a saucer-shaped depression under a rock or log, with its entrance positioned out of the direct current, usually pointing downstream.", "The male remains in the brood site awaiting a female.", "When a female approaches, the male guides or drives her into his burrow and prevents her from leaving until she oviposits.Female hellbenders lay 150–200 eggs over a two- to three-day period; the eggs are in diameter, connected by five to ten cords.", "As the female lays eggs, the male positions himself alongside or slightly above them, spraying the eggs with sperm while swaying his tail and moving his hind limbs, which disperses the sperm uniformly.", "The male often tempts other females to lay eggs in his nest, and as many as 1,946 eggs have been counted in a single nest.", "Males also exhibit mate and shelter guarding.", "Studies have found that until the female successfully reproduces, the male hellbender will guard her in his territory until the reproduction is complete.", "Cannibalism, however, leads to a much lower number of eggs in hellbender nests than would be predicted by egg counts.After oviposition, the male drives the female away from the nest and guards the eggs.", "Incubating males rock back and forth and undulate their lateral skin folds, which circulates the water, increasing oxygen supply to both eggs and adult.", "Incubation lasts from 45 to 75 days, depending on region.Hatchling hellbenders are long, have a yolk sac as a source of energy for the first few months of life, and lack functional limbs." ], [ "Adaptations", "Hellbenders are superbly adapted to the shallow, fast-flowing, rocky streams in which they live.", "Their flattened shape offers little resistance to the flowing water, allowing them to work their way upstream and also to crawl into narrow spaces under rocks.", "The wrinkles and folds along their skin are used to expand surface area for cutaneous respiration.", "Their skin also has a secretion that is important for innate immunity against chytrid activity.", "Although their eyesight is relatively poor, they have light-sensitive cells all over their bodies.", "Those on their tails are especially finely tuned and may help them position safely under rocks without their tails poking out to give themselves away.", "They have a good sense of smell and move upstream in search of food such as dead fish, following the trail of scent molecules.", "Smell is possibly their most important sense when hunting.", "They also have a lateral line similar to those of fish, with which they can detect vibrations in the water.Hellbender on display at the Smithsonian National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C." ], [ "Conservation status", "Research throughout the range of the hellbender has shown a dramatic decline in populations in the majority of locations.", "As of 2022, the species is classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN.", "Many different anthropogenic sources have contributed to this decline, including the siltation and sedimentation, blocking of dispersal/migration routes, and destruction of riverine habitats created by dams and other development, as well as pollution, disease and overharvesting for commercial and scientific purposes.", "As many of these detrimental effects have irreversibly damaged hellbender populations, it is important to conserve the remaining populations through protecting habitats and—perhaps in places where the species was once endemic and has been extirpated—by augmenting numbers through reintroduction.Due to sharp decreases seen in the Ozark subspecies, researchers have been trying to differentiate ''C.", "a. alleganiensis'' and ''C.", "a. bishopi'' into two management units.", "Indeed, researchers found significant genetic divergence between the two groups, as well as between them and another isolated population of ''C.", "a. alleganiensis''.", "This could be reason enough to ensure work is done on both subspecies, as preserving extant genetic diversity is of crucial ecological importance.The Ozark hellbender has been listed as an endangered species under the Endangered Species Act by the US Fish and Wildlife Service since October 5, 2011.This hellbender subspecies inhabits the White River and Spring River systems in southern Missouri and northern Arkansas, and its population has declined an estimated 75% since the 1980s, with only about 590 individuals remaining in the wild.", "Degraded water quality, habitat loss resulting from impoundments, ore and gravel mining, sedimentation, and collection for the pet trade are thought to be the main factors resulting in the amphibian's decline.", "When chytridiomycosis killed 75% of the St. Louis Zoo's captive hellbender population between March 2006 and April 2007, tests began to be conducted on wild populations.", "The disease has been detected in all Missouri populations of the Ozark hellbender.", "NatureServe treats ''C.", "a. alleganiensis'' as an ''Imperiled Subspecies'', ''C.", "a. bishopi'' as a ''Critically Imperiled Subspecies'', and the species as a whole as ''Vulnerable''.The Ozark hellbender was successfully bred in captivity for the first time at the St. Louis Zoo, in a joint project with the Missouri Department of Conservation, hatching on November 15, 2011.Apart from the Ozark efforts, head-starting programs, in which eggs are collected from the wild and raised in captivity for re-release at a less vulnerable stage, have been initiated in Indiana, New York, and Ohio.Members of the Pennsylvania State Senate have voted to approve the eastern hellbender as the official state amphibian in an effort to raise awareness about its endangered status.", "The legislation has been mired in controversy due to a dispute by House members who argue that Wehrle's salamander should be given the honor.", "The legislation did not pass in 2018, but was reintroduced in 2019.On April 23, 2019, Pennsylvania Governor Tom Wolf signed legislation making the eastern hellbender Pennsylvania's official state amphibian.", "Youth members of the Chesapeake Bay Foundation's Pennsylvania Student Leadership Council were heavily involved writing and advocating on behalf of this legislation.", "They hope that the success of the hellbender bill in the Pennsylvania Senate will contribute to clean water efforts and raise awareness for the hellbender's struggling population." ], [ "Threats", "The hellbender faces an array of challenges that jeopardize its habitat and overall well-being.", "These challenges include habitat degradation, habitat modifications, pollution, and the looming threat of emerging diseases.", "The conservation of this species is of paramount importance to ensure its continued existence in the wild.The hellbender faces a significant threat due to habitat degradation, primarily caused by activities like dam construction, which disrupts water flow and submerges vital riffle habitats.", "Logging, mining, and road construction contribute to sedimentation, covering essential nesting and shelter sites.", "Chemical pollutants and misconceptions about the species have led to declines.", "Over-collection for sale and deliberate eradication efforts have also been detrimental.The salamander's habitat is further jeopardized by habitat modifications stemming from industrialization and urbanization, including increased stream channelization and pollution from agricultural runoff, mining, and thermal pollution.", "Diseases, like ''Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis'' (Bd) and ''Ranavirus'' infections, have been detected in hellbender populations, contributing to population declines.An emerging disease threat is the salamander chytrid fungus (''Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans'', or \"Bsal\"), which has caused severe declines in other salamander species.", "Although not confirmed in the Americas, Bsal's potential introduction poses a substantial risk.", "If introduced, the impacts on hellbender populations could be swift and severe, necessitating immediate mitigation measures." ], [ "See also", "* ''Necturus alabamensis'' (Alabama waterdog)* ''Necturus beyeri'' (Gulf coast waterdog)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bishop SC (1943).", "''Handbook of Salamanders: The Salamanders of the United States, and of Lower California''.", "Ithaca and London: Comstock Publishing Associates, a division of Cornell University Press.", "508 pp.", "(''Cryptobranchus allegheniensis'', pp.", "59–62; ''C.", "bishopi'', p. 63).", "* Grobman AB (1943).", "\"Notes on Salamanders with the Description of a New Species of ''Cryptobranchus'' \".", "''Occ.", "Pap.", "Mus.", "Zool.", "Univ.", "Michigan'' (470): 1-13.", "(''Cryptobranchus bishopi'', new species).", "* Petranka, James W. (1998).", "''Salamanders of the United States and Canada''.", "Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press.Karel ČapekWar with the Newts (Válka s Mloky in the original Czech), also translated as Salamander Wars, is a 1936 satirical science fiction novel by Czech author Karel Čapek" ], [ "External links", "* Hellbender ''Cryptobranchus alleganiensis'' field guide from the Missouri Department of Conservation* Eastern hellbender information at Commonwealth of Virginia.", "* Eastern Hellbender Fact Sheet at New York State.", "* ''Cryptobranchus '' at CalPhotos." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Doc Edgerton" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Harold Eugene''' \"'''Doc'''\" '''Edgerton''' (April 6, 1903 – January 4, 1990), also known as '''Papa Flash''', was an American scientist and researcher, a professor of electrical engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.", "He is largely credited with transforming the stroboscope from an obscure laboratory instrument into a common device.", "He also was deeply involved with the development of sonar and deep-sea photography, and his equipment was used in collaboration with Jacques Cousteau in searches for shipwrecks and even the Loch Ness Monster." ], [ "Biography", "===Early years===Edgerton was born in Fremont, Nebraska, on April 6, 1903, the son of Mary Nettie Coe and Frank Eugene Edgerton, a descendant of Samuel Edgerton, the son of Richard Edgerton, one of the founders of Norwich, Connecticut, and Alice Ripley, a great-granddaughter of Governor William Bradford (1590–1657) of the Plymouth Colony and a passenger on the Mayflower.", "His father was a lawyer, journalist, author and orator and served as the assistant attorney general of Nebraska from 1911 to 1915.Edgerton grew up in Aurora, Nebraska.", "He also spent some of his childhood years in Washington, DC, and Lincoln, Nebraska.===Education===A 1936 picture of May Rogers Webster with hummingbirdsIn 1925 Edgerton received a bachelor's degree in electrical engineering from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln where he became a member of Acacia fraternity.", "He earned an SM in electrical engineering from MIT in 1927.Edgerton used stroboscopes to study synchronous motors for his ScD thesis in electrical engineering at MIT, awarded in 1931.He credited Charles Stark Draper with inspiring him to photograph everyday objects using electronic flash; the first was a stream of water from a faucet.In 1936 Edgerton visited hummingbird expert May Rogers Webster.", "He was able to illustrate with her help that it was possible to take photographs of the birds beating their wings 60 times a second using an exposure of one hundred thousandth of a second.", "A picture of her with the birds flying around her appeared in National Geographic.===Career===Nuclear explosion captured by Edgerton's Rapatronic cameraShadowgraph of bullet in flight using Edgerton's equipment and stroboscopeIn 1937 Edgerton began a lifelong association with photographer Gjon Mili, who used stroboscopic equipment, in particular, multiple studio electronic flash units, to produce strikingly beautiful photographs, many of which appeared in Life Magazine.", "When taking multiflash photographs this strobe light equipment could flash up to 120 times a second.", "Edgerton was a pioneer in using short duration electronic flash in photographing fast events photography, subsequently using the technique to capture images of balloons at different stages of their bursting, a bullet during its impact with an apple, or using multiflash to track the motion of a devil stick, for example.He was awarded a bronze medal by the Royal Photographic Society in 1934, the Howard N. Potts Medal from the Franklin Institute in 1941, the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1966, the David Richardson Medal by the Optical Society of America in 1968, the Albert A. Michelson Medal from the same Franklin Institute in 1969, and the National Medal of Science in 1973.Edgerton partnered with Kenneth J. Germeshausen to do consulting for industrial clients.", "Later Herbert Grier joined them.", "The company name \"Edgerton, Germeshausen, and Grier\" was changed to EG&G in 1947.EG&G became a prime contractor for the Atomic Energy Commission and had a major role in photographing and recording nuclear tests for the US through the fifties and sixties.", "For this role Edgerton and Charles Wykoff and others at EG&G developed and manufactured the Rapatronic camera.His work was instrumental in the development of side-scan sonar technology, used to scan the sea floor for wrecks.", "Edgerton worked with undersea explorer Jacques Cousteau, by first providing him with custom-designed underwater photographic equipment featuring electronic flash, and then by developing sonar techniques used to discover the Britannic.", "Edgerton participated in the discovery of the American Civil War battleship USS Monitor.", "While working with Cousteau, he acquired the nickname in photographic circles: \"Papa Flash\".", "In 1988 Doc Edgerton worked with Paul Kronfield in Greece on a sonar search for the lost city of Helike, believed to be the basis for the legend of Atlantis.Edgerton co-founded EG&G, Inc., which manufactured advanced electronic equipment including side-scan sonars and sub-bottom profiling equipment.", "EG&G also invented and manufactured the Krytron, the detonation trigger for the hydrogen bomb, and an EG&G division supervised many of America's nuclear tests.In addition to having the scientific and engineering acumen to perfect strobe lighting commercially, Edgerton is equally recognized for his visual aesthetic: many of the striking images he created in illuminating phenomena that occurred too fast for the naked eye now adorn art museums worldwide.", "In 1940, his high speed stroboscopic short film ''Quicker'n a Wink'' won an Oscar.Edgerton was appointed a professor of electrical engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1934.In 1956, Edgerton was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.", "He became a member of the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1964 and a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1972.He was especially loved by MIT students for his willingness to teach and his kindness: \"The trick to education\", he said, \"is to teach people in such a way that they don't realize they're learning until it's too late\".", "His last undergraduate class, taught during fall semester 1977, was a freshman seminar titled \"Bird and Insect Photography\".", "One of the graduate student dormitories at MIT carries his name.In 1962, Edgerton appeared on ''I've Got a Secret'', where he demonstrated strobe flash photography by shooting a bullet into a playing card and photographing the result.Edgerton's work was featured in an October 1987 ''National Geographic Magazine'' article entitled \"Doc Edgerton: the man who made time stand still\".===Family===After graduating from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Edgerton married Esther May Garrett in 1928.She was born in Aurora, Nebraska, on September 8, 1903, and died on March 9, 2002, in Charleston, South Carolina.", "She received a bachelor's degree in mathematics, music and education from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln.", "A skilled pianist and singer, she attended the New England Conservatory of Music and taught in public schools in Aurora, Nebraska and Boston.", "During their marriage they had three children: Mary Louise (April 21, 1931), William Eugene (8/9/1933), Robert Frank (5/10/1935).", "His sister, Mary Ellen Edgerton, was the wife of L. Welch Pogue (1899–2003) a pioneering aviation attorney and Chairman of the old Civil Aeronautics Board.", "The technology writer, journalist, and commentator David Pogue is his great nephew.===Death===Edgerton remained active throughout his later years, and was seen on the MIT campus many times after his official retirement.", "He died suddenly on January 4, 1990, at the MIT Faculty Club at the age of 86, and is buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, Massachusetts." ], [ "Legacy", "On July 3, 1990, in an effort to memorialize Edgerton's accomplishments, several community members in Aurora, Nebraska, decided to construct a \"Hands-On\" science center.", "It was designated as a \"teaching museum,\" that would preserve Doc's work and artifacts, as well as feature the \"Explorit Zone\" where people of all ages could participate in hands-on exhibits and interact with live science demonstrations.", "After five years of private and community-wide fund-raising, as well as individual investments by Doc's surviving family members, the '''Edgerton Explorit Center''' was officially dedicated on September 9, 1995, in Aurora.At MIT, the '''Edgerton Center''', founded in 1992, is a hands-on laboratory resource for undergraduate and graduate students, and also conducts educational outreach programs for high school students and teachers." ], [ "Works", "''Flash!", "Seeing the Unseen by Ultra High-Speed Photography'' (1939, with James R. Killian Jr.).", "Boston: Hale, Cushman & Flint.", "''Electronic Flash, Strobe'' (1970).", "New York: McGraw-Hill.", "''Moments of Vision'' (1979, with Mr. Killian).", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT.", "''Sonar Images'' (1986, with Mr. Killian).", "Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.", "''Stopping Time'', a collection of his photographs, (1987).", "New York: H.N.", "Abrams.", "===Photographs===Some of Edgerton's noted photographs are :''Milk Drop Coronet'' (1935)''Hummingbirds'' (1936)''Football Kick'' (1938)* ''Gussie Moran's Tennis Swing'' (1949)''Diver'' (1955)''Cranberry Juice into Milk'' (1960)''Moscow Circus'' (1963)''Bullet Through Banana'' (1964)''.30 Bullet Piercing an Apple'' (1964)''Cutting the Card Quickly'' (1964)''Pigeon Release'' (1965)''Bullet Through Candle Flame'' (1973) (with Kim Vandiver)" ], [ "Exhibitions", "''Flashes of Inspiration: The Work of Harold Edgerton,'' Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2009.", "''Seeing the Unseen: The High Speed Photography of Dr. Harold Edgerton,'' Ikon Gallery, Birmingham, January 1976; then toured to The Photographers' Gallery, London; Hatton Gallery, Newcastle University; Midland Group Gallery, Nottingham; Modern Art Oxford; and Arnolfini, Bristol.", "Curated by John Myers and Geoffrey Holt.", "''Seeing the Unseen: Photographs and films by Harold E. Edgerton,'' The Pallasades Shopping Centre, Birmingham.", "A repeat organised by Ikon Gallery of the previous exhibition." ], [ "Collections", "Edgerton's work is held in the following public collection:Museum of Modern Art, New York City: 29 prints (as of July 2018)International Photography Hall of Fame, St. Louis, MO Qaumajuq - Winnipeg, MB: 60 prints" ], [ "See also", "Air-gap flash" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " Bruce, Roger R. (editor); Collins, Douglas, et al., ''Seeing the unseen : Dr. Harold E. Edgerton and the wonders of Strobe Alley'', Rochester, N.Y. : Pub.", "Trust of George Eastman House; Cambridge, Massachusetts : Distributed by MIT Press, 1994.", "PBS ''Nova'' series: \"Edgerton and His Incredible Seeing Machines\".", "NOVA explores the fascinating world of Dr. Harold Edgerton, electronics wizard and inventor extraordinaire, whose invention of the electronic strobe, a \"magic lamp,\" has enabled the human eye to see the unseen.\"", "Original broadcast date: 01/15/85" ], [ "External links", " The Edgerton Digital Collections website by the MIT Museum with thousands of photographs and scanned notebooks.", "* The Edgerton Center at MIT* \"Pre-World War II Photos\" – Early photographs from Edgerton's laboratory, including water from the tap, MIT Collections* Biographical timeline * * The Edgerton Explorit Center in Aurora, NE* The SPIE Harold E. Edgerton Award* Guide to the Papers of Harold E. Edgerton, MIT Institute Archives and Special Collections ** National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Harry Kroto" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir Harold Walter Kroto''' (born '''Harold Walter Krotoschiner'''; 7 October 1939 – 30 April 2016) was an English chemist.", "He shared the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Robert Curl and Richard Smalley for their discovery of fullerenes.", "He was the recipient of many other honors and awards.Kroto ended his career as the Francis Eppes Professor of Chemistry at Florida State University, which he joined in 2004.Prior to this, he spent approximately 40 years at the University of Sussex.Kroto promoted science education and was a critic of religious faith." ], [ "Early years", "Kroto was born in Wisbech, Isle of Ely, Cambridgeshire, England, to Edith and Heinz Krotoschiner, his name being of Silesian origin.", "His father's family came from Bojanowo, Poland, and his mother's from Berlin.", "Both of his parents were born in Berlin and fled to Great Britain in the 1930s as refugees from Nazi Germany; his father was Jewish.", "Harry was raised in Bolton while the British authorities interned his father on the Isle of Man as an enemy alien during World War II.", "Kroto attended Bolton School, where he was a contemporary of the actor Ian McKellen.", "In 1955, Harold's father shortened the family name to Kroto.As a child, he became fascinated by a Meccano set.", "Kroto credited Meccano, as well as his aiding his father in the latter's balloon factory after World War II – amongst other things – with developing skills useful in scientific research.", "He developed an interest in chemistry, physics, and mathematics in secondary school, and because his sixth form chemistry teacher (Harry Heaney – who subsequently became a university professor) felt that the University of Sheffield had the best chemistry department in the United Kingdom, he went to Sheffield.Although raised Jewish, Kroto stated that religion never made any sense to him.", "He was a humanist who claimed to have three religions: Amnesty Internationalism, atheism, and humour.", "He was a distinguished supporter of the British Humanist Association.", "In 2003 he was one of 22 Nobel Laureates who signed the Humanist Manifesto.In 2015, Kroto signed the Mainau Declaration 2015 on Climate Change on the final day of the 65th Lindau Nobel Laureate Meeting.", "The declaration was signed by a total of 76 Nobel Laureates and handed to then-President of the French Republic, François Hollande, as part of the successful COP21 climate summit in Paris." ], [ "Education and academic career", "===Education===Kroto was educated at Bolton School and went to the University of Sheffield in 1958, where he obtained a first-class honours BSc degree in Chemistry (1961) and a PhD in Molecular Spectroscopy (1964).", "During his time at Sheffield he also was the art editor of ''Arrows'' – the university student magazine, played tennis for the university team (reaching the UAU finals twice) and was President of the Student Athletics Council (1963–64).", "Among other things such as making the first phosphaalkenes (compounds with carbon phosphorus double bonds), his doctoral studies included unpublished research on carbon suboxide, O=C=C=C=O, and this led to a general interest in molecules containing chains of carbon atoms with numerous multiple bonds.", "He started his work with an interest in organic chemistry, but when he learned about spectroscopy it inclined him towards quantum chemistry; he later developed an interest in astrochemistry.After obtaining his PhD, Kroto spent two-years as a postdoctoral fellow in the molecular spectroscopy group of Gerhard Herzberg at the National Research Council in Ottawa, Canada, and the subsequent year (1966–1967) at Bell Laboratories in New Jersey carrying out Raman studies of liquid phase interactions and worked on quantum chemistry.===Research at the University of Sussex===In 1967, Kroto began teaching and research at the University of Sussex in England.", "During his time at Sussex from 1967 to 1985, he carried out research mainly focused on the spectroscopic studies of new and novel unstable and semi-stable species.", "This work resulted in the birth of the various fields of new chemistry involving carbon multiply bonded to second and third row elements e.g.", "S, Se and P. A particularly important breakthrough (with Sussex colleague John Nixon) was the creation of several new phosphorus species detected by microwave spectroscopy.", "This work resulted in the birth of the field(s) of phosphaalkene and phosphaalkyne chemistry.", "These species contain carbon double and triple bonded to phosphorus (C=P and C≡P) such as cyanophosphaethyne.In 1975, he became a full professor of Chemistry.", "This coincided with laboratory microwave measurements with Sussex colleague David Walton on long linear carbon chain molecules, leading to radio astronomy observations with Canadian astronomers surprisingly revealing that these unusual carbonaceous species exist in relatively large abundances in interstellar space as well as the outer atmospheres of certain stars – the carbon-rich red giants.===Discovery of buckminsterfullerene===Buckminsterfullerene, C60In 1985, on the basis of the Sussex studies and the stellar discoveries, laboratory experiments (with co-workers James R. Heath, Sean C. O'Brien, Yuan Liu, Robert Curl and Richard Smalley at Rice University) which simulated the chemical reactions in the atmospheres of the red giant stars demonstrated that stable C60 molecules could form spontaneously from a condensing carbon vapour.", "The co-investigators directed lasers at graphite and examined the results.", "The C60 molecule is a molecule with the same symmetry pattern as a football, consisting of 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons of carbon atoms.", "Kroto named the molecule buckminsterfullerene, after Buckminster Fuller who had conceived of the geodesic domes, as the dome concept had provided a clue to the likely structure of the new species.In 1985, the C60 discovery caused Kroto to shift the focus of his research from spectroscopy in order to probe the consequences of the C60 structural concept (and prove it correct) and to exploit the implications for chemistry and material science.This research is significant for the discovery of a new allotrope of carbon known as a fullerene.", "Other allotropes of carbon include graphite, diamond and graphene.", "Kroto's 1985 paper entitled \"C60: Buckminsterfullerene\", published with colleagues J. R. Heath, S. C. O'Brien, R. F. Curl, and R. E. Smalley, was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society, presented to Rice University in 2015.The discovery of fullerenes was recognized in 2010 by the designation of a National Historic Chemical Landmark by the American Chemical Society at the Richard E. Smalley Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology at Rice University in Houston, Texas.===Research at Florida State University===In 2004, Kroto left the University of Sussex to take up a new position as Francis Eppes Professor of Chemistry at Florida State University.", "At FSU he carried out fundamental research on: Carbon vapour with Professor Alan Marshall; Open framework condensed phase systems with strategically important electrical and magnetic behaviour with Professors Naresh Dalal (FSU) and Tony Cheetham (Cambridge); and the mechanism of formation and properties of nano-structured systems.", "In addition, he participated in research initiatives at FSU that probed the astrochemistry of fullerenes, metallofullerenes, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in stellar/circumstellar space, as well as their relevance to stardust.===Educational outreach and public service===In 1995, he jointly set up the Vega Science Trust, a UK educational charity that created high quality science films including lectures and interviews with Nobel Laureates, discussion programmes, careers and teaching resources for TV and Internet Broadcast.", "Vega produced over 280 programmes, that streamed for free from the Vega website which acted as a TV science channel.", "The trust closed in 2012.Sir Harold Kroto at CSICon 2011In 2009, Kroto spearheaded the development of a second science education initiative, Geoset.", "Short for the Global Educational Outreach for Science, Engineering and Technology, GEOSET is an ever-growing online cache of recorded teaching modules that are freely downloadable to educators and the public.", "The program aims to increase knowledge of the sciences by creating a global repository of educational videos and presentations from leading universities and institutions.In 2003, prior to the Blair/Bush invasion of Iraq on the pretext that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction, Kroto initiated and organised the publication of a letter to be signed by a dozen UK Nobel Laureates and published in ''The Times''.", "It was composed by his friend the Nobel Peace Prize Laureate the late Sir Joseph Rotblat and published in ''The Times'' on 15 February 2003.He wrote a set of articles, mostly opinion pieces, from 2002 to 2003 for the Times Higher Education Supplement, a weekly UK publication.From 2002 to 2004, Kroto served as president of the Royal Society of Chemistry.", "In 2004, he was appointed to the Francis Eppes Professorship in the chemistry department at Florida State University, carrying out research in nanoscience and nanotechnology.He spoke at Auburn University on 29 April 2010, and at the James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy at Rice University with Robert Curl on 13 October 2010.In October 2010 Kroto participated in the USA Science and Engineering Festival's Lunch with a Laureate program where middle and high school students had the opportunity to engage in an informal conversation with a Nobel Prize–winning scientist.He spoke at Mahatma Gandhi University, at Kottayam, in Kerala, India in January 2011, where he was an 'Erudite' special invited lecturer of the Government of Kerala, from 5 to 11 January 2011.Kroto spoke at CSICon 2011, a convention \"dedicated to scientific inquiry and critical thinking\" organized by the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry in association with ''Skeptical Inquirer'' magazine and the Center for Inquiry.He also delivered the IPhO 2012 lecture at the International Physics Olympiad held in Estonia.In 2014, Kroto spoke at the Starmus Festival in the Canary Islands, delivering a lecture about his life in science, chemistry, and design." ], [ "Personal life", "In 1963, Kroto married Margaret Henrietta Hunter, also a student of the University of Sheffield at the time.", "The couple had two sons.", "Throughout his life, Kroto was a lover of film, theatre, art, and music and published his own artwork.===Personal beliefs===Kroto was a \"devout atheist\" who thought that beliefs in immortality derive from lack of the courage to accept human mortality.", "He was a patron of the British Humanist Association.", "He was a supporter of Amnesty International.", "He referred to his view that religious dogma causes people to accept unethical or inhumane actions: \"The only mistake Bernie Madoff made was to promise returns in ''this'' life.\"", "He held that scientists had a responsibility to work for the benefit of the entire species.", "On 15 September 2010, Kroto, along with 54 other public figures, signed an open letter published in ''The Guardian'', stating their opposition to Pope Benedict XVI's state visit to the UK.Kroto was an early Signatory of Asteroid Day.In 2008, Kroto was critical of Michael Reiss for directing the teaching of creationism alongside evolution.Kroto praised the increase of organized online information as an \"Educational Revolution\" and named it as the \"GooYouWiki\" world referring to Google, YouTube and Wikipedia.===Graphic design===The discovery of buckminsterfullerene caused Kroto to postpone his dream of setting up an art and graphic design studio – he had been doing graphics semi-professionally for years.", "However, Kroto's graphic design work resulted in numerous posters, letterheads, logos, book/journal covers, medal design, etc.", "He produced artwork after receiving graphic awards in the Sunday Times Book Jacket Design competition (1964) and the Moet Hennesy/Louis Vuitton Science pour l'Art Prize (1994).", "Other notable graphical works include the design of the Nobel UK Stamp for Chemistry (2001) and features at the Royal Academy (London) Summer Exhibition (2004).===Death and reactions===Kroto died on 30 April 2016 in Lewes, East Sussex, from complications of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis at the age of 76.Richard Dawkins wrote a memorial for Kroto in which he mentioned Kroto's \"passionate hatred of religion.\"", "''The Wall Street Journal'' described him as \"(spending much of his later life) jetting around the world to extol scientific education in a world he saw as blinded by religion.\"", "Slate's Zack Kopplin related a story about how Kroto gave him advice and support to fight Louisiana's creationism law, a law that allows public school science teachers to attack evolution and how Kroto defended the scientific findings of global warming.", "In an obituary published in the journal ''Nature'', Robert Curl and James R. Heath described Kroto as having an \"impish sense of humour similar to that of the British comedy group Monty Python\"." ], [ "Honours and awards", "Kroto won numerous awards, individually and with others:===Major awards===Tilden Lecturer of the Royal Society of Chemistry, 1981–82Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1990International Prize for New Materials American Physical Society, 1992 (with Robert Curl and Richard Smalley)Italgas Prize for Innovation in Chemistry, 1992Royal Society of Chemistry Longstaff Medal, 1993Hewlett Packard Europhysics Prize, 1994 (with Wolfgang Kraetschmer, Don Huffman and Richard Smalley)Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1996 (shared with Robert Curl and Richard Smalley)Carbon Medal, American Carbon Society Medal for Achievement in Carbon Science, 1997 (shared with Robert Curl and Richard Smalley)Blackett Lectureship (Royal Society), 1999Faraday Award and Lecture (Royal Society), 2001Dalton Medal (Manchester Lit and Phil), 1998Erasmus Medal of Academia Europaea, 2002Copley Medal of the Royal Society, 2002Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement, 2002Order of Cherubini (Torino), 2005Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences, 2007Kavli Lecturer, 2007 National Historic Chemical Landmark, American Chemical Society, 2010.", "* Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award, Division of History of Chemistry, American Chemical Society, 2015Kroto was made a Knight Bachelor in the 1996 New Year Honours list.The University of Sheffield North Campus contains two buildings named after Kroto: The Kroto Innovation Centre and the Kroto Research Institute.===Honorary degrees===# Université Libre de Bruxelles (Belgium)# University of Stockholm (Sweden)# University of Limburg (now Hasselt University) (Belgium)# University of Sheffield (UK)# University of Kingston (UK)# University of Sussex (UK)# University of Helsinki (Finland)# University of Nottingham (UK)# Yokohama City University (Japan)# University of Sheffield-Hallam (UK)# University of Aberdeen (Scotland)# University of Leicester (UK)# University of Aveiro (Portugal)# University of Bielefeld (Germany)# University of Hull (UK)# Manchester Metropolitan University (UK)# Hong Kong City University (HK China)# Gustavus Adolphus College (Minnesota, US)# University College London (UK)# University of Patras (Greece)# University of Dalhousie (Halifax, NovaScotia, Canada)# University of Strathclyde (Scotland)# University of Manchester (UK)# AGH University of Science and Technology in Kraków (Poland)# University of Durham (UK)# Queens University Belfast (NI)# University of Surrey (UK)# Polytechnico di Torino (Italy)# University of Chemical Technology – Beijing (China)# University of Liverpool (UK)# Florida Southern College (US)# Keio University (Japan)# University of Chiba (Japan)# University of Bolton (UK)# University of Hartford (US)# University of Tel Aviv (Israel)# University of Poitiers (France)# Universidad Complutense de Madrid# Naresuan University (Thailand)# Vietnam National University (Hanoi)# University of Edinburgh (Scotland)# University of Primorska (Slovenia);Returned due to closure of Chemistry Departments# Hertfordshire University# Exeter University" ], [ "See also", "* List of Jewish Nobel laureates" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", " Harry Kroto personal website* Sir Harold W. Kroto at Florida State University* About Harry Kroto at University of Sheffield* Videos from Vega Science Trust*** Harry Kroto, Nobel Luminaries Project, The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Heimskringla" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''' () is the best known of the Old Norse kings' sagas.", "It was written in Old Norse in Iceland by the poet and historian Snorri Sturluson (1178/79–1241) 1230.The name was first used in the 17th century, derived from the first two words of one of the manuscripts (''kringla heimsins'', \"the circle of the world\").", "is a collection of sagas about Swedish and Norwegian kings, beginning with the saga of the legendary Swedish dynasty of the Ynglings, followed by accounts of historical Norwegian rulers from Harald Fairhair of the 9th century up to the death of the pretender Eystein Meyla in 1177.The exact sources of Snorri's work are disputed, but they include earlier kings' sagas, such as Morkinskinna, Fagrskinna and the 12th-century Norwegian synoptic histories and oral traditions, notably many skaldic poems.", "He explicitly names the now lost work ''Hryggjarstykki'' as his source for the events of the mid-12th century.", "Although Snorri used these and other materials collected during his trips to Norway and Sweden, he composed the sagas himself." ], [ "Name", "The name comes from the fact that the first words of the first saga in the compilation (''Ynglinga saga'') are ''Kringla heimsins'', \"the orb of the Earth\"." ], [ "Manuscript history", "The earliest parchment copy of the work is ''Kringla'', now in the National and University Library of Iceland, catalogued as Lbs fragm 82.It is a single vellum leaf from c. 1260, a part of the Saga of St. Olaf; the rest of the manuscript was lost to fire in 1728." ], [ "Summary", "Gerhard Munthe, Kringla Heimsins, illustration for ''Ynglinga Saga'' consists of several sagas, often thought of as falling into three groups, giving the overall work the character of a triptych.", "The saga narrates the contests of the kings, the establishment of the kingdom of Norway, Norse expeditions to various European countries, ranging as far afield as Palestine in the saga of Sigurd the Crusader, where the Norwegian fleet is attacked by Arab Muslim pirates, referred to as Vikings.", "The stories are told with energy, giving a picture of human life in all its dimensions.", "The saga is a prose epic, relevant to the history of not only Scandinavia but the regions included in the wider medieval Scandinavian diaspora.", "The first part of the is rooted in Norse mythology; as the collection proceeds, fable and fact intermingle, but the accounts become increasingly historically reliable.The first saga tells of the mythological prehistory of the Swedish and Norwegian royal dynasty, the Ynglings, tracing their lineage to Freyr (Yngve) of the Vanaland people, who arrived in Scandinavia with Odin from the legendary Asgard.", "The subsequent sagas are (with few exceptions) devoted to individual rulers, starting with Halfdan the Black.A version of ''Óláfs saga helga'', about the saint Olaf II of Norway, is the main and central part of the collection: Olaf's 15-year-long reign takes up about one third of the entire work.Thereafter, the saga of Harald Hardrada narrates Harald's expedition to the East, his brilliant exploits in Constantinople, Syria, and Sicily, his skaldic accomplishments, and his battles in England against Harold Godwinson, the son of Godwin, Earl of Wessex, where he fell at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066, only a few days before Harold fell at the Battle of Hastings.", "After presenting a series of other kings, the saga ends with Magnus V of Norway.===Contents=== contains the following sagas (see also List of Norwegian monarchs):# ''Ynglinga saga''# Saga of Halfdanr svarti (\"the Black\")# Saga of Haraldr hárfagi (\"finehair\") (died )# Saga of Hákon góði (\"the Good\") (died 961)# Saga of King Haraldr gráfeldr (\"Greycloak\") (died 969)# ''Saga of King Óláfr Tryggvason'' (died 1000)# ''Saga of King Óláfr Haraldsson'' (died 1030), excerpt from ''conversion of Dale-Gudbrand''# Saga of Magnús góði (\"the Good\") (died 1047)# Saga of Haraldr harðráði (\"Hardruler\") (died 1066)# Saga of Óláfr Haraldsson kyrri (\"the Gentle\") (died 1093)# Saga of Magnús berfœttr (\"Barefoot\") (died 1103)# Saga of Sigurðr Jórsalafari (\"Jerusalem-traveller\") (died 1130) and his brothers# Saga of Magnús blindi (\"the Blind\") (dethroned 1135) and of Haraldr Gilli (died 1136)# Saga of Sigurðr (died 1155), Eysteinn (died 1157) and Ingi (died 1161), the sons of Haraldr# Saga of Hákon herðibreiðs (\"the Broadshouldered\") (died 1162)# Saga of Magnús Erlingsson (died 1184)" ], [ "Sources", "Snorri explicitly mentions a few prose sources, now mostly lost in the form that he knew them: ''Hryggjarstykki'' ('spine pieces') by Eiríkr Oddsson (covering events 1130–61), ''Skjǫldunga saga'', an unidentified saga about Knútr inn gamli, and a text called ''Jarlasǫgurnar'' ('sagas of the jarls', which seems to correspond to the saga now known as ''Orkneyinga saga'').Snorri may have had access to a wide range of the early Scandinavian historical texts known today as the 'synoptic histories', but made most use of:* ''Ágrip af Nóregs konunga sǫgum'' (copying its account of Harald Fairhair's wife Snæfríðr almost unchanged).", "* ''Morkinskinna'' (the main source for the years 1030–1177, which he copied almost verbatim except for removing many of the anecdotal ''þættir'').", "* Possibly ''Fagrskinna'', itself based on ''Morkinskinna'', but the much shorter.", "* His own ''Separate saga of St Óláfr'', which he incorporated bodily into ''Heimskringla''.", "This text was apparently based primarily on a saga of Olaf from about 1220 by Styrmir Kárason, now mostly lost.", "* Oddr Snorrason's ''Life of Óláfr Tryggvason'', and possibly a Latin life of the same figure by Gunnlaugr Leifsson.Snorri also made extensive use of skaldic verse which he believed to have been composed at the time of the events portrayed and transmitted orally from that time onwards, and clearly made use of other oral accounts, though it is uncertain to what extent." ], [ "Historical reliability", "Up until the mid-19th century, historians put great trust in the factual truth of Snorri's narrative, as well as other old Norse sagas.", "In the early 20th century, this trust was largely abandoned with the advent of ''saga criticism'', pioneered by the Swedish historians Lauritz and Curt Weibull.", "These historians pointed out that Snorri's work had been written several centuries after most of the events it describes.", "In Norway, the historian Edvard Bull famously proclaimed that \"we have to give up all illusions that Snorri's mighty epic bears any deeper resemblance to what actually happened\" in the time it describes.", "A school of historians has come to believe that the motives Snorri and the other saga writers give to their characters owe more to conditions in the 13th century than in earlier times.", "''Heimskringla'' has, however, continued to be used as a historical source, though with more caution.", "It is not common to believe in the detailed accuracy of the historical narrative and historians tend to see little to no historical truth behind the first few sagas, however, they are still seen by many as a valuable source of knowledge about the society and politics of medieval Norway.", "The factual content of the work tends to be deemed more credible where it discusses more recent times, as the distance in time between the events described and the composition of the saga was shorter, allowing traditions to be retained in a largely accurate form, and because in the twelfth century the first contemporary written sources begin to emerge in Norway." ], [ "Influence", "Whereas prior to ''Heimskringla'' there seems to have been a diversity of efforts to write histories of kings, Snorri's ''Heimskringla'' seems thereafter to have been the basis for Icelandic writing about Scandinavian kings, and was expanded by scribes rather than entirely revised.", "''Flateyjarbók'', from the end of the fourteenth century, is the most extreme example of expansion, interweaving Snorri's text with many ''þættir'' and other whole sagas, prominently ''Orkneyinga saga'', ''Færeyinga saga'', and ''Fóstbrœðra saga''.The text is also referenced in ''Journey to the Center of the Earth'' by Jules Verne; the work is the one Professor Liedenbrock finds Arne Saknussem's note in." ], [ "Editions and translations", "===History of translations===By the mid-16th century, the Old Norse language was unintelligible to Norwegian, Swedish or Danish readers.", "At that time several translations of extracts were made in Norway into the Danish language, which was the literary language of Norway at the time.", "The first complete translation was made around 1600 by Peder Claussøn Friis, and printed in 1633.This was based on a manuscript known as ''Jofraskinna''.Subsequently, the Stockholm manuscript was translated into Swedish and Latin by Johan Peringskiöld (by order of Charles XI) and published in 1697 at Stockholm under the title ''Heimskringla'', which is the first known use of the name.", "This edition also included the first printing of the text in Old Norse.", "A new Danish translation with the text in Old Norse and a Latin translation came out in 1777–83 (by order of Frederick VI as crown prince).", "An English translation by Samuel Laing was finally published in 1844, with a second edition in 1889.Starting in the 1960s English-language revisions of Laing appeared, as well as fresh English translations.In the 19th century, as Norway was achieving independence after centuries of union with Denmark and Sweden, the stories of the independent Norwegian medieval kingdom won great popularity in Norway.", "Heimskringla, although written by an Icelander, became an important national symbol for Norway during the period of romantic nationalism.", "In 1900, the Norwegian parliament, the Storting, subsidized the publication of new translations of Heimskringla into both Norwegian written forms, landsmål and riksmål, \"in order that the work may achieve wide distribution at a low price\".===Editions===* ''Heimskringla eða Sögur Noregs konunga Snorra Sturlusonar'', ed.", "by N. Linder and H. A. Haggson (Uppsala: Schultz, 1869–72), HTML, Google Books vols 1–2, Google Books vol.", "3* Snorri Sturluson, ''Heimskringla'', ed.", "by Bjarni Aðalbjarnarson, Íslenzk fornrit, 26–28, 3 vols (Reykjavík: Hið Íslenzka Fornritafélag, 1941–51).===Translations===The most recent English translation of ''Heimskringla'' is by Alison Finlay and Anthony Faulkes and is available open-access.", "* Snorri Sturluson, '' The Heimskringla: Or, Chronicle of the Kings of Norway'', trans.", "by Samuel Laing (London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1844), HTML (repr.", "Everyman's Library, 717, 722, 847).", "* ''The Saga Library: Done into English out of the Icelandic'', trans.", "by William Morris and Eiríkr Magnússon, 6 vols (London: Quaritch, 1891–1905), vols 3–6.", "* Snorri Sturluson, ''Heimskringla: Sagas of the Norse Kings'', trans.", "by Samuel Laing, part 1 rev.", "by Jaqueline Simpson, part 2 rev.", "by Peter Foote, Everyman's Library, 717, 722, 847 (London: Dent; New York: Dutton, 1961).", "* Snorri Sturluson, ''Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway'', trans.", "by Lee M. Hollander (Austin: Published for the American-Scandinavian Foundation by the University of Texas Press, 1964).", "* Snorri Sturluson, ''Histoire des rois de Norvège, première partie: des origines mythiques de la dynastie à la bataille de Svold'', trans.", "by François-Xavier Dillmann (Paris: Gallimard, 2000).", "* Snorri Sturluson, ''Heimskringla'', trans.", "by Alison Finlay and Anthony Faulkes, 3 vols (London: Viking Society for Northern Research, 2011–15) (second edition 2016–), vol 1 (1st edn); vol 1 (2nd edn); vol 2; vol.", "3." ], [ "Bibliography", "* .", "A reprint of the 1932 Cambridge edition by W.", "Heffer.", "" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " * * Images of the Kringla Leaf on the manuscripts website of the National and University Library of Iceland* Proverbs and proverbial materials in ''Heimskringla'' ''(Archived)''*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Hamar" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hamar''' is a town in Hamar Municipality in Innlandet county, Norway.", "Hamar is the administrative centre of Hamar Municipality.", "It is located in the traditional region of Hedmarken.", "The town is located on the shores of Mjøsa, Norway's largest lake.", "Historically, it was the principal city of the former Hedmark county, now part of the larger Innlandet county.The town of Hamar lies in the southwestern part of the municipality, and the urban area of the town actually extends over the municipal borders into both Ringsaker and Stange municipalities.", "The town has a population (2021) of 28,535 and a population density of .", "About and 2,109 residents within the town are actually located in Ringsaker Municipality and another and 305 residents of the town are located within Stange Municipality." ], [ "General information", "===Name===The municipality (originally the town) is named after the old farm ().", "The medieval market was first built on this farm and that market eventually became a kjøpstad which in turn became a self-governing municipality.", "The name is identical with the word ''hamarr'' which means \"rocky hill\".===Coat of arms===The coat of arms were granted on 2 June 1896.The arms show a Black Grouse sitting in the top of a pine tree on a white background.", "An older version of the arms had been used for a long time.", "The old version was first described in the anonymous Hamar Chronicle, written in 1553." ], [ "History", "Ruins of the Cathedral; drawing by Joachim Frich , Hamar Cathedral; drawing by Olaf Nordhagen Between 500 and 1000 AD, the Åker farm was one of the most important power centres in Norway, located just a few kilometres away from today's town of Hamar.", "Three coins found in Ringerike in 1895 have been dated to the time of Harald Hardråde and are inscribed .===Middle Ages===At some point, presumably after 1030 but clearly before 1152, the centre was moved from Åker to the peninsula near Rosenlundvika (today Domkirkeodden) in what is now the town of Hamar.", "There are some indications Harald Hardråde initiated this move because he had property at the new site.Much of the information about medieval Hamar is derived from the Hamar Chronicle, dated to about 1550.The town is said to have reached its apex in the early 14th century, dominated by the Hamar Cathedral, the bishop's manor, and a fortress, plus the surrounding urbanization.", "The town was known for its fragrant apple orchards, but there were also merchants, craftsmen, and fishermen in the town.After the Christianization of Norway in 1030, Hamar began to gain influence as a centre for trade and religion.", "In 1152, the episcopal representative Nikolaus Breakspear founded Hamar Kaupangen as one of five dioceses in medieval Norway.", "This diocese included all of Hedemarkens Amt and Christians Amt, which were both separated from the Diocese of Oslo in 1152.The first bishop of Hamar was Arnold, Bishop of Gardar, Greenland (1124–1152).", "He began to build the (now ruined) Cathedral of Christ Church, which was completed about the time of Bishop Paul (1232–1252).", "Bishop Thorfinn (1278–1282) was exiled and died at Ter Doest abbey in Flanders, and was later canonised.", "Bishop Jörund (1285–1286) was transferred to Trondheim.", "A provincial council was held in 1380.Hamar remained an important religious and political centre in Norway, organized around the cathedral and the bishop's manor until the Reformation that took place in 1536–1537.At this time, Hamar lost its status as the seat of the Diocese after the last Catholic bishop, Mogens Lauritssøn (1513–1537), was taken prisoner in his castle at Hamar by Truid Ulfstand, a Danish noble, and then sent to Antvorskov in Denmark, where he was mildly treated until his death in 1542.At Hamar's peak, there was a Cathedral chapter with ten canons, a school, a Dominican Priory of St. Olaf, and a monastery of the Canons Regular of St. Anthony of Vienne.Hamar, like most of Norway, was severely diminished by the Black Plague in 1349, and by all accounts continued this decline until the Reformation, after which it disappeared.The Reformation in Norway took less than ten years to complete, from 1526 to 1536.During this time, the fortress in Hamar was made into the residence of the sheriff and renamed Hamarhus fortress.", "The cathedral was still used as a regular church, but it fell into disrepair culminating with the Swedish army's siege and attempted demolition in 1567, during the Northern Seven Years' War.", "The old bishop's manor was also devastated during this siege.===Reformation and decline===By 1587, merchants in Christiania had succeeded in moving all of Hamar's market activities to Oslo.", "Though some regional and seasonal trade persisted into the 17th century, Hamar as a town ceased to exist by then.", "In its place, the area was used for agriculture under the Storhamar farm, though the ruins of the cathedral, fortress, and lesser buildings became landmarks for centuries since then.The King made Hamarhus a feudal seat until 1649, when Frederick III transferred the property known as Hammer to Hannibal Sehested, making it private property.", "In 1716, the estate was sold to Jens Grønbech (1666–1734).", "With this, a series of construction projects started, and the farm became known as Storhamar, passing through several owners until Norwegian nobility was abolished in 1831, when Erik Anker took over the farm.===The founding of modern Hamar===City plan for Hamar, As early as 1755, the Danish government in Copenhagen expressed an interest in establishing a trading center on the shores of the lake Mjøsa.", "Elverum was considered a frontier town with frequent unrest, and there was even talk of encouraging the dissenting Hans Nielsen Hauge to settle in the area.", "Bishop Fredrik Julius Bech, one of the most prominent officials of his time, proposed establishing a town at or near Storhamar, at the foot of Furuberget.In 1812, negotiations started in earnest, when the regional governor of Christians Amt, proposed establishing a market on Mjøsa.", "A four-person commission was named on 26 July 1814, with the mandate of determining a suitable site for a new town along the shore.", "On 8 June 1815, the commission recommended establishing such a town at Lillehammer, then also a farm, part of the prestegjeld of Fåberg.Acting on objections to this recommendation, the department of the interior asked two professors, Ludvig Stoud Platou and Gregers Fougner Lundh, to survey the area and develop an alternative recommendation.", "It appears that Lundh in particular put great effort into this assignment, and in 1824 he presented to the Storting a lengthy report, that included maps and plans for the new town.Lundh's premise was that the national economic interest reigned supreme, so he based his recommendation on the proposed town's ability to quickly achieve self-sustaining growth.", "He proposed that the name of the new town be called ''Carlshammer'' and proposed it be built along the shore just north of Storhamar and eastward.", "His plans were detailed, calling for streets that were wide, rectangular blocks with 12 buildings in each, separating each of them.", "He also proposed tax relief for 20 years for the town's first residents, that the state relinquish property taxes in favor of the town, and that the town be given monopoly rights to certain trade.", "He even proposed that certain types of foreigners be allowed to settle in the town to promote trade, in particular, the Quakers.His recommendation was accepted in principle by the government, but the parliamentary committee equivocated on the location.", "It left the determination of the actual site to the king so as to not slow down things further.", "Another commission was named in June 1825, consisting of Herman Wedel-Jarlsberg, professor Lundh, and other prominent Norwegians.", "After surveying the entire lake, it submitted another report that considered eleven different locations, including sites near today's Eidsvoll, Minnesund, Tangen in Stange, Åker, Storhamar, Brumunddal, Nes, Moelven, Lillehammer, Gjøvik, and Toten.", "Each was presented with pros and cons.", "The commission itself was split between Lillehammer and Storhamar.", "The parliament finally decided on Lillehammer, relegating Hamar once more, it seemed, to be a sleepy agricultural area.As steamboats were introduced on the lake, the urban elite developed an interest in the medieval Hamar, and in 1841, editorials appeared advocating the re-establishment of a town at Storhamar.", "By then, the limitations of Lillehammer's location had also become apparent, in particular those of its shallow harbor.", "After a few more years of discussions and negotiations both regionally and nationally, member of parliament Frederik Stang put on the table once more the possibility of a town in or near Storhamar.", "The governor at the time, Frederik Hartvig Johan Heidmann, presented a thorough deliberation of possible specific locations, and ended up proposing the current site, at Gammelhusbukten.On 26 April 1848, the king signed into law the establishment of Hamar as a kjøpstad on the grounds of the farms of Storhamar and Holset, along the shores of the lake Mjøsa.", "The law stated that the town will be founded on the date its borders are settled, which turned out to be 21 March 1849.Hamar was given a trading zone up to from its border.", "The new town was taken out of the municipality of Vang and created established as Hamar Municipality under the formannskapsdistrikt law that was passed in 1838.===Building a city===View of Hamar in the 1890sThe area of the new town and municipality covered an area measuring \"400 mål\" which is the equivalent to today's .", "An army engineer, Røyem, drafted the initial plan.", "There would be three thoroughfares, at Strandgata, Torggata, and Grønnegate (the latter the name of a medieval road) and a grid system of streets between them.", "The orientation of the town was toward the shore.", "Røyem set aside space for three parks and a public square, and also room for a church just outside the town border.There were critics of the plan, pointing out that the terrain was hilly and not suitable for the proposed rigid grid.", "Some adjustments were made, but the plan was largely accepted and is evident in today's Hamar.", "There were also lingering concerns about the town's vulnerability to flooding.Construction began as soon as the law passed, in the spring of 1849.The first buildings were much like sheds, but there was great enthusiasm, and by the end of 1849, ten buildings were insured in the new town.", "None of these are standing today; the last two were adjacent buildings on Skappelsgate.", "By 1850, there were 31 insured houses, in 1852 there were 42; and in 1853, 56.Building slowed down for a few years and then picked up again in 1858, and by the end of 1860 there were a hundred insured houses in the town.", "The shore side properties were obliged to grow gardens, setting the stage for a leafy urban landscape.Roads quickly became a challenge – in some places, it was necessary to ford creeks in the middle of town.", "The road inspector found himself under considerable stress, and it took until 1869 to settle on street names.", "Highways in and out of the city also caused considerable debate, especially regarding how to finance them.The first passenger terminal in Hamar was in fact a crag in the lake, from which travelers were rowed into the city.", "In 1850, another pier was built with a two-storey terminal building.", "All this was complicated by the significant seasonal variations in water levels.", "In 1857 a canal was built around a basin that would allow freight ships to access a large warehouse.", "Although the canal and basin still were not deep enough to accommodate passenger steamships, the area became one of the busiest areas in the town and the point around which the harbor was further developed.The Diocese of Hamar was established in 1864, and the Hamar Cathedral was consecrated in 1866 and remains a central point in the city.A promenade came into being from the harbor area, past the gardens on the shore, and north toward the site of the old town.===Establishment of government===The first executive of Hamar was Johannes Bay, who arrived in October 1849 to facilitate an election of a board of supervisors and representatives.", "The town's royal charter called for the election of three supervisors and nine representatives.", "Elections were announced in the paper and through the town crier.", "Of the ten eligible town citizens, three supervisors were elected, and the remaining six were elected by consent to be representatives, resulting in a shortfall of three on the board.", "The first mayor of Hamar was Christian Borchgrevink.The first order of business was the allocation of liquor licenses and the upper limit of alcohol that could be sold within the town limits.", "The board quickly decided to award licenses to both applicants and set the upper limit to 12,000 \"pots\" of liquor, an amount that was for all intents and purposes limitless.The electorate increased in 1849 to 26, including merchants and various craftsmen, and the empty representative posts were filled in November.", "In 1850, the board allowed for unlimited exercise of any craft for which no citizenship had been taken out, which led to much unregulated craftsmanship.", "Part-time policemen were hired, and the town started setting taxes and a budget by the end of 1849.In 1850, a new election was held for the town board.The painter Jakobsen had early on offered the use of his home for public meetings and assembly, and upon buying a set of solid locks, his basement also became the town prison.", "One merchant was designated as the town's firefighter and was given two buckets with equipment, and later a simple hose.", "By 1852 a full-time fire chief was named.", "There was also some controversy around the watchman who loudly reported the time to all the town's inhabitants every half-hour, every night.", "Hamar also had a scrupulously enforced ordinance against smoking (pipe) without a lid in public or private.In Hamar's early days, the entire population consisted of young entrepreneurs, and little was needed in the way of social services.", "After a few years, a small number of indigent people needed support, and a poorhouse was erected.On 1 January 1878, the town/municipality of Hamar was enlarged by annexing about of land and 138 people from the neighboring municipality of Vang to Hamar.===Fires, floods and other disasters===In 1860, concerns about flooding were vindicated when a late and sudden spring caused the lake to flood, peaking around 24 June, when the street-level floor of the front properties was completely inundated.", "This was the worst flood recorded since 1789.By 9 July, the flooding had receded.", "In August, massive rainfall led to flash flooding in the area, putting several streets under water.", "This was immediately followed by unseasonably cold weather, freezing the potato crops and inconveniencing Hamar's residents.", "Then mild weather set in, and melted all the ice and accumulated snow, which lead to another round of flooding.", "By the time a particularly cold and snow-filled winter set in, there was mostly relief about getting some stability.In 1876, the town was scandalized by the apprehension of one Kristoffer Svartbækken, arrested for the cold-blooded murder of 19-year-old Even Nilsen Dæhlin.", "Svartbækken was convicted for the murder and executed the following year in the neighboring rural community of Løten, with an audience of 3,000 locals, presumably the majority of Hamar's population at the time.In 1878, as the firefighting capabilities of the young town were upgraded, a fire broke out in a bakery.", "The fire was put out without doing too much damage.", "In February 1879 at 2:00 in the morning another fire broke out after festivities, burning down an entire building that housed many historical items from the town.", "This was followed by a series of fires that left entire blocks in ashes.", "The fires kept happening until 1881, when a professional fire corps was hired.In 1889, there were riots in Hamar over the arrest of one of their own constables, one sergeant Huse, who had been insubordinate while on a military drill at the cavalry camp at Gardermoen.", "In an act of poor judgment, Huse's superior sent him to Hamar's prison in place of military stockades.", "Partly led and partly tolerated by other constables, the town's population engaged in demonstrations, marches, and other unlawful but non-violent acts that were effectively ended when a company of soldiers arrived from the camp at Terningmoen near Elverum.Composer Fredrikke Waaler founded and directed the first orchestra in Hamar in 1893.She also directed a choir and wrote a song for the city.===Modern era===In 1946, a large area in Vang that surrounded the town of Hamar (population: 4,087) was transferred out of Vang and merged into Hamar.", "The following year, a part of the municipality of Furnes (population: 821) was also merged into Hamar.", "On 1 January 1965, a part of Ringsaker with a population of about 100 people was transferred to Hamar.In 1975, Storhamar Church was built to serve Hamar's growing population.On 1 January 1992, the municipality of Vang (population: 9,103) was merged with the town of Hamar (population: 16,351) and parts of the Stensby, Hanstad, Viker, and Stammerud areas of Ringsaker (population: 224) to form a new, larger Hamar Municipality." ], [ "Cityscape", "The clock tower and Koigen island, Lake MjøsaThe Hedmark museum, located on Domkirkeodden, is an important historical landmark in Hamar, an outdoor museum with remains of the medieval church, in a protective glass housing, the episcopal fortress and a collection of old farm houses.", "The institution is a combined medieval, ethnological and archaeological museum, and has received architectural prizes for its approach to conservation and exhibition.", "It also houses a vast photographic archive for the Hedmark region.Additionally, Hamar is known for its indoor long track speed skating and bandy arena, the ''Olympia Hall'', better known as Vikingskipet (\"The Viking ship\") for its shape.", "It was built to host the speed skating competitions of the 1994 Winter Olympics that were held in nearby Lillehammer.", "Already in 1993 it hosted the Bandy World Championship.", "The Vikingskipet Olympic Arena was later used in the winter of 2007 as the service park for Rally Norway, the second round of the 2007 World Rally Championship season.", "It has been the host for the world's second largest computer party The Gathering starting on the Wednesday in Easter each year, for the last 13 years.Also situated in Hamar is the Hamar Olympic Amphitheatre which hosted the figure skating and short track speed skating events of the 1994 Winter Olympics.", "The figure skating competition was highly anticipated.", "It featured Nancy Kerrigan and Tonya Harding, who drew most of the media attention, however the gold medal was won by Oksana Baiul of Ukraine.The centre of Hamar is the pedestrian walkway in the middle of town, with the library, cinema and farmer's market on Stortorget (the big square) on the western side, and Østre Torg (the eastern square), which sits on top of an underground multi-story carpark, on the eastern side.Hamar Railway Station" ], [ "Transport", "Hamar is an important railway junction between two different lines from Oslo to Trondheim.", "Rørosbanen, the old railway line, branches off from the mainline Dovre Line.", "The Norwegian Railway Museum (''Norsk Jernbanemuseum'') is also in Hamar.", "Hamar Airport, Stafsberg caters to general aviation." ], [ "Climate", "Hamar has a humid continental climate (Dfb) with fairly dry and cold winters, and comfortably warm summers.", "The Hamar II weather station, at an elevation of , started recording in 1968.The all-time high was recorded in July 2018, which was the warmest month on record with average daily high and mean .", "The all-time low is from in December 2010, which was a very cold month with mean and average daily low .", "A previous weather station (Hamar I, at an elevation of 139 m) recorded the coldest month on record with mean in January 1917.In August 1975, the weather station \"Staur Forsøksgård\" in nearby Stange recorded ." ], [ "Notable residents", "Hans JevneRut Brandt in 1970=== Public Service ===* Claus Bendeke (1763–1828) a jurist and rep. at the Norwegian Constitutional Assembly* Hans Jevne (1849–1927) a grocer and civic leader in early Los Angeles * Gustav Heiberg (1856–1935) a barrister and mayor of Hamar in 1910's * Olav Johan Sopp (1860–1931) a Norwegian mycologist* Martin Rønne (1861–1932) a Norwegian sail maker and polar explorer* Katti Anker Møller (1868–1945) feminist, children's rights and civil rights activist* Carl Schiøtz (1877–1938) a physician and professor of hygiene and bacteriology* Einar Grill Fasting (1883–1958) Nazi, co-founded Hamar branch of Nasjonal Samling* WFK Christie (1885–1956) jurist in Hamar, co-founded Hamar branch of Nasjonal Samling* Thorolf Vogt (1888–1958) a geologist, professor and Arctic explorer* Kristian Bakken (1888–1954) labourer and politician, mayor of Hamar in the 1930s* Rikka Deinboll (1897–1973) librarian and translator* Kristian Birger Gundersen (1907–1977) politician, mayor of Hamar in the 1960s and 70s* Ingrid Semmingsen (1910–1995) the first female professor of history in Norway* Rut Brandt (1920–2006) writer, second wife of Willy Brandt * Haakon Melhuus (born 1947) a meteorologist and weather presenter* Einar Busterud (born 1953) politician, mayor of Hamar since 2015* Trygve Slagsvold Vedum (born 1978) a Norwegian politician, party leader and govt.", "minister* Anette Trettebergstuen (born 1981) openly lesbian politician=== The Arts ===Kirsten Flagstad as Isolde* Hulda Garborg (1862–1934) novelist, playwright, poet and folk dancer* Ulrikke Greve (1868–1951) a leading textile artist, excelling in tapestry work* Kirsten Flagstad (1895–1962) opera singer and highly regarded Wagnerian soprano * Rolf Jacobsen (1907–1994) author, poet and modernist writer * Øivind Bergh (1909-1987) Norwegian violinist and orchestral leader* Jens Book-Jenssen (1910–1999) a singer, songwriter, revue artist and theatre director * Sigurd Evensmo (1912–1978) a Norwegian author and journalist* Gerd Thoreid (1924–2020), stand-up comedian and singer* Kjell Heggelund (1932–2017) a literary researcher, lecturer, editor, poet and literary critic* Knut Faldbakken (born 1941) a Norwegian novelist and writer* Torill Kove (born 1958) a Canadian film director and award-winning animator* Ole Edvard Antonsen (born 1962) a Norwegian trumpeter, musician and conductor* Merete Morken Andersen (born 1965) a novelist, children's writer and magazine editor* Ole Børud (born 1976) singer, songwriter, and instrumentalist * Anders Baasmo Christiansen (born 1976) actor * Ryan Wiik (born 1981) an actor and entrepreneur, resides in Los Angeles * Mari Chauhan (born 1988) a beauty pageant titleholder, Miss Norway 2013* Elise Dalby (born 1995) a model and beauty pageant titleholder, Miss Norway 2014=== Sport ===Egil Danielsen 1953Ann Cathrin Lübbe, 2016* Olaf Johannessen (1890–1977) sports shooter, competed at the 1924 Summer Olympics* Sverre Sørsdal (1900–1996) boxer, silver and bronze medallist at the 1920 & 1924 Summer Olympics * Egil Danielsen (1933-2019) Javelin thrower, gold medalist, at the 1956 Summer Olympics * Ivar Eriksen (born 1942) former speed skater, team silver medallist at the 1968 Winter Olympics* Terje Kojedal (born 1957) former footballer with 230 club caps and 66 for Norway* Erik Kristiansen (born 1963) former ice hockey player* Jon Inge Kjørum (born 1965) a former ski jumper, bronze medallist at the 1988 Winter Olympics* Vegard Skogheim (born 1966) former footballer with over 400 club caps and 13 for Norway* Kamilla Gamme (born 1969) diver* Ann Cathrin Lübbe (born 1971) a Norwegian Paralympic equestrian* Irene Dalby (born 1971) former top swimmer and three-time Olympian* Jan Frode Andersen (born 1972) tennis player* Audun Grønvold (born 1976) freestyle skier, bronze medallist at the 2010 Winter Olympics* Thorstein Helstad (born 1977) footballer with 448 club caps and 38 for Norway* Kristin Bekkevold (born 1977) footballer, team gold medallist at the 2000 Summer Olympics* Atle Gulbrandsen (born 1979), racing driver* Even Wetten (born 1982) former speed skater * Patrick Thoresen (born 1983) professional ice hockey player * Petter Vaagan Moen (born 1984) footballer with 376 club caps and 9 for Norway* Marius Holtet (born 1984) a retired Norwegian professional ice hockey forward* Marcus Pedersen (born 1990) footballer with over 250 club caps and 9 for Norway" ], [ "Sport", "Map of the 1994 Winter Olympics venuesVikingskipet, an Olympic venue of 1994===Team sports===Hamar boasts several teams at the Norwegian top level in various sports:* Hamarkameratene (Ham-Kam) is a football club that plays in the Eliteserien, the top tier of Norwegian football.", "* Storhamar Ishockey is an ice hockey team which is currently playing in the Norwegian GET-ligaen.", "The club has won the title a total of seven times, most recently during the 2017–18 season.", "* Storhamar HE is a handball team that plays in Eliteserien.", "* Fart IL is a women's football team currently playing its first season in the top league.", "* Hamar Idrettslag has played in the highest bandy division recently, but this season, 2009–2010, they play in the 2nd.===Individual sports===Hamar is known for its speed skating history, both for its skaters and the championships that have been hosted by the city, already in 1894 Hamar hosted its first European championship, and the first World Championship the following year.", "After the Vikingskipet was built, Hamar has hosted international championships on a regular basis.The most notable skaters from Hamar are Dag Fornæss and Even Wetten, both former World champions, allround and 1000m respectively.", "Amund Sjøbrend, Ådne Søndrål and Eskil Ervik have all been members of the local club Hamar IL, although they were not born in Hamar.In Hamar on 17 July 1993, Scottish cyclist Graeme Obree set a world record for longest distance covered in an hour.", "His 51,596 metres broke the 51,151 set at altitude nine years earlier.", "The record lasted only six days, before Chris Boardman beat it in Bordeaux, France.Motorcycle speedway has had a long association with Hamar, covering three venues.", "The Norwegian Championship was held at Hamar Idrettsplassen in 1939 and at the Briskebyen Utstillingsplassen in 1954.The Speedway Grand Prix of Norway was held at the Vikingskipet from 2002 to 2004.===Events===Hamar was the venue of three sports during the 1994 Winter Olympics, figure skating, short track and speed skating." ], [ "International relations", "===Twin towns – Sister cities===The following cities, both in Scandinavia and around the world, are twinned with Hamar:" ], [ "In literature and popular culture", "Part of the plot of \"The Axe\", the first volume of Sigrid Undset's \"The Master of Hestviken\", is set in the Medieval Hamar.", "The book's young lovers, denied the right to marry by malicious relatives, come to the town in order to try to get the help of the kindly and compassionate Bishop Thorfinn of Hamar.Jorma Kaukonen, former guitarist of Jefferson Airplane, celebrated his love of speed-skating in the song Hamar Promenade on his 1974 album ''Quah''.Norwegian jazz-pop singer/songwriter Silje Nergaard dedicated her album Hamar Railway Station, released in December 2020, to Hamar's railway junction." ], [ "See also", "List of towns and cities in Norway" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Hamar Pictorial click-through ****" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Book of Helaman" ], [ "Introduction", "'''The Book of Helaman''' ( ) is one of the books that make up the Book of Mormon, a text held sacred by churches within the Latter Day Saint movement, including the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church).", "The book continues the history of the Nephites and the Lamanites from approximately 50 BC to 1 BC.", "It discusses political unrest among the Nephites and the formation of a group of secret dissenters called the Gadianton Robbers.", "Helaman, son of Helaman leads the Nephites for a time, and his sons Nephi and Lehi go on a successful mission to the Lamanites.", "When Nephi returns home, he correctly identifies the murderer of the chief judge using his prophetic powers, and sends a famine to the Nephite which lasts three years.", "After a digression from Mormon, the book of Helaman ends with Samuel the Lamanite's prophecy of the signs that will precede Christ's birth and death.", "Helaman deals with themes of external and internal conflict, hidden information, Nephite racism, and Mormon's views of history as deduced by his redaction of it." ], [ "Summary", "According to the narrative in the Book of Mormon, the Book of Helaman is set in 50-1 BC.", "Helaman is named for Alma's grandson, Helaman.", "The actions of the first three chapters center around him.", "Helaman's son Nephi is central to the rest of the record.", "The book of Helaman as a whole is edited and compiled by Mormon, who is the author of chapter 12.Events are related episodically.", "The miraculous incidents in Helaman 5 describe a significant conversion of many Lamanites to Book of Mormon Christianity.", "In the first part of Helaman, a secret society, commonly called a secret combination, spurs political unrest among the Nephites.", "Pahoran's son, also named Pahoran, wins the election to be the new chief judge.", "Paanchi and his followers make an oath of secrecy and murder son Pahoran.", "A few months later, a Lamanite army captures the Nephite capital until the Nephites reclaim it.", "Helaman, son of Helaman is elected as the new chief judge.", "The same group who murdered Pahoran tries to murder Helaman, but a spy kills the assassin before he succeeds.", "The group retreats to the wilderness and they are referred to as a \"band of robbers\".", "(Chapters 1-2.)", "The second part of Helaman covers a period of Nephite technological growth, war with the Lamanites, and proselyting to the Lamanites.", "Helaman reigns over the Nephites, who develop shipping, expand northward, and become wealthy and prideful.", "Helaman dies and his son Nephi becomes chief judge.", "Disagreements in the land of the Nephites lead to war with the Lamanites, where Moronihah conquers half of their land.", "After stepping down as chief judge, Nephi goes with his brother Lehi to preach to the Nephites and the Lamanites.", "Lamanites in Nephites lands imprison them.", "Angels and a pillar of fire manifest and their presence sparks the conversion of onlookers, who in turn convert the Lamanites, who peaceably leave the Nephite lands they were occupying.", "The Gadianton robbers return and murder Cezoram, who filled in for Nephi in the judgement seat.", "Meanwhile, the Lamanites' righteousness increases.", "(Chapters 3-6.", ")In the third part of Helaman, Nephi prophesies about the Nephites and their future.", "Nephi comes home after his six-year mission to find that the Nephites have become wicked in his absence.", "He says that the Nephites' destruction is nigh.", "He prophesies that the chief judge has been murdered by his brother, and this prophecy is confirmed.", "He prophesies that the brother will deny murdering the chief judge, but that the blood on the skirts of his cloak will give him away.", "The Nephites are divided.", "God grants Nephi the power to do \"all things\" \"according to his word\".", "Nephi sends a famine into the land for three years, when many people return to their faith and Nephi prays the rain back.", "The Gadianton robbers become more powerful.", "(Chapters 7-11.", ")In the last part of Helaman, Samuel the Lamanite prophesies that the Nephites will be destroyed in 400 years.", "He promises that their attempts to secure their future using money will fail.", "He says that unless the Nephites repent, their women and children will suffer and die.", "He foretells of the signs and wonders of Jesus' birth and death.", "The Nephites reject his prophecies.", "(Chapters 13-16)" ], [ "Themes", "===War and contention===The short preface to the Book of Helaman is written by Mormon, the editor of the books following Omni according to the Book of Mormon narrative.", "Mormon describes the book of Helaman as being about \"wars and contentions\".", "According to Brant Gardner, author of a six-volume commentary that grew out of his work for the Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, the goal of Mormon's compilation is theological, not historical.", "\"Contentions\" refers to internal conflicts, while \"wars\" refers to external ones.", "Mormon may have chosen to focus on contentions to fulfill Nephi's vision when Nephi sees \"wars, and rumors of wars\" as well as \"wars and contentions in the land\".", "For Gardner, Mormon isn't just trying to fulfill Nephi's vision, but also to show that Christ's coming is a type, and that it was and will be preceded by war and contention.In Helaman, the Gadianton robbers are mentioned for the first time in the text of the Book of Mormon, a recurring instance of Nephite secret combinations important to the rest of the Book of Mormon narrative.", "According to Maxwell Institute scholar Kim Matheson, Helaman's contrasts show how the Nephites are constantly noticing the wrong things.", "Instead of noticing their own spiritual decay, they increase their wealth and military power.", "Important aspects of the plot are covert, like the secret combinations, assassins, and spiritual alignment with God.Former dean of religious education at Brigham Young University, Robert J. Matthews, noticed that within the Nephite culture, because the majority of the people chose evil, the government became corrupt, even though it was a form of free government.", "People in government started to ignore the poor and there was a general disdain of the law.", "In the ''Book of Mormon Reference Companion'', published by LDS Church publisher Deseret Book, John Tanner also highlights the passage in Helaman about how \"they who chose evil were more numerous than they who chose good.", "\"===Nephite racism===Helaman ends with Samuel prophesying of Christ and the Nephites rejecting Samuel's prophecy.", "Samuel does not mention Christ's resurrection, but focuses on the signs of his birth and death.", "For Grant Hardy, in his ''The Annotated Book of Mormon'', since Samuel is a Lamanite, it is possible that Nephite racism contributed to their rejection of him.", "For Matheson, Nephite racism causes them to reject Samuel, and their interest in comparing themselves to the Lamanites prevents them from honestly repenting of their misdeeds.===Pride cycle===In Mormon's digression in Helaman 12, he describes the cycle of righteousness and unrighteousness.", "He reveals his assumption that the righteousness of a people is the most important historical question to consider, relegating factors such as economic growth to their influence on the righteousness of the people.", "For Tanner, Mormon draws attention to his commentary with the phrase \"thus we see,\" and his \"fullest articulation of the cyclical pattern\" is found in Helaman 12.Hardy describes this \"pride cycle\" as one of the main features of Helaman.", "Prosperous Nephites become prideful and forget God, which leads to their downfall.", "Humbled, they return to worshipping God and become prosperous again.", "Hardy draws a parallel to a similar cycle in the Biblical Book of Judges, noting that in Helaman, communal repentance plays a larger role.", "In the larger narrative of the Book of Mormon, this cycle is broken for 200 years after Jesus visits the land." ], [ "Textual variants", "In the 1830 edition of the Book of Mormon, Joseph Smith originally gave his scribes an arrangement of five chapters that were larger than the chapters in modern editions of the Book of Mormon.", "+in Joseph's manuscriptin current LDS edition (since 1879)summaryChapter IHelaman 1-2formation of secret combinations and political unrestChapter IIHelaman 3-6increasing Nephite prosperity and Lamanite conversionChapter IIIHelaman 7-10the prophecy of NephiChapter IVHelaman 11-12Mormon's brief poetic interludeChapter VHelaman 13-16Samuel's prophecy" ], [ "See also", "Aminadab" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Sources", "* * ** * *" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Irina Krush" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Irina Borisivna Krush''' (; born December 24, 1983) is an American chess Grandmaster.", "She is the only woman to earn the GM title while playing for the United States.", "Krush is an eight-time U.S. Women's Champion." ], [ "Early life", "Irina Krush was born into a Jewish family in Odesa, USSR (now Ukraine), and emigrated with her parents to Brooklyn in 1989.Her father, a college chess player, taught Irina the game.", "When she was 6, she won her first tournament, and at the age of 7 she represented the U.S. at the World Youth Championships for girls under 10 in Poland." ], [ "Chess career", "At age 14, Krush won the 1998 U.S. Women's Chess Championship to become the youngest U.S. women's champion ever.", "She has won the championship on seven other occasions, in 2007, 2010, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2020.In 1999, Krush took part in the \"Kasparov versus the World\" chess competition.", "Garry Kasparov played the white pieces and the Internet public, via a Microsoft host website, voted on moves for the black pieces, guided by the recommendations of Krush and three of her contemporaries, Étienne Bacrot, Elisabeth Pähtz and Florin Felecan.", "On the tenth move, Krush suggested a , for which the World team voted.", "Kasparov said later that he lost control of the game at that point, and wasn't sure whether he was winning or losing.Krush played in the Group C of the 2008 Corus Chess Tournament, a 14-player round-robin tournament held in Wijk aan Zee, the Netherlands.", "She finished in joint fifth place having scored 7/13 points after five wins (including the one against the eventual winner, Fabiano Caruana), four draws and four losses.In 2013, she was awarded the Grandmaster title due to her results at the NYC Mayor's Cup International GM Tournament in 2001, Women's World Team Chess Championship 2013 and Baku Open 2013.In 2022, she won the 2022 American Cup (Women's field) in a double-elimination format.", "She tied with Jennifer Yu in the 2022 U.S. Women's Chess Championship but lost the playoff.=== Team competitions ===Krush has played on the U.S. national team in the Women's Chess Olympiad since 1998.The U.S. team won the silver medal in 2004 and bronze in 2008.In 2022 Krush was member of the U.S. women's team at the 44th Chess Olympiad; the team finished as fourth.", "She also competed as part of the US team in the Women's World Team Chess Championship in 2009 and 2013.She played for the team Manhattan Applesauce in the U.S.", "Chess League in 2015; she previously played for the New York Knights (2005–2011, 2013).", "Krush and her ex-husband, Canadian Grandmaster Pascal Charbonneau, have played in the United Kingdom league for Guildford-ADC.In May 2020, Krush played for the USA team in the FIDE Online Nations Cup.=== Writing ===Krush frequently contributes articles to ''Chess Life'' magazine and ''uschess.org.''", "Her article on earning her grandmaster title in 2013 was honored as the \"Best of US Chess\" that year." ], [ "Personal life", "Krush attended Edward R. Murrow High School in Brooklyn.", "She graduated in International Relations from New York University in 2006.Krush identifies as a \"Christian Jew\", embracing both her Jewish heritage and Christian faith since her conversion in 2011.In March 2016, Hillary Clinton was a guest on the ''Steve Harvey'' television show.", "On the show, Krush appeared along with two actresses trying to impersonate Krush.", "The trio answered questions from host Steve Harvey and Clinton regarding her life and chess career.", "Clinton successfully identified the real Irina Krush.In March 2020, she was hospitalized and treated for a \"moderate\" COVID-19 infection, then released to recover under quarantine at home.", "While quarantined, she played in the Isolated Queens Swiss, an online women's blitz chess tournament.", "She scored 7.5/10 in the tournament, putting her in joint second place, a half point behind tournament winner GM Alexandra Kosteniuk.On January 18, 2023, Krush appeared on a primetime special of ''The Price Is Right'' and won the Clock Game, but she failed to advance to the Showcases." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques" ], [ "Introduction", "IHÉS main buildingThe '''Institut des hautes études scientifiques''' ('''IHÉS'''; English: Institute of Advanced Scientific Studies) is a French research institute supporting advanced research in mathematics and theoretical physics.", "It is located in Bures-sur-Yvette, just south of Paris.", "It is an independently governed research institute and a founding member of the University of Paris-Saclay." ], [ "History", "The IHÉS was founded in 1958 by businessman and mathematical physicist Léon Motchane with the help of Robert Oppenheimer and Jean Dieudonné as a research centre in France, modeled on the renowned Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, United States.", "The strong personality of Alexander Grothendieck and the broad sweep of his revolutionizing theories were a dominating feature of the first ten years at the IHÉS.", "René Thom received an invitation from IHÉS in 1963 and after his appointment remained there until his death in 2002.Dennis Sullivan is remembered as one who had a special talent for encouraging fruitful exchanges among visitors and provoking a new and deeper insight into their ideas.The IHÉS runs a highly regarded mathematical journal, ''Publications Mathématiques de l'IHÉS''.IHÉS celebrated its 40th anniversary in 1998 and its 50th in 2008." ], [ "Directors", " Image Name Timespan Léon Motchane (1958–1971) 100px Nicolaas Kuiper (1971–1985) 100px Marcel Berger (1985–1994) 100px Jean-Pierre Bourguignon (1994–2013) 100px Emmanuel Ullmo (2013–present)" ], [ "List of faculty members", "NameNationalityFieldYear joinedYear leftNotesMajor awardsAlexander GrothendieckStatelessmathematician19581970Fields Medal (1966), Crafoord Prize (1988)Jean DieudonnéFrenchmathematician19581964Louis MichelFrenchphysicist19621992Emeritus 1992–1999Wigner Medal (1982)René ThomFrenchmathematician19631990Emeritus 1990–2002Fields Medal (1958)David RuelleBelgianphysicist19642000Emeritus since 2000Henri Poincaré Prize (2006), Max Planck Medal (2014)Pierre DeligneBelgianmathematician19701984Fields Medal (1978), Crafoord Prize (1988), Abel Prize (2013)Dennis SullivanAmericanmathematician19741997Wolf Prize (2010), Abel Prize (2022)Jürg FröhlichSwissphysicist19781982Max-Planck Medal (2001), Henri Poincaré Prize (2009)Oscar Lanford IIIAmericanphysicist19821989Mikhaïl GromovRussian, Frenchmathematician19822015Emeritus since 2015Wolf Prize (1993), Abel Prize (2009)Jean BourgainBelgianmathematician19851994Fields Medal (1994), Shaw Prize (2010), Crafoord Prize (2012)Thibault DamourFrenchphysicist19892022Emeritus since 2022Albert Einstein Medal (1996), CNRS Gold Medal (2017)Maxim KontsevichRussianmathematician1995currentHenri Poincaré Prize (1997), Fields Medal (1998), Crafoord Prize (2008), Shaw Prize (2012)Laurent LafforgueFrenchmathematician20002021Fields Medal (2002)Nikita NekrasovRussianphysicist20002013Hermann Weyl Prize (2004), Jacques Herbrand Prize (2004), Compositio Prize (2009)Vasily PestunRussianphysicist20142023Hermann Weyl Prize (2016)Hugo Duminil-CopinFrenchmathematician2016currentFields Medal (2022)Slava RychkovRussian, Italian, Frenchphysicist2017currentNew Horizons in Physics Prize (2014), Mergier-Bourdeix Prize (2019)Laure Saint-RaymondFrenchmathematician2021currentCanadian, Americanmathematician2023current" ], [ "Scientists associated with the IHES", "Alain Connes (Fields Medal 1982), has been holding the Léon Motchane Chair since 1979.Several CNRS researchers are also based at the IHES: Ahmed Abbes, Cédric Deffayet, Ofer Gabber, Fanny Kassel, and Christophe Soulé." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Iceland" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Iceland''' (, ) is a Nordic island country between the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge between North America and Europe.", "It is linked culturally and politically with Europe and is the region's most sparsely populated country.", "Its capital and largest city is Reykjavík, which is home to about 36% of the country's roughly 380,000 residents.", "The official language of the country is Icelandic.Located on a rift between tectonic plates, Iceland's geologic activity includes geysers and frequent volcanic eruptions.", "The interior consists of a volcanic plateau characterised by sand and lava fields, mountains, and glaciers, and many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands.", "Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a temperate climate, despite a latitude just south of the Arctic Circle.", "Its high latitude and marine influence keep summers chilly, and most of its islands have a polar climate.According to the ancient manuscript , the settlement of Iceland began in 874 AD when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson became the first permanent settler on the island.", "In the following centuries, Norwegians, and to a lesser extent other Scandinavians, immigrated to Iceland, bringing with them thralls (i.e., slaves or serfs) of Gaelic origin.The island was governed as an independent commonwealth under the native parliament, the Althing, one of the world's oldest functioning legislative assemblies.", "Following a period of civil strife, Iceland acceded to Norwegian rule in the 13th century.", "In 1397, Iceland followed Norway's integration into the Kalmar Union along with the kingdoms of Denmark and Sweden, coming under ''de facto'' Danish rule following its dissolution in 1523.The Danish kingdom introduced Lutheranism by force in 1550, and Iceland was formally ceded to Denmark in 1814 by the Treaty of Kiel.Influenced by ideals of nationalism after the French Revolution, Iceland's struggle for independence took form and culminated in the Danish–Icelandic Act of Union in 1918, with the establishment of the Kingdom of Iceland, sharing through a personal union the incumbent monarch of Denmark.", "During the occupation of Denmark in World War II, Iceland voted overwhelmingly to become a republic in 1944, thus ending the remaining formal ties with Denmark.", "Although the Althing was suspended from 1799 to 1845, the island republic nevertheless holds a claim to sustaining one of the longest-running parliaments in the world.Until the 20th century, Iceland relied largely on subsistence fishing and agriculture.", "Industrialization of the fisheries and Marshall Plan aid following World War II brought prosperity, and Iceland became one of the wealthiest and most developed nations in the world.", "It became a part of the European Economic Area in 1994; this further diversified the economy into sectors such as finance, biotechnology, and manufacturing.Iceland has a market economy with relatively low taxes, compared to other OECD countries, as well as the highest trade union membership in the world.", "It maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides universal health care and tertiary education for its citizens.", "Iceland ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as quality of life, education, protection of civil liberties, government transparency, and economic freedom.", "Iceland has the smallest population of any NATO member and is the only one with no standing army, possessing only a lightly armed coast guard." ], [ "Etymology", "Norsemen landing in Iceland – a 19th-century depiction by Oscar WergelandThe Sagas of Icelanders say that a Norwegian named Naddodd (or Naddador) was the first Norseman to reach Iceland, and in the ninth century, he named it Snæland or \"snow land\" because it was snowing.", "Following Naddodd, the Swede Garðar Svavarsson arrived, and so the island was then called Garðarshólmur, which means \"Garðar's Isle\".Then came a Viking named Flóki Vilgerðarson; his daughter drowned en route, then his livestock starved to death.", "The sagas say that the rather despondent Flóki climbed a mountain and saw a fjord () full of icebergs, which led him to give the island its new and present name.", "The notion that Iceland's Viking settlers chose that name to discourage the settlement of their verdant isle is a myth." ], [ "History", "===874–1262: Settlement and Commonwealth===Ingólfr Arnarson (modern Icelandic: ''Ingólfur Arnarson''), the first permanent Scandinavian settlerAccording to both and Íslendingabók, monks known as the Papar lived in Iceland before Scandinavian settlers arrived, possibly members of a Hiberno-Scottish mission.", "Recent archaeological excavations have revealed the ruins of a cabin in Hafnir on the Reykjanes peninsula.", "Carbon dating indicates that it was abandoned sometime between 770 and 880.In 2016, archaeologists uncovered a longhouse in Stöðvarfjörður that has been dated to as early as 800.Swedish Viking explorer Garðar Svavarsson was the first to circumnavigate Iceland in 870 and establish that it was an island.", "He stayed during the winter and built a house in Húsavík.", "Garðar departed the following summer, but one of his men, Náttfari, decided to stay behind with two slaves.", "Náttfari settled in what is now known as Náttfaravík, and he and his slaves became the first permanent residents of Iceland to be documented.The Norwegian-Norse chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson built his homestead in present-day Reykjavík in 874.Ingólfr was followed by many other emigrant settlers, largely Scandinavians and their thralls, many of whom were Irish or Scottish.", "By 930, most arable land on the island had been claimed; the Althing, a legislative and judicial assembly was initiated to regulate the Icelandic Commonwealth.", "The lack of arable land also served as an impetus to the settlement of Greenland starting in 986.The period of these early settlements coincided with the Medieval Warm Period, when temperatures were similar to those of the early 20th century.", "At this time about 25% of Iceland was covered with forest, compared to 1% in the present day.", "Christianity was adopted by consensus around 999–1000, although Norse paganism persisted among segments of the population for some years afterward.===The Middle Ages===The Icelandic Commonwealth lasted until the 13th century when the political system devised by the original settlers proved unable to cope with the increasing power of Icelandic chieftains.", "The internal struggles and civil strife of the Age of the Sturlungs led to the signing of the Old Covenant in 1262, which ended the Commonwealth and brought Iceland under the Norwegian crown.", "Possession of Iceland passed from the Kingdom of Norway (872–1397) to the Kalmar Union in 1415, when the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden were united.", "After the break-up of the union in 1523, it remained a Norwegian dependency, as a part of Denmark–Norway.Infertile soil, volcanic eruptions, deforestation, and an unforgiving climate made for harsh life in a society where subsistence depended almost entirely on agriculture.", "The Black Death swept Iceland twice, first in 1402–1404 and again in 1494–1495.The former outbreak killed 50% to 60% of the population, and the latter 30% to 50%.===Reformation and the Early Modern period===''Ósvör'', a replica of an old fishing outpost outside BolungarvíkAround the middle of the 16th century, as part of the Protestant Reformation, King Christian III of Denmark began to impose Lutheranism on all his subjects.", "Jón Arason, the last Catholic bishop of Hólar, was beheaded in 1550 along with two of his sons.", "The country subsequently became officially Lutheran, and Lutheranism has since remained the dominant religion.A map of Iceland published in the early 17th century by Gerardus MercatorIn the 17th and 18th centuries, Denmark imposed harsh trade restrictions on Iceland.", "Natural disasters, including volcanic eruptions and disease, contributed to a decreasing population.", "In the summer of 1627, Barbary Pirates committed the events known locally as the Turkish Abductions, in which hundreds of residents were taken into slavery in North Africa and dozens killed; this was the only invasion in Icelandic history to have casualties.", "The 1707–08 Iceland smallpox epidemic is estimated to have killed a quarter to a third of the population.", "In 1783 the Laki volcano erupted, with devastating effects.", "In the years following the eruption, known as the Mist Hardships (), over half of all livestock in the country died.", "Around a quarter of the population starved to death in the ensuing famine.===1814–1918: Independence movement===In 1814, following the Napoleonic Wars, Denmark-Norway was broken up into two separate kingdoms via the Treaty of Kiel but Iceland remained a Danish dependency.", "Throughout the 19th century, the country's climate continued to grow colder, resulting in mass emigration to the New World, particularly to the region of Gimli, Manitoba in Canada, which was sometimes referred to as New Iceland.", "About 15,000 people emigrated, out of a total population of 70,000.A national consciousness arose in the first half of the 19th century, inspired by romantic and nationalist ideas from mainland Europe.", "An Icelandic independence movement took shape in the 1850s under the leadership of Jón Sigurðsson, based on the burgeoning Icelandic nationalism inspired by the ''Fjölnismenn'' and other Danish-educated Icelandic intellectuals.", "In 1874, Denmark granted Iceland a constitution and limited home rule.", "This was expanded in 1904, and Hannes Hafstein served as the first Minister for Iceland in the Danish cabinet.===1918–1944: Independence and the Kingdom of Iceland=== led the British invasion of Iceland.The Danish–Icelandic Act of Union, an agreement with Denmark signed on 1 December 1918 and valid for 25 years, recognised Iceland as a fully sovereign and independent state in a personal union with Denmark.", "The Government of Iceland established an embassy in Copenhagen and requested that Denmark carry out on its behalf certain defence and foreign affairs matters, subject to consultation with the Althing.", "Danish embassies around the world displayed two coats of arms and two flags: those of the Kingdom of Denmark and those of the Kingdom of Iceland.", "Iceland's legal position became comparable to those of countries belonging to the Commonwealth of Nations, such as Canada, whose sovereign is King Charles III.During World War II, Iceland joined Denmark in asserting neutrality.", "After the German occupation of Denmark on 9 April 1940, the Althing replaced the King with a regent and declared that the Icelandic government would take control of its own defence and foreign affairs.", "A month later, British armed forces conducted Operation Fork, the invasion and occupation of the country, violating Icelandic neutrality.", "In 1941, the Government of Iceland, friendly to Britain, invited the then-neutral United States to take over its defence so that Britain could use its troops elsewhere.===1944–present: Republic of Iceland===Third Cod WarOn 31 December 1943, the Danish–Icelandic Act of Union expired after 25 years.", "Beginning on 20 May 1944, Icelanders voted in a four-day plebiscite on whether to terminate the personal union with Denmark, abolish the monarchy, and establish a republic.", "The vote was 97% to end the union, and 95% in favour of the new republican constitution.", "Iceland formally became a republic on 17 June 1944, with Sveinn Björnsson as its first president.In 1946, the US Defence Force Allied left Iceland.", "The nation formally became a member of NATO on 30 March 1949, amid domestic controversy and riots.", "On 5 May 1951, a defence agreement was signed with the United States.", "American troops returned to Iceland as the Iceland Defence Force and remained throughout the Cold War.", "The US withdrew the last of its forces on 30 September 2006.Iceland prospered during the Second World War.", "The immediate post-war period was followed by substantial economic growth, driven by the industrialisation of the fishing industry and the US Marshall Plan programme, through which Icelanders received the most aid per capita of any European country (at US$209, with the war-ravaged Netherlands a distant second at US$109).Vigdís Finnbogadóttir assumed Iceland's presidency on 1 August 1980, making her the first elected female head of state in the world.The 1970s were marked by the Cod Wars—several disputes with the United Kingdom over Iceland's extension of its fishing limits to offshore.", "Iceland hosted a summit in Reykjavík in 1986 between United States President Ronald Reagan and Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev, during which they took significant steps towards nuclear disarmament.", "A few years later, Iceland became the first country to recognise the independence of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania as they broke away from the USSR.", "Throughout the 1990s, the country expanded its international role and developed a foreign policy orientated towards humanitarian and peacekeeping causes.", "To that end, Iceland provided aid and expertise to various NATO-led interventions in Bosnia, Kosovo, and Iraq.Iceland joined the European Economic Area in 1994, after which the economy was greatly diversified and liberalised.", "International economic relations increased further after 2001 when Iceland's newly deregulated banks began to raise great amounts of external debt, contributing to a 32 percent increase in Iceland's gross national income between 2002 and 2007.====Economic boom and crisis====In 2003–2007, following the privatisation of the banking sector under the government of Davíð Oddsson, Iceland moved towards having an economy based on international investment banking and financial services.", "It was quickly becoming one of the most prosperous countries in the world, but was hit hard by a major financial crisis.", "The crisis resulted in the greatest migration from Iceland since 1887, with a net emigration of 5,000 people in 2009.==== Since 2012 ====Iceland's economy stabilised under the government of Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir and grew by 1.6% in 2012.The centre-right Independence Party was returned to power in coalition with the Progressive Party in the 2013 election.", "In the following years, Iceland saw a surge in tourism as the country became a popular holiday destination.", "In 2016, Prime Minister Sigmundur Davíð Gunnlaugsson resigned after being implicated in the Panama Papers scandal.", "Early elections in 2016 resulted in a right-wing coalition government of the Independence Party, the Reform Party and Bright Future.", "This government fell when Bright Future quit the coalition due to a scandal involving then-Prime Minister Bjarni Benediktsson's father's letter of support for a convicted child sex offender.", "Snap elections in October 2017 brought to power a new coalition consisting of the Independence Party, the Progressive Party, and the Left-Green Movement, headed by Katrín Jakobsdóttir.After the 2021 parliamentary election, the new government was, just like the previous government, a tri-party coalition of the Independence Party, the Progressive Party, and the Left-Green Movement, headed by Prime Minister Katrín Jakobsdóttir." ], [ "Geography", "General topographic mapIceland is at the juncture of the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans.", "The main island is entirely south of the Arctic Circle, which passes through the small Icelandic island of Grímsey off the main island's northern coast.", "The country lies between latitudes 63 and 68°N, and longitudes 25 and 13°W.Iceland is closer to continental Europe than to mainland North America, although it is closest to Greenland (), an island of North America.", "Iceland is generally included in Europe for geographical, historical, political, cultural, linguistic and practical reasons.", "Geologically, the island includes parts of both continental plates.", "The closest bodies of land in Europe are the Faroe Islands (); Jan Mayen Island (); Shetland and the Outer Hebrides, both about ; and the Scottish mainland and Orkney, both about .", "The nearest part of Continental Europe is mainland Norway, about away, while mainland North America is away, at the northern tip of Labrador.Three typical Icelandic landscapesIceland is the world's 18th-largest island, and Europe's second-largest island after Great Britain and before Ireland.", "The main island covers , but the entire country is in size, of which 62.7% is tundra.", "Iceland contains about 30 minor islands, including the lightly populated Grímsey and the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago.", "Lakes and glaciers cover 14.3% of its surface; only 23% is vegetated.", "The largest lakes are Þórisvatn reservoir: and Þingvallavatn: ; other important lakes include Lagarfljót and Mývatn.", "Jökulsárlón is the deepest lake, at .Geologically, Iceland is part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a ridge along which the oceanic crust spreads and forms new crust.", "This part of the mid-ocean ridge is located above a mantle plume, causing Iceland to be subaerial (above the surface of the sea).", "The ridge marks the boundary between the Eurasian and North American Plates, and Iceland was created by rifting and accretion through volcanism along the ridge.Many fjords punctuate Iceland's 4,970-km-long (3,088-mi) coastline, which is also where most settlements are situated.", "The island's interior, the Highlands of Iceland, is a cold and uninhabitable combination of sand, mountains, and lava fields.", "The major towns are the capital city of Reykjavík, along with its outlying towns of Kópavogur, Hafnarfjörður, and Garðabær, nearby Reykjanesbær where the international airport is located, and the town of Akureyri in northern Iceland.", "The island of Grímsey on the Arctic Circle contains the northernmost habitation of Iceland, whereas Kolbeinsey contains the northernmost point of Iceland.", "Iceland has three national parks: Vatnajökull National Park, Snæfellsjökull National Park, and Þingvellir National Park.", "The country is considered a \"strong performer\" in environmental protection, having been ranked 13th in Yale University's Environmental Performance Index of 2012.===Geology===The erupting Geysir in Haukadalur valley, the oldest known geyser in the worldGullfoss, an iconic waterfall of IcelandA geologically young land at 16 to 18 million years old, Iceland is the surface expression of the Iceland Plateau, a large igneous province forming as a result of volcanism from the Iceland hotspot and along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, the latter of which runs right through it.", "This means that the island is highly geologically active with many volcanoes including Hekla, Eldgjá, Herðubreið, and Eldfell.", "The volcanic eruption of Laki in 1783–1784 caused a famine that killed nearly a quarter of the island's population.", "In addition, the eruption caused dust clouds and haze to appear over most of Europe and parts of Asia and Africa for several months afterwards, and affected climates in other areas.Iceland has many geysers, including Geysir, from which the English word is derived, and the famous Strokkur, which erupts every 8–10 minutes.", "After a phase of inactivity, Geysir started erupting again after a series of earthquakes in 2000.Geysir has since grown quieter and does not erupt often.With the widespread availability of geothermal power and the harnessing of many rivers and waterfalls for hydroelectricity, most residents have access to inexpensive hot water, heating, and electricity.", "The island is composed primarily of basalt, a low-silica lava associated with effusive volcanism as has occurred also in Hawaii.", "Iceland, however, has a variety of volcanic types (composite and fissure), many producing more evolved lavas such as rhyolite and andesite.", "Iceland has hundreds of volcanoes with about 30 active volcanic systems.Surtsey, one of the youngest islands in the world, is part of Iceland.", "Named after Surtr, it rose above the ocean in a series of volcanic eruptions between 8 November 1963 and 5 June 1968.Only scientists researching the growth of new life are allowed to visit the island.On 21 March 2010, a volcano in Eyjafjallajökull in the south of Iceland erupted for the first time since 1821, forcing 600 people to flee their homes.", "Additional eruptions on 14 April forced hundreds of people to abandon their homes.", "The resultant cloud of volcanic ash brought major disruption to air travel across Europe.High-field overview of the area around ReykirAnother large eruption occurred on 21 May 2011.This time it was the Grímsvötn volcano, located under the thick ice of Europe's largest glacier, Vatnajökull.", "Grímsvötn is one of Iceland's most active volcanoes, and this eruption was much more powerful than the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull activity, with ash and lava hurled into the atmosphere, creating a large cloud.A great deal of volcanic activity was occurring in the Reykjanes Peninsula in 2020 and into 2021, after nearly 800 years of inactivity.", "After the eruption of the Fagradalsfjall volcano on 19 March 2021, National Geographic's experts predicted that this \"may mark the start of decades of volcanic activity.\"", "The eruption was small, leading to a prediction that this volcano was unlikely to threaten \"any population centers\".The highest elevation for Iceland is listed as at Hvannadalshnúkur (64°00′N 16°39′W).On 19 December 2023, after weeks of seismic activity, a volcano erupted on Iceland's Reykjanes peninsula, prompting the evacuation of 4,000 people from Grindavik and the closure of the Blue Lagoon.", "The eruption began from 4km north-east of Grindavik, with visible lava flow.", "Unlike the 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull, this event wasn't expected to cause significant disruption due to the volcano's limited ash cloud generation.===Climate===Köppen climate classification types of IcelandThe climate of Iceland's coast is subarctic.", "The warm North Atlantic Current ensures generally higher annual temperatures than in most places of similar latitude in the world.", "Regions in the world with similar climates include the Aleutian Islands, the Alaska Peninsula, and Tierra del Fuego, although these regions are closer to the equator.", "Despite its proximity to the Arctic, the island's coasts remain ice-free through the winter.", "Ice incursions are rare, with the last having occurred on the north coast in 1969.The climate varies between different parts of the island.", "Generally speaking, the south coast is warmer, wetter, and windier than the north.", "The Central Highlands are the coldest part of the country.", "Low-lying inland areas in the north are the aridest.", "Snowfall in winter is more common in the north than in the south.The highest air temperature recorded was on 22 June 1939 at Teigarhorn on the southeastern coast.", "The lowest was on 22 January 1918 at Grímsstaðir and Möðrudalur in the northeastern hinterland.", "The temperature records for Reykjavík are on 30 July 2008, and on 21 January 1918.===Plants===Phytogeographically, Iceland belongs to the Arctic province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom.", "Plantlife consists mainly of grassland, which is regularly grazed by livestock.", "The most common tree native to Iceland is the northern birch (''Betula pubescens''), which formerly formed forests over much of Iceland, along with aspens (''Populus tremula''), rowans (''Sorbus aucuparia''), common junipers (''Juniperus communis''), and other smaller trees, mainly willows.When the island was first settled, it was extensively forested, with around 30% of the land covered in trees.", "In the late 12th century, Ari the Wise described it in the Íslendingabók as \"forested from mountain to sea shore\".", "Permanent human settlement greatly disturbed the isolated ecosystem of thin, volcanic soils and limited species diversity.", "The forests were heavily exploited over the centuries for firewood and timber.", "Deforestation, climatic deterioration during the Little Ice Age, and overgrazing by sheep imported by settlers caused a loss of critical topsoil due to erosion.", "Today, many farms have been abandoned.", "Three-quarters of Iceland's is affected by soil erosion; is affected to a degree serious enough to make the land useless.", "Only a few small birch stands now exist in isolated reserves.", "The Icelandic Forest Service and other forestry groups promote large-scale reforestation in the country.", "Due to the reforestation efforts, the forest cover of Iceland increased six-fold since the 1990s.", "This helps to offset carbon emissions, prevent sand storms and increase the productivity of farms.", "The planting of new forests has increased the number of trees, but the result does not compare to the original forests.", "Some of the planted forests include introduced species.", "The tallest tree in Iceland is a sitka spruce planted in 1949 in Kirkjubæjarklaustur; it was measured at in 2013.Algae such as ''Chondrus crispus'', ''Phyllphora truncata'' and ''Phyllophora crispa'' and others have been recorded from Iceland.===Animals===The Arctic fox is the only indigenous land mammal in Iceland and was the only land mammal before the arrival of humans.The only native land mammal when humans arrived was the Arctic fox, which came to the island at the end of the ice age, walking over the frozen sea.", "On rare occasions, bats have been carried to the island with the winds, but they are not able to breed there.", "No native or free-living reptiles or amphibians are on the island.The animals of Iceland include the Icelandic sheep, cattle, chickens, goats, the sturdy Icelandic horse, and the Icelandic Sheepdog, all descendants of animals imported by Europeans.", "Wild mammals include the Arctic fox, mink, mice, rats, rabbits, and reindeer.", "Polar bears occasionally visit the island, travelling from Greenland on icebergs, but no Icelandic populations exist.", "In June 2008, two polar bears arrived in the same month.", "Marine mammals include the grey seal (''Halichoerus grypus'') and harbour seal (''Phoca vitulina'').Many species of fish live in the ocean waters surrounding Iceland, and the fishing industry is a major part of Iceland's economy, accounting for roughly half of the country's total exports.", "Birds, especially seabirds, are an important part of Iceland's animal life.", "Atlantic puffins, skuas, and black-legged kittiwakes nest on its sea cliffs.Commercial whaling is practised intermittently along with scientific whale hunts.", "Whale watching has become an important part of Iceland's economy since 1997.Around 1,300 species of insects are known in Iceland.", "This is low compared with other countries (over one million species have been described worldwide).", "Iceland is essentially free of mosquitoes." ], [ "Politics", "The political system of IcelandIceland has a left–right multi-party system.", "Following the 2017 and 2021 parliamentary elections, the biggest parties are the centre-right Independence Party (''Sjálfstæðisflokkurinn''), the Progressive Party (''Framsóknarflokkurinn'') and the Left-Green Movement (''Vinstrihreyfingin – grænt framboð'').", "These three parties form the ruling coalition in the cabinet led by leftist Katrín Jakobsdóttir.Other political parties with seats in the Althing (Parliament) are the Social Democratic Alliance (''Samfylkingin''), the People's Party (''Flokkur fólksins''), Iceland's Pirates (''Píratar''), the Reform Party (''Viðreisn'') and the Centre Party (''Miðflokkurinn'').Iceland was the first country in the world to have a political party formed and led entirely by women.", "Known as the Women's List or Women's Alliance (''Kvennalistinn''), it was founded in 1983 to advance the political, economic, and social needs of women.", "After participating in its first parliamentary elections, the Women's List helped increase the proportion of female parliamentarians by 15%.", "It disbanded in 1999, formally merging the next year with the Social Democratic Alliance, although about half of its members joined the Left-Green Movement instead.", "It did leave a lasting influence on Iceland's politics: every major party has a 40% quota for women, and in 2009 nearly a third of members of parliament were female, compared to the global average of 16%.", "Following the 2016 and 2021 elections, 48% of members of parliament are female.In 2016, Iceland was ranked second in the strength of its democratic institutions and 13th in government transparency.", "The country has a high level of civic participation, with 81.4% voter turnout during the most recent elections, compared to an OECD average of 72%.", "However, only 50% of Icelanders say they trust their political institutions, slightly less than the OECD average of 56% (and most probably a consequence of the political scandals in the wake of the Icelandic financial crisis).===Government===Iceland is a representative democracy and a parliamentary republic.", "The modern parliament, (English: Althing), was founded in 1845 as an advisory body to the Danish monarch.", "It was widely seen as a re-establishment of the assembly founded in 930 in the Commonwealth period and temporarily suspended from 1799 to 1845.Consequently, \"it is arguably the world's oldest parliamentary democracy.\"", "It has 63 members, elected for a maximum period of four years.The head of government is the prime minister who, together with the cabinet, is responsible for executive government.The president of Iceland, in contrast, is a largely ceremonial head of state and serves as a diplomat, but may veto laws voted by the parliament and put them to a national referendum.", "They are elected by popular vote for a term of four years with no term limit.", "The current president is Guðni Th.", "Jóhannesson.", "On 1 August 2016, he became the new president of Iceland, and he was re-elected with an overwhelming majority of the vote in the 2020 presidential election.The elections for the president, the Althing, and local municipal councils are all held separately every four years.The cabinet in the country's government is typically appointed by the president after a general election to the Althing.", "However, the appointment is usually negotiated by the leaders of the political parties, who decide amongst themselves which parties can form the cabinet and how to distribute its seats, as long as it has majority support in the Althing.", "If the party leaders are unable to come to an agreement within a reasonable period of time, the president will personally appoint the cabinet.", "This has not happened since the republic was founded in 1944, although in 1942 the regent, Sveinn Björnsson, appointed a non-parliamentary government.", "Sveinn held the practical position of a president at the time, and later became the country's first official president in 1944.The governments of Iceland have always been coalition governments, with two or more parties involved, as no single political party has ever received a majority of seats in the Althing throughout the republican period.", "There is no legal consensus on the extent of the political power possessed by the office of the president; several provisions of the constitution appear to give the president some important powers, but other provisions and traditions suggest differently.", "In 1980, Icelanders elected Vigdís Finnbogadóttir as president, the world's first directly elected female head of state.", "She retired from office in 1996.In 2009, Iceland became the first country with an openly gay head of government when Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir became prime minister.===Administrative divisions===Iceland is divided into regions, constituencies, and municipalities.", "The eight regions are primarily used for statistical purposes.", "District court jurisdictions also use an older version of this division.", "Until 2003, the constituencies for the parliamentary elections were the same as the regions, but by an amendment to the constitution, they were changed to the current six constituencies:* ''Reykjavík North'' and ''Reykjavík South'' (city regions);* ''Southwest'' (four non-contiguous suburban areas around Reykjavík);* ''Northwest'' and ''Northeast'' (northern half of Iceland, split); and* ''South'' (southern half of Iceland, excluding Reykjavík and suburbs).The redistricting change was made to balance the weight of different districts of the country since previously a vote cast in the sparsely populated areas around the country would count much more than a vote cast in the Reykjavík city area.", "The imbalance between districts has been reduced by the new system but still exists.Sixty-nine municipalities in Iceland govern local matters like schools, transport, and zoning.", "These are the actual second-level subdivisions of Iceland, as the constituencies have no relevance except in elections and for statistical purposes.", "Reykjavík is by far the most populous municipality, about four times more populous than Kópavogur, the second one.Iceland adm location map.svg\|Regions of IcelandElectoral districts of Iceland.svg\|Constituencies of IcelandLower level municipalities of Iceland.svg\|Municipalities of Iceland===Foreign relations===Sigurður second from the leftIceland, which is a member of the UN, NATO, EFTA, Council of Europe, and OECD, maintains diplomatic and commercial relations with practically all nations, but its ties with the Nordic countries, Germany, the United States, Canada, and the other NATO nations are particularly close.", "Historically, due to cultural, economic, and linguistic similarities, Iceland is a Nordic country, and it participates in intergovernmental cooperation through the Nordic Council.Iceland is a member of the European Economic Area (EEA), which allows the country access to the single market of the European Union (EU).", "It was not a member of the EU, but in July 2009, the Icelandic parliament, the Althing, voted in favour of the application for EU membership and officially applied on 17 July 2009.However, in 2013, opinion polls showed that many Icelanders were now against joining the EU; following the 2013 Icelandic parliamentary election the two parties that formed the island's new government—the centrist Progressive Party and the right-wing Independence Party—announced they would hold a referendum on EU membership.", "In 2015, Minister for Foreign Affairs Gunnar Bragi Sveinsson informed the EU that Iceland would no longer pursue membership, but the application was not formally withdrawn and there have been subsequent calls for a referendum on the issue.The Prime Minister of Iceland meets with the First Minister of Scotland Nicola Sturgeon at Bute House in 2019.===Military===Iceland has no standing army but has the Icelandic Coast Guard which also maintains the Iceland Air Defence System, and an Iceland Crisis Response Unit to support peacekeeping missions and perform paramilitary functions.The Iceland Defense Force (IDF) was a military command of the United States Armed Forces from 1951 to 2006.The IDF, created at the request of NATO, came into existence when the United States signed an agreement to provide for the defence of Iceland.", "The IDF also consisted of civilian Icelanders and military members of other NATO nations.", "The IDF was downsized after the end of the Cold War and the U.S. Air Force maintained four to six interceptor aircraft at the Naval Air Station Keflavik until they were withdrawn on 30 September 2006.Since May 2008, NATO nations have periodically deployed fighters to patrol Icelandic airspace under the Icelandic Air Policing mission.", "Iceland supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq despite much domestic controversy, deploying a Coast Guard EOD team to Iraq, which was replaced later by members of the Iceland Crisis Response Unit.", "Iceland has also participated in the conflict in Afghanistan and the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia.", "Despite the ongoing financial crisis the first new patrol ship in decades was launched on 29 April 2009.Iceland was the neutral host of the historic 1986 Reagan–Gorbachev summit in Reykjavík, which set the stage for the end of the Cold War.", "Iceland's principal historical international disputes involved disagreements over exclusive economic zones.", "Conflict with the United Kingdom led to a series of so-called Cod Wars, which included confrontations between the Icelandic Coast Guard and the Royal Navy over British fishermen: in 1952–1956 due to the extension of Iceland's fishing zone from , in 1958–1961 following a further extension to , in 1972–1973 with another extension to , and in 1975–1976 after another extension to .According to the 2011 Global Peace Index, Iceland is the most peaceful country in the world, due to its lack of armed forces, low crime rate and high level of socio-political stability.", "Iceland is listed in ''Guinness World Records'' as the \"country ranked most at peace\" and the \"lowest military spending per capita\"." ], [ "Economy", "Akureyri is the largest town in Iceland outside the Capital Region.", "Most rural towns are based on the fishing industry, which provides 40% of Iceland's exports.In 2007, Iceland was the seventh-most productive country in the world per capita (US$54,858), and the fifth-most productive by GDP at purchasing power parity ($40,112).", "About 85 percent of the total primary energy supply in Iceland is derived from domestically produced renewable energy sources.", "Use of abundant hydroelectric and geothermal power has made Iceland the world's largest electricity producer per capita.", "As a result of its commitment to renewable energy, the 2016 Global Green Economy Index ranked Iceland among the top 10 greenest economies in the world.", "Historically, Iceland's economy depended heavily on fishing, which still provides 40% of export earnings and employs 7% of the workforce.", "The economy is vulnerable to declining fish stocks and falls in world prices for its main material exports: fish and fish products, aluminium, and ferrosilicon.", "Whaling in Iceland has been historically significant.", "Iceland still relies heavily on fishing, but its importance is diminishing from an export share of 90% in the 1960s to 40% in 2006.Until the 20th century, Iceland was a fairly poor country.", "It is now one of the most developed countries in the world.", "Strong economic growth led Iceland to be ranked third in the United Nations' Human Development Index report for 2021/2022.According to the Economist Intelligence Index of 2011, Iceland had the second-highest quality of life in the world.", "Based on the Gini coefficient, Iceland also has one of the lowest rates of income inequality in the world, and when adjusted for inequality, its HDI ranking is sixth.", "Iceland's unemployment rate has declined consistently since the crisis, with 4.8% of the labour force being unemployed , compared to 6% in 2011 and 8.1% in 2010.Many political parties remain opposed to EU membership, primarily due to Icelanders' concern about losing control over their natural resources (particularly fisheries).", "The national currency of Iceland is the Icelandic króna (ISK).", "Iceland is the only country in the world to have a population under two million yet still have a floating exchange rate and an independent monetary policy.A poll released on 5 March 2010 by Capacent Gallup showed that 31% of respondents were in favour of adopting the euro and 69% opposed.", "Another Capacent Gallup poll conducted in February 2012 found that 67.4% of Icelanders would reject EU membership in a referendum.Iceland's economy has been diversifying into manufacturing and service industries in the last decade, including software production, biotechnology, and finance; industry accounts for around a quarter of economic activity, while services comprise close to 70%.", "The tourism sector is expanding, especially in ecotourism and whale-watching.", "On average, Iceland receives around 1.1 million visitors annually, which is more than three times the native population.", "1.7 million people visited Iceland in 2016, 3 times more than the number that came in 2010.Iceland's agriculture industry, accounting for 5.4% of GDP, consists mainly of potatoes, green vegetables (in greenhouses), mutton, and dairy products.", "The financial centre is Borgartún in Reykjavík, which hosts a large number of companies and three investment banks.", "Iceland's stock market, the Iceland Stock Exchange (ISE), was established in 1985.Iceland is ranked 27th in the 2012 Index of Economic Freedom, lower than in prior years but still among the freest in the world.", ", it ranks 29th in the World Economic Forum's Global Competitive Index, one place lower than in 2015.According to the Global Innovation Index, Iceland is the 20th most innovative country in the world in 2022 and 2023.Unlike most Western European countries, Iceland has a flat tax system: the main personal income tax rate is a flat 22.75% and combined with municipal taxes, the total tax rate equals no more than 35.7%, not including the many available deductions.", "The corporate tax rate is a flat 18%, one of the lowest in the world.", "There is also a value added tax, whereas a net wealth tax was eliminated in 2006.Employment regulations are relatively flexible and the labour market is one of the freest in the world.", "Property rights are strong and Iceland is one of the few countries where they are applied to fishery management.", "Like other welfare states, taxpayers pay various subsidies to each other, but with spending being less than in most European countries.Despite low tax rates, agricultural assistance is the highest among OECD countries and a potential impediment to structural change.", "Also, health care and education spending have relatively poor returns by OECD measures, though improvements have been made in both areas.", "The OECD ''Economic Survey of Iceland 2008'' highlighted Iceland's challenges in currency and macroeconomic policy.", "There was a currency crisis that started in the spring of 2008, and on 6 October trading in Iceland's banks was suspended as the government battled to save the economy.", "An assessment by the OECD 2011 determined that Iceland has made progress in many areas, particularly in creating a sustainable fiscal policy and restoring the health of the financial sector; however, challenges remain in making the fishing industry more efficient and sustainable, as well as in improving monetary policy to address inflation.", "Iceland's public debt has decreased since the economic crisis, and is the 31st-highest in the world by proportion of national GDP.===Economic contraction===2009 Icelandic financial crisis protestsIceland bonds had an Inverted yield curve in 2008Iceland was hit especially hard by the Great Recession that began in December 2007 because of the failure of its banking system and a subsequent economic crisis.", "Before the crash of the country's three largest banks, Glitnir, Landsbanki and Kaupthing, their combined debt exceeded approximately six times the nation's gross domestic product of €14 billion ($19 billion).", "In October 2008, the Icelandic parliament passed emergency legislation to minimise the impact of the financial crisis.", "The Financial Supervisory Authority of Iceland used permission granted by the emergency legislation to take over the domestic operations of the three largest banks.", "Icelandic officials, including central bank governor Davíð Oddsson, stated that the state did not intend to take over any of the banks' foreign debts or assets.", "Instead, new banks were established to take on the domestic operations of the banks, and the old banks were to be run into bankruptcy.On 28 October 2008, the Icelandic government raised interest rates to 18% (, it was 3.5%), a move forced in part by the terms of acquiring a loan from International Monetary Fund (IMF).", "After the rate hike, trading on the Icelandic króna finally resumed on the open market, with a valuation at around 250 ISK per euro, less than one-third the value of the 1:70 exchange rate during most of 2008, and a significant drop from the 1:150 exchange ratio of the week before.", "On 20 November 2008, the Nordic countries agreed to lend Iceland $2.5 billion.On 26 January 2009, the coalition government collapsed due to public dissent over the handling of the financial crisis.", "A new left-wing government was formed a week later and immediately set about removing Central Bank governor Davíð Oddsson and his aides from the bank through changes in the law.", "Davíð was removed on 26 February 2009 in the wake of protests outside the Central Bank.Thousands of Icelanders left the country after the collapse, many of those moving to Norway.", "In 2005, 293 people moved from Iceland to Norway; in 2009, the figure was 1,625.In April 2010, the Icelandic Parliament's Special Investigation Commission published the findings of its investigation, revealing the extent of control fraud in this crisis.", "By June 2012, Landsbanki managed to repay about half of the Icesave debt.According to Bloomberg in 2014, Iceland was on the trajectory of 2% unemployment as a result of crisis-management decisions made back in 2008, including allowing the banks to fail.===Transport===The Ring Road of Iceland and some towns it passes through: 1.Reykjavík, 2.Borgarnes, 3.Blönduós, 4.Akureyri, 5.Egilsstaðir, 6.Höfn, 7.SelfossIceland has a high level of car ownership per capita, with a car for every 1.5 inhabitants; it is the main form of transport.", "Iceland has of administered roads, of which are paved and are not.", "A great number of roads remain unpaved, mostly little-used rural roads.", "The road speed limits are in towns, on gravel country roads and on hard-surfaced roads.Route 1, or the Ring Road ( or ), was completed in 1974, and is the main road that runs around Iceland and connects all the inhabited parts of the island, with the interior of the island being uninhabited.", "This paved road is long with one lane in each direction, except near larger towns and cities and in the Hvalfjörður Tunnel where it has more lanes.", "Many bridges on it, especially in the north and east, are single lanes and made of timber or steel.Keflavík International Airport (KEF) is the largest airport and the main aviation hub for international passenger transport.", "It serves several international and domestic airline companies.", "KEF is in the vicinity of the larger metropolitan capital areas, to the WSW of Reykjavík centre, and public bus services are available.Iceland has no passenger railways.Reykjavík Airport (RKV) is the second-largest airport, located just 1.5 km from the capital centre.", "RKV serves general aviation traffic and has daily or regular domestic flights to 12 local townships within Iceland.", "RKV also serves international flights to Greenland and the Faroe Islands, business and private aeroplanes along with aviation training.Akureyri Airport (AEY) and Egilsstaðir Airport (EGS) are two other domestic airports with limited international service capacity.", "There are a total of 103 registered airports and airfields in Iceland; most of them are unpaved and located in rural areas.", "The second-longest runway is at Geitamelur, a four-runway glider field around east of Reykjavík.Several ferry services provide regular access to various outpost communities or shorten travel distances.===Energy===The Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Station services the Capital Region's hot water and electricity needs.", "Virtually all of Iceland's electricity comes from renewable resources.Iceland electricity production by sourceRenewable sources—geothermal and hydropower—provide effectively all of Iceland's electricity and around 85% of the nation's total primary energy consumption, with most of the remainder consisting of imported oil products used in transportation and in the fishing fleet.", "A 2000 report from the University of Iceland suggested that Iceland could potentially convert from oil to hydrogen power by 2040.Iceland's largest geothermal power plants are Hellisheiði and Nesjavellir, while Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant is the country's largest hydroelectric power station.", "When the Kárahnjúkavirkjun started operating, Iceland became the world's largest electricity producer per capita.", "Iceland is one of the few countries that have filling stations dispensing hydrogen fuel for cars powered by fuel cells.Despite this, Icelanders emitted 16.9 tonnes of CO2 per capita in 2016, the highest among EFTA and EU members, mainly resulting from transport and aluminium smelting.", "Nevertheless, in 2010, Iceland was reported by ''Guinness World Records'' as \"the Greenest Country\", reaching the highest score by the Environmental Sustainability Index, which measures a country's water use, biodiversity and adoption of clean energies, with a score of 93.5/100.On 22 January 2009, Iceland announced its first round of offshore licences for companies wanting to conduct hydrocarbon exploration and production in a region northeast of Iceland, known as the Dreki area.", "Three exploration licences were awarded but all were subsequently relinquished.Iceland's official governmental goal is to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 40% by the year 2030 and reach carbon neutrality by the year 2040.===Education and science===gymnasium in Iceland.The Ministry of Education, Science and Culture is responsible for the policies and methods that schools must use, and they issue the National Curriculum Guidelines.", "However, playschools, primary schools, and lower secondary schools are funded and administered by the municipalities.", "The government does allow citizens to home educate their children, however, under a very strict set of demands.", "Students must adhere closely to the government-mandated curriculum, and the parent teaching must acquire a government approved teaching certificate.Nursery school, or , is non-compulsory education for children younger than six years and is the first step in the education system.", "The current legislation concerning playschools was passed in 1994.They are also responsible for ensuring that the curriculum is suitable to make the transition into compulsory education as easy as possible.Compulsory education, or , comprises primary and lower secondary education, which often is conducted at the same institution.", "Education is mandatory by law for children aged from 6 to 16 years.", "The school year lasts nine months, beginning between 21 August and 1 September, and ending between 31 May and 10 June.", "The minimum number of school days was once 170, but after a new teachers' wage contract, it increased to 180.Lessons take place five days a week.", "All public schools have mandatory education in Christianity, although an exemption may be considered by the Minister of Education.Upper secondary education, or , follows lower secondary education.", "These schools are also known as gymnasia in English.", "Though not compulsory, everyone who has had a compulsory education has the right to upper secondary education.", "This stage of education is governed by the Upper Secondary School Act of 1996.All schools in Iceland are mixed-sex schools.", "The largest seat of higher education is the University of Iceland, which has its main campus in central Reykjavík.", "Other schools offering university-level instruction include Reykjavík University, University of Akureyri, Agricultural University of Iceland and Bifröst University.An OECD assessment found that 64% of Icelanders aged 25–64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, which is lower than the OECD average of 73%.", "Among 25- to 34-year-olds, only 69% have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, significantly lower than the OECD average of 80%.", "Nevertheless, Iceland's education system is considered excellent: the Programme for International Student Assessment ranks it as the 16th best performing, above the OECD average.", "Students were particularly proficient in reading and mathematics.According to a 2013 Eurostat report by the European Commission, Iceland spends around 3.11% of its GDP on scientific research and development (R&D), over 1 percentage point higher than the EU average of 2.03%, and has set a target of 4% to reach by 2020.Iceland was ranked 17th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, up from 20th in 2019.A 2010 UNESCO report found that out of 72 countries that spend the most on R&D (US$100 million or more), Iceland ranked ninth by proportion of GDP, tied with Taiwan, Switzerland, and Germany and ahead of France, the United Kingdom and Canada." ], [ "Demographics", "Reykjavík, Iceland's largest metropolitan area and the centre of the Capital Region which, with a population of 233,034, makes for 64% of Iceland's population.", "(Numbers from 2020)The original population of Iceland was of Nordic and Gaelic origin.", "This is evident from literary evidence dating from the settlement period as well as from later scientific studies such as blood type and genetic analyses.", "One such genetic study indicated that the majority of the male settlers were of Nordic origin while the majority of the women were of Gaelic origin, meaning many settlers of Iceland were Norsemen who brought Gaelic slaves with them.Iceland has extensive genealogical records dating back to the late 17th century and fragmentary records extending back to the Age of Settlement.", "The biopharmaceutical company deCODE genetics has funded the creation of a genealogy database that is intended to cover all of Iceland's known inhabitants.", "It views the database, called , as a valuable tool for conducting research on genetic diseases, given the relative isolation of Iceland's population.The population of the island is believed to have varied from 40,000 to 60,000 in the period ranging from initial settlement until the mid-19th century.", "During that time, cold winters, ash fall from volcanic eruptions, and bubonic plagues adversely affected the population several times.", "There were 37 famine years in Iceland between 1500 and 1804.The first census was carried out in 1703 and revealed that the population was then 50,358.After the destructive volcanic eruptions of the Laki volcano during 1783–1784, the population reached a low of about 40,000.Improving living conditions have triggered a rapid increase in population since the mid-19th century—from about 60,000 in 1850 to 320,000 in 2008.Iceland has a relatively young population for a developed country, with one out of five people being 14 years old or younger.", "With a fertility rate of 2.1, Iceland is one of only a few European countries with a birth rate sufficient for long-term population growth (see table below).In December 2007, 33,678 people (13.5% of the total population) living in Iceland had been born abroad, including children of Icelandic parents living abroad.", "Around 19,000 people (6% of the population) held foreign citizenship.", "Polish people make up the largest minority group by a considerable margin and still form the bulk of the foreign workforce.", "About 8,000 Poles now live in Iceland, 1,500 of them in Fjarðabyggð where they make up 75% of the workforce who are constructing the Fjarðarál aluminium plant.", "Large-scale construction projects in the east of Iceland (see Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant) have also brought in many people whose stay is expected to be temporary.", "Many Polish immigrants were also considering leaving in 2008 as a result of the Icelandic financial crisis.The southwest corner of Iceland is by far the most densely populated region.", "It is also the location of the capital Reykjavík, the northernmost national capital in the world.", "More than 70 percent of Iceland's population lives in the southwest corner (Greater Reykjavík and the nearby Southern Peninsula), which covers less than two percent of Iceland's land area.", "The largest town outside Greater Reykjavík is Reykjanesbær, which is located on the Southern Peninsula, less than from the capital.", "The largest town outside the southwest corner is Akureyri in northern Iceland.Some 500 Icelanders under the leadership of Erik the Red settled Greenland in the late tenth century.", "The total population reached a high point of perhaps 5,000, and developed independent institutions before disappearing by 1500.People from Greenland attempted to set up a settlement at Vinland in North America, but abandoned it in the face of hostility from the Indigenous residents.Emigration of Icelanders to the United States and Canada began in the 1870s.", ", Canada had over 88,000 people of Icelandic descent, while there are more than 40,000 Americans of Icelandic descent, according to the 2000 US census.===Urbanisation===Iceland's 10 most populous urban areas:===Language===Iceland's official written and spoken language is Icelandic, a North Germanic language descended from Old Norse.", "In grammar and vocabulary, it has changed less from Old Norse than the other Nordic languages; Icelandic has preserved more verb and noun inflection, and has to a considerable extent developed new vocabulary based on native roots rather than borrowings from other languages.", "The puristic tendency in the development of Icelandic vocabulary is to a large degree a result of conscious language planning, in addition to centuries of isolation.", "Icelandic is the only living language to retain the use of the runic letter Þ in Latin script.", "The closest living relative of the Icelandic language is Faroese.Icelandic Sign Language was officially recognised as a minority language in 2011.In education, its use for Iceland's deaf community is regulated by the ''National Curriculum Guide''.English and Danish are compulsory subjects in the school curriculum.", "English is widely understood and spoken, while basic to moderate knowledge of Danish is common mainly among the older generations.", "Polish is mostly spoken by the local Polish community (the largest minority of Iceland), and Danish is mostly spoken in a way largely comprehensible to Swedes and Norwegians—it is often referred to as (i.e.", "''Scandinavian'') in Iceland.Rather than using family names, as is the usual custom in most Western nations, Icelanders carry patronymic or matronymic surnames, patronyms being far more commonly practised.", "Patronymic last names are based on the first name of the father, while matronymic names are based on the first name of the mother.", "These follow the person's given name, e.g.", "(\"Elísabet, Jón's daughter\" (Jón being the father)) or (\"Ólafur, Katrín's son\" (Katrín being the mother)).", "Consequently, Icelanders refer to one another by their given name, and the Icelandic telephone directory lists people alphabetically by the first name rather than by surname.", "All new names must be approved by the Icelandic Naming Committee.===Health===Life expectancy in Iceland, 1838 to 2021Iceland has a universal health care system that is administered by its Ministry of Welfare () and paid for mostly by taxes (85%) and to a lesser extent by service fees (15%).", "Unlike most countries, there are no private hospitals, and private insurance is practically nonexistent.A considerable portion of the government budget is assigned to health care, and Iceland ranks 11th in health care expenditures as a percentage of GDP and 14th in spending per capita.", "Overall, the country's health care system is one of the best performing in the world, ranked 15th by the World Health Organization.", "According to an OECD report, Iceland devotes far more resources to healthcare than most industrialised nations.", ", Iceland had 3.7 doctors per 1,000 people (compared with an average of 3.1 in OECD countries) and 15.3 nurses per 1,000 people (compared with an OECD average of 8.4).Icelanders are among the world's healthiest people, with 81% reporting they are in good health, according to an OECD survey.", "Although it is a growing problem, obesity is not as prevalent as in other developed countries.", "Iceland has many campaigns for health and wellbeing, including the famous television show ''Lazytown'', starring and created by former gymnastics champion Magnus Scheving.", "Infant mortality is one of the lowest in the world, and the proportion of the population that smokes is lower than the OECD average.", "Almost all women choose to terminate pregnancies of children with Down syndrome in Iceland.", "The average life expectancy is 81.8 (compared to an OECD average of 79.5), the fourth-highest in the world.Iceland has a very low level of pollution, thanks to an overwhelming reliance on cleaner geothermal energy, a low population density, and a high level of environmental consciousness among citizens.", "According to an OECD assessment, the amount of toxic materials in the atmosphere is far lower than in any other industrialised country measured.in 2019 the age-adjusted suicide rate in Iceland was 11.2 cases per 100,000.===Religion=== Affiliation by religious movement (1 January 2018) Affiliation% of population '''Christianity''' ''Church of Iceland'' ''Other Lutheran churches'' ''Roman Catholic Church'' ''Eastern Orthodox Church'' ''Other Christian denominations'' '''Other religion or association''' ''Germanic Heathenism'' ''Humanist association'' ''Zuism'' ''Buddhism'' ''Islam'' ''Baháʼí Faith'' ''Other and not specified'' '''Unaffiliated''' A church in the northwest of IcelandIcelanders have freedom of religion guaranteed under the Constitution, although the Church of Iceland, a Lutheran body, is the state church:Approximately 80 percent of Icelanders legally affiliate with a religious denomination, a process that happens automatically at birth and from which they can choose to opt out.", "They also pay a church tax (sóknargjald), which the government directs to help support their registered religion, or, in the case of no religion, the University of Iceland.The Registers Iceland keeps account of the religious affiliation of every Icelandic citizen.", "In 2017, Icelanders were divided into religious groups as follows:* 67.22% members of the Church of Iceland;* 11.56% members of other Christian denomination;* 11.29% other religions and not specified;* 6.69% unaffiliated;* 1.19% members of Germanic Heathen groups (99% of them belonging to Ásatrúarfélagið);* 0.67% members of the Icelandic Ethical Humanist Association;* 0.55% members of Zuist groups.On March 8, 2021, Iceland formally recognised Judaism as a religion for the first time.", "Iceland's Jews will have the choice to register as such and direct their taxes to their own religion.", "Among other benefits, the recognition will also allow Jewish marriage, baby-naming and funeral ceremonies to be civilly recognised.Iceland is a very secular country; as with other Nordic nations, church attendance is relatively low.", "The above statistics represent administrative membership of religious organisations, which does not necessarily reflect the belief demographics of the population.", "According to a study published in 2001, 23% of the inhabitants were either atheist or agnostic.", "A Gallup poll conducted in 2012 found that 57% of Icelanders considered themselves \"religious\", 31% considered themselves \"non-religious\", while 10% defined themselves as \"convinced atheists\", placing Iceland among the ten countries with the highest proportions of atheists in the world." ], [ "Culture", "Icelandic culture has its roots in North Germanic traditions.", "Icelandic literature is popular, in particular the sagas and eddas that were written during the High and Late Middle Ages.", "Centuries of isolation have helped to insulate the country's Nordic culture from external influence; a prominent example is the preservation of the Icelandic language, which remains the closest to Old Norse of all modern Nordic languages.In contrast to other Nordic countries, Icelanders place relatively great importance on independence and self-sufficiency; in a public opinion analysis conducted by the European Commission, over 85% of Icelanders believe independence is \"very important\", compared to 47% of Norwegians, 49% of Danes, and an average of 53% for the EU25.Icelanders also have a very strong work ethic, working some of the longest hours of any industrialised nation.According to a poll conducted by the OECD, 66% of Icelanders were satisfied with their lives, while 70% believed that their lives will be satisfying in the future.", "Similarly, 83% reported having more positive experiences in an average day than negative ones, compared to an OECD average of 72%, which makes Iceland one of the happiest countries in the OECD.", "A more recent 2012 survey found that around three-quarters of respondents stated they were satisfied with their lives, compared to a global average of about 53%.Icelanders are known for their strong sense of community and lack of social isolation: An OECD survey found that 98% believe they know someone they could rely on in a time of need, higher than in any other industrialised country.", "Similarly, only 6% reported \"rarely\" or \"never\" socialising with others.", "This high level of social cohesion is attributed to the small size and homogeneity of the population, as well as to a long history of harsh survival in an isolated environment, which reinforced the importance of unity and cooperation.Egalitarianism is highly valued among the people of Iceland, with income inequality being among the lowest in the world.", "The constitution explicitly prohibits the enactment of noble privileges, titles, and ranks.", "Everyone is addressed by their first name.", "As in other Nordic countries, equality between the sexes is very high; Iceland is consistently ranked among the top three countries in the world for women to live in.===Literature===In 2011, Reykjavík was designated a UNESCO City of Literature.A page of Njáls saga from Möðruvallabók.", "The sagas are a significant part of the Icelandic heritage.Iceland's best-known classical works of literature are the Icelanders' sagas, prose epics set in Iceland's age of settlement.", "The most famous of these include ''Njáls saga'', about an epic blood feud, and ''Grænlendinga saga'' and ''Eiríks saga'', describing the discovery and settlement of Greenland and Vinland (modern Newfoundland).", "''Egils saga'', ''Laxdæla saga'', ''Grettis saga'', ''Gísla saga'' and ''Gunnlaugs saga ormstungu'' are also notable and popular Icelanders' sagas.A translation of the Bible was published in the 16th century.", "Important compositions from the 15th to the 19th century include sacred verse, most famously the Passion Hymns of Hallgrímur Pétursson, and ''rímur'', rhyming epic poems.", "Originating in the 14th century, ''rímur'' were popular into the 19th century, when the development of new literary forms was provoked by the influential National-Romantic writer Jónas Hallgrímsson.", "In recent times, Iceland has produced many great writers, the best-known of whom is arguably Halldór Laxness, who received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1955 (the only Icelander to win a Nobel Prize thus far).", "Steinn Steinarr was an influential modernist poet during the early 20th century who remains popular.Icelanders are avid consumers of literature, with the highest number of bookstores per capita in the world.", "For its size, Iceland imports and translates more international literature than any other nation.", "Iceland also has the highest per capita publication of books and magazines, and around 10% of the population will publish a book in their lifetimes.Most books in Iceland are sold between late September to early November.", "This period is known as ''Jólabókaflóð'', the Christmas Book Flood.", "The Flood begins with the Iceland Publisher's Association distributing ''Bókatíðindi'', a catalogue of all new publications, free to each Icelandic home.===LGBT rights===Iceland is liberal about LGBT rights issues.", "In 1996, the Icelandic parliament passed legislation to create registered partnerships for same-sex couples, conferring nearly all the rights and benefits of marriage.", "In 2006, parliament voted unanimously to grant same-sex couples the same rights as heterosexual couples in adoption, parenting, and assisted insemination treatment.", "In 2010, the Icelandic parliament amended the marriage law, making it gender-neutral and defining marriage as between two individuals, making Iceland one of the first countries in the world to legalise same-sex marriages.", "The law took effect on 27 June 2010.The amendment to the law also means registered partnerships for same-sex couples are now no longer possible, and marriage is their only option—identical to the existing situation for opposite-sex couples.===Art===The distinctive rendition of the Icelandic landscape by its painters can be linked to nationalism and the movement for home rule and independence, which was very active in the mid-19th century.", "''Þingvellir'' by Þórarinn B. ÞorlákssonContemporary Icelandic painting is typically traced to the work of Þórarinn Þorláksson, who, following formal training in art in the 1890s in Copenhagen, returned to Iceland to paint and exhibit works from 1900 to his death in 1924, almost exclusively portraying the Icelandic landscape.", "Several other Icelandic men and women artists studied at Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts at that time, including Ásgrímur Jónsson, who together with Þórarinn created a distinctive portrayal of Iceland's landscape in a romantic naturalistic style.", "Other landscape artists quickly followed in the footsteps of Þórarinn and Ásgrímur.", "These included Jóhannes Kjarval and Júlíana Sveinsdóttir.", "Kjarval in particular is noted for the distinct techniques in the application of paint that he developed in a concerted effort to render the characteristic volcanic rock that dominates the Icelandic environment.", "Einar Hákonarson is an expressionistic and figurative painter who by some is considered to have brought the figure back into Icelandic painting.", "In the 1980s, many Icelandic artists worked with the subject of the new painting in their work.In recent years the artistic practice has multiplied, and the Icelandic art scene has become a setting for many large-scale projects and exhibitions.", "The artist-run gallery space Kling og Bang, members of which later ran the studio complex and exhibition venue Klink og Bank, has been a significant part of the trend of self-organised spaces, exhibitions, and projects.", "The Living Art Museum, Reykjavík Municipal Art Museum, Reykjavík Art Museum, and the National Gallery of Iceland are the larger, more established institutions, curating shows and festivals.===Music===Björk, the best-known Icelandic musicianMuch Icelandic music is related to Nordic music, and includes folk and pop traditions.", "Notable Icelandic music acts include medieval music group Voces Thules, alternative and indie rock acts such as The Sugarcubes, Sóley and Of Monsters and Men, jazz fusion band Mezzoforte, pop singers such as Hafdís Huld, Emilíana Torrini and Björk, solo ballad singers like Bubbi Morthens, and post-rock bands such as Amiina and Sigur Rós.", "Independent music is strong in Iceland, with bands such as múm and solo artists such as Daði Freyr.Traditional Icelandic music is strongly religious.", "Hymns, both religious and secular, are a particularly well-developed form of music, due to the scarcity of musical instruments throughout much of Iceland's history.", "Hallgrímur Pétursson wrote many Protestant hymns in the 17th century.", "Icelandic music was modernised in the 19th century when Magnús Stephensen brought pipe organs, which were followed by harmoniums.", "Other vital traditions of Icelandic music are epic alliterative and rhyming ballads called ''rímur''.", "''Rímur'' are epic tales, usually a cappella, which can be traced back to skaldic poetry, using complex metaphors and elaborate rhyme schemes.", "The best-known rímur poet of the 19th century was Sigurður Breiðfjörð (1798–1846).", "A modern revitalisation of the tradition began in 1929 with the formation of .Among Iceland's best-known classical composers are Daníel Bjarnason and Anna S. Þorvaldsdóttir, who in 2012 received the Nordic Council Music Prize and in 2015 was chosen as the New York Philharmonic's Kravis Emerging Composer, an honour that includes a $50,000 cash prize and a commission to write a composition for the orchestra; she is the second recipient.The national anthem of Iceland is ''Lofsöngur'', written by Matthías Jochumsson, with music by Sveinbjörn Sveinbjörnsson.===Media===Icelandic director Baltasar Kormákur, best known for the films ''101 Reykjavík'', ''Jar City'' and ''Contraband'', and television series ''Trapped''Iceland's largest television stations are the state-run Sjónvarpið and the privately owned Stöð 2 and SkjárEinn.", "Smaller stations exist, many of them local.", "Radio is broadcast throughout the country, including in some parts of the interior.", "The main radio stations are Rás 1, Rás 2, X-ið 977, Bylgjan and FM957.The daily newspapers are ''Morgunblaðið'' and ''Fréttablaðið''.", "The most popular websites are the news sites Vísir and Mbl.is.Iceland is home to ''LazyTown'' (Icelandic: ''Latibær''), a children's educational musical comedy programme created by Magnús Scheving.", "It has become a very popular programme for children and adults and is shown in over 100 countries, including the Americas, the UK and Sweden.", "The ''LazyTown'' studios are located in Garðabær.", "The 2015 television crime series ''Trapped'' aired in the UK on BBC4 in February and March 2016, to critical acclaim and according to the Guardian \"the unlikeliest TV hit of the year\".In 1992, the Icelandic film industry achieved its greatest recognition hitherto, when Friðrik Þór Friðriksson was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film for his ''Children of Nature''.", "It features the story of an old man who is unable to continue running his farm.", "After being unwelcomed in his daughter's and father-in-law's house in town, he is put in a home for the elderly.", "There, he meets an old girlfriend of his youth, and they both begin a journey through the wilds of Iceland to die together.", "This is the only Icelandic movie to have ever been nominated for an Academy Award.Singer-songwriter Björk received international acclaim for her starring role in the Danish musical drama ''Dancer in the Dark'', directed by Lars von Trier, in which she plays Selma Ježková, a factory worker who struggles to pay for her son's eye operation.", "The film premiered at the 2000 Cannes Film Festival, where she won the Best Actress Award.", "The movie also led Björk to nominations for Best Original Song at the 73rd Academy Awards, with the song ''I've Seen It All'' and for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture - Drama.Guðrún S. Gísladóttir, who is Icelandic, played one of the major roles in Russian filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky's film ''The Sacrifice'' (1986).", "Anita Briem, known for her performance in Showtime's ''The Tudors'', is also Icelandic.", "Briem starred in the film ''Journey to the Center of the Earth'' (2008), which shot scenes in Iceland.", "The James Bond movie ''Die Another Day'' (2002) is set for a large part in Iceland.", "Christopher Nolan's film ''Interstellar'' (2014) was also filmed in Iceland for some of its scenes, as was Ridley Scott's ''Prometheus'' (2012).On 17 June 2010, the parliament passed the Icelandic Modern Media Initiative, proposing greater protection of free speech rights and the identity of journalists and whistle-blowers—the strongest journalist protection law in the world.", "According to a 2011 report by Freedom House, Iceland is one of the highest-ranked countries in press freedom.CCP Games, developers of the critically acclaimed ''EVE Online'' and ''Dust 514'', are headquartered in Reykjavík.", "CCP Games hosts the third-most populated MMO in the world, which also has the largest total game area for an online game, according to ''Guinness World Records''.Iceland has a highly developed internet culture, with around 95% of the population having internet access, the highest proportion in the world.", "Iceland ranked 12th in the World Economic Forum's 2009–2010 Network Readiness Index, which measures a country's ability to competitively exploit communications technology.", "The United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks the country third in its development of information and communications technology, having moved up four places between 2008 and 2010.In February 2013 the country (ministry of the interior) was researching possible methods to protect children in regards to Internet pornography, claiming that pornography online is a threat to children as it supports child slavery and abuse.", "Strong voices within the community expressed concerns with this, stating that it is impossible to block access to pornography without compromising freedom of speech.===Cuisine===A typical Þorramatur assortmentMuch of Iceland's cuisine is based on fish, lamb, and dairy products, with little to no use of herbs or spices.", "Due to the island's climate, fruits and vegetables are not generally a component of traditional dishes, although the use of greenhouses has made them more common in contemporary food.", "Þorramatur is a selection of traditional cuisine consisting of many dishes and is usually consumed around the month of Þorri, which begins on the first Friday after 19 January.", "Traditional dishes also include skyr (a yogurt-like cheese), hákarl (cured shark), cured ram, singed sheep heads, and black pudding, Flatkaka (flatbread), dried fish and dark rye bread traditionally baked in the ground in geothermal areas.", "Puffin is considered a local delicacy that is often prepared through broiling.Breakfast usually consists of pancakes, cereal, fruit, and coffee, while lunch may take the form of a smörgåsbord.", "The main meal of the day for most Icelanders is dinner, which usually involves fish or lamb as the main course.", "Seafood is central to most Icelandic cooking, particularly cod and haddock but also salmon, herring, and halibut.", "It is often prepared in a wide variety of ways, either smoked, pickled, boiled, or dried.", "Lamb is by far the most common meat, and it tends to be either smoke-cured (known as ''hangikjöt'') or salt-preserved (''saltkjöt'').", "Many older dishes make use of every part of the sheep, such as ''slátur'', which consists of offal (internal organs and entrails) minced together with blood and served in sheep stomach.", "Additionally, boiled or mashed potatoes, pickled cabbage, green beans, and rye bread are prevalent side dishes.Coffee is a popular beverage in Iceland, with the country being third placed by per capita consumption worldwide in 2016, and is drunk at breakfast, after meals, and with a light snack in mid-afternoon.", "Coca-Cola is also widely consumed, to the extent that the country is said to have one of the highest per capita consumption rates in the world.Iceland's signature alcoholic beverage is ''brennivín'' (literally \"burnt i.e., distilled wine\"), which is similar in flavouring to the akvavit variant of Scandinavian brännvin.", "It is a type of schnapps made from distilled potatoes and flavoured with either caraway seeds or angelica.", "Its potency has earned it the nickname ''svarti dauði'' (\"Black Death\").", "Modern distilleries on Iceland produce vodka (Reyka), gin (Ísafold), moss schnapps (Fjallagrasa), and a birch-flavoured schnapps and liqueur (Foss Distillery's Birkir and Björk).", "Martin Miller blends Icelandic water with its England-distilled gin on the island.", "Strong beer was banned until 1989, so ''bjórlíki'', a mixture of legal, low-alcohol pilsner beer and vodka, became popular.", "Several strong beers are now made by Icelandic breweries.===Sport===The Iceland men's national handball team (pictured) won the silver medal at the 2008 Summer Olympics.", "Handball is considered Iceland's national sport.Sport is an important part of Icelandic culture, as the population is generally quite active.", "The main traditional sport in Iceland is ''Glíma'', a form of wrestling thought to have originated in medieval times.Iceland fans at the 2018 FIFA World Cup in RussiaPopular sports include football, track and field, handball and basketball.", "Handball is often referred to as the national sport.", "The Icelandic national football team qualified for the 2016 UEFA European football championship for the first time.", "They recorded a draw against later winners Portugal in the group stage, and defeated England 2–1 in the round of 16, with goals from Ragnar Sigurðsson and Kolbeinn Sigþórsson.", "They then lost to hosts and later finalists France in the quarter-finals.", "Following up on this, Iceland made its debut at the 2018 FIFA World Cup.", "For both the European and the world championships, Iceland is to date the smallest nation in terms of population to qualify.Iceland is also the smallest country to ever qualify for Eurobasket, having done so in both 2015 and 2017.However, they have not managed to win a single game in the European Basketball final stages.Iceland has excellent conditions for skiing, fishing, snowboarding, ice climbing and rock climbing, although mountain climbing and hiking are preferred by the general public.", "Iceland is also a world-class destination for alpine ski touring and Telemark skiing, with the Troll Peninsula in Northern Iceland being the main centre of activity.", "Although the country's environment is generally ill-suited for golf, there are nevertheless many golf courses throughout the island, and Iceland has a greater percentage of the population playing golf than Scotland with over 17,000 registered golfers out of a population of approximately 300,000.Iceland hosts an annual international golf tournament known as the Arctic Open played through the night during the summer solstice at Akureyri Golf Club.", "Iceland has also won the second most World's Strongest Man competitions of any country with nine titles, including four by both Magnús Ver Magnússon and Jón Páll Sigmarsson and most recently Hafþór Júlíus Björnsson in 2018.Iceland is also one of the leading countries in ocean rowing.", "Icelandic explorer and endurance athlete Fiann Paul holds the highest number of performance-based ''Guinness World Records'' within a single athletic discipline.", "As of 2020, he is the first and only person to achieve the Ocean Explorers Grand Slam (performing open-water crossings on each of the five oceans using human-powered vessels) and has claimed overall speed ''Guinness World Records'' for the fastest rowing of all four oceans (Atlantic, Indian, Pacific, and the Arctic) in a human-powered row boat.", "He had achieved a total of 41, including 33 performance based ''Guinness World Records'' by 2020.Swimming is popular in Iceland.", "Geothermally heated outdoor pools are widespread, and swimming courses are a mandatory part of the national curriculum.", "Horseback riding, which was historically the most prevalent form of transportation on the island, remains a common pursuit for many Icelanders.The oldest sports association in Iceland is the Reykjavík Shooting Association, founded in 1867.Rifle shooting became very popular in the 19th century with the encouragement of politicians and nationalists who were pushing for Icelandic independence.", "To this day, it remains a significant pastime.Iceland has also produced many chess masters and hosted the historic World Chess Championship 1972 in Reykjavík during the height of the Cold War.", ", there have been nine Icelandic chess grandmasters, a considerable number given the small size of the population.", "Bridge is also popular, with Iceland participating in several international tournaments.", "Iceland won the world bridge championship (the Bermuda Bowl) in Yokohama, Japan, in 1991 and took second place (with Sweden) in Hamilton, Bermuda, in 1950." ], [ "See also", "Index of Iceland-related articlesOutline of IcelandGreenlandVikings" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography=== " ], [ "Further reading", " Bjarnason, Egill.", "(2021) ''How Iceland Changed the World: The Big History of a Small Island.''", "(Penguin.", "2021.", ")* Byock, Jesse (1990) ''Medieval Iceland Society, Sagas, and Power University of California Press''.", ".", "* Heiðarsson, Jakob Oskar (2015) 'Iceland – My Small Island'.", "* * Jonsson, Ivar (2012) 'Explaining the Crisis of Iceland – A Realist Approach' in ''Journal of Critical Realism'', 11,1." ], [ "External links", "* Gateway to Iceland* Government Offices of Iceland* Icelandic Government Information Center & Icelandic Embassies* Visit Iceland – the official Icelandic Tourist Board* Iceland.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Iceland entry at ''Encyclopædia Britannica''* * Iceland from BBC News* * * Incredible Iceland: Fire and Ice – slideshow by ''Life'' magazine* ''A Photographer's View of Iceland'' Documentary produced by Prairie Public Television* Arason Steingrimur Writings on Iceland at Dartmouth College Library" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Italy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Italy''' (, ), officially the '''Italian Republic''' (Italian: , ), is a country in Southern and Western Europe.", "Located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, it consists of a peninsula delimited by the Alps and surrounded by several islands.Italy shares land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia and the enclaved microstates of Vatican City and San Marino.", "It has a territorial exclave in Switzerland (Campione) and an archipelago in the African Plate (Pelagie Islands).", "Italy covers an area of , with a population of nearly 60 million; it is the tenth-largest country by land area in the European continent and the third-most populous member state of the European Union.", "Its capital and largest city is Rome.The Italian peninsula was historically the native place and destination of numerous ancient peoples.", "The Latin city of Rome in central Italy, founded as a Kingdom, became a Republic that conquered the Mediterranean world and ruled it for centuries as an Empire.", "With the spread of Christianity, Rome became the seat of the Catholic Church and of the Papacy.", "During the Early Middle Ages, Italy experienced the fall of the Western Roman Empire and inward migration from Germanic tribes.", "By the 11th century, Italian city-states and maritime republics expanded, bringing renewed prosperity through commerce and laying the groundwork for modern capitalism.", "The Italian Renaissance flourished in Florence during the 15th and 16th centuries and spread to the rest of Europe.", "Italian explorers also discovered new routes to the Far East and the New World, helping to usher in the European Age of Discovery.", "However, centuries of rivalry and infighting between the Italian city-states among other factors left the peninsula divided into numerous states until the late modern period.", "During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Italian economic and commercial importance significantly waned.After centuries of political and territorial divisions, Italy was almost entirely unified in 1861 following Wars of independence and the Expedition of the Thousand, establishing the Kingdom of Italy.", "From the late 19th century to the early 20th century, Italy rapidly industrialised, mainly in the north, and acquired a colonial empire, while the south remained largely impoverished and excluded from industrialisation, fuelling a large immigrant diaspora.", "From 1915 to 1918, Italy took part in World War I on the side of the Entente and against the Central Powers.", "In 1922, following a period of crisis and turmoil, the Italian fascist dictatorship was established.", "During World War II, Italy was first part of the Axis until it surrendered to the Allied powers (1940–1943) and then, as part of its territory was occupied by Nazi Germany with fascist collaboration, a co-belligerent of the Allies during the Italian resistance and the liberation of Italy (1943–1945).", "Following the end of the war, the country replaced the monarchy with a republic via referendum and enjoyed a prolonged economic boom, becoming a major advanced economy.Italy has the eighth-largest nominal GDP in the world, the second-largest manufacturing industry in Europe (7th-largest in the world).", "The country has a significant role in regional and global economic, military, cultural, and diplomatic affairs.", "Italy is a founding and leading member of the European Union, and it is in numerous international institutions including NATO, the G7, the Mediterranean Union, and the Latin Union.", "The source of many inventions and discoveries, the country is considered a cultural superpower and has long been a global centre of art, music, literature, cuisine, science and technology, and fashion.", "It has the world's largest number of World Heritage Sites (58), and is the world's fifth-most visited country." ], [ "Name", "Silver coin minted in Corfinium during the Social War (91–87 BC), displaying the personification of Italy as a goddess with laurel wreath and the inscription ''ITALIA''.", "The earliest personification of ITALIA, now lost, was the ''picta Italia'' (\"painted Italy\") depicted inside the Temple of Tellus in the city of Rome, and dated back to 268 BC.", "The definitive personification of Italy, Italia turrita, first appeared in the Arch of Trajan, built in Benevento from 114 to 117 AD.Hypotheses for the etymology of the name \"Italia\" are numerous.", "One is that it was an Ancient Greek term used to describe the land of the ''Italói'', a tribe living in what is now Calabria, the tip of the Italian peninsula; they were perhaps originally named ''Vituli'', as some scholars have suggested that their totemic animal was the calf (Lat ''vitulus'', Umbrian ''vitlo'', Oscan ''Víteliú'').", "Several ancient authors (Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Antiochus of Syracuse, Aristotle) give instead the account that Italy was named after a local ruler named Italus.According to Antiochus of Syracuse, the term Italy was used by the ancient Greeks to initially refer only to the southern portion of the Bruttium peninsula corresponding to the modern province of Reggio and part of the provinces of Catanzaro and Vibo Valentia in southern Italy.", "Nevertheless, by his time the larger concept of Oenotria and \"Italy\" had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well.", "According to Strabo's ''Geographica'', before the expansion of the Roman Republic, the name was used by ancient Greeks to indicate the land between the strait of Messina and the line connecting the gulf of Salerno and gulf of Taranto, corresponding roughly to the current region of Calabria.", "The ancient Greeks gradually came to apply the name \"Italia\" to a larger region In addition to the \"Greek Italy\" in the south, historians have suggested the existence of an \"Etruscan Italy\" covering variable areas of central Italy.The borders of Roman Italy, ''Italia'', are better established.", "Cato's ''Origines'', the first work of history composed in Latin, described Italy as the entire peninsula south of the Alps.", "According to Cato and several Roman authors, the Alps formed the \"walls of Italy\".", "In 264 BC, Roman Italy extended from the Arno and Rubicon rivers of the centre-north to the entire south.", "The northern area of Cisalpine Gaul was occupied by Rome in the 220s BC and became considered geographically and ''de facto'' part of Italy, but remained politically and ''de jure'' separated.", "It was legally merged into the administrative unit of Italy in 42 BC by the triumvir Octavian as already planned by Julius Caesar.", "The islands of Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, and Malta were added to Italy by Diocletian in 292 AD, coinciding with the whole Italian geographical region.", "All its inhabitants were considered ''Italic'' and ''Roman''.The Latin term ''Italicus'' was used to describe \"a man of Italy\" as opposed to a ''provincial'', or one from the Roman province.", "For example, Pliny the Elder notably wrote in a letter ''Italicus es an provincialis''?", "meaning \"are you an Italian or a provincial?", "\".The adjective ''italianus'', from which are derived the Italian (and also French and English) name of the Italians, is from medieval Latin and was used alternatively with ''Italicus'' during the early modern period.After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Italy was created.", "After the Lombard invasions, ''Italia'' was retained as the name for their kingdom, and for its successor kingdom within the Holy Roman Empire, which nominally lasted until 1806, although it had ''de facto'' disintegrated due to factional politics pitting the empire against the ascendant city republics in the 13th century." ], [ "History", "===Prehistory and antiquity===Thousands of Lower Paleolithic artefacts have been recovered from Monte Poggiolo, dating as far back as 850,000 years.Excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Middle Palaeolithic period some 200,000 years ago, while modern humans appeared about 40,000 years ago at Riparo Mochi.", "Archaeological sites from this period include Addaura cave, Altamura, Ceprano, and Gravina in Puglia.The Ancient peoples of pre-Roman Italy – such as the Umbrians, the Latins (from which the Romans emerged), Volsci, Oscans, Samnites, Sabines, the Celts, the Ligures, the Veneti, the Iapygians, and many others – were Indo-European peoples, most of them specifically of the Italic group.", "The main historic peoples of possible non-Indo-European or pre-Indo-European heritage include the Etruscans of central and northern Italy, the Elymians and the Sicani in Sicily, and the prehistoric Sardinians, who gave birth to the Nuragic civilisation.", "Other ancient populations being of undetermined language families and of possible non-Indo-European origin include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni, known for their rock carvings in Valcamonica, the largest collections of prehistoric petroglyphs in the world.", "A well-preserved natural mummy known as Ötzi the Iceman, determined to be 5,000 years old (between 3400 and 3100 BCE, Copper Age), was discovered in the Similaun glacier of South Tyrol in 1991.The first foreign colonisers were the Phoenicians, who initially established colonies and founded various emporiums on the coasts of Sicily and Sardinia.", "Some of these soon became small urban centres and were developed parallel to the ancient Greek colonies; among the main centres there were the cities of Motya, Zyz (modern Palermo), Soluntum in Sicily, and Nora, Sulci, and Tharros in Sardinia.Between the 17th and the 11th centuries BC Mycenaean Greeks established contacts with Italy.", "In the 8th and 7th centuries BC, a number of Greek colonies were established starting at Pithecusae and eventually extending all along the southern part of the Italian Peninsula and the coast of Sicily, an area that later became known as Magna Graecia.Ionian settlers founded Elaia, Kyme, Rhegion, Naxos, Zankles, Hymera, and Katane.", "Doric colonists founded Taras, Syrakousai, Megara Hyblaia, Leontinoi, Akragas, and Ghelas; the Syracusans founded Ankón and Adria; the Megarese founded Selinunte.", "The Achaeans founded Sybaris, Poseidonia, Kroton, Lokroi Epizephyrioi, and Metapontum; tarantini and thuriots found Herakleia.", "The Greek colonization placed the Italic peoples in contact with democratic forms of government and with high artistic and cultural expressions.===Ancient Rome===Ancient Rome, a settlement around a ford on the River Tiber in central Italy and conventionally founded in 753 BC, was ruled for a period of 244 years by a monarchical system, initially with sovereigns of Latin and Sabine origin, later by Etruscan kings.", "The tradition handed down seven kings: Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, and Tarquinius Superbus.", "In 509 BC, the Romans expelled the last king from their city, favouring a government of the Senate and the People (SPQR) and establishing an oligarchic republic.The Italian Peninsula, named Italia, was consolidated into a single entity during the Roman expansion and conquest of new lands at the expense of the other Italic tribes, Etruscans, Celts, and Greeks.", "A permanent association with most of the local tribes and cities was formed, and Rome began the conquest of Western Europe, Northern Africa and the Middle East.", "In the wake of Julius Caesar's rise and assassination in the 1st century BCE, Rome grew over the course of centuries into a massive empire stretching from Britain to the borders of Persia, and engulfing the whole Mediterranean basin, in which Greek, Roman, and many other cultures merged into a unique civilisation.", "The long and triumphant reign of the first emperor, Augustus, began a golden age of peace and prosperity.", "Roman Italy remained the metropole of the empire, and as the homeland of the Romans and the territory of the capital, maintained a special status which made it (\"ruler of the provinces\", the latter being all the remaining territories outside Italy).", "More than two centuries of stability followed, during which Italy was referred to as the (\"governor of the world\") and (\"parent of all lands\").The Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic, cultural, political and military forces in the world of its time, and it was one of the largest empires in world history.", "At its height under Emporer Trajan, it covered 5 million square kilometres.", "The Roman legacy has deeply influenced Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world; among the many legacies of Roman dominance are the widespread use of the Romance languages derived from Latin, the numerical system, the modern Western alphabet and calendar, and the emergence of Christianity as a major world religion.===Middle Ages===Lombard Kingdom (blue) at its greatest extent, under King Aistulf (749–756).", "Territories controlled by the Byzantine Empire are marked in orange.After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Italy fell under the power of Odoacer's kingdom, and, later, was seized by the Ostrogoths, followed in the 6th century by a brief reconquest under Byzantine Emperor Justinian.", "The invasion of another Germanic tribe, the Lombards, late in the same century, reduced the Byzantine presence to the rump realm of the Exarchate of Ravenna and started the end of political unity of the peninsula for the next 1,300 years.", "The peninsula was therefore divided as follows: northern Italy and Tuscany formed the Lombard kingdom, with its capital in Pavia, while in central-southern Italy the Lombards controlled the duchies of Spoleto and Benevento.", "The remaining part of the peninsula remained under the Byzantines and was divided between the exarchate of Italy, based in Ravenna, the Duchy of Rome, the Duchy of Naples, the Duchy of Calabria and Sicily, the latter directly dependent on the Emperor of Constantinople.", "Invasions of the peninsula caused a chaotic succession of barbarian kingdoms and the so-called \"dark ages\".", "The Lombard kingdom was subsequently absorbed into the Frankish Empire by Charlemagne in the late 8th century and became the Kingdom of Italy.", "The Franks also helped the formation of the Papal States in central Italy.", "Until the 13th century, Italian politics was dominated by the relations between the Holy Roman Emperors and the Papacy, with most of the Italian city-states siding with the former (Ghibellines) or with the latter (Guelphs) for momentary convenience.Marco Polo, explorer of the 13th century, recorded his 24 years-long travels in the ''Book of the Marvels of the World'', introducing Europeans to Central Asia and China.The Germanic Emperor and the Roman Pontiff became the universal powers of medieval Europe.", "However, the conflict over the investiture controversy and the clash between Guelphs and Ghibellines led to the end of the Imperial-feudal system in the north of Italy where city-states gained independence.", "The investiture controversy was finally resolved by the Concordat of Worms.", "In 1176 a league of city-states, the Lombard League, defeated the German emperor Frederick Barbarossa at the Battle of Legnano, thus ensuring effective independence for most of northern and central Italian cities.Italian city-states such as Milan, Florence, and Venice played a crucial innovative role in financial development, devising the main instruments and practices of banking and the emergence of new forms of social and economic organization.", "In coastal and southern areas, the maritime republics grew to eventually dominate the Mediterranean and monopolise trade routes to the Orient.", "They were independent thalassocratic city-states, though most of them originated from territories once belonging to the Byzantine Empire.", "All these cities during the time of their independence had similar systems of government in which the merchant class had considerable power.", "Although in practice these were oligarchical, and bore little resemblance to a modern democracy, the relative political freedom they afforded was conducive to academic and artistic advancement.", "The four best known maritime republics were Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and Amalfi; the others were Ancona, Gaeta, Noli, and Ragusa.", "Each of the maritime republics had dominion over different overseas lands, including many Mediterranean islands (especially Sardinia and Corsica), lands on the Adriatic, Aegean, and Black Sea (Crimea), and commercial colonies in the Near East and in North Africa.", "Venice maintained enormous tracts of land in Greece, Cyprus, Istria, and Dalmatia until as late as the mid-17th century.Venice and Genoa were Europe's main gateways to trade with the East, and producers of fine glass, while Florence was a capital of silk, wool, banking, and jewellery.", "The wealth such business brought to Italy meant that large public and private artistic projects could be commissioned.", "The republics were heavily involved in the Crusades, providing support and transport, but most especially taking advantage of the political and trading opportunities resulting from these wars.", "Italy first felt the huge economic changes in Europe which led to the commercial revolution: the Republic of Venice was able to defeat the Byzantine Empire and finance the voyages of Marco Polo to Asia; the first universities were formed in Italian cities, and scholars such as Thomas Aquinas obtained international fame; Frederick I of Sicily made Italy the political-cultural centre of a reign that temporarily included the Holy Roman Empire and the Kingdom of Jerusalem; capitalism and banking families emerged in Florence, where Dante and Giotto were active around 1300.In the south, Sicily had become an Arab Islamic emirate in the 9th century, thriving until the Italo-Normans conquered it in the late 11th century together with most of the Lombard and Byzantine principalities of southern Italy.", "Through a complex series of events, southern Italy developed as a unified kingdom, first under the House of Hohenstaufen, then under the Capetian House of Anjou and, from the 15th century, the House of Aragon.", "In Sardinia, the former Byzantine provinces became independent states known in Italian as Judicates, although some parts of the island fell under Genoese or Pisan rule until eventual Aragonese annexation in the 15th century.", "The Black Death of 1348 left its mark on Italy by killing perhaps one third of the population.===Early Modern===Italian states before the beginning of the Italian Wars in 1494Italy was the birthplace and heart of the Renaissance during the 1400s and 1500s.", "The Italian Renaissance marked the transition from the medieval period to the modern age as Europe recovered, economically and culturally, from the crises of the Late Middle Ages and entered the Early Modern Period.", "The Italian polities were now regional states effectively ruled by Princes, ''de facto'' monarchs in control of trade and administration, and their courts became major centres of the arts and sciences.", "The Italian princedoms represented a first form of modern states as opposed to feudal monarchies and multinational empires.", "The princedoms were led by political dynasties and merchant families such as the Medici in Florence, the Visconti and Sforza in the Duchy of Milan, the Doria in the Republic of Genoa, the Loredan, Mocenigo, and Barbarigo in the Republic of Venice, the Este in Ferrara, and the Gonzaga in Mantua.", "The Renaissance was therefore a result of the wealth accumulated by Italian merchant cities combined with the patronage of its dominant families.", "Italian Renaissance exercised a dominant influence on subsequent European painting and sculpture for centuries afterwards, with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Brunelleschi, Botticelli, Michelangelo, Raphael, Giotto, Donatello, and Titian, and architects such as Filippo Brunelleschi, Leon Battista Alberti, Andrea Palladio, and Donato Bramante.Leonardo da Vinci, the quintessential Renaissance man, in a self-portrait (ca.", "1512, Royal Library, Turin)Following the conclusion of the western schism in favour of Rome at the Council of Constance (1415–1417), the new Pope Martin V returned to the Papal States after a three years-long journey that touched many Italian cities and restored Italy as the sole centre of Western Christianity.", "During the course of this voyage, the Medici Bank was made the official credit institution of the Papacy, and several significant ties were established between the Church and the new political dynasties of the peninsula.", "The Popes' status as elective monarchs turned the conclaves and consistories of the Renaissance into political battles between the courts of Italy for primacy in the peninsula and access to the immense resources of the Catholic Church.", "In 1439, Pope Eugenius IV and the Byzantine Emperor John VIII Palaiologos signed a reconciliation agreement between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church at the Council of Florence hosted by Cosimo ''the old'' de Medici.", "In 1453, Italian forces under Giovanni Giustiniani were sent by Pope Nicholas V to defend the Walls of Constantinople but the decisive battle was lost to the more advanced Turkish army equipped with cannons, and Byzantium fell to Sultan Mehmed II.The fall of Constantinople led to the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy, fuelling the rediscovery of Greco-Roman Humanism.", "Humanist rulers such as Federico da Montefeltro and Pope Pius II worked to establish ideal cities where ''man is the measure of all things'', and therefore founded Urbino and Pienza respectively.", "Pico della Mirandola wrote the ''Oration on the Dignity of Man'', considered the manifesto of Renaissance Humanism, in which he stressed the importance of free will in human beings.", "The humanist historian Leonardo Bruni was the first to divide human history in three periods: Antiquity, Middle Ages, and Modernity.", "The second consequence of the Fall of Constantinople was the beginning of the Age of Discovery.Christopher Columbus leads a Spanish expedition to the New World, 1492.Italian explorers and navigators from the dominant maritime republics, eager to find an alternative route to the Indies in order to bypass the Ottoman Empire, offered their services to monarchs of Atlantic countries and played a key role in ushering the Age of Discovery and the European colonization of the Americas.", "The most notable among them were: Christopher Columbus (), colonizer in the name of Spain, who is credited with discovering the New World and the opening of the Americas for conquest and settlement by Europeans; John Cabot (), sailing for England, who was the first European to set foot in \"New Found Land\" and explore parts of the North American continent in 1497; Amerigo Vespucci, sailing for Portugal, who first demonstrated in about 1501 that the New World (in particular Brazil) was not Asia as initially conjectured, but a fourth continent previously unknown to people of the Old World (America is named after him); and Giovanni da Verrazzano, at the service of France, renowned as the first European to explore the Atlantic coast of North America between Florida and New Brunswick in 1524.Following the fall of Constantinople, the wars in Lombardy came to an end and a defensive alliance known as Italic League was formed between Venice, Naples, Florence, Milan, and the Papacy.", "Lorenzo ''the Magnificent'' de Medici was the greatest Florentine patron of the Renaissance and supporter of the Italic League.", "He notably avoided the collapse of the League in the aftermath of the Pazzi Conspiracy and during the aborted invasion of Italy by the Turks.", "However, the military campaign of Charles VIII of France in Italy caused the end of the Italic League and initiated the Italian Wars between the Valois and the Habsburgs.", "During the High Renaissance of the 1500s, Italy was therefore both the main European battleground and the cultural-economic centre of the continent.", "Popes such as Julius II (1503–1513) fought for the control of Italy against foreign monarchs, others such as Paul III (1534–1549) preferred to mediate between the European powers in order to secure peace in Italy.", "In the middle of this conflict, the Medici popes Leo X (1513–1521) and Clement VII (1523–1534) opposed the Protestant reformation and advanced the interests of their family.", "In 1559, at the end of the French invasions of Italy and of the Italian wars, the many states of northern Italy remained part of the Holy Roman Empire, indirectly subject to the Austrian Habsburgs, while all of Southern Italy (Naples, Sicily, Sardinia) and Milan were under Spanish Habsburg rule.Flag of the Cispadane Republic, which was the first Italian tricolour adopted by a sovereign Italian state (1797)The Papacy remained a powerful force and launched the Counter-reformation.", "Key events of the period include: the Council of Trent (1545–1563); the excommunication of Elizabeth I (1570) and the Battle of Lepanto (1571), both occurring during the pontificate of Pius V; the construction of the Gregorian observatory, the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, and the Jesuit China mission of Matteo Ricci under Pope Gregory XIII; the French Wars of Religion; the Long Turkish War and the execution of Giordano Bruno in 1600, under Pope Clement VIII; the birth of the Lyncean Academy of the Papal States, of which the main figure was Galileo Galilei (later put on trial); the final phases of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) during the pontificates of Urban VIII and Innocent X; and the formation of the last Holy League by Innocent XI during the Great Turkish War.The Italian economy declined during the 1600s and 1700s.", "Following the European wars of succession of the 18th century, the North fell under the influence of the Habsburg-Lorraine of Austria, while the south passed to a cadet branch of the Spanish Bourbons.", "During the Coalition Wars, northern and central Italy was reorganised by Napoleon in a number of Sister Republics of France and later as a Kingdom of Italy in personal union with the French Empire.", "The southern half of the peninsula was administered by Joachim Murat, Napoleon's brother-in-law, who was crowned as King of Naples.", "The 1814 Congress of Vienna restored the situation of the late 18th century, but the ideals of the French Revolution could not be eradicated, and soon re-surfaced during the political upheavals that characterised the first part of the 19th century.During the Napoleonic era, in 1797, the first official adoption of the Italian tricolour as a national flag by a sovereign Italian state, the Cispadane Republic, a Napoleonic sister republic of Revolutionary France, took place, on the basis of the events following the French Revolution (1789–1799) which, among its ideals, advocated the national self-determination.", "This event is celebrated by the Tricolour Day.", "The Italian national colours appeared for the first time on a tricolour cockade in 1789, anticipating by seven years the first green, white and red Italian military war flag, which was adopted by the Lombard Legion in 1796.===Unification===The birth of the Kingdom of Italy was the result of efforts by Italian nationalists and monarchists loyal to the House of Savoy to establish a united kingdom encompassing the entire Italian Peninsula.", "By the mid-19th century, rising Italian nationalism, along with other social, economic, and military events, led to a period of revolutionary political upheaval.", "Following the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the political and social Italian unification movement, or ''Risorgimento'', emerged to unite Italy consolidating the different states of the peninsula and liberate it from foreign control.", "A prominent radical figure was the patriotic journalist Giuseppe Mazzini, member of the secret revolutionary society ''Carbonari'' and founder of the influential political movement Young Italy in the early 1830s, who favoured a unitary republic and advocated a broad nationalist movement.", "His prolific output of propaganda helped the unification movement stay active.In this context, in 1847, the first public performance of the song \"\", the Italian national anthem since 1946, took place.", "''Il Canto degli Italiani'', written by Goffredo Mameli set to music by Michele Novaro, is also known as the ''Inno di Mameli'', after the author of the lyrics, or ''Fratelli d'Italia'', from its opening line.Holographic copy of 1847 of \"\", the Italian national anthem since 1946The most famous member of Young Italy was the revolutionary and general Giuseppe Garibaldi, renowned for his extremely loyal followers, who led the Italian republican drive for unification in Southern Italy.", "However, the Northern Italy monarchy of the House of Savoy in the Kingdom of Sardinia, whose government was led by Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, also had ambitions of establishing a united Italian state.", "In the context of the 1848 liberal revolutions that swept through Europe, an unsuccessful first war of independence was declared on Austria.", "In 1855, the Kingdom of Sardinia became an ally of Britain and France in the Crimean War, giving Cavour's diplomacy legitimacy in the eyes of the great powers.", "The Kingdom of Sardinia again attacked the Austrian Empire in the Second Italian War of Independence of 1859, with the aid of France, resulting in liberating Lombardy.", "On the basis of the Plombières Agreement, the Kingdom of Sardinia ceded Savoy and Nice to France, an event that caused the Niçard exodus, that was the emigration of a quarter of the Niçard Italians to Italy, and the Niçard Vespers.Animated map of the Italian unification from 1829 to 1871In 1860–1861, Garibaldi led the drive for unification in Naples and Sicily (the Expedition of the Thousand), while the House of Savoy troops occupied the central territories of the Italian peninsula, except Rome and part of Papal States.", "Teano was the site of the famous meeting of 26 October 1860 between Giuseppe Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel II, last King of Sardinia, in which Garibaldi shook Victor Emanuel's hand and hailed him as King of Italy; thus, Garibaldi sacrificed republican hopes for the sake of Italian unity under a monarchy.", "Cavour agreed to include Garibaldi's Southern Italy allowing it to join the union with the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1860.This allowed the Sardinian government to declare a united Italian kingdom on 17 March 1861.Victor Emmanuel II then became the first king of a united Italy, and the capital was moved from Turin to Florence.", "The title of \"King of Italy\" had been out of use since the abdication of Napoleon I of France on 6 April 1814.In 1866, Victor Emmanuel II allied with Prussia during the Austro-Prussian War, waging the Third Italian War of Independence which allowed Italy to annexe Venetia.", "Finally, in 1870, as France abandoned its garrisons in Rome during the disastrous Franco-Prussian War to keep the large Prussian Army at bay, the Italians rushed to fill the power gap by taking over the Papal States.", "Italian unification was completed and shortly afterwards Italy's capital was moved to Rome.", "Victor Emmanuel, Garibaldi, Cavour, and Mazzini have been referred as Italy's ''Four Fathers of the Fatherland''.===Liberal period===The new Kingdom of Italy obtained Great Power status.", "The Constitutional Law of the Kingdom of Sardinia the Albertine Statute of 1848, was extended to the whole Kingdom of Italy in 1861, and provided for basic freedoms of the new State, but electoral laws excluded the non-propertied and uneducated classes from voting.", "The government of the new kingdom took place in a framework of parliamentary constitutional monarchy dominated by liberal forces.", "As northern Italy quickly industrialised, the South and rural areas of the North remained underdeveloped and overpopulated, forcing millions of people to migrate abroad and fuelling a large and influential diaspora.", "The Italian Socialist Party constantly increased in strength, challenging the traditional liberal and conservative establishment.Starting in the last two decades of the 19th century, Italy developed into a colonial power by forcing under its rule Eritrea and Somalia in East Africa, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica in North Africa (later unified in the colony of Libya) and the Dodecanese islands.", "From 2 November 1899 to 7 September 1901, Italy also participated as part of the Eight-Nation Alliance forces during the Boxer Rebellion in China; on 7 September 1901, a concession in Tientsin was ceded to the country, and on 7 June 1902, the concession was taken into Italian possession and administered by a consul.", "In 1913, male universal suffrage was adopted.", "The pre-war period dominated by Giovanni Giolitti, Prime Minister five times between 1892 and 1921, was characterised by the economic, industrial, and political-cultural modernization of Italian society.The Victor Emmanuel II Monument in Rome, a national symbol of Italy celebrating the first king of the unified country, and resting place of the Italian Unknown Soldier since the end of World War I.", "It was inaugurated in 1911, on the occasion of the 50th Anniversary of the Unification of Italy.Italy entered into the First World War in 1915 with the aim of completing national unity: for this reason, the Italian intervention in the First World War is also considered the Fourth Italian War of Independence, in a historiographical perspective that identifies in the latter the conclusion of the unification of Italy, whose military actions began during the revolutions of 1848 with the First Italian War of Independence.Italy, nominally allied with the German Empire and the Empire of Austria-Hungary in the Triple Alliance, in 1915 joined the Allies into World War I with a promise of substantial territorial gains, that included western Inner Carniola, former Austrian Littoral, Dalmatia as well as parts of the Ottoman Empire.", "The country gave a fundamental contribution to the victory of the conflict as one of the \"Big Four\" top Allied powers.", "The war on the Italian Front was initially inconclusive, as the Italian army got stuck in a long attrition war in the Alps, making little progress and suffering heavy losses.", "However, the reorganization of the army and the conscription of the so-called '''99 Boys'' (''Ragazzi del '99'', all males born in 1899 who were turning 18) led to more effective Italian victories in major battles, such as on Monte Grappa and in a series of battles on the River Piave.", "Eventually, in October 1918, the Italians launched a massive offensive, culminating in the victory of Vittorio Veneto.", "The Italian victory, which was announced by the ''Bollettino della Vittoria'' and the ''Bollettino della Vittoria Navale'', marked the end of the war on the Italian Front, secured the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and was chiefly instrumental in ending the First World War less than two weeks later.", "Italian armed forces were also involved in the African theatre, the Balkan theatre, the Middle Eastern theatre, and then took part in the Occupation of Constantinople.During the war, more than 650,000 Italian soldiers and as many civilians died, and the kingdom went to the brink of bankruptcy.", "The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) and the Treaty of Rapallo (1920) allowed the annexation of Trentino Alto-Adige, the Julian March, Istria and the Kvarner Gulf, as well as the Dalmatian city of Zara.", "The subsequent Treaty of Rome (1924) led to the annexation of the city of Fiume by Italy.", "Italy did not receive other territories promised by the Treaty of London (1915), so this outcome was denounced as a \"mutilated victory\".", "The rhetoric of \"mutilated victory\" was adopted by Benito Mussolini and led to the rise of Italian fascism, becoming a key point in the propaganda of Fascist Italy.", "Historians regard \"mutilated victory\" as a \"political myth\", used by fascists to fuel Italian imperialism and obscure the successes of liberal Italy in the aftermath of World War I. Italy also gained a permanent seat in the League of Nations's executive council.===Fascist regime===The fascist dictator Benito Mussolini titled himself Duce and ruled the country from 1922 to 1943.The socialist agitations that followed the devastation of the Great War, inspired by the Russian Revolution, led to counter-revolution and repression throughout Italy.", "The liberal establishment, fearing a Soviet-style revolution, started to endorse the small National Fascist Party, led by Benito Mussolini.", "In October 1922, the Blackshirts of the National Fascist Party organized a mass demonstration and a coup named the \"March on Rome\"; the Prime Minister Luigi Facta wished to declare a state of siege, but this was overruled by King Victor Emmanuel III, who, on 30 October 1922, appointed Mussolini as Prime Minister, thereby transferring political power to the fascists without armed conflict.", "Over the next few years, Mussolini banned all political parties and curtailed personal liberties, thus forming a dictatorship.", "These actions attracted international attention and eventually inspired similar dictatorships such as Nazi Germany and Francoist Spain.Italian Fascism is based upon Italian nationalism and imperialism, and in particular seeks to complete what it considers as the incomplete project of the unification of Italy by incorporating ''Italia Irredenta'' (unredeemed Italy) into the state of Italy.", "To the east of Italy, the Fascists claimed that Dalmatia was a land of Italian culture whose Italians, including those of Italianized South Slavic descent, had been driven out of Dalmatia and into exile in Italy, and supported the return of Italians of Dalmatian heritage.", "Mussolini identified Dalmatia as having strong Italian cultural roots for centuries, similarly to Istria, via the Roman Empire and the Republic of Venice.", "To the south of Italy, the Fascists claimed Malta, which belonged to the United Kingdom, and Corfu, which instead belonged to Greece; to the north claimed Italian Switzerland, while to the west claimed Corsica, Nice, and Savoy, which belonged to France.", "The Fascist regime produced literature on Corsica that presented evidence of the island's ''italianità''.", "The Fascist regime produced literature on Nice that justified that Nice was an Italian land based on historic, ethnic, and linguistic grounds.Areas controlled by the Italian Empire during its existenceThe Armistice of Villa Giusti, which ended fighting between Italy and Austria-Hungary at the end of World War I, resulted in Italian annexation of neighbouring parts of Yugoslavia.", "During the interwar period, the fascist Italian government undertook a campaign of Italianisation in the areas it annexed, which suppressed Slavic language, schools, political parties, and cultural institutions.", "Between 1922 and the beginning of World War II, the affected people were also the German-speaking and Ladin-speaking populations of Trentino-Alto Adige, and the French- and Arpitan-speaking regions of the western Alps, such as the Aosta valley.Mussolini promised to bring Italy back as a great power in Europe, building a \"New Roman Empire\" and holding power over the Mediterranean Sea.", "In propaganda, Fascists used the ancient Roman motto \"''Mare Nostrum''\" (Latin for \"Our Sea\") to describe the Mediterranean.", "For this reason the Fascist regime engaged in interventionist foreign policy.", "In 1923, the Greek island of Corfu was briefly occupied by Italy, after the assassination of General Tellini in Greek territory.", "In 1925, Italy forced Albania to become a ''de facto'' protectorate.", "In 1935, Mussolini invaded Ethiopia and founded Italian East Africa, resulting in an international alienation and leading to Italy's withdrawal from the League of Nations; Italy allied with Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan, and strongly supported Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War.", "In 1939, Italy formally annexed Albania.", "Italy entered World War II on 10 June 1940.The Italians initially advanced in British Somaliland, Egypt, the Balkans (establishing the Governorate of Dalmatia and Montenegro, the Province of Ljubljana, and the puppet states Independent State of Croatia and Hellenic State), and eastern fronts.", "They were, however, subsequently defeated on the Eastern Front as well as in the East African campaign and the North African campaign, losing as a result their territories in Africa and in the Balkans.During World War II, Italian war crimes included extrajudicial killings and ethnic cleansing by deportation of about 25,000 people, mainly Jews, Croats, and Slovenians, to the Italian concentration camps, such as Rab, Gonars, Monigo, Renicci di Anghiari, and elsewhere.", "Yugoslav Partisans perpetrated their own crimes against the local ethnic Italian population (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) during and after the war, including the foibe massacres.In Italy and Yugoslavia, unlike in Germany, few war crimes were prosecuted.Italian partisans in Milan during the liberation of Italy and the Italian civil war, April 1945.An Allied invasion of Sicily began in July 1943, leading to the collapse of the Fascist regime and the fall of Mussolini on 25 July.", "Mussolini was deposed and arrested by order of King Victor Emmanuel III in co-operation with the majority of the members of the Grand Council of Fascism, which passed a motion of no confidence.", "On 8 September, Italy signed the Armistice of Cassibile, ending its war with the Allies.", "Shortly thereafter, the Germans, with the assistance of the Italian fascists, succeeded in taking control of northern and central Italy.", "The country remained a battlefield for the rest of the war, with the Allies slowly moving up from the south.In the north, the Germans set up the Italian Social Republic (RSI), a Nazi puppet state with Mussolini installed as leader after he was rescued by German paratroopers.", "Some Italian troops in the south were organised into the Italian Co-belligerent Army, which fought alongside the Allies for the rest of the war, while other Italian troops, loyal to Mussolini and his RSI, continued to fight alongside the Germans in the National Republican Army.", "Also, the post-armistice period saw the rise of a large anti-fascist resistance movement, the ''Resistenza''.", "As result, the country descended into civil war; the Italian resistance fought a guerrilla war against the Nazi German occupiers and Italian Fascist forces, while clashes between the Fascist RSI Army and the Royalist Italian Co-Belligerent Army were rare.", "In late April 1945, with total defeat looming, Mussolini attempted to escape north, but was captured and summarily executed near Lake Como by Italian partisans.", "His body was then taken to Milan, where it was hung upside down at a service station for public viewing and to provide confirmation of his demise.Hostilities ended on 29 April 1945, when the German forces in Italy surrendered.", "Nearly half a million Italians (including civilians) died in the conflict, society was divided and the Italian economy had been all but destroyed; per capita income in 1944 was at its lowest point since the beginning of the 20th century.", "The aftermath of World War II left Italy also with an anger against the monarchy for its endorsement of the Fascist regime for the previous twenty years.", "These frustrations contributed to a revival of the Italian republican movement.===Republican era===Alcide De Gasperi, first republican Prime Minister of Italy and one of the Founding Fathers of the European UnionItaly became a republic after the 1946 Italian institutional referendum held on 2 June, a day celebrated since as ''Festa della Repubblica''.", "This was the first time Italian women voted at the national level.", "Victor Emmanuel III's son, Umberto II, was forced to abdicate and exiled.", "The Republican Constitution was approved in 1948.Under the Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947, areas next to the Adriatic Sea were annexed by Yugoslavia causing the Istrian-Dalmatian exodus, which led to the emigration of between 230,000 and 350,000 of local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians), the others being ethnic Slovenians, ethnic Croatians, and ethnic Istro-Romanians, choosing to maintain Italian citizenship.", "Later, the Free Territory of Trieste was divided between the two states.", "Italy lost all of its colonial possessions, formally ending the Italian Empire.", "The Italian border today has existed since 1975, when Trieste was formally re-annexed to Italy.Fears of a possible Communist takeover proved crucial for the 18 April 1948, when the Christian Democrats, under Alcide De Gasperi, obtained a landslide victory.", "Consequently, in 1949 Italy became a member of NATO.", "The Marshall Plan revived the Italian economy which, until the late 1960s, enjoyed a period of sustained economic growth commonly called the \"Economic Miracle\".", "In the 1950s, Italy became one of the six founding countries of the European Communities, a forerunner of the European Union.From the late 1960s until the early 80s, the country experienced the Years of Lead, a period characterised by economic crisis, especially after the 1973 oil crisis, widespread social conflicts and terrorist massacres.In the 1980s, for the first time since 1945, two governments were led by non-Christian-Democrat premiers: one republican and one socialist; the Christian Democrats remained, however, the main government party.", "The economy recovered and Italy became the world's fifth-largest industrial nation after it gained entry into the G7 in the 1970s.", "However, the Italian national debt skyrocketed passing 100% of the country's GDP.Bologna bombing of 2 August 1980, the deadliest attack ever perpetrated in Italy during the Years of LeadItaly faced terror attacks between 1992 and 1993 perpetrated by the Sicilian Mafia as a consequence of new anti-mafia measures launched by the government.", "One year later (May–July 1993), tourist spots were attacked, leaving 10 dead and 93 injured and causing severe damage to cultural heritage such as the Uffizi Gallery.", "The Catholic Church openly condemned the Mafia and an anti-Mafia priest shot dead in Rome.In the early 1990s, voters – disenchanted with political paralysis, massive public debt and extensive corruption (known as ''Tangentopoli'') uncovered by the Clean Hands (''Mani Pulite'') investigation – demanded radical reforms.", "The scandals involved all major parties, but especially those in the government coalition: the Christian Democrats, who ruled for almost 50 years, underwent a severe crisis and eventually disbanded, splitting into several factions.", "The Communists reorganised as a social-democratic force.", "During the 1990s and 2000s, centre-right (dominated by media magnate Silvio Berlusconi) and centre-left coalitions (led by university professor Romano Prodi) alternately governed the country.Amidst the Great Recession, Berlusconi resigned in 2011, and was replaced by the technocratic cabinet of Mario Monti.", "Following the 2013 general election, the Vice-Secretary of the Democratic Party Enrico Letta formed a new government at the head of a right-left Grand coalition.", "In 2014, challenged by the new Secretary of the PD Matteo Renzi, Letta resigned and was replaced by Renzi.", "The new government started constitutional reforms.", "On 4 December, constitutional reform was rejected in a referendum and Renzi resigned; Paolo Gentiloni was appointed Prime Minister.COVID-19 emergencyIn the European migrant crisis of the 2010s, Italy was the entry point and leading destination for most asylum seekers entering the EU.", "Between 2013 and 2018, the country took in over 700,000 migrants and refugees, mainly from sub-Saharan Africa, which caused strain on the public purse and a surge in support for far-right or euro-sceptic parties.", "The 2018 general election was characterised by a strong showing of the Five Star Movement and the Lega.", "Professor Giuseppe Conte became Prime Minister at the head of a populist coalition between these two parties.", "After only fourteen months the League withdrew its support from Conte, who formed a new government coalition between the Five Star Movement and the centre-left.In 2020, Italy was severely hit by the COVID-19 pandemic.", "Conte's government imposed a national lockdown.", "With more than 155,000 confirmed victims, Italy was one of the countries with the highest deaths in the worldwide coronavirus pandemic.", "The pandemic caused a severe economic disruption, in which Italy was one of the most affected countries.In February 2021, after a government crisis within his majority, Conte was forced to resign and Mario Draghi, former president of the European Central Bank, formed a national unity government supported by most of the main parties, pledging to oversee implementation of economic stimulus to face the crisis caused by the pandemic.", "On 22 October 2022, Giorgia Meloni was sworn in as Italy's first female prime minister.", "Her Brothers of Italy party formed a right-wing government with the far-right League and Berlusconi's ." ], [ "Geography", "Topographic map of ItalyItaly, whose territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical region, is located in Southern Europe and it is also considered a part of western Europe, between latitudes 35° and 47° N, and longitudes 6° and 19° E. To the north, Italy borders France, Switzerland, Austria, and Slovenia and is roughly delimited by the Alpine watershed, enclosing the Po Valley and the Venetian Plain.", "To the south, it consists of the entirety of the Italian Peninsula and the two Mediterranean islands of Sicily and Sardinia (the two biggest islands of the Mediterranean), in addition to many smaller islands.", "The sovereign states of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italy, while Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave in Switzerland.The country's total area is , of which is land and is water.", "Including the islands, Italy has a coastline and border of on the Adriatic, Ionian, Tyrrhenian seas, and borders shared with France (), Austria (), Slovenia () and Switzerland ().", "San Marino () and Vatican City (), both enclaves, account for the remainder.Over 35% of the Italian territory is mountainous.", "The Apennine Mountains form the peninsula's backbone, and the Alps form most of its northern boundary, where Italy's highest point is located on Mont Blanc summit (Monte Bianco) ().", "Other worldwide-known mountains in Italy include the Matterhorn (Monte Cervino), Monte Rosa, Gran Paradiso in the West Alps, and Bernina, Stelvio and Dolomites along the eastern side.The Po, Italy's longest river (), flows from the Alps on the western border with France and crosses the Padan plain on its way to the Adriatic Sea.", "The Po Valley is the largest plain in Italy, with , and it represents over 70% of the total plain area in the country.Many elements of the Italian territory are of volcanic origin.", "Most of the small islands and archipelagos in the south, like Capraia, Ponza, Ischia, Eolie, Ustica and Pantelleria are volcanic islands.", "There are also active volcanoes: Mount Etna in Sicily (the largest active volcano in Europe), Vulcano, Stromboli, and Vesuvius (the only active volcano on mainland Europe).The five largest lakes are, in order of diminishing size: Garda (), Maggiore (, whose minor northern part is part of Switzerland), Como (), Trasimeno () and Bolsena ().", "Four different seas surround the Italian Peninsula in the Mediterranean Sea from three sides: the Adriatic Sea in the east, the Ionian Sea in the south, and the Ligurian Sea and the Tyrrhenian Sea in the west.", "The longest Italian river is the Po, which flows for either or .", "Most of the rivers of Italy drain either into the Adriatic Sea or the Tyrrhenian Sea.Although the country includes the Italian peninsula, adjacent islands, and most of the southern Alpine basin, some of Italy's territory extends beyond the Alpine basin and some islands are located outside the Eurasian continental shelf.", "These territories are the ''comuni'' of: Livigno, Sexten, Innichen, Toblach (in part), Chiusaforte, Tarvisio, Graun im Vinschgau (in part), which are all part of the Danube's drainage basin, while the Val di Lei constitutes part of the Rhine's basin and the islands of Lampedusa and Lampione are on the African continental shelf.===Environment===National and regional parks in ItalyAfter its quick industrial growth, Italy took a long time to confront its environmental problems.", "After several improvements, it now ranks 84th in the world for ecological sustainability.", "National parks cover about 5% of the country, while the total area protected by national parks, regional parks and nature reserves covers about 10.5% of the Italian territory, to which must be added 12% of coasts protected by marine protected areas.In the last decade, Italy has become one of the world's leading producers of renewable energy, ranking as the world's fourth largest holder of installed solar energy capacity and the sixth largest holder of wind power capacity in 2010.Renewable energies provided approximately 37% Italy's energy consumption in 2020.However, air pollution remains a severe problem, especially in the industrialised north, reaching the tenth highest level worldwide of industrial carbon dioxide emissions in the 1990s.", "Italy is the twelfth-largest carbon dioxide producer.Extensive traffic and congestion in the largest metropolitan areas continue to cause severe environmental and health issues, even if smog levels have decreased dramatically since the 1970s and 1980s, and the presence of smog is becoming an increasingly rarer phenomenon and levels of sulphur dioxide are decreasing.Gran Paradiso, established in 1922, is the oldest Italian national park.Many watercourses and coastal stretches have also been contaminated by industrial and agricultural activity, while because of rising water levels, Venice has been regularly flooded throughout recent years.", "Waste from industrial activity is not always disposed of by legal means and has led to permanent health effects on inhabitants of affected areas, as in the case of the Seveso disaster.The country has also operated several nuclear reactors between 1963 and 1990 but, after the Chernobyl disaster and a referendum on the issue the nuclear programme was terminated, a decision that was overturned by the government in 2008, planning to build up to four nuclear power plants with French technology.", "This was in turn struck down by a referendum following the Fukushima nuclear accident.Deforestation, illegal building developments and poor land-management policies have led to significant erosion all over Italy's mountainous regions, leading to major ecological disasters like the 1963 Vajont Dam flood, the 1998 Sarno and 2009 Messina mudslides.The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 3.65/10, ranking it 142nd globally out of 172 countries.===Biodiversity===Italy has probably the highest level of faunal biodiversity in Europe, with over 57,000 species recorded, representing more than a third of all European fauna, and the highest level of biodiversity of both animal and plant species within the European Union.", "Italy's varied geological structure contributes to its high climate and habitat diversity.", "The Italian peninsula is in the centre of the Mediterranean Sea, forming a corridor between central Europe and North Africa, and has of coastline.", "Italy also receives species from the Balkans, Eurasia, and the Middle East.", "Italy's varied geological structure, including the Alps and the Apennines, Central Italian woodlands, and Southern Italian Garigue and Maquis shrubland, also contribute to high climate and habitat diversity.The Italian wolf, the national animal of ItalyThe fauna of Italy includes 4,777 endemic animal species, which include the Sardinian long-eared bat, Sardinian red deer, spectacled salamander, brown cave salamander, Italian newt, Italian frog, Apennine yellow-bellied toad, Italian wall lizard, Aeolian wall lizard, Sicilian wall lizard, Italian Aesculapian snake, and Sicilian pond turtle.", "In Italy, there are 119 mammals species, 550 bird species, 69 reptile species, 39 amphibian species, 623 fish species, and 56,213 invertebrate species, of which 37,303 insect species.The flora of Italy was traditionally estimated to comprise about 5,500 vascular plant species.", "However, , 6,759 species are recorded in the ''Data bank of Italian vascular flora''.", "Italy has 1,371 endemic plant species and subspecies, which include Sicilian Fir, Barbaricina columbine, Sea marigold, Lavender cotton, and Ucriana violet.", "Italy is a signatory to the Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats and the Habitats Directive, both affording protection to Italian fauna and flora.Italy has many botanical gardens and historic gardens, some of which are known outside the country.", "The Italian garden is stylistically based on symmetry, axial geometry and on the principle of imposing order over nature.", "It influenced the history of gardening, especially French gardens and English gardens.", "The Italian garden was influenced by Roman gardens and Italian Renaissance gardens.The Italian wolf is the national animal of Italy, while the national tree of the country is the strawberry tree.", "The reasons for this choice are related to the fact that the Italian wolf, which inhabits the Apennine Mountains and the Western Alps, features prominently in Latin and Italian cultures, such as in the legend of the founding of Rome, while the green leaves, white flowers and red berries of the strawberry tree, which is native to the Mediterranean region, recall the colours of the flag of Italy.===Climate===Köppen-Geiger climate classification map of ItalyThe climate of Italy is influenced by the large body of water of the Mediterranean Sea that surrounds Italy on every side except the north.", "These seas constitute a reservoir of heat and humidity for Italy.", "Within the southern temperate zone, they determine a Mediterranean climate with local differences due to the geomorphology of the territory, which tends to make its mitigating effects felt, especially in high pressure conditions.Because of the length of the peninsula and the mostly mountainous hinterland, the climate of Italy is highly diverse.", "In most of the inland northern and central regions, the climate ranges from humid subtropical to humid continental and oceanic.", "The climate of the Po valley geographical region is mostly humid subtropical, with cool winters and hot summers.", "The coastal areas of Liguria, Tuscany and most of the South generally fit the Mediterranean climate stereotype (Köppen climate classification).Conditions on the coast are different from those in the interior, particularly during winter months when the higher altitudes tend to be cold, wet, and often snowy.", "The coastal regions have mild winters and hot and generally dry summers; lowland valleys are hot in summer.", "Average winter temperatures vary from around in the Alps to in Sicily, so average summer temperatures range from to over .Winters can vary widely across the country with lingering cold, foggy and snowy periods in the north and milder, sunnier conditions in the south.", "Summers are hot across the country, except for at high altitude, particularly in the south.", "Northern and central areas can experience occasional strong thunderstorms from spring to autumn." ], [ "Politics", "Italy has been a unitary parliamentary republic since 2 June 1946, when the monarchy was abolished by a constitutional referendum.", "The President of Italy (''Presidente della Repubblica''), currently Sergio Mattarella since 2015, is Italy's head of state.", "The President is elected for a single seven years mandate by the Parliament of Italy and some regional voters in joint session.", "Italy has a written democratic constitution, resulting from the work of a Constituent Assembly formed by the representatives of all the anti-fascist forces that contributed to the defeat of Nazi and Fascist forces during the Italian Civil War.===Government===Italy has a parliamentary government based on a mixed proportional and majoritarian voting system.", "The parliament is perfectly bicameral: the two houses, the Chamber of Deputies that meets in Palazzo Montecitorio, and the Senate of the Republic that meets in Palazzo Madama, have the same powers.", "The Prime Minister, officially President of the Council of Ministers (''Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri''), is Italy's head of government.", "The Prime Minister and the cabinet are appointed by the President of the Republic of Italy and must pass a vote of confidence in Parliament to come into office.", "To remain the Prime Minister has to pass also eventual further votes of confidence or no confidence in Parliament.The prime minister is the President of the Council of Ministers – which holds effective executive power – and must receive a vote of approval from it to execute most political activities.", "The office is similar to those in most other parliamentary systems, but the head of the Italian government is not authorised to request the dissolution of the Parliament of Italy.Chamber of Deputies is the lower house of Italy.Another difference with similar offices is that the overall political responsibility for intelligence is vested in the President of the Council of Ministers.", "By virtue of that, the Prime Minister has exclusive power to coordinate intelligence policies, determine the financial resources and strengthen national cyber security; apply and protect State secrets; authorise agents to carry out operations, in Italy or abroad, in violation of the law.A peculiarity of the Italian Parliament is the representation given to Italian citizens permanently living abroad: 8 Deputies and 4 Senators elected in four distinct overseas constituencies.", "In addition, the Italian Senate is characterised also by a small number of senators for life, appointed by the President \"for outstanding patriotic merits in the social, scientific, artistic or literary field\".", "Former Presidents of the Republic are ''ex officio'' life senators.Italy's three major political parties are the Brothers of Italy, the Democratic Party and the Five Star Movement.", "During the 2022 general election, these three parties and their coalitions won 357 out of 400 seats available in the Chamber of Deputies and 187 out of 200 in the Senate.", "The centre-right coalition, which included Giorgia Meloni's Brothers of Italy, Matteo Salvini's League, Silvio Berlusconi's and Maurizio Lupi's Us Moderates, won a majority of the seats in parliament.", "The rest of the seats were taken by the centre-left coalition, which included Enrico Letta's Democratic Party, Angelo Bonelli's Greens and Left Alliance, Aosta Valley, Emma Bonino's More Europe & Luigi Di Maio's Civic Commitment, as well as by Giuseppe Conte's Five Star Movement, Carlo Calenda's Action - Italia Viva, Philipp Achammer and Philipp Achammer's South Tyrolean People's Party, Cateno De Luca's South Calls North and Ricardo Antonio Merlo's Associative Movement of Italians Abroad.===Law and criminal justice===Supreme Court of Cassation, RomeThe law of Italy has a plurality of sources of production.", "These are arranged in a hierarchical scale, under which the rule of a lower source cannot conflict with the rule of an upper source (hierarchy of sources).", "The Constitution of 1948 is the main source.The judiciary of Italy is based on Roman law modified by the Napoleonic code and later statutes.", "The Supreme Court of Cassation is the highest court in Italy for both criminal and civil appeal cases.", "The Constitutional Court of Italy (''Corte Costituzionale'') rules on the conformity of laws with the constitution and is a post–World War II innovation.Since their appearance in the middle of the 19th century, Italian organised crime and criminal organisations have infiltrated the social and economic life of many regions in Southern Italy, the most notorious of which being the Sicilian Mafia, which would later expand into some foreign countries including the United States.", "Mafia receipts may reach 9% of Italy's GDP.A 2009 report identified 610 which have a strong Mafia presence, where 13 million Italians live and 14.6% of the Italian GDP is produced.", "The Calabrian 'Ndrangheta, nowadays probably the most powerful crime syndicate of Italy, accounts alone for 3% of the country's GDP.", "However, at 0.013 per 1,000 people, Italy has only the 47th highest murder rate compared to 61 countries and the 43rd highest number of rapes per 1,000 people compared to 64 countries in the world.", "These are relatively low figures among developed countries.The Italian law enforcement system is complex, with multiple police forces.", "The national policing agencies are the Polizia di Stato (State Police), the Arma dei Carabinieri, the Guardia di Finanza (Financial Guard), and the Polizia Penitenziaria (Prison Police), as well as the Guardia Costiera (Coast Guard Police).", "Although policing in Italy is primarily provided on a national basis, there also exists Polizia Provinciale (Provincial Police) and Polizia Municipale (Municipal Police).Italy is regarded as being behind other Western European nations with regards to LGBT rights.", "Additionally, Italy's law prohibiting torture is considered behind international standards.===Foreign relations===G7 leaders at the 43rd G7 summit in TaorminaItaly is a founding member of the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU), and of NATO.", "Italy was admitted to the United Nations in 1955, and it is a member and a strong supporter of a wide number of international organisations, such as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade/World Trade Organization (GATT/WTO), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the Council of Europe, and the Central European Initiative.", "Its recent or upcoming turns in the rotating presidency of international organisations include the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe in 2018, the G7 in 2017 and the EU Council from July to December 2014.Italy is also a recurrent non-permanent member of the UN Security Council, the most recently in 2017.Italy strongly supports multilateral international politics, endorsing the United Nations and its international security activities.", "In 2013, Italy had 5,296 troops deployed abroad, engaged in 33 UN and NATO missions in 25 countries of the world.", "Italy deployed troops in support of UN peacekeeping missions in Somalia, Mozambique, and East Timor and provides support for NATO and UN operations in Bosnia, Kosovo and Albania.", "Italy deployed over 2,000 troops in Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) from February 2003.Italy supported international efforts to reconstruct and stabilise Iraq, but it had withdrawn its military contingent of some 3,200 troops by 2006, maintaining only humanitarian operators and other civilian personnel.In August 2006 Italy deployed about 2,450 troops in Lebanon for the United Nations' peacekeeping mission UNIFIL.", "Italy is one of the largest financiers of the Palestinian National Authority, contributing €60 million in 2013 alone.===Military===uprightThe Italian Army, Navy, Air Force and Carabinieri collectively form the Italian Armed Forces, under the command of the High Council of Defence, presided over by the President of Italy, as established by article 87 of the Constitution of Italy.", "According to article 78, the Parliament has the authority to declare a state of war and vest the necessary powers in the Government.Despite not being a branch of the armed forces, the Guardia di Finanza (\"Financial Guard\") has military status and is organized along military lines.", "Since 2005, military service is voluntary.", "In 2010, the Italian military had 293,202 personnel on active duty, of which 114,778 are Carabinieri.", "As part of NATO's nuclear sharing strategy Italy also hosts 90 United States B61 nuclear bombs, located in the Ghedi and Aviano air bases.The Italian Army is the national ground defence force.", "Its best-known combat vehicles are the Dardo infantry fighting vehicle, the Centauro tank destroyer and the Ariete tank, and among its aircraft the Mangusta attack helicopter, in the last years deployed in EU, NATO and UN missions.", "It also has at its disposal many Leopard 1 and M113 armoured vehicles.", "It was formed in 1946 from what remained of the Regio Esercito (\"Royal Army\", which was established on the occasion of the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy, 1861) after World War II, when Italy became a republic following a referendum.The Italian Navy is a blue-water navy.", "In modern times the Italian Navy, being a member of the EU and NATO, has taken part in many coalition peacekeeping operations around the world.", "It was formed in 1946 from what remained of the Regia Marina (\"Royal Navy\", which was established on the occasion of the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy, 1861) after World War II, when Italy became a republic following a referendum.", "The Italian Navy in 2014 operates 154 vessels in service, including minor auxiliary vessels.The Italian Air Force in 2021 operates 219 combat jets.", "A transport capability is guaranteed by a fleet of 27 C-130Js and C-27J Spartan.", "The Italian Air Force was founded as an independent service arm on 28 March 1923 by King Victor Emmanuel III as the Regia Aeronautica (\"Royal Air Force\").", "After World War II, when Italy became a republic following a referendum, the Regia Aeronautica was given its current name.", "The acrobatic display team is the ''Frecce Tricolori'' (\"Tricolour Arrows\").An autonomous corps of the military, the Carabinieri are the gendarmerie and military police of Italy, policing the military and civilian population alongside Italy's other police forces.", "While the different branches of the Carabinieri report to separate ministries for each of their individual functions, the corps reports to the Ministry of Internal Affairs when maintaining public order and security.===Administrative divisions===Italy is constituted by 20 regions (''regioni'')—five of these regions having a special autonomous status that enables them to enact legislation on additional matters, 107 provinces (''province'') or metropolitan cities (''città metropolitane''), and 7,904 municipalities (''comuni'').", "This is a list of regions in Italy:* Abruzzo* Aosta Valley* Apulia* Basilicata* Calabria* Campania* Emilia-Romagna* Friuli-Venezia Giulia* Lazio* Liguria* Lombardy* Marche* Molise* Piedmont* Sardinia* Sicily* Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol* Tuscany* Umbria* Veneto" ], [ "Economy", "A proportional representation of Italy's exports, 2019Italy has a major advanced capitalist mixed economy, ranking as the third-largest in the eurozone and the eighth-largest in the world by nominal GDP the ninth-largest national wealth and the third-largest central bank gold reserve.", "A founding member of the G7, the eurozone and the OECD, it is regarded as one of the world's most industrialised nations and a leading country in world trade and exports.", "It is a developed country, ranked 30th on the Human Development Index.", "It also performs well in life expectancy, healthcare and education.", "The country is well known for its creative and innovative business, a large and competitive agricultural sector (with the world's largest wine production), and for its influential and high-quality automobile, machinery, food, design and fashion industry.Italy is the world's sixth-largest manufacturing country, characterised by a smaller number of global multinational corporations than other economies of comparable size and many dynamic small and medium-sized enterprises, notoriously clustered in several industrial districts, which are the backbone of the Italian industry.", "This has produced a manufacturing sector often focused on the export of niche market and luxury products, that if on one side is less capable to compete on the quantity, on the other side is more capable of facing the competition from China and other emerging Asian economies based on lower labour costs, with higher quality products.", "Italy was the world's tenth-largest exporter in 2019.Its closest trade ties are with the other countries of the European Union.", "Its largest export partners in 2019 were Germany (12%), France (11%), and the United States (10%).Milan is the economic capital of Italy, and a global financial centre and fashion capital of the world.A Carrara marble quarryThe automotive industry is a significant part of the Italian manufacturing sector, with over 144,000 firms and almost 485,000 employed people in 2015, and a contribution of 8.5% to Italian GDP.", "Stellantis is currently the world's fifth-largest auto maker.", "The country boasts a wide range of acclaimed products, from compact city cars to luxury supercars such as Maserati, Pagani, Lamborghini, and Ferrari.The Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena is the world's oldest or second oldest bank in continuous operation, depending on the definition, and the fourth-largest Italian commercial and retail bank.", "Italy has a strong cooperative sector, with the largest share of the population (4.5%) employed by a cooperative in the EU.", "The Val d'Agri area, Basilicata, hosts the largest onshore hydrocarbon field in Europe.", "Moderate natural gas reserves, mainly in the Po Valley and offshore Adriatic Sea, have been discovered in recent years and constitute the country's most important mineral resource.", "Italy is one of the world's leading producers of pumice, pozzolana, and feldspar.", "Another notable mineral resource is marble, especially the world-famous white Carrara marble from the Massa and Carrara quarries in Tuscany.Italy is part of a monetary union, the eurozone, and of the European single market, which represents more than 500 million consumers.", "Several domestic commercial policies are determined by agreements among European Union (EU) members and by EU legislation.", "Italy introduced the common European currency, the euro in 2002.It is a member of the eurozone which represents around 330 million citizens.", "Its monetary policy is set by the European Central Bank.Italy was hit hard by the financial crisis of 2007–08, that exacerbated the country's structural problems.", "Effectively, after a strong GDP growth of 5–6% per year from the 1950s to the early 1970s, and a progressive slowdown in the 1980–90s, the country virtually stagnated in the 2000s.", "The political efforts to revive growth with massive government spending eventually produced a severe rise in public debt, that stood at over 131.8% of GDP in 2017, ranking second in the EU only after the Greek one.", "For all that, the largest chunk of Italian public debt is owned by national subjects, a major difference between Italy and Greece, and the level of household debt is much lower than the OECD average.A gaping North–South divide is a major factor of socio-economic weakness.", "It can be noted by the huge difference in statistical income between the northern and southern regions and municipalities.", "The richest province, Alto Adige-South Tyrol, earns 152% of the national GDP per capita, while the poorest region, Calabria, 61%.", "The unemployment rate (11.1%) stands slightly above the eurozone average, but the disaggregated figure is 6.6% in the North and 19.2% in the South.", "The youth unemployment rate (31.7% in March 2018) is extremely high compared to EU standards.===Agriculture===According to the last national agricultural census, there were 1.6 million farms in 2010 (−32.4% since 2000) covering (63% of which are located in Southern Italy).", "The vast majority (99%) are family-operated and small, averaging only in size.", "Of the total surface area in agricultural use (forestry excluded), grain fields take up 31%, olive tree orchards 8.2%, vineyards 5.4%, citrus orchards 3.8%, sugar beets 1.7%, and horticulture 2.4%.", "The remainder is primarily dedicated to pastures (25.9%) and feed grains (11.6%).Italy is the world's largest wine producer, and one of the leading in olive oil, fruits (apples, olives, grapes, oranges, lemons, pears, apricots, hazelnuts, peaches, cherries, plums, strawberries and kiwifruits), and vegetables (especially artichokes and tomatoes).", "The most famous Italian wines are probably the Tuscan Chianti and the Piedmontese Barolo.", "Other famous wines are Barbaresco, Barbera d'Asti, Brunello di Montalcino, Frascati, Montepulciano d'Abruzzo, Morellino di Scansano, and the sparkling wines Franciacorta and Prosecco.Quality goods in which Italy specialises, particularly the already mentioned wines and regional cheeses, are often protected under the quality assurance labels DOC/DOP.", "This geographical indication certificate, which is attributed by the European Union, is considered important in order to avoid confusion with low-quality mass-produced ersatz products.===Transport===FS' Frecciarossa 1000 high speed train, with a maximum speed of Italy was the first country in the world to build motorways, the so-called ''autostrade'', reserved for fast traffic and for motor vehicles only.", "Regarding the national road network, in 2002 there were of serviceable roads in Italy, including of motorways, state-owned but privately operated by Atlantia.", "In 2005, about 34,667,000 passenger cars (590 cars per 1,000 people) and 4,015,000 goods vehicles circulated on the national road network.Trieste, the main port of the northern Adriatic and starting point of the Transalpine PipelineThe national railway network, state-owned and operated by Rete Ferroviaria Italiana (FSI), in 2008 totalled of which is electrified, and on which 4,802 locomotives and railcars run.", "The main public operator of high-speed trains is Trenitalia, part of FSI.", "Higher-speed trains are divided into three categories: Frecciarossa () trains operate at a maximum speed of 300 km/h on dedicated high-speed tracks; Frecciargento () trains operate at a maximum speed of 250 km/h on both high-speed and mainline tracks; and Frecciabianca () trains operate on high-speed regional lines at a maximum speed of 200 km/h.", "Italy has 11 rail border crossings over the Alpine mountains with its neighbouring countries.Italy is the fifth in Europe by the number of passengers by air transport, with about 148 million passengers or about 10% of the European total in 2011.In 2022 there were 45 civil airports in Italy, including the two hubs of Malpensa International Airport in Milan and Leonardo da Vinci International Airport in Rome.", "Since October 2021, Italy's flag carrier airline is ITA Airways, which took over the brand, the IATA ticketing code, and many assets belonging to the former flag carrier Alitalia, after its bankruptcy.In 2004 there were 43 major seaports, including the seaport of Genoa, the country's largest and second-largest in the Mediterranean Sea.", "In 2005 Italy maintained a civilian air fleet of about 389,000 units and a merchant fleet of 581 ships.", "The national inland waterways network has a length of for commercial traffic in 2012.Italy has been the final destination of the Silk Road for many centuries.", "In particular, the construction of the Suez Canal intensified sea trade with East Africa and Asia from the 19th century.", "Since the end of the Cold War and increasing European integration, the trade relations, which were often interrupted in the 20th century, have intensified again and the northern Italian ports such as the deep-water port of Trieste in the northernmost part of the Mediterranean with its extensive rail connections to Central and Eastern Europe are once again the destination of government subsidies and significant foreign investment.===Energy===Solar panels in Piombino.", "Italy is one of the world's largest producers of renewable energy.In the last decade, Italy has become one of the world's largest producers of renewable energy, ranking as the second largest producer in the European Union and the ninth in the world.", "Wind power, hydroelectricity, and geothermal power are also significant sources of electricity in the country.", "Renewable sources account for 27.5% of all electricity produced in Italy, with hydro alone reaching 12.6%, followed by solar at 5.7%, wind at 4.1%, bioenergy at 3.5%, and geothermal at 1.6%.", "The rest of the national demand is covered by fossil fuels (38.2% natural gas, 13% coal, 8.4% oil) and by imports.", "Eni, with operations in 79 countries, is considered one of the seven \"Supermajor\" oil companies in the world, and one of the world's largest industrial companies.Solar energy production alone accounted for almost 9% of the total electric production in the country in 2014, making Italy the country with the highest contribution from solar energy in the world.", "The Montalto di Castro Photovoltaic Power Station, completed in 2010, is the largest photovoltaic power station in Italy with 85 MW.", "Other examples of large PV plants in Italy are San Bellino (70.6 MW), Cellino san Marco (42.7 MW) and Sant' Alberto (34.6 MW).", "Italy was the first country in the world to exploit geothermal energy to produce electricity.", "Italy had managed four nuclear reactors until the 1980s.", "However, nuclear power in Italy has been abandoned following a 1987 referendum (in the wake of the 1986 Chernobyl disaster in Soviet Ukraine), though Italy still imports nuclear energy from Italy-owned reactors in foreign territories.===Science and technology===Galileo Galilei, the father of modern science, physics and astronomyEnrico Fermi, creator of the world's first nuclear reactorThrough the centuries, Italy has fostered the scientific community that produced many major discoveries in physics and other sciences.", "During the Renaissance Italian polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), Michelangelo (1475–1564) and Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) made contributions in a variety of fields, including biology, architecture, and engineering.", "Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), an astronomer, physicist, engineer, and polymath, played a major role in the Scientific Revolution.", "He is considered the \"father\" of observational astronomy, modern physics, the scientific method, and modern science.Other astronomers such as Giovanni Domenico Cassini (1625–1712) and Giovanni Schiaparelli (1835–1910) made discoveries about the Solar System.", "In mathematics, Joseph Louis Lagrange (born Giuseppe Lodovico Lagrangia, 1736–1813) was active before leaving Italy.", "Fibonacci ( – ), and Gerolamo Cardano (1501–1576) made fundamental advances in mathematics.", "Luca Pacioli established accounting to the world.", "Physicist Enrico Fermi (1901–1954), a Nobel prize laureate, led the team in Chicago that developed the first nuclear reactor.", "He is considered the \"architect of the nuclear age\" and the \"architect of the atomic bomb\".", "He, Emilio G. Segrè (1905–1989) who discovered the elements technetium and astatine, and the antiproton), Bruno Rossi (1905–1993) a pioneer in Cosmic Rays and X-ray astronomy) and a number of Italian physicists were forced to leave Italy in the 1930s by Fascist laws against Jews.Other prominent physicists include: Amedeo Avogadro (most noted for his contributions to molecular theory, in particular, the Avogadro's law and the Avogadro constant), Evangelista Torricelli (inventor of barometer), Alessandro Volta (inventor of electric battery), Guglielmo Marconi (inventor of radio), Galileo Ferraris and Antonio Pacinotti, pioneers of the induction motor, Alessandro Cruto, pioneer of light bulb and Innocenzo Manzetti, eclectic pioneer of auto and robotics, Ettore Majorana (who discovered the Majorana fermions), Carlo Rubbia (1984 Nobel Prize in Physics for work leading to the discovery of the W and Z particles at CERN).", "Antonio Meucci is known for developing a voice-communication device which is often credited as the first telephone.", "Pier Giorgio Perotto in 1964 designed one of the first desktop programmable calculators, the Programma 101.In biology, Francesco Redi has been the first to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies and he described 180 parasites in detail and Marcello Malpighi founded microscopic anatomy, Lazzaro Spallanzani conducted research in bodily functions, animal reproduction, and cellular theory, Camillo Golgi, whose many achievements include the discovery of the Golgi complex, paved the way to the acceptance of the Neuron doctrine, Rita Levi-Montalcini discovered the nerve growth factor (awarded 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine).", "In chemistry, Giulio Natta received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1963 for his work on high polymers.", "Giuseppe Occhialini received the Wolf Prize in Physics for the discovery of the pion or pi-meson decay in 1947.Ennio de Giorgi, a Wolf Prize in Mathematics recipient in 1990, solved Bernstein's problem about minimal surfaces and the 19th Hilbert problem on the regularity of solutions of Elliptic partial differential equations.Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso (LNGS) is the largest underground research centre in the world.", "ELETTRA, Eurac Research, ESA Centre for Earth Observation, Institute for Scientific Interchange, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Centre for Maritime Research and Experimentation, and the International Centre for Theoretical Physics conduct basic research.", "Trieste has the highest percentage of researchers in Europe in relation to the population.", "Italy was ranked 26th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.There are numerous technology parks in Italy such as the Science and Technology Parks Kilometro Rosso (Bergamo), the AREA Science Park (Trieste), The VEGA-Venice Gateway for Science and Technology (Venezia), the Toscana Life Sciences (Siena), the Technology Park of Lodi Cluster (Lodi), and the Technology Park of Navacchio (Pisa), as well as science museums such as the Museo Nazionale Scienza e Tecnologia Leonardo da Vinci in Milan, the Città della Scienza in Naples, and the Institute and Museum of the History of Science in Florence.Within this great Italian History of Science and Technology, modern times tell a different and more technologically divergent story.", "The North–South divide is a significant factor that leads to a vast difference in income between the Northern and Southern regions, which brings up the topic of the Digital Divide in Italy.", "The long history of this divided peninsula, now a unified nation-state, details the complex problems of underdeveloped areas in the South.", "As expected, these problems of underdevelopment and poverty still linger today, also reflected in the concept of the digital divide between the North and South.", "The Global digital divide is broadly described as the technological differences between underdeveloped and developed countries.", "While this does not necessarily mean that people have no access to technology, it is made clear that this equates to differences in technology, such as the Internet and household electronics.", "Digital inequalities between Northern and Southern Italy exist and are still prevalent, especially when related to education.===Tourism===Forum of Pompeii with Vesuvius in the distance.", "Pompeii is one of Italy's major tourist destinations.The Amalfi Coast is one of Italy's major tourist destinations.People have visited Italy for centuries, yet the first to visit the peninsula for touristic reasons were aristocrats during the Grand Tour, beginning in the 17th century, and flourishing in the 18th and the 19th century.", "This was a period in which European aristocrats, many of whom were British, visited parts of Europe, with Italy as a key destination.", "For Italy, this was in order to study ancient architecture, local culture and to admire the natural beauties.Nowadays Italy is the fifth most visited country in international tourism, with a total of 52.3 million international arrivals in 2016.The total contribution of travel & tourism to GDP (including wider effects from investment, the supply chain and induced income impacts) was EUR162.7bn in 2014 (10.1% of GDP) and generated 1,082,000 jobs directly in 2014 (4.8% of total employment).Factors of tourist interest in Italy are mainly culture, cuisine, history, fashion, architecture, art, religious sites and routes, wedding tourism, naturalistic beauties, nightlife, underwater sites, and spas.", "Winter and summer tourism are present in many locations in the Alps and the Apennines, while seaside tourism is widespread in coastal locations on the Mediterranean Sea.", "Italy is the leading cruise tourism destination in the Mediterranean Sea.", "Small, historical and artistic Italian villages are promoted through the association ''I Borghi più belli d'Italia'' (" ], [ "Demographics", "Map of Italy's population density at the 2011 censusAt the beginning of 2020, Italy had 60,317,116 inhabitants.", "The resulting population density, at , is higher than that of most Western European countries.", "However, the distribution of the population is widely uneven.", "The most densely populated areas are the Po Valley (that accounts for almost a half of the national population) and the metropolitan areas of Rome and Naples, while vast regions such as the Alps and Apennines highlands, the plateaus of Basilicata and the island of Sardinia, as well as much of Sicily, are sparsely populated.The population of Italy almost doubled during the 20th century, but the pattern of growth was extremely uneven because of large-scale internal migration from the rural South to the industrial cities of the North, a phenomenon which happened as a consequence of the Italian economic miracle of the 1950–1960s.", "High fertility and birth rates persisted until the 1970s, after which they started to decline.", "The population rapidly aged; by 2010, one in five Italians was over 65 years old, and the country currently has the fifth oldest population in the world, with a median age of 46.5 years.", "However, in recent years Italy has experienced significant growth in birth rates.", "The total fertility rate has also climbed from an all-time low of 1.18 children per woman in 1995 to 1.41 in 2008, albeit still below the replacement rate of 2.1 and considerably below the high of 5.06 children born per woman in 1883.Nevertheless, the total fertility rate is expected to reach 1.6–1.8 in 2030.From the late 19th century until the 1960s Italy was a country of mass emigration.", "Between 1898 and 1914, the peak years of Italian diaspora, approximately 750,000 Italians emigrated each year.", "The diaspora concerned more than 25 million Italians and it is considered the biggest mass migration of contemporary times.", "As a result, today more than 4.1 million Italian citizens are living abroad, while at least 60 million people of full or part Italian ancestry live outside of Italy, most notably in Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Venezuela, the United States, Canada, Australia, and France.=== Largest cities ======Immigration===Italy is home to a large population of migrants from Eastern Europe and North Africa.In 2021, Italy had about 5.17 million foreign residents, making up 8.7% of the total population.", "The figures include more than half a million children born in Italy to foreign nationals (second generation immigrants) but exclude foreign nationals who have subsequently acquired Italian citizenship; in 2016, about 201,000 people became Italian citizens.", "The official figures also exclude illegal immigrants, who estimated to number at least 670,000 as of 2008.Starting from the early 1980s, until then a linguistically and culturally homogeneous society, Italy begun to attract substantial flows of foreign immigrants.", "After the fall of the Berlin Wall and, more recently, the 2004 and 2007 enlargements of the European Union, large waves of migration originated from the former socialist countries of Eastern Europe (especially Romania, Albania, Ukraine, and Poland).", "Another source of immigration is neighbouring North Africa (in particular, Morocco, Egypt, and Tunisia), with soaring arrivals as a consequence of the Arab Spring.", "Furthermore, in recent years, growing migration fluxes from Asia-Pacific (notably China and the Philippines) and Latin America have been recorded.Currently, about one million Romanian citizens (around 10% of them being ethnic Romani people) are officially registered as living in Italy, representing the largest migrant population, followed by Albanians and Moroccans with about 500,000 people each.", "The number of unregistered Romanians is difficult to estimate, but the Balkan Investigative Reporting Network suggested in 2007 that there might have been half a million or more.As of 2010, the foreign born population of Italy was from the following regions: Europe (54%), Africa (22%), Asia (16%), the Americas (8%) and Oceania (0.06%).", "The distribution of foreign population is geographically varied in Italy: in 2020, 61.2% of foreign citizens lived in Northern Italy (in particular 36.1% in the North West and 25.1% in the North East), 24.2% in the centre, 10.8% in the South, and 3.9% in the Islands.===Languages===languages spoken in ItalyItaly's official language is Italian, as stated by the framework law no.", "482/1999 and Trentino Alto-Adige's special Statute, which is adopted with a constitutional law.", "Around the world there are an estimated 64 million native Italian speakers and another 21 million who use it as a second language.", "Italian is often natively spoken in a regional variety, not to be confused with Italy's regional and minority languages; however, the establishment of a national education system led to a decrease in variation in the languages spoken across the country during the 20th century.", "Standardisation was further expanded in the 1950s and 1960s due to economic growth and the rise of mass media and television (the state broadcaster RAI helped set a standard Italian).Twelve \"historical minority languages\" (''minoranze linguistiche storiche'') are formally recognised: Albanian, Catalan, German, Greek, Slovene, Croatian, French, Franco-Provençal, Friulian, Ladin, Occitan, and Sardinian.", "Four of these also enjoy a co-official status in their respective region: French in the Aosta Valley; German in South Tyrol, and Ladin as well in some parts of the same province and in parts of the neighbouring Trentino; and Slovene in the provinces of Trieste, Gorizia and Udine.", "A number of other Ethnologue, ISO and UNESCO languages are not recognised by Italian law.", "Like France, Italy has signed the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, but has not ratified it.Because of recent immigration, Italy has sizeable populations whose native language is not Italian, nor a regional language.", "According to the Italian National Institute of Statistics, Romanian is the most common mother tongue among foreign residents in Italy: almost 800,000 people speak Romanian as their first language (21.9% of the foreign residents aged 6 and over).", "Other prevalent mother tongues are Arabic (spoken by over 475,000 people; 13.1% of foreign residents), Albanian (380,000 people), and Spanish (255,000 people).===Religion===St.", "Peter's Basilica, the largest church of Christendom, in Vatican City, the Holy See's sovereign territory within RomeReligiosity in Italy is rapidly declining, although it has been historically characterized by the dominance of Catholicism since the Great Schism.", "According to a 2023 Ipsos survey, 61% of the country's residents are Catholic, 4% are Protestants, 3% other Christians (68% are Christians overall), 28% are irreligious, 2% prefer not to say, 1% are Muslims, are 1% adhere to other religions.", "Most Catholics are nominal; the ''Associated Press'' describes Italian Catholicism as \"a faith that’s... nominally embraced but rarely lived.\"", "Italy has the world's fifth-largest Catholic population, the largest in Europe.In 2011, minority Christian faiths in Italy included an estimated 1.5 million Orthodox Christians.", "Protestantism has been growing in recent years.", "One of the longest-established minority religious faiths in Italy is Judaism.", "Italy has for centuries welcomed Jews expelled from other countries, notably Spain.", "However, about 20% of Italian Jews were killed during the Holocaust.", "This, together with the emigration which preceded and followed World War II, has left only around 28,400 Jews in Italy.The Holy See, the episcopal jurisdiction of Rome, contains the central government of the Catholic Church.", "It is recognised by other subjects of international law as a sovereign entity, headed by the Pope, who is also the Bishop of Rome, with which diplomatic relations can be maintained.", "Often incorrectly referred to as \"the Vatican\", the Holy See is not the same entity as the Vatican City State because the Holy See is the jurisdiction and administrative entity of the Pope.", "The Vatican City came into existence only in 1929.There are also 120,000 Hindus, 70,000 Sikhs, and 22 gurdwaras across the country.Since 1985, Catholicism is no longer officially the state religion.", "However, the Italian state devolves shares of income tax to recognised religious communities, under a regime known as Eight per thousand.", "Donations are allowed to Christian, Jewish, Buddhist and Hindu communities; however, Islam remains excluded, since no Muslim communities have yet signed a concordat with the Italian state.", "Taxpayers who do not wish to fund a religion contribute their share to the state welfare system.===Education===Bologna University, established in 1088 AD, is the world's oldest university in continuous operation.Education in Italy is free and mandatory from ages six to sixteen, and consists of five stages: kindergarten (''scuola dell'infanzia''), primary school (''scuola primaria''), lower secondary school (''scuola secondaria di primo grado''), upper secondary school (''scuola secondaria di secondo grado''), and university (''università'').Primary education lasts eight years.", "Students are given a basic education in Italian, English, mathematics, natural sciences, history, geography, social studies, physical education and visual and musical arts.", "Secondary education lasts for five years and includes three traditional types of schools focused on different academic levels: the ''liceo'' prepares students for university studies with a classical or scientific curriculum, while the ''istituto tecnico'' and the ''istituto professionale'' prepare pupils for vocational education.In 2018, the Italian secondary education was evaluated as below the OECD average.", "Italy scored below the OECD average in reading and science, and near OECD average in mathematics.", "Mean performance in Italy declined in reading and science, and remained stable in mathematics.", "Trento and Bolzano scored at an above the national average in reading.", "Compared to school children in other OECD countries, children in Italy missed out on a greater amount of learning due to absences and indiscipline in classrooms.", "A wide gap exists between northern schools, which perform near average, and schools in the south, that had much poorer results.Tertiary education in Italy is divided between public universities, private universities and the prestigious and selective superior graduate schools, such as the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa.", "33 Italian universities were ranked among the world's top 500 in 2019, the third-largest number in Europe after the United Kingdom and Germany.", "Bologna University, founded in 1088, is the oldest university in continuous operation, as well as one of the leading academic institutions in Italy and Europe.", "The Bocconi University, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, LUISS, Polytechnic University of Turin, Polytechnic University of Milan, Sapienza University of Rome, and University of Milan are also ranked among the best in the world.===Health===Olive oil and vegetables are central to the Mediterranean diet.Life expectancy in the country is 80 for males and 85 for females, placing the country 5th in the world.", "In comparison to other Western countries, Italy has a relatively low rate of adult obesity (below 10%), as there are several health benefits of the Mediterranean diet.", "The proportion of daily smokers was 22% in 2012, down from 24.4% in 2000 but still slightly above the OECD average.", "Smoking in public places including bars, restaurants, night clubs and offices has been restricted to specially ventilated rooms since 2005.In 2013, UNESCO added the Mediterranean diet to the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity of Italy (promoter), Morocco, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Cyprus, and Croatia.The Italian state runs a universal public healthcare system since 1978.However, healthcare is provided to all citizens and residents by a mixed public-private system.", "The public part is the ''Servizio Sanitario Nazionale'', which is organised under the Ministry of Health and administered on a devolved regional basis.", "Healthcare spending accounted for 9.7% of GDP in 2020.Italy's healthcare system is consistently ranked among the best in the world.", "In 2018 Italy's healthcare is ranked 20th in Europe in the Euro Health Consumer Index." ], [ "Culture", "Carnival of VeniceItaly is considered one of the birthplaces of western civilization and a cultural superpower.", "Divided by politics and geography for centuries until its eventual unification in 1861, Italy's culture has been shaped by a multitude of regional customs and local centres of power and patronage.", "Italy has had a central role in Western culture for centuries and is still recognised for its cultural traditions and artists.", "During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, a number of courts competed to attract architects, artists and scholars, thus producing a legacy of monuments, paintings, music and literature.", "Despite the political and social isolation of these courts, Italy has made a substantial contribution to the cultural and historical heritage of Europe.===Architecture===Italy is known for its considerable architectural achievements, such as the construction of arches, domes and similar structures during ancient Rome, the founding of the Renaissance architectural movement in the late-14th to 16th centuries, and being the homeland of Palladianism, a style of construction which inspired movements such as that of Neoclassical architecture, and influenced the designs which noblemen built their country houses all over the world, notably in the UK, Australia and the US during the late 17th to early 20th centuries.Along with pre-historic architecture, the first people in Italy to truly begin a sequence of designs were the Greeks and the Etruscans, progressing to classical Roman, then to the revival of the classical Roman era during the Renaissance and evolving into the Baroque era.", "The Christian concept of a Basilica, a style of church architecture that came to dominate the early Middle Ages, was invented in Rome.", "They were known for being long, rectangular buildings, which were built in an almost ancient Roman style, often rich in mosaics and decorations.", "The early Christians' art and architecture were also widely inspired by that of the pagan Romans; statues, mosaics and paintings decorated all their churches.The Romanesque movement, which went from approximately 800 AD to 1100 AD, was one of the most fruitful and creative periods in Italian architecture, when several masterpieces, such as the Leaning Tower of Pisa in the Piazza dei Miracoli, and the Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio in Milan were built.", "It was known for its usage of Roman arches, stained glass windows, and also its curved columns which commonly featured in cloisters.", "The main innovation of Italian Romanesque architecture was the vault, which had never been seen before in the history of Western architecture.A flowering of Italian architecture took place during the Renaissance.", "Filippo Brunelleschi contributed to architectural design with his dome for the Cathedral of Florence, a feat of engineering that had not been accomplished since antiquity.", "A popular achievement of Italian Renaissance architecture was St. Peter's Basilica, originally designed by Donato Bramante in the early 16th century.", "Also, Andrea Palladio influenced architects throughout Western Europe with the villas and palaces he designed in the middle and late 16th century; the city of Vicenza, with its twenty-three buildings designed by Palladio, and twenty-four Palladian Villas of the Veneto are listed by UNESCO as part of a World Heritage Site named City of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto.The Baroque period produced several outstanding Italian architects in the 17th century, especially those known for their churches.", "The most original work of all late Baroque and Rococo architecture is the Palazzina di caccia di Stupinigi, dating back to the 18th century.", "Luigi Vanvitelli began in 1752 the construction of the Royal Palace of Caserta.", "In this large complex, the grandiose Baroque-style interiors and gardens are opposed to a more sober building envelope.", "In the late 18th and early 19th centuries Italy was affected by the Neoclassical architectural movement.", "Villas, palaces, gardens, interiors and art began to be based on Roman and Greek themes.During the Fascist period, the so-called \"Novecento movement\" flourished, based on the rediscovery of imperial Rome, with figures such as Gio Ponti and Giovanni Muzio.", "Marcello Piacentini, responsible for the urban transformations of several cities in Italy and remembered for the disputed Via della Conciliazione in Rome, devised a form of simplified Neoclassicism.===Visual art===The Last Supper'' (1494–1499), Leonardo da Vinci, Church of Santa Maria delle Grazie, MilanThe history of Italian visual arts is significant to the history of Western painting.", "Roman art was influenced by Greece and can in part be taken as a descendant of ancient Greek painting.", "Roman painting does have its own unique characteristics.", "The only surviving Roman paintings are wall paintings, many from villas in Campania, in Southern Italy.", "Such paintings can be grouped into four main \"styles\" or periods and may contain the first examples of trompe-l'œil, pseudo-perspective, and pure landscape.David'' (1501–1504), Galleria dell'Accademia, FlorenceThe Italian Renaissance is said by many to be the golden age of painting; roughly spanning the 14th through the mid-17th centuries with a significant influence also out of the borders of modern Italy.", "In Italy, artists like Paolo Uccello, Fra Angelico, Masaccio, Piero della Francesca, Andrea Mantegna, Filippo Lippi, Giorgione, Tintoretto, Sandro Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, Raphael, Giovanni Bellini, and Titian took painting to a higher level through the use of perspective, the study of human anatomy and proportion, and through their development of refined drawing and painting techniques.", "Michelangelo was active as a sculptor from about 1500 to 1520; his works include his ''David'', ''Pietà'', and ''Moses''.", "Other Renaissance sculptors include Lorenzo Ghiberti, Luca Della Robbia, Donatello, Filippo Brunelleschi, and Andrea del Verrocchio.In the 15th and 16th centuries, the High Renaissance gave rise to a stylised art known as Mannerism.", "In place of the balanced compositions and rational approach to perspective that characterised art at the dawn of the 16th century, the Mannerists sought instability, artifice, and doubt.", "The unperturbed faces and gestures of Piero della Francesca and the calm Virgins of Raphael are replaced by the troubled expressions of Pontormo and the emotional intensity of El Greco.", "''The Birth of Venus'' (1484–1486), Sandro Botticelli, Uffizi Gallery, FlorenceIn the 17th century, among the greatest painters of Italian Baroque are Caravaggio, Annibale Carracci, Artemisia Gentileschi, Mattia Preti, Carlo Saraceni, and Bartolomeo Manfredi.", "Subsequently, in the 18th century, Italian Rococo was mainly inspired by French Rococo, since France was the founding nation of that particular style, with artists such as Giovanni Battista Tiepolo and Canaletto.", "Italian Neoclassical sculpture focused, with Antonio Canova's nudes, on the idealist aspect of the movement.In the 19th century, major Italian Romantic painters were Francesco Hayez, Giuseppe Bezzuoli and Francesco Podesti.", "Impressionism was brought from France to Italy by the ''Macchiaioli'', led by Giovanni Fattori, and Giovanni Boldini; Realism by Gioacchino Toma and Giuseppe Pellizza da Volpedo.", "In the 20th century, with Futurism, primarily through the works of Umberto Boccioni and Giacomo Balla, Italy rose again as a seminal country for artistic evolution in painting and sculpture.", "Futurism was succeeded by the metaphysical paintings of Giorgio de Chirico, who exerted a strong influence on the Surrealists and generations of artists to follow like Bruno Caruso and Renato Guttuso.===Literature===Formal Latin literature began in 240 BC, when the first stage play was performed in Rome.", "Latin literature was, and still is, highly influential in the world, with numerous writers, poets, philosophers, and historians, such as Pliny the Elder, Pliny the Younger, Virgil, Horace, Propertius, Ovid and Livy.", "The Romans were also famous for their oral tradition, poetry, drama and epigrams.", "In early years of the 13th century, Francis of Assisi was considered the first Italian poet by literary critics, with his religious song ''Canticle of the Sun''.Dante Alighieri, one of the greatest poets of the Middle Ages.", "His epic poem ''The Divine Comedy'' ranks among the finest works of world literature.Another Italian voice originated in Sicily.", "At the court of Emperor Frederick II, who ruled the Sicilian kingdom during the first half of the 13th century, lyrics modelled on Provençal forms and themes were written in a refined version of the local vernacular.", "One of these poets was the notary Giacomo da Lentini, inventor of the sonnet form, though the most famous early sonneteer was Petrarch.Guido Guinizelli is considered the founder of the ''Dolce Stil Novo'', a school that added a philosophical dimension to traditional love poetry.", "This new understanding of love, expressed in a smooth, pure style, influenced Guido Cavalcanti and the Florentine poet Dante Alighieri, who established the basis of the modern Italian language; his greatest work, the ''Divine Comedy'', is considered among the finest works of world literature; furthermore, the poet invented the difficult ''terza rima''.", "Two major writers of the 14th century, Petrarch and Giovanni Boccaccio, sought out and imitated the works of antiquity and cultivated their own artistic personalities.", "Petrarch achieved fame through his collection of poems, ''Il Canzoniere''.", "Petrarch's love poetry served as a model for centuries.", "Equally influential was Boccaccio's ''The Decameron'', one of the most popular collections of short stories ever written.Niccolò Machiavelli, founder of modern political science and ethicsItalian Renaissance authors produced works including Niccolò Machiavelli's ''The Prince'', an essay on political science and modern philosophy in which the \"effectual truth\" is taken to be more important than any abstract ideal; Ludovico Ariosto's ''Orlando Furioso'', continuation of Matteo Maria Boiardo's unfinished romance ''Orlando Innamorato''; and Baldassare Castiglione's dialogue ''The Book of the Courtier'' which describes the ideal of the perfect court gentleman and of spiritual beauty.", "The lyric poet Torquato Tasso in ''Jerusalem Delivered'' wrote a Christian epic in ''ottava rima'', with attention to the Aristotelian canons of unity.Giovanni Francesco Straparola and Giambattista Basile, who have written ''The Facetious Nights of Straparola'' (1550–1555) and the ''Pentamerone'' (1634) respectively, printed some of the first known versions of fairy tales in Europe.", "In the early 17th century, some literary masterpieces were created, such as Giambattista Marino's long mythological poem, ''L'Adone''.", "The Baroque period also produced the clear scientific prose of Galileo as well as Tommaso Campanella's ''The City of the Sun'', a description of a perfect society ruled by a philosopher-priest.", "At the end of the 17th century, the Arcadians began a movement to restore simplicity and classical restraint to poetry, as in Metastasio's heroic melodramas.", "In the 18th century, playwright Carlo Goldoni created full-written plays, many portraying the middle class of his day.Pinocchio'' is one of the world's most translated books and a canonical piece of children's literature.Romanticism coincided with some ideas of the ''Risorgimento'', the patriotic movement that brought Italy political unity and freedom from foreign domination.", "Italian writers embraced Romanticism in the early 19th century.", "The time of Italy's rebirth was heralded by the poets Vittorio Alfieri, Ugo Foscolo, and Giacomo Leopardi.", "The works by Alessandro Manzoni, the leading Italian Romantic, are a symbol of the Italian unification for their patriotic message and because of his efforts in the development of the modern, unified Italian language; his novel ''The Betrothed'' was the first Italian historical novel to glorify Christian values of justice and Providence, and it is generally ranked among the masterpieces of world literature.In the late 19th century, a realistic literary movement called ''Verismo'' played a major role in Italian literature; Giovanni Verga and Luigi Capuana were its main exponents.", "In the same period, Emilio Salgari, writer of action-adventure swashbucklers and a pioneer of science fiction, published his ''Sandokan'' series.", "In 1883, Carlo Collodi also published the novel ''The Adventures of Pinocchio'', the most celebrated children's classic by an Italian author and one of the most translated non-religious books in the world.", "A movement called Futurism influenced Italian literature in the early 20th century.", "Filippo Tommaso Marinetti wrote ''Manifesto of Futurism'', called for the use of language and metaphors that glorified the speed, dynamism, and violence of the machine age.Modern literary figures and Nobel laureates are Gabriele D'Annunzio from 1889 to 1910, nationalist poet Giosuè Carducci in 1906, realist writer Grazia Deledda in 1926, modern theatre author Luigi Pirandello in 1936, short stories writer Italo Calvino in 1960, poets Salvatore Quasimodo in 1959 and Eugenio Montale in 1975, Umberto Eco in 1980, and satirist and theatre author Dario Fo in 1997.===Philosophy===Over the ages, Italian philosophy and literature had a vast influence on Western philosophy, beginning with the Greeks and Romans, and going onto Renaissance humanism, the Age of Enlightenment and modern philosophy.", "Philosophy was brought to Italy by Pythagoras, founder of the Italian school of philosophy in Crotone, Magna Graecia.", "Major Italian philosophers of the Greek period include Xenophanes, Parmenides, Zeno, Empedocles and Gorgias.", "Roman philosophers include Cicero, Lucretius, Seneca the Younger, Musonius Rufus, Plutarch, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius, Clement of Alexandria, Sextus Empiricus, Alexander of Aphrodisias, Plotinus, Porphyry, Iamblichus, Augustine of Hippo, Philoponus of Alexandria and Boethius.Clockwise from top left: Thomas Aquinas, proponent of natural theology and the Father of ''Thomism''; Giordano Bruno, one of the major scientific figures of the Western world; Cesare Beccaria, considered the Father of criminal justice and modern criminal law; and Maria Montessori, credited with the creation of the ''Montessori education''Italian Medieval philosophy was mainly Christian, and included philosophers and theologians such as Thomas Aquinas, the foremost classical proponent of natural theology and the father of Thomism, who reintroduced Aristotelian philosophy to Christianity.", "Notable Renaissance philosophers include: Giordano Bruno, one of the major scientific figures of the western world; Marsilio Ficino, one of the most influential humanist philosophers of the period; and Niccolò Machiavelli, one of the main founders of modern political science.", "Machiavelli's most famous work was ''The Prince'', whose contribution to the history of political thought is the fundamental break between political realism and political idealism.", "Italy was also affected by the Enlightenment, a movement which was a consequence of the Renaissance.", "University cities such as Padua, Bologna and Naples remained centres of scholarship and the intellect, with several philosophers such as Giambattista Vico (widely regarded as being the founder of modern Italian philosophy) and Antonio Genovesi.", "Cesare Beccaria was a significant Enlightenment figure and is now considered one of the fathers of classical criminal theory as well as modern penology.", "Beccaria is famous for his ''On Crimes and Punishments'' (1764), a treatise that served as one of the earliest prominent condemnations of torture and the death penalty and thus a landmark work in anti-death penalty philosophy.Italy also had a renowned philosophical movement in the 1800s, with Idealism, Sensism and Empiricism.", "The main Sensist Italian philosophers were Melchiorre Gioja and Gian Domenico Romagnosi.", "Criticism of the Sensist movement came from other philosophers such as Pasquale Galluppi (1770–1846), who affirmed that ''a priori'' relationships were synthetic.", "Antonio Rosmini, instead, was the founder of Italian idealism.", "During the late 19th and 20th centuries, there were also several other movements which gained some form of popularity in Italy, such as Ontologism (whose main philosopher was Vincenzo Gioberti), anarchism, communism, socialism, futurism, fascism and Christian democracy.", "Giovanni Gentile and Benedetto Croce were two of the most significant 20th-century Idealist philosophers.", "Anarcho-communism first fully formed into its modern strain within the Italian section of the First International.", "Antonio Gramsci remains a relevant philosopher within Marxist and communist theory, credited with creating the theory of cultural hegemony.", "Italian philosophers were also influential in the development of the non-Marxist liberal socialism philosophy, including Carlo Rosselli, Norberto Bobbio, Piero Gobetti and Aldo Capitini.", "In the 1960s, many Italian left-wing activists adopted the anti-authoritarian pro-working class leftist theories that would become known as autonomism and ''operaismo''.Early Italian feminists include Sibilla Aleramo, Alaide Gualberta Beccari, and Anna Maria Mozzoni, though proto-feminist philosophies had previously been touched upon by earlier Italian writers such as Christine de Pizan, Moderata Fonte, and Lucrezia Marinella.", "Italian physician and educator Maria Montessori is credited with the creation of the philosophy of education that bears her name, an educational philosophy now practised throughout the world.", "Giuseppe Peano was one of the founders of analytic philosophy and the contemporary philosophy of mathematics.", "Recent analytic philosophers include Carlo Penco, Gloria Origgi, Pieranna Garavaso, and Luciano Floridi.===Theatre===Teatro di San Carlo, Naples.", "It is the oldest continuously active venue for opera in the world.Italian theatre originates from the Middle Ages, with its background dating back to the times of the ancient Greek colonies of Magna Graecia, in Southern Italy, the theatre of the Italic peoples and the theatre of ancient Rome.", "It can therefore be assumed that there were two main lines of which the ancient Italian theatre developed in the Middle Ages.", "The first, consisting of the dramatization of Catholic liturgies and of which more documentation is retained, and the second, formed by pagan forms of spectacle such as the staging for city festivals, the court preparations of the jesters and the songs of the troubadours.", "The Renaissance theatre marked the beginning of the modern theatre due to the rediscovery and study of the classics, the ancient theatrical texts were recovered and translated, which were soon staged at the court and in the curtensi halls, and then moved to real theatre.", "In this way the idea of theatre came close to that of today: a performance in a designated place in which the public participates.", "In the late 15th century two cities were important centres for the rediscovery and renewal of theatrical art: Ferrara and Rome.", "The first, vital centre of art in the second half of the fifteenth century, saw the staging of some of the most famous Latin works by Plautus, rigorously translated into Italian.Statues of Pantalone and Harlequin, two stock characters from the ''commedia dell'arte'', in the Museo Teatrale alla ScalaDuring the 16th century and on into the 18th century, ''commedia dell'arte'' was a form of improvisational theatre, and it is still performed today.", "Travelling troupes of players would set up an outdoor stage and provide amusement in the form of juggling, acrobatics and, more typically, humorous plays based on a repertoire of established characters with a rough storyline, called ''canovaccio''.", "Plays did not originate from written drama but from scenarios called ''lazzi'', which were loose frameworks that provided the situations, complications, and outcome of the action, around which the actors would improvise.", "The characters of the ''commedia'' usually represent fixed social types and stock characters, each of which has a distinct costume, such as foolish old men, devious servants, or military officers full of false bravado.", "The main categories of these characters include servants, old men, lovers, and captains.The first recorded ''commedia dell'arte'' performances came from Rome as early as 1551, and was performed outdoors in temporary venues by professional actors who were costumed and masked, as opposed to , which were written comedies, presented indoors by untrained and unmasked actors.", "By the mid-16th century, specific troupes of ''commedia'' performers began to coalesce, and by 1568 the Gelosi became a distinct company.", "''Commedia'' often performed inside in court theatres or halls, and also in some fixed theatres such as Teatro Baldrucca in Florence.", "Flaminio Scala, who had been a minor performer in the Gelosi published the scenarios of the ''commedia dell'arte'' around the start of the 17th century, really in an effort to legitimise the form—and ensure its legacy.", "These scenari are highly structured and built around the symmetry of the various types in duet: two Zanni, , and , among others.Dario Fo, one of the most widely performed playwrights in modern theatre, received international acclaim for his highly improvisational style.", "He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1997.In ''commedia dell'arte'', female roles were played by women, documented as early as the 1560s, making them the first known professional actresses in Europe since antiquity.", "Lucrezia Di Siena, whose name is on a contract of actors from 10 October 1564, has been referred to as the first Italian actress known by name, with Vincenza Armani and Barbara Flaminia as the first primadonnas and the first well-documented actresses in Europe.The Ballet dance genre also originated in Italy.", "It began during the Italian Renaissance court as an outgrowth of court pageantry, where aristocratic weddings were lavish celebrations.", "Court musicians and dancers collaborated to provide elaborate entertainment for them.", "At first, ballets were woven into the midst of an opera to allow the audience a moment of relief from the dramatic intensity.", "By the mid-seventeenth century, Italian ballets in their entirety were performed in between the acts of an opera.", "Over time, Italian ballets became part of theatrical life: ballet companies in Italy's major opera houses employed an average of four to twelve dancers; in 1815 many companies employed anywhere from eighty to one hundred dancers.The Teatro di San Carlo in Naples is the oldest continuously active venue for public opera in the world, opening in 1737, decades before both Milan's La Scala and Venice's La Fenice theatres.===Music===Antonio Vivaldi, in 1723.His best-known work is a series of violin concertos known as ''The Four Seasons''.From folk music to classical, music is an intrinsic part of Italian culture.", "Instruments associated with classical music, including the piano and violin, were invented in Italy, and many of the prevailing classical music forms, such as the symphony, concerto, and sonata, can trace their roots back to innovations of 16th- and 17th-century Italian music.Italy's most famous composers include the Renaissance composers Palestrina, Monteverdi, and Gesualdo; the Baroque composers Scarlatti, Corelli, and Vivaldi; the Classical composers Paisiello, Paganini, and Rossini; and the Romantic composers Verdi and Puccini.", "Modern Italian composers such as Berio and Nono proved significant in the development of experimental and electronic music.", "While the classical music tradition still holds strong in Italy, as evidenced by the fame of its innumerable opera houses, such as La Scala of Milan and San Carlo of Naples (the oldest continuously active venue for public opera in the world), and performers such as the pianist Maurizio Pollini and tenor Luciano Pavarotti, Italians have been no less appreciative of their thriving contemporary music scene.Luciano Pavarotti, considered one of the finest tenors of the 20th century and the \"King of the High Cs\"Italy is widely known for being the birthplace of opera.", "Italian opera was believed to have been founded in the early 17th century, in cities such as Mantua and Venice.", "Later, works and pieces composed by native Italian composers of the 19th and early 20th centuries, such as Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti, Verdi, and Puccini, are among the most famous operas ever written and today are performed in opera houses across the world.", "La Scala opera house in Milan is also renowned as one of the best in the world.", "Famous Italian opera singers include Enrico Caruso and Alessandro Bonci.Introduced in the early 1920s, jazz took a particularly strong foothold in Italy, and remained popular despite the xenophobic cultural policies of the Fascist regime.", "Today, the most notable centres of jazz music in Italy include Milan, Rome, and Sicily.", "Later, Italy was at the forefront of the progressive rock and pop movement of the 1970s, with bands like PFM, Banco del Mutuo Soccorso, Le Orme, Goblin, and Pooh.", "The same period saw diversification in the cinema of Italy, and Cinecittà films included complex scores by composers including Ennio Morricone, Armando Trovaioli, Piero Piccioni, and Piero Umiliani.", "In the early 1980s, the first star to emerge from the Italian hip hop scene was singer Jovanotti.", "Italian metal bands include Rhapsody of Fire, Lacuna Coil, Elvenking, Forgotten Tomb, and Fleshgod Apocalypse.Giorgio Moroder, pioneer of Italo disco and electronic dance music, is known as the \"Father of disco\".Italy contributed to the development of disco and electronic music, with Italo disco, known for its futuristic sound and prominent use of synthesisers and drum machines, being one of the earliest electronic dance genres, as well as European forms of disco aside from Euro disco (which later went on to influence several genres such as Eurodance and Nu-disco).Producers such as Giorgio Moroder, who won three Academy Awards and four Golden Globes for his music, were highly influential in the development of electronic dance music.", "Today, Italian pop music is represented annually with the Sanremo Music Festival, which served as inspiration for the Eurovision song contest, and the Festival of Two Worlds in Spoleto.", "Singers such as Mina, Andrea Bocelli, Grammy winner Laura Pausini, Zucchero, Eros Ramazzotti, Elisa, Tiziano Ferro and Mahmood have attained international acclaim.Gigliola Cinquetti, Toto Cutugno, and Måneskin won the Eurovision Song Contest, in 1964, 1990, and 2021 respectively.===Cinema===Entrance to Cinecittà in Rome, the largest film studio in EuropeFederico Fellini, considered one of the most influential and widely revered filmmakers of the 20th centuryThe history of Italian cinema began a few months after the Lumière brothers began motion picture exhibitions.", "The first Italian director is considered to be Vittorio Calcina, a collaborator of the Lumière Brothers, who filmed Pope Leo XIII in 1896.In the 1910s the Italian film industry developed rapidly.", "In 1912, the year of the greatest expansion, 569 films were produced in Turin, 420 in Rome and 120 in Milan.", "''Cabiria'', a 1914 Italian epic film directed by Giovanni Pastrone, is considered the most famous Italian silent film.", "It was also the first film in history to be shown in the White House.", "The oldest European avant-garde cinema movement, Italian futurism, took place in the late 1910s.After a period of decline in the 1920s, the Italian film industry was revitalized in the 1930s with the arrival of sound film.", "A popular Italian genre during this period, the Telefoni Bianchi, consisted of comedies with glamorous backgrounds.", "Calligrafismo was instead in a sharp contrast to Telefoni Bianchi-American style comedies and is rather artistic, highly formalistic, expressive in complexity and deals mainly with contemporary literary material.", "Cinema was later used by Benito Mussolini, who founded Rome's renowned Cinecittà studio also for the production of Fascist propaganda until World War II.After the war, Italian film was widely recognised and exported until an artistic decline around the 1980s.", "Notable Italian film directors from this period include Vittorio De Sica, Federico Fellini, Sergio Leone, Pier Paolo Pasolini, Luchino Visconti, Michelangelo Antonioni, Dussio Tessari and Roberto Rossellini; some of these are recognised among the greatest and most influential filmmakers of all time.", "Movies include world cinema treasures such as ''Bicycle Thieves'', ''La Dolce Vita'', ''8½'', ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly'', and ''Once Upon a Time in the West''.", "The mid-1940s to the early 1950s was the heyday of neorealist films, reflecting the poor condition of post-war Italy.As the country grew wealthier in the 1950s, a form of neorealism known as pink neorealism succeeded, and starting from the 1950s through the ''commedia all'italiana'' genre, and other film genres, such as sword-and-sandal followed as spaghetti Westerns, were popular in the 1960s and 1970s.", "Actresses such as Sophia Loren, Giulietta Masina and Gina Lollobrigida achieved international stardom during this period.", "Erotic Italian thrillers, or ''gialli'', produced by directors such as Mario Bava and Dario Argento in the 1970s, also influenced the horror genre worldwide.", "In recent years, the Italian scene has received only occasional international attention, with movies like ''Cinema Paradiso'' written and directed by Giuseppe Tornatore, ''Mediterraneo'' directed by Gabriele Salvatores, ''Life Is Beautiful'' directed by Roberto Benigni, ''Il Postino: The Postman'' with Massimo Troisi and ''The Great Beauty'' directed by Paolo Sorrentino.The aforementioned Cinecittà studio is today the largest film and television production facility in Europe, where many international box office hits were filmed.", "In the 1950s, the number of international productions being made there led to Rome's being dubbed \"Hollywood on the Tiber\".", "More than 3,000 productions have been made on its lot, of which 90 received an Academy Award nomination and 47 of these won it, from some cinema classics to recent rewarded features (such as ''Roman Holiday'', ''Ben-Hur'', ''Cleopatra'', ''Romeo and Juliet'', ''The English Patient'', ''The Passion of the Christ'', and ''Gangs of New York'').Italy is the most awarded country at the Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film, with 14 awards won, 3 Special Awards and 28 nominations.", ", Italian films have also won 12 Palmes d'Or, 11 Golden Lions and 7 Golden Bears.", "The list of the 100 Italian films to be saved was created with the aim to report \"100 films that have changed the collective memory of the country between 1942 and 1978\".===Sport===The ''Azzurri'' in 2012.Football is the most popular sport in Italy.The most popular sport in Italy is football.", "Italy's national football team is one of the world's most successful teams with four FIFA World Cup victories (1934, 1938, 1982 and 2006).", "Italian clubs have won 48 major European trophies, making Italy the second most successful country in European football.", "Italy's top-flight club football league is named Serie A and is followed by millions of fans around the world.Other popular team sports in Italy include basketball, volleyball and rugby.", "Italy's male and female national volleyball teams are often featured among the world's best.", "The Italian national basketball team's best results were gold at Eurobasket 1983 and EuroBasket 1999, as well as silver at the Olympics in 2004.Lega Basket Serie A is widely considered one of the most competitive in Europe.", "Italy's rugby national team competes in the Six Nations Championship, and is a regular at the Rugby World Cup.", "The men's volleyball team won three consecutive World Championships (in 1990, 1994, and 1998) and earned the Olympic silver medal in 1996, 2004, and 2016.Starting in 1909, the Giro d'Italia is the Grands Tours' second oldest.Italy has a long and successful tradition in individual sports as well.", "Bicycle racing is a familiar sport in the country.", "Italians have won the UCI World Championships more than any other country, except Belgium.", "The Giro d'Italia is a cycling race held every May and constitutes one of the three Grand Tours.", "Alpine skiing is also a widespread sport in Italy, and the country is a popular international skiing destination, known for its ski resorts.", "Italian skiers achieved good results in Winter Olympic Games, Alpine Ski World Cup, and tennis has a significant following in Italy, ranking as the fourth most practised sport in the country.", "The Rome Masters, founded in 1930, is one of the most prestigious tennis tournaments in the world.", "Italian professional tennis players won the Davis Cup in 1976 and the Fed Cup in 2006, 2009, 2010, and 2013.A Ferrari SF21 by Scuderia Ferrari, the most successful Formula One teamMotorsports are also extremely popular in Italy.", "Italy has won, by far, the most MotoGP World Championships.", "Italian Scuderia Ferrari is the oldest surviving team in Grand Prix racing, having competed since 1948, and statistically the most successful Formula One team in history with a record of 232 wins.", "The Italian Grand Prix of Formula 1 is the fifth oldest surviving Grand Prix, having been held since 1921.It is also one of the two Grand Prix present in every championship since the first one in 1950.Every Formula 1 Grand Prix (except for the 1980) has been held at Autodromo Nazionale Monza.", "Formula 1 was also held at Imola (1980–2006, 2020) and Mugello (2020).", "Other successful Italian car manufacturers in motorsports are Alfa Romeo, Lancia, Maserati, and Fiat.Historically, Italy has been successful in the Olympic Games, taking part from the first Olympiad and in 47 Games out of 48, not having officially participated in the 1904 Summer Olympics.", "Italian sportsmen have won 522 medals at the Summer Olympic Games, and another 106 at the Winter Olympic Games, for a combined total of 628 medals with 235 golds, which makes them the fifth most successful nation in Olympic history for total medals.", "The country hosted two Winter Olympics and will host a third (in 1956, 2006, and 2026), and one Summer games (in 1960).===Fashion and design===Prada shop at Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II in MilanItalian fashion has a long tradition.", "Milan, Florence, and Rome are Italy's main fashion capitals.", "According to ''Top Global Fashion Capital Rankings'' 2013 by Global Language Monitor, Rome ranked sixth worldwide while Milan was twelfth.", "Previously, in 2009, Milan was declared the \"fashion capital of the world\" by Global Language Monitor itself.", "Major Italian fashion labels, such as Gucci, Armani, Prada, Versace, Valentino, Dolce & Gabbana, Missoni, Fendi, Moschino, Max Mara, Trussardi, and Ferragamo, to name a few, are regarded as among the finest fashion houses in the world.", "Jewellers like Bvlgari, Damiani, and Buccellati have been founded in Italy.", "Also, the fashion magazine Vogue Italia, is considered one of the most prestigious fashion magazines in the world.", "The talent of young, creative fashion is also promoted, as in the ITS young fashion designer competition in Trieste.Italy is also prominent in the field of design, notably interior design, architectural design, industrial design and urban design.", "The country has produced some well-known furniture designers, such as Gio Ponti and Ettore Sottsass, and Italian phrases such as \"''Bel Disegno''\" and \"''Linea Italiana''\" have entered the vocabulary of furniture design.", "Examples of classic pieces of Italian white goods and pieces of furniture include Zanussi's washing machines and fridges, the \"New Tone\" sofas by Atrium, and the post-modern bookcase by Ettore Sottsass, inspired by Bob Dylan's song \"Stuck Inside of Mobile with the Memphis Blues Again\".", "Today, Milan and Turin are the nation's leaders in architectural design and industrial design.", "The city of Milan hosts Fiera Milano, Europe's largest design fair.", "Milan also hosts major design and architecture-related events and venues, such as the \"''Fuori Salone''\" and the Salone del Mobile, and has been home to the designers Bruno Munari, Lucio Fontana, Enrico Castellani and Piero Manzoni.===Cuisine===The traditional recipe for spaghetti with tomato and basil sauceItalian wine and ''salumi''The Italian cuisine has developed through centuries of social and political changes, with roots as far back as the 4th century BC.", "Italian cuisine in itself takes heavy influences, including Etruscan, ancient Greek, ancient Roman, Byzantine, and Jewish.", "Significant changes occurred with the discovery of the New World with the introduction of items such as potatoes, tomatoes, bell peppers and maize, now central to the cuisine but not introduced in quantity until the 18th century.", "Italian cuisine is noted for its regional diversity, abundance of difference in taste, and is known to be one of the most popular in the world, wielding strong influence abroad.The Mediterranean diet forms the basis of Italian cuisine, rich in pasta, fish, fruits and vegetables and characterised by its extreme simplicity and variety, with many dishes having only four to eight ingredients.", "Italian cooks rely chiefly on the quality of the ingredients rather than on elaborate preparation.", "Dishes and recipes are often derivatives from local and familial tradition rather than created by chefs, so many recipes are ideally suited for home cooking, this being one of the main reasons behind the ever-increasing worldwide popularity of Italian cuisine, from America to Asia.", "Ingredients and dishes vary widely by region.Italian cuisine relies heavily on traditional products; the country has a large number of traditional specialities protected under EU law.", "Cheese, cold cuts and wine are central to Italian cuisine, with many regional declinations and Protected Designation of Origin or Protected Geographical Indication labels, and along with pizza and coffee (especially espresso) form part of Italian gastronomic culture.", "Desserts have a long tradition of merging local flavours such as citrus fruits, pistachio and almonds with sweet cheeses like mascarpone and ricotta or exotic tastes as cocoa, vanilla and cinnamon.", "Gelato, tiramisu and cassata are among the most famous examples of Italian desserts, cakes and patisserie.Italian meal structure is typical of the European Mediterranean region and differs from North, Central, and Eastern European meal structure, though it still often consists of breakfast (''colazione''), lunch (''pranzo''), and dinner (''cena'').", "However, much less emphasis is placed on breakfast, and breakfast itself is often skipped or involves lighter meal portions than are seen in non-Mediterranean Western countries.", "Late-morning and mid-afternoon snacks, called ''merenda'' (: ''merende''), are also often included in this meal structure.The marketing phenomenon consisting of words and images, colour combinations (the Italian tricolour) and geographical references for brands that are evocative of Italy to promote and market agri-food products that have nothing to do with Italian cuisine is known by the name of ''Italian Sounding''.===Public holidays, festivals and folklore===The ''Frecce Tricolori'', with the smoke trails representing the national colours of Italy, during the celebrations of the ''Festa della Repubblica''Public holidays celebrated in Italy include religious, national and regional observances.", "Italy's National Day, the ''Festa della Repubblica'' (''Republic Day''), is celebrated on 2 June each year, with the main celebration taking place in Rome, and commemorates the birth of the Italian Republic in 1946.The ceremony of the event organized in Rome includes the deposition of a laurel wreath as a tribute to the Italian Unknown Soldier at the Altare della Patria by the President of the Italian Republic and a military parade along Via dei Fori Imperiali in Rome.The Saint Lucy's Day, which takes place on 13 December, is popular among children in some Italian regions, where she plays a role similar to Santa Claus.", "In addition, the Epiphany in Italy is associated with the folkloristic figure of the Befana, a broomstick-riding old woman who, in the night between 5 and 6 January, bringing good children gifts and sweets, and bad ones charcoal or bags of ashes.", "The Assumption of Mary coincides with ''Ferragosto'' on 15 August, the summer vacation period which may be a long weekend or most of the month.", "The Venice Film Festival is the oldest film festival in the world.The Italian national patronal day, on 4 October, celebrates Saints Francis and Catherine.", "Each city or town also celebrates a public holiday on the occasion of the festival of the local patron saint, for example: Rome on 29 June (Saints Peter and Paul), Milan on 7 December (Saint Ambrose), Naples on 19 September (Saint Januarius), Venice on 25 April (Saint Mark the Evangelist), and Florence on 24 June (Saint John the Baptist).There are many festivals and festivities in Italy.", "Some of them include the Palio di Siena horse race, Holy Week rites, Saracen Joust of Arezzo, Saint Ubaldo Day in Gubbio, Giostra della Quintana in Foligno, and the Calcio Fiorentino.", "In 2013, UNESCO has included among the intangible cultural heritage some Italian festivals and pasos (in Italian \"macchine a spalla\"), such as the Varia di Palmi, the Macchina di Santa Rosa in Viterbo, the Festa dei Gigli in Nola, and ''faradda di li candareri'' in Sassari.Other festivals include the carnivals in Venice, Viareggio, Satriano di Lucania, Mamoiada, and Ivrea, mostly known for its Battle of the Oranges.", "The Venice International Film Festival, awarding the \"Golden Lion\" and held annually since 1932, is the oldest film festival in the world and one of the \"Big Three\" alongside Cannes and Berlin." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of Italy" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * Hibberd, Matthew.", "''The media in Italy'' (McGraw-Hill International, 2007)* Sarti, Roland, ed.", "''Italy: A reference guide from the Renaissance to the present'' (2004)* Sassoon, Donald.", "''Contemporary Italy: politics, economy and society since 1945'' (Routledge, 2014)" ], [ "External links", " Italy from BBC News* Italy.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Italy from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''* * Italy.", "''Encyclopædia Britannica''.", "* Italy from the OECD* Italy at the EU* * * Key Development Forecasts for Italy from International Futures; Government* Government website * Official site of the Italian Parliament * Official site of the President of the Italian Republic* Italian Higher Education for International Students* Italian National and Regional parks* Italian tourism official website; Economy* Site of the Ministry of Economy and Finance" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "India" ], [ "Introduction", "'''India''', officially the '''Republic of India''' (ISO: ),– \"Official name: Republic of India; Bharat Ganarajya (Hindi)\";– \"Official name: Republic of India; Bharat.", "\";– \"Official name: English: Republic of India; Hindi:Bharat Ganarajya\";– \"Official name: Republic of India\";– \"Officially, Republic of India\";– \"Official name: Republic of India\";– \"India (Republic of India; Bharat Ganarajya)\" is a country in South Asia.", "It is the seventh-largest country by area; the most populous country as of June 2023; and from the time of its independence in 1947, the world's most populous democracy.", "Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west; China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east.", "In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; its Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand, Myanmar, and Indonesia.Modern humans arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa no later than 55,000 years ago.Their long occupation, initially in varying forms of isolation as hunter-gatherers, has made the region highly diverse, second only to Africa in human genetic diversity.", "Settled life emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the Indus river basin 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the Indus Valley Civilisation of the third millennium BCE.", "(b) By , an archaic form of Sanskrit, an Indo-European language, had diffused into India from the northwest.", "(b) (c) , \"In Punjab, a dry region with grasslands watered by five rivers (hence 'panch' and 'ab') draining the western Himalayas, one prehistoric culture left no material remains, but some of its ritual texts were preserved orally over the millennia.", "The culture is called Aryan, and evidence in its texts indicates that it spread slowly south-east, following the course of the Yamuna and Ganga Rivers.", "Its elite called itself Arya (pure) and distinguished themselves sharply from others.", "Aryans led kin groups organized as nomadic horse-herding tribes.", "Their ritual texts are called Vedas, composed in Sanskrit.", "Vedic Sanskrit is recorded only in hymns that were part of Vedic rituals to Aryan gods.", "To be Aryan apparently meant to belong to the elite among pastoral tribes.", "Texts that record Aryan culture are not precisely datable, but they seem to begin around 1200 BCE with four collections of Vedic hymns (Rg, Sama, Yajur, and Artharva).", "\"(d) , \"Although the collapse of the Indus valley civilization is no longer believed to have been due to an 'Aryan invasion' it is widely thought that, at roughly the same time, or perhaps a few centuries later, new Indo-Aryan-speaking people and influences began to enter the subcontinent from the north-west.", "Detailed evidence is lacking.", "Nevertheless, a predecessor of the language that would eventually be called Sanskrit was probably introduced into the north-west sometime between 3,900 and 3,000 years ago.", "This language was related to one then spoken in eastern Iran; and both of these languages belonged to the Indo-European language family.", "...", "It seems likely that various small-scale migrations were involved in the gradual introduction of the predecessor language and associated cultural characteristics.", "However, there may not have been a tight relationship between movements of people on the one hand, and changes in language and culture on the other.", "Moreover, the process whereby a dynamic new force gradually arose—a people with a distinct ideology who eventually seem to have referred to themselves as 'Arya'—was certainly two-way.", "That is, it involved a blending of new features which came from outside with other features—probably including some surviving Harappan influences—that were already present.", "Anyhow, it would be quite a few centuries before Sanskrit was written down.", "And the hymns and stories of the Arya people—especially the Vedas and the later Mahabharata and Ramayana epics—are poor guides as to historical events.", "Of course, the emerging Arya were to have a huge impact on the history of the subcontinent.", "Nevertheless, little is known about their early presence.", "\"; (e) , \"The expansion of Aryan culture is supposed to have begun around 1500 BCE.", "It should not be thought that this Aryan emergence (though it implies some migration) necessarily meant either a sudden invasion of new peoples, or a complete break with earlier traditions.", "It comprises a set of cultural ideas and practices, upheld by a Sanskrit-speaking elite, or Aryans.", "The features of this society are recorded in the Vedas.\"", "Its evidence today is found in the hymns of the ''Rigveda''.", "Preserved by an oral tradition that was resolutely vigilant, the ''Rigveda'' records the dawning of Hinduism in India.", "(b) ;(c) (d) The Dravidian languages of India were supplanted in the northern and western regions.By , stratification and exclusion by caste had emerged within Hinduism,and Buddhism and Jainism had arisen, proclaiming social orders unlinked to heredity.Early political consolidations gave rise to the loose-knit Maurya and Gupta Empires based in the Ganges Basin.", "(b) ;(c) ;(d) .Their collective era was suffused with wide-ranging creativity,(b) but also marked by the declining status of women,(b) ;(c) and the incorporation of untouchability into an organised system of belief.", "In South India, the Middle kingdoms exported Dravidian-languages scripts and religious cultures to the kingdoms of Southeast Asia.In the early medieval era, Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism became established on India's southern and western coasts.", "(b) ;(c) Muslim armies from Central Asia intermittently overran India's northern plains,(b) eventually founding the Delhi Sultanate, and drawing northern India into the cosmopolitan networks of medieval Islam.", "(b) In the 15th century, the Vijayanagara Empire created a long-lasting composite Hindu culture in south India.In the Punjab, Sikhism emerged, rejecting institutionalised religion.The Mughal Empire, in 1526, ushered in two centuries of relative peace,leaving a legacy of luminous architecture.Gradually expanding rule of the British East India Company followed, turning India into a colonial economy, but also consolidating its sovereignty.", "(b) British Crown rule began in 1858.The rights promised to Indians were granted slowly, but technological changes were introduced, and modern ideas of education and the public life took root.", "A pioneering and influential nationalist movement emerged, which was noted for nonviolent resistance and became the major factor in ending British rule.", "In 1947 the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two independent dominions, a Hindu-majority Dominion of India and a Muslim-majority Dominion of Pakistan, amid large-scale loss of life and an unprecedented migration.", "(b) .India has been a federal republic since 1950, governed through a democratic parliamentary system.", "It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society.", "India's population grew from 361 million in 1951 to almost 1.4 billion in 2022.During the same time, its nominal per capita income increased from US$64 annually to US$2,601, and its literacy rate from 16.6% to 74%.", "From being a comparatively destitute country in 1951, India has become a fast-growing major economy and a hub for information technology services, with an expanding middle class.", "India has a space programme with several planned or completed extraterrestrial missions.", "Indian movies, music, and spiritual teachings play an increasing role in global culture.", "India has substantially reduced its rate of poverty, though at the cost of increasing economic inequality.", "India is a nuclear-weapon state, which ranks high in military expenditure.", "It has disputes over Kashmir with its neighbours, Pakistan and China, unresolved since the mid-20th century.", "(b) ;(c) Among the socio-economic challenges India faces are gender inequality, child malnutrition, and rising levels of air pollution.", "India's land is megadiverse, with four biodiversity hotspots.", "Its forest cover comprises 21.7% of its area.", "India's wildlife, which has traditionally been viewed with tolerance in India's culture, is supported among these forests, and elsewhere, in protected habitats." ], [ "Etymology", "According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (third edition 2009), the name \"India\" is derived from the Classical Latin ''India'', a reference to South Asia and an uncertain region to its east.", "In turn the name \"India\" derived successively from Hellenistic Greek ''India'' ('' Ἰνδία''), ancient Greek ''Indos'' ('' Ἰνδός''), Old Persian ''Hindush'' (an eastern province of the Achaemenid Empire), and ultimately its cognate, the Sanskrit ''Sindhu'', or \"river\", specifically the Indus River and, by implication, its well-settled southern basin.", "The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as ''Indoi'' (''''), which translates as \"The people of the Indus\".The term ''Bharat'' (; ), mentioned in both Indian epic poetry and the Constitution of India, is used in its variations by many Indian languages.", "A modern rendering of the historical name ''Bharatavarsha'', which applied originally to North India, ''Bharat'' gained increased currency from the mid-19th century as a native name for India.", "''Hindustan'' () is a Middle Persian name for India that became popular by the 13th century, and was used widely since the era of the Mughal Empire.", "The meaning of ''Hindustan'' has varied, referring to a region encompassing present-day northern India and Pakistan or to India in its near entirety." ], [ "History", "=== Ancient India ===Manuscript illustration, , of the Sanskrit epic rightAbout 55,000 years ago, the first modern humans, or ''Homo sapiens'', had arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa, where they had earlier evolved.", "The earliest known modern human remains in South Asia date to about 30,000 years ago.", "After , evidence for domestication of food crops and animals, construction of permanent structures, and storage of agricultural surplus appeared in Mehrgarh and other sites in Balochistan, Pakistan.", "These gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation, the first urban culture in South Asia, which flourished during in Pakistan and western India.", "Centred around cities such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan, and relying on varied forms of subsistence, the civilisation engaged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging trade.During the period , many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic cultures to the Iron Age ones.", "The Vedas, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism, were composed during this period, and historians have analysed these to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain.", "Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent from the north-west.", "The caste system, which created a hierarchy of priests, warriors, and free peasants, but which excluded indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure, arose during this period.", "On the Deccan Plateau, archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation.", "In South India, a progression to sedentary life is indicated by the large number of megalithic monuments dating from this period, as well as by nearby traces of agriculture, irrigation tanks, and craft traditions.Cave 26 of the rock-cut rightIn the late Vedic period, around the 6th century BCE, the small states and chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north-western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies that were known as the ''mahajanapadas''.", "The emerging urbanisation gave rise to non-Vedic religious movements, two of which became independent religions.", "Jainism came into prominence during the life of its exemplar, Mahavira.", "Buddhism, based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, attracted followers from all social classes excepting the middle class; chronicling the life of the Buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in India.", "In an age of increasing urban wealth, both religions held up renunciation as an ideal, and both established long-lasting monastic traditions.", "Politically, by the 3rd century BCE, the kingdom of Magadha had annexed or reduced other states to emerge as the Mauryan Empire.", "The empire was once thought to have controlled most of the subcontinent except the far south, but its core regions are now thought to have been separated by large autonomous areas.", "The Mauryan kings are known as much for their empire-building and determined management of public life as for Ashoka's renunciation of militarism and far-flung advocacy of the Buddhist ''dhamma''.The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that, between and , the southern peninsula was ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas, dynasties that traded extensively with the Roman Empire and with West and Southeast Asia.", "In North India, Hinduism asserted patriarchal control within the family, leading to increased subordination of women.", "By the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Empire had created a complex system of administration and taxation in the greater Ganges Plain; this system became a model for later Indian kingdoms.", "Under the Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion, rather than the management of ritual, began to assert itself.", "This renewal was reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture, which found patrons among an urban elite.", "Classical Sanskrit literature flowered as well, and Indian science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics made significant advances.=== Medieval India ===The Indian early medieval age, from , is defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity.", "When Harsha of Kannauj, who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from , attempted to expand southwards, he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan.", "When his successor attempted to expand eastwards, he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal.", "When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the Pallavas from farther south, who in turn were opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas from still farther south.", "No ruler of this period was able to create an empire and consistently control lands much beyond their core region.", "During this time, pastoral peoples, whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural economy, were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling classes.", "The caste system consequently began to show regional differences.In the 6th and 7th centuries, the first devotional hymns were created in the Tamil language.", "They were imitated all over India and led to both the resurgence of Hinduism and the development of all modern languages of the subcontinent.", "Indian royalty, big and small, and the temples they patronised drew citizens in great numbers to the capital cities, which became economic hubs as well.", "Temple towns of various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent another urbanisation.", "By the 8th and 9th centuries, the effects were felt in Southeast Asia, as South Indian culture and political systems were exported to lands that became part of modern-day Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Brunei, Cambodia, Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia.", "Indian merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies were involved in this transmission; Southeast Asians took the initiative as well, with many sojourning in Indian seminaries and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into their languages.After the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, using swift-horse cavalry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overran South Asia's north-western plains, leading eventually to the establishment of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206.The sultanate was to control much of North India and to make many forays into South India.", "Although at first disruptive for the Indian elites, the sultanate largely left its vast non-Muslim subject population to its own laws and customs.", "By repeatedly repulsing Mongol raiders in the 13th century, the sultanate saved India from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia, setting the scene for centuries of migration of fleeing soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that region into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.", "The sultanate's raiding and weakening of the regional kingdoms of South India paved the way for the indigenous Vijayanagara Empire.", "Embracing a strong Shaivite tradition and building upon the military technology of the sultanate, the empire came to control much of peninsular India, and was to influence South Indian society for long afterwards.=== Early modern India ===In the early 16th century, northern India, then under mainly Muslim rulers, fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors.", "The resulting Mughal Empire did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule.", "Instead, it balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices and diverse and inclusive ruling elites, leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule.", "Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, especially under Akbar, the Mughals united their far-flung realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an emperor who had near-divine status.", "The Mughal state's economic policies, deriving most revenues from agriculture and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency, caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.", "The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion, resulting in greater patronage of painting, literary forms, textiles, and architecture.", "Newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, the Rajputs, and the Sikhs, gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience.", "Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave rise to new Indian commercial and political elites along the coasts of southern and eastern India.", "As the empire disintegrated, many among these elites were able to seek and control their own affairs.By the early 18th century, with the lines between commercial and political dominance being increasingly blurred, a number of European trading companies, including the English East India Company, had established coastal outposts.", "The East India Company's control of the seas, greater resources, and more advanced military training and technology led it to increasingly assert its military strength and caused it to become attractive to a portion of the Indian elite; these factors were crucial in allowing the company to gain control over the Bengal region by 1765 and sideline the other European companies.", "Its further access to the riches of Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of India by the 1820s.", "India was then no longer exporting manufactured goods as it long had, but was instead supplying the British Empire with raw materials.", "Many historians consider this to be the onset of India's colonial period.", "By this time, with its economic power severely curtailed by the British parliament and having effectively been made an arm of British administration, the East India Company began more consciously to enter non-economic arenas, including education, social reform, and culture.=== Modern India ===Historians consider India's modern age to have begun sometime between 1848 and 1885.The appointment in 1848 of Lord Dalhousie as Governor General of the East India Company set the stage for changes essential to a modern state.", "These included the consolidation and demarcation of sovereignty, the surveillance of the population, and the education of citizens.", "Technological changes—among them, railways, canals, and the telegraph—were introduced not long after their introduction in Europe.", "However, disaffection with the company also grew during this time and set off the Indian Rebellion of 1857.Fed by diverse resentments and perceptions, including invasive British-style social reforms, harsh land taxes, and summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes, the rebellion rocked many regions of northern and central India and shook the foundations of Company rule.", "Although the rebellion was suppressed by 1858, it led to the dissolution of the East India Company and the direct administration of India by the British government.", "Proclaiming a unitary state and a gradual but limited British-style parliamentary system, the new rulers also protected princes and landed gentry as a feudal safeguard against future unrest.", "In the decades following, public life gradually emerged all over India, leading eventually to the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885.The rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second half of the 19th century was marked by economic setbacks, and many small farmers became dependent on the whims of far-away markets.", "There was an increase in the number of large-scale famines, and, despite the risks of infrastructure development borne by Indian taxpayers, little industrial employment was generated for Indians.", "There were also salutary effects: commercial cropping, especially in the newly canalled Punjab, led to increased food production for internal consumption.", "The railway network provided critical famine relief, notably reduced the cost of moving goods, and helped nascent Indian-owned industry.After World War I, in which approximately one million Indians served, a new period began.", "It was marked by British reforms but also repressive legislation, by more strident Indian calls for self-rule, and by the beginnings of a nonviolent movement of non-co-operation, of which Mahatma Gandhi would become the leader and enduring symbol.", "During the 1930s, slow legislative reform was enacted by the British; the Indian National Congress won victories in the resulting elections.", "The next decade was beset with crises: Indian participation in World War II, the Congress's final push for non-co-operation, and an upsurge of Muslim nationalism.", "All were capped by the advent of independence in 1947, but tempered by the partition of India into two states: India and Pakistan.Vital to India's self-image as an independent nation was its constitution, completed in 1950, which put in place a secular and democratic republic.", "Per the London Declaration, India retained its membership of the Commonwealth, becoming the first republic within it.", "Economic liberalisation, which began in the 1980s and the collaboration with Soviet Union for technical know-how, has created a large urban middle class, transformed India into one of the world's fastest-growing economies, and increased its geopolitical clout.", "Yet, India is also shaped by seemingly unyielding poverty, both rural and urban; by religious and caste-related violence; by Maoist-inspired Naxalite insurgencies; and by separatism in Jammu and Kashmir and in Northeast India.", "It has unresolved territorial disputes with China and with Pakistan.", "India's sustained democratic freedoms are unique among the world's newer nations; however, in spite of its recent economic successes, freedom from want for its disadvantaged population remains a goal yet to be achieved." ], [ "Geography", "India accounts for the bulk of the Indian subcontinent, lying atop the Indian tectonic plate, a part of the Indo-Australian Plate.", "India's defining geological processes began 75 million years ago when the Indian Plate, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a north-eastward drift caused by seafloor spreading to its south-west, and later, south and south-east.", "Simultaneously, the vast Tethyan oceanic crust, to its northeast, began to subduct under the Eurasian Plate.", "These dual processes, driven by convection in the Earth's mantle, both created the Indian Ocean and caused the Indian continental crust eventually to under-thrust Eurasia and to uplift the Himalayas.", "Immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast crescent-shaped trough that rapidly filled with river-borne sediment and now constitutes the Indo-Gangetic Plain.", "The original Indian plate makes its first appearance above the sediment in the ancient Aravalli range, which extends from the Delhi Ridge in a southwesterly direction.", "To the west lies the Thar Desert, the eastern spread of which is checked by the Aravallis.The remaining Indian Plate survives as peninsular India, the oldest and geologically most stable part of India.", "It extends as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India.", "These parallel chains run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east.", "To the south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the west and east by coastal ranges known as the Western and Eastern Ghats; the plateau contains the country's oldest rock formations, some over one billion years old.", "Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6° 44′ and 35° 30′ north latitude and 68° 7′ and 97° 25′ east longitude.India's coastline measures in length; of this distance, belong to peninsular India and to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep island chains.", "According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coastline consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches; 11% rocky shores, including cliffs; and 46% mudflats or marshy shores.<!---" ], [ "Biodiversity", "India is a megadiverse country, a term employed for 17 countries which display high biological diversity and contain many species exclusively indigenous, or endemic, to them.", "India is a habitat for 8.6% of all mammal species, 13.7% of bird species, 7.9% of reptile species, 6% of amphibian species, 12.2% of fish species, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species.", "Fully a third of Indian plant species are endemic.", "India also contains four of the world's 34 biodiversity hotspots, or regions that display significant habitat loss in the presence of high endemism.According to official statistics, India's forest cover is , which is 21.71% of the country's total land area.", "It can be subdivided further into broad categories of ''canopy density'', or the proportion of the area of a forest covered by its tree canopy.", "''Very dense forest'', whose ''canopy density'' is greater than 70%, occupies 3.02% of India's land area.", "It predominates in the tropical moist forest of the Andaman Islands, the Western Ghats, and Northeast India.", "''Moderately dense forest'', whose canopy density is between 40% and 70%, occupies 9.39% of India's land area.", "It predominates in the temperate coniferous forest of the Himalayas, the moist deciduous ''sal'' forest of eastern India, and the dry deciduous teak forest of central and southern India.", "''Open forest'', whose canopy density is between 10% and 40%, occupies 9.26% of India's land area.", "India has two natural zones of thorn forest, one in the Deccan Plateau, immediately east of the Western Ghats, and the other in the western part of the Indo-Gangetic plain, now turned into rich agricultural land by irrigation, its features no longer visible.Among the Indian subcontinent's notable indigenous trees are the astringent ''Azadirachta indica'', or ''neem'', which is widely used in rural Indian herbal medicine, and the luxuriant ''Ficus religiosa'', or ''peepul'', which is displayed on the ancient seals of Mohenjo-daro, and under which the Buddha is recorded in the Pali canon to have sought enlightenment.Many Indian species have descended from those of Gondwana, the southern supercontinent from which India separated more than 100 million years ago.", "India's subsequent collision with Eurasia set off a mass exchange of species.", "However, volcanism and climatic changes later caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.", "Still later, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes flanking the Himalayas.", "This had the effect of lowering endemism among India's mammals, which stands at 12.6%, contrasting with 45.8% among reptiles and 55.8% among amphibians.", "Among endemics are the vulnerable hooded leaf monkey and the threatened Beddome's toad of the Western Ghats.India contains 172 IUCN-designated threatened animal species, or 2.9% of endangered forms.", "These include the endangered Bengal tiger and the Ganges river dolphin.", "Critically endangered species include the gharial, a crocodilian; the great Indian bustard; and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which has become nearly extinct by having ingested the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle.", "Before they were extensively used for agriculture and cleared for human settlement, the thorn forests of Punjab were mingled at intervals with open grasslands that were grazed by large herds of blackbuck preyed on by the Asiatic cheetah; the blackbuck, no longer extant in Punjab, is now severely endangered in India, and the cheetah is extinct.", "The pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent decades has critically endangered Indian wildlife.", "In response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was expanded substantially.", "In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial wilderness; the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980 and amendments added in 1988.India hosts more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries and eighteenbiosphere reserves, four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; seventy-five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.File:Panthera tigris tigris Tidoba 20150306.jpg\|India has the majority of the world's wild tigers, approximately 3,170 in 2022.File:Axis axis (Nagarhole, 2010).jpg\|A chital (''Axis axis'') stag in the Nagarhole National Park in a region covered by a moderately dense forestFile:Maharajah Ramanuj Pratap Singh Deo with cheetah kill 1948 BNHS.jpg\|Three of the last Asiatic cheetahs in India were shot dead in 1948 in Surguja district, Madhya Pradesh, Central India by Maharajah Ramanuj Pratap Singh Deo.", "The young male cheetahs, all from the same litter, were sitting together when they were shot at night." ], [ "Politics and government", "=== Politics ===A parliamentary republic with a multi-party system, India has sixrecognised national parties, including the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and more than 50regional parties.", "The Congress is considered centre in Indian political culture, and the BJP right-wing.", "For most of the period between 1950—when India first became a republic—and the late 1980s, the Congress held a majority in the Parliament.", "Since then, however, it has increasingly shared the political stage with the BJP, as well as with powerful regional parties which have often forced the creation of multi-party coalition governments at the centre.", "India was 2023 the 19th most electoral democratic country in Asia according to the V-Dem Democracy indices .In the Republic of India's first three general elections, in 1951, 1957, and 1962, the Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru-led Congress won easy victories.", "On Nehru's death in 1964, Lal Bahadur Shastri briefly became prime minister; he was succeeded, after his own unexpected death in 1966, by Nehru's daughter Indira Gandhi, who went on to lead the Congress to election victories in 1967 and 1971.Following public discontent with the state of emergency she declared in 1975, the Congress was voted out of power in 1977; the then-new Janata Party, which had opposed the emergency, was voted in.", "Its government lasted just over two years.", "There were two prime ministers during this period; Morarji Desai and Charan Singh.", "Voted back into power in 1980, the Congress saw a change in leadership in 1984, when Indira Gandhi was assassinated; she was succeeded by her son Rajiv Gandhi, who won an easy victory in the general elections later that year.", "The Congress was voted out again in 1989 when a National Front coalition, led by the newly formed Janata Dal in alliance with the Left Front, won the elections; that government too proved relatively short-lived, lasting just under two years.", "There were two prime ministers during this period; V.P.", "Singh and Chandra Shekhar.", "Elections were held again in 1991; no party won an absolute majority.", "The Congress, as the largest single party, was able to form a minority government led by P. V. Narasimha Rao.A two-year period of political turmoil followed the general election of 1996.Several short-lived alliances shared power at the centre.", "The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996; it was followed by two comparatively long-lasting United Front coalitions, which depended on external support.", "There were two prime ministers during this period; H.D.", "Deve Gowda and I.K.", "Gujral.", "In 1998, the BJP was able to form a successful coalition, the National Democratic Alliance (NDA).", "Led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the NDA became the first non-Congress, coalition government to complete a five-year term.", "Again in the 2004 Indian general elections, no party won an absolute majority, but the Congress emerged as the largest single party, forming another successful coalition: the United Progressive Alliance (UPA).", "It had the support of left-leaning parties and MPs who opposed the BJP.", "The UPA returned to power in the 2009 general election with increased numbers, and it no longer required external support from India's communist parties.", "That year, Manmohan Singh became the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1957 and 1962 to be re-elected to a consecutive five-year term.", "In the 2014 general election, the BJP became the first political party since 1984 to win a majority and govern without the support of other parties.", "In the 2019 general election, the BJP was victorious again.", "The incumbent prime minister is Narendra Modi, a former chief minister of Gujarat.", "On 22 July 2022, Droupadi Murmu was elected India's 15th president and took the oath of office on 25 July 2022.=== Government ===India is a federation with a parliamentary system governed under the Constitution of India—the country's supreme legal document.", "It is a constitutional republic.Federalism in India defines the power distribution between the union and the states.", "The Constitution of India, which came into effect on 26 January 1950, originally stated India to be a \"sovereign, democratic republic;\" this characterisation was amended in 1971 to \"a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic\".", "India's form of government, traditionally described as \"quasi-federal\" with a strong centre and weak states, has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political, economic, and social changes.The Government of India comprises three branches:* Executive: The President of India is the ceremonial head of state, who is elected indirectly for a five-year term by an electoral college comprising members of national and state legislatures.", "The Prime Minister of India is the head of government and exercises most executive power.", "Appointed by the president, the prime minister is by convention supported by the party or political alliance having a majority of seats in the lower house of parliament.", "The executive of the Indian government consists of the president, the vice-president, and the Union Council of Ministers—with the cabinet being its executive committee—headed by the prime minister.", "Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of one of the houses of parliament.", "In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature; the prime minister and their council are directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament.", "Civil servants act as permanent executives and all decisions of the executive are implemented by them.", "* Legislature: The legislature of India is the bicameral parliament.", "Operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system, it comprises an upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and a lower house called the Lok Sabha (House of the People).", "The Rajya Sabha is a permanent body of 245members who serve staggered six-year terms.", "Most are elected indirectly by the state and union territorial legislatures in numbers proportional to their state's share of the national population.", "All but two of the Lok Sabha's 545members are elected directly by popular vote; they represent single-member constituencies for five-yearterms.", "Two seats of parliament, reserved for Anglo-Indians in the article 331, have been scrapped.", "* Judiciary: India has a three-tierunitary independent judiciary comprising the supreme court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, 25high courts, and a large number of trial courts.", "The supreme court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the centre and has appellate jurisdiction over the high courts.", "It has the power to both strike down union or state laws which contravene the constitution and invalidate any government action it deems unconstitutional.=== Administrative divisions ===India is a federal union comprising 28 states and 8 union territories.", "All states, as well as the union territories of Jammu and Kashmir, Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of Delhi, have elected legislatures and governments following the Westminster system of governance.", "The remaining five union territories are directly ruled by the central government through appointed administrators.", "In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were reorganised on a linguistic basis.", "There are over a quarter of a million local government bodies at city, town, block, district and village levels.==== States ======== Union territories ======= Foreign and strategic relations ===In the 1950s, India strongly supported decolonisation in Africa and Asia and played a leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement.", "After initially cordial relations with neighbouring China, India went to war with China in 1962 and was widely thought to have been humiliated.", "(b) (c) (d) (e) (f) This was followed by another military conflict in 1967 in which India successfully repelled Chinese attack.", "India has had tense relations with neighbouring Pakistan; the two nations have gone to war four times: in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999.Three of these wars were fought over the disputed territory of Kashmir, while the third, the 1971 war, followed from India's support for the independence of Bangladesh.", "In the late 1980s, the Indian military twice intervened abroad at the invitation of the host country: a peace-keeping operation in Sri Lanka between 1987 and 1990; and an armed intervention to prevent a 1988 coup d'état attempt in the Maldives.", "After the 1965 war with Pakistan, India began to pursue close military and economic ties with the Soviet Union; by the late 1960s, the Soviet Union was its largest arms supplier.Aside from its ongoing special relationship with Russia, India has wide-ranging defence relations with Israel and France.", "In recent years, it has played key roles in the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the World Trade Organization.", "In May 2017, the Indian Space Research Organisation launched the South Asia Satellite, a gift from India to its neighbouring SAARC countries.", "It participates in the East Asia Summit, the G8+5, and other multilateral forums.", "2023 G20 summit was held in India.", "India has close economic ties with countries in South America, Asia, and Africa; it pursues a \"Look East\" policy that seeks to strengthen partnerships with the ASEAN nations, Japan, and South Korea that revolve around many issues, but especially those involving economic investment and regional security.Since the end of the Cold War, India has increased its economic, strategic, and military co-operation with the United States and the European Union.", "In 2008, a civilian nuclear agreement was signed between India and the United States.", "Although India possessed nuclear weapons at the time and was not a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, it received waivers from the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear Suppliers Group, ending earlier restrictions on India's nuclear technology and commerce.", "As a consequence, India became the sixth de facto nuclear weapons state.", "India subsequently signed co-operation agreements involving civilian nuclear energy with Russia, France, the United Kingdom, and Canada.===Military===The President of India is the supreme commander of the nation's armed forces; with 1.45 million active troops, they compose the world's second-largest military.", "It comprises the Indian Army, the Indian Navy, the Indian Air Force, and the Indian Coast Guard.", "The official Indian defence budget for 2011 was US$36.03 billion, or 1.83% of GDP.", "Defence expenditure was pegged at US$70.12 billion for fiscal year 2022–23 and, increased 9.8% than previous fiscal year.", "India is the world's second-largest arms importer; between 2016 and 2020, it accounted for 9.5% of the total global arms imports.", "Much of the military expenditure was focused on defence against Pakistan and countering growing Chinese influence in the Indian Ocean.", "In October 2018, India signed a US$5.43 billion (over 400 billion) agreement with Russia to procure four S-400 Triumf surface-to-air missile defence systems, Russia's most advanced long-range missile defence system.", "The nation has provided 100,000 military and police personnel to serve in 35 UN peacekeeping operations across four continents.China's nuclear test of 1964, as well as its repeated threats to intervene in support of Pakistan in the 1965 war, convinced India to develop nuclear weapons.", "India conducted its first nuclear weapons test in 1974 and carried out additional underground testing in 1998.Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has signed neither the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty nor the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, considering both to be flawed and discriminatory.", "India maintains a \"no first use\" nuclear policy and is developing a nuclear triad capability as a part of its \"Minimum Credible Deterrence\" doctrine.", "It is developing a ballistic missile defence shield and, a fifth-generation fighter jet.", "Other indigenous military projects involve the design and implementation of ''Vikrant''-class aircraft carriers and ''Arihant''-class nuclear submarines." ], [ "Economy", "According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Indian economy in 2022 was nominally worth $3.46 trillion; it was the fifth-largest economy by market exchange rates and is, around $11.6 trillion, the third-largest by purchasing power parity (PPP).", "With its average annual GDP growth rate of 5.8% over the past two decades, and reaching 6.1% during 2011–2012, India is one of the world's fastest-growing economies.", "However, the country ranks 139th in the world in nominal GDP per capita and 118th in GDP per capita at PPP.", "Until 1991, all Indian governments followed protectionist policies that were influenced by socialist economics.", "Widespread state intervention and regulation largely walled the economy off from the outside world.", "An acute balance of payments crisis in 1991 forced the nation to liberalise its economy; since then, it has moved increasingly towards a free-market system by emphasising both foreign trade and direct investment inflows.", "India has been a member of World Trade Organization since 1 January 1995.The 522-million-worker Indian labour force is the world's second-largest, .", "The service sector makes up 55.6% of GDP, the industrial sector 26.3% and the agricultural sector 18.1%.", "India's foreign exchange remittances of US$100 billion in 2022, highest in the world, were contributed to its economy by 32 million Indians working in foreign countries.", "Major agricultural products include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and potatoes.", "Major industries include textiles, telecommunications, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, food processing, steel, transport equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery, and software.", "In 2006, the share of external trade in India's GDP stood at 24%, up from 6% in 1985.In 2008, India's share of world trade was 1.7%; In 2021, India was the world's ninth-largest importer and the sixteenth-largest exporter.", "Major exports include petroleum products, textile goods, jewellery, software, engineering goods, chemicals, and manufactured leather goods.", "Major imports include crude oil, machinery, gems, fertiliser, and chemicals.", "Between 2001 and 2011, the contribution of petrochemical and engineering goods to total exports grew from 14% to 42%.", "India was the world's second-largest textile exporter after China in the 2013 calendar year.Averaging an economic growth rate of 7.5% for several years prior to 2007, India has more than doubled its hourly wage rates during the first decade of the 21st century.", "Some 431 million Indians have left poverty since 1985; India's middle classes are projected to number around 580 million by 2030.Though ranking 68th in global competitiveness, , India ranks 17th in financial market sophistication, 24th in the banking sector, 44th in business sophistication, and 39th in innovation, ahead of several advanced economies.", "With seven of the world's top 15 information technology outsourcing companies based in India, , the country is viewed as the second-most favourable outsourcing destination after the United States.", "India is ranked 40th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023., India's consumer market was the world's fifth-largest.Driven by growth, India's nominal GDP per capita increased steadily from US$308 in 1991, when economic liberalisation began, to US$1,380 in 2010, to an estimated US$1,730 in 2016.It is expected to grow to US$2,466 by 2022.However, it has remained lower than those of other Asian developing countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Thailand, and is expected to remain so in the near future.According to a 2011 PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) report, India's GDP at purchasing power parity could overtake that of the United States by 2045.During the next four decades, Indian GDP is expected to grow at an annualised average of 8%, making it potentially the world's fastest-growing major economy until 2050.The report highlights key growth factors: a young and rapidly growing working-age population; growth in the manufacturing sector because of rising education and engineering skill levels; and sustained growth of the consumer market driven by a rapidly growing middle-class.", "The World Bank cautions that, for India to achieve its economic potential, it must continue to focus on public sector reform, transport infrastructure, agricultural and rural development, removal of labour regulations, education, energy security, and public health and nutrition.According to the Worldwide Cost of Living Report 2017 released by the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) which was created by comparing more than 400 individual prices across 160 products and services, four of the cheapest cities were in India: Bangalore (3rd), Mumbai (5th), Chennai (5th) and New Delhi (8th).=== Industries ===India's telecommunication industry is the second-largest in the world with over 1.2 billion subscribers.", "It contributes 6.5% to India's GDP.", "After the third quarter of 2017, India surpassed the US to become the second-largest smartphone market in the world after China.The Indian automotive industry, the world's second-fastest growing, increased domestic sales by 26% during 2009–2010, and exports by 36% during 2008–2009.In 2022, India became the world's third-largest vehicle market after China and the United States, surpassing Japan.", "At the end of 2011, the Indian IT industry employed 2.8 million professionals, generated revenues close to US$100 billion equalling 7.5% of Indian GDP, and contributed 26% of India's merchandise exports.The pharmaceutical industry in India emerged as a global player.", "As of 2021, with 3000 pharmaceutical companies and 10,500 manufacturing units India is the world's third-largest pharmaceutical producer, largest producer of generic medicines and supply up to 50–60% of global vaccines demand, these all contribute up to 24.44 billions in exports and India's local pharmaceutical market is estimated up to 42 billion.", "India is among the top 12 biotech destinations in the world.", "The Indian biotech industry grew by 15.1% in 2012–2013, increasing its revenues from 204.4 billion (Indian rupees) to 235.24 billion (US$3.94 billion at June 2013 exchange rates).=== Energy ===India's capacity to generate electrical power is 300 gigawatts, of which 42 gigawatts is renewable.", "The country's usage of coal is a major cause of greenhouse gas emissions by India but its renewable energy is competing strongly.", "India emits about 7% of global greenhouse gas emissions.", "This equates to about 2.5 tons of carbon dioxide per person per year, which is half the world average.", "Increasing access to electricity and clean cooking with liquefied petroleum gas have been priorities for energy in India.=== Socio-economic challenges ===Despite economic growth during recent decades, India continues to face socio-economic challenges.", "In 2006, India contained the largest number of people living below the World Bank's international poverty line of US$1.25 per day.", "The proportion decreased from 60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005.Under the World Bank's later revised poverty line, it was 21% in 2011.30.7% of India's children under the age of five are underweight.", "According to a Food and Agriculture Organization report in 2015, 15% of the population is undernourished.", "The Midday Meal Scheme attempts to lower these rates.A 2018 Walk Free Foundation report estimated that nearly 8 million people in India were living in different forms of modern slavery, such as bonded labour, child labour, human trafficking, and forced begging, among others.", "According to the 2011 census, there were 10.1 million child labourers in the country, a decline of 2.6 million from 12.6 million in 2001.Since 1991, economic inequality between India's states has consistently grown: the per-capita net state domestic product of the richest states in 2007 was 3.2 times that of the poorest.", "Corruption in India is perceived to have decreased.", "According to the Corruption Perceptions Index, India ranked 78th out of 180 countries in 2018 with a score of 41 out of 100, an improvement from 85th in 2014.Epidemic and pandemic diseases have long been a major factor, including COVID-19 and cholera." ], [ "Demographics, languages and religion", "With 1,210,193,422 residents reported in the 2011 provisional census report, India was the world's second-most populous country.", "Its population grew by 17.64% from 2001 to 2011, compared to 21.54% growth in the previous decade (1991–2001).", "The human sex ratio, according to the 2011 census, is 940 females per 1,000 males.", "The median age was 28.7 .", "The first post-colonial census, conducted in 1951, counted 361 million people.", "Medical advances made in the last 50 years as well as increased agricultural productivity brought about by the \"Green Revolution\" have caused India's population to grow rapidly.The life expectancy in India is at 70 years—71.5 years for women, 68.7 years for men.", "There are around 93 physicians per 100,000 people.", "Migration from rural to urban areas has been an important dynamic in India's recent history.", "The number of people living in urban areas grew by 31.2% between 1991 and 2001.Yet, in 2001, over 70% still lived in rural areas.", "The level of urbanisation increased further from 27.81% in the 2001 Census to 31.16% in the 2011 Census.", "The slowing down of the overall population growth rate was due to the sharp decline in the growth rate in rural areas since 1991.According to the 2011 census, there are 53 million-plus urban agglomerations in India; among them Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad and Ahmedabad, in decreasing order by population.", "The literacy rate in 2011 was 74.04%: 65.46% among females and 82.14% among males.", "The rural-urban literacy gap, which was 21.2 percentage points in 2001, dropped to 16.1 percentage points in 2011.The improvement in the rural literacy rate is twice that of urban areas.", "Kerala is the most literate state with 93.91% literacy; while Bihar the least with 63.82%.Among speakers of the Indian languages, 74% speak Indo-Aryan languages, the easternmost branch of the Indo-European languages; 24% speak Dravidian languages, indigenous to South Asia and spoken widely before the spread of Indo-Aryan languages and 2% speak Austroasiatic languages or the Sino-Tibetan languages.", "India has no national language.", "Hindi, with the largest number of speakers, is the official language of the government.", "English is used extensively in business and administration and has the status of a \"subsidiary official language\"; it is important in education, especially as a medium of higher education.", "Each state and union territory has one or more official languages, and the constitution recognises in particular 22 \"scheduled languages\".The 2011 census reported the religion in India with the largest number of followers was Hinduism (79.80% of the population), followed by Islam (14.23%); the remaining were Christianity (2.30%), Sikhism (1.72%), Buddhism (0.70%), Jainism (0.36%) and others (0.9%).", "India has the third-largest Muslim population—the largest for a non-Muslim majority country." ], [ "Culture", "Indian cultural history spans more than .", "During the Vedic period (), the foundations of Hindu philosophy, mythology, theology and literature were laid, and many beliefs and practices which still exist today, such as ''dhárma'', ''kárma'', ''yóga'', and ''mokṣa'', were established.", "India is notable for its religious diversity, with Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity, and Jainism among the nation's major religions.", "The predominant religion, Hinduism, has been shaped by various historical schools of thought, including those of the ''Upanishads'', the ''Yoga Sutras'', the ''Bhakti'' movement, and by Buddhist philosophy.=== Visual art ===India has a very ancient tradition of art, which has exchanged many influences with the rest of Eurasia, especially in the first millennium, when Buddhist art spread with Indian religions to Central, East and Southeast Asia, the last also greatly influenced by Hindu art.", "Thousands of seals from the Indus Valley Civilization of the third millennium BCE have been found, usually carved with animals, but a few with human figures.", "The \"Pashupati\" seal, excavated in Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan, in 1928–29, is the best known.", "After this there is a long period with virtually nothing surviving.", "Almost all surviving ancient Indian art thereafter is in various forms of religious sculpture in durable materials, or coins.", "There was probably originally far more in wood, which is lost.", "In north India Mauryan art is the first imperial movement.", "In the first millennium CE, Buddhist art spread with Indian religions to Central, East and Southeast Asia, the last also greatly influenced by Hindu art.", "Over the following centuries a distinctly Indian style of sculpting the human figure developed, with less interest in articulating precise anatomy than ancient Greek sculpture but showing smoothly flowing forms expressing ''prana'' (\"breath\" or life-force).", "This is often complicated by the need to give figures multiple arms or heads, or represent different genders on the left and right of figures, as with the Ardhanarishvara form of Shiva and Parvati.Most of the earliest large sculpture is Buddhist, either excavated from Buddhist stupas such as Sanchi, Sarnath and Amaravati, or is rock cut reliefs at sites such as Ajanta, Karla and Ellora.", "Hindu and Jain sites appear rather later.", "In spite of this complex mixture of religious traditions, generally, the prevailing artistic style at any time and place has been shared by the major religious groups, and sculptors probably usually served all communities.", "Gupta art, at its peak , is often regarded as a classical period whose influence lingered for many centuries after; it saw a new dominance of Hindu sculpture, as at the Elephanta Caves.", "Across the north, this became rather stiff and formulaic after , though rich with finely carved detail in the surrounds of statues.", "But in the South, under the Pallava and Chola dynasties, sculpture in both stone and bronze had a sustained period of great achievement; the large bronzes with Shiva as Nataraja have become an iconic symbol of India.Ancient painting has only survived at a few sites, of which the crowded scenes of court life in the Ajanta Caves are by far the most important, but it was evidently highly developed, and is mentioned as a courtly accomplishment in Gupta times.", "Painted manuscripts of religious texts survive from Eastern India about the 10th century onwards, most of the earliest being Buddhist and later Jain.", "No doubt the style of these was used in larger paintings.", "The Persian-derived Deccan painting, starting just before the Mughal miniature, between them give the first large body of secular painting, with an emphasis on portraits, and the recording of princely pleasures and wars.", "The style spread to Hindu courts, especially among the Rajputs, and developed a variety of styles, with the smaller courts often the most innovative, with figures such as Nihâl Chand and Nainsukh.", "As a market developed among European residents, it was supplied by Company painting by Indian artists with considerable Western influence.", "In the 19th century, cheap Kalighat paintings of gods and everyday life, done on paper, were urban folk art from Calcutta, which later saw the Bengal School of Art, reflecting the art colleges founded by the British, the first movement in modern Indian painting.File:Bhutesvara Yakshis Mathura reliefs 2nd century CE front.jpg\|Bhutesvara Yakshis, Buddhist reliefs from Mathura, File:MET DT5237 (cropped).jpg\|Gupta terracotta relief, Krishna Killing the Horse Demon Keshi, 5th centuryFile:Elephanta Caves (27804449706) (cropped).jpg\|Elephanta Caves, triple-bust (''trimurti'') of Shiva, tall, File:Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja).jpg\|Chola bronze of Shiva as Nataraja (\"Lord of Dance\"), Tamil Nadu, 10th or 11th centuryFile:Jahangir Receives Prince Khurram at Ajmer on His Return from the Mewar Campaign.jpg\|''Jahangir Receives Prince Khurram at Ajmer on His Return from the Mewar Campaign'', Balchand, File:Unknown, Kangra, India - Krishna Fluting to the Milkmaids - Google Art Project.jpg\|''Krishna Fluting to the Milkmaids'', Kangra painting, 1775–1785=== Architecture ===Much of Indian architecture, including the Taj Mahal, other works of Indo-Islamic Mughal architecture, and South Indian architecture, blends ancient local traditions with imported styles.", "Vernacular architecture is also regional in its flavours.", "''Vastu shastra'', literally \"science of construction\" or \"architecture\" and ascribed to Mamuni Mayan, explores how the laws of nature affect human dwellings; it employs precise geometry and directional alignments to reflect perceived cosmic constructs.", "As applied in Hindu temple architecture, it is influenced by the ''Shilpa Shastras'', a series of foundational texts whose basic mythological form is the ''Vastu-Purusha mandala'', a square that embodied the \"absolute\".", "The Taj Mahal, built in Agra between 1631 and 1648 by orders of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife, has been described in the UNESCO World Heritage List as \"the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage\".", "Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture, developed by the British in the late 19th century, drew on Indo-Islamic architecture.=== Literature ===The earliest literature in India, composed between and , was in the Sanskrit language.", "Major works of Sanskrit literature include the ''Rigveda'' (), the epics: ''Mahābhārata'' () and the ''Ramayana'' ( and later); ''Abhijñānaśākuntalam'' (''The Recognition of Śakuntalā'', and other dramas of Kālidāsa () and ''Mahākāvya'' poetry.", "In Tamil literature, the Sangam literature () consisting of 2,381 poems, composed by 473 poets, is the earliest work.", "From the 14th to the 18th centuries, India's literary traditions went through a period of drastic change because of the emergence of devotional poets like Kabīr, Tulsīdās, and Guru Nānak.", "This period was characterised by a varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression; as a consequence, medieval Indian literary works differed significantly from classical traditions.", "In the 19th century, Indian writers took a new interest in social questions and psychological descriptions.", "In the 20th century, Indian literature was influenced by the works of the Bengali poet, author and philosopher Rabindranath Tagore, who was a recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature.=== Performing arts and media ===Indian music ranges over various traditions and regional styles.", "Classical music encompasses two genres and their various folk offshoots: the northern Hindustani and the southern Carnatic schools.", "Regionalised popular forms include filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition of the ''bauls'' is a well-known form of the latter.", "Indian dance also features diverse folk and classical forms.", "Among the better-known folk dances are: ''bhangra'' of Punjab, ''bihu'' of Assam, ''Jhumair'' and ''chhau'' of Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal, ''garba'' and ''dandiya'' of Gujarat, ''ghoomar'' of Rajasthan, and ''lavani'' of Maharashtra.", "Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama.", "These are: ''bharatanatyam'' of the state of Tamil Nadu, ''kathak'' of Uttar Pradesh, ''kathakali'' and ''mohiniyattam'' of Kerala, ''kuchipudi'' of Andhra Pradesh, ''manipuri'' of Manipur, ''odissi'' of Odisha, and the ''sattriya'' of Assam.Theatre in India melds music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue.", "Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances or social and political events, Indian theatre includes: the ''bhavai'' of Gujarat, the ''jatra'' of West Bengal, the ''nautanki'' and ''ramlila'' of North India, ''tamasha'' of Maharashtra, ''burrakatha'' of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, ''terukkuttu'' of Tamil Nadu, and the ''yakshagana'' of Karnataka.", "India has a theatre training institute the National School of Drama (NSD) that is situated at New Delhi.", "It is an autonomous organisation under the Ministry of culture, Government of India.The Indian film industry produces the world's most-watched cinema.", "Established regional cinematic traditions exist in the Assamese, Bengali, Bhojpuri, Hindi, Kannada, Malayalam, Punjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, Odia, Tamil, and Telugu languages.", "The Hindi language film industry (''Bollywood'') is the largest sector representing 43% of box office revenue, followed by the South Indian Telugu and Tamil film industries which represent 36% combined.Television broadcasting began in India in 1959 as a state-run medium of communication and expanded slowly for more than two decades.", "The state monopoly on television broadcast ended in the 1990s.", "Since then, satellite channels have increasingly shaped the popular culture of Indian society.", "Today, television is the most penetrative media in India; industry estimates indicate that there are over 554 million TV consumers, 462 million with satellite or cable connections compared to other forms of mass media such as the press (350 million), radio (156 million) or internet (37 million).=== Society ===Traditional Indian society is sometimes defined by social hierarchy.", "The Indian caste system embodies much of the social stratification and many of the social restrictions found on the Indian subcontinent.", "Social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as ''jātis'', or \"castes\".", "India abolished untouchability in 1950 with the adoption of the constitution and has since enacted other anti-discriminatory laws and social welfare initiatives.Family values are important in the Indian tradition, and multi-generational patrilineal joint families have been the norm in India, though nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas.", "An overwhelming majority of Indians, with their consent, have their marriages arranged by their parents or other family elders.", "Marriage is thought to be for life, and the divorce rate is extremely low, with less than one in a thousand marriages ending in divorce.", "Child marriages are common, especially in rural areas; many women wed before reaching 18, which is their legal marriageable age.", "Female infanticide in India, and lately female foeticide, have created skewed gender ratios; the number of missing women in the country quadrupled from 15 million to 63 million in the 50-year period ending in 2014, faster than the population growth during the same period, and constituting 20 percent of India's female electorate.", "According to an Indian government study, an additional 21 million girls are unwanted and do not receive adequate care.", "Despite a government ban on sex-selective foeticide, the practice remains commonplace in India, the result of a preference for boys in a patriarchal society.", "The payment of dowry, although illegal, remains widespread across class lines.", "Deaths resulting from dowry, mostly from bride burning, are on the rise, despite stringent anti-dowry laws.Many Indian festivals are religious in origin.", "The best known include Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Thai Pongal, Holi, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, and Vaisakhi.=== Education ===Children awaiting school lunch in Rayka (also Raika), a village in rural Gujarat.", "The salutation ''Jai Bhim'' written on the blackboard honours the jurist, social reformer, and Dalit leader B. R. Ambedkar.In the 2011 census, about 73% of the population was literate, with 81% for men and 65% for women.", "This compares to 1981 when the respective rates were 41%, 53% and 29%.", "In 1951 the rates were 18%, 27% and 9%.", "In 1921 the rates 7%, 12% and 2%.", "In 1891 they were 5%, 9% and 1%, According to Latika Chaudhary, in 1911 there were under three primary schools for every ten villages.", "Statistically, more caste and religious diversity reduced private spending.", "Primary schools taught literacy, so local diversity limited its growth.The education system of India is the world's second-largest.", "India has over 900 universities, 40,000 colleges and 1.5 million schools.", "In India's higher education system, a significant number of seats are reserved under affirmative action policies for the historically disadvantaged.", "In recent decades India's improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to its economic development.=== Clothing ===From ancient times until the advent of the modern, the most widely worn traditional dress in India was draped.", "For women it took the form of a sari, a single piece of cloth many yards long.", "The sari was traditionally wrapped around the lower body and the shoulder.", "In its modern form, it is combined with an underskirt, or Indian petticoat, and tucked in the waist band for more secure fastening.", "It is also commonly worn with an Indian blouse, or choli, which serves as the primary upper-body garment, the sari's end—passing over the shoulder—serving to cover the midriff and obscure the upper body's contours.", "For men, a similar but shorter length of cloth, the dhoti, has served as a lower-body garment.The use of stitched clothes became widespread after Muslim rule was established at first by the Delhi sultanate () and then continued by the Mughal Empire ().", "Among the garments introduced during this time and still commonly worn are: the shalwars and pyjamas, both styles of trousers, and the tunics kurta and kameez.", "In southern India, the traditional draped garments were to see much longer continuous use.Shalwars are atypically wide at the waist but narrow to a cuffed bottom.", "They are held up by a drawstring, which causes them to become pleated around the waist.", "The pants can be wide and baggy, or they can be cut quite narrow, on the bias, in which case they are called churidars.", "When they are ordinarily wide at the waist and their bottoms are hemmed but not cuffed, they are called pyjamas.", "The kameez is a long shirt or tunic, its side seams left open below the waist-line.", "The kurta is traditionally collarless and made of cotton or silk; it is worn plain or with embroidered decoration, such as chikan; and typically falls to either just above or just below the wearer's knees.In the last 50 years, fashions have changed a great deal in India.", "Increasingly, in urban northern India, the sari is no longer the apparel of everyday wear, though they remain popular on formal occasions.", "The traditional shalwar kameez is rarely worn by younger urban women, who favour churidars or jeans.", "In white-collar office settings, ubiquitous air conditioning allows men to wear sports jackets year-round.", "For weddings and formal occasions, men in the middle- and upper classes often wear bandgala, or short Nehru jackets, with pants, with the groom and his groomsmen sporting sherwanis and churidars.", "The dhoti, once the universal garment of Hindu males, the wearing of which in the homespun and handwoven khadi allowed Gandhi to bring Indian nationalism to the millions,is seldom seen in the cities.=== Cuisine ===The foundation of a typical Indian meal is a cereal cooked in a plain fashion and complemented with flavourful savoury dishes.", "The cooked cereal could be steamed rice; chapati, a thin unleavened bread made from wheat flour, or occasionally cornmeal, and griddle-cooked dry; the idli, a steamed breakfast cake, or dosa, a griddled pancake, both leavened and made from a batter of rice- and gram meal.", "The savoury dishes might include lentils, pulses and vegetables commonly spiced with ginger and garlic, but also with a combination of spices that may include coriander, cumin, turmeric, cinnamon, cardamon and others as informed by culinary conventions.", "They might also include poultry, fish, or meat dishes.", "In some instances, the ingredients might be mixed during the process of cooking.A platter, or thali, used for eating usually has a central place reserved for the cooked cereal, and peripheral ones for the flavourful accompaniments, which are often served in small bowls.", "The cereal and its accompaniments are eaten simultaneously rather than a piecemeal manner.", "This is accomplished by mixing—for example of rice and lentils—or folding, wrapping, scooping or dipping—such as chapati and cooked vegetables or lentils.A tandoor chef in the Turkman Gate, Old Delhi, makes Khameeri roti (a Muslim-influenced style of leavened bread).India has distinctive vegetarian cuisines, each a feature of the geographical and cultural histories of its adherents.", "The appearance of ''ahimsa'', or the avoidance of violence toward all forms of life in many religious orders early in Indian history, especially Upanishadic Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, is thought to have contributed to the predominance of vegetarianism among a large segment of India's Hindu population, especially in southern India, Gujarat, the Hindi-speaking belt of north-central India, as well as among Jains.", "Although meat is eaten widely in India, the proportional consumption of meat in the overall diet is low.", "Unlike China, which has increased its per capita meat consumption substantially in its years of increased economic growth, in India the strong dietary traditions have contributed to dairy, rather than meat, becoming the preferred form of animal protein consumption.The most significant import of cooking techniques into India during the last millennium occurred during the Mughal Empire.", "Dishes such as the pilaf, developed in the Abbasid caliphate, and cooking techniques such as the marinating of meat in yogurt, spread into northern India from regions to its northwest.", "To the simple yogurt marinade of Persia, onions, garlic, almonds, and spices began to be added in India.", "Rice was partially cooked and layered alternately with the sauteed meat, the pot sealed tightly, and slow cooked according to another Persian cooking technique, to produce what has today become the Indian biryani, a feature of festive dining in many parts of India.", "In the food served in Indian restaurants worldwide the diversity of Indian food has been partially concealed by the dominance of Punjabi cuisine.", "The popularity of tandoori chicken—cooked in the tandoor oven, which had traditionally been used for baking bread in the rural Punjab and the Delhi region, especially among Muslims, but which is originally from Central Asia—dates to the 1950s, and was caused in large part by an entrepreneurial response among people from the Punjab who had been displaced by the 1947 partition of India.=== Sports and recreation ===Several traditional indigenous sports such as ''kabaddi'', ''kho kho'', ''pehlwani'' and ''gilli-danda'', and also martial arts such as ''Kalarippayattu'' and ''marma adi'', remain popular.", "Chess is commonly held to have originated in India as ''chaturaṅga''; in recent years, there has been a rise in the number of Indian grandmasters.", "Viswanathan Anand became the Chess World Champion in 2007 and held the status until 2013.He also won the Chess World Cup in 2000 and 2002.In 2023, R Praggnanandhaa finished as runners up in the tournament.", "Parcheesi is derived from ''Pachisi'', another traditional Indian pastime, which in early modern times was played on a giant marble court by Mughal emperor Akbar the Great.Cricket is the most popular sport in India.", "Major domestic leagues include the Indian Premier League.", "Professional leagues in other sports include the Indian Super League (football) and the Pro Kabaddi league.Indian cricketer Sachin Tendulkar about to score a record 14,000 runs in Test cricket while playing against Australia in Bangalore, 2010India has won two Cricket World Cups, the 1983 edition and the 2011 edition, as well as becoming the inaugural T20 World Cup Champions in 2007.India has also won the Champions Trophy twice, in 2002 and 2013.The only edition of the World Championship of Cricket was won by India in 1985.India also has eight field hockey gold medals in the summer olympics.The improved results garnered by the Indian Davis Cup team and other tennis players in the early 2010s have made tennis increasingly popular in the country.", "India has a comparatively strong presence in shooting sports, and has won several medals at the Olympics, the World Shooting Championships, and the Commonwealth Games.", "Other sports in which Indians have succeeded internationally include badminton (Saina Nehwal and P. V. Sindhu are two of the top-ranked female badminton players in the world), boxing, and wrestling.", "Football is popular in West Bengal, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and the north-eastern states.India has traditionally been the dominant country at the South Asian Games.", "An example of this dominance is the basketball competition where the Indian team won four out of five tournaments to date.India has hosted or co-hosted several international sporting events: the 1951 and 1982 Asian Games; the 1987, 1996, 2011 and 2023 ICC Men's Cricket World Cup tournaments (and is also scheduled to host it in 2031); the 1978, 1997 and 2013 ICC Women's Cricket World Cup tournaments (and is also scheduled to host it in 2025); the 1987, 1985 and 2016 South Asian Games; the 1990-91 Men's Asia Cup; the 2002 Chess World Cup; the 2003 Afro-Asian Games; the 2006 ICC Cricket Champion's Trophy (and is also scheduled to host it in 2029); the 2006 Women's Asia Cup; the 2009 World Badminton Championships; the 2010 Hockey World Cup; the 2010 Commonwealth Games; the 2016 ICC Men's Cricket T20 World Cup (and is also scheduled to host it in 2026); the 2016 ICC Women's Cricket T20 World Cup and the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup.", "Major international sporting events held annually in India include the Maharashtra Open, the Mumbai Marathon, the Delhi Half Marathon, and the Indian Masters.", "The first Formula 1 Indian Grand Prix featured in late 2011 but has been discontinued from the F1 season calendar since 2014." ], [ "See also", "* Administrative divisions of India* Outline of India" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "'''Overview'''* * * * * * Robinson, Francis, ed.", "''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and the Maldives'' (1989)* '''Etymology'''* * * '''History'''* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * '''Geography'''* * * * * * * * * * * * * '''Biodiversity'''* * * * * * * '''Politics'''* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * '''Foreign relations and military'''* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * '''Economy'''* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * '''Demographics'''* * * * * * * * * * * * * '''Art'''* * * * * '''Culture'''* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", "'''Government''' Official website of the Government of India* Government of India Web Directory'''General information'''* India.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* * * India from BBC News* * * Key Development Forecasts for India from International Futures" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Music of India" ], [ "Introduction", "Owing to India's vastness and diversity, Indian music encompasses numerous genres in multiple varieties and forms which include classical music, folk, rock, and pop.", "It has a history spanning several millennia and developed over several geo-locations spanning the sub-continent.", "Music in India began as an integral part of socio-religious life." ], [ "History", "Dancing Girl'' sculpture from the Indus Valley civilization (c. 4,500 years ago)Nimbu Bhoj cave, Pachmarhi, India, date uncertain, possibly 2nd millennium B.C.", "- 1st millennium B.C.", "Bronze Age harper playing an arched harp.", "Digital drawing, recreating cave painting.=== Pre-history =======Paleolithic====The 30,000-year-old paleolithic and neolithic cave paintings at the UNESCO world heritage site at Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh show a type of dance.", "Mesolithic and chalcolithic cave art of Bhimbetka illustrates musical instruments such as Gongs, Bowed Lyre, daf etc.====Neolithic====Chalcolithic era (4000 BCE onward) narrow bar shaped polished stone celts like music instruments, one of the earlier musical instrument in India, were excavated at Sankarjang in the Angul district of Odisha.", "There is historical evidence in the form of sculptural evidence, i.e.", "musical instruments, singing and dancing postures of damsels in the Ranigumpha Caves in Khandagiri and Udayagiri at Bhubaneswar.==== Indus River Valley Civilization ====Dancing Girl sculpture (2500 BCE) was found from the Indus Valley civilization (IVC) site.", "There are IVC-era paintings on pottery of a man with a dhol hanging from his neck and a woman holding a drum under her left arm.===Vedic and ancient era===Vedas (c. 1500 – c. 800 BCE Vedic period) document rituals with performing arts and play.", "For example, Shatapatha Brahmana (~800–700 BCE) has verses in chapter 13.2 written in the form of a play between two actors.", "''Tala'' or ''taal'' is an ancient music concept traceable to Vedic era texts of Hinduism, such as the ''Samaveda'' and methods for singing the Vedic hymns.", "Smriti (500 BCE to 100 BCE ) post-vedic Hindu texts include Valmiki's Ramayana (500 BCE to 100 BCE) which mentions dance and music (dance by Apsaras such as Urvashi, Rambha, Menaka, Tilottama Panchāpsaras, and Ravana's wives excelling in ''nrityageeta'' or \"singing and dancing\" and ''nritavaditra'' or \"playing musical instruments\"), music and singing by Gandharvas, several string instruments (vina, tantri, bīn, vipanci and ''vallaki'' similar to ''veena''), wind instruments (shankha, venu and ''venugana'' – likely a mouth organ made by tying several flutes together), raga (including ''kaushika'' such as ''raag kaushik dhwani''), vocal registers (seven ''svara'' or ''sur'', ''ana'' or ''ekashurti'' drag note, ''murchana'' the regulated rise and fall of voice in ''matra'' and ''tripramana'' three-fold ''teen taal'' ''laya'' such as ''drut'' or quick, ''madhya'' or middle, and ''vilambit'' or slow), poetry recitation in Bala Kanda and also in Uttara Kanda by Luv and Kusha in ''marga'' style.", "Starting from the earliest known work Tholkappiyam (500 BCE), there are several references to music and ''Panns'' in the ancient pre-Sangam and Sangam literature starting from the earliest known work Tholkappiyam (500 BCE).", "Among Sangam literature, ''Mathuraikkanci'' refers to women singing ''sevvazhi pann'' to invoke the mercy of God during childbirth.", "In ''Tolkappiyam'', the five landscapes of the Sangam literature had each an associated ''Pann'', each describing the mood of the song associated with that landscape.", "Among the numerous ''panns'' that find mention in the ancient Tamil literature are, ''Ambal Pann'', which is suitable to be played on the flute, ''sevvazhi pann'' on the ''Yazh'' (lute), ''Nottiram'' and ''Sevvazhi'' expressing pathos, the captivating ''Kurinji pann'' and the invigorating ''Murudappann''.", "Pann() is the melodic mode used by the Tamil people in their music since the ancient times.", "The ancient ''panns'' over centuries evolved first into a pentatonic scale and later into the seven note Carnatic Sargam.", "But from the earliest times, Tamil Music is heptatonic and known as Ezhisai (ஏழிசை).sanskrit saint-poet Jayadeva, who was the great composer and illustrious master of classical music, shaped ''Odra-Magadhi'' style music and had great influence on Odissi Sangita.Śārṅgadeva composed Sangita-Ratnakara, one of the most important Sanskrit musicological texts from India, which is regarded as the definitive text in both Hindustani music and Carnatic music traditions of Indian classical music.Assamese poet Madhava Kandali, writer of Saptakanda Ramayana, lists several instruments in his version of ''\"Ramayana\"'', such as mardala, khumuchi, bhemachi, dagar, gratal, ramtal, tabal, jhajhar, jinjiri, bheri mahari, tokari, dosari, kendara, dotara, vina, rudra-vipanchi, etc.", "(meaning that these instruments existed since his time in the 14th century or earlier).", "The Indian system of notation is perhaps the world's oldest and most elaborate.===Medieval era===In the early 14th century under the Khiljis, there were concerts and competitions between Hindustani and Carnatic musicians.From the 16th century onwards, treatises written on music were Sangitamava Chandrika, Gita Prakasha, Sangita Kalalata and Natya Manorama.===Twentieth century===In the early 1960s Jazz pioneers such as John Coltrane and George Harrison collaborated with Indian instrumentalists and started to use Indian instruments such as sitar in their songs.", "In the late 1970s and early 1980s, rock and roll fusions with Indian music were well known throughout Europe and North America.", "In the late 1980s, Indian-British artists fused Indian and Western traditions to make the Asian Underground.", "In the new millennium, American hip-hop has featured Indian filmi and bhangra.", "Mainstream hip-hop artists have sampled songs from Bollywood movies and have collaborated with Indian artists, such as Timbaland's \"Indian Flute\"In 2010, Laura Marling and Mumford and Sons collaborated with the Dharohar Project." ], [ "Classical music", "The two main traditions of Indian classical music are Carnatic music, which is practised predominantly in the peninsular (southern) regions, and Hindustani music, which is found in the northern, eastern and central regions.", "The basic concepts of this music includes ''Shruti'' (microtones), ''Swaras'' (notes), ''Alankar'' (ornamentations), ''Raga'' (melodies improvised from basic grammars), and ''Tala'' (rhythmic patterns used in percussion).", "Its tonal system divides the octave into 22 segments called Shrutis, not all equal but each roughly equal to a quarter of a whole tone of the Western music.", "Both the classical music are standing on the fundamentals of The seven notes of Indian Classical music.", "These seven notes are also called as Sapta svara or Sapta Sur.", "These seven svaras are Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni respectively.", "These Sapta Svaras are spelt as Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni, but these are shortforms of Shadja (षड्ज), Rishabha (ऋषभ), Gandhara (गान्धार), Madhyama (मध्यम), Panchama (पंचम), Dhaivata (धैवत) and Nishada (निषाद) respectively.", "These are also equivalent to Do, Re, Mi, Fa, So, La, Ti.", "Only these seven svaras built up the Hindustani classical music and the Carnatic classical music.", "These seven svaras are the fundamentals of a raga.", "This seven svaras without any variations in them, are called as Shuddha svaras.", "Variations in these svaras cause them to be and svaras.", "All the other svaras except Sadja(Sa) and Pancham (Pa) can be or svaras but Sa and Pa are always svaras.", "And hence svaras Sa and Pa are called '''Achal Svaras''', since these svaras don't move from their original position while svaras Ra, Ga, Ma, Dha, Ni are called '''Chal Svaras''', since these svaras move from their original position.", "'''Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni - Svaras''' '''Re, Ga, Dha, Ni - Komal Svaras''' '''Ma - Svaras'''Sangeet Natak Academy recognizes eight classical dance and music forms, namely Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Kuchipudi, Odissi, Kathakali, Sattriya, Manipuri and Mohiniyattam.", "Additionally, India's Ministry of culture also includes Chhau in its classical list.===Carnatic music===Carnatic music can be traced to the 14th - 15th centuries AD and thereafter.", "It originated in South India during the rule of Vijayanagar Empire through the Keerthanas composed by Purandara Dasa.", "Like Hindustani music, it is melodic, with improvised variations, but tends to have more fixed compositions.", "It consists of a composition with improvised embellishments added to the piece in the forms of ''Raga Alapana'', ''Kalpanaswaram'', ''Neraval'' and, in the case of more advanced students, Ragam Thanam Pallavi.", "The main emphasis is on the vocals as most compositions are written to be sung, and even when played on instruments, they are meant to be performed in a singing style (known as ''gāyaki'').", "Around 300 ragams are in use today.Annamayya is the first known composer in Carnatic music.", "He is widely regarded as the Andhra Pada kavitā Pitāmaha (Godfather of Telugu song-writing).Purandara Dasa is considered the father of Carnatic music, while the later musicians Tyagaraja, Shyama Shastry and Muthuswami Dikshitar are considered the trinity of Carnatic music.Noted artists of Carnatic music include Tiger Varadachariyar, M D Ramanathan, Ariyakudi Ramanuja Iyengar (the father of the current concert format), Palghat Mani Iyer, Madurai Mani Iyer, Semmangudi Srinivasa Iyer, Nedunuri Krishnamurthy Alathur Brothers, MS Subbulakshmi, Lalgudi Jayaraman, Balamuralikrishna, TN Seshagopalan, K J Yesudas, N. Ramani, Umayalpuram K. Sivaraman, Sanjay Subrahmanyan, TM Krishna, Bombay Jayashri, T S Nandakumar, Aruna Sairam, Mysore Manjunath,Every December, the city of Chennai in India has its eight-week-long Music Season, which is the world's largest cultural event.Carnatic music has served as the foundation for most music in South India, including folk music, festival music and has also extended its influence to film music in the past 100–150 years or so.===Hindustani music===The tradition of Hindustani music dates back to Vedic times where the hymns in the Sama Veda, an ancient religious text, were sung as Samagana and not chanted.", "It diverged from Carnatic music around the 13th–14th centuries CE, primarily due to Islamic influences.", "Developing a strong and diverse tradition over several centuries, it has contemporary traditions established primarily in India but also in Pakistan and Bangladesh.", "In contrast to Carnatic music, the other main Indian classical music tradition originating from the South, Hindustani music was not only influenced by ancient Hindu musical traditions, historical Vedic philosophy and native Indian sounds but also enriched by the Persian performance practices of the Mughals.", "Classical genres are dhrupad, dhamar, khyal, tarana and sadra, and there are also several semi-classical forms.The root of the name C(K)arnatic music is derived from Sanskrit.", "Karnam means ears and Atakam means that which is sweet or that which lingers on.===Light classical music===There are many types of music which comes under the category of light classical or semi-classical.", "Some of the forms are Thumri, Dadra, Bhajan, Ghazal, Chaiti, Kajri, Tappa, Natya Sangeet and Qawwali.", "These forms place emphasis on explicitly seeking emotion from the audience, as opposed to the classical forms." ], [ "Folk music", "alt==== Tamang Selo ===Navneet Aditya Waiba- Folk singerThis is a musical genre of the Tamang people and popular amongst the Nepali speaking community in West Bengal, Sikkim, India and around the world.", "It is accompanied by Tamang instruments, the Madal, Damphu and Tungna, although nowadays musicians have taken to modern instruments.", "A Tamang Selo can be catchy and lively or slow and melodious, and is usually sung to convey sorrow, love, happiness or day-to-day incidents and stories of folklore.Hira Devi Waiba is hailed as the pioneer of Nepali folk songs and Tamang Selo.", "Her song 'Chura ta Hoina Astura' (चुरा त होइन अस्तुरा) is said to be the first Tamang Selo ever recorded.", "She has sung nearly 300 songs through her musical career spanning 40 years.", "After Waiba's death in 2011, her son Satya Aditya Waiba (producer/manager) and Navneet Aditya Waiba (singer) collaborated and re-recorded her most iconic songs and released an album titled ''Ama Lai Shraddhanjali'' (आमालाई श्रद्धाञ्जली-Tribute to Mother).", "The duo are the only individuals in the Nepali folk music genre who produce authentic traditional Nepali folk songs without adulteration or modernisation.===Bhangra and Giddha===Bhangra (Punjabi: ਭੰਗੜਾ) is a form of dance-oriented folk music of Punjab.", "The present musical Tamak' (r.) and Tumdak' (l.) - typical drums of the Santhal people, photographed in a village in Dinajpur district, Bangladesh.style is derived from non-traditional musical accompaniment to the riffs of Punjab called by the same name.", "The female dance of Punjab region is known as Giddha (Punjabi: ਗਿੱਧਾ).===Bihu and Borgeet===Assamese youth performing Bihu.Bihu () is the festival of New Year of Assam falling on mid-April.", "This is a festival of nature and mother earth where the first day is for the cows and buffaloes.", "The second day of the festival is for the man.", "Bihu dances and songs accompanied by traditional drums and wind instruments are an essential part of this festival.", "Bihu songs are energetic and with beats to welcome the festive spring.", "Assamese drums (dhol), Pepa(usually made from buffalo horn), Gogona are major instruments used.Borgeets () are lyrical songs that are set to specific ragas but not necessarily to any tala.", "These songs, composed by Srimanta Sankardeva and Madhavdeva in the 15th–16th centuries, are used to begin prayer services in monasteries, e.g.", "Satra and Namghar associated with the Ekasarana Dharma; and they also belong to the repertoire of Music of Assam outside the religious context.", "They are a lyrical strain that express the religious sentiments of the poets reacting to different situations, and differ from other lyrics associated with the Ekasarana Dharma.", "folk musicians performing in Mehrangarh Fort, Jodhpur, IndiaProminent instruments used in borgeets are ''Negera,''Taal, Khols etc.=== Dandiya ===Dandiya or Raas is a form of Gujarati cultural dance that is performed with sticks.", "The present musical style is derived from the traditional musical accompaniment to the folk dance.", "It is practiced mainly in the state of Gujarat.", "There is also another type of dance and music associated with Dandiya/Raas called Garba.=== Gaana ===Gaana is a rap-like \"collection of rhythms, beats and sensibilities native to the Dalits of Chennai.\"", "It evolved over the past two centuries, combining influences from the ''siddhars'' (tantric adepts) of ancient Tamilakam, Tamil Sufi saints, and more.", "Gaana songs are performed at weddings, stage shows, political rallies, and funerals.", "Performers sing about a wide range of topics, but the essence of gaana is said to be \"angst and melancholy\" based in life's struggles.", "In the past few decades, the genre has entered the music of the mainstream Tamil film industry and gained popularity.", "Contemporary gaana bands like The Casteless Collective are bringing the genre to new audiences while using it for social activism, especially against caste discrimination.=== Haryanvi ===Video of Dhol, string instrument (Ektara) and Been musicians at Surajkund International Crafts Mela (c. 12 Feb 2012).Haryana folk music has two main forms: classical folk music of Haryana and desi folk music of Haryana (country music of Haryana).", "They take the form of ballads and pangs of parting of lovers, valor and bravery, harvest and happiness.", "Haryana is rich in musical tradition and even places have been named after ragas, for example Charkhi Dadri district has many villages named as Nandyam, Sarangpur, Bilawala, Brindabana, Todi, Asaveri, Jaisri, Malakoshna, Hindola, Bhairvi and Gopi Kalyana.=== Himachali ===Himachal's folk music varies according to the event or the festival.", "One of the most popular style of music is ''Nati Music,'' where ''nati'' being the traditional dance that is done on the song.", "Nati Music is usually celebratory, and done in fairs or other occasions such as marriages.===Jhumair and Domkach===Jhumair and Domkach are Nagpuri folk music.", "The musical instruments used in folk music and dance are Dhol, Mandar, Bansi, Nagara, Dhak, Shehnai, Khartal, Narsinga etc.===Lavani===Lavani comes from the word ''Lavanya'' which means \"beauty\".", "This is one of the most popular forms of dance and music that is practiced all over Maharashtra.", "It has, in fact, become a necessary part of the Maharashtrian folk dance performances.", "Traditionally, the songs are sung by female artists, but male artists may occasionally sing Lavanis.", "The dance format associated with Lavani is known as Tamasha.", "Lavani is a combination of traditional song and dance, which particularly performed to the enchanting beats of 'Dholaki', a drum-like instrument.", "The dance is performed by attractive women wearing nine-yard saris.", "They are sung in a quick tempo.", "Lavani originated in the arid region of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.=== Manipuri ===Gandharva as dancers are found sculpted in early medieval era temples of Southeast Asia, East Asia, Siberia, Micronesia, Polynesia and the Arctic.", "The Meiteis believe that they are the Gandharvas.Music of Manipur and Manipuri dance are heritage of Manipuri people.", "According to tradition of the Manipuri people in the Himalayan foothills and valleys connecting India to Burma, they are the Gandharvas (celestial musicians and dancers) in the Vedic texts, and historic texts of Manipuri people calls the region as ''Gandharva-desa''.", "The Vedic ''Usha'', the goddess of the dawn, is a cultural motif for Manipuri women, and in the Indian tradition, it was ''Usha'' who created and taught the art of feminine dance to girls.", "This oral tradition of women's dance is celebrated as ''Chingkheirol'' in the Manipuri tradition.The ancient Sanskrit texts such as the Mahabharata epic mentions Manipur, where Arjuna meets and falls in love with Chitragada.", "Dance is called ''Jagoi'' in a major Meitei language of the region and it traces a long tradition in Manipur.", "Lai Haraoba dance likely has ancient roots and shares many similarities with dance postures of Nataraja and his legendary disciple called Tandu (locally called ''Tangkhu'').", "Similarly, as does the dance related to commoner ''Khamba'' and princess ''Thoibi'' – who perform as pan-Indian Shiva and Parvati, in the legendary tragic love story of Khamba-Thoibi found in the Manipuri epic ''Moirang Parba''.=== Marfa music ===Hadrani Marfa, or simply Marfa music, introduced during the 18th century in Hyderabad State by the East African Siddi community from Afro-Arab music of Hadhramawt in Yemen, is a form of celebratory rhythmic music and dance among the Hyderabadi Muslims, played with high tempo using Marfa instrument, daff, Dhol, sticks, steel pots and wooden strips called ''thapi''.=== Mizo ===Mizo Music originated when couplets were developed during the settlement of Thantlang in Burma between 1300 and 1400 CE, and folk songs developed during this period were dar hla (songs on gong); Bawh hla (War chants), Hlado (Chants of hunting); Nauawih hla (Cradle songs) A greater development of songs can be seen from the settlement of Lentlang in Burma, estimated between late 15th to 17th Century CE.", "The Mizo occupied the present Mizoram from the late 17th century.", "The pre-colonial period, that is from the 18th to 19th century was another important era in the history of Mizo folk literature.", "Prior to the annexation by the British Government, the Mizo occupied the present Mizoram for two centuries.", "In comparison with the folk songs of Thantlang and Lentlang settlement, the songs of this period are more developed in its number, form and contents.", "The languages are more polished and the flows also better.", "Most of the songs of this period are named after the composers.=== Odissi ===Sample of Odissi performance art with the 17th Canto from the 17th century Odia poet Upendra Bhanja's 'Baidehisha Bilasa' being sung.", "Odissi and Kathakali drama traditions have had an important influence on India's narrative traditions.Jayadeva, the 12th century sanskrit saint-poet, the great composer and illustrious master of classical music, has immense contribution to Odissi music.", "During his time '''Odra-Magadhi''' style music got shaped and achieved its classical status.", "He indicated the classical ragas prevailing at that time in which these were to be sung.", "Prior to that there was the tradition of '''Chhanda''' which was simple in musical outline.", "From the 16th century onwards, treatises on music were '''Sangitamava Chandrika''', '''Gita Prakasha''', '''Sangita Kalalata''' and '''Natya Manorama'''.", "A couple of treatise namely, ''Sangita Sarani'' and ''Sangi Narayana'', were also written in the early path of the 19th century.Odissi Sangita comprises four classes of music namely '''Dhruvapada''', '''Chitrapada''', '''Chitrakala''' and '''Panchal''', described in the ancient oriya music texts.", "The chief Odissi and '''Shokabaradi'''.", "Odissi '''Sangita''' (music) is a synthesis of four classes of music, i.e.", "'''Dhruvapada''', '''Chitrapada''', '''Chitrakala''' and Panchal, described in the above-mentioned texts.The great exponents of Odissi music in modern times are the Late Singhari Shyamasundara Kar, Markandeya Mahapatra, Kashinath Pujapanda, Balakrushna Das, Gopal Chandra Panda, Ramhari Das, Bhubaneswari Misra, Shymamani Devi and Sunanda Patnaik, who have achieved eminence in classical music.===Rabindra Sangeet (music of Bengal)===Rabindranath Tagore's Bengali-language initials are worked into this \"Ro-Tho\" wooden seal, stylistically similar to designs used in traditional Haida carvings.", "Tagore embellished his manuscripts with such art.thumbRabindra Sangeet ( ''Robindro Shonggit'', ), also known as Tagore songs, are songs written and composed by Rabindranath Tagore.", "They have distinctive characteristics in the music of Bengal, popular in India and Bangladesh.", "\"Sangeet\" means music, \"Rabindra Sangeet\" means music (or more aptly songs) of Rabindra.N.", "Ramani and N Rajam accompanied by T S Nandakumar\|thumbTagore wrote some 2,230 songs in Bengali, now known as ''Rabindra Sangeet'', using classical music and traditional folk music as sources.Tagore wrote national anthems of India and Bangladesh, and influenced the national anthem of Sri Lanka.===Rajasthani===Rajasthan has a very diverse cultural collection of musician castes, including Langas, Sapera, Bhopa, Jogi and Manganiyar (lit.", "\"the ones who ask/beg\").", "''Rajasthan Diary'' quotes it as a soulful, full-throated music with harmonious diversity.", "The melodies of Rajasthan come from a variety of instruments.", "The stringed variety includes the Sarangi, Ravanahatha, Kamayacha, Morsing and Ektara.", "Percussion instruments come in all shapes and sizes from the huge Nagaras and Dhols to the tiny Damrus.", "The Daf and Chang are a favorite of Holi (the festival of colours) revelers.", "Flutes and bagpipers come in local flavors such as Shehnai, Poongi, Algoza, Tarpi, Been and Bankia.Rajasthani music is derived from a combination of string instruments, percussion instruments and wind instruments accompanied by renditions of folk singers.", "It enjoys a respectable presence in Bollywood music as well.=== Sufi folk rock / Sufi rock ===Sufi folk rock contains elements of modern hard rock and traditional folk music with Sufi poetry.", "While it was pioneered by bands like Junoon in Pakistan it became very popular, especially in northern India.===Uttarakhandi===Uttarakhandi folk music had its root in the lap of nature and the hilly terrain of the region.", "Common themes in the folk music of Uttarakhand are the beauty of nature, various seasons, festivals, religious traditions, cultural practices, folk stories, historical characters, and the bravery of ancestors.", "The folk songs of Uttarakhand are a reflection of the cultural heritage and the way people live their lives in the Himalayas.", "Musical instruments used in Uttarakhand music include the Dhol, Damoun, Hudka, Turri, Ransingha, Dholki, Daur, Thali, Bhankora and Masakbhaja.", "Tabla and Harmonium are also sometimes used, especially in recorded folk music from the 1960s onwards.", "Generic Indian and global musical instruments have been incorporated in modern popular folks by singers like Mohan Upreti, Narendra Singh Negi, Gopal Babu Goswami, and Chandra Singh Rahi." ], [ "Popular music in India", "===Dance music===Dance music, more popularly called ''\"DJ music\"'', is mostly played at nightclubs, parties, weddings and other celebrations.", "It is more popular among youths.", "It is mostly based on Indian movie music as well as Indian pop music, both of which tend to borrow and modernise the classical and folk dance songs with modern instruments and other innovations.===Movie music===The biggest form of Indian popular music is filmi, or songs from Indian films, it makes up 72% of the music sales in India.", "The film industry of India supported music by according reverence to classical music while utilising the western orchestration to support Indian melodies.", "Music composers, like R. D. Burman, Shankar Jaikishan, S. D. Burman, Laxmikant–Pyarelal, Madan Mohan, Bhupen Hazarika, Naushad Ali, O. P. Nayyar, Hemant Kumar, C. Ramchandra, Salil Chowdhury, Kalyanji Anandji, Ilaiyaraaja, A. R. Rahman, Jatin–Lalit, Anu Malik, Nadeem-Shravan, Harris Jayaraj, Himesh Reshammiya, Vidyasagar, Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy, Salim–Sulaiman, Pritam, M.S.", "Viswanathan, K. V. Mahadevan, Ghantasala and S. D. Batish employed the principles of harmony while retaining classical and folk flavor.", "Reputed names in the domain of Indian classical music like Ravi Shankar, Vilayat Khan, Ali Akbar Khan and Ram Narayan have also composed music for films.", "Traditionally, in Indian films, the voice for the songs is not provided by the actors, they are provided by the professional playback singers, to sound more developed, melodious and soulful, while actors lipsynch on the screen.", "In the past, only a handful of singers provided the voice in films.", "These include Kishore Kumar, K. J. Yesudas, Mohammed Rafi, Mukesh, S.P.", "Balasubrahmanyam, T.M.", "Soundararajan, Hemant Kumar, Manna Dey, P. Susheela, Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhonsle, K.S.", "Chitra, Geeta Dutt, S. Janaki, Shamshad Begum, Suraiya, Noorjahan and Suman Kalyanpur.", "Recent playback singers include Udit Narayan, Kumar Sanu, Kailash Kher, Alisha Chinai, KK, Shaan, SPB Charan, Madhushree, Shreya Ghoshal, Nihira Joshi, Kavita Krishnamurthy, Hariharan (singer), Ilaiyaraaja, A.R.", "Rahman, Sonu Nigam, Sukhwinder Singh, Kunal Ganjawala, Anu Malik, Sunidhi Chauhan, Anushka Manchanda, Raja Hasan, Arijit Singh and Alka Yagnik.", "Rock bands like Indus Creed, Indian Ocean, Silk Route and Euphoria have gained mass appeal with the advent of cable music television.===Pop music===Indian pop music is based on an amalgamation of Indian folk and classical music, and modern beats from different parts of the world.", "Pop music really started in the South Asian region with the playback singer Ahmed Rushdi's song ‘''Ko Ko Korina''’ in 1966, then by Kishore Kumar in the early 1970s.After that, much of Indian Pop music comes from the Indian Film Industry, and until the 1990s, few singers like Usha Uthup, Sharon Prabhakar, and Peenaz Masani outside it were popular.", "Since then, pop singers in the latter group have included Daler Mehndi, Baba Sehgal, Alisha Chinai, KK, Shantanu Mukherjee a.k.a.", "Shaan, Sagarika, Colonial Cousins (Hariharan, Lesle Lewis), Lucky Ali, and Sonu Nigam, and music composers like Zila Khan or Jawahar Wattal, who made top selling albums with, Daler Mehndi, Shubha Mudgal, Baba Sehgal, Shweta Shetty and Hans Raj Hans.Besides those listed above, popular Indi-pop singers include Sanam (Band), Gurdas Maan, Sukhwinder Singh, Papon, Zubeen Garg, Raghav Sachar Rageshwari, Vandana Vishwas, Devika Chawla, Bombay Vikings, Asha Bhosle, Sunidhi Chauhan, Anushka Manchanda, Bombay Rockers, Anu Malik, Jazzy B, Malkit Singh, Raghav, Jay Sean, Juggy D, Rishi Rich, Udit Swaraj, Sheila Chandra, Bally Sagoo, Punjabi MC, Beno, Bhangra Knights, Mehnaz, Sanober and Vaishali Samant.Recently, Indian pop has taken an interesting turn with the \"remixing\" of songs from past Indian movie songs, new beats being added to them.===Patriotic music===Patriotic feelings have been instigated within Indians through music since the era of the freedom struggle.", "Jana Gana Mana, the national anthem of India by Rabindranath Tagore, is largely credited for uniting India through music and Vande Mataram by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay as the national song of India.", "Patriotic songs were also written in many regional languages such as ''Biswo Bizoyi No Zuwan '' in Assamese.", "Post-independence songs such as Aye mere watan ke logo, Mile Sur Mera Tumhara, Ab Tumhare Hawale Watan Saathiyo, Maa Tujhe Salaam by A.R.", "Rahman have been responsible for consolidating feelings of national integration and unity in diversity.===Western music adoption in India===Western world's music has been adopted in India, by creating fusion music in India which in turn have enriched and created global genres of western music.====Goa trance====Goa trance, an electronic music style that originated during the late 1980s in Goa in India, has funky, drone-like basslines, similar to the techno minimalism of 21st century psytrance.", "Psychedelic trance developed from Goa trance.", "In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Goa became popular as a hippie capital, which resulted in evolution of Goa trance throughout the 1980s by mixing the spiritual culture of India with western musical elements of industrial music, new beat and electronic body music (EBM), and the actual Goa trance style became established by the early 1990s.====Jazz and blues====Jazz in India was first performed regularly in the metropoles Calcutta and Bombay in the early or middle 1920s.", "From the 1930s to the 1950s is called as the golden age of jazz in India, when jazz musicians like Leon Abbey, Crickett Smith, Creighton Thompson, Ken Mac, Roy Butler, Teddy Weatherford (who recorded with Louis Armstrong), and Rudy Jackson who toured India to avoid the racial discrimination they faced in the United States.", "In the 1930s, jazz musicians played in the nightclubs of Bombay, such as at the Taj Mahal hotel ballroom, many of these musicians were Goans most whom also worked in the Bollywood film industry and were responsible for the introduction of genres like jazz and swing to Hindi film music.Indian blues is less prevalent in India than jazz.", "Interest in the blues in India has only been incidental due to the shared ancestry with jazz.====Rock and metal music=========Indian rock=====Nicotine playing at 'Pedal to the Metal', TDS, Indore, India in 2014.The band is known for being the pioneer of metal music in Central India.The rock music scene in India is small compared to the filmi or fusion musicality scenes.", "Rock music in India has its origins in the 1960s when international stars such as the Beatles visited India and brought their music with them.", "These artists' collaboration with Indian musicians such as Ravi Shankar and Zakir Hussain have led to the development of raga rock.", "International shortwave radio stations such as The Voice of America, BBC, and Radio Ceylon played a major part in bringing Western pop, folk, and rock music to the masses.", "Indian rock bands began to gain prominence only much later, around the late 1980s.It was around this time that the rock band Indus Creed formerly known as The Rock Machine got itself noticed on the international stage with hits like ''Rock N Roll Renegade''.", "Other bands quickly followed.", "With the introduction of MTV in the early 1990s, Indians began to be exposed to various forms of rock such as grunge and speed metal, impacting the national scene.", "The cities of the North Eastern Region, mainly Guwahati and Shillong, Kolkata, Delhi, Mumbai and Bangalore have emerged as major melting pots for rock and metal enthusiasts.", "Bangalore has been the hub for rock and metal movement in India.", "Some prominent bands include Nicotine, Voodoo Child, Indian Ocean, Kryptos, Thermal and a Quarter, Demonic Resurrection, Motherjane, Avial, Bloodywood and Parikrama.", "Rock-specific labels such as DogmaTone Records and Eastern Fare Music Foundation have since emerged, supporting Indian rock acts.From Central India, Nicotine, an Indore-based metal band, has been credited with pioneering metal music in the region.=====Raga rock=====Raga rock is rock or pop music with a heavy Indian influence, either in its construction, its timbre, or its use of instrumentation, such as the sitar and tabla.", "Raga and other forms of classical Indian music began to influence many rock groups during the 1960s; most famously the Beatles.", "The first traces of \"raga rock\" can be heard on songs such as \"See My Friends\" by the Kinks and the Yardbirds' \"Heart Full of Soul\", released the previous month, featured a sitar-like riff by guitarist Jeff Beck.", "The Beatles song \"Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)\", which first appeared on the band's 1965 album Rubber Soul, was the first western pop song to actually incorporate the sitar (played by lead guitarist George Harrison).", "The Byrds' March 1966 single \"Eight Miles High\" and its B-side \"Why\" were also influential in originating the musical subgenre.", "Indeed, the term \"raga rock\" was coined by The Byrds' publicist in the press releases for the single and was first used in print by journalist Sally Kempton in her review of \"Eight Miles High\" for The Village Voice.", "George Harrison's interest in Indian music, popularised the genre in the mid-1960s with songs such as \"Love You To\", \"Tomorrow Never Knows\" (credited to Lennon-McCartney), \"Within You Without You\" and \"The Inner Light\".", "The rock acts of the sixties both in turn influenced British and American groups and Indian acts to develop a later form of Indian rock.====Western classical music====Despite more than a century of exposure to Western classical music and two centuries of British colonialism, classical music in India has never gained significant popularity..However, Western classical music education has improved with the help of certain institutions in India, including KM Music Conservatory (founded by Oscar-winning Composer A.R.", "Rahman), Calcutta School of Music, Eastern Fare Music Foundation, In 1930, Mehli Mehta set up the Bombay Symphony Orchestra.", "His son Zubin Mehta has enjoyed a long international conducting career.", "The Bombay Chamber Orchestra (BCO) was founded in 1962.Delhi School of Music, Delhi Music Academy, Guitarmonk and others supporting Western classical music..", "In 2006, the Symphony Orchestra of India was founded, housed at the NCPA in Mumbai.", "It is today the only professional symphony orchestra in India and presents two concert seasons per year, with world-renowned conductors and soloists." ], [ "Globalization of Indian music", "As per UN, the Indian diaspora is world's largest overseas diaspora with 17.5 million Indian-origin international migrants across the world, who help spread the global soft power of India.=== Influence on other genres ======= Ancient influence on Southeast Asian music genres ====Historic Indosphere cultural influence zone of Greater India for transmission of elements of Indian elements such as the honorific titles, naming of people, naming of places, mottos of organisations and educational institutes as well as adoption of Hinduism, Buddhism, Indian architecture, martial arts, Indian music and dance, traditional Indian clothing, and Indian cuisine, a process which has also been aided by the ongoing historic expansion of Indian diaspora.With expansion of Indosphere cultural influence of Greater India, through transmission of Hinduism in Southeast Asia and the Silk Road transmission of Buddhism leading to Indianization of Southeast Asia through formation of non-Indian southeast Asian native Indianized kingdoms which adopted sanskritized language and other Indian elements such as the honorific titles, naming of people, naming of places, mottos of organisations and educational institutes as well as adoption of Indian architecture, martial arts, Indian music and dance, traditional Indian clothing, and Indian cuisine, a process which has also been aided by the ongoing historic expansion of Indian diaspora.===== Indonesian and Malay music =====In Indonesian and Malaysian music, the Dangdut a genre of folk music is partly derived and fused from Hindustani music.", "It is a very popular because of its melodious instrumentation and vocals.", "Dangdut features a tabla and gendang beat.", "Indonesians dance in somewhat similar to the ghoomar while listening to dangdut music, but in a much slower version.===== Thai music =====Thai literature and drama draws great inspiration from Indian arts and Hindu legends.", "Epic of Ramayana is as popular in Thailand as the Ramakien.", "Two of the most popular classical thai dances the Khon, performed by men wearing ferocious masks, and the Lakhon (Lakhon nai, Lakhon chatri and Lakhon nok), performed by women who play both male and female roles draws inspiration primarily from the Ramakien.", "Percussion instruments and Piphat, a type of woodwind accompany the dance.", "Nang talung, a Thai shadow play inspired by South Indian Bommalattam, has shadows made from the pieces of cow or water buffalo hide cut to represent human figures with movable arms and legs are thrown on a screen for the entertainment of spectators.===== Philippines =====* Filipino epics and chants inspired by the Indian Hindu religious epics Ramayana and Mahabharta.", " Alim and Hudhud Oral traditions of Ifugao of Ifugao people of the Cordillera Administrative Region in Luzon island of Philippines, 11 Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 2001 and formally inscribed as a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2008.See also Hudhud – the Ifugao epic.", " Biag ni Lam-ang () is an epic poem of the Ilocano people from the Ilocos region.", " Ibalong epic of Bikol region of southeast Luzon.", " ''\"Aginid, Bayok sa atong Tawarik\"'', a Bisayan epic of Cebu.", "** Bayok, an epic of Marano people of northwestern Mindanao .", "* Music instrument** Kudyapi, native Filipino guitar of Maranao, Manobo and Maguindanao people, is influenced by the Indian classical music concepts of melody and scale.==== Fusion with traditional music of other nations ====Sometimes, the music of India is fused with the native traditional music of other countries.", "For example, Delhi 2 Dublin, a band based in Canada, is known for fusing Indian and Irish music, and Bhangraton is a fusion of Bhangra music with reggaeton.==== Western world music =========Film music=====Indian film composer A. R. Rahman wrote the music for Andrew Lloyd Webber's ''Bombay Dreams'', and a musical version of ''Hum Aapke Hain Koun'' was staged in London's West End.", "The Bollywood sports film ''Lagaan'' (2001) was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, and two other Bollywood films (2002's ''Devdas'' and 2006's ''Rang De Basanti'') were nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language.Danny Boyle's ''Slumdog Millionaire'' (2008) was inspired by Bollywood films.=====Hip hop and reggae=====Bhangraton is a fusion of Bhangra music with reggaeton, which itself is a fusion of hip hop, reggae, and traditional Latin American music.===== Jazz =====In early 1960s Jazz pioneers such as John Coltrane—who recorded a composition entitled 'India' during the November 1961 sessions for his album ''Live at the Village Vanguard'' (the track was not released until 1963 on Coltrane's album ''Impressions'')—also embraced this fusion.", "George Harrison (of the Beatles) played the sitar on the song \"Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)\" in 1965, which sparked interest from Shankar, who subsequently took Harrison as his apprentice.", "Jazz innovator Miles Davis recorded and performed with musicians like Khalil Balakrishna, Bihari Sharma, and Badal Roy in his post-1968 electric ensembles.", "Virtuoso jazz guitarist John McLaughlin spent several years in Madurai learning Carnatic music and incorporated it into many of his acts including Shakti which featured prominent Indian musicians.", "Other Western artists such as the Grateful Dead, Incredible String Band, the Rolling Stones, the Move and Traffic soon incorporated Indian influences and instruments, and added Indian performers.Legendary Grateful Dead frontman Jerry Garcia joined guitarist Sanjay Mishra on his classic CD \"Blue Incantation\" (1995).", "Mishra also wrote an original score for French Director Eric Heumann for his film ''Port Djema'' (1996) which won best score at Hamptons film festival and The Golden Bear at Berlin.", "in 2000 he recorded ''Rescue'' with drummer Dennis Chambers (Carlos Santana, John McLaughlin et al.)", "and in 2006 Chateau Benares with guests DJ Logic and Keller Williams (guitar and bass).=====Musical film=====Since the early 2000s, Bollywood began influencing musical films in the Western world and was instrumental role in reviving the American musical film.", "Baz Luhrmann said that his musical film, ''Moulin Rouge!''", "(2001), was inspired by Bollywood musicals; the film incorporated a Bollywood-style dance scene with a song from the film ''China Gate''.", "The critical and financial success of ''Moulin Rouge!''", "began a renaissance of Western musical films such as ''Chicago'', ''Rent'', and ''Dreamgirls''.===== Psychedelic and trance music =====Psychedelic trance developed from Goa trance.===== Rock and roll =====In the late 1970s and early 1980s, rock and roll fusions with Indian music were well known throughout Europe and North America.", "Ali Akbar Khan's 1955 performance in the United States was perhaps the beginning of this trend.", "In 1985, a beat-oriented, Raga Rock hybrid called Sitar Power by Ashwin Batish reintroduced sitar in western nations.", "Sitar Power drew the attention of a number of record labels and was snapped up by Shanachie Records of New Jersey to head their World Beat Ethno Pop division.=====Technopop=====The influence of ''filmi'' may be seen in popular music worldwide.", "Technopop pioneers Haruomi Hosono and Ryuichi Sakamoto of the Yellow Magic Orchestra produced a 1978 electronic album, ''Cochin Moon'', based on an experimental fusion of electronic music and Bollywood-inspired Indian music.", "Truth Hurts' 2002 song \"Addictive\", produced by DJ Quik and Dr. Dre, was taken from Lata Mangeshkar's \"Thoda Resham Lagta Hai\" in ''Jyoti'' (1981).", "The Black Eyed Peas' Grammy Award winning 2005 song \"Don't Phunk with My Heart\" was inspired by two 1970s Bollywood songs: \"Ye Mera Dil Yaar Ka Diwana\" from ''Don'' (1978) and \"Ae Nujawan Hai Sub\" from ''Apradh'' (1972).", "Both songs were composed by Kalyanji Anandji, sung by Asha Bhosle, and featured the dancer Helen.=====Western classical music=====Some prominent Indians in Western classical music are: * Andre de Quadros- conductor and music educator, * Zubin Mehta, conductor* Mehli Mehta, father of Zubin, violinist and founding conductor of the Bombay Symphony Orchestra* Anil Srinivasan, pianist* Ilaiyaraaja, the first Indian to compose a full symphony performed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra in London's Walthamstow Town Hall* Naresh Sohal, British Indian-born composer* Param Vir, British Indian-born composer* Beno, Indian-born composer=== Influence on national music scene ===Bollywood has been a significant form of soft power for India, increasing its influence and changing overseas perceptions of India.", "According to author Roopa Swaminathan, \"Bollywood cinema is one of the strongest global cultural ambassadors of a new India.\"", "Its role in expanding India's global influence is comparable to Hollywood's similar role with American influence.==== Africa ====Kishore Kumar is popular in Egypt and Somalia.Hindi films were originally distributed to some parts of Africa by Lebanese businessmen, and ''Mother India'' (1957) continued to be screened in Nigeria decades after its release.", "Indian movies have influenced Hausa clothing, songs have been covered by Hausa singers, and stories have influenced Nigerian novelists.", "Stickers of Indian films and stars decorate taxis and buses in Nigeria's Northern Region, and posters of Indian films hang on the walls of tailoring shops and mechanics' garages.In South Africa, film imports from India were watched by black and Indian audiences.", "Several Bollywood figures have travelled to Africa for films and off-camera projects.", "''Padmashree Laloo Prasad Yadav'' (2005) was filmed in South Africa.", "''Dil Jo Bhi Kahey...'' (2005) was also filmed almost entirely in Mauritius, which has a large ethnic-Indian population.In Egypt, Bollywood films were popular during the 1970s and 1980s.", "Amitabh Bachchan has remained popular in the country and Indian tourists visiting Egypt are asked, \"Do you know Amitabh Bachchan?", "\"==== Americas ========= Caribbean =====Indo-Caribbean music of Indo-Caribbean people in Caribbean is most common in Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Jamaica, and Suriname, which reflects their Bhojpuri heritage.", "Main instrumentation are dhantal, metal rod, clapper, dholak, two-headed barrel drum.", "Women sing Hindu bhajans and folk songs from the music of Bhojpur on various important life events, rituals, celebrations, festivals like phagwah and holi.", "Indo-Caribbean contributions to popular music are very important.", "The most well-known is the Indo-Trinidadian ''chutney music'' tradition.", "Chutney is a form of popular dance music that developed in the mid-to late 20th century.", "Baithak Gana is a similar popular form originating in Suriname.===== Latin America =====There is significant Indian diaspora communities in Suriname and Guyana, Indian music and Hindi-language movies are popular.", "In 2006, ''Dhoom 2'' became the first Bollywood film to be shot in Rio de Janeiro.===== North America =====In the new millennium, American hip-hop has featured Indian filmi and bhangra.", "Mainstream hip-hop artists have sampled songs from Bollywood movies and have collaborated with Indian artists.", "Examples include Timbaland's \"Indian Flute\", Erick Sermon and Redman's \"React\", Slum Village's \"Disco\", and Truth Hurts' hit song \"Addictive\", which sampled a Lata Mangeshkar song, and The Black Eyed Peas sampled Asha Bhosle's song \"Yeh Mera Dil\" in their hit single \"Don't Phunk With My Heart\".", "In 1997, the British band Cornershop paid tribute to Asha Bhosle with their song ''Brimful of Asha'', which became an international hit.", "British-born Indian artist Panjabi MC also had a Bhangra hit in the US with \"Mundian To Bach Ke\" which featured rapper Jay-Z.", "Asian Dub Foundation are not huge mainstream stars, but their politically charged rap and punk rock influenced sound has a multi-racial audience in their native UK.", "In 2008, international star Snoop Dogg appeared in a song in the film Singh Is Kinng.", "In 2007, hip-hop producer Madlib released Beat Konducta Vol 3–4: Beat Konducta in India; an album which heavily samples and is inspired by the music of India.==== Asia ========= South Asia =====Due to shared cultural heritage and language, Indian music and Bollywood films are also popular in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal, where Hindustani is widely understood.===== Southeast Asia =====Already covered in earlier section Ancient influence on Southeast Asian music genre.===== West Asia =====West Asia has large Indian diaspora population, who mainly consume Indian music.", "Indian music is also popular with native middle eastern people.", "85% of Qatar's and 75% of UAE's total population are Indian citizens.", "Hindi films and music have become popular in Arab countries,and imported Indian films are usually subtitled in Arabic when they are released.", "Bollywood has progressed in Israel since the early 2000s, with channels dedicated to Indian films on cable television;==== Europe =========Germany=====In Germany, Indian stereotypes included bullock carts, beggars, sacred cows, corrupt politicians, and catastrophes before Bollywood and the IT industry transformed global perceptions of India.===== UK =====In the late 1980s, Indian-British artists fused Indian and Western traditions to make the Asian Underground.", "Since the 1990s, Canadian born musician Nadaka who has spent most of his life in India, has been creating music that is an acoustic fusion of Indian classical music with western styles.", "One such singer who has merged the Bhakti sangeet tradition of India with the western non-Indian music is Krishna Das and sells music records of his musical sadhana.", "Another example is the Indo-Canadian musician Vandana Vishwas who has experimented with western music in her 2013 album ''Monologues''.In a more recent example of Indian-British fusion, Laura Marling along with Mumford and Sons collaborated in 2010 with the Dharohar Project on a four-song EP.", "The British band Bombay Bicycle Club also sampled the song \"Man Dole Mera Tan Dole\" for their single \"Feel\".", "Laxmikant-Pyarelal==== Oceania ====Due to large Indian diaspora population, Indian music and movies are very popular in Fiji especially among Indo-Fijians.Australia and New Zealand have 2 percent Indian population, as well as other a large South Asian diaspora, and Bollywood music and movies are popular amongst non-Asians in the country as well." ], [ "Organisations promoting Indian music", "Sangeet Natak Akademi is the national level academy for performing arts set up by the Government of India in 1952, which bestows Sangeet Natak Akademi Award as the highest official Indian government's recognition given to practicing artists, It has established several institutions including the Manipur Dance Academy in Imphal, Ravindra Rangshala Centers, Sattriya Centre, Kathak Kendra (National Institute of Kathak Dance) at New Delhi, Centre for Kutiyattam at Thiruvananthapuram, Chhau Centre at Baripada in Jamshedpur, Banaras Music Akademi, Varanasi, and the Northeast Centre." ], [ "See also", "* Indian classical music* Indian classical dance* Indian musical instruments* Indian Music Industry* Military Music Wing* Music of South Asia* List of regional genres of music" ], [ "References", "===Works cited===* ** * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * ** * * * * * * * * * Wade, Bonnie C. (1987).", "''Music in India: the Classical Traditions''.", "New Dehi, India: Manohar, 1987, t.p.", "1994.xix, 1, 252 p., amply ill., including with examples in musical notation.", "Maycock, Robert and Hunt, Ken.", "\"How to Listen - a Routemap of India\".", "2000.In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.", "), ''World Music, Vol.", "2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific'', pp.", "63–69.Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.", "Hunt, Ken.", "\"Ragas and Riches\".", "2000.In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.", "), ''World Music, Vol.", "2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific'', pp.", "70–78.Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.", ".", "\"Hindu music.\"", "(2011).", "Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th Edition, 1.", "Emmie te Nijenhuis (1977), ''A History of Indian Literature: Musicological Literature'', Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, , * Natya Sastra ''Ancient Indian Theory and Practice of Music'' (translated by M. Ghosh)" ], [ "External links", "* BBC Radio 3 Audio (45 minutes): The Nizamuddin shrine in Delhi.", "Accessed 25 November 2010.", "* BBC Radio 3 Audio (45 minutes): A mahfil Sufi gathering in Karachi.", "Accessed 25 November 2010.", "* BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): The Misra brothers perform Vedic chant.", "Accessed 25 November 2010.", "* BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Rikhi Ram and sons, Nizami brothers.", "Accessed 25 November 2010.", "* BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Rajasthan, Bombay and Trilok Gurtu.", "Accessed 25 November 2010.", "* BBC Radio 3 Audio (45 minutes): Gujarat - Praful Dave.", "Accessed 25 November 2010.", "* BBC Radio 3 Audio (45 minutes): Courtesan songs and music of the Bauls.", "Accessed 25 November 2010.", "* BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Music from the Golden Temple of Amritsar.", "Accessed 25 November 2010.", "* Hindustani Rag Sangeet Online – A rare collection of more than 800 audio and video archives from 1902" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "List of Indian musical instruments" ], [ "Introduction", "Lady playing pulluvan veena'''Indian musical instruments''' can be broadly classified according to the Hornbostel–Sachs system into four categories: chordophones (string instruments), aerophones (wind instruments), membranophones (drums) and idiophones (non-drum percussion instruments)." ], [ "[[Chordophones]]", "===Plucked strings===* Arched harp* Bulbul Tarang\t* Dotar, Dotora, or DotaraDhrupad Ektara\t* Getchu Vadyam or Jhallari\t* Gopichand or Gopiyantra or Khamak\t* Gottuvadhyam or Chitravina* Katho \t* Sarod\t* Sitar* Surbahar\t* Surshringar* Swarabat* Swarmandal\t* Tambura* Tritantri Veena* Tumbi* Tuntuna\t* Magadi Veena\t* Hansa Veena* Mohan Veena\t* Nakula Veena\t* Nanduni* Pamiri rubab* Rudra Veena, also called Bīn in North India* Sagar Veena\t* Saraswati Veena\t* Vichitra Veena* Yazh* Ranjan Veena* Mayuri Veena* Rubab (instrument)* Triveni Veena===Bowed strings===Tribal fiddle instruments called \"Dhodro Banam\" used by Santhal people in Eastern India.", "* Chikara\t* Dhantara* Dilruba* Ektara violin\t* Esraj\t* Kamaicha* Kingri (string instrument)\t* Mayuri Vina or Taus\t* Onavillu* Behala (violin type)* Pena (musical instrument)* Pinaka vina* Pulluvan Veena - one stringed violin\t \t* Ravanahatha* Sarangi\t* Classical Sarangi\t* Sarinda\t* Tar Shehnai* Taus* Villu Paatu - arched bow instrument===Other string instruments===* Gethu or Jhallari – struck tanpura* Gubguba or Jamuku (khamak)* Pulluvan kutam* Santoor – Hammered dulcimer" ], [ "[[Aerophones]]", "===Single reed===PepaPungi or BeenSnake charmer playing pungiBansuri player at Mehrangarh Fort at Jodhpur.Indian Harmonium===Double reed===* Kuzhal* Mukhavina\t* Nadaswaram* Shehnai* Sundari* Tangmuri===Flute===* Alghoza – double flute* Bansuri* Venu (Carnatic flute) Pullanguzhal===Bagpipes===MashakTittiSruti upanga===Free reed=== Gogona\t* Morsing===Free reed and bellows===* Shruti box* Harmonium (hand-pumped)===Brass===* Bigul – see Bugle* Ekkalam* Karnal* Kombu (instrument)* Ramsinga* Kahal* Nagfani* Turi* Tutari" ], [ "[[Membranophones]]", "===Hand drums===Learning to play tablaTumbaknaer, drum from Jammu and Kashmir for accompanying devotionalsChenda (top) and Chande (below) are different drumsChande of Yakshagana* Dhad* Damru* Dimadi* Dhol* Dholak* Dholki* Duggi* Ghat singhari or Gada Singari* Ghumot* Gummeta* Kanjira* Khol* Kinpar and Dhopar (Tribal Drums)* Madal* Mardala* Maddale* Maram* Mizhavu* Mridangam* Naal* Pakhavaj* Pakhavaj Jori – Sikh instrument similar to Tabla* Panchamukha vadyam* Pung cholom* Shuddha Madalam or Maddalam* Tabala / Tabl / Chameli – goblet drum* Tabla* Tabla Tarang – set of Tablas* Tamate* Thanthi Panai* Thimila* Tumbak, Tumbaknari, Tumbaknaer* Tumdak'* Udukku===Hand frame drums===* Daf, duf, or dafli – medium or large frame drum without jingles, of Persian origin* Dubki, dimdi or dimri – small frame drum without jingles* Kanjira – small frame drum with one jingle* Kansi – small drum without jingles* Patayani thappu – medium frame drum played with hands===Stick and hand drums===* Chenda* Davul* Dhak* Dhimay* Dhol* Dholi* Dollu* Idakka* Thavil* Udukai* Urumi (drum)===Stick drums===Chennakeshava Temple, 12th century A.D. Goddess playing an hourglass drum, possibly an udukai.", "* Chande* Davul* Kachhi Dhol* Nagara – pair of kettledrums* Pambai – unit of two cylindrical drums* Parai thappu, halgi – frame drum played with two sticks* Sambal* Stick daff or stick duff – daff in a stand played with sticks* Tamak'* Tasha – type of kettledrum* Timki* Urumee" ], [ "Idiophones", "A medieval instrument, labeled ''nagaveena'' (snake veena), is a type of musical scraper.", "* Chigggjha – fire tong with brass jingles* Chengila – metal disc* Eltathalam* Gegvrer – brass vessel* Ghaynti – Northern Indian bell* Ghatam and Matkam (Earthenware pot drum)* Ghunyugroo* Khartal or Chiplya* Manjira or jhanj or taal* Nut – clay pot* Sankarpjlnjang – lithophone* Thali – metal plate* Thattukanvjzhi mannai* Yakshahgana bells===Melodic===Jaltarang* Jal tarang, ceramic bowls with water* Kanch tarang, a type of glass harp* Kashtha tarang, a type of xylophone" ], [ "Hand harmonium", "Dwarkanath Ghose (Dwarkin) modified the French pedal harmonium." ], [ "Electronic", "* Roland HandSonic * Electronic tanpura* Electronic (digital) tabla* Talameter" ], [ "See also", "* Music of India* List of Indian dances" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "IRIX" ], [ "Introduction", "'''IRIX''' ( ) is a discontinued operating system developed by Silicon Graphics (SGI) to run on the company's proprietary MIPS workstations and servers.", "It is based on UNIX System V with BSD extensions.", "In IRIX, SGI originated the XFS file system and the industry-standard OpenGL graphics system." ], [ "History", "SGI originated the IRIX name in the 1988 release 3.0 of the operating system for the SGI IRIS 4D series of workstations and servers.", "Previous releases are identified only by the release number prefixed by \"4D1-\", such as \"4D1-2.2\".", "The \"4D1-\" prefix continued to be used in official documentation to prefix IRIX release numbers.", "Prior to the IRIS 4D, SGI bundled the GL2 operating system, based on UniSoft UniPlus System V Unix, and using the proprietary MEX (Multiple EXposure) windowing system.IRIX 3.x is based on UNIX System V Release 3 with 4.3BSD enhancements, and incorporates the 4Sight windowing system, based on NeWS and IRIS GL.", "SGI's own Extent File System (EFS) replaces the System V filesystem.IRIX 4.0, released in 1991, replaces 4Sight with the X Window System (X11R4), the 4Dwm window manager providing a similar look and feel to 4Sight.IRIX 5.0, released in 1993, incorporates certain features of UNIX System V Release 4, including ELF executables.", "IRIX 5.3 introduced the XFS journaling file system.In 1994, IRIX 6.0 added support for the 64-bit MIPS R8000 processor, but is otherwise similar to IRIX 5.2.Later 6.x releases support other members of the MIPS processor family in 64-bit mode.", "IRIX 6.3 was released for the SGI O2 workstation only.", "IRIX 6.4 improved multiprocessor scalability for the Octane, Origin 2000, and Onyx2 systems.", "The Origin 2000 and Onyx2 IRIX 6.4 was marketed as \"Cellular IRIX\", although it only incorporates some features from the original Cellular IRIX distributed operating system project.The last major version of IRIX is 6.5, released in May 1998.New minor versions of IRIX 6.5 were released every quarter until 2005, and then four minor releases.", "Through version 6.5.22, there are two branches of each release: a maintenance release (identified by an \"m\" suffix) that includes only fixes to the original IRIX 6.5 code, and a feature release (with an \"f\" suffix) that includes improvements and enhancements.", "An overlay upgrade from 6.5.x to the 6.5.22 maintenance release was available as a free download, whereas versions 6.5.23 and higher required an active Silicon Graphics support contract.A 2001 ''Computerworld'' review found IRIX in a \"critical\" state.", "SGI had been moving its efforts to Linux and the Windows-based SGI Visual Workstation but MIPS and IRIX customers convinced SGI to continue to support its platform through 2006.On September 6, 2006, an SGI press release announced the end of the MIPS and IRIX product lines.", "Production ended on December 29, 2006, with final deliveries in March 2007, except by special arrangement.", "Support for these products ended in December 2013 and they will receive no further updates.Much of IRIX's core technology has been open sourced and ported by SGI to Linux, including XFS.In 2009, SGI filed bankruptcy and then was purchased by Rackable Systems, which was later purchased by Hewlett Packard Enterprise in 2016.All SGI hardware produced after 2007 is based on either IA-64 or x86-64 architecture, so it is incapable of running IRIX and is instead intended for Red Hat Enterprise Linux or SUSE Linux Enterprise Server.", "HPE has not stated any plans for IRIX development or source code release." ], [ "Features", "IRIX 6.5 is compliant with UNIX System V Release 4, UNIX 95, and POSIX (including 1e/2c draft 15 ACLs and Capabilities).In the early 1990s, IRIX was a leader in Symmetric Multi-Processing (SMP), scalable from 1 to more than 1024 processors with a single system image.", "IRIX has strong support for real-time disk and graphics I/O.", "IRIX was widely used for the 1990s and 2000s in the computer animation and scientific visualization industries, due to its large application base and high performance.", "It still is relevant in a few legacy applications.IRIX is one of the first Unix versions to feature a graphical user interface for the main desktop environment.", "IRIX Interactive Desktop uses the 4Dwm X window manager with a custom look designed using the Motif widget toolkit.", "IRIX is the originator of the industry standard OpenGL for graphics chips and image processing libraries.IRIX uses the MIPSPro compiler for both its front end and back end.", "The compiler, also known in earlier versions as IDO (IRIS Development Option) was released in many versions, many of which are coupled to the OS version.", "The last version was 7.4.4m, designed for 6.5.19 or later.", "The compiler is designed to support parallel POSIX programming in C/C++, Fortran 77/90, and Ada.", "The Workshop GUI IDE is used for development.", "Other tools include Speedshop for performance tuning, and Performance Co-Pilot." ], [ "See also", "* IRIX software* Silicon Graphics Image format about .iris" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Technical Publications Mirror* Silicon Bunny - IRIX software and information* IRIX Network - IRIX software, information, forums, and archive* IRIX Admin: Backup, Security, and Accounting Document Number: 007-2862-004 February 1999* Silicon Graphics User Group" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Internet" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Internet''' (or '''internet''') is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices.", "It is a ''network of networks'' that consists of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies.", "The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services, such as the interlinked hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail, telephony, and file sharing.The origins of the Internet date back to research to enable time-sharing of computer resources and the development of packet switching in the 1960s.", "The set of rules (communication protocols) to enable internetworking on the Internet arose from research and development commissioned in the 1970s by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) of the United States Department of Defense in collaboration with universities and researchers across the United States and in the United Kingdom and France.", "The ARPANET initially served as a backbone for the interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the United States to enable resource sharing.", "The funding of the National Science Foundation Network as a new backbone in the 1980s, as well as private funding for other commercial extensions, encouraged worldwide participation in the development of new networking technologies and the merger of many networks using DARPA's Internet protocol suite.", "The linking of commercial networks and enterprises by the early 1990s, as well as the advent of the World Wide Web, marked the beginning of the transition to the modern Internet, and generated a sustained exponential growth as generations of institutional, personal, and mobile computers were connected to the network.", "Although the Internet was widely used by academia in the 1980s, subsequent commercialization is what incorporated its services and technologies into virtually every aspect of modern life.Most traditional communication media, including telephone, radio, television, paper mail, and newspapers, are reshaped, redefined, or even bypassed by the Internet, giving birth to new services such as email, Internet telephone, Internet television, online music, digital newspapers, and video streaming websites.", "Newspaper, book, and other print publishing have adapted to website technology or have been reshaped into blogging, web feeds, and online news aggregators.", "The Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interaction through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking services.", "Online shopping has grown exponentially for major retailers, small businesses, and entrepreneurs, as it enables firms to extend their \"brick and mortar\" presence to serve a larger market or even sell goods and services entirely online.", "Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries.The Internet has no single centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage; each constituent network sets its own policies.", "The overarching definitions of the two principal name spaces on the Internet, the Internet Protocol address (IP address) space and the Domain Name System (DNS), are directed by a maintainer organization, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN).", "The technical underpinning and standardization of the core protocols is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that anyone may associate with by contributing technical expertise.", "In November 2006, the Internet was included on ''USA Today''s list of the New Seven Wonders." ], [ "Terminology", "The word ''internetted'' was used as early as 1849, meaning ''interconnected'' or ''interwoven''.", "The word ''Internet'' was used in 1945 by the United States War Department in a radio operator's manual, and in 1974 as the shorthand form of Internetwork.", "Today, the term ''Internet'' most commonly refers to the global system of interconnected computer networks, though it may also refer to any group of smaller networks.When it came into common use, most publications treated the word ''Internet'' as a capitalized proper noun; this has become less common.", "This reflects the tendency in English to capitalize new terms and move them to lowercase as they become familiar.", "The word is sometimes still capitalized to distinguish the global internet from smaller networks, though many publications, including the ''AP Stylebook'' since 2016, recommend the lowercase form in every case.", "In 2016, the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' found that, based on a study of around 2.5 billion printed and online sources, \"Internet\" was capitalized in 54% of cases.The terms ''Internet'' and ''World Wide Web'' are often used interchangeably; it is common to speak of \"going on the Internet\" when using a web browser to view web pages.", "However, the World Wide Web, or ''the Web'', is only one of a large number of Internet services, a collection of documents (web pages) and other web resources linked by hyperlinks and URLs." ], [ "History", "In the 1960s, computer scientists began developing systems for time-sharing of computer resources.", "J. C. R. Licklider proposed the idea of a universal network while working at Bolt Beranek & Newman and, later, leading the Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) at the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the United States Department of Defense (DoD).", "Research into packet switching, one of the fundamental Internet technologies, started in the work of Paul Baran in the early 1960s and, independently, Donald Davies in 1965.After the Symposium on Operating Systems Principles in 1967, packet switching from the proposed NPL network was incorporated into the design of the ARPANET, an experimental resource sharing network proposed by ARPA.ARPANET development began with two network nodes which were interconnected between the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and SRI International (SRI) on 29 October 1969.The third site was at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah.", "In a sign of future growth, 15 sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971.These early years were documented in the 1972 film ''Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing''.", "Thereafter, the ARPANET gradually developed into a decentralized communications network, connecting remote centers and military bases in the United States.", "Other user networks and research networks, such as the Merit Network and CYCLADES, were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s.Early international collaborations for the ARPANET were rare.", "Connections were made in 1973 to the Norwegian Seismic Array (NORSAR), and to Peter Kirstein's research group at University College London, which provided a gateway to British academic networks, forming the first internetwork for resource sharing.", "ARPA projects, international working groups and commercial initiatives led to the development of various protocols and standards by which multiple separate networks could become a single network or \"a network of networks\".", "In 1974, Vint Cerf at Stanford University and Bob Kahn at DARPA published a proposal for \"A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication\".", "They used the term ''internet'' as a shorthand for ''internetwork'' in '''', and later RFCs repeated this use.", "Cerf and Kahn credit Louis Pouzin with important influences on the resulting TCP/IP design.", "National PTTs and commercial providers developed the X.25 standard and deployed it on public data networks.Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation (NSF) funded the Computer Science Network (CSNET).", "In 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.", "TCP/IP network access expanded again in 1986 when the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNet) provided access to supercomputer sites in the United States for researchers, first at speeds of 56 kbit/s and later at 1.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s.", "The NSFNet expanded into academic and research organizations in Europe, Australia, New Zealand and Japan in 1988–89.Although other network protocols such as UUCP and PTT public data networks had global reach well before this time, this marked the beginning of the Internet as an intercontinental network.", "Commercial Internet service providers (ISPs) emerged in 1989 in the United States and Australia.", "The ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990.T3 NSFNET Backbone, Steady advances in semiconductor technology and optical networking created new economic opportunities for commercial involvement in the expansion of the network in its core and for delivering services to the public.", "In mid-1989, MCI Mail and Compuserve established connections to the Internet, delivering email and public access products to the half million users of the Internet.", "Just months later, on 1 January 1990, PSInet launched an alternate Internet backbone for commercial use; one of the networks that added to the core of the commercial Internet of later years.", "In March 1990, the first high-speed T1 (1.5 Mbit/s) link between the NSFNET and Europe was installed between Cornell University and CERN, allowing much more robust communications than were capable with satellites.", "Six months later Tim Berners-Lee would begin writing WorldWideWeb, the first web browser, after two years of lobbying CERN management.", "By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the tools necessary for a working Web: the HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) 0.9, the HyperText Markup Language (HTML), the first Web browser (which was also an HTML editor and could access Usenet newsgroups and FTP files), the first HTTP server software (later known as CERN httpd), the first web server, and the first Web pages that described the project itself.", "In 1991 the Commercial Internet eXchange was founded, allowing PSInet to communicate with the other commercial networks CERFnet and Alternet.", "Stanford Federal Credit Union was the first financial institution to offer online Internet banking services to all of its members in October 1994.In 1996, OP Financial Group, also a cooperative bank, became the second online bank in the world and the first in Europe.", "By 1995, the Internet was fully commercialized in the U.S. when the NSFNet was decommissioned, removing the last restrictions on use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic.As technology advanced and commercial opportunities fueled reciprocal growth, the volume of Internet traffic started experiencing similar characteristics as that of the scaling of MOS transistors, exemplified by Moore's law, doubling every 18 months.", "This growth, formalized as Edholm's law, was catalyzed by advances in MOS technology, laser light wave systems, and noise performance.Since 1995, the Internet has tremendously impacted culture and commerce, including the rise of near-instant communication by email, instant messaging, telephony (Voice over Internet Protocol or VoIP), two-way interactive video calls, and the World Wide Web with its discussion forums, blogs, social networking services, and online shopping sites.", "Increasing amounts of data are transmitted at higher and higher speeds over fiber optic networks operating at 1 Gbit/s, 10 Gbit/s, or more.", "The Internet continues to grow, driven by ever-greater amounts of online information and knowledge, commerce, entertainment and social networking services.", "During the late 1990s, it was estimated that traffic on the public Internet grew by 100 percent per year, while the mean annual growth in the number of Internet users was thought to be between 20% and 50%.", "This growth is often attributed to the lack of central administration, which allows organic growth of the network, as well as the non-proprietary nature of the Internet protocols, which encourages vendor interoperability and prevents any one company from exerting too much control over the network.", ", the estimated total number of Internet users was 2.095 billion (30% of world population).", "It is estimated that in 1993 the Internet carried only 1% of the information flowing through two-way telecommunication.", "By 2000 this figure had grown to 51%, and by 2007 more than 97% of all telecommunicated information was carried over the Internet." ], [ "Governance", "Playa Vista neighborhood of Los Angeles, California, United StatesThe Internet is a global network that comprises many voluntarily interconnected autonomous networks.", "It operates without a central governing body.", "The technical underpinning and standardization of the core protocols (IPv4 and IPv6) is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that anyone may associate with by contributing technical expertise.", "To maintain interoperability, the principal name spaces of the Internet are administered by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN).", "ICANN is governed by an international board of directors drawn from across the Internet technical, business, academic, and other non-commercial communities.", "ICANN coordinates the assignment of unique identifiers for use on the Internet, including domain names, IP addresses, application port numbers in the transport protocols, and many other parameters.", "Globally unified name spaces are essential for maintaining the global reach of the Internet.", "This role of ICANN distinguishes it as perhaps the only central coordinating body for the global Internet.Regional Internet registries (RIRs) were established for five regions of the world.", "The African Network Information Center (AfriNIC) for Africa, the American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) for North America, the Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC) for Asia and the Pacific region, the Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry (LACNIC) for Latin America and the Caribbean region, and the Réseaux IP Européens – Network Coordination Centre (RIPE NCC) for Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia were delegated to assign IP address blocks and other Internet parameters to local registries, such as Internet service providers, from a designated pool of addresses set aside for each region.The National Telecommunications and Information Administration, an agency of the United States Department of Commerce, had final approval over changes to the DNS root zone until the IANA stewardship transition on 1 October 2016.The Internet Society (ISOC) was founded in 1992 with a mission to ''\"assure the open development, evolution and use of the Internet for the benefit of all people throughout the world\"''.", "Its members include individuals (anyone may join) as well as corporations, organizations, governments, and universities.", "Among other activities ISOC provides an administrative home for a number of less formally organized groups that are involved in developing and managing the Internet, including: the IETF, Internet Architecture Board (IAB), Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG), Internet Research Task Force (IRTF), and Internet Research Steering Group (IRSG).", "On 16 November 2005, the United Nations-sponsored World Summit on the Information Society in Tunis established the Internet Governance Forum (IGF) to discuss Internet-related issues." ], [ "Infrastructure", "2007 map showing submarine fiberoptic telecommunication cables around the worldThe communications infrastructure of the Internet consists of its hardware components and a system of software layers that control various aspects of the architecture.", "As with any computer network, the Internet physically consists of routers, media (such as cabling and radio links), repeaters, modems etc.", "However, as an example of internetworking, many of the network nodes are not necessarily Internet equipment per se, the internet packets are carried by other full-fledged networking protocols with the Internet acting as a homogeneous networking standard, running across heterogeneous hardware, with the packets guided to their destinations by IP routers.=== Service tiers ===Packet routing across the Internet involves several tiers of Internet service providers.Internet service providers (ISPs) establish the worldwide connectivity between individual networks at various levels of scope.", "End-users who only access the Internet when needed to perform a function or obtain information, represent the bottom of the routing hierarchy.", "At the top of the routing hierarchy are the tier 1 networks, large telecommunication companies that exchange traffic directly with each other via very high speed fiber-optic cables and governed by peering agreements.", "Tier 2 and lower-level networks buy Internet transit from other providers to reach at least some parties on the global Internet, though they may also engage in peering.", "An ISP may use a single upstream provider for connectivity, or implement multihoming to achieve redundancy and load balancing.", "Internet exchange points are major traffic exchanges with physical connections to multiple ISPs.", "Large organizations, such as academic institutions, large enterprises, and governments, may perform the same function as ISPs, engaging in peering and purchasing transit on behalf of their internal networks.", "Research networks tend to interconnect with large subnetworks such as GEANT, GLORIAD, Internet2, and the UK's national research and education network, JANET.=== Access ===Common methods of Internet access by users include dial-up with a computer modem via telephone circuits, broadband over coaxial cable, fiber optics or copper wires, Wi-Fi, satellite, and cellular telephone technology (e.g.", "3G, 4G).", "The Internet may often be accessed from computers in libraries and Internet cafés.", "Internet access points exist in many public places such as airport halls and coffee shops.", "Various terms are used, such as ''public Internet kiosk'', ''public access terminal'', and ''Web payphone''.", "Many hotels also have public terminals that are usually fee-based.", "These terminals are widely accessed for various usages, such as ticket booking, bank deposit, or online payment.", "Wi-Fi provides wireless access to the Internet via local computer networks.", "Hotspots providing such access include Wi-Fi cafés, where users need to bring their own wireless devices, such as a laptop or PDA.", "These services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee-based.Grassroots efforts have led to wireless community networks.", "Commercial Wi-Fi services that cover large areas are available in many cities, such as New York, London, Vienna, Toronto, San Francisco, Philadelphia, Chicago and Pittsburgh, where the Internet can then be accessed from places such as a park bench.", "Experiments have also been conducted with proprietary mobile wireless networks like Ricochet, various high-speed data services over cellular networks, and fixed wireless services.", "Modern smartphones can also access the Internet through the cellular carrier network.", "For Web browsing, these devices provide applications such as Google Chrome, Safari, and Firefox and a wide variety of other Internet software may be installed from app stores.", "Internet usage by mobile and tablet devices exceeded desktop worldwide for the first time in October 2016.====Mobile communication====Number of mobile cellular subscriptions 2012–2016 The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) estimated that, by the end of 2017, 48% of individual users regularly connect to the Internet, up from 34% in 2012.Mobile Internet connectivity has played an important role in expanding access in recent years, especially in Asia and the Pacific and in Africa.", "The number of unique mobile cellular subscriptions increased from 3.9 billion in 2012 to 4.8 billion in 2016, two-thirds of the world's population, with more than half of subscriptions located in Asia and the Pacific.", "The number of subscriptions was predicted to rise to 5.7 billion users in 2020., 80% of the world's population were covered by a 4G network.", "The limits that users face on accessing information via mobile applications coincide with a broader process of fragmentation of the Internet.", "Fragmentation restricts access to media content and tends to affect the poorest users the most.Zero-rating, the practice of Internet service providers allowing users free connectivity to access specific content or applications without cost, has offered opportunities to surmount economic hurdles but has also been accused by its critics as creating a two-tiered Internet.", "To address the issues with zero-rating, an alternative model has emerged in the concept of 'equal rating' and is being tested in experiments by Mozilla and Orange in Africa.", "Equal rating prevents prioritization of one type of content and zero-rates all content up to a specified data cap.", "In a study published by Chatham House, 15 out of 19 countries researched in Latin America had some kind of hybrid or zero-rated product offered.", "Some countries in the region had a handful of plans to choose from (across all mobile network operators) while others, such as Colombia, offered as many as 30 pre-paid and 34 post-paid plans.A study of eight countries in the Global South found that zero-rated data plans exist in every country, although there is a great range in the frequency with which they are offered and actually used in each.", "The study looked at the top three to five carriers by market share in Bangladesh, Colombia, Ghana, India, Kenya, Nigeria, Peru and Philippines.", "Across the 181 plans examined, 13 percent were offering zero-rated services.", "Another study, covering Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa, found Facebook's Free Basics and Wikipedia Zero to be the most commonly zero-rated content." ], [ "Internet Protocol Suite", "The Internet standards describe a framework known as the Internet protocol suite (also called TCP/IP, based on the first two components.)", "This is a suite of protocols that are ordered into a set of four conceptional layers by the scope of their operation, originally documented in and .", "At the top is the application layer, where communication is described in terms of the objects or data structures most appropriate for each application.", "For example, a web browser operates in a client–server application model and exchanges information with the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and an application-germane data structure, such as the HyperText Markup Language (HTML).Below this top layer, the transport layer connects applications on different hosts with a logical channel through the network.", "It provides this service with a variety of possible characteristics, such as ordered, reliable delivery (TCP), and an unreliable datagram service (UDP).Underlying these layers are the networking technologies that interconnect networks at their borders and exchange traffic across them.", "The Internet layer implements the Internet Protocol (IP) which enables computers to identify and locate each other by IP address and route their traffic via intermediate (transit) networks.", "The Internet Protocol layer code is independent of the type of network that it is physically running over.At the bottom of the architecture is the link layer, which connects nodes on the same physical link, and contains protocols that do not require routers for traversal to other links.", "The protocol suite does not explicitly specify hardware methods to transfer bits, or protocols to manage such hardware, but assumes that appropriate technology is available.", "Examples of that technology include Wi-Fi, Ethernet, and DSL.As user data is processed through the protocol stack, each abstraction layer adds encapsulation information at the sending host.", "Data is transmitted ''over the wire'' at the link level between hosts and routers.", "Encapsulation is removed by the receiving host.", "Intermediate relays update link encapsulation at each hop, and inspect the IP layer for routing purposes.===Internet protocol===Conceptual data flow in a simple network topology of two hosts (''A'' and ''B'') connected by a link between their respective routers.", "The application on each host executes read and write operations as if the processes were directly connected to each other by some kind of data pipe.", "After the establishment of this pipe, most details of the communication are hidden from each process, as the underlying principles of communication are implemented in the lower protocol layers.", "In analogy, at the transport layer the communication appears as host-to-host, without knowledge of the application data structures and the connecting routers, while at the internetworking layer, individual network boundaries are traversed at each router.The most prominent component of the Internet model is the Internet Protocol (IP).", "IP enables internetworking and, in essence, establishes the Internet itself.", "Two versions of the Internet Protocol exist, IPv4 and IPv6.====IP Addresses====A DNS resolver consults three name servers to resolve the domain name user-visible \"www.wikipedia.org\" to determine the IPv4 Address 207.142.131.234.For locating individual computers on the network, the Internet provides IP addresses.", "IP addresses are used by the Internet infrastructure to direct internet packets to their destinations.", "They consist of fixed-length numbers, which are found within the packet.", "IP addresses are generally assigned to equipment either automatically via DHCP, or are configured.However, the network also supports other addressing systems.", "Users generally enter domain names (e.g.", "\"en.wikipedia.org\") instead of IP addresses because they are easier to remember; they are converted by the Domain Name System (DNS) into IP addresses which are more efficient for routing purposes.====IPv4====Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit number.", "IPv4 is the initial version used on the first generation of the Internet and is still in dominant use.", "It was designed to address up to ≈4.3 billion (109) hosts.", "However, the explosive growth of the Internet has led to IPv4 address exhaustion, which entered its final stage in 2011, when the global IPv4 address allocation pool was exhausted.====IPv6====Because of the growth of the Internet and the depletion of available IPv4 addresses, a new version of IP IPv6, was developed in the mid-1990s, which provides vastly larger addressing capabilities and more efficient routing of Internet traffic.", "IPv6 uses 128 bits for the IP address and was standardized in 1998.IPv6 deployment has been ongoing since the mid-2000s and is currently in growing deployment around the world, since Internet address registries (RIRs) began to urge all resource managers to plan rapid adoption and conversion.IPv6 is not directly interoperable by design with IPv4.In essence, it establishes a parallel version of the Internet not directly accessible with IPv4 software.", "Thus, translation facilities must exist for internetworking or nodes must have duplicate networking software for both networks.", "Essentially all modern computer operating systems support both versions of the Internet Protocol.", "Network infrastructure, however, has been lagging in this development.", "Aside from the complex array of physical connections that make up its infrastructure, the Internet is facilitated by bi- or multi-lateral commercial contracts, e.g., peering agreements, and by technical specifications or protocols that describe the exchange of data over the network.", "Indeed, the Internet is defined by its interconnections and routing policies.====Subnetwork====Creating a subnet by dividing the host identifierA ''subnetwork'' or ''subnet'' is a logical subdivision of an IP network.", "The practice of dividing a network into two or more networks is called ''subnetting''.Computers that belong to a subnet are addressed with an identical most-significant bit-group in their IP addresses.", "This results in the logical division of an IP address into two fields, the ''network number'' or ''routing prefix'' and the ''rest field'' or ''host identifier''.", "The ''rest field'' is an identifier for a specific host or network interface.The ''routing prefix'' may be expressed in Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) notation written as the first address of a network, followed by a slash character (''/''), and ending with the bit-length of the prefix.", "For example, is the prefix of the Internet Protocol version 4 network starting at the given address, having 24 bits allocated for the network prefix, and the remaining 8 bits reserved for host addressing.", "Addresses in the range to belong to this network.", "The IPv6 address specification is a large address block with 296 addresses, having a 32-bit routing prefix.For IPv4, a network may also be characterized by its ''subnet mask'' or ''netmask'', which is the bitmask that when applied by a bitwise AND operation to any IP address in the network, yields the routing prefix.", "Subnet masks are also expressed in dot-decimal notation like an address.", "For example, is the subnet mask for the prefix .Traffic is exchanged between subnetworks through routers when the routing prefixes of the source address and the destination address differ.", "A router serves as a logical or physical boundary between the subnets.The benefits of subnetting an existing network vary with each deployment scenario.", "In the address allocation architecture of the Internet using CIDR and in large organizations, it is necessary to allocate address space efficiently.", "Subnetting may also enhance routing efficiency or have advantages in network management when subnetworks are administratively controlled by different entities in a larger organization.", "Subnets may be arranged logically in a hierarchical architecture, partitioning an organization's network address space into a tree-like routing structure.====Routing====Computers and routers use routing tables in their operating system to direct IP packets to reach a node on a different subnetwork.", "Routing tables are maintained by manual configuration or automatically by routing protocols.", "End-nodes typically use a default route that points toward an ISP providing transit, while ISP routers use the Border Gateway Protocol to establish the most efficient routing across the complex connections of the global Internet.", "The default gateway is the node that serves as the forwarding host (router) to other networks when no other route specification matches the destination IP address of a packet.===IETF===While the hardware components in the Internet infrastructure can often be used to support other software systems, it is the design and the standardization process of the software that characterizes the Internet and provides the foundation for its scalability and success.", "The responsibility for the architectural design of the Internet software systems has been assumed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).", "The IETF conducts standard-setting work groups, open to any individual, about the various aspects of Internet architecture.", "The resulting contributions and standards are published as ''Request for Comments'' (RFC) documents on the IETF web site.", "The principal methods of networking that enable the Internet are contained in specially designated RFCs that constitute the Internet Standards.", "Other less rigorous documents are simply informative, experimental, or historical, or document the best current practices (BCP) when implementing Internet technologies." ], [ "Applications and services", "The Internet carries many applications and services, most prominently the World Wide Web, including social media, electronic mail, mobile applications, multiplayer online games, Internet telephony, file sharing, and streaming media services.Most servers that provide these services are today hosted in data centers, and content is often accessed through high-performance content delivery networks.=== World Wide Web ===This NeXT Computer was used by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN and became the world's first Web server.The World Wide Web is a global collection of documents, images, multimedia, applications, and other resources, logically interrelated by hyperlinks and referenced with Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs), which provide a global system of named references.", "URIs symbolically identify services, web servers, databases, and the documents and resources that they can provide.", "Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the main access protocol of the World Wide Web.", "Web services also use HTTP for communication between software systems for information transfer, sharing and exchanging business data and logistics and is one of many languages or protocols that can be used for communication on the Internet.World Wide Web browser software, such as Microsoft's Internet Explorer/Edge, Mozilla Firefox, Opera, Apple's Safari, and Google Chrome, enable users to navigate from one web page to another via the hyperlinks embedded in the documents.", "These documents may also contain any combination of computer data, including graphics, sounds, text, video, multimedia and interactive content that runs while the user is interacting with the page.", "Client-side software can include animations, games, office applications and scientific demonstrations.", "Through keyword-driven Internet research using search engines like Yahoo!, Bing and Google, users worldwide have easy, instant access to a vast and diverse amount of online information.", "Compared to printed media, books, encyclopedias and traditional libraries, the World Wide Web has enabled the decentralization of information on a large scale.The Web has enabled individuals and organizations to publish ideas and information to a potentially large audience online at greatly reduced expense and time delay.", "Publishing a web page, a blog, or building a website involves little initial cost and many cost-free services are available.", "However, publishing and maintaining large, professional web sites with attractive, diverse and up-to-date information is still a difficult and expensive proposition.", "Many individuals and some companies and groups use ''web logs'' or blogs, which are largely used as easily updatable online diaries.", "Some commercial organizations encourage staff to communicate advice in their areas of specialization in the hope that visitors will be impressed by the expert knowledge and free information and be attracted to the corporation as a result.Advertising on popular web pages can be lucrative, and e-commerce, which is the sale of products and services directly via the Web, continues to grow.", "Online advertising is a form of marketing and advertising which uses the Internet to deliver promotional marketing messages to consumers.", "It includes email marketing, search engine marketing (SEM), social media marketing, many types of display advertising (including web banner advertising), and mobile advertising.", "In 2011, Internet advertising revenues in the United States surpassed those of cable television and nearly exceeded those of broadcast television.", "Many common online advertising practices are controversial and increasingly subject to regulation.When the Web developed in the 1990s, a typical web page was stored in completed form on a web server, formatted in HTML, ready for transmission to a web browser in response to a request.", "Over time, the process of creating and serving web pages has become dynamic, creating a flexible design, layout, and content.", "Websites are often created using content management software with, initially, very little content.", "Contributors to these systems, who may be paid staff, members of an organization or the public, fill underlying databases with content using editing pages designed for that purpose while casual visitors view and read this content in HTML form.", "There may or may not be editorial, approval and security systems built into the process of taking newly entered content and making it available to the target visitors.=== Communication ===Email is an important communications service available via the Internet.", "The concept of sending electronic text messages between parties, analogous to mailing letters or memos, predates the creation of the Internet.", "Pictures, documents, and other files are sent as email attachments.", "Email messages can be cc-ed to multiple email addresses.Internet telephony is a common communications service realized with the Internet.", "The name of the principal internetworking protocol, the Internet Protocol, lends its name to voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP).", "The idea began in the early 1990s with walkie-talkie-like voice applications for personal computers.", "VoIP systems now dominate many markets and are as easy to use and as convenient as a traditional telephone.", "The benefit has been substantial cost savings over traditional telephone calls, especially over long distances.", "Cable, ADSL, and mobile data networks provide Internet access in customer premises and inexpensive VoIP network adapters provide the connection for traditional analog telephone sets.", "The voice quality of VoIP often exceeds that of traditional calls.", "Remaining problems for VoIP include the situation that emergency services may not be universally available and that devices rely on a local power supply, while older traditional phones are powered from the local loop, and typically operate during a power failure.=== Data transfer ===File sharing is an example of transferring large amounts of data across the Internet.", "A computer file can be emailed to customers, colleagues and friends as an attachment.", "It can be uploaded to a website or File Transfer Protocol (FTP) server for easy download by others.", "It can be put into a \"shared location\" or onto a file server for instant use by colleagues.", "The load of bulk downloads to many users can be eased by the use of \"mirror\" servers or peer-to-peer networks.", "In any of these cases, access to the file may be controlled by user authentication, the transit of the file over the Internet may be obscured by encryption, and money may change hands for access to the file.", "The price can be paid by the remote charging of funds from, for example, a credit card whose details are also passed—usually fully encrypted—across the Internet.", "The origin and authenticity of the file received may be checked by digital signatures or by MD5 or other message digests.", "These simple features of the Internet, over a worldwide basis, are changing the production, sale, and distribution of anything that can be reduced to a computer file for transmission.", "This includes all manner of print publications, software products, news, music, film, video, photography, graphics and the other arts.", "This in turn has caused seismic shifts in each of the existing industries that previously controlled the production and distribution of these products.Streaming media is the real-time delivery of digital media for immediate consumption or enjoyment by end users.", "Many radio and television broadcasters provide Internet feeds of their live audio and video productions.", "They may also allow time-shift viewing or listening such as Preview, Classic Clips and Listen Again features.", "These providers have been joined by a range of pure Internet \"broadcasters\" who never had on-air licenses.", "This means that an Internet-connected device, such as a computer or something more specific, can be used to access online media in much the same way as was previously possible only with a television or radio receiver.", "The range of available types of content is much wider, from specialized technical webcasts to on-demand popular multimedia services.", "Podcasting is a variation on this theme, where—usually audio—material is downloaded and played back on a computer or shifted to a portable media player to be listened to on the move.", "These techniques using simple equipment allow anybody, with little censorship or licensing control, to broadcast audio-visual material worldwide.Digital media streaming increases the demand for network bandwidth.", "For example, standard image quality needs 1 Mbit/s link speed for SD 480p, HD 720p quality requires 2.5 Mbit/s, and the top-of-the-line HDX quality needs 4.5 Mbit/s for 1080p.Webcams are a low-cost extension of this phenomenon.", "While some webcams can give full-frame-rate video, the picture either is usually small or updates slowly.", "Internet users can watch animals around an African waterhole, ships in the Panama Canal, traffic at a local roundabout or monitor their own premises, live and in real time.", "Video chat rooms and video conferencing are also popular with many uses being found for personal webcams, with and without two-way sound.", "YouTube was founded on 15 February 2005 and is now the leading website for free streaming video with more than two billion users.", "It uses an HTML5 based web player by default to stream and show video files.", "Registered users may upload an unlimited amount of video and build their own personal profile.", "YouTube claims that its users watch hundreds of millions, and upload hundreds of thousands of videos daily." ], [ "Social impact", "The Internet has enabled new forms of social interaction, activities, and social associations.", "This phenomenon has given rise to the scholarly study of the sociology of the Internet.The early Internet left an impact on some writers who used symbolism to write about it, such as describing the Internet as a \"means to connect individuals in a vast invisible net over all the earth.", "\"=== Users ===Source data.", "Internet users per 100 population members and GDP per capita for selected countries'''Internet users per 100 inhabitants'''Source: International Telecommunication Union.Between 2000 and 2009, the number of Internet users globally rose from 390 million to 1.9 billion.", "By 2010, 22% of the world's population had access to computers with 1 billion Google searches every day, 300 million Internet users reading blogs, and 2 billion videos viewed daily on YouTube.", "In 2014 the world's Internet users surpassed 3 billion or 44 percent of world population, but two-thirds came from the richest countries, with 78 percent of Europeans using the Internet, followed by 57 percent of the Americas.", "However, by 2018, Asia alone accounted for 51% of all Internet users, with 2.2 billion out of the 4.3 billion Internet users in the world.", "China's Internet users surpassed a major milestone in 2018, when the country's Internet regulatory authority, China Internet Network Information Centre, announced that China had 802 million users.", "China was followed by India, with some 700 million users, with the United States third with 275 million users.", "However, in terms of penetration, in 2022 China had a 70% penetration rate compared to India's 60% and the United States's 90%.", "In 2022, 54% of the world's Internet users were based in Asia, 14% in Europe, 7% in North America, 10% in Latin America and the Caribbean, 11% in Africa, 4% in the Middle East and 1% in Oceania.", "In 2019, Kuwait, Qatar, the Falkland Islands, Bermuda and Iceland had the highest Internet penetration by the number of users, with 93% or more of the population with access.", "As of 2022, it was estimated that 5.4 billion people use the Internet, more than two-thirds of the world's population.The prevalent language for communication via the Internet has always been English.", "This may be a result of the origin of the Internet, as well as the language's role as a lingua franca and as a world language.", "Early computer systems were limited to the characters in the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), a subset of the Latin alphabet.", "After English (27%), the most requested languages on the World Wide Web are Chinese (25%), Spanish (8%), Japanese (5%), Portuguese and German (4% each), Arabic, French and Russian (3% each), and Korean (2%).", "The Internet's technologies have developed enough in recent years, especially in the use of Unicode, that good facilities are available for development and communication in the world's widely used languages.", "However, some glitches such as ''mojibake'' (incorrect display of some languages' characters) still remain.In a US study in 2005, the percentage of men using the Internet was very slightly ahead of the percentage of women, although this difference reversed in those under 30.Men logged on more often, spent more time online, and were more likely to be broadband users, whereas women tended to make more use of opportunities to communicate (such as email).", "Men were more likely to use the Internet to pay bills, participate in auctions, and for recreation such as downloading music and videos.", "Men and women were equally likely to use the Internet for shopping and banking.", "In 2008, women significantly outnumbered men on most social networking services, such as Facebook and Myspace, although the ratios varied with age.", "Women watched more streaming content, whereas men downloaded more.", "Men were more likely to blog.", "Among those who blog, men were more likely to have a professional blog, whereas women were more likely to have a personal blog.Several neologisms exist that refer to Internet users: Netizen (as in \"citizen of the net\") refers to those actively involved in improving online communities, the Internet in general or surrounding political affairs and rights such as free speech, Internaut refers to operators or technically highly capable users of the Internet, digital citizen refers to a person using the Internet in order to engage in society, politics, and government participation.InternetUsersByLanguagePieChart.svg\|'''Internet users by language'''WebsitesByLanguagePieChart.svg\|'''Website content languages'''=== Usage ===Internet users in 2015 as a percentage of a country's population'''Source: International Telecommunication Union.Fixed broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012as a percentage of a country's population'''Source: International Telecommunication Union.Mobile broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012as a percentage of a country's population'''Source: International Telecommunication Union.The Internet allows greater flexibility in working hours and location, especially with the spread of unmetered high-speed connections.", "The Internet can be accessed almost anywhere by numerous means, including through mobile Internet devices.", "Mobile phones, datacards, handheld game consoles and cellular routers allow users to connect to the Internet wirelessly.", "Within the limitations imposed by small screens and other limited facilities of such pocket-sized devices, the services of the Internet, including email and the web, may be available.", "Service providers may restrict the services offered and mobile data charges may be significantly higher than other access methods.Educational material at all levels from pre-school to post-doctoral is available from websites.", "Examples range from CBeebies, through school and high-school revision guides and virtual universities, to access to top-end scholarly literature through the likes of Google Scholar.", "For distance education, help with homework and other assignments, self-guided learning, whiling away spare time or just looking up more detail on an interesting fact, it has never been easier for people to access educational information at any level from anywhere.", "The Internet in general and the World Wide Web in particular are important enablers of both formal and informal education.", "Further, the Internet allows researchers (especially those from the social and behavioral sciences) to conduct research remotely via virtual laboratories, with profound changes in reach and generalizability of findings as well as in communication between scientists and in the publication of results.The low cost and nearly instantaneous sharing of ideas, knowledge, and skills have made collaborative work dramatically easier, with the help of collaborative software.", "Not only can a group cheaply communicate and share ideas but the wide reach of the Internet allows such groups more easily to form.", "An example of this is the free software movement, which has produced, among other things, Linux, Mozilla Firefox, and OpenOffice.org (later forked into LibreOffice).", "Internet chat, whether using an IRC chat room, an instant messaging system, or a social networking service, allows colleagues to stay in touch in a very convenient way while working at their computers during the day.", "Messages can be exchanged even more quickly and conveniently than via email.", "These systems may allow files to be exchanged, drawings and images to be shared, or voice and video contact between team members.Content management systems allow collaborating teams to work on shared sets of documents simultaneously without accidentally destroying each other's work.", "Business and project teams can share calendars as well as documents and other information.", "Such collaboration occurs in a wide variety of areas including scientific research, software development, conference planning, political activism and creative writing.", "Social and political collaboration is also becoming more widespread as both Internet access and computer literacy spread.The Internet allows computer users to remotely access other computers and information stores easily from any access point.", "Access may be with computer security, i.e.", "authentication and encryption technologies, depending on the requirements.", "This is encouraging new ways of remote work, collaboration and information sharing in many industries.", "An accountant sitting at home can audit the books of a company based in another country, on a server situated in a third country that is remotely maintained by IT specialists in a fourth.", "These accounts could have been created by home-working bookkeepers, in other remote locations, based on information emailed to them from offices all over the world.", "Some of these things were possible before the widespread use of the Internet, but the cost of private leased lines would have made many of them infeasible in practice.", "An office worker away from their desk, perhaps on the other side of the world on a business trip or a holiday, can access their emails, access their data using cloud computing, or open a remote desktop session into their office PC using a secure virtual private network (VPN) connection on the Internet.", "This can give the worker complete access to all of their normal files and data, including email and other applications, while away from the office.", "It has been referred to among system administrators as the Virtual Private Nightmare, because it extends the secure perimeter of a corporate network into remote locations and its employees' homes.By late 2010s Internet has been described as \"the main source of scientific information \"for the majority of the global North population\".=== Social networking and entertainment ===Many people use the World Wide Web to access news, weather and sports reports, to plan and book vacations and to pursue their personal interests.", "People use chat, messaging and email to make and stay in touch with friends worldwide, sometimes in the same way as some previously had pen pals.", "Social networking services such as Facebook have created new ways to socialize and interact.", "Users of these sites are able to add a wide variety of information to pages, pursue common interests, and connect with others.", "It is also possible to find existing acquaintances, to allow communication among existing groups of people.", "Sites like LinkedIn foster commercial and business connections.", "YouTube and Flickr specialize in users' videos and photographs.", "Social networking services are also widely used by businesses and other organizations to promote their brands, to market to their customers and to encourage posts to \"go viral\".", "\"Black hat\" social media techniques are also employed by some organizations, such as spam accounts and astroturfing.A risk for both individuals and organizations writing posts (especially public posts) on social networking services, is that especially foolish or controversial posts occasionally lead to an unexpected and possibly large-scale backlash on social media from other Internet users.", "This is also a risk in relation to controversial ''offline'' behavior, if it is widely made known.", "The nature of this backlash can range widely from counter-arguments and public mockery, through insults and hate speech, to, in extreme cases, rape and death threats.", "The online disinhibition effect describes the tendency of many individuals to behave more stridently or offensively online than they would in person.", "A significant number of feminist women have been the target of various forms of harassment in response to posts they have made on social media, and Twitter in particular has been criticised in the past for not doing enough to aid victims of online abuse.For organizations, such a backlash can cause overall brand damage, especially if reported by the media.", "However, this is not always the case, as any brand damage in the eyes of people with an opposing opinion to that presented by the organization could sometimes be outweighed by strengthening the brand in the eyes of others.", "Furthermore, if an organization or individual gives in to demands that others perceive as wrong-headed, that can then provoke a counter-backlash.Some websites, such as Reddit, have rules forbidding the posting of personal information of individuals (also known as doxxing), due to concerns about such postings leading to mobs of large numbers of Internet users directing harassment at the specific individuals thereby identified.", "In particular, the Reddit rule forbidding the posting of personal information is widely understood to imply that all identifying photos and names must be censored in Facebook screenshots posted to Reddit.", "However, the interpretation of this rule in relation to public Twitter posts is less clear, and in any case, like-minded people online have many other ways they can use to direct each other's attention to public social media posts they disagree with.Children also face dangers online such as cyberbullying and approaches by sexual predators, who sometimes pose as children themselves.", "Children may also encounter material that they may find upsetting, or material that their parents consider to be not age-appropriate.", "Due to naivety, they may also post personal information about themselves online, which could put them or their families at risk unless warned not to do so.", "Many parents choose to enable Internet filtering or supervise their children's online activities in an attempt to protect their children from inappropriate material on the Internet.", "The most popular social networking services, such as Facebook and Twitter, commonly forbid users under the age of 13.However, these policies are typically trivial to circumvent by registering an account with a false birth date, and a significant number of children aged under 13 join such sites anyway.", "Social networking services for younger children, which claim to provide better levels of protection for children, also exist.The Internet has been a major outlet for leisure activity since its inception, with entertaining social experiments such as MUDs and MOOs being conducted on university servers, and humor-related Usenet groups receiving much traffic.", "Many Internet forums have sections devoted to games and funny videos.", "The Internet pornography and online gambling industries have taken advantage of the World Wide Web.", "Although many governments have attempted to restrict both industries' use of the Internet, in general, this has failed to stop their widespread popularity.Another area of leisure activity on the Internet is multiplayer gaming.", "This form of recreation creates communities, where people of all ages and origins enjoy the fast-paced world of multiplayer games.", "These range from MMORPG to first-person shooters, from role-playing video games to online gambling.", "While online gaming has been around since the 1970s, modern modes of online gaming began with subscription services such as GameSpy and MPlayer.", "Non-subscribers were limited to certain types of game play or certain games.", "Many people use the Internet to access and download music, movies and other works for their enjoyment and relaxation.", "Free and fee-based services exist for all of these activities, using centralized servers and distributed peer-to-peer technologies.", "Some of these sources exercise more care with respect to the original artists' copyrights than others.Internet usage has been correlated to users' loneliness.", "Lonely people tend to use the Internet as an outlet for their feelings and to share their stories with others, such as in the \"I am lonely will anyone speak to me\" thread.A 2017 book claimed that the Internet consolidates most aspects of human endeavor into singular arenas of which all of humanity are potential members and competitors, with fundamentally negative impacts on mental health as a result.", "While successes in each field of activity are pervasively visible and trumpeted, they are reserved for an extremely thin sliver of the world's most exceptional, leaving everyone else behind.", "Whereas, before the Internet, expectations of success in any field were supported by reasonable probabilities of achievement at the village, suburb, city or even state level, the same expectations in the Internet world are virtually certain to bring disappointment today: there is always someone else, somewhere on the planet, who can do better and take the now one-and-only top spot.Cybersectarianism is a new organizational form that involves, \"highly dispersed small groups of practitioners that may remain largely anonymous within the larger social context and operate in relative secrecy, while still linked remotely to a larger network of believers who share a set of practices and texts, and often a common devotion to a particular leader.", "Overseas supporters provide funding and support; domestic practitioners distribute tracts, participate in acts of resistance, and share information on the internal situation with outsiders.", "Collectively, members and practitioners of such sects construct viable virtual communities of faith, exchanging personal testimonies and engaging in the collective study via email, online chat rooms, and web-based message boards.\"", "In particular, the British government has raised concerns about the prospect of young British Muslims being indoctrinated into Islamic extremism by material on the Internet, being persuaded to join terrorist groups such as the so-called \"Islamic State\", and then potentially committing acts of terrorism on returning to Britain after fighting in Syria or Iraq.Cyberslacking can become a drain on corporate resources; the average UK employee spent 57 minutes a day surfing the Web while at work, according to a 2003 study by Peninsula Business Services.", "Internet addiction disorder is excessive computer use that interferes with daily life.", "Nicholas G. Carr believes that Internet use has other effects on individuals, for instance improving skills of scan-reading and interfering with the deep thinking that leads to true creativity.=== Electronic business ===Electronic business (''e-business'') encompasses business processes spanning the entire value chain: purchasing, supply chain management, marketing, sales, customer service, and business relationship.", "E-commerce seeks to add revenue streams using the Internet to build and enhance relationships with clients and partners.", "According to International Data Corporation, the size of worldwide e-commerce, when global business-to-business and -consumer transactions are combined, equate to $16 trillion for 2013.A report by Oxford Economics added those two together to estimate the total size of the digital economy at $20.4 trillion, equivalent to roughly 13.8% of global sales.While much has been written of the economic advantages of Internet-enabled commerce, there is also evidence that some aspects of the Internet such as maps and location-aware services may serve to reinforce economic inequality and the digital divide.", "Electronic commerce may be responsible for consolidation and the decline of mom-and-pop, brick and mortar businesses resulting in increases in income inequality.Author Andrew Keen, a long-time critic of the social transformations caused by the Internet, has focused on the economic effects of consolidation from Internet businesses.", "Keen cites a 2013 Institute for Local Self-Reliance report saying brick-and-mortar retailers employ 47 people for every $10 million in sales while Amazon employs only 14.Similarly, the 700-employee room rental start-up Airbnb was valued at $10 billion in 2014, about half as much as Hilton Worldwide, which employs 152,000 people.", "At that time, Uber employed 1,000 full-time employees and was valued at $18.2 billion, about the same valuation as Avis Rent a Car and The Hertz Corporation combined, which together employed almost 60,000 people.===Remote work===Remote work is facilitated by tools such as groupware, virtual private networks, conference calling, videotelephony, and VoIP so that work may be performed from any location, most conveniently the worker's home.", "It can be efficient and useful for companies as it allows workers to communicate over long distances, saving significant amounts of travel time and cost.", "More workers have adequate bandwidth at home to use these tools to link their home to their corporate intranet and internal communication networks.=== Collaborative publishing ===Wikis have also been used in the academic community for sharing and dissemination of information across institutional and international boundaries.", "In those settings, they have been found useful for collaboration on grant writing, strategic planning, departmental documentation, and committee work.", "The United States Patent and Trademark Office uses a wiki to allow the public to collaborate on finding prior art relevant to examination of pending patent applications.", "Queens, New York has used a wiki to allow citizens to collaborate on the design and planning of a local park.", "The English Wikipedia has the largest user base among wikis on the World Wide Web and ranks in the top 10 among all sites in terms of traffic.=== Politics and political revolutions ===Banner in Bangkok during the 2014 Thai coup d'état, informing the Thai public that 'like' or 'share' activities on social media could result in imprisonment (observed 30 June 2014)The Internet has achieved new relevance as a political tool.", "The presidential campaign of Howard Dean in 2004 in the United States was notable for its success in soliciting donation via the Internet.", "Many political groups use the Internet to achieve a new method of organizing for carrying out their mission, having given rise to Internet activism.", "''The New York Times'' suggested that social media websites, such as Facebook and Twitter, helped people organize the political revolutions in Egypt, by helping activists organize protests, communicate grievances, and disseminate information.Many have understood the Internet as an extension of the Habermasian notion of the ''public sphere'', observing how network communication technologies provide something like a global civic forum.", "However, incidents of politically motivated Internet censorship have now been recorded in many countries, including western democracies.E-government is the use of technological communications devices, such as the Internet, to provide public services to citizens and other persons in a country or region.", "E-government offers opportunities for more direct and convenient citizen access to government and for government provision of services directly to citizens.=== Philanthropy ===The spread of low-cost Internet access in developing countries has opened up new possibilities for peer-to-peer charities, which allow individuals to contribute small amounts to charitable projects for other individuals.", "Websites, such as DonorsChoose and GlobalGiving, allow small-scale donors to direct funds to individual projects of their choice.", "A popular twist on Internet-based philanthropy is the use of peer-to-peer lending for charitable purposes.", "Kiva pioneered this concept in 2005, offering the first web-based service to publish individual loan profiles for funding.", "Kiva raises funds for local intermediary microfinance organizations that post stories and updates on behalf of the borrowers.", "Lenders can contribute as little as $25 to loans of their choice and receive their money back as borrowers repay.", "Kiva falls short of being a pure peer-to-peer charity, in that loans are disbursed before being funded by lenders and borrowers do not communicate with lenders themselves." ], [ "Security", "Internet resources, hardware, and software components are the target of criminal or malicious attempts to gain unauthorized control to cause interruptions, commit fraud, engage in blackmail or access private information.===Malware===Malware is malicious software used and distributed via the Internet.", "It includes computer viruses which are copied with the help of humans, computer worms which copy themselves automatically, software for denial of service attacks, ransomware, botnets, and spyware that reports on the activity and typing of users.", "Usually, these activities constitute cybercrime.", "Defense theorists have also speculated about the possibilities of hackers using cyber warfare using similar methods on a large scale.Malware poses serious problems to individuals and businesses on the Internet.", "According to Symantec's 2018 Internet Security Threat Report (ISTR), malware variants number has increased to 669,947,865 in 2017, which is twice as many malware variants as in 2016.Cybercrime, which includes malware attacks as well as other crimes committed by computer, was predicted to cost the world economy US$6 trillion in 2021, and is increasing at a rate of 15% per year.", "Since 2021, malware has been designed to target computer systems that run critical infrastructure such as the electricity distribution network.", "Malware can be designed to evade antivirus software detection algorithms.=== Surveillance ===The vast majority of computer surveillance involves the monitoring of data and traffic on the Internet.", "In the United States for example, under the Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act, all phone calls and broadband Internet traffic (emails, web traffic, instant messaging, etc.)", "are required to be available for unimpeded real-time monitoring by Federal law enforcement agencies.", "Packet capture is the monitoring of data traffic on a computer network.", "Computers communicate over the Internet by breaking up messages (emails, images, videos, web pages, files, etc.)", "into small chunks called \"packets\", which are routed through a network of computers, until they reach their destination, where they are assembled back into a complete \"message\" again.", "Packet Capture Appliance intercepts these packets as they are traveling through the network, in order to examine their contents using other programs.", "A packet capture is an information ''gathering'' tool, but not an ''analysis'' tool.", "That is it gathers \"messages\" but it does not analyze them and figure out what they mean.", "Other programs are needed to perform traffic analysis and sift through intercepted data looking for important/useful information.", "Under the Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act all U.S. telecommunications providers are required to install packet sniffing technology to allow Federal law enforcement and intelligence agencies to intercept all of their customers' broadband Internet and VoIP traffic.The large amount of data gathered from packet capturing requires surveillance software that filters and reports relevant information, such as the use of certain words or phrases, the access of certain types of web sites, or communicating via email or chat with certain parties.", "Agencies, such as the Information Awareness Office, NSA, GCHQ and the FBI, spend billions of dollars per year to develop, purchase, implement, and operate systems for interception and analysis of data.", "Similar systems are operated by Iranian secret police to identify and suppress dissidents.", "The required hardware and software were allegedly installed by German Siemens AG and Finnish Nokia.=== Censorship ===Internet censorship and surveillance by country (2018)'''Some governments, such as those of Burma, Iran, North Korea, Mainland China, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, restrict access to content on the Internet within their territories, especially to political and religious content, with domain name and keyword filters.In Norway, Denmark, Finland, and Sweden, major Internet service providers have voluntarily agreed to restrict access to sites listed by authorities.", "While this list of forbidden resources is supposed to contain only known child pornography sites, the content of the list is secret.", "Many countries, including the United States, have enacted laws against the possession or distribution of certain material, such as child pornography, via the Internet, but do not mandate filter software.", "Many free or commercially available software programs, called content-control software are available to users to block offensive websites on individual computers or networks, in order to limit access by children to pornographic material or depiction of violence." ], [ "Performance", "As the Internet is a heterogeneous network, the physical characteristics, including for example the data transfer rates of connections, vary widely.", "It exhibits emergent phenomena that depend on its large-scale organization.===Traffic volume===The volume of Internet traffic is difficult to measure because no single point of measurement exists in the multi-tiered, non-hierarchical topology.", "Traffic data may be estimated from the aggregate volume through the peering points of the Tier 1 network providers, but traffic that stays local in large provider networks may not be accounted for.=== Outages ===An Internet blackout or outage can be caused by local signaling interruptions.", "Disruptions of submarine communications cables may cause blackouts or slowdowns to large areas, such as in the 2008 submarine cable disruption.", "Less-developed countries are more vulnerable due to a small number of high-capacity links.", "Land cables are also vulnerable, as in 2011 when a woman digging for scrap metal severed most connectivity for the nation of Armenia.", "Internet blackouts affecting almost entire countries can be achieved by governments as a form of Internet censorship, as in the blockage of the Internet in Egypt, whereby approximately 93% of networks were without access in 2011 in an attempt to stop mobilization for anti-government protests.=== Energy use ===Estimates of the Internet's electricity usage have been the subject of controversy, according to a 2014 peer-reviewed research paper that found claims differing by a factor of 20,000 published in the literature during the preceding decade, ranging from 0.0064 kilowatt hours per gigabyte transferred (kWh/GB) to 136 kWh/GB.", "The researchers attributed these discrepancies mainly to the year of reference (i.e.", "whether efficiency gains over time had been taken into account) and to whether \"end devices such as personal computers and servers are included\" in the analysis.In 2011, academic researchers estimated the overall energy used by the Internet to be between 170 and 307 GW, less than two percent of the energy used by humanity.", "This estimate included the energy needed to build, operate, and periodically replace the estimated 750 million laptops, a billion smart phones and 100 million servers worldwide as well as the energy that routers, cell towers, optical switches, Wi-Fi transmitters and cloud storage devices use when transmitting Internet traffic.", "According to a non-peer-reviewed study published in 2018 by The Shift Project (a French think tank funded by corporate sponsors), nearly 4% of global CO2 emissions could be attributed to global data transfer and the necessary infrastructure.", "The study also said that online video streaming alone accounted for 60% of this data transfer and therefore contributed to over 300 million tons of CO2 emission per year, and argued for new \"digital sobriety\" regulations restricting the use and size of video files." ], [ "See also", "* Crowdfunding* Crowdsourcing* Cyberspace* Darknet* Deep web* Freenet* Internet industry jargon* Index of Internet-related articles* Internet metaphors* Internet video* \"Internets\"* Open Systems Interconnection* Outline of the Internet" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* " ], [ "Further reading", " ''First Monday'', a peer-reviewed journal on the Internet by the University Library of the University of Illinois at Chicago, * ''The Internet Explained'', Vincent Zegna & Mike Pepper, Sonet Digital, November 2005, pp. 1–7.", "* " ], [ "External links", " The Internet Society* Living Internet, Internet history and related information, including information from many creators of the Internet" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Indo-European (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Indo-European''' is a major language family of Europe, parts of West and Central Asia, and South Asia.", "'''Indo-European''' may also refer to:* Proto-Indo-European language, the reconstructed common ancestor of all Indo-European languages* Proto-Indo-Europeans (or “Indo-Europeans”), a hypothetical prehistoric ethnolinguistic group of Eurasia who spoke Proto-Indo-European* Indo people (), people of Dutch East Indies and European descent" ], [ "See also", "* Indo-European migrations* Indo-European studies, an academic field involving linguistics, anthropology, history, archaeology* Indo-European vocabulary, a table of the most fundamental Proto-Indo-European language words and roots* Pre-Indo-European (disambiguation)* Proto-Indo-European religion, the hypothetical religion of the Proto-Indo-Europeans* Proto-Indo-European society, the hypothetical society of the Proto-Indo-Europeans" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Indo-Iranian languages" ], [ "Introduction", "Chart classifying Indo-Iranian languages within the Indo-European language familyThe '''Indo-Iranian languages''' (also known as '''Indo-Iranic languages''' or collectively the '''Aryan languages''') constitute the largest and southeasternmost extant branch of the Indo-European language family.", "They include over 300 languages, spoken by around 1.5 billion speakers, predominantly in South Asia, West Asia and parts of Central Asia.The common reconstructed ancestor of all of the languages in this family is called Proto-Indo-Iranian, also known as Common Aryan, which is hypothesized to have been spoken in approximately the late 3rd millennium BC in an area of the Eurasian steppe that borders the Ural River on the west, the Tian Shan on the east (where the Indo-Iranians took over the area occupied by the earlier Afanasevo culture), and Transoxiana and the Hindu Kush on the south.", "The three branches of the Indo-Iranian languages are Indo-Aryan, Iranian, and Nuristani.", "A fourth independent branch, Dardic, was previously posited, but recent scholarship in general places Dardic languages as archaic members of the Indo-Aryan branch.The areas with Indo-Iranian languages stretch from Europe (Romani) and the Caucasus (Ossetian, Tat and Talysh), down to Mesopotamia (Kurdish languages, Zaza–Gorani and Kurmanji Dialect continuum) and Iran (Persian), eastward to Xinjiang (Sarikoli) and Assam (Assamese), and south to Sri Lanka (Sinhala) and the Maldives (Maldivian), with branches stretching as far out as Oceania and the Caribbean for Fiji Hindi and Caribbean Hindustani respectively.", "Furthermore, there are large diaspora communities of Indo-Iranian speakers in northwestern Europe (the United Kingdom), North America (United States, Canada), Australia, South Africa, and the Persian Gulf Region (United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia).The number of distinct languages listed in ''Ethnologue'' are 312, while those recognised in ''Glottolog'' are 320.The Indo-Iranian language with the largest number of native speakers is Hindustani language (Hindi-Urdu)." ], [ "Etymology", "The term ''Indo-Iranian languages'' refers to the spectrum of Indo-European languages spoken in the Southern Asian region of Eurasia, spanning from the Indian subcontinent (where the Indic branch is spoken, also called Indo-Aryan) up to the Iranian Plateau (where the Iranian branch is spoken).This branch is also known as ''Aryan languages'', referring to the languages spoken by Aryan peoples, where the term ''Aryan'' is the ethnocultural self-designation of ancient Indo-Iranians.", "But in modern-day, Western scholars avoid the term ''Aryan'' since World War II, owing to the perceived negative connotation associated with Aryanism." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Swadesh lists of Indo-Iranian basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Industry (economics)" ], [ "Introduction", "Cement factories, part of the manufacturing industry, produce product for the construction industry (also known as the building industry).", "This factory was in Malmö, Sweden.Burj al Arab as a symbol for the hospitality industry An image of the motor industry (automotive industry), a supplier to the transport industry.", "Economists may regard the manufacture of vehicles as a foundational industry and as a bellwether industry.", "In macroeconomics, an '''industry''' is a branch of an economy that produces a closely related set of raw materials, goods, or services.", "For example, one might refer to the wood industry or to the insurance industry.When evaluating a single group or company, its dominant source of revenue is typically used by industry classifications to classify it within a specific industry.", "For example the International Standard Industrial Classification (ISIC) – used directly or through derived classifications for the official statistics of most countries worldwide – classifies \"statistical units\" by the \"economic activity in which they mainly engage\".", "Industry is then defined as \"set of statistical units that are classified into the same ISIC category\".", "However, a single business need not belong just to one industry, such as when a large business (often referred to as a conglomerate) diversifies across separate industries.Other industry classification systems include the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS), which was developed through partnerships with North American countries such as the United States, Canada, and Mexico, in order to standardize the comparison of business activities in North America.", "There is also the Global Industry Classification Standard (GICS), which is used to assign companies to specific economic sectors and industry groups.", "There are many industry classifications in the modern economy, which can be grouped into larger categories called economic sectors.", "Sectors are broader than industry classifications.", "For example, the retail trade sector contains industries such as clothing stores, shoe stores, and health and personal care stores.", "Companies are not limited to one sector or industry.", "They can reside in multiple sectors and industries.Industries, though associated with specific products, processes, and consumer markets, can evolve over time.", "One distinct industry (for example, barrelmaking) may become limited to a tiny niche market and get mostly re-classified into another industry using new techniques.", "At the same time, entirely new industries may branch off from older ones once a significant market becomes apparent (as the semiconductor industry became distinguished from the wider electronics industry).Industry classification is valuable for economic analysis because it leads to largely distinct categories with simple relationships.", "Through these classifications, economists are able to compare companies within the same industry to evaluate the attractiveness of that industry.", "Companies within the same industry can also have similar stock price movements due to their similarity and macroeconomic factors that affect all members of an industry.", "However, more complex cases, such as otherwise different processes yielding similar products, require an element of standardization and prevent any one schema from fitting all possible uses." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of industry* List of countries by GDP sector composition" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Indriidae" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Indriidae''' (sometimes incorrectly spelled '''Indridae''') are a family of strepsirrhine primates.", "They are medium- to large-sized lemurs, with only four teeth in the toothcomb instead of the usual six.", "'''Indriids''', like all lemurs, live exclusively on the island of Madagascar." ], [ "Classification", "The 19 living species in the family are divided into three genera.", "'''Family Indriidae'''Genus ''Indri''Indri, ''Indri indri''Genus ''Avahi'', woolly lemursBemaraha woolly lemur, ''Avahi cleesei''Eastern woolly lemur, ''Avahi laniger''Moore's woolly lemur, ''Avahi mooreorum''Western woolly lemur, ''Avahi occidentalis''Sambirano woolly lemur, ''Avahi unicolor''Peyrieras's woolly lemur, ''Avahi peyrierasi''Southern woolly lemur, ''Avahi meridionalis''Ramanantsoavana's woolly lemur, ''Avahi ramanantsoavani''*Betsileo woolly lemur, ''Avahi betsileo''Genus ''Propithecus'', sifakas''Propithecus diadema'' groupDiademed sifaka, ''Propithecus diadema''Silky sifaka, ''Propithecus candidus''Milne-Edwards's sifaka, ''Propithecus edwardsi''Perrier's sifaka, ''Propithecus perrieri''Golden-crowned sifaka, ''Propithecus tattersalli''''Propithecus verreauxi'' groupVerreaux's sifaka, ''Propithecus verreauxi''Coquerel's sifaka, ''Propithecus coquereli''Decken's sifaka, ''Propithecus deckenii''Crowned sifaka, ''Propithecus coronatus''" ], [ "Characteristics", "The 19 extant Indriidae species vary considerably in size.", "Not counting the length of their tails, the avahis are only in length, while the indri is the largest extant strepsirrhine.", "The tail of the indri is only a stub, while avahi and the sifaka tails are as long as their bodies.", "Their fur is long and mostly from whitish over reddish up to grey.", "Their black faces, however, are always bald.", "The hind legs are longer than their fore limbs, their hands are long and thin, and their thumbs cannot be opposed to the other fingers correctly.All species are arboreal, though they do come to the ground occasionally.", "When on the ground, they stand upright and move with short hops forward, with their arms held high.", "In the trees, though, they can make extraordinary leaps and are extremely agile, able to change direction from tree to tree.", "Like most leaf eaters, they adjust for the low nutrient content of their food by long rests.", "Often, they can be seen lying stretched on trees sunning themselves.", "Indriidae live together in family federations up to 15 animals, communicating with roars and facial expressions.Indriidae are herbivores, eating mostly leaves, fruits, and flowers.", "Like some other herbivores, they have a large cecum, containing bacteria that ferment cellulose, allowing for more efficient digestion of plant matter.", "They have fewer premolar teeth than other lemurs, with the dental formula of: Females and males usually mate monogamously for many years.", "Mostly at the end of the dry season, their four- to five-month gestation ends with the birth of a single offspring, which lives in the family for a while after its weaning (at the age of five to six months)." ], [ "See also", " Holocene extinction event" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "I, Robot" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''I, Robot''''' is a fixup collection made up of science fiction short stories by American writer Isaac Asimov.", "The stories originally appeared in the American magazines ''Super Science Stories'' and ''Astounding Science Fiction'' between 1940 and 1950 and were then collected into a 1950 publication Gnome Press in 1950, in an initial edition of 5,000 copies." ], [ "Overview", "The stories are woven together by a framing narrative in which the fictional Dr. Susan Calvin tells each story to a reporter (who serves as the narrator) in the 21st century.", "Although the stories can be read separately, they share a theme of the interaction of humans, robots, and morality, and when combined they tell a larger story of Asimov's fictional history of robotics.Several of the stories feature the character of Dr. Calvin, chief robopsychologist at U.S. Robots and Mechanical Men, Inc., the major manufacturer of robots.", "Upon their publication in this collection, Asimov wrote a framing sequence presenting the stories as Calvin's reminiscences during an interview with her about her life's work, chiefly concerned with aberrant behaviour of robots and the use of \"robopsychology\" to sort out what is happening in their positronic brain.", "The book also contains the short story in which Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics first appear, which had large influence on later science fiction and had impact on thought on ethics of artificial intelligence as well.", "Other characters that appear in these short stories are Powell and Donovan, a field-testing team which locates flaws in USRMM's prototype models.The collection shares a title with the then recent short story \"I, Robot\" (1939) by Eando Binder (pseudonym of Earl and Otto Binder), which greatly influenced Asimov.", "Asimov had wanted to call his collection ''Mind and Iron'' and objected when the publisher made the title the same as Binder's.", "In his introduction to the story in ''Isaac Asimov Presents the Great SF Stories'' (1979), Asimov wrote:" ], [ "Contents", "* \"Robbie\" (1940, revised 1950)* \"Runaround\" (1942), (novelette)* \"Reason\" (1941)* \"Catch That Rabbit\" (1944)* \"Liar!\"", "(1941)* \"Little Lost Robot\" (1947) (novelette)* \"Escape!\"", "(1945)* \"Evidence\" (1946) (novelette)* \"The Evitable Conflict\" (1950) (novelette)" ], [ "Reception", "''The New York Times'' described ''I, Robot'' as \"an exciting science thriller which could be fun for those whose nerves are not already made raw by the potentialities of the atomic age\".Describing it as \"continuously fascinating\", Groff Conklin \"unreservedly recommended\" the book.P.", "Schuyler Miller recommended the collection: \"For puzzle situations, for humor, for warm character, and for most of the values of plain good writing.\"" ], [ "Adaptations", "===Television===At least three of the short stories from ''I, Robot'' have been adapted for television.", "The first was a 1962 episode of ''Out of this World'' hosted by Boris Karloff called \"Little Lost Robot\" with Maxine Audley as Susan Calvin.", "Two short stories from the collection were made into episodes of the British series ''Out of the Unknown''.", "These are \"The Prophet\" (1967), based on \"Reason\"; and \"Liar!\"", "(1969).", "Both episodes were wiped by the BBC and are no longer thought to exist, although video clips, audio extracts and still photographs have survived.", "Repurposed robot costumes from the former appeared in the 1968 ''Doctor Who'' serial ''The Mind Robber''.", "The 12th episode of the USSR science fiction TV series ''This Fantastic World'', filmed in 1987 and entitled ''Don't Joke with Robots'', was based on works by Aleksandr Belyaev and Fredrik Kilander as well as Asimov's \"Liar!\"", "story.Both the original and revival series of ''The Outer Limits'' include episodes named \"I, Robot\" but these are adaptations of an unrelated work by Earl and Otto Binder under their joint pseudonym \"Eando Binder\".", "The Binders' story introduced a recurring character, the robot named Adam Link.In August 2023, David S. Goyer revealed that he had gotten permission from FOX head Lachlan Murdoch, a self-professed fan of Apple TV+'s ''Foundation'', to adapt concepts from ''I, Robot'' to the series' 2023 second season, in \"tying Demerzel/Daneel into the ''I, Robot'' laws and doing a spin-off mini-series that specifically delves into our version of \"''The Robot Wars''\".===Films=======Harlan Ellison's screenplay (1977–1978)====During the late 1970s, Warner Bros. acquired the option to make a film based on the book, but no screenplay was ever accepted.", "The most notable attempt was one by Harlan Ellison, who collaborated with Asimov himself to create a version which captured the spirit of the original.", "Asimov is quoted as saying that this screenplay would lead to \"the first really adult, complex, worthwhile science fiction movie ever made.\"", "Ellison worked on the project from December 1977 to December 1978.Asimov himself advised Ellison as to the scientific validity of some elements of the script.Ellison's script, taking inspiration from ''Citizen Kane'', began with reporter Robert Bratenahl tracking down information about Susan Calvin's alleged former lover Stephen Byerly.", "This provided for a framing sequence to adaptations of Asimov's stories.", "These differ from the originals in that they more strongly center around Calvin as a character.", "Ellison placed Calvin into stories in which she had not appeared and amplified her role in ones in which she did.Although well-regarded by critics, the screenplay is generally considered to have been unfilmable for practical reasons, given the technology and average film budgets of the time.", "Asimov also believed that the film may have been scrapped owing to a conflict between Ellison and the producers: when the producers suggested changes in the script, instead of being diplomatic as advised by Asimov, Ellison \"reacted violently\" and offended them.The script was serialized in ''Asimov's Science Fiction'' magazine in late 1987, and appeared in book form with illustrations by Mark Zug under the title ''I, Robot: The Illustrated Screenplay'', in 1994 (reprinted 2004, ).", "Both Ellison and Asimov received credits.====2004 film====The film ''I, Robot'', starring Will Smith, was released by Twentieth Century Fox on July 16, 2004 in the United States.", "Its plot uses elements of \"Little Lost Robot\", a few of Asimov's character names and the ''Three Laws''.", "The plot of the movie is original; the screenplay ''Hardwired'' by Jeff Vintar is not based on Asimov's stories.", "It has been compared to Asimov's ''The Caves of Steel'', which revolves around the murder of a roboticist.", "Unlike the works by Asimov, the movie featured hordes of killer robots.===Radio===BBC Radio 4 aired an audio drama adaptation of five of the ''I, Robot'' stories on their 15 Minute Drama in 2017, dramatized by Richard Kurti and starring Hermione Norris.# ''Robbie''# ''Reason''# ''Little Lost Robot''# ''Liar''# ''The Evitable Conflict''These also aired in a single program on BBC Radio 4 Extra as ''Isaac Asimov's 'I, Robot': Omnibus''." ], [ "Prequels", "The Asimov estate asked Mickey Zucker Reichert (best known for the Norse fantasy ''Renshai'' series) to write three prequels for ''I, Robot'', since she was a science fiction writer with a medical degree who had first met Asimov when she was 23, although she did not know him well.", "She was the first female writer to be authorized to write stories based on Asimov's novels.The follow-ups to Asimov's ''Foundation'' series had been written by Gregory Benford, Greg Bear, and David Brin.Berkley Books ordered the ''I, Robot'' prequels, which included:* ''I, Robot: To Protect'' (2011)* ''I, Robot: To Obey'' (2013)* ''I, Robot: To Preserve'' (2016)" ], [ "Popular culture references", "In 2004, ''The Saturday Evening Post'' said that ''I, Robot'''s Three Laws \"revolutionized the science fiction genre and made robots far more interesting than they ever had been before.\"", "''I, Robot'' has influenced many aspects of modern popular culture, particularly with respect to science fiction and technology.", "One example of this is in the technology industry.", "The name of the real-life modem manufacturer named U.S. Robotics was directly inspired by ''I, Robot''.", "The name is taken from the name of a robot manufacturer (\"United States Robots and Mechanical Men\") that appears throughout Asimov's robot short stories.Many works in the field of science fiction have also paid homage to Asimov's collection.An episode of the original ''Star Trek'' series, \"I, Mudd\" (1967), which depicts a planet of androids in need of humans, references ''I, Robot''.", "Another reference appears in the title of a ''Star Trek: The Next Generation'' episode, \"I, Borg\" (1992), in which Geordi La Forge befriends a lost member of the Borg collective and teaches it a sense of individuality and free will.A ''Doctor Who'' story, ''The Robots of Death'' (1977), references ''I, Robot'' with the \"First Principle\", stating: \"It is forbidden for robots to harm humans.", "\"In the film ''Aliens'' (1986), the synthetic person Bishop paraphrases Asimov's First Law in the line: \"It is impossible for me to harm, or by omission of action allow to be harmed, a human being.", "\"An episode of ''The Simpsons'' entitled \"I D'oh Bot\" (2004) has Professor Frink build a robot named \"Smashius Clay\" (also named \"Killhammad Aieee\") that follows all three of Asimov's laws of robotics.The animated science fiction/comedy ''Futurama'' makes several references to ''I, Robot''.", "The title of the episode \"I, Roommate\" (1999) is a spoof on ''I, Robot'' although the plot of the episode has little to do with the original stories.", "Additionally, the episode \"The Cyber House Rules\" included an optician named \"Eye Robot\" and the episode \"Anthology of Interest II\" included a segment called \"I, Meatbag.\"", "Also in \"Bender's Game\" (2008) the psychiatrist is shown a logical fallacy and explodes when the assistant shouts \"Liar!\"", "a la \"Liar!\".", "Leela once told Bender to \"cover his ears\" so that he would not hear the robot-destroying paradox which she used to destroy Robot Santa (he punishes the bad, he kills people, killing is bad, therefore he must punish himself), causing a total breakdown; additionally, Bender has stated that he is Three Laws Safe.The positronic brain, which Asimov named his robots' central processors, is what powers Data from ''Star Trek: The Next Generation'', as well as other Soong type androids.", "Positronic brains have been referenced in a number of other television shows including ''Doctor Who'', ''Once Upon a Time... Space'', ''Perry Rhodan'', ''The Number of the Beast'', and others.Author Cory Doctorow has written a story called \"I, Robot\" as homage to and critique of Asimov, as well as \"I, Row-Boat\", both released in the 2007 short story collection ''Overclocked: Stories of the Future Present''.", "He has also said, \"If I return to this theme, it will be with a story about uplifted cheese sandwiches, called 'I, Rarebit.", "'\"Other cultural references to the book are less directly related to science fiction and technology.", "The album ''I Robot'' (1977), by The Alan Parsons Project, was inspired by Asimov's ''I, Robot''.", "In its original conception, the album was to follow the themes and concepts presented in the short story collection.", "The Alan Parsons Project were not able to obtain the rights in spite of Asimov's enthusiasm; he had already assigned the rights elsewhere.", "Thus, the album's concept was altered slightly although the name was kept (minus comma to avoid copyright infringement).", "An album, ''I, Human'' (2009), by Singaporean band Deus Ex Machina, draws heavily upon Asimov's principles on robotics and applies it to the concept of cloning.The Indian science fiction film ''Endhiran'' (2010) refers to Asimov's three laws for artificial intelligence for the fictional character \"Chitti: The Robot\".", "When a scientist takes in the robot for evaluation, the panel inquires whether the robot was built using the Three Laws of Robotics.The theme for Burning Man 2018 was \"I, Robot\"." ], [ "See also", "* ''I, Robot'' (film)" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited references", "" ], [ "External links", " * Series:Followed by:''Robot'' series''Foundation'' Series''The Rest of the Robots''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Invictus" ], [ "Introduction", "\"'''Invictus'''\" is a short poem by the Victorian era British poet William Ernest Henley (1849–1903).", "It was written in 1875 and published in 1888 in his first volume of poems, ''Book of Verses'', in the section ''Life and Death (Echoes)''." ], [ "Background", "William Ernest HenleyWhen Henley was 16 years old, his left leg required amputation owing to complications arising from tuberculosis.", "In the early 1870s, after seeking treatment for problems with his other leg at Margate, he was told that it would require a similar procedure.He instead chose to travel to Edinburgh in August 1873 to enlist the services of the distinguished English surgeon Joseph Lister, who was able to save Henley's remaining leg after multiple surgical interventions on the foot.", "While recovering in the infirmary, he was moved to write the verses that became the poem \"Invictus\".", "A memorable evocation of Victorian stoicism—the \"stiff upper lip\" of self-discipline and fortitude in adversity, which popular culture rendered into a British character trait—\"Invictus\" remains a cultural touchstone." ], [ "Poem", "INVICTUSOut of the night that covers meBlack as the pit from pole to pole,I thank whatever gods may beFor my unconquerable soul.In the fell clutch of circumstance,I have not winced nor cried aloud.Under the bludgeonings of chanceMy head is bloody, but unbowed.Beyond this place of wrath and tearsLooms but the Horror of the shade,And yet the menace of the yearsFinds, and shall find, me unafraid.It matters not how strait the gate,How charged with punishments the scroll, I am the master of my fateI am the captain of my soul.A reading of the poem \"Invictus\"" ], [ "Analysis", "Latin for \"unconquered\", the poem \"Invictus\" is a deeply descriptive and motivational work filled with vivid imagery.", "With four stanzas and sixteen lines, each containing eight syllables, the poem has a rather uncomplicated structure.", "The poem is most known for its themes of willpower and strength in the face of adversity, much of which is drawn from the horrible fate assigned to many amputees of the day—gangrene and death.Each stanza takes considerable note of William Ernest Henley's perseverance and fearlessness throughout his early life and over twenty months under Lister's care.", "In the second stanza, Henley refers to the strength that helped him through a childhood defined by his struggles with tuberculosis when he says \"I have not winced nor cried aloud.\"", "In the fourth stanza, Henley alludes to the fact that each individual's destiny is under the jurisdiction of themselves, not at the mercy of the obstacles they face, nor other worldly powers.Those who have taken time to analyze \"Invictus\" have also taken notice of religious themes, or the lack thereof, that exist in this piece.", "There is agreement that much of the dark descriptions in the opening lines make reference to Hell.", "Later, the fourth stanza of the poem alludes to a phrase from the King James Bible, which says, at Matthew 7:14, \"Because strait is the gate, and narrow is the way, which leadeth unto life, and few there be that find it.", "\"Despite Henley's evocative tellings of perseverance and determination, worry was on his mind; in a letter to a close companion, William Ernest Henley later confided, \"I am afeard my marching days are over\" when asked about the condition of his leg." ], [ "Publication history", "The second edition of Henley's ''Book of Verses'' added a dedication \"To R. T. H.", "B.", "\"—a reference to Robert Thomas Hamilton Bruce, a successful Scottish flour merchant, baker, and literary patron.", "The 1900 edition of Henley's ''Poems'', published after Bruce's death, altered the dedication to \"I. M. R. T. Hamilton Bruce (1846–1899),\" whereby ''I.", "M.'' stands for \"in memoriam.", "\"Arthur Quiller-Couch, the editor who came up with the title, \"Invictus\"=== Title ===The poem was published in 1888 in his first volume of poems, ''Book of Verses,'' with no title, but would later be reprinted in 19th-century newspapers under various titles, including:* \"Myself\"* \"Song of a Strong Soul\"* \"My Soul\"* \"Clear Grit\"* \"Master of His Fate\"* \"Captain of My Soul\"* \"Urbs Fortitudinis\"* \"De Profundis\"The established title \"Invictus\" was added by editor Arthur Quiller-Couch when the poem was included in the ''Oxford Book of English Verse'' (1900)." ], [ "Notable uses", "===History===* In a speech to the House of Commons on 9 September 1941, Winston Churchill paraphrased the last two lines of the poem, stating \"We are still masters of our fate.", "We still are captains of our souls.", "\"* Nelson Mandela, while incarcerated at Robben Island prison, recited the poem to other prisoners and was empowered by its message of self-mastery.", "* Burmese opposition leader and Nobel Peace laureate Aung San Suu Kyi stated: \"This poem had inspired my father, Aung San, and his contemporaries during the independence struggle, as it also seemed to have inspired freedom fighters in other places at other times.", "\"* The poem was read by U.S. prisoners of war during the Vietnam War.", "James Stockdale recalls being passed the last stanza, written with rat droppings on toilet paper, from fellow prisoner David Hatcher.", "* The phrase \"bloody, but unbowed\" was the headline used by the ''Daily Mirror'' on the day after the 7 July 2005 London bombings.", "* The poem's last stanza was quoted by U.S. President Barack Obama at the end of his speech at the memorial service of Nelson Mandela in South Africa (10 December 2013), and published on the front cover of the 14 December 2013 issue of ''The Economist''.", "* The poem was chosen by Oklahoma City bomber Timothy McVeigh as his final statement before his execution.", "The perpetrator of the Christchurch mosque shootings in New Zealand in 2019 also cited \"Invictus\"''.", "''* According to his sister, before becoming a civil rights leader, Congressman John Lewis used to recite the poem as a teenager and continued to refer to it for inspiration throughout his life.", "* Verse \"Out of the night that covers me\" and phrases \"Bloody, but unbowed\" and \"Captain of my soul\" are used as titles of all three parts of Prince Harry's memoir ''Spare'' (published in 2023).", "The poem is also mentioned as the author reminiscens his involvement in the Invictus Games.=== Literature ===* In Oscar Wilde's ''De Profundis'' letter in 1897, he reminisces that \"I was no longer the Captain of my soul.", "\"* In Book Five, chapter III (\"The Self-Sufficiency of Vertue\") of his early autobiographical work, ''The Pilgrim's Regress'' (1933), C. S. Lewis included a quote from the last two lines (paraphrased by the character Vertue): \"I cannot put myself under anyone's orders.", "I must be the captain of my soul and the master of my fate.", "But thank you for your offer.", "\"* In W. E. B.", "Du Bois' ''The Quest of the Silver Fleece'', the last stanza is sent anonymously from one character to another to encourage him to stay strong in the face of tests to his manhood.", "* The phrase \"bloody, but unbowed\" was quoted by Lord Peter Wimsey in Dorothy Sayers' novel ''Clouds of Witness'' (1926), referring to his failure to exonerate his brother of the charge of murder.", "* The last line in the poem is used as the title for Gwen Harwood's 1960 poem \"I am the Captain of My Soul\", which presents a different view of the titular captain.=== Film ===* In ''Casablanca'' (1942), Captain Renault (played by Claude Rains) recites the last two lines of the poem when talking to Rick Blaine (played by Humphrey Bogart), referring to his power in Casablanca.", "While delivering the last line, he is called away by an aide to Gestapo officer Major Strasser.", "* In ''Kings Row'' (1942), psychiatrist Parris Mitchell (played by Robert Cummings) recites the first two stanzas of \"Invictus\" to his friend Drake McHugh (played by Ronald Reagan) before revealing to Drake that his legs were unnecessarily amputated by a cruel doctor.", "* In ''Sunrise at Campobello'' (1960), the character Louis Howe (played by Hume Cronyn) reads the poem to Franklin D. Roosevelt (played by Ralph Bellamy).", "The recitation is at first light-hearted and partially in jest, but as it continues both men appear to realize the significance of the poem to Roosevelt's fight against his paralytic illness.", "* Nelson Mandela is depicted in ''Invictus'' (2009) presenting a copy of the poem to Francois Pienaar, captain of the national South African rugby team, for inspiration during the Rugby World Cup—though at the actual event he gave Pienaar a text of \"The Man in the Arena\" passage from Theodore Roosevelt's ''Citizenship in a Republic'' speech delivered in France in 1910.", "* The last two lines \"I am the master of my fate: I am the captain of my soul\" are shown in a picture during the 25th minute of the film ''The Big Short'' (2015)''.", "''* ''Star Trek: Renegades'' (2015) opens with Lexxa Singh reciting the poem and writing it on the wall of her prison cell.=== Television ===* In the 5th episode of the 2nd season of ''Archer'', \"The Double Deuce\" (2011), Woodhouse describes Reggie as \"in the words of Henley, 'bloody, but unbowed'\".", "* In the 8th episode of the 5th season of TV series ''The Blacklist'', \"Ian Garvey\", Raymond 'Red' Reddington (played by James Spader) reads the poem to Elizabeth Keen when she wakes up from a ten-month coma.", "* In the 6th episode of the third season of ''One Tree Hill'', \"Locked Hearts & Hand Grenades\" (2006), Lucas Scott (played by Chad Michael Murray) references the poem in an argument with Haley James Scott (played by Bethany Joy Lenz) over his heart condition and playing basketball.", "The episode ends with Lucas reading the whole poem over a series of images that link the various characters to the themes of the poem.", "* In season 1, episode 2 of ''New Amsterdam'', \"Ritual\", Dr. Floyd Reynolds (played by Jocko Sims) references the poem while prepping hands for surgery prior to a conversation with his fellow doctor Dr. Lauren Bloom (played by Janet Montgomery).", "* In the episode \"Interlude\" of the series ''The Lieutenant'', the lead character and the woman he is infatuated with jointly recite the poem after she has said it is her favorite poem.", "His reciting is flawed by lapses, which she fills in.", "* In season 4, episode 14 of ''New Amsterdam'', \"...Unto the Breach\", Dr. Floyd Reynolds (played by Jocko Sims) recites the poem while prepping for surgery.", "* In season 1, episode 3 of Hulu's ''Nine Perfect Strangers'' Napoleon Marconi (played by Michael Shannon) references the poem in his one-on-one with Masha (played by Nicole Kidman) when referring to his son who died by suicide.", "Napoleon states, \"Zach chose to be the master of his fate\" referencing the line \"I am the master of my fate; I am the captain of my soul\" by Henley.", "* In episode 22, season 5 of 30 Rock“Everything Sunny All the Time Always”, Jack Donaghy quotes the last two lines of the poem in to Liz Lemon.=== Sports ===* Jerry Kramer recited the poem during his NFL Pro Football Hall of Fame induction speech.", "* The Invictus Games—The Invictus games were founded by The Duke and Duchess of Cambridge and Prince Harry, the Ministry of Defense, and Sir Keith Mills.", "Prior to the inaugural games in London in 2014, entertainers including Daniel Craig and Tom Hardy, and athletes including Louis Smith and Iwan Thomas, read the poem in a promotional video.=== Video games ===* The second stanza is recited by Lieutenant-Commander Ashley Williams in the 2012 video game ''Mass Effect 3''* The game ''Sunless Sea'' features an \"Invictus Token\" for players who forgo the right to create backups of their current game state.", "The item text includes the last two lines of the poem.", "* The poem was recited in an early commercial for the Microsoft Xbox One.", "* The game ''Robotics;Notes'' features the last two lines of the poem in its epigraph.=== Music ===* The lines \"I am the master of my fate...", "I am the captain of my soul\" are paraphrased in Lana Del Rey's song \"Lust for Life\" featuring The Weeknd.", "The lyrics are changed from \"I\" to \"we,\" alluding to a relationship.", "* Belgian Black / Folk Metal band Ancient Rites use the poem as a song on their album ''Rvbicon'' (Latin form of Rubicon)* The prominent classical contemporary Indonesian composer Ananda Sukarlan (b.", "1968) made a song for soprano, cello and piano in 2023.It was premiered by the soprano Ratnaganadi Paramita in Jakarta, Indonesia.", "* The Canadian punk band D.O.A.", "released a record entitled ''Bloodied but Unbowed (The Damage to Date 1978-83)'' in 1983." ], [ "See also", "* ''If—'', Rudyard Kipling* ''The Man in the Arena'', Theodore Roosevelt* \"Let No Charitable Hope,\" Elinor Wylie* Agency (philosophy)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * The original untitled poem in Henley's '' A Book of Verses'' at Google Books.", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Tertiary sector of the economy" ], [ "Introduction", "The product lifecycleThe '''tertiary sector of the economy''', generally known as the '''service sector''', is the third of the three economic sectors in the three-sector model (also known as the economic cycle).", "The others are the primary sector (raw materials) and the secondary sector (manufacturing).The tertiary sector consists of the provision of services instead of end products.", "Services (also known as \"intangible goods\") include attention, advice, access, experience and affective labour.", "The tertiary sector involves the provision of services to other businesses as well as to final consumers.", "Services may involve the transport, distribution and sale of goods from a producer to a consumer, as may happen in wholesaling and retailing, pest control or financial services.", "The goods may be transformed in the process of providing the service, as happens in the restaurant industry.", "However, the focus is on people by interacting with them and serving the customers rather than transforming the physical goods.", "The production of information has been long regarded as a service, but some economists now attribute it to a fourth sector, called the quaternary sector." ], [ "Difficulty of definition", "It is sometimes hard to determine whether a given company is part of the secondary or the tertiary sector.", "It is not only companies that have been classified as part of a sector in some schemes, since governments and their services (such as the police or military), as well as nonprofit organizations (such as charities or research associations), can also be seen as part of that sector.To classify a business as a service, one can use classification systems such as the United Nations' International Standard Industrial Classification standard, the United States' Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) code system and its new replacement, the North American Industrial Classification System (NAICS), the Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community (NACE) in the EU and similar systems elsewhere.", "These governmental classification systems have a first-level of hierarchy that reflects whether the economic goods are tangible or intangible.For purposes of finance and market research, market-based classification systems such as the Global Industry Classification Standard and the Industry Classification Benchmark are used to classify businesses that participate in the service sector.", "Unlike governmental classification systems, the first level of market-based classification systems divides the economy into functionally related markets or industries.", "The second or third level of these hierarchies then reflects whether goods or services are produced." ], [ "Theory of progression", "For the last 100 years, there has been a substantial shift from the primary and secondary sectors to the tertiary sector in industrialized countries.", "This shift is called '''tertiarisation'''.", "The tertiary sector is now the largest sector of the economy in the Western world, and is also the fastest-growing sector.In examining the growth of the service sector in the early nineties, the globalist Kenichi Ohmae noted that:Economies tend to follow a developmental progression that takes them from heavy reliance on agriculture and mining, toward the development of manufacturing (e.g.", "automobiles, textiles, shipbuilding, steel) and finally toward a more service-based structure.", "The first economy to follow this path in the modern world was the United Kingdom.", "The speed at which other economies have made the transition to service-based (or \"post-industrial\") economies has increased over time.Historically, manufacturing tended to be more open to international trade and competition than services.", "However, with dramatic cost reduction and speed and reliability improvements in the transportation of people and the communication of information, the service sector now includes some of the most intensive international competition, despite residual protectionism." ], [ "Issues for service providers", "Transport serviceTesting telephone lines in London in 1945Service providers face obstacles selling services that goods-sellers rarely face.", "Services are intangible, making it difficult for potential customers to understand what they will receive and what value it will hold for them.", "Indeed, some, such as consultants and providers of investment services, offer no guarantees of the value for the price paid.Since the quality of most services depends largely on the quality of the individuals providing the services, \"people costs\" are usually a high fraction of service costs.", "Whereas a manufacturer may use technology, simplification, and other techniques to lower the cost of goods sold, the service provider often faces an unrelenting pattern of increasing costs.Product differentiation is often difficult.", "For example, how does one choose one investment adviser over another, since they are often seen to provide identical services?", "Charging a premium for services is usually an option only for the most established firms, who charge extra based upon brand recognition." ], [ "Examples of tertiary sector industries", "Examples of tertiary industries may include:* Hospitality industry/tourism * Consulting* Gambling* Retail sales** Fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG)* Franchising* Financial services Banking Insurance** Payment card services* Professional services Legal services Management consulting* Transportation" ], [ "List of countries by tertiary output", "Service output as a percentage of the top producer (United States) as of 2005Below is a list of countries by service output at market exchange rates in 2016:" ], [ "See also", "* Economic sector* Indigo Era* Post-industrial society* Outline of consulting* Quaternary sector of the economy* Voluntary sector" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Primary sector of the economy" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''primary sector of the economy''' includes any industry involved in the extraction and production of raw materials, such as farming, logging, fishing, forestry and mining.The primary sector tends to make up a larger portion of the economy in developing countries than it does in developed countries.", "For example, in 2018, agriculture, forestry, and fishing comprised more than 15% of GDP in sub-Saharan Africa but less than 1% of GDP in North America.In developed countries the primary sector has become more technologically advanced, enabling for example the mechanization of farming, as compared with lower-tech methods in poorer countries.", "More developed economies may invest additional capital in primary means of production: for example, in the United States corn belt, combine harvesters pick the corn, and sprayers spray large amounts of insecticides, herbicides and fungicides, producing a higher yield than is possible using less capital-intensive techniques.", "These technological advances and investment allow the primary sector to employ a smaller workforce, so developed countries tend to have a smaller percentage of their workforce involved in primary activities, instead having a higher percentage involved in the secondary and tertiary sectors." ], [ "List of countries by agricultural output" ], [ "See also", "* Resource curse* Three-sector model" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Dwight H. Perkins: Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science, Vol.", "31, No.", "1, China's Developmental Experience (Mar., 1973)''* ''Cameron: General Economic and Social History''* ''Historia Económica y Social General, by Maria Inés Barbero, Rubén L. Berenblum, Fernando R. García Molina, Jorge Saborido''" ], [ "External links", "* * Economy101.net: ''The Nature of Wealth''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Secondary sector of the economy" ], [ "Introduction", "In macroeconomics, the '''secondary sector of the economy''' is an economic sector in the three-sector theory that describes the role of manufacturing.", "It encompasses industries that produce a finished, usable product or are involved in construction.This sector generally takes the output of the primary sector (i.e.", "raw materials like metals, wood) and creates finished goods suitable for sale to domestic businesses or consumers and for export (via distribution through the tertiary sector).", "Many of these industries consume large quantities of energy, require factories and use machinery; they are often classified as light or heavy based on such quantities.", "This also produces waste materials and waste heat that may cause environmental problems or pollution (see negative externalities).", "Examples include textile production, car manufacturing, and handicraft.Manufacturing is an important activity in promoting economic growth and development.", "Nations that export manufactured products tend to generate higher marginal GDP growth, which supports higher incomes and therefore marginal tax revenue needed to fund such government expenditures as health care and infrastructure.", "Among developed countries, it is an important source of well-paying jobs for the middle class (e.g., engineering) to facilitate greater social mobility for successive generations on the economy.", "Currently, an estimated 20% of the labor force in the United States is involved in the secondary industry.The secondary sector depends on the primary sector for the raw materials necessary for production.", "Countries that primarily produce agricultural and other raw materials (i.e., primary sector) tend to grow slowly and remain either under-developed or developing economies.", "The value added through the transformation of raw materials into finished goods reliably generates greater profitability, which underlies the faster growth of developed economies." ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Imaginary number" ], [ "Introduction", "All powers of assume valuesfrom blue area is a 4th root of unityAn '''imaginary number''' is a real number multiplied by the imaginary unit , which is defined by its property .", "The square of an imaginary number is .", "For example, is an imaginary number, and its square is .", "The number zero is considered to be both real and imaginary.Originally coined in the 17th century by René Descartes as a derogatory term and regarded as fictitious or useless, the concept gained wide acceptance following the work of Leonhard Euler (in the 18th century) and Augustin-Louis Cauchy and Carl Friedrich Gauss (in the early 19th century).An imaginary number can be added to a real number to form a complex number of the form , where the real numbers and are called, respectively, the ''real part'' and the ''imaginary part'' of the complex number." ], [ "History", "An illustration of the complex plane.", "The imaginary numbers are on the vertical coordinate axis.Although the Greek mathematician and engineer Heron of Alexandria is noted as the first to present a calculation involving the square root of a negative number, it was Rafael Bombelli who first set down the rules for multiplication of complex numbers in 1572.The concept had appeared in print earlier, such as in work by Gerolamo Cardano.", "At the time, imaginary numbers and negative numbers were poorly understood and were regarded by some as fictitious or useless, much as zero once was.", "Many other mathematicians were slow to adopt the use of imaginary numbers, including René Descartes, who wrote about them in his ''La Géométrie'' in which he coined the term ''imaginary'' and meant it to be derogatory.", "The use of imaginary numbers was not widely accepted until the work of Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) and Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855).", "The geometric significance of complex numbers as points in a plane was first described by Caspar Wessel (1745–1818).In 1843, William Rowan Hamilton extended the idea of an axis of imaginary numbers in the plane to a four-dimensional space of quaternion imaginaries in which three of the dimensions are analogous to the imaginary numbers in the complex field." ], [ "Geometric interpretation", "90-degree rotations in the complex planeGeometrically, imaginary numbers are found on the vertical axis of the complex number plane, which allows them to be presented perpendicular to the real axis.", "One way of viewing imaginary numbers is to consider a standard number line positively increasing in magnitude to the right and negatively increasing in magnitude to the left.", "At 0 on the -axis, a -axis can be drawn with \"positive\" direction going up; \"positive\" imaginary numbers then increase in magnitude upwards, and \"negative\" imaginary numbers increase in magnitude downwards.", "This vertical axis is often called the \"imaginary axis\" and is denoted or .In this representation, multiplication by corresponds to a counterclockwise rotation of 90 degrees about the origin, which is a quarter of a circle.", "Multiplication by corresponds to a clockwise rotation of 90 degrees about the origin.", "Similarly, multiplying by a purely imaginary number , with a real number, both causes a counterclockwise rotation about the origin by 90 degrees and scales the answer by a factor of .", "When , this can instead be described as a clockwise rotation by 90 degrees and a scaling by ." ], [ "Square roots of negative numbers", "Care must be used when working with imaginary numbers that are expressed as the principal values of the square roots of negative numbers.", "For and both positive real numbers::" ], [ "See also", "* Octonion* −1" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* , explains many applications of imaginary expressions." ], [ "External links", "* How can one show that imaginary numbers really do exist?", "– an article that discusses the existence of imaginary numbers.", "* 5Numbers programme 4 BBC Radio 4 programme* Why Use Imaginary Numbers?", "Basic Explanation and Uses of Imaginary Numbers" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Indictment" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''indictment''' ( ) is a formal accusation that a person has committed a crime.", "In jurisdictions that use the concept of felonies, the most serious criminal offense is a felony; jurisdictions that do not use that concept often use that of an indictable offense, an offense that requires an indictment." ], [ "Australia", "Section 80 of the Constitution of Australia provides that \"the trial on indictment of any offence against any law of the Commonwealth shall be by jury\".", "The High Court of Australia has consistently used a narrow interpretation of this clause, allowing the Parliament of Australia to define which offences proceed on indictment rather than conferring a universal right to a jury trial.", "Section 4G of the ''Crimes Act 1914'' provides that \"offences against a law of the Commonwealth punishable by imprisonment for a period exceeding 12 months are indictable offences, unless the contrary intention appears\"." ], [ "Canada", "A direct indictment is one in which the case is sent directly to trial before a preliminary inquiry is completed or when the accused has been discharged by a preliminary inquiry.", "It is meant to be an extraordinary, rarely used power to ensure that those who should be brought to trial are in a timely manner or where an error of judgment is seen to have been made in the preliminary inquiry.", "In the aftermath of the 2016 Jordan decision, in which the Supreme Court of Canada imposed time limits on the Crown to bring criminal cases to trial, the Crown has started to use the procedure more frequently." ], [ "United Kingdom", "=== England and Wales ===In England and Wales (except in private prosecutions by individuals) an indictment is issued by the public prosecutor (in most cases this will be the Crown Prosecution Service) on behalf of the Crown, which is the nominal plaintiff in all public prosecutions under English law.This is why a public prosecution of a person whose surname is Smith would be referred to in writing as \"R v Smith\" (or alternatively as \"Regina v Smith\" or \"Rex v Smith\" depending on the sex of the Sovereign, ''Regina'' and ''Rex'' being Latin for \"Queen\" and \"King\" and in either case may informally be pronounced as such) and when cited orally in court would be pronounced \"the Crown against Smith\".All proceedings on indictment must be brought before the Crown Court.", "By virtue of practice directions issued under section 75(1) of the Senior Courts Act 1981, an indictment must be tried by a High Court judge, a circuit judge or a recorder (which of these depends on the offence).As to the form of an indictment, see the Indictments Act 1915 and the Indictment Rules 1971 made thereunder.The Indictment Rules 1971 were revoked by the Criminal Procedure (Amendment) Rules 2007 (on the whole) incorporated into the Criminal Procedure Rules 2010.The form and content and the service of an indictment are governed by Rule 14 of the CPR 2012.Additional guidance is contained in the Consolidated Criminal Practice Direction Part IV.34.As to the preferring of a bill of indictment and the signing of an indictment, see section 2 of the Administration of Justice (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1933 and the Indictments (Procedure) Rules 1971 (S.I.", "1971/2084) made thereunder, as amended and modified by the Indictments (Procedure) (Amendment) Rules 1983 (S.I.", "1983/284), the Indictments (Procedure) (Amendment) Rules 1988 (S.I.", "1988/1783), the Indictments (Procedure) (Amendment) Rules 1992 (S.I.", "1992/284), the Indictments (Procedure) (Amendment) Rules 1997 (S.I.", "1997/711), the Indictments (Procedure) (Modification) Rules 1998 (S.I.", "1998/3045) and the Indictments (Procedure) (Amendment) Rules 2000 (S.I.", "2000/3360).=== Northern Ireland ===See the Indictments Act (Northern Ireland) 1945.=== Scotland ===In Scotland, all of these cases brought in the High Court of Justiciary are brought in the name of the Lord Advocate and will be tried on indictment.", "In a sheriff court where trials proceed using the solemn proceedings they will also be tried on indictment and are brought in the name of the Lord Advocate.", "All solemn indictments are designed in the manner Her (or His) Majesty's Advocate v Smith, or, more frequently HMA v Smith." ], [ "United States", "The Fifth Amendment of the United States Constitution states in part: \"No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia when in actual service in time of War or public danger.\"", "The requirement of an indictment has not been incorporated against the states; therefore, even though the federal government uses grand juries and indictments, not all states do.", "As of 2019, all states besides Pennsylvania and Connecticut still use grand juries to indict suspects for some offenses.In many jurisdictions that use grand juries, prosecutors often have a choice between seeking an indictment from a grand jury and filing a charging document directly with the court.", "Such a document is usually called an ''information'', ''accusation'', or ''complaint'', to distinguish it from a grand-jury indictment.", "To protect the suspect's due process rights in felony cases (where the suspect's interest in liberty is at stake), there is usually a preliminary hearing, at which a judge determines whether there was probable cause to arrest the suspect who is in custody.", "If the judge finds such probable cause, they bind, or hold over, the suspect for trial.The substance of an indictment or other charging instrument is usually the same, regardless of the jurisdiction: it consists of a short and plain statement of where, when, and how the defendant allegedly committed the offense.", "Each offense is usually set out in a separate ''count''.", "Indictments for complex crimes, particularly those involving conspiracy or numerous counts, may run to hundreds of pages.", "In other cases, however, an indictment for a crime as serious as murder may consist of a single sheet of paper.Indictable offenses are tried by jury, unless the accused waives the right to a jury trial.", "Even though the Sixth Amendment of the Constitution mandates the right to a jury trial in any criminal prosecution, the vast majority of criminal cases in the US are resolved by the plea-bargaining process." ], [ "Types", "A sealed indictment stays non-public, for various reasons, until it is unsealed (for example, once the indicted is arrested or notified by police).", "A superseding indictment takes the place of the previously active one.", "A speaking indictment goes beyond the legally required statement of the elements of the charged crime(s) and also includes a narrative of the alleged underlying acts in more detail." ], [ "See also", "****" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Republic of Ireland" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ireland''' ( ), also known as the '''Republic of Ireland''' (), is a country in north-western Europe consisting of 26 of the 32 counties of the island of Ireland.", "The capital and largest city is Dublin, on the eastern side of the island.", "Around 2.1 million of the country's population of 5.15 million people reside in the Greater Dublin Area.", "The sovereign state shares its only land border with Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom.", "It is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the Celtic Sea to the south, St George's Channel to the south-east, and the Irish Sea to the east.", "It is a unitary, parliamentary republic.", "The legislature, the , consists of a lower house, ; an upper house, ; and an elected President () who serves as the largely ceremonial head of state, but with some important powers and duties.", "The head of government is the (Prime Minister, literally \"Chief\"), who is elected by the Dáil and appointed by the President; the Taoiseach in turn appoints other government ministers.The Irish Free State was created with Dominion status in 1922, following the Anglo-Irish Treaty.", "In 1937, a new constitution was adopted, in which the state was named \"Ireland\" and effectively became a republic, with an elected non-executive president.", "It was officially declared a republic in 1949, following the Republic of Ireland Act 1948.Ireland became a member of the United Nations in 1955.It joined the European Communities (EC), the predecessor of the European Union (EU), in 1973.The state had no formal relations with Northern Ireland for most of the 20th century, but the 1980s and 1990s saw the British and Irish governments working with Northern Irish parties to resolve the conflict that had become known as the Troubles.", "Since the signing of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, the Irish government and Northern Irish government have co-operated on a number of policy areas under the North/South Ministerial Council created by the Agreement.Ireland is a developed country with a quality of life that ranks amongst the highest in the world; after adjustments for inequality, the 2021 Human Development Index listing ranked it the sixth-highest in the world.", "It also ranks highly in healthcare, economic freedom, and freedom of the press.", "It is a member of the EU and a founding member of the Council of Europe and the OECD.", "The Irish government has followed a policy of military neutrality through non-alignment since before World War II, and the country is consequently not a member of NATO, although it is a member of Partnership for Peace and certain aspects of PESCO.", "Ireland's economy is advanced, with one of Europe's major financial hubs being centred around Dublin.", "It ranks among the top 10 wealthiest countries in the world in terms of both GDP and GNI per capita.", "After joining the EC, the country's government enacted a series of liberal economic policies that helped to boost economic growth between 1995 and 2007, a time now often referred to as the Celtic Tiger period.", "A recession and reversal in growth then followed during the Great Recession, which was exacerbated by the bursting of the Irish property bubble." ], [ "Name", "The Irish name for Ireland is , deriving from , a goddess in Irish mythology.", "The state created in 1922, comprising 26 of the 32 counties of Ireland, was \"styled and known as the Irish Free State\" ().", "The Constitution of Ireland, adopted in 1937, says that \"the name of the State is ''Éire'', or, in the English language, Ireland\".", "Section 2 of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 states, \"It is hereby declared that the description of the State shall be the Republic of Ireland.\"", "The 1948 Act does not ''name'' the state \"Republic of Ireland\", because to have done so would have put it in conflict with the Constitution.The government of the United Kingdom used the name \"Eire\" (without the diacritic) and, from 1949, \"Republic of Ireland\", for the state.", "It was not until the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, when the state dropped its claim to Northern Ireland, that it began calling the state \"Ireland\".The state is also informally called \"the Republic\", \"Southern Ireland\" or \"the South\"; especially when distinguishing the state from the island or when discussing Northern Ireland (\"the North\").", "Irish republicans reserve the name \"Ireland\" for the whole island and often refer to the state as \"the Free State\", \"the 26 Counties\", or \"the South of Ireland\".", "This is a \"response to the partitionist view ... that Ireland stops at the border\"." ], [ "History", "===Home-rule movement===From the Act of Union on 1 January 1801, until 6 December 1922, the island of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.", "During the Great Famine, from 1845 to 1849, the island's population of over 8 million fell by 30%.", "One million Irish died of starvation and disease and another 1.5 million emigrated, mostly to the United States.", "This set the pattern of emigration for the century to come, resulting in constant population decline up to the 1960s.The Irish Parliamentary Party was formed in 1882 by Charles Stewart Parnell (1846–1891).", "Charles Stewart Parnell addressing a meeting.From 1874, and particularly under Charles Stewart Parnell from 1880, the Irish Parliamentary Party gained prominence.", "This was firstly through widespread agrarian agitation via the Irish Land League, which won land reforms for tenants in the form of the Irish Land Acts, and secondly through its attempts to achieve Home Rule, via two unsuccessful bills which would have granted Ireland limited national autonomy.", "These led to \"grass-roots\" control of national affairs, under the Local Government Act 1898, that had been in the hands of landlord-dominated grand juries of the Protestant Ascendancy.Home Rule seemed certain when the Parliament Act 1911 abolished the veto of the House of Lords, and John Redmond secured the Third Home Rule Act in 1914.However, the Unionist movement had been growing since 1886 among Irish Protestants after the introduction of the first home rule bill, fearing discrimination and loss of economic and social privileges if Irish Catholics achieved real political power.", "In the late 19th and early 20th-century unionism was particularly strong in parts of Ulster, where industrialisation was more common in contrast to the more agrarian rest of the island, and where the Protestant population was more prominent, with a majority in four counties.", "Under the leadership of the Dublin-born Sir Edward Carson of the Irish Unionist Party and the Ulsterman Sir James Craig of the Ulster Unionist Party, unionists became strongly militant, forming Ulster Volunteers in order to oppose \"the Coercion of Ulster\".", "After the Home Rule Bill passed parliament in May 1914, to avoid rebellion with Ulster, the British Prime Minister H. H. Asquith introduced an Amending Bill reluctantly conceded to by the Irish Party leadership.", "This provided for the temporary exclusion of Ulster from the workings of the bill for a trial period of six years, with an as yet undecided new set of measures to be introduced for the area to be temporarily excluded.===Revolution and steps to independence===Damage in Dublin city centre following the 1916 Easter RisingThough it received the Royal Assent and was placed on the statute books in 1914, the implementation of the Third Home Rule Act was suspended until after the First World War which defused the threat of civil war in Ireland.", "With the hope of ensuring the implementation of the Act at the end of the war through Ireland's engagement in the war, Redmond and the Irish National Volunteers supported the UK and its Allies.", "175,000 men joined Irish regiments of the 10th (Irish) and 16th (Irish) divisions of the New British Army, while Unionists joined the 36th (Ulster) divisions.The remainder of the Irish Volunteers, who refused Redmond and opposed any support of the UK, launched an armed insurrection against British rule in the 1916 Easter Rising, together with the Irish Citizen Army.", "This commenced on 24 April 1916 with the declaration of independence.", "After a week of heavy fighting, primarily in Dublin, the surviving rebels were forced to surrender their positions.", "The majority were imprisoned, with fifteen of the prisoners (including most of the leaders) were executed as traitors to the UK.", "This included Patrick Pearse, the spokesman for the rising and who provided the signal to the volunteers to start the rising, as well as James Connolly, socialist and founder of the Industrial Workers of the World union and both the Irish and Scottish Labour movements.", "These events, together with the Conscription Crisis of 1918, had a profound effect on changing public opinion in Ireland against the British Government.In January 1919, after the December 1918 general election, 73 of Ireland's 105 Members of Parliament (MPs) elected were Sinn Féin members who were elected on a platform of abstentionism from the British House of Commons.", "In January 1919, they set up an Irish parliament called Dáil Éireann.", "This first Dáil issued a declaration of independence and proclaimed an Irish Republic.", "The declaration was mainly a restatement of the 1916 Proclamation with the additional provision that Ireland was no longer a part of the United Kingdom.", "The Irish Republic's Ministry of Dáil Éireann sent a delegation under (Head of Council, or Speaker, of the Daíl) Seán T. O'Kelly to the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, but it was not admitted.Leinster House , Dublin.", "In 1922 a new parliament called the Oireachtas was established, of which Dáil Éireann became the lower house.After the War of Independence and truce called in July 1921, representatives of the British government and the five Irish treaty delegates, led by Arthur Griffith, Robert Barton and Michael Collins, negotiated the Anglo-Irish Treaty in London from 11 October to 6 December 1921.The Irish delegates set up headquarters at Hans Place in Knightsbridge, and it was here in private discussions that the decision was taken on 5 December to recommend the treaty to Dáil Éireann.", "On 7 January 1922, the Second Dáil ratified the Treaty by 64 votes to 57.In accordance with the treaty, on 6 December 1922 the entire island of Ireland became a self-governing Dominion called the Irish Free State (''Saorstát Éireann'').", "Under the Constitution of the Irish Free State, the Parliament of Northern Ireland had the option to leave the Irish Free State one month later and return to the United Kingdom.", "During the intervening period, the powers of the Parliament of the Irish Free State and Executive Council of the Irish Free State did not extend to Northern Ireland.", "Northern Ireland exercised its right under the treaty to leave the new Dominion and rejoined the United Kingdom on 8 December 1922.It did so by making an address to the King requesting, \"that the powers of the Parliament and Government of the Irish Free State shall no longer extend to Northern Ireland.\"", "The Irish Free State was a constitutional monarchy sharing a monarch with the United Kingdom and other Dominions of the British Commonwealth.", "The country had a governor-general (representing the monarch), a bicameral parliament, a cabinet called the \"Executive Council\", and a prime minister called the President of the Executive Council.===Irish Civil War===Éamon de Valera, Irish political leader, pictured outside Ennis Courthouse in 1917.He who later be involved in introducing the 1937 Constitution of Ireland.The Irish Civil War (June 1922 – May 1923) was the consequence of the ratification of the Anglo-Irish Treaty and the creation of the Irish Free State.", "Anti-treaty forces, led by Éamon de Valera, objected to the fact that acceptance of the treaty abolished the Irish Republic of 1919 to which they had sworn loyalty, arguing in the face of public support for the settlement that the \"people have no right to do wrong\".", "They objected most to the fact that the state would remain part of the British Empire and that members of the Free State Parliament would have to swear what the anti-treaty side saw as an oath of fidelity to the British king.", "Pro-treaty forces, led by Michael Collins, argued that the treaty gave \"not the ultimate freedom that all nations aspire to and develop, but the freedom to achieve it\".At the start of the war, the Irish Republican Army (IRA) split into two opposing camps: a pro-treaty IRA and an anti-treaty IRA.", "The pro-treaty IRA disbanded and joined the new National Army.", "However, because the anti-treaty IRA lacked an effective command structure and because of the pro-treaty forces' defensive tactics throughout the war, Michael Collins and his pro-treaty forces were able to build up an army with many tens of thousands of World War I veterans from the 1922 disbanded Irish regiments of the British Army, capable of overwhelming the anti-treatyists.", "British supplies of artillery, aircraft, machine-guns and ammunition boosted pro-treaty forces, and the threat of a return of Crown forces to the Free State removed any doubts about the necessity of enforcing the treaty.", "Lack of public support for the anti-treaty forces (often called the Irregulars) and the determination of the government to overcome the Irregulars contributed significantly to their defeat.===Constitution of Ireland 1937===The Constitution Committee meeting at the Shelbourne Hotel, Dublin.Following a national plebiscite in July 1937, the new Constitution of Ireland (''Bunreacht na hÉireann'') came into force on 29 December 1937.This replaced the Constitution of the Irish Free State and declared that the name of the state is , or \"Ireland\" in the English language.John T. Koch, Celtic culture: a historical encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO: Santa Barbara, 2006.While Articles 2 and 3 of the Constitution defined the national territory to be the whole island, they also confined the state's jurisdiction to the area that had been the Irish Free State.", "The former Irish Free State government had abolished the Office of Governor-General in December 1936.Although the constitution established the office of President of Ireland, the question over whether Ireland was a republic remained open.", "Diplomats were accredited to the king, but the president exercised all internal functions of a head of state.", "For instance, the President gave assent to new laws with his own authority, without reference to King George VI who was only an \"organ\", that was provided for by statute law.Ireland remained neutral during World War II, a period it described as The Emergency.", "Ireland's Dominion status was terminated with the passage of The Republic of Ireland Act 1948, which came into force on 18 April 1949 and declared that the state was a republic.", "At the time, a declaration of a republic terminated Commonwealth membership.", "This rule was changed 10 days after Ireland declared itself a republic, with the London Declaration of 28 April 1949.Ireland did not reapply when the rules were altered to permit republics to join.", "Later, the Crown of Ireland Act 1542 was repealed in Ireland by the Statute Law Revision (Pre-Union Irish Statutes) Act 1962.===Recent history===In 1973 Ireland joined the European Economic Community along with the United Kingdom and Denmark.", "The country signed the Lisbon Treaty in 2007.Ireland became a member of the United Nations in December 1955, after having been denied membership because of its neutral stance during the Second World War and not supporting the Allied cause.", "At the time, joining the UN involved a commitment to using force to deter aggression by one state against another if the UN thought it was necessary.Interest towards membership of the European Communities (EC) developed in Ireland during the 1950s, with consideration also given to membership of the European Free Trade Area.", "As the United Kingdom intended on EC membership, Ireland applied for membership in July 1961 due to the substantial economic linkages with the United Kingdom.", "The founding EC members remained sceptical regarding Ireland's economic capacity, neutrality, and unattractive protectionist policy.", "Many Irish economists and politicians realised that economic policy reform was necessary.", "The prospect of EC membership became doubtful in 1963 when French President General Charles de Gaulle stated that France opposed Britain's accession, which ceased negotiations with all other candidate countries.", "In 1969 his successor, Georges Pompidou, was not opposed to British and Irish membership.", "Negotiations began and in 1972 the Treaty of Accession was signed.", "A referendum was held later that year which confirmed Ireland's entry into the bloc, and it finally joined the EC as a member state on 1 January 1973.The economic crisis of the late 1970s was fuelled by the Fianna Fáil government's budget, the abolition of the car tax, excessive borrowing, and global economic instability including the 1979 oil crisis.", "There were significant policy changes from 1989 onwards, with economic reform, tax cuts, welfare reform, an increase in competition, and a ban on borrowing to fund current spending.", "This policy began in 1989–1992 by the Fianna Fáil/Progressive Democrats government, and continued by the subsequent Fianna Fáil/Labour government and Fine Gael/Labour/Democratic Left government.", "Ireland became one of the world's fastest growing economies by the late 1990s in what was known as the Celtic Tiger period, which lasted until the Great Recession.", "Since 2014, Ireland has experienced increased economic activity.In the Northern Ireland question, the British and Irish governments started to seek a peaceful resolution to the violent conflict involving many paramilitaries and the British Army in Northern Ireland known as \"The Troubles\".", "A peace settlement for Northern Ireland, known as the Good Friday Agreement, was approved in 1998 in referendums north and south of the border.", "As part of the peace settlement, the territorial claim to Northern Ireland in Articles 2 and 3 of the Constitution of Ireland was removed by referendum.", "In its white paper on Brexit the United Kingdom government reiterated its commitment to the Good Friday Agreement.", "With regard to Northern Ireland's status, it said that the UK Government's \"clearly-stated preference is to retain Northern Ireland's current constitutional position: as part of the UK, but with strong links to Ireland\"." ], [ "Geography", "Ireland from spaceThe state extends over an area of about five-sixths () of the island of Ireland (), with Northern Ireland constituting the remainder.", "The island is bounded to the north and west by the Atlantic Ocean and to the northeast by the North Channel.", "To the east, the Irish Sea connects to the Atlantic Ocean via St George's Channel and the Celtic Sea to the southwest.The Cliffs of Moher on the Atlantic coastMacGillycuddy's Reeks, Ireland's highest mountain rangeThe western landscape mostly consists of rugged cliffs, hills and mountains.", "The central lowlands are extensively covered with glacial deposits of clay and sand, as well as significant areas of bogland and several lakes.", "The highest point is Carrauntoohil (), located in the MacGillycuddy's Reeks mountain range in the southwest.", "River Shannon, which traverses the central lowlands, is the longest river in Ireland at in length.", "The west coast is more rugged than the east, with numerous islands, peninsulas, headlands and bays.Ireland is one of the least forested countries in Europe.", "Until the end of the Middle Ages, the land was heavily forested.", "Native species include deciduous trees such as oak, ash, hazel, birch, alder, willow, aspen, elm, rowan and hawthorn, as well as evergreen trees such Scots pine, yew, holly and strawberry trees.", "The growth of blanket bog and the extensive clearing of woodland for farming are believed to be the main causes of deforestation.", "Today, only about 10% of Ireland is woodland, most of which is non-native conifer plantations, and only 2% of which is native woodland.", "The average woodland cover in European countries is over 33%.", "According to ''Coillte'', a state-owned forestry business, the country's climate gives Ireland one of the fastest growth rates for forests in Europe.", "Hedgerows, which are traditionally used to define land boundaries, are an important substitute for woodland habitat, providing refuge for native wild flora and a wide range of insect, bird and mammal species.", "It is home to two terrestrial ecoregions: Celtic broadleaf forests and North Atlantic moist mixed forests.Agriculture accounts for about 64% of the total land area.", "This has resulted in limited land to preserve natural habitats, in particular for larger wild mammals with greater territorial requirements.", "The long history of agricultural production coupled with modern agricultural methods, such as pesticide and fertiliser use, has placed pressure on biodiversity.===Climate===Wicklow Mountains National ParkThe Atlantic Ocean and the warming influence of the Gulf Stream affect weather patterns in Ireland.", "Temperatures differ regionally, with central and eastern areas tending to be more extreme.", "However, due to a temperate oceanic climate, temperatures are seldom lower than in winter or higher than in summer.", "The highest temperature recorded in Ireland was on 26 June 1887 at Kilkenny Castle in Kilkenny, while the lowest temperature recorded was at Markree Castle in Sligo.", "Rainfall is more prevalent during winter months and less so during the early months of summer.", "Southwestern areas experience the most rainfall as a result of south westerly winds, while Dublin receives the least.", "Sunshine duration is highest in the southeast of the country.", "The far north and west are two of the windiest regions in Europe, with great potential for wind energy generation.Ireland normally gets between 1100 and 1600 hours of sunshine each year, most areas averaging between 3.25 and 3.75 hours a day.", "The sunniest months are May and June, which average between 5 and 6.5 hours per day over most of the country.", "The extreme southeast gets most sunshine, averaging over 7 hours a day in early summer.", "December is the dullest month, with an average daily sunshine ranging from about 1 hour in the north to almost 2 hours in the extreme southeast.", "The sunniest summer in the 100 years from 1881 to 1980 was 1887, according to measurements made at the Phoenix Park in Dublin; 1980 was the dullest." ], [ "Politics", "Ireland is a constitutional republic with a parliamentary system of government.", "The is the bicameral national parliament composed of the President of Ireland and the two Houses of the Oireachtas: (House of Representatives) and (Senate).", "Áras an Uachtaráin is the official residence of the President of Ireland, while the houses of the Oireachtas meet at Leinster House in Dublin.The President serves as head of state, is elected for a seven-year term, and may be re-elected once.", "The President is primarily a figurehead, but is entrusted with certain constitutional powers with the advice of the Council of State.", "The office has absolute discretion in some areas, such as referring a bill to the Supreme Court for a judgment on its constitutionality.", "Michael D. Higgins became the ninth President of Ireland on 11 November 2011.The (Prime Minister) serves as the head of government and is appointed by the President upon the nomination of the .", "Most have served as the leader of the political party that gains the most seats in national elections.", "It has become customary for coalitions to form a government, as there has not been a single-party government since 1989.The has 160 members () elected to represent multi-seat constituencies under the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote.", "The is composed of sixty members, with eleven nominated by the , six elected by two university constituencies, and 43 elected by public representatives from panels of candidates established on a vocational basis.The government is constitutionally limited to fifteen members.", "No more than two members can be selected from the , and the , (deputy prime minister) and Minister for Finance must be members of the .", "The Dáil must be dissolved within five years of its first meeting following the previous election, and a general election for members of the Dáil must take place no later than thirty days after the dissolution.", "In accordance with the Constitution of Ireland, parliamentary elections must be held at least every seven years, though a lower limit may be set by statute law.", "The current government is a coalition of Fianna Fáil, Fine Gael, and the Green Party with Leo Varadkar of Fine Gael as Taoiseach and Micheál Martin of Fianna Fáil as Tánaiste.", "Opposition parties in the current are Sinn Féin, the Labour Party, People Before Profit–Solidarity, Social Democrats, Aontú, as well as a number of independents.Ireland has been a member state of the European Union since 1973.Citizens of the United Kingdom can freely enter the country without a passport due to the Common Travel Area, which is a passport-free zone comprising the islands of Ireland, Great Britain, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands.", "However, some identification is required at airports and seaports.===Local government===The Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898 was the founding statute of the present system of local government, while the Twentieth Amendment to the constitution of 1999 provided for its constitutional recognition.", "The twenty-six traditional counties of Ireland are the basis of the local government areas, with the traditional counties of Cork, Dublin and Galway containing two or more local government areas.", "The Local Government Act 2001, as amended by the Local Government Reform Act 2014, provides for a system of thirty-one local authorities – twenty-six county councils, two city and county councils, and three city councils.", "Counties (with the exception of the three counties in Dublin) are divided into municipal districts.", "A second local government tier of town councils was abolished in 2014.right# Fingal# Dublin City# Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown# South Dublin# Wicklow# Wexford# Carlow# Kildare# Meath# Louth# Monaghan# Cavan# Longford# Westmeath# Offaly# Laois KilkennyWaterfordCork CityCorkKerryLimerickTipperaryClareGalwayGalway CityMayoRoscommonSligoLeitrimDonegalLocal authorities are responsible for matters such as planning, local roads, sanitation, and libraries.", "The breaching of county boundaries should be avoided as far as practicable in drawing Dáil constituencies.", "Counties with greater populations have multiple constituencies, some of more than one county, but generally do not cross county boundaries.", "The counties are grouped into three regions, each with a Regional Assembly composed of members delegated by the various county and city councils in the region.", "The regions do not have any direct administrative role as such, but they serve for planning, coordination and statistical purposes.===Law===The Four Courts, completed in 1802, is the principal building for civil courts.Ireland has a common law legal system with a written constitution that provides for a parliamentary democracy.", "The court system consists of the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, the High Court, the Circuit Court and the District Court, all of which apply the Irish law and hear both civil and criminal matters.", "Trials for serious offences must usually be held before a jury.", "The High Court, Court of Appeal and the Supreme Court have authority, by means of judicial review, to determine the compatibility of laws and activities of other institutions of the state with the constitution and the law.", "Except in exceptional circumstances, court hearings must occur in public.Criminal Courts of Justice is the principal building for criminal courts.The Garda Síochána (''lit.''", "Guardians of the Peace), more commonly referred to as the Gardaí, is the state's civilian police force.", "The force is responsible for all aspects of civil policing, both in terms of territory and infrastructure.", "It is headed by the Garda Commissioner, who is appointed by the Government.", "Most uniformed members do not routinely carry firearms.", "Standard policing is traditionally carried out by uniformed officers equipped only with a baton and pepper spray.The Military Police is the corps of the Irish Army responsible for the provision of policing service personnel and providing a military police presence to forces while on exercise and deployment.", "In wartime, additional tasks include the provision of a traffic control organisation to allow rapid movement of military formations to their mission areas.", "Other wartime roles include control of prisoners of war and refugees.Ireland's citizenship laws relate to \"the island of Ireland\", including islands and seas, thereby extending them to Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom.", "Therefore, anyone born in Northern Ireland who meets the requirements for being an Irish citizen, such as birth on the island of Ireland to an Irish or British citizen parent or a parent who is entitled to live in Northern Ireland or the Republic without restriction on their residency, may exercise an entitlement to Irish citizenship, such as an Irish passport.===Foreign relations===Taoiseach Leo Varadkar and US President Joe Biden, at the White House, Washington, D.C., on 17 March 2023Foreign relations are substantially influenced by membership of the European Union, although bilateral relations with the United Kingdom and United States are also important.", "It held the Presidency of the Council of the European Union on six occasions, most recently from January to June 2013.Ireland tends towards independence in foreign policy; thus the country is not a member of NATO and has a longstanding policy of military neutrality.", "This policy has led to the Irish Defence Forces contributing to peace-keeping missions with the United Nations since 1960, including during the Congo Crisis and subsequently in Cyprus, Lebanon and Bosnia and Herzegovina.Despite Irish neutrality during World War II, Ireland had more than 50,000 participants in the war through enlistment in the British armed forces.", "During the Cold War, Irish military policy, while ostensibly neutral, was biased towards NATO.", "During the Cuban Missile Crisis, Seán Lemass authorised the search of Cuban and Czechoslovak aircraft passing through Shannon and passed the information to the CIA.", "Ireland's air facilities were used by the United States military for the delivery of military personnel involved in the 2003 invasion of Iraq through Shannon Airport.", "The airport had previously been used for the United States invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, as well as the First Gulf War.Since 1999, Ireland has been a member of NATO's Partnership for Peace (PfP) program and NATO's Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC), which is aimed at creating trust between NATO and other states in Europe and the former Soviet Union.===Military===Irish Army soldiers as part of Kosovo Force, 2010Ireland is a neutral country, and has \"triple-lock\" rules governing the participation of Irish troops in conflict zones, whereby approval must be given by the UN, the Dáil and Government.", "Accordingly, its military role is limited to national self-defence and participation in United Nations peacekeeping.The Irish Defence Forces () are made up of the Army, Naval Service, Air Corps and Reserve Defence Force.", "It is small but well equipped, with almost 10,000 full-time military personnel and over 2,000 in reserve.", "Daily deployments of the Defence Forces cover aid to civil power operations, protection and patrol of Irish territorial waters and EEZ by the Irish Naval Service, and UN, EU and PfP peace-keeping missions.", "By 1996, over 40,000 Irish service personnel had served in international UN peacekeeping missions.The Irish Air Corps is the air component of the Defence Forces and operates sixteen fixed wing aircraft and eight helicopters.", "The Irish Naval Service is Ireland's navy, and operates six patrol ships, and smaller numbers of inflatable boats and training vessels, and has armed boarding parties capable of seizing a ship and a special unit of frogmen.", "The military includes the Reserve Defence Forces (Army Reserve and Naval Service Reserve) for part-time reservists.", "Ireland's special forces include the Army Ranger Wing, which trains and operates with international special operations units.", "The President is the formal Supreme Commander of the Defence Forces, but in practice these Forces answer to the Government via the Minister for Defence.In 2017, Ireland signed the United Nations Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons." ], [ "Economy", "Ireland is an open economy and ranks first for \"high-value\" foreign direct investment (FDI) flows.", "Ireland ranks 5th of 187 (IMF) and 6th of 175 (World Bank) in GDP per capita as well as ranking in the top ten for GNI per capita.", "An alternative metric, known as modified Gross National Income (GNI), was created by the Central Statistics Office and is used by the Irish government to give a view of activity in the domestic economy after stripping out large multinational export movements which can often relate to intangible assets.", "This is particularly relevant in Ireland's economy, as GDP disproportionately includes income from non-Irish owned companies, which often flows out of Ireland.", "Foreign multinationals are the main driver of Ireland's economy, employing a quarter of the private sector workforce, and paying 80% of Irish corporate taxes.", "14 of Ireland's top 20 firms (by 2017 turnover) are US-based multinationals and 80% of foreign multinationals in Ireland are from the US.Ireland is part of the EU (dark blue & light blue) and Eurozone (dark blue).Ireland adopted the euro currency in 2002 along with eleven other EU member states.", "As of January 2023 there are 20 EU member states using the euro currency with Croatia the most recent member to join on 1 January 2023.Following the Great Recession and the bursting of the Irish property bubble, the country officially exited recession in 2010, driven by a growth in exports from US multinationals in Ireland.", "However, due to a rise in the cost of public borrowing due to government guarantees of private banking debt, the Irish government accepted an €85 billion programme of assistance from the EU, International Monetary Fund (IMF) and bilateral loans from the United Kingdom, Sweden and Denmark.", "Following three years of contraction, the economy grew by 0.7% in 2011 and 0.9% in 2012.The unemployment rate was 14.7% in 2012, including 18.5% among recent immigrants.", "In March 2016 the unemployment rate was reported by the CSO to be 8.6%, down from a peak unemployment rate of 15.1% in February 2012.In addition to unemployment, net emigration from Ireland between 2008 and 2013 totalled 120,100, or some 2.6% of the total population according to the Census of Ireland 2011.One-third of the emigrants were aged between 15 and 24.As of November 2022, unemployment had fallen back to 4.4%.Ireland exited its EU-IMF bailout programme on 15 December 2013.Having implemented budget cuts, reforms and sold assets, Ireland was again able to access debt markets.", "Since then, Ireland has been able to sell long term bonds at record rates.", "However, the stabilisation of the Irish credit bubble required a large transfer of debt from the private sector balance sheet (highest OECD leverage), to the public sector balance sheet (almost unleveraged, pre-crisis), via Irish bank bailouts and public deficit spending.", "The transfer of this debt means that Ireland, in 2017, still has one of the highest levels of both public sector indebtedness, and private sector indebtedness, in the EU-28/OECD.Ireland became one of the main destinations for US pharmaceutical corporate tax inversions from 2009 to 2016.The country has also became the largest foreign location for large US technology multinationals (i.e.", "Apple, Google, Microsoft, Facebook), which delivered a GDP growth rate of 26.3% (and GNP growth rate of 18.7%) in 2015.This growth was subsequently shown to be due to Apple restructuring its \"double Irish\" subsidiary (Apple Sales International, currently under threat of a €13bn EU \"illegal state aid\" fine for preferential tax treatment).===Taxation policy===The transformation of Ireland's tax policy started with the creation of a 10% low-tax \"special economic zone\", called the International Financial Services Centre (or \"IFSC\"), in 1987.In 1999, the entire country was effectively \"turned into an IFSC\" with the reduction of Irish corporation tax from 32% to 12.5%.", "This accelerated the later stages of Ireland's transition from a predominantly agricultural economy into a knowledge and service economy initially focused on property and construction and later focused on attracting mainly US multinationals from high-tech, life sciences, and financial services industries seeking to avail of Ireland's low corporation tax rates and favourable corporate tax system.The multinational tax schemes foreign firms use in Ireland materially distort Irish economic statistics.", "This reached a climax with the \"leprechaun economics\" GDP/GNP growth rates of 2015 (as Apple restructured its Irish subsidiaries in 2015).", "The Central Bank of Ireland introduced a new statistic, Modified gross national income, to remove these distortions.", "GNI* is 30% below GDP (or, GDP is 143% of GNI).From the creation of the IFSC, the country experienced strong and sustained economic growth which fuelled a dramatic rise in Irish consumer borrowing and spending, and Irish construction and investment, which became known as the Celtic Tiger period.", "By 2007, Ireland had the highest private sector debt in the OECD with a household debt-to-disposable income ratio of 190%.", "Global capital markets, who had financed Ireland's build-up of debt in the Celtic Tiger period by enabling Irish banks to borrow in excess of the domestic deposit base (to over 180% at peak), withdrew support in the financial crisis of 2007–2008.Their withdrawal from the over-borrowed Irish credit system would precipitate a deep Irish property correction which then led to the Post-2008 Irish banking crisis.Ireland's successful \"low-tax\" economy opens it to accusations of being a \"corporate tax haven\", and led to it being \"blacklisted\" by Brazil.", "A 2017 study ranks Ireland as the 5th largest global Conduit OFC, which legally route funds to tax havens.", "A serious challenge is the passing of the US Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 (whose FDII and GILTI regimes target Ireland's multinational tax schemes).", "The EU's 2018 Digital Sales Tax (DST) (and desire for a CCCTB) is also seen as an attempt to restrict Irish \"multinational tax schemes\" by US technology firms.===Trade===International Financial Services Centre in DublinAlthough multinational corporations dominate Ireland's export sector, exports from other sources also contribute significantly to the national income.", "The activities of multinational companies based in Ireland have made it one of the largest exporters of pharmaceutical agents, medical devices and software-related goods and services in the world.", "Ireland's exports also relate to the activities of large Irish companies (such as Ryanair, Kerry Group and Smurfit Kappa) and exports of mineral resources including zinc and lead concentrates.", "The country also has significant deposits of gypsum and smaller quantities of copper, silver, gold, barite, and dolomite.", "Tourism in Ireland contributes about 4% of GDP and is a significant source of employment.Other goods exports include agri-food, cattle, beef, dairy products, and aluminum.", "Ireland's major imports include data processing equipment, chemicals, petroleum and petroleum products, textiles, and clothing.", "Financial services provided by multinational corporations based at the Irish Financial Services Centre also contribute to Irish exports.", "The difference between exports (€89.4 billion) and imports (€45.5 billion) resulted an annual trade surplus of €43.9 billion in 2010, which is the highest trade surplus relative to GDP achieved by any EU member state.The EU is by far the country's largest trading partner, accounting for 57.9% of exports and 60.7% of imports.", "Prior to Brexit, the United Kingdom was the most important trading partner within the EU, accounting for 15.4% of exports and 32.1% of imports.", "Outside the EU, the United States accounted for 23.2% of exports and 14.1% of imports in 2010.===Energy===A wind farm in County WexfordESB, Bord Gáis Energy and Airtricity are the three main electricity and gas suppliers in Ireland.", "There are 19.82 billion cubic metres of proven reserves of gas.", "Natural gas extraction previously occurred at the Kinsale Head until its exhaustion.", "The Corrib gas field was due to come on stream in 2013/14.In 2012, the Barryroe field was confirmed to have up to 1.6 billion barrels of oil in reserve, with between 160 and 600 million recoverable.", "That could provide for Ireland's entire energy needs for up to 13 years, when it is developed in 2015/16.There have been significant efforts to increase the use of renewable and sustainable forms of energy in Ireland, particularly in wind power, with 3,000 MegaWatts of wind farms being constructed, some for the purpose of export.", "The Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (SEAI) has estimated that 6.5% of Ireland's 2011 energy requirements were produced by renewable sources.", "The SEAI has also reported an increase in energy efficiency in Ireland with a 28% reduction in carbon emissions per house from 2005 to 2013.As of 2021, Ireland was the 24th largest wind energy producer in the world and the 3rd ranked in 2020 on a per capita basis.===Transport===The country's three main international airports at Dublin, Shannon and Cork serve many European and intercontinental routes with scheduled and chartered flights.", "The London to Dublin air route is the ninth busiest international air route in the world, and also the busiest international air route in Europe, with 14,500 flights between the two in 2017.In 2015, 4.5 million people took the route, at that time, the world's second-busiest.", "Aer Lingus is the flag carrier of Ireland, although Ryanair is the country's largest airline.", "Ryanair is Europe's largest low-cost carrier, the second largest in terms of passenger numbers, and the world's largest in terms of international passenger numbers.Iarnród Éireann trains at Heuston stationRailway services are provided by Iarnród Éireann (Irish Rail), which operates all internal intercity, commuter and freight railway services in the country.", "Dublin is the centre of the network with two main stations, Heuston station and Connolly station, linking to the country's cities and main towns.", "The Enterprise service, which runs jointly with Northern Ireland Railways, connects Dublin and Belfast.", "The whole of Ireland's mainline network operates on track with a gauge of , which is unique in Europe and has resulted in distinct rolling stock designs.", "Dublin's public transport network includes the DART, Luas, Dublin Bus, and dublinbikes.Motorways, national primary roads and national secondary roads are managed by Transport Infrastructure Ireland, while regional roads and local roads are managed by the local authorities in each of their respective areas.", "The road network is primarily focused on the capital, but motorways connect it to other major Irish cities including Cork, Limerick, Waterford and Galway.Dublin is served by major infrastructure such as the East-Link and West-Link toll-bridges, as well as the Dublin Port Tunnel.", "The Jack Lynch Tunnel, under the River Lee in Cork, and the Limerick Tunnel, under the River Shannon, were two major projects outside Dublin." ], [ "Demographics", "Population of Ireland since 1951Genetic research suggests that the earliest settlers migrated from Iberia following the most recent ice age.", "After the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age, migrants introduced a Celtic language and culture.", "Migrants from the two latter eras still represent the genetic heritage of most Irish people.", "Gaelic tradition expanded and became the dominant form over time.", "Irish people are a combination of Gaelic, Norse, Anglo-Norman, French, and British ancestry.The population of Ireland stood at 5,149,139 in 2022, an increase of 8% since 2016., Ireland had the highest birth rate in the European Union (16 births per 1,000 of population).", "In 2014, 36.3% of births were to unmarried women.", "Annual population growth rates exceeded 2% during the 2002–2006 intercensal period, which was attributed to high rates of natural increase and immigration.", "This rate declined somewhat during the subsequent 2006–2011 intercensal period, with an average annual percentage change of 1.6%.", "The total fertility rate (TFR) in 2017 was estimated at 1.80 children born per woman, below the replacement rate of 2.1, it remains considerably below the high of 4.2 children born per woman in 1850.In 2018 the median age of the Irish population was 37.1 years.At the time of the 2022 census, the number of non-Irish nationals was recorded at 631,785.This represents an 8% increase from the 2016 census figure of 535,475.The five largest sources of non-Irish nationals were Poland (93,680), the UK (83,347), India (45,449), Romania (43,323), Lithuania (31,177), and Latvia (27,338) respectively.", "The non-Irish nationalities which saw the largest increase from 2016 were India (+33,984), Romania (+14,137), Brazil (+13,698), Ukraine (+10,006).", "The non-Irish nationalities which saw the largest decrease from 2016 were Poland (-28,835), UK (-19,766), Lithuania (-5,375), Latvia (-1,633), and Slovakia (-1,117).Largest urban centres by population (2022 census)150pxDublin150pxCork # Settlement Population # Settlement Population150pxLimerick150pxGalway 1 '''Dublin''' 1,263,219 11 '''Ennis''' 27,923 2 '''Cork''' 222,526 12 '''Carlow''' 27,351 3 '''Limerick''' 102,287 13 '''Kilkenny''' 27,184 4 '''Galway''' 85,910 14 '''Naas''' 26,180 5 '''Waterford''' 60,079 15 '''Tralee''' 26,079 6 '''Drogheda''' 44,135 16 '''Newbridge''' 24,366 8 '''Dundalk''' 43,112 17 '''Balbriggan''' 24,322 7 '''Swords''' 40,776 18 '''Portlaoise''' 23,494 9 '''Navan''' 33,886 19 '''Athlone''' 22,869 10 '''Bray''' 33,512 20 '''Mullingar''' 22,667===Languages===2011 censusThe Irish Constitution describes Irish as the \"national language\" and the \"first official language\", but English (the \"second official language\") is the dominant language.", "In the 2016 census, about 1.75 million people (40% of the population) said they were able to speak Irish but, of those, under 74,000 spoke it on a daily basis.", "Irish is spoken as a community language only in a small number of rural areas mostly in the west and south of the country, collectively known as the Gaeltacht.", "Except in Gaeltacht regions, road signs are usually bilingual.", "Most public notices and print media are in English only.", "While the state is officially bilingual, citizens can often struggle to access state services in Irish and most government publications are not available in both languages, even though citizens have the right to deal with the state in Irish.", "Irish language media include the TV channel TG4, the radio station RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta and online newspaper Tuairisc.ie.", "In the Irish Defence Forces, all foot and arms drill commands are given in the Irish language.As a result of immigration, Polish is the most widely spoken language in Ireland after English, with Irish as the third most spoken.", "Several other Central European languages (namely Czech, Hungarian and Slovak), as well as Baltic languages (Lithuanian and Latvian) are also spoken on a day-to-day basis.", "Other languages spoken in Ireland include Shelta, spoken by Irish Travellers, and a dialect of Scots is spoken by some Ulster Scots people in Donegal.", "Most secondary school students choose to learn one or two foreign languages.", "Languages available for the Junior Certificate and the Leaving Certificate include French, German, Italian and Spanish; Leaving Certificate students can also study Arabic, Japanese and Russian.", "Some secondary schools also offer Ancient Greek, Hebrew and Latin.", "The study of Irish is generally compulsory for Leaving Certificate students, but some may qualify for an exemption in some circumstances, such as learning difficulties or entering the country after age 11.===Healthcare===RCSI Disease and Research Centre at Beaumont Hospital in DublinHealthcare in Ireland is provided by both public and private healthcare providers.", "The Minister for Health has responsibility for setting overall health service policy.", "Every resident of Ireland is entitled to receive health care through the public health care system, which is managed by the Health Service Executive and funded by general taxation.", "A person may be required to pay a subsidised fee for certain health care received; this depends on income, age, illness or disability.", "All maternity services are provided free of charge and children up to the age of 6 months.", "Emergency care is provided to patients who present to a hospital emergency department.", "However, visitors to emergency departments in non-emergency situations who are not referred by their GP may incur a fee of €100.In some circumstances this fee is not payable or may be waived.Anyone holding a European Health Insurance Card is entitled to free maintenance and treatment in public beds in Health Service Executive and voluntary hospitals.", "Outpatient services are also provided for free.", "However, the majority of patients on median incomes or above are required to pay subsidised hospital charges.", "Private health insurance is available to the population for those who want to avail of it.The average life expectancy in Ireland in 2016 was 81.8 years (OECD 2016 list), with 79.9 years for men and 83.6 years for women.", "It has the highest birth rate in the EU (16.8 births per 1,000 inhabitants, compared to an EU average of 10.7) and a very low infant mortality rate (3.5 per 1,000 live births).", "The Irish healthcare system ranked 13th out of 34 European countries in 2012 according to the European Health Consumer Index produced by Health Consumer Powerhouse.", "The same report ranked the Irish healthcare system as having the 8th best health outcomes but only the 21st most accessible system in Europe.===Education===University College Cork was founded in 1845 and is a ''constituent university'' of the National University of Ireland.Ireland has three levels of education: primary, secondary and higher education.", "The education systems are largely under the direction of the Government via the Minister for Education.", "Recognised primary and secondary schools must adhere to the curriculum established by the relevant authorities.", "Education is compulsory between the ages of six and fifteen years, and all children up to the age of eighteen must complete the first three years of secondary, including one sitting of the Junior Certificate examination.There are approximately 3,300 primary schools in Ireland.", "The vast majority (92%) are under the patronage of the Catholic Church.", "Schools run by religious organisations, but receiving public money and recognition, cannot discriminate against pupils based upon religion or lack thereof.", "A sanctioned system of preference does exist, where students of a particular religion may be accepted before those who do not share the ethos of the school, in a case where a school's quota has already been reached.The longroom at the Trinity College LibraryThe Leaving Certificate, which is taken after two years of study, is the final examination in the secondary school system.", "Those intending to pursue higher education normally take this examination, with access to third-level courses generally depending on results obtained from the best six subjects taken, on a competitive basis.", "Third-level education awards are conferred by at least 38 Higher Education Institutions – this includes the constituent or linked colleges of seven universities, plus other designated institutions of the Higher Education and Training Awards Council.", "According to the 2022 US News rankings, Ireland is among the top twenty best countries for education.The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Ireland as having the fourth highest reading score, ninth highest science score and thirteenth highest mathematics score, among OECD countries, in its 2012 assessment.", "In 2012, Irish students aged 15 years had the second highest levels of reading literacy in the EU.", "Ireland also has 0.747 of the World's top 500 Universities per capita, which ranks the country in 8th place in the world.", "Primary, secondary and higher (university/college) level education are all free in Ireland for all EU citizens.", "There are charges to cover student services and examinations.In addition, 37 percent of Ireland's population has a university or college degree, which is among the highest percentages in the world.===Religion===Religious freedom is constitutionally provided for in Ireland, and the country's constitution has been secular since 1973.Christianity is the predominant religion, and while Ireland remains a predominantly Catholic country, the percentage of the population who identified as Catholic on the census has fallen sharply from 84.2 percent in the 2011 census to 78.3 percent in the most recent 2016 census.", "Other results from the 2016 census are: 4.2% Protestant, 1.3% Orthodox, 1.3% as Muslim, and 9.8% as having no religion.", "According to a Georgetown University study, before 2000 the country had one of the highest rates of regular mass attendance in the Western world.While daily attendance was 13% in 2006, there was a reduction in weekly attendance from 81% in 1990 to 48% in 2006, although the decline was reported as stabilising.", "In 2011, it was reported that weekly Mass attendance in Dublin was just 18%, and was even lower among younger generations.St Mary's Pro-Cathedral is the seat of the Catholic Church in Dublin.St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, is the national Cathedral of the Church of Ireland.The Church of Ireland, at 2.7% of the population, is the second largest Christian denomination.", "Membership declined throughout the twentieth century, but experienced an increase early in the 21st century, as have other small Christian denominations.", "Other significant Protestant denominations are the Presbyterian Church and Methodist Church.", "Immigration has contributed to a growth in Hindu and Muslim populations.", "In percentage terms, Orthodox Christianity and Islam were the fastest growing religions, with increases of 100% and 70% respectively.Ireland's patron saints are Saint Patrick, Saint Bridget and Saint Columba, with Saint Patrick commonly recognised as ''the'' patron saint.", "Saint Patrick's Day is celebrated on 17 March in Ireland and abroad as the Irish national day, with parades and other celebrations.As with other predominantly Catholic European states, Ireland underwent a period of legal secularisation in the late twentieth century.", "In 1972, the article of the Constitution naming specific religious groups was deleted by the Fifth Amendment in a referendum.", "Article 44 remains in the Constitution: \"The State acknowledges that the homage of public worship is due to Almighty God.", "It shall hold His Name in reverence, and shall respect and honour religion.\"", "The article also establishes freedom of religion, prohibits endowment of any religion, prohibits the state from religious discrimination, and requires the state to treat religious and non-religious schools in a non-prejudicial manner.Religious studies was introduced as an optional Junior Certificate subject in 2001.Although most schools are run by religious organisations, a secularist trend is occurring among younger generations." ], [ "Culture", "Ireland's culture was for centuries predominantly Gaelic, and it remains one of the six principal Celtic nations.", "Following the Anglo-Norman invasion in the 12th century, and gradual British conquest and colonisation beginning in the 16th century, Ireland became influenced by English and Scottish culture.", "Subsequently, Irish culture, though distinct in many aspects, shares characteristics with the rest of the Anglosphere, Catholic Europe, and other Celtic regions.", "The Irish diaspora, one of the world's largest and most dispersed, has contributed to the globalisation of Irish culture, producing many prominent figures in art, music, and science.===Literature===Jonathan Swift (1667–1745)Ireland has made a significant contribution to world literature in both the English and Irish languages.", "Modern Irish fiction began with the publishing of the 1726 novel ''Gulliver's Travels'' by Jonathan Swift.", "Other writers of importance during the 18th century and their most notable works include Laurence Sterne with the publication of ''The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman'' and Oliver Goldsmith's ''The Vicar of Wakefield''.", "Numerous Irish novelists emerged during the 19th century, including Maria Edgeworth, John Banim, Gerald Griffin, Charles Kickham, William Carleton, George Moore, and Somerville and Ross.", "Bram Stoker is best known as the author of the 1897 novel ''Dracula''.James Joyce (1882–1941) published his most famous work ''Ulysses'' in 1922, which is an interpretation of the ''Odyssey'' set in Dublin.", "Edith Somerville continued writing after the death of her partner Martin Ross in 1915.Dublin's Annie M. P. Smithson was one of several authors catering for fans of romantic fiction in the 1920s and 1930s.", "After the Second World War, popular novels were published by, among others, Brian O'Nolan, who published as Flann O'Brien, Elizabeth Bowen, and Kate O'Brien.", "During the final decades of the 20th century, Edna O'Brien, John McGahern, Maeve Binchy, Joseph O'Connor, Roddy Doyle, Colm Tóibín, and John Banville came to the fore as novelists.W.", "B. Yeats (1865–1939)Patricia Lynch was a prolific children's author in the 20th century, while Eoin Colfer's works were NYT Best Sellers in this genre in the early 21st century.", "In the genre of the short story, which is a form favoured by many Irish writers, the most prominent figures include Seán Ó Faoláin, Frank O'Connor and William Trevor.", "Well known Irish poets include Patrick Kavanagh, Thomas McCarthy, Dermot Bolger, and Nobel Prize in Literature laureates William Butler Yeats and Seamus Heaney (born in Northern Ireland but resided in Dublin).", "Prominent writers in the Irish language are Pádraic Ó Conaire, Máirtín Ó Cadhain, Séamus Ó Grianna, and Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill.The history of Irish theatre begins with the expansion of the English administration in Dublin during the early 17th century, and since then, Ireland has significantly contributed to English drama.", "In its early history, theatrical productions in Ireland tended to serve political purposes, but as more theatres opened and the popular audience grew, a more diverse range of entertainments were staged.", "Many Dublin-based theatres developed links with their London equivalents, and British productions frequently found their way to the Irish stage.", "However, most Irish playwrights went abroad to establish themselves.", "In the 18th century, Oliver Goldsmith and Richard Brinsley Sheridan were two of the most successful playwrights on the London stage at that time.", "At the beginning of the 20th century, theatre companies dedicated to the staging of Irish plays and the development of writers, directors and performers began to emerge, which allowed many Irish playwrights to learn their trade and establish their reputations in Ireland rather than in Britain or the United States.", "Following in the tradition of acclaimed practitioners, principally Oscar Wilde, Literature Nobel Prize laureates George Bernard Shaw (1925) and Samuel Beckett (1969), playwrights such as Seán O'Casey, Brian Friel, Sebastian Barry, Brendan Behan, Conor McPherson and Billy Roche have gained popular success.", "Other Irish playwrights of the 20th century include Denis Johnston, Thomas Kilroy, Tom Murphy, Hugh Leonard, Frank McGuinness, and John B. Keane.===Music and dance===Irish traditional music has remained vibrant, despite globalising cultural forces, and retains many traditional aspects.", "It has influenced various music genres, such as American country and roots music, and to some extent modern rock.", "It has occasionally been blended with styles such as rock and roll and punk rock.", "Ireland has also produced many internationally known artists in other genres, such as rock, pop, jazz, and blues.", "Ireland's best selling musical act is the rock band U2, who have sold 170 million copies of their albums worldwide since their formation in 1976.Dublin-based rock group U2There are a number of classical music ensembles around the country, such as the RTÉ Performing Groups.", "Ireland also has two opera organisations: Irish National Opera in Dublin, and the annual Wexford Opera Festival, which promotes lesser-known operas, takes place during October and November.Ireland has participated in the Eurovision Song Contest since 1965.Its first win was in 1970, when Dana won with ''All Kinds of Everything''.", "It has subsequently won the competition six more times, the highest number of wins by any competing country.", "The phenomenon ''Riverdance'' originated as an interval performance during the 1994 contest.Irish dance can broadly be divided into social dance and performance dance.", "Irish social dance can be divided into ''céilí'' and set dancing.", "Irish set dances are quadrilles, danced by 4 couples arranged in a square, while céilí dances are danced by varied formations of couples of 2 to 16 people.", "There are also many stylistic differences between these two forms.", "Irish social dance is a living tradition, and variations in particular dances are found across the country.", "In some places dances are deliberately modified and new dances are choreographed.", "Performance dance is traditionally referred to as stepdance.", "Irish stepdance, popularised by the show ''Riverdance'', is notable for its rapid leg movements, with the body and arms being kept largely stationary.", "The solo stepdance is generally characterised by a controlled but not rigid upper body, straight arms, and quick, precise movements of the feet.", "The solo dances can either be in \"soft shoe\" or \"hard shoe\".===Architecture===Ireland has a wealth of structures, surviving in various states of preservation, from the Neolithic period, such as ''Brú na Bóinne'', Poulnabrone dolmen, Castlestrange stone, Turoe stone, and Drombeg stone circle.", "As Ireland was never a part of the Roman Empire, ancient architecture in Greco-Roman style is extremely rare, in contrast to most of Western Europe.", "The country instead had an extended period of Iron Age architecture.", "The Irish round tower originated during the Early Medieval period.Christianity introduced simple monastic houses, such as Clonmacnoise, Skellig Michael and Scattery Island.", "A stylistic similarity has been remarked between these double monasteries and those of the Copts of Egypt.", "Gaelic kings and aristocrats occupied ringforts or ''crannógs''.", "Church reforms during the 12th century via the Cistercians stimulated continental influence, with the Romanesque styled Mellifont, Boyle and Tintern abbeys.", "Gaelic settlement had been limited to the Monastic proto-towns, such as Kells, where the current street pattern preserves the original circular settlement outline to some extent.", "Significant urban settlements only developed following the period of Viking invasions.", "The major Hiberno-Norse Longphorts were located on the coast, but with minor inland fluvial settlements, such as the eponymous Longford.The ruins of Monasterboice in County Louth are of early Christian settlements.Castles were built by the Anglo-Normans during the late 12th century, such as Dublin Castle and Kilkenny Castle, and the concept of the planned walled trading town was introduced, which gained legal status and several rights by grant of a Charter under Feudalism.", "These charters specifically governed the design of these towns.", "Two significant waves of planned town formation followed, the first being the 16th- and 17th-century plantation towns, which were used as a mechanism for the Tudor English kings to suppress local insurgency, followed by 18th-century landlord towns.", "Surviving Norman founded planned towns include Drogheda and Youghal; plantation towns include Portlaoise and Portarlington; well-preserved 18th-century planned towns include Westport and Ballinasloe.", "These episodes of planned settlement account for the majority of present-day towns throughout the country.Brick architecture of multi-storey buildings in Merrion Square, DublinGothic cathedrals, such as St Patrick's, were also introduced by the Normans.", "Franciscans were dominant in directing the abbeys by the Late Middle Ages, while elegant tower houses, such as Bunratty Castle, were built by the Gaelic and Norman aristocracy.", "Many religious buildings were ruined with the Dissolution of the Monasteries.", "Following the Restoration, palladianism and rococo, particularly country houses, swept through Ireland under the initiative of Edward Lovett Pearce, with the Houses of Parliament being the most significant.With the erection of buildings such as The Custom House, Four Courts, General Post Office and King's Inns, the neoclassical and Georgian styles flourished, especially in Dublin.", "Georgian townhouses produced streets of singular distinction, particularly in Dublin, Limerick and Cork.", "Following Catholic Emancipation, cathedrals and churches influenced by the French Gothic Revival emerged, such as St Colman's and St Finbarre's.", "Ireland has long been associated with thatched roof cottages, though these are nowadays considered quaint.Capital Dock in Dublin is the tallest building in the Republic of Ireland.Beginning with the American designed art deco church at Turner's Cross, Cork in 1927, Irish architecture followed the international trend towards modern and sleek building styles since the 20th century.", "Other developments include the regeneration of Ballymun and an urban extension of Dublin at Adamstown.", "Since the establishment of the Dublin Docklands Development Authority in 1997, the Dublin Docklands area underwent large-scale redevelopment, which included the construction of the Convention Centre Dublin and Grand Canal Theatre.", "Completed in 2018, Capital Dock in Dublin is the tallest building in the Republic of Ireland achieving in height (the Obel Tower in Belfast, Northern Ireland being the tallest in Ireland).", "The Royal Institute of the Architects of Ireland regulates the practice of architecture in the state.===Media=== (RTÉ) is Ireland's public service broadcaster, funded by a television licence fee and advertising.", "RTÉ operates two national television channels, RTÉ One and RTÉ Two.", "The other independent national television channels are Virgin Media One, Virgin Media Two, Virgin Media Three and TG4, the latter of which is a public service broadcaster for speakers of the Irish language.", "All these channels are available on Saorview, the national free-to-air digital terrestrial television service.", "Additional channels included in the service are RTÉ News Now, RTÉjr, and RTÉ One +1.Subscription-based television providers operating in Ireland include Virgin Media and Sky.The BBC's Northern Irish division is widely available in Ireland.", "BBC One Northern Ireland and BBC Two Northern Ireland are available in pay television providers including Virgin and Sky as well as via signal overspill by Freeview in border counties.Supported by the Irish Film Board, the Irish film industry grew significantly since the 1990s, with the promotion of indigenous films as well as the attraction of international productions like ''Braveheart'' and ''Saving Private Ryan''.A large number of regional and local radio stations are available countrywide.", "A survey showed that a consistent 85% of adults listen to a mixture of national, regional and local stations on a daily basis.", "RTÉ Radio operates four national stations, Radio 1, 2fm, Lyric fm, and RnaG.", "It also operates four national DAB radio stations.", "There are two independent national stations: Today FM and Newstalk.Ireland has a traditionally competitive print media, which is divided into daily national newspapers and weekly regional newspapers, as well as national Sunday editions.", "The strength of the British press is a unique feature of the Irish print media scene, with the availability of a wide selection of British published newspapers and magazines.Eurostat reported that 82% of Irish households had Internet access in 2013 compared to the EU average of 79% but only 67% had broadband access.===Cuisine===A pint of GuinnessIrish cuisine was traditionally based on meat and dairy products, supplemented with vegetables and seafood.Examples of popular Irish cuisine include boxty, colcannon, coddle, stew, and bacon and cabbage.", "Ireland is known for the full Irish breakfast, which involves a fried or grilled meal generally consisting of rashers, egg, sausage, white and black pudding, and fried tomato.", "Apart from the influence by European and international dishes, there has been an emergence of a new Irish cuisine based on traditional ingredients handled in new ways.", "This cuisine is based on fresh vegetables, fish, oysters, mussels and other shellfish, and the wide range of hand-made cheeses that are now being produced across the country.", "Shellfish have increased in popularity, especially due to the high quality shellfish available from the country's coastline.", "The most popular fish include salmon and cod.", "Traditional breads include soda bread and wheaten bread.", "Barmbrack is a yeasted bread with added sultanas and raisins, traditionally eaten on Halloween.Popular everyday beverages among the Irish include tea and coffee.", "Alcoholic drinks associated with Ireland include Poitín and the world-famous Guinness, which is a dry stout that originated in the brewery of Arthur Guinness at St. James's Gate in Dublin.", "Irish whiskey is also popular throughout the country and comes in various forms, including single malt, single grain, and blended whiskey.===Sports===Croke Park stadium is the headquarters of the Gaelic Athletic Association.Gaelic football and hurling are the traditional sports of Ireland as well as popular spectator sports.", "They are administered by the Gaelic Athletics Association on an all-Ireland basis.", "Other Gaelic games organised by the association include Gaelic handball and rounders.Association football (soccer) is the third most popular spectator sport and has the highest level of participation.", "Although the League of Ireland is the national league, the English Premier League is the most popular among the public.", "The Republic of Ireland national football team plays at international level and is administered by the Football Association of Ireland.The Irish Rugby Football Union is the governing body of rugby union, which is played at local and international levels on an all-Ireland basis, and has produced players such as Brian O'Driscoll and Ronan O'Gara, who were on the team that won the Grand Slam in 2009.The success of the Irish Cricket Team in the 2007 Cricket World Cup has led to an increase in the popularity of cricket, which is also administered on an all-Ireland basis by Cricket Ireland.", "Ireland are one of the twelve Test playing members of the International Cricket Council, having been granted Test status in 2017.Professional domestic matches are played between the major cricket unions of Leinster, Munster, Northern, and North West.Netball is represented by the Ireland national netball team.Golf is another popular sport in Ireland, with over 300 courses countrywide.", "The country has produced several internationally successful golfers, such as Pádraig Harrington, Shane Lowry and Paul McGinley.Horse racing has a large presence, with influential breeding and racing operations in the country.", "Racing takes place at courses at The Curragh Racecourse in County Kildare, Leopardstown Racecourse just outside Dublin, and Galway.", "Ireland has produced champion horses such as Galileo, Montjeu, and Sea the Stars.Boxing is Ireland's most successful sport at an Olympic level.", "Administered by the Irish Athletic Boxing Association on an all-Ireland basis, it has gained in popularity as a result of the international success of boxers such as Bernard Dunne, Andy Lee and Katie Taylor.Some of Ireland's highest performers in athletics have competed at the Olympic Games, such as Eamonn Coghlan and Sonia O'Sullivan.", "The annual Dublin Marathon and Dublin Women's Mini Marathon are two of the most popular athletics events in the country.Rugby league is represented by the Ireland national rugby league team and administered by Rugby League Ireland (who are full member of the Rugby League European Federation) on an all-Ireland basis.", "The team compete in the European Cup (rugby league) and the Rugby League World Cup.", "Ireland reached the quarter-finals of the 2000 Rugby League World Cup as well as reaching the semi-finals in the 2008 Rugby League World Cup.", "The Irish Elite League is a domestic competition for rugby league teams in Ireland.While Australian rules football in Ireland has a limited following, a series of International rules football games (constituting a hybrid of the Australian and Gaelic football codes) takes place annually between teams representing Ireland and Australia.", "Baseball and basketball are also emerging sports in Ireland, both of which have an international team representing the island of Ireland.", "Other sports which retain a following in Ireland include cycling, greyhound racing, horse riding, and motorsport.===Society===Ireland ranks fifth in the world in terms of gender equality.", "In 2011, Ireland was ranked the most charitable country in Europe, and second most charitable in the world.", "Contraception was controlled in Ireland until 1979, however, the receding influence of the Catholic Church has led to an increasingly secularised society.", "A constitutional ban on divorce was lifted following a referendum in 1995.Divorce rates in Ireland are very low compared to European Union averages (0.7 divorced people per 1,000 population in 2011) while the marriage rate in Ireland is slightly above the European Union average (4.6 marriages per 1,000 population per year in 2012).", "Abortion had been banned throughout the period of the Irish state, first through provisions of the Offences Against the Person Act 1861 and later by the Protection of Life During Pregnancy Act 2013.The right to life of the unborn was protected in the constitution by the Eighth Amendment in 1983; this provision was removed following a referendum, and replaced it with a provision allowing legislation to regulate the termination of pregnancy.", "The Health (Regulation of Termination of Pregnancy) Act 2018 passed later that year provided for abortion generally during the first 12 weeks of pregnancy, and in specified circumstances after that date.Capital punishment is constitutionally banned in Ireland, while discrimination based on age, gender, sexual orientation, marital or familial status, religion, race or membership of the travelling community is illegal.", "The legislation which outlawed homosexual acts was repealed in 1993.The Civil Partnership and Certain Rights and Obligations of Cohabitants Act 2010 permitted civil partnerships between same-sex couples.", "The Children and Family Relationships Act 2015 allowed for adoption rights for couples other than married couples, including civil partners and cohabitants, and provided for donor-assisted human reproduction; however, significant sections of the Act have yet to be commenced.", "Following a referendum held on 23 May 2015, Ireland became the eighteenth country to provide in law for same-sex marriage, and the first to do so by popular vote.Ireland became the first country in the world to introduce an environmental levy for plastic shopping bags in 2002 and a public smoking ban in 2004.Recycling in Ireland is carried out extensively, and Ireland has the second highest rate of packaging recycling in the European Union.", "It was the first country in Europe to ban incandescent lightbulbs in 2008 and the first EU country to ban in-store tobacco advertising and product display in 2009.In 2015, Ireland became the second country in the world to introduce plain cigarette packaging.", "Despite the above measures to discourage tobacco use, smoking rates in Ireland remain at approximately 15.4% as of 2020.===State symbols===The seal of the president of Ireland, incorporating a harpThe state shares many symbols with the island of Ireland.", "These include the colours green and blue, animals such as the Irish wolfhound and stags, structures such as round towers and celtic crosses, and designs such as Celtic knots and spirals.", "The shamrock, a type of clover, has been a national symbol of Ireland since the 17th century when it became customary to wear it as a symbol on St. Patrick's Day.", "These symbols are used by state institutions as well as private bodies in the Republic of Ireland.The flag of Ireland is a tricolour of green, white and orange.", "The flag originates with the Young Ireland movement of the mid-19th century but was not popularised until its use during the Easter Rising of 1916.The colours represent the Gaelic tradition (green) and the followers of William of Orange in Ireland (orange), with white representing the aspiration for peace between them.", "It was adopted as the flag of the Irish Free State in 1922 and continues to be used as the sole flag and ensign of the state.", "A naval jack, a green flag with a yellow harp, is set out in Defence Forces Regulations and flown from the bows of warships in addition to the national flag in limited circumstances (e.g.", "when a ship is not underway).", "It is based on the unofficial green ensign of Ireland used in the 18th and 19th centuries and the traditional green flag of Ireland dating from the 16th century.Like the national flag, the national anthem, (), has its roots in the Easter Rising, when the song was sung by the rebels.", "Although originally published in English in 1912, the song was translated into Irish in 1923 and the Irish-language version is more commonly sung today.", "The song was officially adopted as the anthem of the Irish Free State in 1926 and continues as the national anthem of the state.", "The first four bars of the chorus followed by the last five comprise the presidential salute.The arms of Ireland originate as the arms of the monarchs of Ireland and was recorded as the arms of the King of Ireland in the 12th century.", "From the union of the crowns of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1603, they have appeared quartered on the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom.", "Today, they are the personal arms of the president of Ireland whilst he or she is in office and are flown as the presidential standard.", "The harp symbol is used extensively by the state to mark official documents, Irish coinage and on the seal of the president of Ireland." ], [ "See also", "* List of Ireland-related topics* Outline of the Republic of Ireland" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Constitution of Ireland (the 1937 constitution)* ''The Irish Free State Constitution Act, 1922''* J. Anthony Foley and Stephen Lalor (ed), ''Gill & Macmillan Annotated Constitution of Ireland'' (Gill & Macmillan, 1995) ()* * FSL Lyons (1 January 1985).", "''Ireland Since the Famine''.", ".", "" ], [ "External links", "===Government=== Irish State – official governmental portal* – official presidential site* Taoiseach – official prime ministerial site===General information===* Ireland.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Ireland – information from the United States Department of State* from the United States Library of Congress (archived by the WayBackMachine)* Ireland at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''* * Ireland profile from the BBC News* * * Key Development Forecasts for Ireland from International Futures" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Irish diaspora" ], [ "Introduction", "Irish nationals and eligible descendants.300x300px'Emigrants Leave Ireland', engraving by Henry Doyle (1827–1892), from Mary Frances Cusack's ''Illustrated History of Ireland'', 1868The '''Irish diaspora''' () refers to ethnic Irish people and their descendants who live outside the island of Ireland.The phenomenon of migration from Ireland is recorded since the Early Middle Ages, but it can be quantified only from around 1700.Since then, between 9 and 10 million people born in Ireland have emigrated.", "That is more than the population of Ireland itself, which at its historical peak was 8.5 million on the eve of the Great Famine.", "The poorest of them went to Great Britain, especially Liverpool.", "Those who could afford it went further, including almost 5 million to the United States.After 1765, emigration from Ireland became a short, relentless and efficiently managed national enterprise.", "In 1890, 40% of Irish-born people were living abroad.", "By the 21st century, an estimated 80 million people worldwide claimed some Irish descent, which includes more than 36 million Americans claiming Irish as their primary ethnicity.As recently as the second half of the 19th century, most Irish emigrants spoke Irish as their first language.", "That had social and cultural consequences for the cultivation of the language abroad, including innovations in journalism.", "The language continues to be cultivated abroad by a small minority as a literary and social medium.", "The Irish diaspora are largely assimilated in most countries outside Ireland after World War I. Seán Fleming is the Republic of Ireland's Minister of State for the Diaspora." ], [ "Definition", "''The Bridge of Tears'' (Droichead na nDeor in Irish) in West Donegal, Ireland.", "Family and friends of emigrants would accompany them as far as the bridge before saying goodbye, while the emigrants would continue on to Derry Port.The term Irish diaspora is open to many interpretations.", "The diaspora, broadly interpreted, contains all those known to have Irish ancestors, i.e., over 100 million people, which is more than fifteen times the population of the island of Ireland, which was about 6.4 million in 2011.It has been argued the idea of an Irish diaspora, as distinct from the old identification of Irishness with Ireland itself, was influenced by the perceived advent of global mobility and modernity.", "Irishness could now be identified with dispersed individuals and groups of Irish descent.", "But many of those individuals were the product of complex ethnic intermarriage in America and elsewhere, complicating the idea of a single line of descent.", "\"Irishness\" might then rely primarily on individual identification with an Irish diaspora.The Government of Ireland defines the Irish diaspora as all persons of Irish nationality who habitually reside outside of the island of Ireland.", "This includes Irish citizens who have emigrated abroad and their children, who are Irish citizens by descent under Irish law.", "It also includes their grandchildren in cases where they were registered as Irish citizens in the Foreign Births Register held in every Irish diplomatic mission.", "Under this legal definition, the Irish diaspora is considerably smaller—some 3 million persons, of whom 1.47 million are Irish-born emigrants.", "Given the island of Ireland's estimated population of 6.8 million in 2018, this is still a large ratio.A plaque commemorating ''The Bridge of Tears'', which reads, ''\"Fad leis seo a thagadh cairde agus lucht gaoil an té a bhí ag imeacht chun na coigrithe.", "B'anseo an scaradh.", "Seo Droichead na nDeor\"'' (Family and friends of the person leaving for foreign lands would come this far.", "Here was the separation.", "This is the Bridge of Tears).However, the usage of ''Irish diaspora'' is generally not limited by citizenship status, thus leading to an estimated (and fluctuating) membership of up to 80 million persons—the second and more emotive definition.", "The Irish Government acknowledged this interpretation—although it did not acknowledge any legal obligations to persons in this larger diaspora—when Article 2 of the Constitution of Ireland was amended in 1998 to read ''\"furthermore, the Irish nation cherishes its special affinity with people of Irish ancestry living abroad who share its cultural identity and heritage.", "\"''There are people of Irish descent abroad (including Irish speakers) who reject inclusion in an Irish \"diaspora\" and who designate their identity in other ways.", "They may see the diasporic label as something used by the Irish government for its own purposes." ], [ "Causes", "The Irish, who were called by the Romans ''Scotti'' but called themselves Gaels, had raided and settled along the West Coast of Roman Britain, and numbers of them were allowed to settle within the province, where the Roman Army recruited many Irish into auxiliary units that were dispatched to the German frontier.", "The Attacotti, who were similarly recruited into the Roman army, may also have been Irish settlers in Britain.", "The movement between Ireland and the classical Britain may have been two-way as similarities between the medieval accounts of Túathal Teachtmar and archaeological evidence indicate that the Romans may have supported the invasion and conquest of Ireland by Irish exiles from Britain with the hope of establishing a friendly ruler who could halt the raiding of Britain by the Irish, and some historians have also suggested that the Cruthin of the north of Ireland may have been Picts.", "After the departure of the Roman army, the Irish began increasing their footholds in Britain, with part of the north-West of the island annexed within the Irish kingdom of Dál Riata.", "In time, the Irish colonies became independent, merged with the Pictish kingdom and formed the basis of modern Scotland.The traditionally Gaelic-speaking areas of Scotland (the Highlands and Hebrides) are still referred to in the Gaelic language as ''a' Ghàidhealtachd'' (\"the Gaeldom\").", "Irish monks and the Celtic Church engineered a wave of Irish emigration to Great Britain and Continental Europe and were possibly the first inhabitants of the Faroe Islands and Iceland.", "Throughout the Early Middle Ages, Great Britain and Continental Europe experienced Irish immigration of varying intensity, mostly from clerics and scholars who are collectively known as ''peregrini''.", "Irish emigration to Western Europe, especially to Great Britain, has continued at a greater or lesser pace since then.", "Today, the ethnic Irish are the single largest minority group in both England and Scotland, most of whom eventually made it back to Ireland.The dispersal of the Irish has been mainly to Britain or to countries colonised by Britain.", "England's political connection with Ireland began in 1155, when Pope Adrian IV issued a papal bull (known as ''Laudabiliter''), which gave Henry II permission to invade Ireland as a means of strengthening the papacy's control over the Irish Church.", "That was followed in 1169 by the Norman invasion of Ireland, which was led by the general Richard de Clare, or ''Strongbow''.The English Crown did not attempt to assert full control of the island until after Henry VIII's repudiation of papal authority over the Church in England, and the subsequent rebellion of the Earl of Kildare in Ireland in 1534 threatened English hegemony there.", "Until the break with Rome, it was widely believed that Ireland was a papal possession, which was granted as a mere fiefdom to the English king and so in 1541, Henry VIII asserted England's claim to Ireland free from the papal overlordship by proclaiming himself King of Ireland.After the Nine Years' War (1594 to 1603), political power rested in the hands of a Protestant Ascendancy minority and was marked by a Crown policy of plantation, which involved the arrival of thousands of English and Scottish Protestant settlers and the consequent displacement of the pre-plantation Roman Catholic landholders.", "As the military and political defeat of Gaelic Ireland became more pronounced in the early 17th century, sectarian conflict became a recurrent theme in Irish history.Roman Catholics and members of dissenting Protestant denominations suffered severe political and economic privations from Penal Laws.", "The Irish Parliament was abolished in 1801 in the wake of the republican United Irishmen Rebellion, and Ireland became an integral part of a new United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland under the Act of Union.The Great Famine, during the 1840s saw a significant number of people flee from the island to all over the world.", "Between 1841 and 1851, as a result of death and mass emigration, mainly to Great Britain and North America, Ireland's population fell by over 2 million.", "In Connacht alone, the population fell by almost 30%.Robert E. Kennedy explains, however, that the common argument that the mass emigration from Ireland was a \"flight from famine\" is not entirely correct.", "Firstly, the Irish had been coming to Great Britain to build canals there since the 18th century, and as soon as conditions in Ireland improved, their emigration did not slow down.", "After the famine ended, the four years that followed it were marked by more emigration than the four years of the blight.", "Kennedy argues that the famine was considered the final straw because it convinced more people to move even though several other factors influenced their decision.By 1900, the population of Ireland was about half of its 1840 peak, and it continued to fall during the 20th century.In the decades that followed independence in the 1920s, emigration accelerated for economic and social reasons, and with the preferred destination switching from the United States to Great Britain, over 500,000 emigrated in the 1950s and 450,000 in the 1980s, and over 3 million Irish citizens resided outside of Ireland in 2017.Irish people who still lived in Ireland were subjected to discrimination by Great Britain based on their religion.", "Evictions increased after the repeal of the British Corn Laws in 1846, the passage of the Encumbered Estates' Court in 1849 and the removal of existing civil rights and class norms.", "Any remaining hope for change was squashed by the 1847 death of Daniel O'Connell, the political leader who championed liberal and reform causes and emancipation for Ireland's Catholics, and the failed rising of the Young Irelanders in 1848.More was to be gained by immigrating to America from Ireland, and the 1848 discovery of gold in the Sierra Nevada lured away more." ], [ "Genealogy", "===Plastic Paddies===People of the Irish diaspora who were not born in Ireland but who identify as Irish are sometimes referred to disparagingly as ''Plastic Paddies''.Mary J. Hickman writes that \"plastic Paddy\" was a term used to \"deny and denigrate the second-generation Irish in Britain\" in the 1980s, and was \"frequently articulated by the new middle class Irish immigrants in Britain, for whom it was a means of distancing themselves from established Irish communities.\"", "According to Bronwen Walter, professor of Irish diaspora studies at Anglia Ruskin University, \"the adoption of a hyphenated identity has been much more problematic for the second generation Irish in Britain.", "The Irish-born have frequently denied the authenticity of their Irish identity.", "\"The term has also been used to taunt non-Irish-born players who choose to play for the Republic of Ireland national football team, fans of Irish teams, who are members of supporters clubs outside Ireland, and other Irish individuals living in Great Britain.", "A study by the University of Strathclyde and Nil by Mouth found the term was used abusively on Celtic F.C.", "and Rangers F.C.", "supporters' internet forums in reference to Celtic supporters and the wider Roman Catholic community in Scotland.", "In August 2009, a Rangers F.C supporter, himself a British Asian man from Birmingham, England, received a suspended sentence after making derogatory comments to a police officer, who was of Irish origin.", "The prosecutor said the man had made racist remarks about the officer, including accusations that the officer was a \"Plastic Paddy\".Scottish journalist Alex Massie wrote in ''National Review'':In ''Spiked'', Brendan O'Neill, himself of Irish descent, uses the term to describe \"second-generation wannabe\" Irishmen and writes that some of those guilty of \"Plastic Paddyism\" (or, in his words, \"Dermot-itis\") are Bill Clinton, Daniel Day-Lewis, and Shane MacGowan.", "Scottish-Australian songwriter Eric Bogle wrote and recorded a song titled \"Plastic Paddy\".", "British Mixed martial arts fighter Dan Hardy has called American fighter Marcus Davis a \"Plastic Paddy\" due to Marcus' enthusiasm for his Irish ancestry and identity.", "In the book ''Why I Am Still a Catholic: Essays in Faith and Perseverance'' by Peter Stanford, the television presenter Dermot O'Leary describes his upbringing as \"classic plastic paddy\", where he would be \"bullied in a nice way\" by his own cousins in Wexford for being English \"until anyone else there called me English and then they would stick up for me.\"" ], [ "United Kingdom", "Irish migration to Great Britain has occurred since the early medieval period.", "The largest waves of Irish migration occurred in the 19th century, when a devastating famine broke out in Ireland, resulting in thousands of Irish immigrants settling down in Britain, primarily in the port cities of Liverpool and Glasgow.", "Other waves of Irish migration occurred during the 20th century, as Irish immigrants escaping poor economic conditions in Ireland following the establishment of the Irish Free State, came to Britain in response to labour shortages.", "These waves of migration have resulted in millions of British citizens being of Irish descent.An article for ''The Guardian'' estimated that as many as six million people living in the United Kingdom have an Irish-born grandparent (around 10% of the British population).The 2001 UK census states that 869,093 people born in Ireland are living in Great Britain.", "More than 10% of those born in the United Kingdom have at least one grandparent born in Ireland.", "The article \"More Britons applying for Irish passports\" states that 6 million Britons have either an Irish grandfather or grandmother and are thus able to apply for Irish citizenship.", "Almost a quarter claimed some Irish ancestry in one survey.The Irish have traditionally been involved in the building trade and transport particularly as dockers, following an influx of Irish workers, or navvies, to build the British canal, road and rail networks in the 19th century.", "This is largely due to the flow of emigrants from Ireland during the Great Famine of 1845–1849.Many Irish servicemen, particularly sailors, settled in Britain: During the first half of the 19th century a third of the Army and Royal Navy were Irish.", "The Irish still represent a large contingent of foreign volunteers to the British military.", "Since the 1950s and 1960s in particular, the Irish have become assimilated into the British population.", "Emigration continued into the next century; over half a million Irish went to Britain in World War II to work in industry and serve in the British armed forces.", "In the post-war reconstruction era, the numbers of immigrants began to increase, many settling in the larger cities and towns of Britain.", "According to the 2001 census, around 850,000 people in Britain were born in Ireland.The largest Irish communities in Britain are located predominantly in the cities and towns: in London, in particular Kilburn (which has one of the largest Irish-born communities outside Ireland) out to the west and north west of the city, in the large port cities such as Liverpool (which elected the first Irish nationalist members of parliament), Glasgow, Bristol, Sunderland and Portsmouth.", "Big industrial cities such as Salford, Manchester, Luton, Coventry, Birmingham, Sheffield, Wolverhampton, Cardiff and parts of Newcastle and Nottingham also have large diaspora populations due to the Industrial Revolution and, in the case of the first three, the strength of the motor industry in the 1960s and 1970s.", "The towns of Hebburn, Jarrow and Coatbridge have all earned the nickname 'Little Ireland' due to their high Irish populations.Central to the Irish community in Britain was the community's relationship with the Roman Catholic Church, with which it maintained a strong sense of identity.", "The Church remains a crucial focus of communal life among some of the immigrant population and their descendants.", "The largest ethnic group among the Roman Catholic priesthood of Britain remains Irish (in the United States, the upper ranks of the Church's hierarchy are of predominantly Irish descent).", "The former head of the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland is Cardinal Keith O'Brien.Scotland experienced a significant amount of Irish immigration, particularly in Glasgow, Edinburgh and Coatbridge.", "This led to the formation of Celtic Football Club in 1888 by Marist Brother Walfrid, to raise money to help the community.", "In Edinburgh Hibernian were founded in 1875 and in 1909 another club with Irish links, Dundee United, was formed.", "Likewise the Irish community in London formed the London Irish rugby union club.", "The 2001 UK census states in Scotland 50,000 people identified as having Irish heritage.The Irish have maintained a strong political presence in the UK (mostly in Scotland), in local government and at the national level.", "Former prime ministers David Cameron, Tony Blair, John Major and James Callaghan have been amongst the many in Britain of part-Irish ancestry; Blair's mother, Hazel Elizabeth Rosaleen Corscaden, was born on 12 June 1923 in Ballyshannon, County Donegal.", "Former Chancellor George Osborne is a member of the Anglo-Irish aristocracy and heir to the baronetcies of Ballentaylor and Ballylemon.Moreover, the UK holds official public St. Patrick's Day celebrations.", "While many such celebrations were suspended in the 1970s because of The Troubles, the holiday is now widely celebrated by the UK public." ], [ "The rest of Europe", "Irish links with the continent go back many centuries.", "During the early Middle Ages, 700–900 AD, many Irish religious figures went abroad to preach and found monasteries in what is known as the Hiberno-Scottish mission.", "Saint Brieuc founded the city that bears his name in Brittany, Saint Colmán founded the great monastery of Bobbio in northern Italy and one of his monks was Saint Gall for whom the Swiss town of St Gallen and canton of St Gallen are named.During the Counter-Reformation, Irish religious and political links with Europe became stronger.", "An important centre of learning and training for Irish priests developed in Leuven (Lúbhan in Irish) in the Duchy of Brabant, now in Flanders (northern Belgium).", "The Flight of the Earls, in 1607, led much of the Gaelic nobility to flee the country, and after the wars of the 17th century many others fled to Spain, France, Austria, and other Roman Catholic lands.", "The lords and their retainers and supporters joined the armies of these countries, and were known as the Wild Geese.", "Some of the lords and their descendants rose to high ranks in their adoptive countries, such as the Spanish general and politician Leopoldo O'Donnell, 1st Duke of Tetuan, who became the president of the Government of Spain or the French general and politician Patrice de Mac-Mahon, Duke of Magenta, who became the president of the French Republic.", "The French Cognac brandy maker, Hennessy, was founded by Richard Hennessy, an Irish officer in the Clare Regiment of the Irish Brigade of the French Army.", "In Spain and its territories, many Irish descendants can be found with the name ''Obregón'' (''O'Brien'', Irish, ''Ó Briain''), including Madrid-born actress ''Ana Victoria García Obregón''.During the 20th century, certain Irish intellectuals made their homes in continental Europe, particularly James Joyce, and later Samuel Beckett (who became a courier for the French Resistance).", "Eoin O'Duffy led a brigade of 700 Irish volunteers to fight for Franco during the Spanish Civil War, and Frank Ryan led the Connolly column who fought on the opposite side, with the Republican International Brigades.", "William Joyce became an English-language propagandist for Nazi Germany, known colloquially as Lord Haw-Haw." ], [ "Americas", "Some of the first Irish people to travel to the New World did so as members of the Spanish garrison in Florida during the 1560s, and small numbers of Irish colonists were involved in efforts to establish colonies in the Amazon region, in Newfoundland, and in Virginia between 1604 and the 1630s.", "According to historian Donald Akenson, there were \"few if any\" Irish being forcibly transported to the New World during this period.The Plantation of Ulster, by the Stuart monarchy of the early 17th century, primarily in the lands gained by the Flight of the Earls, with an equal number of loyal Lowland Scots and redundant English Border reivers, caused resentment, as did their transferring of all property owned by the Roman Catholic Church to the Church of Ireland, resulting in the Irish Rebellion of 1641.Following the rebellion's failure the Commonwealth regime began to pacify Ireland, through the sentencing and transporting Irish rebels (known as “tories”), Catholic priests, friars and schoolmasters, to indentured servitude in the Crown's New World colonies.", "This increased following the Cromwellian invasion of Ireland (1649–1653), of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms (1639–1653).", "Cromwell took Irish land both to repay investors who had financed the invasion and as payment for his soldiers, many of whom settled down in Ireland.", "As a result, Irish in Leinster, and Munster, with property worth more than £10, were ordered to move to Connaught, to land valued at no more than 1/3 the value of their current holding, or be banished on pain of death.", "In the 17th century 50,000 Irish people are estimated to have migrated to the New World colonies, 165,000 by 1775.The population of Ireland fell from 1,466,000 to 616,000, between 1641 and 1652, over 550,000 attributed to famine and other war-related causes.===Argentina===Irish pub in Ushuaia, Tierra del Fuego.In the 19th and early 20th centuries, over 38,000 Irish immigrated to Argentina.", "Very distinct Irish communities and schools existed until the Perón era in the 1950s.Today there are an estimated 500,000 people of Irish ancestry in Argentina, approximately 15.5% of the Republic of Ireland's current population; however, these numbers may be far higher, given that many Irish newcomers declared themselves to be British, as Ireland at the time was still part of the United Kingdom and today their descendants integrated into Argentine society with mixed bloodlines.The modern Irish-Argentine community is composed of some of their descendants, and the total number is estimated at between 500,000 and 1,000,000.Argentina is the home of the fifth largest Irish community in the world, the largest in a non-English speaking nation and the greatest in Latin America.Despite the fact that Argentina was never the main destination for Irish emigrants it does form part of the Irish diaspora.", "The Irish-Argentine William Bulfin remarked as he travelled around Westmeath in the early 20th century that he came across many locals who had been to Buenos Aires.", "Several families from Bere island, County Cork were encouraged to send emigrants to Argentina by an islander who had been successful there in the 1880s.Considered by some to be a national hero, William Brown is the most famous Irish citizen in Argentina.", "Creator of the Argentine Navy (''Armada de la República Argentina'', ARA) and leader of the Argentine Armed Forces in the wars against Brazil and Spain, he was born in Foxford, County Mayo on 22 June 1777 and died in Buenos Aires in 1857.The is named after him, as well as the Almirante Brown partido, part of the Gran Buenos Aires urban area, with a population of over 500.000 inhabitants.The first entirely Roman Catholic English language publication published in Buenos Aires, ''The Southern Cross'' is an Argentine newspaper founded on 16 January 1875 by Dean Patricio Dillon, an Irish immigrant, a deputy for Buenos Aires Province and president of the Presidential Affairs Commission amongst other positions.", "The newspaper continues in print to this day and publishes a beginner's guide to the Irish language, helping Irish Argentines keep in touch with their cultural heritage.", "Previously to ''The Southern Cross'' Dublin-born brothers Edward and Michael Mulhall successfully published ''The Standard'', allegedly the first English-language daily paper in South America.Between 1943 and 1946, the de facto President of Argentina was Edelmiro Farrell, whose paternal ancestry was Irish.===Bermuda===Bermudiana (''Sisyrinchium bermudiana''), found only in Bermuda and IrelandEarly in its history, Bermuda had reputed connections with Ireland.", "It has been suggested that St. Brendan discovered it during his legendary voyage; a local psychiatric hospital (since renamed) was named after him.", "In 1616, an incident occurred in which five white settlers arrived in Ireland, having crossed the Atlantic (a distance of around ) in a two-ton boat.", "By the following year, one of Bermuda's main islands was named after Ireland.", "By the mid-17th century, Irish prisoners of war and civilian captives were involuntarily shipped to Bermuda, condemned to indentured servitude.", "These people had become indentured as a result of the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland.", "The Cromwellian conquest led to Irish captives, from both military and civilian backgrounds, to be sent as indentured servants to the West Indies.", "The Puritan Commonwealth government saw sending indentured servants from Ireland to the Caribbean as both assisting in their conquest of the island (by removing the strongest resistance against their rule) and saving the souls of the Roman Catholic Irish servants by settling them in Protestant-dominated colonies where they would supposedly inevitably convert to the \"true faith\".These rapid demographic changes quickly began to alarm the dominant Anglo-Bermudian population, in particular the Irish indentured servants, most of whom were presumed to be secretly practising Catholicism (recusancy had been outlawed by the colonial government).", "Relationships between the Anglo-Bermudian community and Irish indentured servants consistently remained hostile, resulting in the Irish responding to ostracism by ultimately merging with the Scottish, African and Native American communities in Bermuda to form a new demographic: the coloureds, which in Bermuda meant anyone not entirely of European descent.", "In modern-day Bermuda, the term has been replaced by 'Black', in which wholly sub-Saharan African ancestry is erroneously implicit.", "The Irish quickly proved hostile to their new conditions in Bermuda, and colonial legislation soon stipulated:In September, 1658, three Irishmen – John Chehen (Shehan, Sheehan, Sheene, or Sheen), David Laragen and Edmund Malony – were lashed for breaking curfew and being suspected of stealing a boat.", "Jeames Benninge (a Scottish indentured servant), black Franke (a servant to Mr John Devitt), and Tomakin, Clemento, and black Dick (servants of Mrs Anne Trimingham) were also punished.In 1661, the colonial government alleged that a plot was being hatched by an alliance of Blacks and Irish, one which involved cutting the throats of all Bermudians of English descent.", "The governor of Bermuda, William Sayle (who had returned to Bermuda after the Bermudian colonial government acknowledged the authority of Parliament) countered the alleged plot with three edicts: The first was that a nightly watch be raised throughout the colony; second, that slaves and the Irish be disarmed of militia weapons; and third, that any gathering of two or more Irish or slaves be dispersed by whipping.", "There were no arrests, trials or executions connected to the plot, though an Irish woman named Margaret was found to be romantically involved with a Native American; she was voted to be stigmatised and he was whipped.During the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth Centuries, the colony's various demographic groups boiled down to free whites and mostly enslaved \"coloured\" Bermudians with a homogeneous Anglo-Bermudian culture.", "Little survived of the Irish culture brought by indentured servants from Ireland.", "Catholicism was outlawed in Bermuda by the colonial authorities, and all islanders were required by law to attend services of the established Anglican church.", "Some surnames that were common in Bermuda at this period, however, give lingering evidence of the Irish presence.", "For example, the area to the east of Bailey's Bay, in Hamilton Parish, is named ''Callan Glen'' for a Scottish-born shipwright, ''Claude MacCallan'', who settled in Bermuda after the vessel in which he was a passenger was wrecked off the North Shore in 1787.MacCallan swam to a rock from which he was rescued by a Bailey's Bay fisherman named ''Daniel Seon'' (''Sheehan'').", "A later Daniel Seon was appointed Clerk of the House of Assembly and Prothonotary of the Court of General Assize in 1889 (he was also the Registrar of the Supreme Court, and died in 1909).Medway and the Grassy Bay anchorage seen from HMD Bermuda in 1862In 1803, Irish poet Thomas Moore arrived in Bermuda, having been appointed registrar to the Admiralty there.", "Robert Kennedy, born in Cultra, County Down, was the Government of Bermuda's ''Colonial Secretary'', and was the acting Governor of Bermuda on three occasions (1829, 1830 and 1835–1836).", "Irish prisoners were again sent to Bermuda in the 19th century, including participants in the ill-fated Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848, nationalist journalist and politician John Mitchel, and painter and convicted murderer William Burke Kirwan.", "Alongside English convicts, they were used to build the Royal Naval Dockyard on Ireland Island.", "Conditions for the convicts were harsh, and discipline was draconian.", "In April, 1830, convict James Ryan was shot and killed during rioting of convicts on Ireland Island.", "Another five convicts were given death sentences for their parts in the riots, with those of the youngest three being commuted to transportation (to Australia) for life.", "In June 1849 convict James Cronin, on the hulk Medway at Ireland Island, was placed in solitary confinement from the 25th to the 29th for fighting.", "On release, and being returned to work, he refused to be cross-ironed.", "He ran onto the breakwater, brandishing a poker threateningly.", "For this, he was ordered to receive punishment (presumably flogging) on Tuesday, 3 July 1849, with the other convicts aboard the hulk assembled behind a rail to witness.", "When ordered to strip, he hesitated.", "Thomas Cronin, his older brother, addressed him and, while brandishing a knife, rushed forward to the separating rail.", "He called out to the other prisoners in Irish and many joined him in attempting to free the prisoner and attack the officers.", "The officers opened fire.", "Two men were killed and twelve wounded.", "Punishment of James Cronin was then carried out.", "Three hundred men of the 42nd Regiment of Foot, in barracks on Ireland Island, responded to the scene under arms.", "Although the Roman Catholic Church (which had been banned in Bermuda, as in the rest of England, since settlement) began to operate openly in Bermuda in the 19th century, its priests were not permitted to conduct baptisms, weddings or funerals.", "As the most important British naval and military base in the Western Hemisphere following US independence, large numbers of Irish Roman Catholic soldiers served in the British Army's Bermuda Garrison (the Royal Navy had also benefitted from a shipload of Irish emigres wrecked on Bermuda, with most being recruited into the navy there).", "The first Roman Catholic services in Bermuda were conducted by British Army chaplains early in the 19th century.", "Mount Saint Agnes Academy, a private school operated by the Roman Catholic Church of Bermuda, opened in 1890 at the behest of officers of the 86th (Royal County Down) Regiment of Foot (which was posted to Bermuda from 1880 to 1883), who had requested from the Archbishop of Halifax, Nova Scotia, a school for the children of Irish Roman Catholic soldiers.Not all Irish soldiers in Bermuda had happy lives there.", "Private Joseph McDaniel of the 30th Regiment of Foot (who was born in the East Indies to an Irish father and a Malay mother) was convicted of the murder of Mary Swears in June, 1837, after he had been found with a self-inflicted wound and her lifeless body.", "Although he maintained his innocence throughout the trial, after his conviction he confessed that they had made a pact to die together.", "Although he had succeeded in killing her, he had failed to kill himself.", "He was put to death on Wednesday, 29 November 1837.Private Patrick Shea of the 20th Regiment of Foot was sentenced to death in June 1846, for discharging his weapon at Sergeant John Evans.", "His sentence was commuted to transportation (to Australia) for life.", "In October, 1841, County Carlow-born Peter Doyle had also been transported to Australia for fourteen years for shooting at a picket.", "At his court martial he had explained that he had been drunk at the time.Other Irish soldiers, taking discharge, made a home in Bermuda, remaining there for the rest of their lives.", "Dublin-born Sapper Cornelius Farrell was discharged in Bermuda from the Royal Engineers.", "His three Bermudian-born sons followed him into the army, fighting on the Western Front during the First World War in the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps.Although there is little surviving evidence of Irish culture, some elderly islanders can remember when the term \"cilig\" (or ''killick'') was used to describe a common method of fishing for sea turtles by tricking them into swimming into prearranged nets (this was done by splashing a stone on a line—the cilig—into the water on the turtle's opposite side).", "The word ''cilig'' appears to be meaningless in English, but in some dialects of Gaelic is used as an adjective meaning \"easily deceived\".", "In Irish there is a word ''cílí'' meaning sly.", "It is used in the expression ''Is é an cílí ceart é'' (pronounced ''Shayeh kilic airtay'') and means ''What a sly-boots''.", "Alternatively, the word may be derived from an Irish word for a stone and wood anchor.", "Characteristics of older Bermudian accents, such as the pronunciation of the letter 'd' as 'dj', as in ''Bermudjin'' (Bermudian), may indicate an Irish origin.", "Later Irish immigrants have continued to contribute to Bermuda's makeup, with names like Crockwell (''Ó Creachmhaoil'') and O'Connor (''Ó Conchobhair'') now being thought of locally as Bermudian names.", "The strongest remaining Irish influence can be seen in the presence of bagpipes in the music of Bermuda, which stemmed from the presence of Scottish and Irish soldiers from the 18th through 20th centuries.", "Several prominent businesses in Bermuda have a clear Irish influence, such as the Irish Linen Shop, Tom Moore's Tavern and Flanagan's Irish Pub and Restaurant.A succession of Irish Masonic lodges have existed in Bermuda, beginning with ''Military Lodge #192'', established by soldiers of the 47th Regiment of Foot, and operating in Bermuda from 1793 to 1801.This was an ambulatory or travelling lodge, as with other military lodges, moving with its members.", "Irish Lodges #220 (also a military travelling lodge) was active in Bermuda from 1856 to 1861, and Irish Lodge #209 was established in Bermuda in 1881.Minder Lodge #63 of the Irish Constitution was in Bermuda with the 20th Regiment of Foot from 1841 to 1847.The Hannibal Lodge #224 of the Irish Constitution was warranted in 1867, and still exists, meeting in the Masonic Hall on Old Maid's Lane, St. George's.", "Another Hannibal Chapter, #123 of the Irish Constitution, was chartered in 1877, but lasted only until 1911.HMD Bermuda, Ireland Island, Bermuda.===Brazil===The first known Irish settler in Brazil was a missionary, Thomas Field, who arrived to Brazil in late 1577 and spent three years in Piratininga (present-day São Paulo).", "In 1612, the Irish brothers Philip and James Purcell established a colony in Tauregue, at the mouth of the Amazon river, where English, Dutch, and French settlements were also established.", "Many of the colonists traded in tobacco, dyes, and hardwoods.", "A second group of Irish settlers led by Bernardo O'Brien of County Clare arrived in 1620.The first recorded Saint Patrick's Day celebration was on 17 March 1770.During the Cisplatine War, Brazil sent recruiters to Ireland to recruit men as soldiers for the war against Argentina.", "Any Irish that signed up for the Brazilian army were promised that if they enlisted they would be given a grant of land after five years of service.", "Approximately 2,400 men were recruited and when they arrived in Brazil (many with their families), they were completely neglected by the government.", "The Irish mutinied together with a German regiment, and for a few days there was open warfare on the streets of Rio de Janeiro.", "While most were ultimately sent home or re-emigrated to Canada or Argentina, some did stay and were sent to form a colony in the province of Bahia.Several attempts were made by Brazil to bring in more Irish immigrants to settle in the country, however, much of the land given to the settlers was porous or in extremely remote locations.", "Many of the Irish settlers died or re-emigrated to other countries.", "At the same time, several prominent Irish figures served in diplomatic posts in Brazil for the United Kingdom (as Ireland was part of the British Empire).", "Irish nationalist and British diplomat Roger Casement, served as British Consul in Santos, Belém, and in Rio de Janeiro.===Canada===The 2006 census by Statcan, Canada's Official Statistical office revealed that the Irish were the 4th largest ethnic group with 4,354,155 Canadians with full or partial Irish descent or 14% of the nation's total population.", "During the 2016 census by Statistics Canada, the Irish ethnicity retained its spot as the 4th largest ethnic group with 4,627,000 Canadians with full or partial Irish descent.After the permanent settlement in Newfoundland by Irish in the late 18th and early 19th century, overwhelmingly from County Waterford, increased immigration of the Irish elsewhere in Canada began in the decades following the War of 1812 and formed a significant part of The Great Migration of Canada.", "Between 1825 and 1845, 60% of all immigrants to Canada were Irish; in 1831 alone, some 34,000 arrived in Montreal.Between 1830 and 1850, 624,000 Irish arrived; in contextual terms, at the end of this period, the population of the provinces of Canada was 2.4 million.", "Besides Upper Canada (Ontario), Lower Canada (Quebec), the Maritime colonies of Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick, especially Saint John, were arrival points.", "Not all remained; many out-migrated to the United States or to Western Canada in the decades that followed.", "Few returned to Ireland.Many Newfoundlanders are of Irish descent.", "It is estimated that about 80% of Newfoundlanders have Irish ancestry on at least one side of their family tree.", "The family names, the predominant Roman Catholic religion, the prevalence of Irish music – even the accents of the people – are so reminiscent of rural Ireland that Irish author Tim Pat Coogan has described Newfoundland as ''\"the most Irish place in the world outside Ireland\"''.", "Newfoundland Irish, the dialect of the Irish language specific to the island was widely spoken until the mid-20th century.", "It is very similar to the language heard in the southeast of Ireland centuries ago, due to mass emigration from the counties Tipperary, Waterford, Wexford, County Kerry and Cork.Saint John, New Brunswick, claims the distinction of being Canada's most Irish city, according to census records.", "There have been Irish settlers in New Brunswick since at least the late 18th century, but during the peak of the Great Irish Famine (1845–1847), thousands of Irish emigrated through Partridge Island in the port of Saint John.", "Most of these Irish were Roman Catholic, who changed the complexion of the Loyalist city.", "A large, vibrant Irish community can also be found in the Miramichi region of New Brunswick.Guysborough County, Nova Scotia has many rural Irish villages.", "Erinville (which means Irishville), Salmon River, Ogden, Bantry (named after Bantry Bay, County Cork, Ireland but now abandoned and grown up in trees) among others, where Irish last names are prevalent and the accent is reminiscent of the Irish as well as the music, traditions, religion (Roman Catholic), and the love of Ireland itself.", "Some of the Irish counties from which these people arrived were County Kerry (Dingle Peninsula), County Cork, and County Roscommon, along with others.Quebec is also home to a large Irish community, especially in Montreal, where the Irish shamrock is featured on the municipal flag.", "Notably, thousands of Irish emigrants during the Famine passed through Grosse Isle near Québec City, where many succumbed to typhus.", "Most of the Irish who settled near Québec City are now French speakers.Irish Catholic settlers also opened up new agricultural areas in the recently surveyed Eastern Townships, the Ottawa valley, and Gatineau and Pontiac counties.", "Irish from Quebec would also settle in communities such as Frampton, Saint Sylvestre, and Saint Patrick in the Beauce region of southeastern Quebec.Ontario has over 2 million people of Irish descent, who in greater numbers arrived in the 1820s and the decades that followed to work on colonial infrastructure and to settle land tracts in Upper Canada, the result today is a countryside speckled with the place names of Ireland.", "Ontario received a large number of those who landed in Quebec during the Famine years, many thousands died in Ontario's ports.", "Irish-born became the majority in Toronto by 1851.===Caribbean===From the 1620s, many of the Irish Roman Catholic merchant class in this period migrated voluntarily to the West Indies to avail of the business opportunities there occasioned by the trade in sugar, tobacco and cotton.", "They were followed by landless Irish indentured labourers, who were recruited to serve a landowner for a specified time before receiving freedom and land.", "The descendants of some Irish immigrants are known today in the West Indies as redlegs.", "Most descendants of these Irishmen moved off the islands as African slavery was implemented and blacks began to replace whites.", "Many Barbadian-born Irishmen helped establish the Carolina colony in the United States.After the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland Irish prisoners were forcibly transferred to English colonies in the Americas and sold into indentured servitude, a practice that came to be known as being ''Barbadosed'', though Barbados was not the only colony to receive Irish prisoners, with those sent to Montserrat being the best known.", "To this day, Montserrat is the only country or territory in the world, apart from the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland and the Canadian province of Newfoundland to observe a public holiday on St Patrick's Day.", "The population is predominantly of mixed Irish and African descent.====Puerto Rico====Irish immigrants played an instrumental role in Puerto Rico's economy.", "One of the most important industries of the island was the sugar industry.", "Among the successful businessmen in this industry were Miguel Conway, who owned a plantation in the town of Hatillo and Juan Nagle whose plantation was located in Río Piedras.", "General Alexander O'Reilly, \"Father of the Puerto Rican Militia\", named Tomas O'Daly chief engineer of modernising the defences of San Juan, this included the fortress of San Cristóbal.", "Tomas O'Daly and Miguel Kirwan were partners in the \"Hacienda San Patricio\", which they named after the patron saint of Ireland, Saint Patrick.", "A relative of O'Daly, Demetrio O'Daly, succeeded Captain Ramon Power y Giralt as the island's delegate to the Spanish Courts.", "The plantation no longer exists; however, the land in which the plantation was located is now a San Patricio suburb with a shopping mall by the same name.", "The Quinlan family established two plantations, one in the town of Toa Baja and the other in Loíza.", "Puerto Ricans of Irish descent were also instrumental in the development of the island's tobacco industry.", "Among them Miguel Conboy who was a founder of the tobacco trade in Puerto Rico.Other notable places in the Caribbean include:* Antigua and Barbuda * Barbados* Jamaica* Saint Kitts and Nevis* Saint Lucia* Trinidad and Tobago=== Colombia ===The presence and impact of the Irish in Colombia dates back to the time of Spanish rule, when in different historical periods they migrated to the Iberian Peninsula and from there to the American continent, enlisted in the colonization, trade, army and administration companies.", "One episode in which this group had a special impact was the colonization of the Darien (Gulf of Urabá) in 1788.In this place 64 families and 50 single individuals from North America were established, to which were added families from the interior.", "Of these families, 28 were of Irish origin, which shows their numerical importance and valuation as an emerging social group within the Hispanic world.There is no doubt that the greatest concentration and contributions to the country occurred during the emancipation campaigns.", "It is enough to look at the list drawn up by researcher Matthew Brown to understand their importance and impact, for out of some 6,808 Europeans, the Irish represented 48%; we are talking about more than 3,000 Irish who fought to give freedom to Colombia.", "These would have come enlisted in the Irish Legion, where they were famous officers like: Casey, Devereux, Egan, Ferguson, Foley, Lanagan, Rooke, Larkin, McCarthy, Murphy, O'Leary, O'Connell, O'Connor and Sanders.Once the wars of Independence were over, a good portion of them would have remained to form part of the Colombian army.", "Others, on the other hand, would have abandoned military life to integrate into society as businessmen, merchants, musicians, doctors, poets, miners and settlers.", "The economic sector in which the Irish participated the most was mining: they formed small mining colonies in the north and south of Antioquia.", "In the middle of the century, the English miner Tyrell Moore, presented to the Sovereign State of Antioquia a project to colonize with 200 Irish families in the north and lower Cauca, an intention that apparently met with local disapproval and added to other logistical problems made its materialization impossible.", "But the largest mining colony was established in the south (currently Caldas department), in towns such as Marmato and Supía.", "Among the hundreds of British, French, German and Swedish miners who moved there were some Irishmen such as Eduardo MacAllister, Joseph Raphson, Nicolas Fitzgerald, Juan O'Byrne, David Davis and the Nicholls.In addition, this immigration has been highlighted in dozens of literary and academic works, the most important of which are: Irish Blood in Antioquia (''Sangre irlandesa en Antioquia)'', by Aquiles Echeverri, Irish descendant; The Mysters of the Mines (''Los místeres de las minas)'', by Alvaro Gartner and The Sanctuary: Global History of a Battle (''El Santuario: Historia global de una batalla)'', by Matthew Brown.", "For all of the above, it is evident that Irish immigration has not been alien to us and its presence, traces and impact also constitute an important part of our past and historical and cultural heritage.===Chile===Many of the Wild Geese, expatriate Irish soldiers who had gone to Spain, or their descendants, continued on to its colonies in South America.", "Many of them rose to prominent positions in the Spanish governments there.", "In the 1820s, some of them helped liberate the continent.", "Bernardo O'Higgins was the first Supreme director of Chile.", "When Chilean troops occupied Lima during the War of the Pacific in 1881, they put in charge certain Patricio Lynch, whose grandfather came from Ireland to Argentina and then moved to Chile.", "Other Latin American countries that have Irish settlement include Puerto Rico and Colombia.===Mexico===The County Wexford born William Lamport, better known to most Mexicans as Guillén de Lampart, was a precursor of the Independence movement and author of the first proclamation of independence in the New World.", "His statue stands today in the Crypt of Heroes beneath the Column of Independence in Mexico City.", "Juan de O'Donojú y O'Ryan, of Irish descent, was the last Viceroy of New Spain (Mexico), died and is buried in Mexico City.Among the most famous Irishmen in Mexican history are \"Los Patricios\" of Saint Patrick's Battalion.", "Many communities existed in Mexican Texas until the revolution there, when they sided with Roman Catholic Mexico against Protestant pro-US elements.", "The ''Batallón de San Patricio'', a battalion of US troops who deserted and fought alongside the Mexican Army against the United States in the Mexican–American War of 1846–1848, is well known in Mexican history.", "The most well known of these was Major John Riley.", "Mexico also has a large number of people of Irish ancestry, among them the actor Anthony Quinn.", "There are monuments in Mexico City paying tribute to those Irish who fought for Mexico in the 19th century.", "There is a monument to Los Patricios in the fort of Churubusco.", "During the Great Famine, thousands of Irish immigrants entered the country.", "Other Mexicans of Irish descent are: Romulo O'Farril, Juan O'Gorman, Edmundo O'Gorman and Alejo Bay (Governor of the state of Sonora).===United States===The first Irish came to modern day America during the 1600s mostly to Virginia and mostly indentured servants.The diaspora to the United States was immortalised in the words of many songs including the Irish ballad, \"The Green Fields of America\":So pack up your sea-stores, consider no longer,Ten dollars a week is not very bad pay,With no taxes or tithes to devour up your wages,When you're on the green fields of Americay.The experience of Irish immigrants in the United States has not always been harmonious.", "The US did not have a good relationship with most of the incoming Irish because of their Roman Catholic faith, as the majority of the population was Protestant and had been originally formed by offshoots of the Protestant faith, many of whom were from the north of Ireland (Ulster).", "So it came as no surprise that the federal government issued new immigration acts, adding to previous ones which limited Eastern European immigration, ones which limited the immigration of the Irish.Those who were successful in coming over from Ireland were for the most part already good farmers and other hard labour workers, so the jobs they were taking were plentiful in the beginning.", "However, as time went on and the land needed less cultivation, the jobs the new Irish immigrants were taking were those that Americans wanted as well.", "In most cases, Irish newcomers were sometimes uneducated and often found themselves competing with Americans for manual labour jobs or, in the 1860s, being recruited from the docks by the US Army to serve in the American Civil War and afterward to build the Union Pacific Railroad.", "This view of the Irish-American experience is depicted by another traditional song, \"Paddy's Lamentation.", "\"Hear me boys, now take my advice,To America I'll have ye's not be going,There is nothing here but war, where the murderin' cannons roar,And I wish I was at home in dear old Ireland.The classic image of an Irish immigrant is led to a certain extent by racist and anti-Catholic stereotypes.", "In modern times, in the United States, the Irish are largely perceived as hard workers.", "Most notably they are associated with the positions of police officer, firefighter, Roman Catholic Church leaders and politicians in the larger Eastern Seaboard metropolitan areas.", "Irish Americans number over 35 million, making them the second largest reported ethnic group in the country, after German Americans.", "Historically, large Irish American communities have been found in Philadelphia; Chicago; Boston; New York City; New York; Detroit; New England; Washington, D.C.; Baltimore; Pittsburgh; Cleveland; St. Paul, Minnesota; Buffalo; Broome County; Butte; Dubuque; Quincy; Dublin; Hartford; New Haven; Waterbury; Providence; Kansas City; New Orleans; Braintree; Weymouth; Norfolk; Nashville; Scranton; Wilkes-Barre; O'Fallon; Tampa; Hazleton; Worcester; Lowell; Los Angeles; and the San Francisco Bay Area.", "Many cities across the country have annual St Patrick's Day parades; The nation's largest is in New York City—one of the world's largest parades.", "The parade in Boston is closely associated with Evacuation Day, when the British left Boston in 1776 during the American War of Independence.Before the Great Hunger, in which over a million died and more emigrated, there had been the Penal Laws which had already resulted in significant emigration from Ireland.According to the ''Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups'', in 1790 there were 400,000 Americans of Irish birth or ancestry out of a total white population of 3,100,000.Half of these Irish Americans were descended from Ulster people, and half were descended from the people of Connacht, Leinster and Munster.According to US census figures from 2000, 41,000,000 Americans claim to be wholly or partly of Irish ancestry, a group that represents more than one in five white Americans.", "Many African Americans are part of the Irish diaspora, as they are descended from Irish or Scots-Irish slave owners and overseers who arrived in America during the colonial era.", "The US Census Bureau's data from 2016 reveals that Irish ancestry is one of the most common reported ancestries reported (in the top 3 most common ancestries reported).", "Even though Irish immigration is extremely small relative to the scope of current migration, Irish ancestry is one of the most common ancestries in the United States because of the events that took place over a century ago.The enduring nature of Irish-American identity is exemplified by the widespread celebration of St.Patrick's Day, the national day of Ireland, across the United States.", "The traditional St. Patrick's Day parade having developed, in its modern form, in the United States itself.", "The largest such parade in the world is the New York City St. Patrick's Day Parade which features in the region of 150,000 participants and 2,000,000 spectators annually, with thousands of parades of all sizes across the United States." ], [ "Asia", "===Indian Subcontinent===Irishmen have been known in India right from the days of the East India Company, which was founded in 1600.While most of the early Irish came as traders, some also came as soldiers.", "However, the majority of these traders and soldiers were from the Protestant Ascendancy.", "Prominent among them were the generals Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington (1769–1852) who became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in 1834 and his brother Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley (1760–1842), who was Governor-General of India (1798–1805).", "Later in the Victorian period, many thinkers, philosophers and Irish nationalists from the Roman Catholic majority too made it to India, prominent among the nationalists being the theosophist Annie Besant.It is widely believed that there existed a secret alliance between the Irish and Indian independence movements.", "Some Indian intellectuals like Jawaharlal Nehru and V. V. Giri were certainly inspired by Irish nationalists when they studied in the United Kingdom.", "The Indian revolutionary group known as the Bengal Volunteers took this name in emulation of the Irish Volunteers.", "Derek O'Brien, quiz master turned Member of Parliament in Indian state of West Bengal.", "Michael John O'Brian is an eminent Air Vice-Marshall of Pakistan Air Force." ], [ "Australia", "People with Irish ancestry as a percentage of the population in Australia divided geographically by statistical local area, as of the 2011 census2,087,800 Australians, 10.4% of the population, self-reported some Irish ancestry in the 2011 census, second only to English and Australian.The Australian government estimates the total figure may be around 7 million (30%).In the 2006 census 50,255 Australian residents declared they were born in the Republic of Ireland and a further 21,291 declared to have been born in Northern Ireland.", "This gives Australia the third largest Irish-born population outside of Ireland (after Britain and America).Between the 1790s and 1920s, approximately 400,000 Irish settlers – both voluntary and forced – are thought to have arrived in Australia.", "They first came over in large numbers as convicts, with around 50,000 transported between 1791 and 1867.Even larger numbers of free settlers came during the 19th century due to famine, the Donegal Relief Fund, the discovery of gold in Victoria and New South Wales, and the increasing \"pull\" of a pre-existing Irish community.", "By 1871, Irish immigrants accounted for one quarter of Australia's overseas-born population.Irish Catholic immigrants – who made up about 75% of the total Irish population – were largely responsible for the establishment of a separate Catholic school system.", "About 20% of Australian children attend Catholic schools as of 2017.It has also been argued that the Irish language was the source of a significant number of words in Australian English." ], [ "South Africa", "Irish communities can be found in Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, Kimberley, and Johannesburg, with smaller communities in Pretoria, Barberton, Durban and East London.", "A third of the Cape's governors were Irish, as were many of the judges and politicians.", "Both the Cape Colony and the Colony of Natal had Irish prime ministers: Sir Thomas Upington, \"The Afrikaner from Cork\"; and Sir Albert Hime, from Kilcoole in County Wicklow.", "Irish Cape Governors included Lord Macartney, Lord Caledon and Sir John Francis Cradock.Henry Nourse, a shipowner at the Cape, brought out a small party of Irish settlers in 1818.Many Irish were with the 1820 British settlers in the Eastern Cape frontier with the Xhosa.", "In 1823, John Ingram brought out 146 Irish from Cork.", "Single Irish women were sent to the Cape on a few occasions.", "Twenty arrived in November 1849 and 46 arrived in March 1851.The majority arrived in November 1857 aboard .", "A large contingent of Irish troops fought in the Anglo-Boer War on both sides and a few of them stayed in South Africa after the war.", "Others returned home but later came out to settle in South Africa with their families.", "Between 1902 and 1905, there were about 5,000 Irish immigrants.", "Places in South Africa named after Irish people include Upington, Porterville, Caledon, Cradock, Sir Lowry's Pass, the Biggarsberg Mountains, Donnybrook, Himeville and Belfast.James Rorke was of Irish parentage and was the founder of Rorkes's drift." ], [ "New Zealand", "The diaspora population of Ireland also got a fresh start on the islands of New Zealand during the 19th century.", "The possibility of striking it rich in the gold mines caused many Irish people to flock to the docks; risking their lives on the long voyage to potential freedom and more importantly self-sufficiency, many Irish also came with the British army during the New Zealand wars.", "Several places, including Gabriel's Gully and Otago, were mining sites which, with the funding of large companies, allowed for the creation of wages and the appearance of mining towns.", "Women found jobs as housemaids cleaning the shacks of the single men at work thereby providing a second income to the Irish family household.", "The subsequent money accumulated with regards to this would allow for chain migration for the rest of the family left behind.The transition to New Zealand was made easier due to the overexposure that the Irish had previously had with colonialism.", "They ventured upwards to the British ports, settling temporarily to accumulate the necessary finances before moving onwards towards the banks of the far away island.", "In doing so, they not only exposed themselves to the form of British form of government but likewise to capitalism.", "This aided to further the simplicity of the transition for the dispersed population.The government aided through the use of both promissory notes and land grants.", "By promising to pay for the passage of a family the government ensured that the island would be populated and a British colony would be formed.", "Free passage was installed for women first between the ages of 15 and 35, while males between the ages of 18 and 40 years of age would be promised a certain number of acres of land upon arrival in the New World.", "This was attributed to the installment of the New Zealand Land act.", "To further aid with the financial burden, free passage to any immigrant was granted after 1874.The Irish diaspora population in New Zealand also resulted in a diminished amount of prejudice against Roman Catholicism compared to that in other British colonies.", "The lack of embedded hierarchy and social structure allowed for previous sectarian tensions to be dissolved.", "This can also be attributed to the sheer amount of distance between the respective religions due to the sparseness of the unpopulated area and the sheer size of the islands." ], [ "List of countries by population of Irish heritage", " Country Population % of country Criterion Irish American 33,348,049 11%Self-identified \"Irish\"33,348,04911% of the US population (2013)Scotch–Irish Americans27 to 30 millionUp to 10% of the U.S. population5,827,046 (Self-reported only, 2008) 2% of the total U.S. population Irish Canadian 4,544,870 14% Irish Mexican 10,000 0.1% Irish Argentine 1,000,000 3% – 1,000,000 Irish Chilean 120,000 0.7% Irish Uruguayan 120,000 4% Irish British 14,000,000 10% 869,093 Irish-bornc.", "6 million with at least 25% Irish ancestry Northern Irish 828,220 45% Irish-Scots 1,500,000 28% Irish Australian 7,000,000 30% 7,000,000 (30% of the Australian population of partial Irish ancestry) 80,000 (by birth, 2011)2,087,800 (self-declared Irish ancestry, 2011; 10% of the Australian population) Irish people 4,577,072 85%" ], [ "Religion", "Paul Cardinal Cullen set out to spread Irish dominance over the English-speaking Roman Catholic Church in the 19th century.", "The establishment of an 'Irish Episcopal Empire' involved three transnational entities – the British Empire, the Roman Catholic Church, and the Irish diaspora.", "Irish clergy, notably Cullen, made particular use of the reach of the British Empire to spread their influence.", "From the 1830s until his death in 1878, Cullen held several key positions near the top of the Irish hierarchy and influenced Rome's appointment of Irish bishops on four continents.Walker (2007) compares Irish immigrant communities in the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and Great Britain respecting issues of identity and 'Irishness.'", "Religion remained the major cause of differentiation in all Irish diaspora communities and had the greatest impact on identity, followed by the nature and difficulty of socio-economic conditions faced in each new country and the strength of continued social and political links of Irish immigrants and their descendants with Ireland.In the United States specifically, Irish immigrants were persecuted because of their religion.", "The Know Nothing Movement sprung up during the time of the Irish's arrival.", "The Know Nothing Party was formed by Protestants and was the first political party in American history to push against Catholic immigration to the United States, particularly targeting Irish and German immigrants.", "The Know Nothings fought to limit immigration from traditional Catholic countries, prohibit non-English language speaking on US territory, and create a policy where you must spend 21 years in the US before gaining citizenship.", "The party faded out of existence relatively quickly, but they are a reminder of the persecution Irish immigrants faced.", "During the third and fourth waves of immigration, new arrivals faced similar discrimination and the now settled Irish would take part in this persecution of other groups.From the late 20th century onward, Irish identity abroad became increasingly cultural, non-denominational, and non-political, although many emigrants from Northern Ireland stood apart from this trend.", "However, Ireland as religious reference point is now increasingly significant in neopagan contexts." ], [ "Famous members of the diaspora", "===Politicians===This listing is for politicians of Irish nationality or origin, who were or are engaged in the politics of a foreign country.", "The term Irish diaspora is open to many interpretations.", "One, preferred by the government of Ireland, is defined in legal terms: the Irish diaspora are those of Irish nationality, mostly but not exclusively Roman Catholic, residing outside of the island of Ireland.", "This includes Irish citizens who have emigrated abroad and their children, who were Irish citizens by descent under Irish law.", "It also includes their grandchildren in cases.", "See also Irish military diaspora.", "(See also Notable Americans of Scotch-Irish descent).", "Timothy Anglin, County Cork-born Canadian politician; Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons.", "Joe Biden, current (46th) American President of English, French & Irish ancestryEd Broadbent, politician and political scientistEamon Bulfin, Argentine-born Irish republican activist.", "Edmund Burke, Dublin born leading political figure in the House of Commons with the Whig PartyConor Burns, Northern Ireland-born British Conservative M.P.", "Charles Carroll, Maryland born catholic signer of Declaration of Independence Patrick Collins, County Cork-born mayor of BostonRichard B. Connolly, County Cork-born Tammany Hall Democrat James Callaghan, United Kingdom Labour Party Prime Minister, Chancellor and Foreign Secretary 1960s and 1970s.", "Richard Croker, County Cork-born leading New York Tammany Hall politicianJohn Curtin, 14th Prime Minister of Australia.", "Richard J. Daley, Mayor of Chicago, 1955–76.", "Richard M. Daley, Mayor of Chicago, 1989–2011.", "Charles de Gaulle, French General and President of the Republic; of Irish descent (MacCartan)Bernard Devlin, 19th-century Irish-Canadian lawyer, journalist, and politician.", "Thomas Dongan, governor of the province of New YorkJames Duane, Mayor of New York City 1784; his father was from County Galway.", "Sir Charles Gavan Duffy, Irish-Australian nationalist, journalist, poet and politician, 8th Premier of VictoriaThomas Addis Emmet, County Cork-born American lawyer and politician.", "Edelmiro Farrell, 28th President of Argentina (''de facto''; 1944–46).", "David Feeney, Northern Ireland-born Australian politician, M.P.", "William P. Fitzpatrick, Irish-born American politician, representing Cranston, Rhode Island in that state's legislature.", "James Ambrose Gallivan U.S.", "Congressman from Massachusetts.", "Dorothy Kelly Gay, Irish-born American politician.", "Thomas Francis Gilroy, County Sligo-born 89th Mayor of New York City.", "Chaim Herzog, Belfast-born 6th President of IsraelAlbert Henry Hime, County Wicklow-born Royal Engineers, officer and later Premier in the Colony of Natal.", "Kate Hoey, Northern Ireland-born British Labour M.P.", "Paul Keating, 24th Prime Minister of Australia.", "John F. Kennedy, 35th President of the United States; also Robert F. Kennedy and Edward M. Kennedy, members of the Kennedy Family, originally from Wexford.", "John Kenny, long-time republican member of the Clan-na-Gael in New York.", "Peter Lalor, Irish-Australian rebel; later a politician who played a leading role in the Eureka Rebellion.", "Patrice MacMahon, duc de Magenta, first President of the Third French Republic.", "George Mathews, 17th & 21st Governor of Georgia; also Henry M. Mathews, 5th Governor of West Virginia, and members of the Mathews familyD'Arcy McGee, Young Irelander; father of Canadian Confederation, assassinated by Fenians.", "Dalton McGuinty, Premier of Ontario, Canada; only the second Roman Catholic to hold this office.", "David McGuinty, Ontario, Canada politician.", "Santiago Mariño, Venezuelan-born of an Irish mother; aide de camp to Simón Bolívar.", "Paul Martin, 21st Prime Minister of Canada.", "Conor McGinn, County Armagh-born British Labour M.P.", "Thomas Francis Meagher, Waterford born nationalist rebel, appointed acting governor of the Montana Territory.", "John Mitchel, Irish nationalist politician who supported the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War.", "Maurice T. Moloney, County Kerry-born Democrat who served as Illinois Attorney General and elected Mayor of Ottawa, Illinois.", "Tom Mulcair, politician; Leader of Official OppositionBrian Mulroney, 18th Prime Minister of Canada, born to Irish Quebecer parents.", "Ricardo López Murphy, Argentine politician and presidential candidate.", "Barack Obama, 44th American President of Kenyan & Irish ancestryÁlvaro Obregón, President of Mexico, 1920–24.", "Kolouei O'Brien, head of government of Tokelau.", "Detta O'Cathain, Baroness O'Cathain, Irish-born British businesswoman and peer.", "Arthur O'Connor, County Cork-born United Irishman who later served as General under Napoleon, after the revolution became mayor of Le Bignon-Mirabeau.", "T.P.", "O'Connor, sat lifelong for Liverpool Scotland constituency of the UK House of Commons.", "Leopoldo O'Donnell, 1st Duke of Tetuan, Spanish general and statesman, a descendant of Calvagh O'Donnell, chieftain of Tyrconnell.", "Juan O'Donojú, last viceroy of New Spain.", "Paul O'Dwyer, County Mayo-born Irish-American politician and republican activist.", "William O'Dwyer, County Mayo-born Irish-American politician and diplomat who served as the 100th Mayor of New York City.", "Bernardo O'Higgins, second Supreme Director of Chile, and his father, Viceroy of Peru Ambrosio O'Higgins, Marquis of Osorno, a Sligoman.", "Joseph O'Lawlor, was an Irish-born Spanish general who fought under the Duke of Wellington during the Napoleonic Wars and later served as Governor of Granada.", "John Boyle O'Reilly, Irish Republican Brotherhood activist, prominent spokesperson for the Irish community through his editorship of the Boston newspaper, ''The Pilot''.", "John O'Shanassy, was an Irish-Australian politician who served as the 2nd Premier of Victoria, born near Thurles, County Tipperary.", "William Paterson, born in Country Antrim, a New Jersey statesman, signer of the United States Constitution, Judge of the Supreme Court and second governor of New JerseySamantha Power, Irish-born American-reared author, political critic, and United Nations diplomat Louis St. Laurent, 12th Prime Minister of Canada, mother an Irish Quebecer.", "James Scullin, 9th Prime Minister of Australia.", "James Smith, an Ulster-born American lawyer and a signer to the United States Declaration of Independence as a representative of Pennsylvania.", "John Sullivan, Irish American general and politician Thomas Taggart, Irish immigrant American Democratic Party political boss in Indiana during the first quarter of the 20th century.", "George Taylor, was an Irish-born Colonial ironmaster and a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence as a representative of Pennsylvania.", "Sir John Thompson – 4th Prime Minister of Canada.", "Matthew Thornton, was an Irish-born signer of the United States Declaration of Independence as a representative of New HampshireWilliam Massey, born in Limavady was the 19th Prime Minister of New Zealand.", "Michael Walsh Youghal, County Cork-born Democratic United States Representative from New York.", "Derek O'Brien is a Member of Parliament from TMC Party, West Bengal, India.", "He is also a quiz master and has hosted several quiz showsIsadora Duncan, legendary dancerGarland as Dorothy Gale in ''The Wizard of Oz'' (1939)===Artists and musicians===Lucille Ball, actress and comedianMischa Barton, actressDavid Bowie, singer/songwriterLara Flynn Boyle, actressEdward Burns, actor / filmmakerKate Bush, Singer and songwriterMariah Carey, best selling female recording artistGeorge Carlin, comedian, ranked second greatest of all time by Comedy Central.", "John Cena – WWE wrestler/ actorRaymond Chandler, writer of the Marlowe series.", "Irish mother.", "George Clooney, actorKurt Cobain, lead singer of NirvanaStephen Colbert, comedianSteve Coogan, actor / comedianTom Cruise, actorKevin Dillon, actorMatt Dillon, actorPatrick Duff, singer-songwriter (Strangelove)Patty Duke, actressIsadora Duncan, dancerEverlast & Danny Boy, successively members of Hip-Hop group House of Pain and of La Coka Nostra.", "Siobhán Fahey, singer and songwriter of the UK-based groups Bananarama and Shakespears Sister.", "Jimmy Fallon – television hostMichael Flatley, dancer and creator of RiverdanceHarrison Ford, actor and pilotLiam Gallagher and Noel Gallagher of Oasis.", "Judy Garland, actress and singerMel Gibson, actor / filmmakerThea Gilmore, singer-songwriterMerv Griffin, television hostLafcadio Hearn, American writer.", "Paul Hogan, actor.", "Marian Jordan, Molly of long-time hit radio program Fibber McGee and Molly.", "Mike Joyce, member of The Smiths.", "Gene Kelly actor and dancerPrincess Grace of Monaco, actress (as Grace Kelly) and noblewoman.", "Kennedy familyJamie Kennedy, actorKevin Kline, actorDenis Leary, actor, musician and comedianMac Lethal, hip hop musicianLorde, New Zealand-born singer.", "John Lydon a.k.a.", "Johnny Rotten, singer with the Sex PistolsBill Maher talk show host, comedian.", "Johnny Marr, member of The Smiths.", "Paul McCartney, John Lennon and George Harrison of The Beatles.", "Rose McGowan, actress, born in Italy to an Irish father and French motherTom Meighan, lead singer of KasabianColin Meloy, lead singer and songwriter of The Decemberists.", "Steven Morrissey, singer, member of The Smiths.", "Brittany Murphy actressMary Murphy, choreographer.", "Katie Noonan, Irish-Australian singer.", "Conan O'Brien, television hostGeorge O'Dowd, pop singer, also known as ''Boy George''Juan O'Gorman, a 20th-century Mexican artist, both a painter and an architect.", "Georgia O'Keeffe, painterThe Black Swan'' (1942)Maureen O'Hara, Irish-born actress and celebrated Hollywood beauty.", "Eugene O'Neill, writer.", "Peter O'Toole, Academy Award winner & nominated actor.", "Considered himself IrishCM Punk – WWE wrestlerAidan Quinn, Emmy Award-nominated actorAnthony Quinn, Oscar-winning Mexican actor.", "Rihanna, R'n'B Barbados of African-Irish descentSaoirse Ronan, Irish American Golden Globes Award actress.", "Considers herself IrishMickey Rooney, American actor, former child starJohnny Rotten (born John Lydon), singer of the Sex Pistols.", "Kevin Rowland, lead singer of Dexys Midnight Runners.", "Andy Rourke, member of The Smiths.", "Justin Sane, lead singer of Anti-FlagDusty Springfield, English-born singer.", "Bruce Springsteen, songwriter, performer and political activist.", "Spencer Tracy, actorJohn Wayne, actor, enduring American iconBrian Whelan, painter and authorCatherine Zeta-Jones, actress===Scientists===Robert Boyle, philosopher and chemist.", "Kathleen Lonsdale, London-based 20th century Chemist.", "Ernest Walton, 1930s Cambridge-based researcher, co-winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics awarded in 1951.", "James D. Watson, co-discoverer of DNA Nobel Prize winner===Others===Muhammad Ali, American boxer, his mother's father (Ali's grandfather) Abe Grady was from Ennis, Co. ClareAnne Boleyn, Queen consort to King Henry VIII of England; Irish paternal grandmother Margaret ButlerAnne Bonney, pirate, born in Cork.", "James J. Braddock, boxer, also known as ''The Cinderella Man''Molly Brown, the \"Unsinkable Molly Brown.", "\"Nellie Cashman, \"The Angel of Tombstone\".", "George Croghan, Irish born colonial American fur trapper U Dhammaloka (?Laurence Carroll), Buddhist monk and anti-missionary agitator in Burma, born in DublinDiana, Princess of Wales, noblewoman, her mother, Frances Burke Roche was a descendant of the Earls of FermoyArthur Conan Doyle, author known for his Sherlock Holmes stories.", "John Dunlap, printer of the first copies of the United States Declaration of IndependenceMargaretta Eagar, governess to the last Russian royal familySarah, Duchess of York, former wife of a British prince, her paternal ancestors came from Northern IrelandThomas Fitzpatrick (trapper) American mountain manHenry Ford, businessman and founder of the Ford Foundation.", "Cardinal James Gibbons, Roman Catholic prelateKathy Griffin, standup comic and TV personality (both parents Irish immigrants)Sean Hannity, American political commentatorMary Jemison, Irish captive adopted by Native American Seneca tribe.Painting of Louise O'Murphy by François Boucher c. 1751Dorothy Jordan, mistress to William IV of the United KingdomNed Kelly – Australian bushrangerDr. Martin Luther King Jr. – American civil rights activistEliza Lynch, Irish-born mistress of President Francisco Solano López of ParaguayMartin Maher, instructor at the United States Military Academy at West PointMary Mallon, also known as ''Typhoid Mary'', a notorious cookBat Masterson, lawman during the Wild West period.Lola Montez, Irish-born mistress to King Ludwig I of Bavaria.", "Her real name was Eliza GilbertLola Montez, mistress to Ludwig I of BavariaAnnie Moore, first immigrant to USA to be processed at Ellis IslandGeorge 'Bugs' Moran, Prohibition era Chicago US gangsterAnne Mortimer, Irish-born English noblewomanMichael Patrick Murphy, US Navy SEAL, Medal of Honor Recipient, Namesake for USS Michael MurphyEvelyn Nesbit, model and actressMario O'Donnell, historianMarie-Louise O'Murphy, mistress to King Louis XV of France.", "Bill O'Reilly, American political commentatorCount Joseph Cornelius O'Rourke, Lieutenant-General of the Russian Imperial Guard.", "Lee Harvey Oswald, assassin of John F. Kennedy, Irish great-grandmother Mary TonryPat Quinn, Canadian hockey coach (former coach of Toronto Maple Leafs and Team Canada)Maximilien Robespierre- French RevolutionaryFrank Wallace, criminalJames McLean, criminalMickey Spillane, criminalJames J. Bulger, criminalMary O'Toole, first woman municipal judge of the United States" ], [ "See also", ";Irish Brigade* Irish Brigade (French) formed from the Irish army after the flight of the Wild Geese in 1691.", "* 1st Regiment Venezuelan Rifles – Irish regiment that took part in the Venezuelan War of Independence.", "* The Irish Battalion, or ''Los San Patricio'', who fought on the side of Mexico against the US invasion of 1846–48.", "* Irish Brigade (Union Army) served on the Union side in the American Civil War in the 1860s.", "* Tyneside Irish Brigade, World War I brigade serving in the British army at the Somme.", "* Irish military diaspora, notable individuals, Irish by birth or extraction, who served in non-Irish military forces.", "* Irish regiments, many Irish regiments served in non-Irish military forces and took part in several conflicts of world history.", ";Causes of Irish emigration* Flight of the Earls* Cromwellian conquest of Ireland* The Penal Laws affecting non-Conformists (c. 1715–1869)* Irish Famine (1740–41)* Great Irish Famine (1845–1851)* Irish Famine (1879)* Economic history of Ireland* Economic history of the Republic of Ireland* The Economic War, 1933–1938* \"The Emergency\" (Ireland during World War II)* \"The Troubles\" (c. 1969–1998)* Post-2008 Irish economic downturn; General* List of expatriate Irish populations* Irish Travellers* Irish military diaspora* List of Ireland-related topics* Irish place names in other countries* The Gathering Ireland 2013* Liverpool Irish* Coatbridge Irish* ''Against the Wind'' (TV series)* EPIC The Irish Emigration Museum" ], [ "References", "===Footnotes======Bibliography===* Ronan, Gerard.", "''The Irish Zorro: the Extraordinary Adventures of William Lamport (1615–1659)''Murray, Thomas (1919).", "''The Story of the Irish in Argentina''Glazier, Michael (ed.)", "(1999).", "''The Encyclopedia of the Irish in America'' Notre Dame IN: University of Notre Dame Press * Akenson, Donald.", "''The Irish Diaspora: a Primer.''", "(Belfast: Institute of Irish Studies, 1993)* Bielenberg, Andy, ed.", "''The Irish Diaspora'' (London: Pearson, 2000)* Campbell, Malcolm.", "''Ireland's New Worlds: Immigrants, Politics, and Society in the United States and Australia, 1815–1922'' (2007)* Coleman, Philip Coleman, James Byrne and Jason King, eds.", "''Ireland and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History'' (3 vol.", "ABC-CLIO, 2008), 967 pp excerpt and text search* Coogan, Tim Pat.", "''Wherever Green Is Worn: The Story of the Irish Diaspora'' (2002)* Darby, Paul, and David Hassan, eds.", "''Sport and the Irish Diaspora: Emigrants at Play'' (2008)* Delaney, Enda, Kevin Kenny, and Donald Mcraild.", "\"The Irish Diaspora\", ''Irish Economic and Social History'' (2006): 33:35–58* Fanning, Charles.", "''New Perspectives on the Irish Diaspora'' (2000)* Flechner, Roy, and Sven Meeder, eds., ''The Irish in Early Medieval Europe: Identity, Culture and Religion'' (2016), On Google Books* Gallman, J. Matthew.", "''Receiving Erin's Children: Philadelphia, Liverpool, and the Irish Famine Migration, 1845–1855'' (2000)* Glazier, Michael, ed.", "''The Encyclopedia of the Irish in America'' (U. of Notre Dame Press, 1999) 988 pp* Gray, Breda.", "''Women and the Irish Diaspora'' (2003)* Gribben, Arthur, and Ruth-Ann M. Harris.", "''The Great Famine and the Irish Diaspora in America'' (1999)* * Kenny, Kevin.", "\"Diaspora and Comparison: the Global Irish as a Case Study\", ''Journal of American History'' 2003 90(1): 134–62, In JSTOR* Kenny, Kevin.", "''The American Irish: A History.''", "(London/New York: Longman/Pearson, 2000).", "* Lalor, Brian, ed.", "''The Encyclopedia of Ireland'' (Dublin: Gill & Macmillan, 2003)* Mccaffrey, Lawrence.", "''The Irish Catholic Diaspora in America'' (Catholic University of America Press, 1997)* O'Day, Alan.", "\"Revising the Diaspora.\"", "in ''The Making of Modern Irish History'', edited by D George Boyce and Alan O'Day.", "(Routledge, 1996), pp. 188–215.", "* O'Farrell, Patrick.", "''The Irish in Australia: 1798 to the Present Day'' (3rd ed.", "Cork University Press, 2001)* O'sullivan, Patrick, ed.", "''The Irish Worldwide: Religion and Identity'', vol.", "5.", "(Leicester University Press, 1994)* Power, J O'Connor, \"The Irish in England\", ''Fortnightly Review'', no.", "159, 1880, pps.410–421.", "* Walker, Brian.", "\"'The Lost Tribes of Ireland': Diversity, Identity and Loss among the Irish Diaspora\", ''Irish Studies Review''; 2007 15(3): 267–82.", "* Whelan, Bernadette.", "\"Women on the Move: a review of the historiography of Irish emigration to the USA, 1750–1900.\"", "''Women's History Review'' 24.6 (2015): 900–16.", "* Horner, Dan.", "\"'If the Evil Now Growing around Us Be Not Staid': Montreal and Liverpool Confront the Irish Famine Migration as a Transnational Crisis in Urban Governance.\"", "Histoire Sociale/Social History 46, no.", "92 (2013): 349–66." ], [ "External links", "* The Irish in Europe Project at Maynooth University * The Irish in America by J. F. Maguire (1868)* Irish Diaspora Studies Dept, Bradford University UK* Society for Irish Latin American Studies\\ * The Irish (In Countries Other Than Ireland) – Article in the Catholic Encyclopedia* The Centre for Migration Studies- The Centre for Migration Studies, at the Ulster American Folk Park, Omagh, Northern Ireland* The Shamrock and the Maple Leaf: Irish-Canadian Documentary Heritage at Library and Archives Canada* Flight of the Earls" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Integer" ], [ "Introduction", "A blackboard bold '''Z''', often used to denote the set of all integersAn '''integer''' is the number zero (0), a positive natural number (1, 2, 3, etc.)", "or a '''negative integer''' (−1, −2, −3, etc.).", "The negative numbers are the additive inverses of the corresponding positive numbers.", "The set of all integers is often denoted by the boldface or blackboard bold The set of natural numbers is a subset of , which in turn is a subset of the set of all rational numbers , itself a subset of the real numbers .", "Like the set of natural numbers, the set of integers is countably infinite.", "An integer may be regarded as a real number that can be written without a fractional component.", "For example, 21, 4, 0, and −2048 are integers, while 9.75, , and are not.The integers form the smallest group and the smallest ring containing the natural numbers.", "In algebraic number theory, the integers are sometimes qualified as '''rational integers''' to distinguish them from the more general algebraic integers.", "In fact, (rational) integers are algebraic integers that are also rational numbers." ], [ "History", "The word integer comes from the Latin ''integer'' meaning \"whole\" or (literally) \"untouched\", from ''in'' (\"not\") plus ''tangere'' (\"to touch\").", "\"Entire\" derives from the same origin via the French word ''entier'', which means both ''entire'' and ''integer''.", "Historically the term was used for a number that was a multiple of 1, or to the whole part of a mixed number.", "Only positive integers were considered, making the term synonymous with the natural numbers.", "The definition of integer expanded over time to include negative numbers as their usefulness was recognized.", "For example Leonhard Euler in his 1765 ''Elements of Algebra'' defined integers to include both positive and negative numbers.", "However, European mathematicians, for the most part, resisted the concept of negative numbers until the middle of the 19th century.The use of the letter Z to denote the set of integers comes from the German word ''Zahlen'' (\"numbers\") and has been attributed to David Hilbert.", "The earliest known use of the notation in a textbook occurs in Algébre written by the collective Nicolas Bourbaki, dating to 1947.The notation was not adopted immediately, for example another textbook used the letter J and a 1960 paper used Z to denote the non-negative integers.", "But by 1961, Z was generally used by modern algebra texts to denote the positive and negative integers.The symbol is often annotated to denote various sets, with varying usage amongst different authors: , or for the positive integers, or for non-negative integers, and for non-zero integers.", "Some authors use for non-zero integers, while others use it for non-negative integers, or for (the group of units of ).", "Additionally, is used to denote either the set of integers modulo (i.e., the set of congruence classes of integers), or the set of -adic integers.The whole numbers were synonymous with the integers up until the early 1950s.", "In the late 1950s, as part of the New Math movement, American elementary school teachers began teaching that \"whole numbers\" referred to the natural numbers, excluding negative numbers, while \"integer\" included the negative numbers.", "\"Whole number\" remains ambiguous to the present day." ], [ "Algebraic properties", "Integers can be thought of as discrete, equally spaced points on an infinitely long number line.", "In the above, non-negative integers are shown in blue and negative integers in red.Like the natural numbers, is closed under the operations of addition and multiplication, that is, the sum and product of any two integers is an integer.", "However, with the inclusion of the negative natural numbers (and importantly, ), , unlike the natural numbers, is also closed under subtraction.The integers form a unital ring which is the most basic one, in the following sense: for any unital ring, there is a unique ring homomorphism from the integers into this ring.", "This universal property, namely to be an initial object in the category of rings, characterizes the ring .", "is not closed under division, since the quotient of two integers (e.g., 1 divided by 2) need not be an integer.", "Although the natural numbers are closed under exponentiation, the integers are not (since the result can be a fraction when the exponent is negative).The following table lists some of the basic properties of addition and multiplication for any integers , and :+Properties of addition and multiplication on integersAdditionMultiplicationClosure:is an integeris an integerAssociativity:Commutativity:Existence of an identity element:Existence of inverse elements:The only invertible integers (called units) are and .Distributivity:andNo zero divisors: If , then or (or both)The first five properties listed above for addition say that , under addition, is an abelian group.", "It is also a cyclic group, since every non-zero integer can be written as a finite sum or .", "In fact, under addition is the ''only'' infinite cyclic group—in the sense that any infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to .The first four properties listed above for multiplication say that under multiplication is a commutative monoid.", "However, not every integer has a multiplicative inverse (as is the case of the number 2), which means that under multiplication is not a group.All the rules from the above property table (except for the last), when taken together, say that together with addition and multiplication is a commutative ring with unity.", "It is the prototype of all objects of such algebraic structure.", "Only those equalities of expressions are true in for all values of variables, which are true in any unital commutative ring.", "Certain non-zero integers map to zero in certain rings.The lack of zero divisors in the integers (last property in the table) means that the commutative ring is an integral domain.The lack of multiplicative inverses, which is equivalent to the fact that is not closed under division, means that is ''not'' a field.", "The smallest field containing the integers as a subring is the field of rational numbers.", "The process of constructing the rationals from the integers can be mimicked to form the field of fractions of any integral domain.", "And back, starting from an algebraic number field (an extension of rational numbers), its ring of integers can be extracted, which includes as its subring.Although ordinary division is not defined on , the division \"with remainder\" is defined on them.", "It is called Euclidean division, and possesses the following important property: given two integers and with , there exist unique integers and such that and , where denotes the absolute value of .", "The integer is called the ''quotient'' and is called the ''remainder'' of the division of by .", "The Euclidean algorithm for computing greatest common divisors works by a sequence of Euclidean divisions.The above says that is a Euclidean domain.", "This implies that is a principal ideal domain, and any positive integer can be written as the products of primes in an essentially unique way.", "This is the fundamental theorem of arithmetic." ], [ "Order-theoretic properties", " is a totally ordered set without upper or lower bound.", "The ordering of is given by:An integer is ''positive'' if it is greater than zero, and ''negative'' if it is less than zero.", "Zero is defined as neither negative nor positive.The ordering of integers is compatible with the algebraic operations in the following way:# if and , then # if and , then .Thus it follows that together with the above ordering is an ordered ring.The integers are the only nontrivial totally ordered abelian group whose positive elements are well-ordered.", "This is equivalent to the statement that any Noetherian valuation ring is either a field—or a discrete valuation ring." ], [ "Construction", "=== Traditional development ===In elementary school teaching, integers are often intuitively defined as the union of the (positive) natural numbers, zero, and the negations of the natural numbers.", "This can be formalized as follows.", "First construct the set of natural numbers according to the Peano axioms, call this .", "Then construct a set which is disjoint from and in one-to-one correspondence with via a function .", "For example, take to be the ordered pairs with the mapping .", "Finally let 0 be some object not in or , for example the ordered pair .", "Then the integers are defined to be the union .", "The traditional arithmetic operations can then be defined on the integers in a piecewise fashion, for each of positive numbers, negative numbers, and zero.", "For example negation is defined as follows:The traditional style of definition leads to many different cases (each arithmetic operation needs to be defined on each combination of types of integer) and makes it tedious to prove that integers obey the various laws of arithmetic.", "=== Equivalence classes of ordered pairs ===Red points represent ordered pairs of upright=1.5In modern set-theoretic mathematics, a more abstract construction allowing one to define arithmetical operations without any case distinction is often used instead.", "The integers can thus be formally constructed as the equivalence classes of ordered pairs of natural numbers .The intuition is that stands for the result of subtracting from .", "To confirm our expectation that and denote the same number, we define an equivalence relation on these pairs with the following rule::precisely when:Addition and multiplication of integers can be defined in terms of the equivalent operations on the natural numbers; by using to denote the equivalence class having as a member, one has:::The negation (or additive inverse) of an integer is obtained by reversing the order of the pair::Hence subtraction can be defined as the addition of the additive inverse::The standard ordering on the integers is given by:: if and only if It is easily verified that these definitions are independent of the choice of representatives of the equivalence classes.Every equivalence class has a unique member that is of the form or (or both at once).", "The natural number is identified with the class (i.e., the natural numbers are embedded into the integers by map sending to ), and the class is denoted (this covers all remaining classes, and gives the class a second time since Thus, is denoted by:If the natural numbers are identified with the corresponding integers (using the embedding mentioned above), this convention creates no ambiguity.This notation recovers the familiar representation of the integers as .Some examples are::=== Other approaches ===In theoretical computer science, other approaches for the construction of integers are used by automated theorem provers and term rewrite engines.Integers are represented as algebraic terms built using a few basic operations (e.g., '''zero''', '''succ''', '''pred''') and, possibly, using natural numbers, which are assumed to be already constructed (using, say, the Peano approach).There exist at least ten such constructions of signed integers.", "These constructions differ in several ways: the number of basic operations used for the construction, the number (usually, between 0 and 2) and the types of arguments accepted by these operations; the presence or absence of natural numbers as arguments of some of these operations, and the fact that these operations are free constructors or not, i.e., that the same integer can be represented using only one or many algebraic terms.The technique for the construction of integers presented in the previous section corresponds to the particular case where there is a single basic operation '''pair''' that takes as arguments two natural numbers and , and returns an integer (equal to ).", "This operation is not free since the integer 0 can be written '''pair'''(0,0), or '''pair'''(1,1), or '''pair'''(2,2), etc.", "This technique of construction is used by the proof assistant Isabelle; however, many other tools use alternative construction techniques, notable those based upon free constructors, which are simpler and can be implemented more efficiently in computers." ], [ "Computer science", "An integer is often a primitive data type in computer languages.", "However, integer data types can only represent a subset of all integers, since practical computers are of finite capacity.", "Also, in the common two's complement representation, the inherent definition of sign distinguishes between \"negative\" and \"non-negative\" rather than \"negative, positive, and 0\".", "(It is, however, certainly possible for a computer to determine whether an integer value is truly positive.)", "Fixed length integer approximation data types (or subsets) are denoted ''int'' or Integer in several programming languages (such as Algol68, C, Java, Delphi, etc.", ").Variable-length representations of integers, such as bignums, can store any integer that fits in the computer's memory.", "Other integer data types are implemented with a fixed size, usually a number of bits which is a power of 2 (4, 8, 16, etc.)", "or a memorable number of decimal digits (e.g., 9 or 10)." ], [ "Cardinality", "The set of integers is countably infinite, meaning it is possible to pair each integer with a unique natural number.", "An example of such a pairing is:More technically, the cardinality of is said to equal (aleph-null).", "The pairing between elements of and is called a bijection." ], [ "See also", "* Canonical factorization of a positive integer* Hyperinteger* Integer complexity* Integer lattice* Integer part* Integer sequence* Integer-valued function* Mathematical symbols* Parity (mathematics)* Profinite integer" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* )* * " ], [ "External links", " * The Positive Integers – divisor tables and numeral representation tools* On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences cf OEIS*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Impressionism in music" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Impressionism in music''' was a movement among various composers in Western classical music (mainly during the late 19th and early 20th centuries) whose music focuses on mood and atmosphere, \"conveying the moods and emotions aroused by the subject rather than a detailed tone‐picture\".", "\"Impressionism\" is a philosophical and aesthetic term borrowed from late 19th-century French painting after Monet's ''Impression, Sunrise''.", "Composers were labeled Impressionists by analogy to the Impressionist painters who use starkly contrasting colors, effect of light on an object, blurry foreground and background, flattening perspective, etc.", "to make the observer focus their attention on the overall impression.The most prominent feature in musical Impressionism is the use of \"color\", or in musical terms, timbre, which can be achieved through orchestration, harmonic usage, texture, etc.", "Other elements of musical Impressionism also involve new chord combinations, ambiguous tonality, extended harmonies, use of modes and exotic scales, parallel motion, extra-musicality, and evocative titles such as “''Reflets dans l'eau''”(“Reflections on the water”), “''Brouillards''” (“Mists”), etc." ], [ "History", "Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel are two leading figures in Impressionism, though Debussy rejected this label (in a 1908 letter he wrote \"imbeciles call what I am trying to write in ''Images'' 'impressionism', a term employed with the utmost inaccuracy, especially by art critics who use it as a label to stick on Turner, the finest creator of mystery in the whole of art!\")", "and Ravel displayed discomfort with it, at one point claiming that it could not be adequately applied to music at all.", "Debussy's Impressionist works typically \"evoke a mood, feeling, atmosphere, or scene\" by creating musical images through characteristic motifs, harmony, exotic scales (e.g., whole-tone and pentatonic scales), instrumental timbre, large unresolved chords (e.g., 9ths, 11ths, 13ths), parallel motion, ambiguous tonality, extreme chromaticism, heavy use of the piano pedals, and other elements.", "“The perception of Debussy’s compositional language as decidedly post-romantic/Impressionistic—nuanced, understated, and subtle—is firmly solidified among today’s musicians and well-informed audiences.\"", "Some Impressionist composers, Debussy and Ravel in particular, are also labeled as symbolist composers.", "One trait shared with both aesthetic trends is \"a sense of detached observation: rather than expressing deeply felt emotion or telling a story\"; as in symbolist poetry, the normal syntax is usually disrupted and individual images that carry the work's meaning are evoked.In 1912, the French composer Ernest Fanelli (1860–1917) received significant attention and coverage in the Parisian press following a performance of a symphonic poem he wrote in 1886, titled ''Thèbes'', incorporating elements associated with Impressionism, such as extended chords and whole-tone scales.", "Ravel was unimpressed by Fanelli's novelties, maintaining that these were already utilized by past composers such as Franz Liszt.", "He also opined that Fanelli's Impressionism stemmed from Hector Berlioz rather than Liszt or Russian composers.Other composers linked to Impressionism include Lili Boulanger, Isaac Albéniz, Frederick Delius, Paul Dukas, Alexander Scriabin, Manuel de Falla, John Alden Carpenter, Ottorino Respighi, Albert Roussel, Karol Szymanowski, Charles Tomlinson Griffes, and Federico Mompou.", "The Finnish composer Jean Sibelius is also associated with Impressionism, and his tone poem ''The Swan of Tuonela'' (1893) predates Debussy's ''Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune'' (regarded as a seminal work of musical Impressionism) by a year.", "The American composer Howard Hanson also borrowed from both Sibelius and Impressionism generally in works such as his Second Symphony." ], [ "Characteristics", "One of the most important tools of musical Impressionism was the tensionless harmony.", "The dissonance of chords was not resolved, but was used as timbre.", "These chords were often shifted parallel.", "In the melodic field the whole tone scale, the pentatonic and church tonal turns were used.", "The melodics were characterized by their circular melodic movements.", "The timbre became the stylistic device of Impressionism instead of concise themes or other traditional forms." ], [ "See also", "* History of music" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Fulcher, Jane.", "''Debussy and His World''.", "Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001.. * Machlis, Joseph, and Kristine Forney.", "''The Enjoyment of Music'', seventh edition.", "New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1995..* Pasler, Jann.", "\"Impressionism\".", "''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell.", "London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001.", "*Thompson, Oscar.", "''Debussy, Man and Artist''.", "New York: Dodd, Mead & company, 1937." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "International trade" ], [ "Introduction", "''' International trade''' is the exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders or territories because there is a need or want of goods or services.", "(see: World economy)In most countries, such trade represents a significant share of gross domestic product (GDP).", "While international trade has existed throughout history (for example Uttarapatha, Silk Road, Amber Road, salt roads), its economic, social, and political importance has been on the rise in recent centuries.Carrying out trade at an international level is a complex process when compared to domestic trade.", "When trade takes place between two or more states, factors like currency, government policies, economy, judicial system, laws, and markets influence trade.To ease and justify the process of trade between countries of different economic standing in the modern era, some international economic organizations were formed, such as the World Trade Organization.", "These organizations work towards the facilitation and growth of international trade.", "Statistical services of intergovernmental and supranational organizations and governmental statistical agencies publish official statistics on international trade." ], [ "Characteristics of global trade", "A product that is transferred or sold from a party in one country to a party in another country is an export from the originating country, and an import to the country receiving that product.", "Imports and exports are accounted for in a country's current account in the balance of payments.Trading globally may give consumers and countries the opportunity to be exposed to new markets and products.", "Almost every kind of product can be found in the international market, for example: food, clothes, spare parts, oil, jewellery, wine, stocks, currencies, and water.", "Services are also traded, such as in tourism, banking, consulting, and transportation.The ancient Silk Road trade routes across EurasiaAdvanced technology (including transportation), globalization, industrialization, outsourcing and multinational corporations have major impacts on the international trade systems" ], [ "Differences from domestic trade", "Ports play an important role in facilitating international trade.", "The Port of New York and New Jersey grew from the original harbor at the convergence of the Hudson River and the East River at the Upper New York Bay.International trade is, in principle, not different from domestic trade as the motivation and the behavior of parties involved in a trade do not change fundamentally regardless of whether trade is across a border or not.However, in practical terms, carrying out trade at an international level is typically a more complex process than domestic trade.", "The main difference is that international trade is typically more costly than domestic trade.", "This is due to the fact that cross-border trade typically incurs additional costs such as explicit tariffs as well as explicit or implicit non-tariff barriers such as time costs (due to border delays), language and cultural differences, product safety, the legal system, and so on.Another difference between domestic and international trade is that factors of production such as capital and labor are often more mobile within a country than across countries.", "Thus, international trade is mostly restricted to trade in goods and services, and only to a lesser extent to trade in capital, labour, or other factors of production.", "Trade in goods and services can serve as a substitute for trade in factors of production.", "Instead of importing a factor of production, a country can import goods that make intensive use of that factor of production and thus embody it.", "An example of this is the import of labor-intensive goods by the United States from China.", "Instead of importing Chinese labor, the United States imports goods that were produced with Chinese labor.", "One report in 2010, suggested that international trade was increased when a country hosted a network of immigrants, but the trade effect was weakened when the immigrants became assimilated into their new country." ], [ "History", "The history of international trade chronicles notable events that have affected trading among various economies." ], [ "Theories and models", "There are several models that seek to explain the factors behind international trade, the welfare consequences of trade and the pattern of trade." ], [ "Most traded export products", "center" ], [ "Largest countries or regions by total international trade", "Volume of world merchandise exportsThe following table is a list of the 25 largest trading states according to the World Trade Organization in 2021 and 2022.Rank State International trade ofgoods (billions of USD)in 2022 International trade ofservices (billions of USD) in 2021Total international tradeof goods and services(billions of USD) – '''''World''''' 50,526 11,533 62,059 – '''''''' 5,858 2,313 8,171 1 '''''' 6,310 829 7,138 2 '''''' 5,441 1,345 6,786 3 '''''' 3,227 751 3,978 4 '''''' 1,864 482 2,346 5 '''''' 1,644 369 2,013 6 '''''' 1,353 654 2,007 7 '''''' 1,436 561 1,996 8 '''''' 1,415 248 1,663 9 '''''' 1,177 435 1,612 10 '''''' 1,346 212 1,559 11 '''''' 1,253 269 1,522 12 '''''' 991 453 1,444 13 '''''' 1,277 138 1,416 14 '''''' 1,179 206 1,385 15 '''''' 1,205 65 1,270 16 '''''' 1,023 176 1,199 17 '''''' 912 191 1,103 18 '''''' 360 679 1,039 19 '''''' 758 275 1,033 20 '''''' 914 91 1,005 21 '''''' 772 130 903 22 '''''' 742 130 872 23 '''''' 721 82 804 24 '''''' 731 23 753 25 '''''' 626 81 708" ], [ "Top traded commodities by value (exports)", " Rank Commodity Value in US$ (millions) Date of information 1 Mineral fuels, oils, distillation products, $3,988,3892022 2 Electrical, electronic equipment $3,493,553 2022 3 Machinery, nuclear reactors, boilers, etc.", "$2,573,5722022 4 Vehicles (excluding railway) $1,621,6582022 5 Pharmaceutical products $875,3452022 6 Pearls, precious stones, metals, coins, etc.", "$866,839 2022 7 Plastics and articles thereof $815,554 2022 8 Optical, photo, technical, medical, etc.", "apparatus $669,1282022 9 Iron and steel $564,547 2022 10 Organic chemicals $537,854 2022Source: International Trade Centre" ], [ "Observances", "In the US, the various U.S. Presidents have held observances to promote big and small companies to be more involved with the export and import of goods and services.", "President George W. Bush observed World Trade Week on May 18, 2001, and May 17, 2002.On May 13, 2016, President Barack Obama proclaimed May 15 through May 21, 2016, World Trade Week, 2016.On May 19, 2017, President Donald Trump proclaimed May 21 through May 27, 2017, World Trade Week, 2017.World Trade Week is the third week of May.", "Every year the President declares that week to be World Trade Week." ], [ "International trade versus local production", "===Local food===In the case of not the food production trade-offs in forms of local food and distant food production are controversial with limited studies comparing environmental impact and scientists cautioning that regionally specific environmental impacts should be considered.", "Effects of local food on greenhouse gas emissions may vary per origin and target region of the production.", "According to the 2022 IPCC report on climate change, that in international trade net Carbon emissions has reduced between 2006 and 2016.A 2020 study indicated that local food crop production alone cannot meet the demand for most food crops with \"current production and consumption patterns\" and the locations of food production ''at the time of the study'' for 72–89% of the global population and 100–km radiuses as of early 2020.Studies found that food miles are a relatively minor factor of carbon emissions, albeit increased food localization may also enable additional, more significant, environmental benefits such as recycling of energy, water, and nutrients.", "For specific foods regional differences in harvest seasons may make it more environmentally friendly to import from distant regions than more local production and storage or local production in greenhouses.===Qualitative differences and economic aspects===Qualitative differences between substitutive products of different production regions may exist due to different legal requirements and quality standards or different levels of controllability by local production- and governance-systems which may have aspects of security beyond resource security, environmental protection, product quality and product design and health.", "The process of transforming supply as well as labor rights may differ as well.Local production has been reported to increase local employment in many cases.", "A 2018 study claimed that international trade can increase local employment.", "A 2016 study found that local employment and total labor income in both manufacturing and nonmanufacturing were negatively affected by rising exposure to imports.Local production in high-income countries, rather than distant regions may require higher wages for workers.", "Higher wages incentivize automation which could allow for automated workers' time to be reallocated by society and its economic mechanisms or be converted into leisure-like time.====Specialization, production efficiency and regional differences====Local production may require knowledge transfer, technology transfer and may not be able to compete in efficiency initially with specialized, established industries and businesses, or in consumer demand without policy measures such as eco-tariffs.", "Regional differences may cause specific regions to be more suitable for a specific production, thereby increasing the advantages of specific trade over specific local production.", "Forms of local products that are highly localized may not be able to meet the efficiency of more large-scale, highly consolidated production in terms of efficiency, including environmental impact.===Resource security===A video explaining findings of the study \"Water, energy and land insecurity in global supply chains\"A systematic, and possibly first large-scale, cross-sectoral analysis of water, energy and land in security in 189 countries that links total and sectorial consumption to sources showed that countries and sectors are highly exposed to over-exploited, insecure, and degraded such resources with economic globalization having decreased security of global supply chains.", "The 2020 study finds that most countries exhibit greater exposure to resource risks via international trade – mainly from remote production sources – and that diversifying trading partners is unlikely to help countries and sectors to reduce these or to improve their resource self-sufficiency." ], [ "Illicit trade", "=== Illegal gold trade ===A number of people in Africa, including children, were using informal or \"artisanal\" methods to produce gold.", "While millions were making a livelihood through the small-scale mining, governments of Ghana, Tanzania and Zambia complaint about the increase in illegal production and gold smuggling.", "Sometimes the procedure involved criminal operations and even human and environmental cost.", "Investigative reports based on Africa's export data revealed that gold in large quantities is smuggled out of the country through the United Arab Emirates, without any taxes being paid to the producing states.", "Analysis also reflected discrepancies in the amount exported from Africa and the total gold imported into the UAE.In July 2020, a report by Swissaid highlighted that the Dubai-based precious metal refining firms, including Kaloti Jewellery International Group and Trust One Financial Services (T1FS), received most of their gold from poor African states like Sudan.", "The gold mines in Sudan were seldom under the militias involved in war crimes and human rights abuses.", "The Swissaid report also highlighted that the illicit gold coming into Dubai from Africa is imported in large quantities by the world's largest refinery in Switzerland, Valcambi.", "Another report in March 2022 revealed the contradiction between the lucrative gold trade of West African countries and the illicit dealings.", "Like Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Ghana and other states, differences were recorded in the gold production in Mali and its trade with Dubai, UAE.", "The third largest gold exporter in Africa, Mali imposed taxes only on first 50kg gold exports per month, which allowed several small-scale miners to enjoy tax exemptions and smuggle gold worth millions.", "In 2014, Mali's gold production was of 45.8 tonnes, while the UAE's gold import were at 59.9 tonnes." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)'''Lists'''* List of countries by current account balance* List of countries by imports* List of countries by exports* List of countries by merchandise exports* List of countries by service exports* List of international trade topics" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Nelson, Scott Reynolds.", "''Oceans of Grain: How American Wheat Remade the World'' (2022) excerpt* Linsi, Lukas; Burgoon, Brian; Mügge, Daniel K (2023).", "\"The Problem with Trade Measurement in International Relations\".", "''International Studies Quarterly''.", "'''67''' (2)." ], [ "Sources", "* * " ], [ "External links", "===Data=======Statistics from intergovernmental sources====Data on the value of exports and imports and their quantities often broken down by detailed lists of products are available in statistical collections on international trade published by the statistical services of intergovernmental and supranational organisations and national statistical institutes.", "The definitions and methodological concepts applied for the various statistical collections on international trade often differ in terms of definition (e.g.", "special trade vs. general trade) and coverage (reporting thresholds, inclusion of trade in services, estimates for smuggled goods and cross-border provision of illegal services).", "Metadata providing information on definitions and methods are often published along with the data.", " United Nations Commodity Trade Database* Trade Map, trade statistics for international business development* WTO Statistics Portal* Statistical Portal: OECD* European Union International Trade in Goods Data* Food and Agricultural Trade Data by FAO===Other external links===* The MIT Observatory of Economic Complexity* The McGill Faculty of Law runs a Regional Trade Agreements Database that contains the text of almost all preferential and regional trade agreements in the world.", "ptas.mcgill.ca* Historical documents on international trade available on FRASER (St Louis Fed)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Interpolation" ], [ "Introduction", "In the mathematical field of numerical analysis, '''interpolation''' is a type of estimation, a method of constructing (finding) new data points based on the range of a discrete set of known data points.In engineering and science, one often has a number of data points, obtained by sampling or experimentation, which represent the values of a function for a limited number of values of the independent variable.", "It is often required to '''interpolate'''; that is, estimate the value of that function for an intermediate value of the independent variable.A closely related problem is the approximation of a complicated function by a simple function.", "Suppose the formula for some given function is known, but too complicated to evaluate efficiently.", "A few data points from the original function can be interpolated to produce a simpler function which is still fairly close to the original.", "The resulting gain in simplicity may outweigh the loss from interpolation error and give better performance in calculation process.An interpolation of a finite set of points on an epitrochoid.", "The points in red are connected by blue interpolated spline curves deduced only from the red points.", "The interpolated curves have polynomial formulas much simpler than that of the original epitrochoid curve." ], [ "Example", "This table gives some values of an unknown function .Plot of the data points as given in the table 0 0 1 0 .", "8415 2 0 .", "9093 3 0 .", "1411 4 −0 .", "7568 5 −0 .", "9589 6 −0 .", "2794Interpolation provides a means of estimating the function at intermediate points, such as We describe some methods of interpolation, differing in such properties as: accuracy, cost, number of data points needed, and smoothness of the resulting interpolant function.===Piecewise constant interpolation===Piecewise constant interpolation, or nearest-neighbor interpolationThe simplest interpolation method is to locate the nearest data value, and assign the same value.", "In simple problems, this method is unlikely to be used, as linear interpolation (see below) is almost as easy, but in higher-dimensional multivariate interpolation, this could be a favourable choice for its speed and simplicity.===Linear interpolation===Plot of the data with linear interpolation superimposedOne of the simplest methods is linear interpolation (sometimes known as lerp).", "Consider the above example of estimating ''f''(2.5).", "Since 2.5 is midway between 2 and 3, it is reasonable to take ''f''(2.5) midway between ''f''(2) = 0.9093 and ''f''(3) = 0.1411, which yields 0.5252.Generally, linear interpolation takes two data points, say (''x''''a'',''y''''a'') and (''x''''b'',''y''''b''), and the interpolant is given by::::This previous equation states that the slope of the new line between and is the same as the slope of the line between and Linear interpolation is quick and easy, but it is not very precise.", "Another disadvantage is that the interpolant is not differentiable at the point ''x''''k''.The following error estimate shows that linear interpolation is not very precise.", "Denote the function which we want to interpolate by ''g'', and suppose that ''x'' lies between ''x''''a'' and ''x''''b'' and that ''g'' is twice continuously differentiable.", "Then the linear interpolation error is:In words, the error is proportional to the square of the distance between the data points.", "The error in some other methods, including polynomial interpolation and spline interpolation (described below), is proportional to higher powers of the distance between the data points.", "These methods also produce smoother interpolants.===Polynomial interpolation===Plot of the data with polynomial interpolation appliedPolynomial interpolation is a generalization of linear interpolation.", "Note that the linear interpolant is a linear function.", "We now replace this interpolant with a polynomial of higher degree.Consider again the problem given above.", "The following sixth degree polynomial goes through all the seven points::Substituting ''x'' = 2.5, we find that ''f''(2.5) = ~0.59678.Generally, if we have ''n'' data points, there is exactly one polynomial of degree at most ''n''−1 going through all the data points.", "The interpolation error is proportional to the distance between the data points to the power ''n''.", "Furthermore, the interpolant is a polynomial and thus infinitely differentiable.", "So, we see that polynomial interpolation overcomes most of the problems of linear interpolation.However, polynomial interpolation also has some disadvantages.", "Calculating the interpolating polynomial is computationally expensive (see computational complexity) compared to linear interpolation.", "Furthermore, polynomial interpolation may exhibit oscillatory artifacts, especially at the end points (see Runge's phenomenon).Polynomial interpolation can estimate local maxima and minima that are outside the range of the samples, unlike linear interpolation.", "For example, the interpolant above has a local maximum at ''x'' ≈ 1.566, ''f''(''x'') ≈ 1.003 and a local minimum at ''x'' ≈ 4.708, ''f''(''x'') ≈ −1.003.However, these maxima and minima may exceed the theoretical range of the function; for example, a function that is always positive may have an interpolant with negative values, and whose inverse therefore contains false vertical asymptotes.More generally, the shape of the resulting curve, especially for very high or low values of the independent variable, may be contrary to commonsense; that is, to what is known about the experimental system which has generated the data points.", "These disadvantages can be reduced by using spline interpolation or restricting attention to Chebyshev polynomials.===Spline interpolation===Plot of the data with spline interpolation appliedLinear interpolation uses a linear function for each of intervals ''x''''k'',''x''''k+1''.", "Spline interpolation uses low-degree polynomials in each of the intervals, and chooses the polynomial pieces such that they fit smoothly together.", "The resulting function is called a spline.For instance, the natural cubic spline is piecewise cubic and twice continuously differentiable.", "Furthermore, its second derivative is zero at the end points.", "The natural cubic spline interpolating the points in the table above is given by: In this case we get ''f''(2.5) = 0.5972.Like polynomial interpolation, spline interpolation incurs a smaller error than linear interpolation, while the interpolant is smoother and easier to evaluate than the high-degree polynomials used in polynomial interpolation.", "However, the global nature of the basis functions leads to ill-conditioning.", "This is completely mitigated by using splines of compact support, such as are implemented in Boost.Math and discussed in Kress.=== Mimetic interpolation ===Depending on the underlying discretisation of fields, different interpolants may be required.", "In contrast to other interpolation methods, which estimate functions on target points, mimetic interpolation evaluates the integral of fields on target lines, areas or volumes, depending on the type of field (scalar, vector, pseudo-vector or pseudo-scalar).A key feature of mimetic interpolation is that vector calculus identities are satisfied, including Stokes' theorem and the divergence theorem.", "As a result, mimetic interpolation conserves line, area and volume integrals.", "Conservation of line integrals might be desirable when interpolating the electric field, for instance, since the line integral gives the electric potential difference at the endpoints of the integration path.", "Mimetic interpolation ensures that the error of estimating the line integral of an electric field is the same as the error obtained by interpolating the potential at the end points of the integration path, regardless of the length of the integration path.", "Linear, bilinear and trilinear interpolation are also considered mimetic, even if it is the field values that are conserved (not the integral of the field).", "Apart from linear interpolation, area weighted interpolation can be considered one of the first mimetic interpolation methods to have been developed." ], [ "Function approximation", "Interpolation is a common way to approximate functions.", "Given a function with a set of points one can form a function such that for (that is, that interpolates at these points).", "In general, an interpolant need not be a good approximation, but there are well known and often reasonable conditions where it will.", "For example, if (four times continuously differentiable) then cubic spline interpolation has an error bound given by where and is a constant." ], [ "Via Gaussian processes", "Gaussian process is a powerful non-linear interpolation tool.", "Many popular interpolation tools are actually equivalent to particular Gaussian processes.", "Gaussian processes can be used not only for fitting an interpolant that passes exactly through the given data points but also for regression; that is, for fitting a curve through noisy data.", "In the geostatistics community Gaussian process regression is also known as Kriging." ], [ "Other forms", "Other forms of interpolation can be constructed by picking a different class of interpolants.", "For instance, rational interpolation is '''interpolation''' by rational functions using Padé approximant, and trigonometric interpolation is interpolation by trigonometric polynomials using Fourier series.", "Another possibility is to use wavelets.The Whittaker–Shannon interpolation formula can be used if the number of data points is infinite or if the function to be interpolated has compact support.Sometimes, we know not only the value of the function that we want to interpolate, at some points, but also its derivative.", "This leads to Hermite interpolation problems.When each data point is itself a function, it can be useful to see the interpolation problem as a partial advection problem between each data point.", "This idea leads to the displacement interpolation problem used in transportation theory." ], [ "In higher dimensions", "Multivariate interpolation is the interpolation of functions of more than one variable.", "Methods include bilinear interpolation and bicubic interpolation in two dimensions, and trilinear interpolation in three dimensions.They can be applied to gridded or scattered data.", "Mimetic interpolation generalizes to dimensional spaces where .Image:Nearest2DInterpolExample.png\|Nearest neighborImage:BilinearInterpolExample.png\|BilinearImage:BicubicInterpolationExample.png\|Bicubic" ], [ "In digital signal processing", "In the domain of digital signal processing, the term interpolation refers to the process of converting a sampled digital signal (such as a sampled audio signal) to that of a higher sampling rate (Upsampling) using various digital filtering techniques (for example, convolution with a frequency-limited impulse signal).", "In this application there is a specific requirement that the harmonic content of the original signal be preserved without creating aliased harmonic content of the original signal above the original Nyquist limit of the signal (that is, above fs/2 of the original signal sample rate).", "An early and fairly elementary discussion on this subject can be found in Rabiner and Crochiere's book ''Multirate Digital Signal Processing''." ], [ "Related concepts", "The term ''extrapolation'' is used to find data points outside the range of known data points.In curve fitting problems, the constraint that the interpolant has to go exactly through the data points is relaxed.", "It is only required to approach the data points as closely as possible (within some other constraints).", "This requires parameterizing the potential interpolants and having some way of measuring the error.", "In the simplest case this leads to least squares approximation.Approximation theory studies how to find the best approximation to a given function by another function from some predetermined class, and how good this approximation is.", "This clearly yields a bound on how well the interpolant can approximate the unknown function." ], [ "Generalization", "If we consider as a variable in a topological space, and the function mapping to a Banach space, then the problem is treated as \"interpolation of operators\".", "The classical results about interpolation of operators are the Riesz–Thorin theorem and the Marcinkiewicz theorem.", "There are also many other subsequent results." ], [ "See also", "* Barycentric coordinates – for interpolating within on a triangle or tetrahedron* Brahmagupta's interpolation formula* Fractal interpolation* Imputation (statistics)* Lagrange interpolation* Missing data* Newton–Cotes formulas* Radial basis function interpolation* Simple rational approximation" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Online tools for linear, quadratic, cubic spline, and polynomial interpolation with visualisation and JavaScript source code.", "* Sol Tutorials - Interpolation Tricks* Compactly Supported Cubic B-Spline interpolation in Boost.Math* Barycentric rational interpolation in Boost.Math* Interpolation via the Chebyshev transform in Boost.Math" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Intension" ], [ "Introduction", "In any of several fields of study that treat the use of signs—for example, in linguistics, logic, mathematics, semantics, semiotics, and philosophy of language—an '''intension''' is any property or quality connoted by a word, phrase, or another symbol.", "In the case of a word, the word's definition often implies an intension.", "For instance, the intensions of the word ''plant'' include properties such as \"being composed of cellulose (not always true)\", \"alive\", and \"organism\", among others.", "A ''comprehension'' is the collection of all such intensions." ], [ "Overview", "The meaning of a word can be thought of as the bond between the ''idea the word means'' and the ''physical form of the word''.", "Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) contrasts three concepts:# the ''signifier'' – the \"sound image\" or the string of letters on a page that one recognizes as the form of a sign# the ''signified'' – the meaning, the concept or idea that a sign expresses or evokes# the ''referent'' – the actual thing or set of things a sign refers to.", "See ''Dyadic signs'' and ''Reference (semantics)''.Without intension of some sort, a word has no meaning.", "For instance, the terms ''rantans'' or ''brillig'' have no intension and hence no meaning.", "Such terms may be suggestive, but a term can be ''suggestive'' without being meaningful.", "For instance, ''ran tan'' is an archaic onomatopoeia for chaotic noise or din and may suggest to English speakers a din or meaningless noise, and ''brillig'' though made up by Lewis Carroll may be suggestive of 'brilliant' or 'frigid'.", "Such terms, it may be argued, are always intensional since they connote the property 'meaningless term', but this is only an apparent paradox and does not constitute a counterexample to the claim that without intension a word has no meaning.", "Part of its intension is that it has no extension.", "Intension is analogous to the signified in the Saussurean system, extension to the referent.In philosophical arguments about dualism versus monism, it is noted that thoughts have intensionality and physical objects do not (S. E. Palmer, 1999), but rather have extension in space and time." ], [ "Statement forms", "A statement-form is simply a form obtained by putting blanks into a sentence where one or more expressions with extensions occur—for instance, \"The quick brown ___ jumped over the lazy ___'s back.\"", "An instance of the form is a statement obtained by filling the blanks in.=== Intensional statement form ===An ''intensional statement-form'' is a statement-form with at least one instance such that substituting co-extensive expressions into it does not always preserve logical value.", "An ''intensional statement'' is a statement that is an instance of an intensional statement-form.", "Here co-extensive expressions are expressions with the same extension.That is, a statement-form is intensional if it has, as one of its instances, a statement for which there are two co-extensive expressions (in the relevant language) such that one of them occurs in the statement, and if the other one is put in its place (uniformly, so that it replaces the former expression wherever it occurs in the statement), the result is a (different) statement with a different logical value.", "An intensional statement, then, is an instance of such a form; it has the same form as a statement in which substitution of co-extensive terms fails to preserve logical value.==== Examples ====#Everyone who has read ''Huckleberry Finn'' knows that Mark Twain wrote it.#It is possible that Aristotle did not tutor Alexander the Great.#Aristotle was pleased that he had a sister.To see that these are intensional, make the following substitutions: (1) \"Mark Twain\" → \"The author of 'Corn-pone Opinions'\"; (2) \"Aristotle\" → \"the tutor of Alexander the Great\"; (3) can be seen to be intensional given \"had a sister\" → \"had a female sibling.", "\"The intensional statements above feature expressions like \"knows\", \"possible\", and \"pleased\".", "Such expressions always, or nearly always, produce intensional statements when added (in some intelligible manner) to an extensional statement, and thus they (or more complex expressions like \"It is possible that\") are sometimes called ''intensional operators''.", "A large class of intensional statements, but by no means all, can be spotted from the fact that they contain intensional operators.=== Extensional statement form ===An ''extensional'' statement is a non-intensional statement.", "Substitution of co-extensive expressions into it always preserves logical value.", "A language is intensional if it contains intensional statements, and extensional otherwise.", "All natural languages are intensional.", "The only extensional languages are artificially constructed languages used in mathematical logic or for other special purposes and small fragments of natural languages.==== Examples ====#Mark Twain wrote ''Huckleberry Finn''.#Aristotle had a sister.Note that if \"Samuel Clemens\" is put into (1) in place of \"Mark Twain\", the result is as true as the original statement.", "It should be clear that no matter what is put for \"Mark Twain\", so long as it is a singular term picking out the same man, the statement remains true.", "Likewise, we can put in place of the predicate any other predicate belonging to Mark Twain and only to Mark Twain, without changing the logical value.", "For (2), likewise, consider the following substitutions: \"Aristotle\" → \"The tutor of Alexander the Great\"; \"Aristotle\" → \"The author of the 'Prior Analytics'\"; \"had a sister\" → \"had a sibling whose body was capable of producing egg cells\"; \"had a sister\" → \"had a parent who had a female child\"." ], [ "See also", "* Description logic* Connotation* Extension (predicate logic)* Extensionality* Intensional definition* Intensional logic* Montague grammar* Temperature paradoxSense and reference Set-builder notation" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Ferdinand de Saussure, ''Course in General Linguistics''.", "Open Court Classics, July 1986.", "* S. E. Palmer, ''Vision Science: From Photons to Phenomenology'', 1999.MIT Press," ], [ "External links", "* Chalmers, David, \"On Sense and Intension\".", "* Rapaport, William J., \"Inten''s''ionality v. Inten''t''ionality\"." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Isaac Asimov" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Isaac Asimov''' ( ; – April 6, 1992) was an American writer and professor of biochemistry at Boston University.", "During his lifetime, Asimov was considered one of the \"Big Three\" science fiction writers, along with Robert A. Heinlein and Arthur C. Clarke.", "A prolific writer, he wrote or edited more than 500 books.", "He also wrote an estimated 90,000 letters and postcards.", "Best known for his hard science fiction, Asimov also wrote mysteries and fantasy, as well as popular science and other non-fiction.Asimov's most famous work is the ''Foundation'' series, the first three books of which won the one-time Hugo Award for \"Best All-Time Series\" in 1966.His other major series are the ''Galactic Empire'' series and the ''Robot'' series.", "The ''Galactic Empire'' novels are set in the much earlier history of the same fictional universe as the ''Foundation'' series.", "Later, with ''Foundation and Earth'' (1986), he linked this distant future to the ''Robot'' series, creating a unified \"future history\" for his works.", "He also wrote over 380 short stories, including the social science fiction novelette \"Nightfall\", which in 1964 was voted the best short science fiction story of all time by the Science Fiction Writers of America.", "Asimov wrote the ''Lucky Starr'' series of juvenile science-fiction novels using the pen name Paul French.Most of his popular science books explain concepts in a historical way, going as far back as possible to a time when the science in question was at its simplest stage.", "Examples include ''Guide to Science'', the three-volume ''Understanding Physics'', and ''Asimov's Chronology of Science and Discovery''.", "He wrote on numerous other scientific and non-scientific topics, such as chemistry, astronomy, mathematics, history, biblical exegesis, and literary criticism.He was the president of the American Humanist Association.", "Several entities have been named in his honor, including the asteroid (5020) Asimov, a crater on Mars, a Brooklyn elementary school, Honda's humanoid robot ASIMO, and four literary awards." ], [ "<span id=\"name\"></span>Surname", "Asimov's family name derives from the first part of (), meaning 'winter grain' (specifically rye) in which his great-great-great-grandfather dealt, with the Russian patronymic ending ''-ov'' added.", "Azimov is spelled in the Cyrillic alphabet.", "When the family arrived in the United States in 1923 and their name had to be spelled in the Latin alphabet, Asimov's father spelled it with an S, believing this letter to be pronounced like Z (as in German), and so it became Asimov.", "This later inspired one of Asimov's short stories, \"Spell My Name with an S\".Asimov refused early suggestions of using a more common name as a pseudonym, believing that its recognizability helped his career.", "After becoming famous, he often met readers who believed that \"Isaac Asimov\" was a distinctive pseudonym created by an author with a common name." ], [ "Life", "=== Early life ===Asimov was born in Petrovichi, Russian SFSR, on an unknown date between October 4, 1919, and January 2, 1920, inclusive.", "Asimov celebrated his birthday on January 2.Asimov's parents were Anna Rachel (née Berman) and Judah Asimov, a family of Russian Jewish millers.", "He was named Isaac after his mother's father, Isaac Berman.", "Asimov wrote of his father, \"My father, for all his education as an Orthodox Jew, was not Orthodox in his heart\", noting that \"he didn't recite the myriad prayers prescribed for every action, and he never made any attempt to teach them to me.", "\"In 1921, Asimov and 16 other children in Petrovichi developed double pneumonia.", "Only Asimov survived.", "He later had two younger siblings: a sister, Marcia (born Manya; June 17, 1922 – April 2, 2011), and a brother, Stanley (July 25, 1929 – August 16, 1995), who would become vice-president of the ''Long Island Newsday''.Asimov's family travelled to the United States via Liverpool on the RMS ''Baltic'', arriving on February 3, 1923 when he was three years old.", "His parents spoke Yiddish and English to him; he never learned Russian, his parents using it as a secret language \"when they wanted to discuss something privately that my big ears were not to hear\".", "Growing up in Brooklyn, New York, Asimov taught himself to read at the age of five (and later taught his sister to read as well, enabling her to enter school in the second grade).", "His mother got him into first grade a year early by claiming he was born on September 7, 1919.In third grade he learned about the \"error\" and insisted on an official correction of the date to January 2.He became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1928 at the age of eight.After becoming established in the U.S., his parents owned a succession of candy stores in which everyone in the family was expected to work.", "The candy stores sold newspapers and magazines, which Asimov credited as a major influence in his lifelong love of the written word, as it presented him as a child with an unending supply of new reading material (including pulp science fiction magazines) that he could not have otherwise afforded.", "Asimov began reading science fiction at age nine, at the time that the genre was becoming more science-centered.", "Asimov was also a frequent patron of the Brooklyn Public Library during his formative years.=== Education and career ===Asimov attended New York City public schools from age five, including Boys High School in Brooklyn.", "Graduating at 15, he attended the City College of New York for several days before accepting a scholarship at Seth Low Junior College.", "This was a branch of Columbia University in Downtown Brooklyn designed to absorb some of the academically qualified Jewish and Italian-American students who applied to the more prestigious Columbia College, but exceeded the unwritten ethnic admission quotas which were common at the time.", "Originally a zoology major, Asimov switched to chemistry after his first semester because he disapproved of \"dissecting an alley cat\".", "After Seth Low Junior College closed in 1936, Asimov finished his Bachelor of Science degree at Columbia's Morningside Heights campus (later the Columbia University School of General Studies) in 1939.After two rounds of rejections by medical schools, Asimov applied to the graduate program in chemistry at Columbia in 1939; initially he was rejected and then only accepted on a probationary basis.", "He completed his Master of Arts degree in chemistry in 1941 and earned a Doctor of Philosophy degree in chemistry in 1948.During his chemistry studies, he also learned French and German.Robert A. Heinlein, L. Sprague de Camp, and Asimov (left to right), Philadelphia Navy Yard, 1944From 1942 to 1945 during World War II, between his masters and doctoral studies, Asimov worked as a civilian chemist at the Philadelphia Navy Yard's Naval Air Experimental Station and lived in the Walnut Hill section of West Philadelphia.", "In September 1945, he was conscripted into the post-war U.S. Army; if he had not had his birth date corrected while at school, he would have been officially 26 years old and ineligible.", "In 1946, a bureaucratic error caused his military allotment to be stopped, and he was removed from a task force days before it sailed to participate in Operation Crossroads nuclear weapons tests at Bikini Atoll.", "He was promoted to corporal on July 11 before receiving an honorable discharge on July 26, 1946.After completing his doctorate and a postdoctoral year with Robert Elderfield, Asimov was offered the position of associate professor of biochemistry at the Boston University School of Medicine.", "This was in large part due to his years-long correspondence with William Boyd, a former associate professor of biochemistry at Boston University, who first reached out to compliment Asimov on his story ''Nightfall''.", "Upon receiving a promotion to professor of immunochemistry, Boyd reached out to Asimov, requesting him to be his replacement.", "The initial offer of professorship was withdrawn and Asimov was offered the position of instructor of biochemistry instead, which he accepted.", "He began work in 1949 with a $5,000 salary (), maintaining this position for several years.", "By 1952, however, he was making more money as a writer than from the university, and he eventually stopped doing research, confining his university role to lecturing students.", "In 1955, he was promoted to tenured associate professor.", "In December 1957, Asimov was dismissed from his teaching post, with effect from June 30, 1958, due to his lack of research.", "After a struggle over two years, he reached an agreement with the university that he would keep his title and give the opening lecture each year for a biochemistry class.", "On October 18, 1979, the university honored his writing by promoting him to full professor of biochemistry.", "Asimov's personal papers from 1965 onward are archived at the university's Mugar Memorial Library, to which he donated them at the request of curator Howard Gotlieb.In 1959, after a recommendation from Arthur Obermayer, Asimov's friend and a scientist on the U.S. missile defense project, Asimov was approached by DARPA to join Obermayer's team.", "Asimov declined on the grounds that his ability to write freely would be impaired should he receive classified information, but submitted a paper to DARPA titled \"On Creativity\" containing ideas on how government-based science projects could encourage team members to think more creatively.=== Personal life ===Asimov met his first wife, Gertrude Blugerman (May 16, 1917, Toronto, Canada – October 17, 1990, Boston, U.S.), on a blind date on February 14, 1942, and married her on July 26.The couple lived in an apartment in West Philadelphia while Asimov was employed at the Philadelphia Navy Yard (where two of his co-workers were L. Sprague de Camp and Robert A. Heinlein).", "Gertrude returned to Brooklyn while he was in the army, and they both lived there from July 1946 before moving to Stuyvesant Town, Manhattan, in July 1948.They moved to Boston in May 1949, then to nearby suburbs Somerville in July 1949, Waltham in May 1951, and, finally, West Newton in 1956.They had two children, David (born 1951) and Robyn Joan (born 1955).", "In 1970, they separated and Asimov moved back to New York, this time to the Upper West Side of Manhattan where he lived for the rest of his life.", "He began seeing Janet O. Jeppson, a psychiatrist and science-fiction writer, and married her on November 30, 1973, two weeks after his divorce from Gertrude.Asimov was a claustrophile: he enjoyed small, enclosed spaces.", "In the third volume of his autobiography, he recalls a childhood desire to own a magazine stand in a New York City Subway station, within which he could enclose himself and listen to the rumble of passing trains while reading.Asimov was afraid of flying, doing so only twice: once in the course of his work at the Naval Air Experimental Station and once returning home from Oʻahu in 1946.Consequently, he seldom traveled great distances.", "This phobia influenced several of his fiction works, such as the Wendell Urth mystery stories and the ''Robot'' novels featuring Elijah Baley.", "In his later years, Asimov found enjoyment traveling on cruise ships, beginning in 1972 when he viewed the Apollo 17 launch from a cruise ship.", "On several cruises, he was part of the entertainment program, giving science-themed talks aboard ships such as the ''Queen Elizabeth 2''.", "He sailed to England in June 1974 on the for a trip mostly devoted to lectures in London and Birmingham, though he also found time to visit Stonehenge.Asimov with his second wife, Janet.", "\"They became a permanent feature of my face, and it is now difficult to believe early photographs that show me without sideburns.\"", "(Photo by Jay Kay Klein.", ")He was an able public speaker and was regularly invited to give talks about science in his distinct New York accent.", "He participated in many science fiction conventions, where he was friendly and approachable.", "He patiently answered tens of thousands of questions and other mail with postcards and was pleased to give autographs.", "He was of medium height, and stocky build.", "In his later years, he adopted a signature style of \"mutton-chop\" sideburns.", "He took to wearing bolo ties after his wife Janet objected to his clip-on bow ties.", "He never learned to swim or ride a bicycle, but did learn to drive a car after he moved to Boston.", "In his humor book ''Asimov Laughs Again'', he describes Boston driving as \"anarchy on wheels\".Asimov's wide interests included his participation in later years in organizations devoted to the comic operas of Gilbert and Sullivan and in The Wolfe Pack, a group of devotees of the Nero Wolfe mysteries by Rex Stout.", "Many of his short stories mention or quote Gilbert and Sullivan.", "He was a prominent member of The Baker Street Irregulars, the leading Sherlock Holmes society, for whom he wrote an essay arguing that Professor Moriarty's work \"The Dynamics of An Asteroid\" involved the willful destruction of an ancient, civilized planet.", "He was also a member of the male-only literary banqueting club the Trap Door Spiders, which served as the basis of his fictional group of mystery solvers, the Black Widowers.", "He later used his essay on Moriarty's work as the basis for a Black Widowers story, \"The Ultimate Crime\", which appeared in ''More Tales of the Black Widowers''.In 1984, the American Humanist Association (AHA) named him the Humanist of the Year.", "He was one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto.", "From 1985 until his death in 1992, he served as honorary president of the AHA, and was succeeded by his friend and fellow writer Kurt Vonnegut.", "He was also a close friend of ''Star Trek'' creator Gene Roddenberry, and earned a screen credit as \"special science consultant\" on ''Star Trek: The Motion Picture'' for his advice during production.Asimov was a founding member of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal, CSICOP (now the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry) and is listed in its Pantheon of Skeptics.", "In a discussion with James Randi at CSICon 2016 regarding the founding of CSICOP, Kendrick Frazier said that Asimov was \"a key figure in the Skeptical movement who is less well known and appreciated today, but was very much in the public eye back then.\"", "He said that Asimov being associated with CSICOP \"gave it immense status and authority\" in his eyes.Asimov described Carl Sagan as one of only two people he ever met whose intellect surpassed his own.", "The other, he claimed, was the computer scientist and artificial intelligence expert Marvin Minsky.", "Asimov was an on-and-off member and honorary vice president of Mensa International, albeit reluctantly; he described some members of that organization as \"brain-proud and aggressive about their IQs\".After his father died in 1969, Asimov annually contributed to a Judah Asimov Scholarship Fund at Brandeis University.=== Illness and death ===In 1977, Asimov had a heart attack.", "In December 1983, he had triple bypass surgery at NYU Medical Center, during which he contracted HIV from a blood transfusion.", "His HIV status was kept secret out of concern that the anti-AIDS prejudice might extend to his family members.He died in Manhattan on April 6, 1992, and was cremated.", "The cause of death was reported as heart and kidney failure.", "Ten years following Asimov's death, Janet and Robyn Asimov agreed that the HIV story should be made public; Janet revealed it in her edition of his autobiography, ''It's Been a Good Life''." ], [ "Writings", "=== Overview ===Asimov's career can be divided into several periods.", "His early career, dominated by science fiction, began with short stories in 1939 and novels in 1950.This lasted until about 1958, all but ending after publication of ''The Naked Sun'' (1957).", "He began publishing nonfiction as co-author of a college-level textbook called ''Biochemistry and Human Metabolism''.", "Following the brief orbit of the first human-made satellite Sputnik I by the USSR in 1957, he wrote more nonfiction, particularly popular science books, and less science fiction.", "Over the next quarter-century, he wrote only four science fiction novels, and 120 nonfiction books.Starting in 1982, the second half of his science fiction career began with the publication of ''Foundation's Edge''.", "From then until his death, Asimov published several more sequels and prequels to his existing novels, tying them together in a way he had not originally anticipated, making a unified series.", "There are many inconsistencies in this unification, especially in his earlier stories.", "Doubleday and Houghton Mifflin published about 60% of his work up to 1969, Asimov stating that \"both represent a father image\".Asimov believed his most enduring contributions would be his \"Three Laws of Robotics\" and the ''Foundation'' series.", "The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' credits his science fiction for introducing into the English language the words \"robotics\", \"positronic\" (an entirely fictional technology), and \"psychohistory\" (which is also used for a different study on historical motivations).", "Asimov coined the term \"robotics\" without suspecting that it might be an original word; at the time, he believed it was simply the natural analogue of words such as mechanics and hydraulics, but for robots.", "Unlike his word \"psychohistory\", the word \"robotics\" continues in mainstream technical use with Asimov's original definition.", "''Star Trek: The Next Generation'' featured androids with \"positronic brains\" and the first-season episode \"Datalore\" called the positronic brain \"Asimov's dream\".Asimov was so prolific and diverse in his writing that his books span all major categories of the Dewey Decimal Classification except for category 100, philosophy and psychology.", "However, he wrote several essays about psychology, and forewords for the books ''The Humanist Way'' (1988) and ''In Pursuit of Truth'' (1982), which were classified in the 100s category, but none of his own books were classified in that category.According to UNESCO's ''Index Translationum database'', Asimov is the world's 24th-most-translated author.=== Science fiction ===The first installment of Asimov's ''Tyrann'' was the cover story in the fourth issue of ''Galaxy Science Fiction'' in 1951.The novel was issued in book form later that year as ''The Stars Like Dust''.The first installment of Asimov's ''The Caves of Steel'' on the cover of the October 1953 issue of ''Galaxy Science Fiction'', illustrated by Ed EmshwillerThe novelette \"Legal Rites\", a collaboration with Frederik Pohl, the only Asimov story to appear in ''Weird Tales''Asimov became a science fiction fan in 1929, when he began reading the pulp magazines sold in his family's candy store.", "At first his father forbade reading pulps until Asimov persuaded him that because the science fiction magazines had \"Science\" in the title, they must be educational.", "At age 18 he joined the Futurians science fiction fan club, where he made friends who went on to become science fiction writers or editors.Asimov began writing at the age of 11, imitating ''The Rover Boys'' with eight chapters of ''The Greenville Chums at College''.", "His father bought him a used typewriter at age 16.His first published work was a humorous item on the birth of his brother for Boys High School's literary journal in 1934.In May 1937 he first thought of writing professionally, and began writing his first science fiction story, \"Cosmic Corkscrew\" (now lost), that year.", "On May 17, 1938, puzzled by a change in the schedule of ''Astounding Science Fiction'', Asimov visited its publisher Street & Smith Publications.", "Inspired by the visit, he finished the story on June 19, 1938, and personally submitted it to ''Astounding'' editor John W. Campbell two days later.", "Campbell met with Asimov for more than an hour and promised to read the story himself.", "Two days later he received a detailed rejection letter.", "This was the first of what became almost weekly meetings with the editor while Asimov lived in New York, until moving to Boston in 1949; Campbell had a strong formative influence on Asimov and became a personal friend.By the end of the month, Asimov completed a second story, \"Stowaway\".", "Campbell rejected it on July 22 but—in \"the nicest possible letter you could imagine\"—encouraged him to continue writing, promising that Asimov might sell his work after another year and a dozen stories of practice.", "On October 21, 1938, he sold the third story he finished, \"Marooned Off Vesta\", to ''Amazing Stories'', edited by Raymond A. Palmer, and it appeared in the March 1939 issue.", "Asimov was paid $64 (), or one cent a word.", "Two more stories appeared that year, \"The Weapon Too Dreadful to Use\" in the May ''Amazing'' and \"Trends\" in the July ''Astounding'', the issue fans later selected as the start of the Golden Age of Science Fiction.", "For 1940, ISFDB catalogs seven stories in four different pulp magazines, including one in ''Astounding''.", "His earnings became enough to pay for his education, but not yet enough for him to become a full-time writer.He later said that unlike other Golden Age writers Robert Heinlein and A. E. van Vogt—also first published in 1939, and whose talent and stardom were immediately obvious—Asimov \"(this is not false modesty) came up only gradually\".", "Through July 29, 1940, Asimov wrote 22 stories in 25 months, of which 13 were published; he wrote in 1972 that from that date he never wrote a science fiction story that was not published (except for two \"special cases\").", "By 1941 Asimov was famous enough that Donald Wollheim told him that he purchased \"The Secret Sense\" for a new magazine only because of his name, and the December 1940 issue of ''Astonishing''—featuring Asimov's name in bold—was the first magazine to base cover art on his work, but Asimov later said that neither he nor anyone else—except perhaps Campbell—considered him better than an often published \"third rater\".Based on a conversation with Campbell, Asimov wrote \"Nightfall\", his 32nd story, in March and April 1941, and ''Astounding'' published it in September 1941.In 1968 the Science Fiction Writers of America voted \"Nightfall\" the best science fiction short story ever written.", "In ''Nightfall and Other Stories'' Asimov wrote, \"The writing of 'Nightfall' was a watershed in my professional career ...", "I was suddenly taken seriously and the world of science fiction became aware that I existed.", "As the years passed, in fact, it became evident that I had written a 'classic'.\"", "\"Nightfall\" is an archetypal example of social science fiction, a term he created to describe a new trend in the 1940s, led by authors including him and Heinlein, away from gadgets and space opera and toward speculation about the human condition.After writing \"Victory Unintentional\" in January and February 1942, Asimov did not write another story for a year.", "He expected to make chemistry his career, and was paid $2,600 annually at the Philadelphia Navy Yard, enough to marry his girlfriend; he did not expect to make much more from writing than the $1,788.50 he had earned from the 28 stories he had already sold over four years.", "Asimov left science fiction fandom and no longer read new magazines, and might have left the writing profession had not Heinlein and de Camp been his coworkers at the Navy Yard and previously sold stories continued to appear.", "In 1942, Asimov published the first of his ''Foundation'' stories—later collected in the ''Foundation'' trilogy: ''Foundation'' (1951), ''Foundation and Empire'' (1952), and ''Second Foundation'' (1953).", "The books describe the fall of a vast interstellar empire and the establishment of its eventual successor.", "They feature his fictional science of psychohistory, whose theories could predict the future course of history according to dynamical laws regarding the statistical analysis of mass human actions.", "Campbell raised his rate per word, Orson Welles purchased rights to \"Evidence\", and anthologies reprinted his stories.", "By the end of the war Asimov was earning as a writer an amount equal to half of his Navy Yard salary, even after a raise, but Asimov still did not believe that writing could support him, his wife, and future children.His \"positronic\" robot stories—many of which were collected in ''I, Robot'' (1950)—were begun at about the same time.", "They promulgated a set of rules of ethics for robots (see Three Laws of Robotics) and intelligent machines that greatly influenced other writers and thinkers in their treatment of the subject.", "Asimov notes in his introduction to the short story collection ''The Complete Robot'' (1982) that he was largely inspired by the tendency of robots up to that time to fall consistently into a Frankenstein plot in which they destroyed their creators.", "The ''Robot'' series has led to film adaptations.", "With Asimov's collaboration, in about 1977, Harlan Ellison wrote a screenplay of ''I, Robot'' that Asimov hoped would lead to \"the first really adult, complex, worthwhile science fiction film ever made\".", "The screenplay has never been filmed and was eventually published in book form in 1994.The 2004 movie ''I, Robot'', starring Will Smith, was based on an unrelated script by Jeff Vintar titled ''Hardwired'', with Asimov's ideas incorporated later after the rights to Asimov's title were acquired.", "(The title was not original to Asimov but had previously been used for a story by Eando Binder.)", "Also, one of Asimov's robot short stories, \"The Bicentennial Man\", was expanded into a novel ''The Positronic Man'' by Asimov and Robert Silverberg, and this was adapted into the 1999 movie ''Bicentennial Man'', starring Robin Williams.In 1966 the ''Foundation'' trilogy won the Hugo Award for the all-time best series of science fiction and fantasy novels, and they along with the ''Robot'' series are his most famous science fiction.", "Besides movies, his ''Foundation'' and ''Robot'' stories have inspired other derivative works of science fiction literature, many by well-known and established authors such as Roger MacBride Allen, Greg Bear, Gregory Benford, David Brin, and Donald Kingsbury.", "At least some of these appear to have been done with the blessing of, or at the request of, Asimov's widow, Janet Asimov.In 1948, he also wrote a spoof chemistry article, \"The Endochronic Properties of Resublimated Thiotimoline\".", "At the time, Asimov was preparing his own doctoral dissertation, which would include an oral examination.", "Fearing a prejudicial reaction from his graduate school evaluation board at Columbia University, Asimov asked his editor that it be released under a pseudonym.", "When it nevertheless appeared under his own name, Asimov grew concerned that his doctoral examiners might think he wasn't taking science seriously.", "At the end of the examination, one evaluator turned to him, smiling, and said, \"What can you tell us, Mr. Asimov, about the thermodynamic properties of the compound known as thiotimoline\".", "Laughing hysterically with relief, Asimov had to be led out of the room.", "After a five-minute wait, he was summoned back into the room and congratulated as \"Dr. Asimov\".Demand for science fiction greatly increased during the 1950s, making it possible for a genre author to write full-time.", "In 1949, book publisher Doubleday's science fiction editor Walter I. Bradbury accepted Asimov's unpublished \"Grow Old with Me\" (40,000 words), but requested that it be extended to a full novel of 70,000 words.", "The book appeared under the Doubleday imprint in January 1950 with the title of ''Pebble in the Sky''.", "Doubleday published five more original science fiction novels by Asimov in the 1950s, along with the six juvenile Lucky Starr novels, the latter under the pseudonym \"Paul French\".", "Doubleday also published collections of Asimov's short stories, beginning with ''The Martian Way and Other Stories'' in 1955.The early 1950s also saw Gnome Press publish one collection of Asimov's positronic robot stories as ''I, Robot'' and his ''Foundation'' stories and novelettes as the three books of the ''Foundation trilogy''.", "More positronic robot stories were republished in book form as ''The Rest of the Robots''.Book publishers and the magazines ''Galaxy'' and ''Fantasy & Science Fiction'' ended Asimov's dependence on ''Astounding''.", "He later described the era as his \"'mature' period\".", "Asimov's \"The Last Question\" (1956), on the ability of humankind to cope with and potentially reverse the process of entropy, was his personal favorite story.In 1972, his stand-alone novel ''The Gods Themselves'' was published to general acclaim, winning Best Novel in the Hugo, Nebula, and Locus Awards.In December 1974, former Beatle Paul McCartney approached Asimov and asked him to write the screenplay for a science-fiction movie musical.", "McCartney had a vague idea for the plot and a small scrap of dialogue, about a rock band whose members discover they are being impersonated by extraterrestrials.", "The band and their impostors would likely be played by McCartney's group Wings, then at the height of their career.", "Though not generally a fan of rock music, Asimov was intrigued by the idea and quickly produced a treatment outline of the story adhering to McCartney's overall idea but omitting McCartney's scrap of dialogue.", "McCartney rejected it, and the treatment now exists only in the Boston University archives.Asimov said in 1969 that he had \"the happiest of all my associations with science fiction magazines\" with ''Fantasy & Science Fiction''; \"I have no complaints about ''Astounding'', ''Galaxy'', or any of the rest, heaven knows, but ''F&SF'' has become something special to me\".", "Beginning in 1977, Asimov lent his name to ''Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine'' (now ''Asimov's Science Fiction'') and wrote an editorial for each issue.", "There was also a short-lived ''Asimov's SF Adventure Magazine'' and a companion ''Asimov's Science Fiction Anthology'' reprint series, published as magazines (in the same manner as the stablemates ''Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine''s and ''Alfred Hitchcock's Mystery Magazine''s \"anthologies\").Due to pressure by fans on Asimov to write another book in his ''Foundation'' series, he did so with ''Foundation's Edge'' (1982) and ''Foundation and Earth'' (1986), and then went back to before the original trilogy with ''Prelude to Foundation'' (1988) and ''Forward the Foundation'' (1992), his last novel.=== Popular science ===Asimov and two colleagues published a textbook in 1949, with two more editions by 1969.During the late 1950s and 1960s, Asimov substantially decreased his fiction output (he published only four adult novels between 1957's ''The Naked Sun'' and 1982's ''Foundation's Edge'', two of which were mysteries).", "He greatly increased his nonfiction production, writing mostly on science topics; the launch of Sputnik in 1957 engendered public concern over a \"science gap\".", "Asimov explained in ''The Rest of the Robots'' that he had been unable to write substantial fiction since the summer of 1958, and observers understood him as saying that his fiction career had ended, or was permanently interrupted.", "Asimov recalled in 1969 that \"the United States went into a kind of tizzy, and so did I. I was overcome by the ardent desire to write popular science for an America that might be in great danger through its neglect of science, and a number of publishers got an equally ardent desire to publish popular science for the same reason\".", "''Fantasy and Science Fiction'' invited Asimov to continue his regular nonfiction column, begun in the now-folded bimonthly companion magazine ''Venture Science Fiction Magazine''.", "The first of 399 monthly ''F&SF'' columns appeared in November 1958 and they continued until his terminal illness.", "These columns, periodically collected into books by Doubleday, gave Asimov a reputation as a \"Great Explainer\" of science; he described them as his only popular science writing in which he never had to assume complete ignorance of the subjects on the part of his readers.", "The column was ostensibly dedicated to popular science but Asimov had complete editorial freedom, and wrote about contemporary social issues in essays such as \"Thinking About Thinking\" and \"Knock Plastic!\".", "In 1975 he wrote of these essays: \"I get more pleasure out of them than out of any other writing assignment.", "\"Asimov's first wide-ranging reference work, ''The Intelligent Man's Guide to Science'' (1960), was nominated for a National Book Award, and in 1963 he won a Hugo Award—his first—for his essays for ''F&SF''.", "The popularity of his science books and the income he derived from them allowed him to give up most academic responsibilities and become a full-time freelance writer.", "He encouraged other science fiction writers to write popular science, stating in 1967 that \"the knowledgeable, skillful science writer is worth his weight in contracts\", with \"twice as much work as he can possibly handle\".The great variety of information covered in Asimov's writings prompted Kurt Vonnegut to ask, \"How does it feel to know everything?\"", "Asimov replied that he only knew how it felt to have the 'reputation' of omniscience: \"Uneasy\".", "Floyd C. Gale said that \"Asimov has a rare talent.", "He can make your mental mouth water over dry facts\", and \"science fiction's loss has been science popularization's gain\".", "Asimov said that \"Of all the writing I do, fiction, non-fiction, adult, or juvenile, these ''F & SF'' articles are by far the most fun\".", "He regretted, however, that he had less time for fiction—causing dissatisfied readers to send him letters of complaint—stating in 1969 that \"In the last ten years, I've done a couple of novels, some collections, a dozen or so stories, but that's ''nothing''\".In his essay \"To Tell a Chemist\" (1965), Asimov proposed a simple shibboleth for distinguishing chemists from non-chemists: ask the person to read the word \"unionized\".", "Chemists, he noted, will read ''un''-''ionized'' (electrically neutral), while non-chemists will read ''union-ized'' (belonging to a trade union).=== Coined terms ===Asimov coined the term \"robotics\" in his 1941 story \"Liar!", "\", though he later remarked that he believed then that he was merely using an existing word, as he stated in ''Gold'' (\"The Robot Chronicles\").", "While acknowledging the Oxford Dictionary reference, he incorrectly states that the word was first printed about one third of the way down the first column of page 100, ''Astounding Science Fiction'', March 1942 printing of his short story \"Runaround\".In the same story, Asimov also coined the term \"positronic\" (the counterpart to \"electronic\" for positrons).Asimov coined the term \"psychohistory\" in his ''Foundation'' stories to name a fictional branch of science which combines history, sociology, and mathematical statistics to make general predictions about the future behavior of very large groups of people, such as the Galactic Empire.", "Asimov said later that he should have called it psychosociology.", "It was first introduced in the five short stories (1942–1944) which would later be collected as the 1951 fix-up novel ''Foundation''.", "Somewhat later, the term \"psychohistory\" was applied by others to research of the effects of psychology on history.=== Other writings ===In addition to his interest in science, Asimov was interested in history.", "Starting in the 1960s, he wrote 14 popular history books, including ''The Greeks: A Great Adventure'' (1965), ''The Roman Republic'' (1966), ''The Roman Empire'' (1967), ''The Egyptians'' (1967) ''The Near East: 10,000 Years of History'' (1968), and ''Asimov's Chronology of the World'' (1991).He published ''Asimov's Guide to the Bible'' in two volumes—covering the Old Testament in 1967 and the New Testament in 1969—and then combined them into one 1,300-page volume in 1981.Complete with maps and tables, the guide goes through the books of the Bible in order, explaining the history of each one and the political influences that affected it, as well as biographical information about the important characters.", "His interest in literature manifested itself in several annotations of literary works, including ''Asimov's Guide to Shakespeare'' (1970), ''Asimov's Annotated Don Juan'' (1972), ''Asimov's Annotated Paradise Lost'' (1974), and ''The Annotated Gulliver's Travels'' (1980).Asimov was also a noted mystery author and a frequent contributor to ''Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine''.", "He began by writing science fiction mysteries such as his Wendell Urth stories, but soon moved on to writing \"pure\" mysteries.", "He published two full-length mystery novels, and wrote 66 stories about the Black Widowers, a group of men who met monthly for dinner, conversation, and a puzzle.", "He got the idea for the Widowers from his own association in a stag group called the Trap Door Spiders, and all of the main characters (with the exception of the waiter, Henry, who he admitted resembled Wodehouse's Jeeves) were modeled after his closest friends.", "A parody of the Black Widowers, \"An Evening with the White Divorcés,\" was written by author, critic, and librarian Jon L. Breen.", "Asimov joked, \"all I can do ... is to wait until I catch him in a dark alley, someday.", "\"Toward the end of his life, Asimov published a series of collections of limericks, mostly written by himself, starting with ''Lecherous Limericks'', which appeared in 1975.", "''Limericks: Too Gross'', whose title displays Asimov's love of puns, contains 144 limericks by Asimov and an equal number by John Ciardi.", "He even created a slim volume of Sherlockian limericks.", "Asimov featured Yiddish humor in ''Azazel, The Two Centimeter Demon''.", "The two main characters, both Jewish, talk over dinner, or lunch, or breakfast, about anecdotes of \"George\" and his friend Azazel.", "Asimov's ''Treasury of Humor'' is both a working joke book and a treatise propounding his views on humor theory.", "According to Asimov, the most essential element of humor is an abrupt change in point of view, one that suddenly shifts focus from the important to the trivial, or from the sublime to the ridiculous.Particularly in his later years, Asimov to some extent cultivated an image of himself as an amiable lecher.", "In 1971, as a response to the popularity of sexual guidebooks such as ''The Sensuous Woman'' (by \"J\") and ''The Sensuous Man'' (by \"M\"), Asimov published ''The Sensuous Dirty Old Man'' under the byline \"Dr. 'A (although his full name was printed on the paperback edition, first published 1972).", "However, by 2016, Asimov's habit of groping women was seen as sexual harassment and came under criticism, and was cited as an early example of inappropriate behavior that can occur at science fiction conventions.Asimov published three volumes of autobiography.", "''In Memory Yet Green'' (1979) and ''In Joy Still Felt'' (1980) cover his life up to 1978.The third volume, ''I.", "Asimov: A Memoir'' (1994), covered his whole life (rather than following on from where the second volume left off).", "The epilogue was written by his widow Janet Asimov after his death.", "The book won a Hugo Award in 1995.Janet Asimov edited ''It's Been a Good Life'' (2002), a condensed version of his three autobiographies.", "He also published three volumes of retrospectives of his writing, ''Opus 100'' (1969), ''Opus 200'' (1979), and ''Opus 300'' (1984).In 1987, the Asimovs co-wrote ''How to Enjoy Writing: A Book of Aid and Comfort''.", "In it they offer advice on how to maintain a positive attitude and stay productive when dealing with discouragement, distractions, rejection, and thick-headed editors.", "The book includes many quotations, essays, anecdotes, and husband-wife dialogues about the ups and downs of being an author.Asimov and ''Star Trek'' creator Gene Roddenberry developed a unique relationship during ''Star Trek''s initial launch in the late 1960s.", "Asimov wrote a critical essay on ''Star Trek''s scientific accuracy for ''TV Guide'' magazine.", "Roddenberry retorted respectfully with a personal letter explaining the limitations of accuracy when writing a weekly series.", "Asimov corrected himself with a follow-up essay to ''TV Guide'' claiming that despite its inaccuracies, ''Star Trek'' was a fresh and intellectually challenging science fiction television show.", "The two remained friends to the point where Asimov even served as an advisor on a number of ''Star Trek'' projects.In 1973, Asimov published a proposal for calendar reform, called the World Season Calendar.", "It divides the year into four seasons (named A–D) of 13 weeks (91 days) each.", "This allows days to be named, e.g., \"D-73\" instead of December 1 (due to December 1 being the 73rd day of the 4th quarter).", "An extra 'year day' is added for a total of 365 days.=== Awards and recognition ===Asimov won more than a dozen annual awards for particular works of science fiction and a half-dozen lifetime awards.He also received 14 honorary doctorate degrees from universities.", "* 1955 – Guest of Honor at the 13th World Science Fiction Convention* 1957 – Thomas Alva Edison Foundation Award for best science book for youth, for ''Building Blocks of the Universe''* 1960 – Howard W. Blakeslee Award from the American Heart Association for ''The Living River''* 1962 – Boston University's Publication Merit Award* 1963 – A special Hugo Award for \"adding science to science fiction,\" for essays published in ''The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction''* 1963 – Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences* 1964 – The Science Fiction Writers of America voted \"Nightfall\" (1941) the all-time best science fiction short story* 1965 – James T. Grady Award of the American Chemical Society (now called the James T. Grady-James H. Stack Award for Interpreting Chemistry)* 1966 – Best All-time Novel Series Hugo Award for the ''Foundation'' trilogy* 1967 – Edward E. Smith Memorial Award* 1967 – AAAS-Westinghouse Science Writing Award for Magazine Writing, for essay \"Over the Edge of the Universe\" (in the March 1967 ''Harper's Magazine'')* 1972 – Nebula Award for Best Novel for ''The Gods Themselves''* 1973 – Hugo Award for Best Novel for ''The Gods Themselves''* 1973 – Locus Award for Best Novel for ''The Gods Themselves''* 1975 – Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement* 1975 – Klumpke-Roberts Award \"for outstanding contributions to the public understanding and appreciation of astronomy\"* 1975 – Locus Award for Best Reprint Anthology for ''Before the Golden Age''* 1977 – Hugo Award for Best Novelette for ''The Bicentennial Man''* 1977 – Nebula Award for Best Novelette for ''The Bicentennial Man''* 1977 – Locus Award for Best Novelette for ''The Bicentennial Man''* 1981 – An asteroid, 5020 Asimov, was named in his honor* 1981 – Locus Award for Best Non-Fiction Book for ''In Joy Still Felt: The Autobiography of Isaac Asimov, 1954–1978''* 1983 – Hugo Award for Best Novel for ''Foundation's Edge''* 1983 – Locus Award for Best Science Fiction Novel for ''Foundation's Edge''* 1984 – Humanist of the Year* 1986 – The Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America named him its 8th SFWA Grand Master (presented in 1987).", "* 1987 – Locus Award for Best Short Story for \"Robot Dreams\"* 1992 – Hugo Award for Best Novelette for \"Gold\"* 1995 – Hugo Award for Best Non-Fiction Book for ''I.", "Asimov: A Memoir''* 1995 – Locus Award for Best Non-Fiction Book for ''I.", "Asimov: A Memoir''* 1996 – A 1946 Retro-Hugo for Best Novel of 1945 was given at the 1996 WorldCon for \"The Mule\", the 7th Foundation story, published in ''Astounding Science Fiction''* 1997 – The Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted Asimov in its second class of two deceased and two living persons, along with H. G.", "Wells.", "* 2000 – Asimov was featured on a stamp in Israel* 2001 – The Isaac Asimov Memorial Debates at the Hayden Planetarium in New York were inaugurated* 2009 – A crater on the planet Mars, Asimov, was named in his honor* 2010 – In the US Congress bill about the designation of the National Robotics Week as an annual event, a tribute to Isaac Asimov is as follows:** \"Whereas the second week in April each year is designated as 'National Robotics Week', recognizing the accomplishments of Isaac Asimov, who immigrated to America, taught science, wrote science books for children and adults, first used the term robotics, developed the Three Laws of Robotics, and died in April 1992: Now, therefore, be it resolved ...\"* 2015 – Selected as a member of the New York State Writers Hall of Fame.", "* 2016 – A 1941 Retro-Hugo for Best Short Story of 1940 was given at the 2016 WorldCon for ''Robbie'', his first positronic robot story, published in ''Super Science Stories'', September 1940* 2018 – A 1943 Retro-Hugo for Best Short Story of 1942 was given at the 2018 WorldCon for ''Foundation'', published in ''Astounding Science-Fiction'', May 1942" ], [ "Writing style", "Asimov was his own secretary, typist, indexer, proofreader, and literary agent.", "He wrote a typed first draft composed at the keyboard at 90 words per minute; he imagined an ending first, then a beginning, then \"let everything in-between work itself out as I come to it\".", "(Asimov used an outline only once, later describing it as \"like trying to play the piano from inside a straitjacket\".)", "After correcting a draft by hand, he retyped the document as the final copy and only made one revision with minor editor-requested changes; a word processor did not save him much time, Asimov said, because 95% of the first draft was unchanged.After disliking making multiple revisions of \"Black Friar of the Flame\", Asimov refused to make major, second, or non-editorial revisions (\"like chewing used gum\"), stating that \"too large a revision, or too many revisions, indicate that the piece of writing is a failure.", "In the time it would take to salvage such a failure, I could write a new piece altogether and have infinitely more fun in the process\".", "He submitted \"failures\" to another editor.Asimov's fiction style is extremely unornamented.", "In 1980, science fiction scholar James Gunn wrote of ''I, Robot'':Asimov addressed such criticism in 1989 at the beginning of ''Nemesis'':Gunn cited examples of a more complex style, such as the climax of \"Liar!\".", "Sharply drawn characters occur at key junctures of his storylines: Susan Calvin in \"Liar!\"", "and \"Evidence\", Arkady Darell in ''Second Foundation'', Elijah Baley in ''The Caves of Steel'', and Hari Seldon in the ''Foundation'' prequels.Other than books by Gunn and Joseph Patrouch, there is relatively little literary criticism on Asimov (particularly when compared to the sheer volume of his output).", "Cowart and Wymer's ''Dictionary of Literary Biography'' (1981) gives a possible reason:Gunn's and Patrouch's studies of Asimov both state that a clear, direct prose style is still a style.", "Gunn's 1982 book comments in detail on each of Asimov's novels.", "He does not praise all of Asimov's fiction (nor does Patrouch), but calls some passages in ''The Caves of Steel'' \"reminiscent of Proust\".", "When discussing how that novel depicts night falling over futuristic New York City, Gunn says that Asimov's prose \"need not be ashamed anywhere in literary society\".Although he prided himself on his unornamented prose style (for which he credited Clifford D. Simak as an early influence), and said in 1973 that his style had not changed, Asimov also enjoyed giving his longer stories complicated narrative structures, often by arranging chapters in nonchronological ways.", "Some readers have been put off by this, complaining that the nonlinearity is not worth the trouble and adversely affects the clarity of the story.", "For example, the first third of ''The Gods Themselves'' begins with Chapter 6, then backtracks to fill in earlier material.", "(John Campbell advised Asimov to begin his stories as late in the plot as possible.", "This advice helped Asimov create \"Reason\", one of the early ''Robot'' stories).", "Patrouch found that the interwoven and nested flashbacks of ''The Currents of Space'' did serious harm to that novel, to such an extent that only a \"dyed-in-the-kyrt Asimov fan\" could enjoy it.", "In his later novel ''Nemesis'' one group of characters lives in the \"present\" and another group starts in the \"past\", beginning 15 years earlier and gradually moving toward the time of the first group.=== Alien life ===Asimov once explained that his reluctance to write about aliens came from an incident early in his career when ''Astounding''s editor John Campbell rejected one of his science fiction stories because the alien characters were portrayed as superior to the humans.", "The nature of the rejection led him to believe that Campbell may have based his bias towards humans in stories on a real-world racial bias.", "Unwilling to write only weak alien races, and concerned that a confrontation would jeopardize his and Campbell's friendship, he decided he would not write about aliens at all.", "Nevertheless, in response to these criticisms, he wrote ''The Gods Themselves'', which contains aliens and alien sex.", "The book won the Nebula Award for Best Novel in 1972, and the Hugo Award for Best Novel in 1973.Asimov said that of all his writings, he was most proud of the middle section of ''The Gods Themselves'', the part that deals with those themes.In the Hugo Award-winning novelette \"Gold\", Asimov describes an author, based on himself, who has one of his books (''The Gods Themselves'') adapted into a \"compu-drama\", essentially photo-realistic computer animation.", "The director criticizes the fictionalized Asimov (\"Gregory Laborian\") for having an extremely nonvisual style, making it difficult to adapt his work, and the author explains that he relies on ideas and dialogue rather than description to get his points across.=== Romance and women ===In the early days of science fiction some authors and critics felt that the romantic elements were inappropriate in science fiction stories, which were supposedly to be focused on science and technology.", "Isaac Asimov was a supporter of this point of view, expressed in his 1938-1939 letters to ''Astounding'', where he described such elements as \"mush\" and \"slop\".", "To his dismay, these letters were met with a strong opposition.Asimov attributed the lack of romance and sex in his fiction to the \"early imprinting\" from starting his writing career when he had never been on a date and \"didn't know anything about girls\".", "He was sometimes criticized for the general absence of sex (and of extraterrestrial life) in his science fiction.", "He claimed he wrote ''The Gods Themselves'' (1972) to respond to these criticisms, which often came from New Wave science fiction (and often British) writers.", "The second part (of three) of the novel is set on an alien world with three sexes, and the sexual behavior of these creatures is extensively depicted." ], [ "Views", "=== Religion ===Asimov was an atheist, and a humanist.", "He did not oppose religious conviction in others, but he frequently railed against superstitious and pseudoscientific beliefs that tried to pass themselves off as genuine science.", "During his childhood, his father and mother observed the traditions of Orthodox Judaism less stringently than they had in Petrovichi; they did not force their beliefs upon young Isaac, and he grew up without strong religious influences, coming to believe that the ''Torah'' represented Hebrew mythology in the same way that the ''Iliad'' recorded Greek mythology.", "When he was 13, he chose not to have a bar mitzvah.", "As his books ''Treasury of Humor'' and ''Asimov Laughs Again'' record, Asimov was willing to tell jokes involving God, Satan, the Garden of Eden, Jerusalem, and other religious topics, expressing the viewpoint that a good joke can do more to provoke thought than hours of philosophical discussion.For a brief while, his father worked in the local synagogue to enjoy the familiar surroundings and, as Isaac put it, \"shine as a learned scholar\" versed in the sacred writings.", "This scholarship was a seed for his later authorship and publication of ''Asimov's Guide to the Bible'', an analysis of the historic foundations for the Old and New Testaments.", "For many years, Asimov called himself an atheist; he considered the term somewhat inadequate, as it described what he did not believe rather than what he did.", "Eventually, he described himself as a \"humanist\" and considered that term more practical.", "Asimov continued to identify himself as a secular Jew, as stated in his introduction to Jack Dann's anthology of Jewish science fiction, ''Wandering Stars'': \"I attend no services and follow no ritual and have never undergone that curious puberty rite, the Bar Mitzvah.", "It doesn't matter.", "I am Jewish.", "\"When asked in an interview in 1982 if he was an atheist, Asimov replied,Likewise, he said about religious education: \"I would not be satisfied to have my kids choose to be religious without trying to argue them out of it, just as I would not be satisfied to have them decide to smoke regularly or engage in any other practice I consider detrimental to mind or body.", "\"In his last volume of autobiography, Asimov wrote,The same memoir states his belief that Hell is \"the drooling dream of a sadist\" crudely affixed to an all-merciful God; if even human governments were willing to curtail cruel and unusual punishments, wondered Asimov, why would punishment in the afterlife not be restricted to a limited term?", "Asimov rejected the idea that a human belief or action could merit infinite punishment.", "If an afterlife existed, he claimed, the longest and most severe punishment would be reserved for those who \"slandered God by inventing Hell\".Asimov said about using religious motifs in his writing:=== Politics ===Asimov became a staunch supporter of the Democratic Party during the New Deal, and thereafter remained a political liberal.", "He was a vocal opponent of the Vietnam War in the 1960s and in a television interview during the early 1970s he publicly endorsed George McGovern.", "He was unhappy about what he considered an \"irrationalist\" viewpoint taken by many radical political activists from the late 1960s and onwards.", "In his second volume of autobiography, ''In Joy Still Felt'', Asimov recalled meeting the counterculture figure Abbie Hoffman.", "Asimov's impression was that the 1960s' counterculture heroes had ridden an emotional wave which, in the end, left them stranded in a \"no-man's land of the spirit\" from which he wondered if they would ever return.Asimov vehemently opposed Richard Nixon, considering him \"a crook and a liar\".", "He closely followed Watergate, and was pleased when the president was forced to resign.", "Asimov was dismayed over the pardon extended to Nixon by his successor: \"I was not impressed by the argument that it has spared the nation an ordeal.", "To my way of thinking, the ordeal was necessary to make certain it would never happen again.", "\"After Asimov's name appeared in the mid-1960s on a list of people the Communist Party USA \"considered amenable\" to its goals, the FBI investigated him.", "Because of his academic background, the bureau briefly considered Asimov as a possible candidate for known Soviet spy ROBPROF, but found nothing suspicious in his life or background.Asimov appeared to hold an equivocal attitude towards Israel.", "In his first autobiography, he indicates his support for the safety of Israel, though insisting that he was not a Zionist.", "In his third autobiography, Asimov stated his opposition to the creation of a Jewish state, on the grounds that he was opposed to having nation-states in general, and supported the notion of a single humanity.", "Asimov especially worried about the safety of Israel given that it had been created among Muslim neighbors \"who will never forgive, never forget and never go away\", and said that Jews had merely created for themselves another \"Jewish ghetto\".=== Social issues ===Asimov believed that \"''science'' fiction ... serves the good of humanity\".", "He considered himself a feminist even before women's liberation became a widespread movement; he argued that the issue of women's rights was closely connected to that of population control.", "Furthermore, he believed that homosexuality must be considered a \"moral right\" on population grounds, as must all consenting adult sexual activity that does not lead to reproduction.", "He issued many appeals for population control, reflecting a perspective articulated by people from Thomas Malthus through Paul R. Ehrlich.In a 1988 interview by Bill Moyers, Asimov proposed computer-aided learning, where people would use computers to find information on subjects in which they were interested.", "He thought this would make learning more interesting, since people would have the freedom to choose what to learn, and would help spread knowledge around the world.", "Also, the one-to-one model would let students learn at their own pace.", "Asimov thought that people would live in space by 2019.In 1983 Asimov wrote:He continues on education: === Sexual harassment ===Asimov would often fondle, kiss and pinch women at conventions and elsewhere without regard for their consent.", "According to Alec Nevala-Lee, author of an Asimov biography and writer on the history of science fiction, he often defended himself by saying that far from showing objections, these women cooperated.", "In a 1971 satirical piece, ''The Sensuous Dirty Old Man'', Asimov wrote: \"The question then is not whether or not a girl should be touched.", "The question is merely where, when, and how she should be touched.", "\"According to Nevala-Lee, however, \"many of these encounters were clearly nonconsensual.\"", "He wrote that Asimov's behaviour, as a leading science-fiction author and personality, contributed to an undesirable atmosphere for women in the male-dominated science fiction community.", "In support of this, he quoted some of Asimov's contemporary fellow-authors such as Judith Merril, Harlan Ellison and Frederik Pohl, as well as editors such as Timothy Seldes.", "Additional specific incidents were reported by other people including Edward L. Ferman, long-time editor of ''The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction'', who wrote \"... instead of shaking my date's hand, he shook her ''left breast''\".=== Environment and population ===Asimov's defense of civil applications of nuclear power, even after the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant incident, damaged his relations with some of his fellow liberals.", "In a letter reprinted in ''Yours, Isaac Asimov'', he states that although he would prefer living in \"no danger whatsoever\" to living near a nuclear reactor, he would still prefer a home near a nuclear power plant to a slum on Love Canal or near \"a Union Carbide plant producing methyl isocyanate\", the latter being a reference to the Bhopal disaster.In the closing years of his life, Asimov blamed the deterioration of the quality of life that he perceived in New York City on the shrinking tax base caused by the middle-class flight to the suburbs, though he continued to support high taxes on the middle class to pay for social programs.", "His last nonfiction book, ''Our Angry Earth'' (1991, co-written with his long-time friend, science fiction author Frederik Pohl), deals with elements of the environmental crisis such as overpopulation, oil dependence, war, global warming, and the destruction of the ozone layer.", "In response to being presented by Bill Moyers with the question \"What do you see happening to the idea of dignity to human species if this population growth continues at its present rate?", "\", Asimov responded:=== Other authors ===Asimov enjoyed the writings of J. R. R. Tolkien, and used ''The Lord of the Rings'' as a plot point in a Black Widowers story, titled ''Nothing like Murder''.", "In the essay \"All or Nothing\" (for ''The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction,'' Jan 1981), Asimov said that he admired Tolkien and that he had read ''The Lord of the Rings'' five times.", "(The feelings were mutual, with Tolkien saying that he had enjoyed Asimov's science fiction.", "This would make Asimov an exception to Tolkien's earlier claim that he rarely found \"any modern books\" that were interesting to him.", ")He acknowledged other writers as superior to himself in talent, saying of Harlan Ellison, \"He is (in my opinion) one of the best writers in the world, far more skilled at the art than I am.\"", "Asimov disapproved of the New Wave's growing influence, stating in 1967 \"I want science fiction.", "I think science fiction isn't really science fiction if it lacks science.", "And I think the better and truer the science, the better and truer the science fiction\".The feelings of friendship and respect between Asimov and Arthur C. Clarke were demonstrated by the so-called \"Clarke–Asimov Treaty of Park Avenue\", negotiated as they shared a cab in New York.", "This stated that Asimov was required to insist that Clarke was the best science fiction writer in the world (reserving second-best for himself), while Clarke was required to insist that Asimov was the best science writer in the world (reserving second-best for himself).", "Thus, the dedication in Clarke's book ''Report on Planet Three'' (1972) reads: \"In accordance with the terms of the Clarke–Asimov treaty, the second-best science writer dedicates this book to the second-best science-fiction writer.", "\"In 1980, Asimov wrote a highly critical review of George Orwell's ''1984''.Asimov became a fan of mystery stories at the same time as science fiction.", "He preferred to read the former because \"I read every science fiction story keenly aware that it might be worse than mine, in which case I had no patience with it, or that it might be better, in which case I felt miserable\".", "Asimov wrote \"I make no secret of the fact that in my mysteries I use Agatha Christie as my model.", "In my opinion, her mysteries are the best ever written, far better than the Sherlock Holmes stories, and Hercule Poirot is the best detective fiction has seen.", "Why should I not use as my model what I consider the best?\"", "He enjoyed Sherlock Holmes, but considered Arthur Conan Doyle to be \"a slapdash and sloppy writer.", "\"Asimov also enjoyed humorous stories, particularly those of P. G. Wodehouse.In non-fiction writing, Asimov particularly admired the writing style of Martin Gardner, and tried to emulate it in his own science books.", "On meeting Gardner for the first time in 1965, Asimov told him this, to which Gardner answered that he had based his own style on Asimov's." ], [ "Influence", "Paul Krugman, holder of a Nobel Prize in Economics, stated Asimov's concept of psychohistory inspired him to become an economist.John Jenkins, who has reviewed the vast majority of Asimov's written output, once observed, \"It has been pointed out that most science fiction writers since the 1950s have been affected by Asimov, either modeling their style on his or deliberately avoiding anything like his style.\"", "Along with such figures as Bertrand Russell and Karl Popper, Asimov left his mark as one of the most distinguished interdisciplinarians of the 20th century.", "\"Few individuals\", writes James L. Christian, \"understood better than Isaac Asimov what synoptic thinking is all about.", "His almost 500 books—which he wrote as a specialist, a knowledgeable authority, or just an excited layman—range over almost all conceivable subjects: the sciences, history, literature, religion, and of course, science fiction.\"" ], [ "Bibliography{{anchor\|Selected_bibliography}}", "Depending on the counting convention used, and including all titles, charts, and edited collections, there may be currently over 500 books in Asimov's bibliography—as well as his individual short stories, individual essays, and criticism.", "For his 100th, 200th, and 300th books (based on his personal count), Asimov published ''Opus 100'' (1969), ''Opus 200'' (1979), and ''Opus 300'' (1984), celebrating his writing.", "An extensive bibliography of Isaac Asimov's works has been compiled by Ed Seiler.", "He published enough that his book writing rate could be analysed, showing that the writing became faster as he wrote more.An online exhibit in West Virginia University Libraries' virtually complete Asimov Collection displays features, visuals, and descriptions of some of his over 600 books, games, audio recordings, videos, and wall charts.", "Many first, rare, and autographed editions are in the Libraries' Rare Book Room.", "Book jackets and autographs are presented online along with descriptions and images of children's books, science fiction art, multimedia, and other materials in the collection.=== Science fiction ======= \"Greater Foundation\" series ====The ''Robot'' series was originally separate from the ''Foundation'' series.", "The Galactic Empire novels were published as independent stories, set earlier in the same future as ''Foundation''.", "Later in life, Asimov synthesized the ''Robot'' series into a single coherent \"history\" that appeared in the extension of the ''Foundation'' series.All of these books were published by Doubleday & Co, except the original Foundation trilogy which was originally published by Gnome Books before being bought and republished by Doubleday.", "* '''The Robot series:''' (first Elijah Baley SF-crime novel) (second Elijah Baley SF-crime novel) (third Elijah Baley SF-crime novel) (sequel to the Elijah Baley trilogy)* '''Galactic Empire novels:''' (early Galactic Empire) (long before the Empire)** (Republic of Trantor still expanding)* '''Foundation prequels:''' * '''Original ''Foundation'' trilogy:''' (also published with the title 'The Man Who Upset the Universe' as a 35¢ Ace paperback, D-125, in about 1952)** * '''Extended Foundation series:''' ==== Lucky Starr series (as Paul French) ====All published by Doubleday & Co* ''David Starr, Space Ranger'' (1952)* ''Lucky Starr and the Pirates of the Asteroids'' (1953)* ''Lucky Starr and the Oceans of Venus'' (1954)* ''Lucky Starr and the Big Sun of Mercury'' (1956)* ''Lucky Starr and the Moons of Jupiter'' (1957)* ''Lucky Starr and the Rings of Saturn'' (1958)==== Norby Chronicles (with Janet Asimov) ====All published by Walker & Company* ''Norby, the Mixed-Up Robot'' (1983)* ''Norby's Other Secret'' (1984)* ''Norby and the Lost Princess'' (1985)* ''Norby and the Invaders'' (1985)* ''Norby and the Queen's Necklace'' (1986)* ''Norby Finds a Villain'' (1987)* ''Norby Down to Earth'' (1988)* ''Norby and Yobo's Great Adventure'' (1989)* ''Norby and the Oldest Dragon'' (1990)* ''Norby and the Court Jester'' (1991)==== Novels not part of a series ====Novels marked with an asterisk () have minor connections to ''Foundation'' universe.", " ''The End of Eternity'' (1955), Doubleday () ''Fantastic Voyage'' (1966), Bantam Books (paperback) and Houghton Mifflin (hardback) (a novelization of the movie)* ''The Gods Themselves'' (1972), Doubleday* ''Fantastic Voyage II: Destination Brain'' (1987), Doubleday (not a sequel to ''Fantastic Voyage,'' but a similar, independent story)* ''Nemesis'' (1989), Bantam Doubleday Dell () ''Nightfall'' (1990), Doubleday, with Robert Silverberg (based on \"Nightfall\", a 1941 short story written by Asimov)* ''Child of Time'' (1992), Bantam Doubleday Dell, with Robert Silverberg (based on \"The Ugly Little Boy\", a 1958 short story written by Asimov)* ''The Positronic Man'' (1992), Bantam Doubleday Dell, with Robert Silverberg () (based on ''The Bicentennial Man'', a 1976 novella written by Asimov)==== Short-story collections ==== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * === Mysteries ======= Novels ====* ''The Death Dealers'' (1958), Avon Books, republished as ''A Whiff of Death'' by Walker & Company* ''Murder at the ABA'' (1976), Doubleday, also published as ''Authorized Murder''==== Short-story collections ========= Black Widowers series =====* ''Tales of the Black Widowers'' (1974), Doubleday* ''More Tales of the Black Widowers'' (1976), Doubleday* ''Casebook of the Black Widowers'' (1980), Doubleday* ''Banquets of the Black Widowers'' (1984), Doubleday* ''Puzzles of the Black Widowers'' (1990), Doubleday* ''The Return of the Black Widowers'' (2003), Carroll & Graf===== Other mysteries =====* ''Asimov's Mysteries'' (1968), Doubleday* ''The Key Word and Other Mysteries'' (1977), Walker* ''The Union Club Mysteries'' (1983), Doubleday* ''The Disappearing Man and Other Mysteries'' (1985), Walker* ''The Best Mysteries of Isaac Asimov'' (1986), Doubleday=== Nonfiction ======= Popular science =========Collections of Asimov's essays for ''F&SF''=====The following books collected essays which were originally published as monthly columns in ''The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction'' and collected by Doubleday & Co# ''Fact and Fancy'' (1962)# ''View from a Height'' (1963)# ''Adding a Dimension'' (1964)# ''Of Time and Space and Other Things'' (1965)# ''From Earth to Heaven'' (1966)# ''Science, Numbers, and I'' (1968)# ''The Solar System and Back'' (1970)# ''The Stars in Their Courses'' (1971)# ''The Left Hand of the Electron'' (1972)# ''The Tragedy of the Moon'' (1973)# ''Asimov On Astronomy'' (updated version of essays in previous collections) (1974) # ''Asimov On Chemistry'' (updated version of essays in previous collections) (1974)# ''Of Matters Great and Small'' (1975)# ''Asimov On Physics'' (updated version of essays in previous collections) (1976) # ''The Planet That Wasn't'' (1976)# ''Asimov On Numbers'' (updated version of essays in previous collections) (1976)# ''Quasar, Quasar, Burning Bright'' (1977)# ''The Road to Infinity'' (1979)# ''The Sun Shines Bright'' (1981)# ''Counting the Eons'' (1983)# ''X Stands for Unknown'' (1984)# ''The Subatomic Monster'' (1985)# ''Far as Human Eye Could See'' (1987)# ''The Relativity of Wrong'' (1988)# ''Asimov on Science: A 30 Year Retrospective 1959–1989'' (1989) (features the first essay in the introduction)# ''Out of the Everywhere'' (1990)# ''The Secret of the Universe'' (1991)=====Other general science essay collections=====* ''Only a Trillion'' (1957), Abelard-Schuman, ; (1976) revised and updated ed.", "* ''Is Anyone There?''", "(1967), Doubleday, (which includes the article in which he coined the term \"spome\")* ''Today and Tomorrow and—'' (1973), Doubleday* ''Science Past, Science Future'' (1975), Doubleday, * ''Please Explain'' (1975), Houghton Mifflin, * ''Life and Time'' (1978), Doubleday* ''The Roving Mind'' (1983), Prometheus Books, new edition 1997, * ''The Dangers of Intelligence'' (1986), Houghton Mifflin* ''Past, Present and Future'' (1987), Prometheus Books, * ''The Tyrannosaurus Prescription'' (1989), Prometheus Books* ''Frontiers'' (1990), Dutton* ''Frontiers II'' (1993), Dutton=====Other science books by Asimov=====* ''The Chemicals of Life'' (1954), Abelard-Schuman * ''Inside the Atom'' (1956), Abelard-Schuman, * ''Building Blocks of the Universe'' (1957; revised 1974), Abelard-Schuman, * ''The World of Carbon'' (1958), Abelard-Schuman, * ''The World of Nitrogen'' (1958), Abelard-Schuman, * ''Words of Science and the History Behind Them'' (1959), Houghton Mifflin * ''The Clock We Live On'' (1959), Abelard-Schuman, * ''Breakthroughs in Science'' (1959), Houghton Mifflin, * ''Realm of Numbers'' (1959), Houghton Mifflin, * ''Realm of Measure'' (1960), Houghton Mifflin* ''The Wellsprings of Life'' (1960), Abelard-Schuman, * ''Life and Energy'' (1962), Doubleday, * ''The Genetic Code'' (1962), The Orion Press* ''The Human Body: Its Structure and Operation'' (1963), Houghton Mifflin, , (revised)* ''The Human Brain: Its Capacities and Functions'' (1963), Houghton Mifflin, * ''Planets for Man'' (with Stephen H. Dole) (1964), Random House, reprinted by RAND in 2007 * ''An Easy Introduction to the Slide Rule'' (1965), Houghton Mifflin, * ''The Intelligent Man's Guide to Science'' (1965), Basic Books** The title varied with each of the four editions, the last being ''Asimov's New Guide to Science'' (1984) * ''The Universe: From Flat Earth to Quasar'' (1966), Walker, * ''The Neutrino'' (1966), Doubleday, ASIN B002JK525W* ''Understanding Physics Vol.", "I, Motion, Sound, and Heat'' (1966), Walker, * ''Understanding Physics Vol.", "II, Light, Magnetism, and Electricity'' (1966), Walker, * ''Understanding Physics Vol.", "III, The Electron, Proton, and Neutron'' (1966), Walker, * ''Photosynthesis'' (1969), Basic Books, * ''Our World in Space'' (1974), New York Graphic, * ''Eyes on the Universe: A History of the Telescope'' (1976), Andre Deutsch Limited, * ''The Collapsing Universe'' (1977), Walker, * ''Extraterrestrial Civilizations'' (1979), Crown, * ''A Choice of Catastrophes'' (1979), Simon & Schuster, * ''Visions of the Universe'' with illustrations by Kazuaki Iwasaki (1981), Cosmos Store, * ''Exploring the Earth and the Cosmos'' (1982), Crown, * ''The Measure of the Universe'' (1983), Harper & Row* ''Think About Space: Where Have We Been and Where Are We Going?''", "with co-author Frank White (1989), Walker* ''Asimov's Chronology of Science and Discovery'' (1989), Harper & Row, second edition adds content thru 1993, * ''Beginnings: The Story of Origins'' (1989), Walker* ''Isaac Asimov's Guide to Earth and Space'' (1991), Random House, * ''Atom: Journey Across the Subatomic Cosmos'' (1991), Dutton, * ''Mysteries of Deep Space: Quasars, Pulsars and Black Holes'' (1994) * ''Earth's Moon'' (1988), Gareth Stevens, revised in 2003 by Richard Hantula * ''The Sun'' (1988), Gareth Stevens, revised in 2003 by Richard Hantula * ''The Earth'' (1988), Gareth Stevens, revised in 2004 by Richard Hantula * ''Jupiter'' (1989), Gareth Stevens, revised in 2004 by Richard Hantula * ''Venus'' (1990), Gareth Stevens, revised in 2004 by Richard Hantula ==== Literary works ====All published by Doubleday* ''Asimov's Guide to Shakespeare'', vols I and II (1970), * ''Asimov's Annotated \"Don Juan\"'' (1972)* ''Asimov's Annotated \"Paradise Lost\"'' (1974)* ''Familiar Poems, Annotated'' (1976)* ''Asimov's The Annotated \"Gulliver's Travels\"'' (1980)* ''Asimov's Annotated \"Gilbert and Sullivan\"'' (1988)==== The Bible ====* ''Words from Genesis'' (1962), Houghton Mifflin* ''Words from the Exodus'' (1963), Houghton Mifflin* ''Asimov's Guide to the Bible'', vols I and II (1967 and 1969, one-volume ed.", "1981), Doubleday, * ''The Story of Ruth'' (1972), Doubleday, * ''In the Beginning'' (1981), Crown==== Autobiography ====* ''In Memory Yet Green: The Autobiography of Isaac Asimov, 1920–1954'' (1979, Doubleday)* ''In Joy Still Felt: The Autobiography of Isaac Asimov, 1954–1978'' (1980, Doubleday)* ''I.", "Asimov: A Memoir'' (1994, Doubleday)* ''It's Been a Good Life'' (2002, Prometheus Books), condensation of Asimov's three volumes of autobiography, edited by his widow, Janet Jeppson Asimov==== History ====All published by Houghton Mifflin except where otherwise stated* ''The Kite That Won the Revolution'' (1963), * ''The Greeks: A Great Adventure'' (1965)* ''The Roman Republic'' (1966)* ''The Roman Empire'' (1967)* ''The Egyptians'' (1967)* ''The Near East'' (1968)* ''The Dark Ages'' (1968)* ''Words from History'' (1968)* ''The Shaping of England'' (1969)* ''Constantinople: The Forgotten Empire'' (1970)* ''The Land of Canaan'' (1971)* ''The Shaping of France'' (1972)* ''The Shaping of North America: From Earliest Times to 1763'' (1973)* ''The Birth of the United States: 1763–1816'' (1974)* ''Our Federal Union: The United States from 1816 to 1865'' (1975), * ''The Golden Door: The United States from 1865 to 1918'' (1977)* ''Asimov's Chronology of the World'' (1991), HarperCollins, * ''The March of the Millennia'' (1991), with co-author Frank White, Walker & Company, ==== Humor ====* ''The Sensuous Dirty Old Man'' (1971) (As Dr. A), Walker & Company, * ''Isaac Asimov's Treasury of Humor'' (1971), Houghton Mifflin* ''Lecherous Limericks'' (1975), Walker, * ''More Lecherous Limericks'' (1976), Walker, * ''Still More Lecherous Limericks'' (1977), Walker, * ''Limericks, Two Gross'', with John Ciardi (1978), Norton, * ''A Grossery of Limericks'', with John Ciardi (1981), Norton, * ''Limericks for Children'' (1984), Caedmon* ''Asimov Laughs Again'' (1992), HarperCollins==== On writing science fiction ====* ''Asimov on Science Fiction'' (1981), Doubleday* ''Asimov's Galaxy'' (1989), Doubleday==== Other nonfiction ====* ''Opus 100'' (1969), Houghton Mifflin, * ''Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology'' (1964), Doubleday (revised edition 1972, )* ''Opus 200'' (1979), Houghton Mifflin, * ''Isaac Asimov's Book of Facts'' (1979), Grosset & Dunlap, * ''Opus 300'' (1984), Houghton Mifflin, * ''Our Angry Earth: A Ticking Ecological Bomb'' (1991), with co-author Frederik Pohl, Tor, ." ], [ "Television, music, and film appearances", "* ''I Robot'', a concept album by the Alan Parsons Project that examined some of Asimov's work* ''The Last Word'' (1959)* ''The Dick Cavett Show'', four appearances 1968–71* ''The Nature of Things'' (1969) * ABC News coverage of Apollo 11, 1969, with Fred Pohl, interviewed by Rod Serling* David Frost interview program, August 1969.Frost asked Asimov if he had ever tried to find God and, after some initial evasion, Asimov answered, \"God is much more intelligent than I am—let him try to find me.", "\"* BBC Horizon \"It's About Time\" (1979), show hosted by Dudley Moore* ''Target ...", "Earth?''", "(1980)* ''The David Letterman Show'' (1980) * NBC TV ''Speaking Freely'', interviewed by Edwin Newman (1982)* ARTS Network talk show hosted by Studs Terkel and Calvin Trillin, approximately (1982)* ''Oltre New York'' (1986) * ''Voyage to the Outer Planets and Beyond'' (1986) * ''Gandahar'' (1987), a French animated science-fiction film by René Laloux.", "Asimov wrote the English translation for the film.", "* Bill Moyers interview (1988) * ''Stranieri in America'' (1988)" ], [ "Adaptations", "* Several of his stories (\"The Dead Past\", \"Sucker Bait\", \"Satisfaction Guaranteed\", \"Reason\", \"Liar!", "\", and \"The Naked Sun\") were adapted as television plays for the first three series of the science-fiction (later horror) anthology series ''Out of the Unknown'' between 1965 and 1969.Only ''The Dead Past'' and ''Sucker Bait'' (both from series one) are known to still exist entirely as 16mm telerecordings.", "Tele-snaps, brief audio recordings and video clips exist for ''Satisfaction Guaranteed'' and ''The Prophet'' (adapted from \"Reason\"), while only production stills, brief audio recordings and video clips exist for ''Liar!''.", "Production stills and an almost complete audio recording exist for ''The Naked Sun''.", "* ''El robot embustero'' (1966), short film directed by Antonio Lara de Gavilán, based on short story \"Liar!", "\"* ''A halhatatlanság halála'' (1977), TV movie directed by András Rajnai, based on novel ''The End of Eternity''* ''The Ugly Little Boy'' (1977), short film directed by Barry Morse and Donald W. Thompson, based on novelette ''The Ugly Little Boy''* ''All the Troubles of the World'' (1978), short film directed by Dianne Haak-Edson, based on short story \"All the Troubles of the World\"* The Last Alternative (1978), TV movie directed by Vladimir Latyshev, based on novel ''The Naked Sun''* ''The End of Eternity'' (1987), film directed by Andrei Yermash, based on novel ''The End of Eternity''* ''Nightfall'' (1988), film directed by Paul Mayersberg, based on novelette \"Nightfall\"* ''Robots'' (1988), film directed by Doug Smith and Kim Takal, based on the ''Robot'' series* ''Feeling 109'' (1988), short film directed by Richard Kletter, based on a story of Asimov* ''Teach 109'' (1989), TV movie directed by Richard Kletter, based on a story of Asimov (the same as ''The Android Affair'')* ''The Android Affair'' (1995), TV movie directed by Richard Kletter, based on a story of Asimov (the same as ''Teach 109'')* ''Bicentennial Man'' (1999), film directed by Chris Columbus, based on novelette \"The Bicentennial Man\" and on novel ''The Positronic Man''* ''Nightfall'' (2000), film directed by Gwyneth Gibby, based on novelette \"Nightfall\"* ''I, Robot'' (2004), film directed by Alex Proyas, based on ideas of short stories of the ''Robot'' series* ''Eagle Eye'' (2008), film directed by D. J. Caruso, loosely based on short story \"All the Troubles of the World\"* ''Formula of Death'' (2012), TV movie directed by Behdad Avand Amini, based on novel ''The Death Dealers''* ''Spell My Name with an S'' (2014), short film directed by Samuel Ali, based on short story \"Spell My Name with an S\"* ''Foundation'' (2021), series created by David S. Goyer and Josh Friedman, based on the ''Foundation'' series" ], [ "References", "=== Explanatory footnotes ====== Citations ====== General and cited sources ===* Asimov, Isaac.", "''In Memory Yet Green'' (1979), New York: Avon, .", ": ''In Joy Still Felt'' (1980), New York: Avon .", ": ''I.", "Asimov: A Memoir'' (1994), (hc), (pb).", ": ''Yours, Isaac Asimov'' (1996), edited by Stanley Asimov.", "New York: Doubleday .", ": ''It's Been a Good Life'' (2002), edited by Janet Asimov.", ".", "* Goldman, Stephen H., \"Isaac Asimov\", in ''Dictionary of Literary Biography,'' Vol.", "8, Cowart and Wymer eds.", "(Gale Research, 1981), pp. 15–29.", "* Gunn, James.", "\"On Variations on a Robot\", ''IASFM'', July 1980, pp. 56–81.", ": ''Isaac Asimov: The Foundations of Science Fiction'' (1982).", ".", ": ''The Science of Science-Fiction Writing'' (2000).", ".", "* * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * " ], [ "External links", " Asimov Online, a vast repository of information about Asimov, maintained by Asimov enthusiast Edward Seiler* * * * * * * * Jenkins' Spoiler-Laden Guide to Isaac Asimov, reviews of all of Asimov's books" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Izabella Scorupco" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Izabella Scorupco''' (born '''Izabela Dorota Skorupko'''; 4 June 1970) is a Polish-Swedish actress, singer and model.", "She is best known for having played a Bond girl, Natalya Simonova, in the 1995 James Bond film ''GoldenEye''.", "She is also known for her cover of the Shirley & Company song \"Shame, Shame, Shame\" which was released in 1992 and became a European hit." ], [ "Life", "Scorupco was born to Lech, a musician, and Magdalena Skorupko, a doctor, in Białystok, Poland, in 1970.When she was one year old, her parents separated, and she remained with her mother.", "In 1978, they moved to Bredäng in Stockholm, Sweden, where Scorupco learned to speak Swedish, English and French.On 25 December 1996, Scorupco married Polish ice hockey player Mariusz Czerkawski.", "They had one daughter together, Julia (born 16 September 1997).", "They divorced in 1998.On 30 January 2003, Scorupco married an American, Jeffrey Raymond; they have a son, Jakob (born 24 July 2003).", "They divorced in 2015.She now lives in Los Angeles and New York City.", "Since 2017, Scorupco has been in a relationship with Karl Rosengren.", "They married on 6 October 2019.In 2014, Scorupco became an American citizen." ], [ "Career", "In the late 1980s, Scorupco travelled throughout Europe working as a model, and appeared on the cover of ''Vogue''.", "In 1987, she was discovered by director Staffan Hildebrand and starred in the film ''Ingen kan älska som vi'' (\"Nobody can love like us\").", "In the early 1990s, she had a brief but successful career as a pop singer, releasing the album ''IZA'', which was certified gold in Sweden in 1991.Her 1992 cover version of \"Shame, Shame, Shame\" was a hit in several European countries.In 2011, Scorupco reprised her singing career, duetting with Swedish musician Peter Jöback in his single ''Jag Har Dig Nu'' and featuring in the song's music video.", "She also starred in Jöback's short extension film ''La vie, L'amour, La mort''.", "Scorupco went on to host the spring 2012 series of ''Sweden's Next Top Model'' but did not continue it for a second series.Scorupco moved into comedy in July 2013 when she was named to a lead role in a Swedish romantic comedy film, ''Micke & Veronica'', alongside David Hellenius.", "It premiered on 25 December 2014." ], [ "Filmography", "Year Title Role Notes 1988 ''Ingen kan älska som vi'' Annelie 1991 ''Bert'' Zindy Dabrowski 1991 ''V som i viking'' The Single Mother TV mini-series 1995 ''Det var en mörk och stormig natt'' Petronella Short 1995 ''Petri Tårar'' Carla 1995 ''GoldenEye'' Natalya Simonova 1999 ''With Fire and Sword'' Helena Kurcewiczówna 2000 ''Dykaren'' Irena Walde 2000 ''Vertical Limit'' Monique Aubertine 2002 ''Reign of Fire'' Alex Jensen 2004 ''Exorcist: The Beginning'' Sarah Novak 2005 ''Alias'' Sabina TV series, Season 4, Episode 15: \"Pandora\" 2007 ''Cougar Club'' Daniella Stack 2007 ''Solstorm'' Rebecka Martinsson 2010 ''Änglavakt'' Cecilia 2014 ''Micke & Veronica'' Veronica 2017 ''Sleepwalker'' Dr. Cooper 2018 ''Hidden'' Eldh TV series 2018 ''The Undreaming of Anna Bell Zeigler'' Harriet Zeigler 2023''Barracuda Queens''Margareta MillkvistTV series" ], [ "Discography", "===Studio albums=== Title Album details Peak chart position SWE ''IZA''* Released: 1991* Label: Virgin/Warner Music* Formats: CD, digital download 11===Singles=== Title Year Peak chart positions Album AUS AUT BEL(FL) GER NL NOR SWE SWI \"Substitute\" 1990 — — — — — — 3 — ''IZA'' \"I Write You a Love Song\" 1991 140 — — 93 — — 10 — \"Brando Moves\" — — — — — — 37 — \"Shame, Shame, Shame\" 1992 — 22 4 37 7 2 3 39 \"—\" denotes releases that did not chart or were not released in that territory." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Indonesia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Indonesia''', officially the '''Republic of Indonesia''', is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans.", "It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guinea.", "Indonesia is the world's largest island country and the 14th-largest country by area, at .", "With over 279 million people, Indonesia is the world's fourth-most populous country and the most populous Muslim-majority country.", "Java, the world's most populous island, is home to more than half of the country's population.Indonesia is a presidential republic with an elected legislature.", "It has 38 provinces, of which nine have special autonomous status.", "The country's capital, Jakarta, is the world's second-most populous urban area.", "Indonesia shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and the eastern part of Malaysia, as well as maritime borders with Singapore, Vietnam, Thailand, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and India.", "Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness with the world's second-highest levels of biodiversity after Brazil.The Indonesian archipelago has been a valuable region for trade since at least the seventh century when the Srivijaya and later Majapahit Kingdoms traded with entities from mainland China and the Indian subcontinent.", "Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign influences from the early centuries, and Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished.", "Sunni traders and Sufi scholars later brought Islam, and European powers fought one another to monopolise trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery.", "Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World War II.", "Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratisation process, and periods of rapid economic growth.Indonesia consists of thousands of distinct native ethnic and hundreds of linguistic groups, with Javanese being the largest.", "A shared identity has developed with the motto ''\"Bhinneka Tunggal Ika\"'' (\"Unity in Diversity\" ''literally'', \"many, yet one\"), defined by a national language, cultural diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it.", "The economy of Indonesia is the world's 16th-largest by nominal GDP and the 7th-largest by PPP.", "It is the world's third-largest democracy, a regional power, and is considered a middle power in global affairs.", "The country is a member of several multilateral organisations, including the United Nations, World Trade Organization, G20, and a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, East Asia Summit, D-8, and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation." ], [ "Etymology", "The name ''Indonesia'' derives from the Greek words () and (), meaning \"Indian islands\".", "The name dates back to the 19th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia.", "In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms ''Indunesians''—and, his preference, ''Malayunesians''—for the inhabitants of the \"Indian Archipelago or Malay Archipelago\".", "In the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used ''Indonesia'' as a synonym for ''Indian Archipelago''.", "Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use ''Indonesia''.", "They preferred ''Malay Archipelago'' (); the ''Netherlands East Indies'' (), popularly ; ''the East'' (); and .After 1900, ''Indonesia'' became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.", "Adolf Bastian of the University of Berlin popularized the name through his book .", "The first native scholar to use the name was Ki Hajar Dewantara when in 1913, he established a press bureau in the Netherlands, ." ], [ "History", "=== Early history ===A Borobudur ship carved on Borobudur temple, .", "Outrigger boats from the archipelago may have made trade voyages to the east coast of Africa and Madagascar as early as the 1st century CE.Fossilised remains of ''Homo erectus'', popularly known as the \"Java Man\", suggest the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago.", "''Homo sapiens'' reached the region around 43,000 BCE.", "Austronesian peoples, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to Southeast Asia from what is now Taiwan.", "They arrived in the archipelago around 2,000 BCE and confined the native Melanesians to the far eastern regions as they spread east.Ideal agricultural conditions and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the eighth century BCE allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE.", "The archipelago's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, including with Indian kingdoms and Chinese dynasties, from several centuries BCE.", "Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.From the seventh century CE, the Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished due to trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism.", "Between the eighth and tenth centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's Borobudur and Mataram's Prambanan.", "The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada, its influence stretched over much of present-day Indonesia.", "This period is often referred to as a \"Golden Age\" in Indonesian history.The earliest evidence of Islamized populations in the archipelago dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra.", "Other parts of the archipelago gradually adopted Islam, and it was the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century.", "For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java.=== Colonial era ===Prince Diponegoro to General De Kock at the end of the Java War in 1830\|alt=The first Europeans arrived in the archipelago in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão, sought to monopolise the sources of nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in the Maluku Islands.", "Dutch and British traders followed.", "In 1602, the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power for almost 200 years.", "The VOC was dissolved in 1799 following bankruptcy, and the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalised colony.For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous.", "Dutch forces were engaged continuously in quelling rebellions on and off Java.", "The influence of local leaders such as Prince Diponegoro in central Java, Imam Bonjol in central Sumatra, Pattimura in Maluku, and the bloody thirty-year Aceh War weakened the Dutch and tied up the colonial military forces.", "Only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries.The Japanese invasion and occupation during World War II ended Dutch rule and encouraged the independence movement.", "Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta issued the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence.", "Then, Sukarno, Mohammad Hatta and Sutan Sjahrir, influential nationalist leaders, were appointed president, vice-president and prime minister respectively.The Netherlands attempted to re-establish their rule, beginning the Indonesian National Revolution which ended in December 1949 when the Dutch recognised Indonesian independence in the face of international pressure.", "Despite extraordinary political, social, and sectarian divisions, Indonesians, on the whole, found unity in their fight for independence.=== Post-World War II ===As president, Sukarno moved Indonesia from democracy towards authoritarianism and maintained power by balancing the opposing forces of the military, political Islam, and the increasingly powerful Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI).", "Tensions between the military and the PKI culminated in an attempted coup in 1965.The army, led by Major General Suharto, countered by instigating a violent anti-communist purge that killed between 500,000 and one million people and incarcerated roughly a million more in concentration camps.", "The PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed.", "Suharto capitalised on Sukarno's weakened position, and following a drawn-out power play with Sukarno, Suharto was appointed president in March 1968.His \"New Order\" administration, supported by the United States, encouraged foreign direct investment, which was a crucial factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth.Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the 1997 Asian financial crisis.", "It brought out popular discontent with the New Order's corruption and suppression of political opposition and ultimately ended Suharto's presidency.", "In 1999, East Timor seceded from Indonesia, following its 1975 invasion by Indonesia and a 25-year occupation marked by international condemnation of human rights abuses.Since 1998, democratic processes have been strengthened by enhancing regional autonomy and instituting the country's first direct presidential election in 2004.Political, economic and social instability, corruption, and instances of terrorism remained problems in the 2000s; however, the economy has performed strongly since 2007.Although relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problematic in some areas.", "A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005." ], [ "Geography", "Mount Semeru and Mount Bromo in East Java.", "Indonesia's seismic and volcanic activity is among the world's highest.Indonesia lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N and longitudes 95°E and 141°E.", "A transcontinental country spanning Southeast Asia and Oceania, it is the world's largest archipelagic state, extending from east to west and from north to south.", "The country's Coordinating Ministry for Maritime and Investments Affairs says Indonesia has 17,504 islands (with 16,056 registered at the UN) scattered over both sides of the equator, around 6,000 of which are inhabited.", "The largest are Sumatra, Java, Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), Sulawesi, and New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea).", "Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on Borneo and Sebatik, Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, East Timor on the island of Timor, and maritime borders with Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam, the Philippines, Palau, and Australia.At , Puncak Jaya is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra is the largest lake, with an area of 1,145 km2 (442 sq mi).", "Indonesia's largest rivers are in Kalimantan and New Guinea and include Kapuas, Barito, Mamberamo, Sepik and Mahakam.", "They serve as communication and transport links between the island's river settlements.=== Climate ===Rainforest in Mount Palung National Park, West KalimantanIndonesia lies along the equator, and its climate tends to be relatively even year-round.", "Indonesia has two seasons—a wet season and a dry season—with no extremes of summer or winter.", "For most of Indonesia, the dry season falls between May and October, with the wet season between November and April.", "Indonesia's climate is almost entirely tropical, dominated by the tropical rainforest climate found on every large island of Indonesia.", "More cooling climate types do exist in mountainous regions that are above sea level.", "The oceanic climate (Köppen ''Cfb'') prevails in highland areas adjacent to rainforest climates, with reasonably uniform precipitation year-round.", "In highland areas near the tropical monsoon and tropical savanna climates, the subtropical highland climate (Köppen ''Cwb'') is prevalent with a more pronounced dry season.Köppen-Geiger climate classification map of Indonesia\|alt=Some regions, such as Kalimantan and Sumatra, experience only slight differences in rainfall and temperature between the seasons, whereas others, such as Nusa Tenggara, experience far more pronounced differences with droughts in the dry season and floods in the wet.", "Rainfall varies across regions, with more in western Sumatra, Java, and the interiors of Kalimantan and Papua, and less in areas closer to Australia, such as Nusa Tenggara, which tends to be dry.", "The almost uniformly warm waters that constitute 81% of Indonesia's area ensure that land temperatures remain relatively constant.", "Humidity is quite high, at between 70 and 90%.", "Winds are moderate and generally predictable, with monsoons usually blowing in from the south and east in June through October and from the northwest in November through March.", "Typhoons and large-scale storms pose little hazard to mariners; significant dangers come from swift currents in channels, such as the Lombok and Sape straits.Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from the projected effects of climate change.", "These include unreduced emissions resulting in an average temperature rise of around by mid-century, raising the frequency of drought and food shortages (with an impact on precipitation and the patterns of wet and dry seasons, and thus Indonesia's agriculture system) as well as numerous diseases and wildfires.", "Rising sea levels would also threaten most of Indonesia's population, who live in low-lying coastal areas.", "Impoverished communities would likely be affected the most by climate change.=== Geology === Major volcanoes in Indonesia.", "Indonesia is in the Pacific Ring of Fire area.Tectonically, most of Indonesia's area is highly unstable, making it a site of numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes.", "It lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire, where the Indo-Australian Plate and the Pacific Plate are pushed under the Eurasian plate, where they melt at about deep.", "A string of volcanoes runs through Sumatra, Java, Bali and Nusa Tenggara, and then to the Banda Islands of Maluku to northeastern Sulawesi.", "Of the 400 volcanoes, around 130 are active.", "Between 1972 and 1991, there were 29 volcanic eruptions, mostly on Java.", "Volcanic ash has made agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas.", "However, it has also resulted in fertile soils, a factor in historically sustaining the high population densities of Java and Bali.A massive supervolcano erupted at present-day Lake Toba around 70,000 BCE.", "It is believed to have caused a global volcanic winter and cooling of the climate and subsequently led to a genetic bottleneck in human evolution, though this is still in debate.", "The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora and the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa were among the largest in recorded history.", "The former caused 92,000 deaths and created an umbrella of volcanic ash that spread and blanketed parts of the archipelago and made much of the Northern Hemisphere without summer in 1816.The latter produced the loudest sound in recorded history and caused 36,000 deaths due to the eruption itself and the resulting tsunamis, with significant additional effects around the world years after the event.", "Recent catastrophic disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake.=== Biodiversity and conservation ===Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography support one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity, and it is among the 17 megadiverse countries identified by Conservation International.", "Its flora and fauna are a mixture of Asian and Australasian species.", "The Sunda Shelf islands (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali) were once linked to mainland Asia and have a wealth of Asian fauna.", "Large species such as the Sumatran tiger, rhinoceros, orangutan, Asian elephant, and leopard were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically.", "Having been long separated from the continental landmasses, Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku have developed their unique flora and fauna.", "Papua was part of the Australian landmass and is home to a unique fauna and flora closely related to that of Australia, including over 600 bird species.Indonesia is second only to Australia in terms of total endemic species, with 36% of its 1,531 species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic.", "Tropical seas surround Indonesia's of coastline.", "The country has a range of sea and coastal ecosystems, including beaches, dunes, estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems.", "Indonesia is one of the Coral Triangle countries with the world's most enormous diversity of coral reef fish, with more than 1,650 species in eastern Indonesia only.British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace described a dividing line (Wallace Line) between the distribution of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species.", "It runs roughly north–south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep Lombok Strait, between Lombok and Bali.", "Flora and fauna on the west of the line are generally Asian, while east from Lombok is increasingly Australian until the tipping point at the Weber Line.", "In his 1869 book, ''The Malay Archipelago'', Wallace described numerous species unique to the area.", "The region of islands between his line and New Guinea is now termed Wallacea.Deforestation in Riau province, Sumatra, to make way for an oil palm plantation (2007)Indonesia's large and growing population and rapid industrialisation present serious environmental issues.", "They are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.", "Problems include the destruction of peatlands, large-scale illegal deforestation (causing extensive haze across parts of Southeast Asia), over-exploitation of marine resources, air pollution, garbage management, and reliable water and wastewater services.", "These issues contribute to Indonesia's low ranking (number 116 out of 180 countries) in the 2020 Environmental Performance Index.", "The report also indicates that Indonesia's performance is generally below average in both regional and global context.", "Indonesia has one of the world's fastest deforestation rates.", "In 2020, forests covered approximately 49.1% of the country's land area, down from 87% in 1950.Since the 1970s, log production, various plantations and agriculture have been responsible for much of the deforestation in Indonesia.", "Most recently, it has been driven by the palm oil industry, which has been criticised for its environmental impact and displacement of local communities.", "The situation has made Indonesia the world's largest forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases.", "It also threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species.", "The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) identified 140 species of mammals as threatened and 15 as critically endangered, including the Bali myna, Sumatran orangutan, and Javan rhinoceros.", "Some academics describe the deforestation and other environmental destruction in the country as an ecocide." ], [ "Government and politics", "Parliament Complex Jakarta, 2014\|alt=Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system.", "Following the fall of the New Order in 1998, political and governmental structures have undergone sweeping reforms, with four constitutional amendments revamping the executive, legislative and judicial branches.", "Chief among them is the delegation of power and authority to various regional entities while remaining a unitary state.", "The President of Indonesia is the head of state and head of government, commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces (''Tentara Nasional Indonesia'', TNI), and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs.", "The president may serve a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms.The highest representative body at the national level is the People's Consultative Assembly (''Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat'', MPR).", "Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating and impeaching the president, and formalising broad outlines of state policy.", "The MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative Council (''Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat'', DPR), with 575 members, and the Regional Representative Council (''Dewan Perwakilan Daerah'', DPD), with 136.The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive branch.", "Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased its role in national governance, while the DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management.Most civil disputes appear before the State Court (''Pengadilan Negeri''); appeals are heard before the High Court (''Pengadilan Tinggi'').", "The Supreme Court of Indonesia (''Mahkamah Agung'') is the highest level of the judicial branch and hears final cessation appeals and conducts case reviews.", "Other courts include the Constitutional Court (''Mahkamah Konstitusi'') which listens to constitutional and political matters, and the Religious Court (''Pengadilan Agama''), which deals with codified Islamic Personal Law (''sharia'') cases.", "Additionally, the Judicial Commission (''Komisi Yudisial'') monitors the performance of judges.=== Parties and elections ===Since 1999, Indonesia has had a multi-party system.", "In all legislative elections since the fall of the New Order, no political party has won an overall majority of seats.", "The Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P), which secured the most votes in the 2019 elections, is the party of the incumbent president, Joko Widodo.", "Other notable parties include the Party of the Functional Groups (''Golkar''), the Great Indonesia Movement Party (''Gerindra''), the Democratic Party, and the Prosperous Justice Party (PKS).The first general election was held in 1955 to elect members of the DPR and the Constitutional Assembly (''Konstituante'').", "The most recent elections in 2019 resulted in nine political parties in the DPR, with a parliamentary threshold of 4% of the national vote.", "At the national level, Indonesians did not elect a president until 2004.Since then, the president is elected for a five-year term, as are the party-aligned members of the DPR and the non-partisan DPD.", "Beginning with the 2015 local elections, elections for governors and mayors have occurred on the same date.", "In 2014, the Constitutional Court ruled that legislative and presidential elections would be held simultaneously, starting in 2019.=== Administrative divisions ===Indonesia has several levels of subdivisions.", "The first level are the provinces, which have a legislature (''Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah'', DPRD) and an elected governor.", "A total of 38 provinces have been established from the original eight in 1945, with the most recent change being the split of Southwest Papua from the province of West Papua in 2022.The second level are the regencies (''kabupaten'') and cities (''kota''), led by regents (''bupati'') and mayors (''walikota'') respectively and a legislature (''DPRD Kabupaten/Kota'').", "The third level are the districts (''kecamatan'', ''distrik'' in Papua, or ''kapanewon'' and ''kemantren'' in Yogyakarta), and the fourth are the villages (either ''desa'', ''kelurahan'', ''kampung'', ''nagari'' in West Sumatra, or ''gampong'' in Aceh).The village is the lowest level of government administration.", "It is divided into several community groups (''rukun warga'', RW), which are further divided into neighbourhood groups (''rukun tetangga'', RT).", "In Java, the village (''desa'') is divided into smaller units called ''dusun'' or ''dukuh'' (hamlets), which are the same as RW.", "Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, regencies and cities have become chief administrative units responsible for providing most government services.", "The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life and handles village or neighbourhood matters through an elected village head (''lurah'' or ''kepala desa'').Nine provinces—Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua, Central Papua, Highland Papua, South Papua, Southwest Papua and West Papua—are granted a special autonomous status (''otonomi khusus'') from the central government.", "Aceh, a conservative Islamic territory, has the right to create some aspects of an independent legal system implementing ''sharia''.", "Jakarta is the only city with a provincial government due to its position as the capital of Indonesia.", "Yogyakarta is the only pre-colonial monarchy legally recognised within Indonesia, with the positions of governor and vice governor being prioritised for the reigning Sultan of Yogyakarta and Duke of Pakualaman, respectively.", "The six Papuan provinces are the only ones where the indigenous people have privileges in their local government.=== Foreign relations ===Indonesia serves as the seat of ASEAN Headquarters and capital city Jakarta serves as the organization's diplomatic capital.Indonesia maintains 132 diplomatic missions abroad, including 95 embassies.", "The country adheres to what it calls a \"free and active\" foreign policy, seeking a role in regional affairs in proportion to its size and location but avoiding involvement in conflicts among other countries.Indonesia was a significant battleground during the Cold War.", "Numerous attempts by the United States and the Soviet Union, and China to some degree, culminated in the 1965 coup attempt and subsequent upheaval that led to a reorientation of foreign policy.", "Quiet alignment with the Western world while maintaining a non-aligned stance has characterised Indonesia's foreign policy since then.", "Today, it maintains close relations with its neighbours and is a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the East Asia Summit.", "In common with most of the Muslim world, Indonesia does not have diplomatic relations with Israel and has actively supported Palestine.", "However, observers have pointed out that Indonesia has ties with Israel, albeit discreetly.Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950 and was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC).", "Indonesia is a signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the Cairns Group, the World Trade Organization (WTO), and a former member of OPEC.", "Indonesia has been a humanitarian and development aid recipient since 1967, and recently, the country established its first overseas aid programme in late 2019.=== Military ===Indonesia's Armed Forces (TNI) include the Army (TNI–AD), Navy (TNI–AL, which includes Marine Corps), and Air Force (TNI–AU).", "The army has about 400,000 active-duty personnel.", "Defence spending in the national budget was 0.7% of GDP in 2018, with controversial involvement of military-owned commercial interests and foundations.", "The Armed Forces were formed during the Indonesian National Revolution when it undertook guerrilla warfare along with informal militia.", "Since then, territorial lines have formed the basis of all TNI branches' structure, aimed at maintaining domestic stability and deterring foreign threats.", "The military has possessed a strong political influence since its founding, which peaked during the New Order.", "Political reforms in 1998 included the removal of the TNI's formal representation from the legislature.", "Nevertheless, its political influence remains, albeit at a reduced level.Since independence, the country has struggled to maintain unity against local insurgencies and separatist movements.", "Some, notably in Aceh and Papua, have led to an armed conflict and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides.", "The former was resolved peacefully in 2005, while the latter has continued amid a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws and a reported decline in the levels of violence and human rights abuses as of 2006.Other engagements of the army include the conflict against the Netherlands over the Dutch New Guinea, the opposition to the British-sponsored creation of Malaysia (\"Konfrontasi\"), the mass killings of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), and the invasion of East Timor, which remains Indonesia's most massive military operation." ], [ "Economy", "Vast palm oil plantation in Bogor Regency, West Java.", "Indonesia is the world's largest producer of palm oil.Indonesia has a mixed economy in which the private sector and government play vital roles.", "As the only G20 member state in Southeast Asia, the country has the largest economy in the region and is classified as a newly industrialised country.", "Per a 2023 estimate, it is the world's 16th largest economy by nominal GDP and 7th in terms of GDP at PPP, estimated to be and , respectively.", "Per capita GDP in PPP is , while nominal per capita GDP is .", "Services are the economy's largest sector and account for 43.4% of GDP (2018), followed by industry (39.7%) and agriculture (12.8%).", "Since 2009, it has employed more people than other sectors, accounting for 47.7% of the total labour force, followed by agriculture (30.2%) and industry (21.9%).Over time, the structure of the economy has changed considerably.", "Historically, it has been weighted heavily towards agriculture, reflecting both its stage of economic development and government policies in the 1950s and 1960s to promote agricultural self-sufficiency.", "A gradual process of industrialisation and urbanisation began in the late 1960s and accelerated in the 1980s as falling oil prices saw the government focus on diversifying away from oil exports and towards manufactured exports.", "This development continued throughout the 1980s and into the next decade despite the 1990 oil price shock, during which the GDP rose at an average rate of 7.1%.", "As a result, the official poverty rate fell from 60% to 15%.", "Trade barriers reduction from the mid-1980s made the economy more globally integrated.", "The growth ended with the 1997 Asian financial crisis that severely impacted the economy, including a 13.1% real GDP contraction in 1998 and a 78% inflation.", "The economy reached its low point in mid-1999 with only 0.8% real GDP growth.Relatively steady inflation and an increase in GDP deflator and the Consumer Price Index have contributed to strong economic growth in recent years.", "From 2007 to 2019, annual growth accelerated to between 4% and 6% due to improvements in the banking sector and domestic consumption, helping Indonesia weather the 2008–2009 Great Recession, and regain in 2011 the investment grade rating it had lost in 1997., 9.41% of the population lived below the poverty line, and the official open unemployment rate was 5.28%.", "During the first year of the global COVID-19 pandemic, the economy suffered its first recession since the 1997 crisis but recovered in the following year.Indonesia has abundant natural resources.", "Its primary industries are fishing, petroleum, timber, paper products, cotton cloth, tourism, petroleum mining, natural gas, bauxite, coal and tin.", "Its main agricultural products are rice, coconuts, soybeans, bananas, coffee, tea, palm, rubber, and sugar cane.", "These commodities make up a large portion of the country's exports, with palm oil and coal briquettes as the leading export commodities.", "In addition to refined and crude petroleum as the primary imports, telephones, vehicle parts and wheat cover the majority of additional imports.", "China, the United States, Japan, Singapore, India, Malaysia, South Korea and Thailand are Indonesia's principal export markets and import partners.=== Transport ===Indonesia's transport system has been shaped over time by the economic resource base of an archipelago and the distribution of its 275 million people highly concentrated on Java.", "All transport modes play a role in the country's transport system and are generally complementary rather than competitive.", "In 2016, the transport sector generated about 5.2% of GDP.The road transport system is predominant, with a total length of .", "Jakarta has the most extended bus rapid transit system globally, boasting in 13 corridors and ten cross-corridor routes.", "Rickshaws such as ''bajaj'' and ''becak'' and share taxis such as ''Angkot'' and ''Minibus'' are a regular sight in the country.Most railways are in Java, and partly Sumatra and Sulawesi, used for freight and passenger transport, such as local commuter rail services (mainly in Greater Jakarta and Yogyakarta–Solo) complementing the inter-city rail network in several cities.", "In the late 2010s, Jakarta and Palembang were the first cities in Indonesia to have rapid transit systems, with more planned for other cities in the future.", "In 2023, a high-speed rail connecting the cities of Jakarta and Bandung commenced operations, a first for Southeast Asia and the Southern Hemisphere.Indonesia's largest airport, Soekarno–Hatta International Airport, is among the busiest in the Southern Hemisphere, serving 54 million passengers in 2019.Ngurah Rai International Airport and Juanda International Airport are the country's second-and third-busiest airport, respectively.", "Garuda Indonesia, the country's flag carrier since 1949, is one of the world's leading airlines and a member of the global airline alliance SkyTeam.", "The Port of Tanjung Priok is the busiest and most advanced Indonesian port, handling more than 50% of Indonesia's trans-shipment cargo traffic.=== Energy ===Sidrap wind farm, Indonesia's first wind power plant, in Sidrap Regency, South SulawesiIn 2019, Indonesia produced and consumed worth of energy.", "The country has substantial energy resources, including of conventional oil and gas reserves (of which about 4 billion barrels are recoverable), 8 billion barrels of oil-equivalent of coal-based methane (CBM) resources, and 28 billion tonnes of recoverable coal.In late 2020, Indonesia's total national installed power generation capacity stands at 72,750.72 MW.", "Although reliance on domestic coal and imported oil has increased between 2010 and 2019, Indonesia has seen progress in renewable energy, with hydropower and geothermal being the most abundant sources that account for more than 8% in the country's energy mix.", "A prime example of the former is the country's largest dam, Jatiluhur, which has an installed capacity of 186.5 MW that feeds into the Java grid managed by the State Electricity Company (''Perusahaan Listrik Negara'', PLN).", "Furthermore, Indonesia has the potential for solar, wind, biomass and ocean energy, although as of 2021, power generation from these sources remain small.=== Science and technology ===alt=Government expenditure on research and development is relatively low (0.3% of GDP in 2019), and Indonesia only ranked 61st on the 2023 Global Innovation Index report up from 87th in 2021.Historical examples of scientific and technological developments include the paddy cultivation technique ''terasering'', which is common in Southeast Asia, and the pinisi boats by the Bugis and Makassar people.", "In the 1980s, Indonesian engineer Tjokorda Raka Sukawati invented a road construction technique named Sosrobahu that later became widely used in several countries.", "The country is also an active producer of passenger trains and freight wagons with its state-owned company, the Indonesian Railway Industry (INKA), and has exported trains abroad.Indonesia has a long history of developing military and small commuter aircraft.", "It is the only country in Southeast Asia to build and produce aircraft.", "The state-owned Indonesian Aerospace company (''PT.", "Dirgantara Indonesia'') has provided components for Boeing and Airbus.", "The company also collaborated with EADS CASA of Spain to develop the CN-235, which has been used by several countries.", "Former President B. J. Habibie played a vital role in this achievement.", "Indonesia has also joined the South Korean programme to manufacture the 4.5-generation fighter jet KAI KF-21 Boramae.Indonesia has a space programme and space agency, the National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (''Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional'', LAPAN).", "In the 1970s, Indonesia became the first developing country to operate a satellite system called Palapa, a series of communication satellites owned by Indosat.", "The first satellite, PALAPA A1, was launched on 8 July 1976 from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, United States.", ", Indonesia has launched 18 satellites for various purposes.=== Tourism ===Borobudur in Central Java, the world's largest Buddhist temple, is the single most visited tourist attraction in Indonesia.Tourism contributed around to GDP in 2020, and in the previous year, Indonesia received 15.4 million visitors.", "Overall, China, Singapore, Malaysia, Australia, and Japan are the top five sources of visitors to Indonesia.", "Since 2011, ''Wonderful Indonesia'' has been the country's international marketing campaign slogan to promote tourism.Raja Ampat Islands, West Papua, has the highest recorded level of diversity in marine life, according to Conservation International.Nature and culture are prime attractions of Indonesian tourism.", "The country has a well-preserved natural ecosystem with rainforests stretching over about 57% of Indonesia's land (225 million acres).", "Forests on Sumatra and Kalimantan are examples of popular destinations, such as the Orangutan wildlife reserve.", "Moreover, Indonesia has one of the world's longest coastlines, measuring .", "The ancient Borobudur and Prambanan temples, as well as Toraja and Bali with their traditional festivities, are some of the popular destinations for cultural tourism.Indonesia has ten UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the Komodo National Park and the Cosmological Axis of Yogyakarta and its Historic Landmarks; and a further 18 in a tentative list that includes Bunaken National Park and Raja Ampat Islands.", "Other attractions include specific points in Indonesian history, such as the colonial heritage of the Dutch East Indies in the old towns of Jakarta and Semarang and the royal palaces of Pagaruyung and Ubud." ], [ "Demographics", "Indonesia's ten metropolitan areas labeled with their populationsThe 2020 census recorded Indonesia's population as 270.2 million, the fourth largest in the world, with a moderately high population growth rate of 1.25%.", "Java is the world's most populous island, where 56% of the country's population lives.", "The population density is 141 people per km2 (365 per sq mi), ranking 88th in the world, although Java has a population density of 1,067 people per km2 (2,435 per sq mi).", "In 1961, the first post-colonial census recorded a total of 97 million people.", "It is expected to grow to around 295 million by 2030 and 321 million by 2050.The country currently possesses a relatively young population, with a median age of 30.2 years (2017 estimate).The spread of the population is uneven throughout the archipelago, with a varying habitats and levels of development, ranging from the megacity of Jakarta to uncontacted tribes in Papua.", "As of 2017, about 54.7% of the population lives in urban areas.", "Jakarta is the country's primate city and the second-most populous urban area globally, with over 34 million residents.", "About 8 million Indonesians live overseas; most settled in Malaysia, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, South Africa, Singapore, Hong Kong, the United States, and Australia.=== Ethnic groups and languages ===alt=Indonesia is an ethnically diverse country, with around 1,300 distinct native ethnic groups.", "Most Indonesians are descended from Austronesian peoples whose languages had origins in Proto-Austronesian, which possibly originated in what is now Taiwan.", "Another major grouping is the Melanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia (the Maluku Islands, Western New Guinea and the eastern part of the Lesser Sunda Islands).The Javanese are the largest ethnic group, constituting 40.2% of the population, and are politically dominant.", "They are predominantly located in the central to eastern parts of Java and also in sizeable numbers in most provinces.", "The Sundanese are the next largest group (15.4%), followed by Batak, Madurese, Betawi, Minangkabau, Bugis and Malay people.", "A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.The country's official language is Indonesian, a variant of Malay based on its prestige dialect, which had been the archipelago's ''lingua franca'' for centuries.", "It was promoted by nationalists in the 1920s and achieved official status in 1945 under the name ''Bahasa Indonesia''.", "Due to centuries-long contact with other languages, it is rich in local and foreign influences.", "Nearly every Indonesian speaks the language due to its widespread use in education, academics, communications, business, politics, and mass media.", "Most Indonesians also speak at least one of more than 700 local languages, often as their first language.", "Most belong to the Austronesian language family, while over 270 Papuan languages are spoken in eastern Indonesia.", "Of these, Javanese is the most widely spoken and has co-official status in the Special Region of Yogyakarta.In 1930, Dutch and other Europeans (''Totok''), Eurasians, and derivative people like the Indos, numbered 240,000 or 0.4% of the total population.", "Historically, they constituted only a tiny fraction of the native population and remain so today.", "Also, the Dutch language never had a substantial number of speakers or official status despite the Dutch presence for almost 350 years.", "The small minorities that can speak it or Dutch-based creole languages fluently are the aforementioned ethnic groups and descendants of Dutch colonisers.", "This reflected the Dutch colonial empire's primary purpose, which was commercial exchange as opposed to sovereignty over homogeneous landmasses.", "Today, there is some degree of fluency by either educated members of the oldest generation or legal professionals, as specific law codes are still only available in Dutch.=== Religion ===Despite guaranteeing religious freedom in the constitution, the government officially recognises only six religions: Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism, with indigenous religions only partly acknowledged.", "With 231 million adherents (86.7%) in 2018, Indonesia is the world's most populous Muslim-majority country, with Sunnis being the majority (99%).", "The Shias and Ahmadis, respectively, constitute 1% (1–3 million) and 0.2% (200,000–400,000) of Muslims.", "About 10% of Indonesians are Christians, who form the majority in several provinces in eastern Indonesia.", "Most Hindus are Balinese, and most Buddhists are Chinese Indonesians.A Hindu prayer ceremony at Besakih Temple in Bali, the only Indonesian province where Hinduism is the predominant religionThe natives of the Indonesian archipelago originally practised indigenous animism and dynamism, beliefs that are common to Austronesian peoples.", "They worshipped and revered ancestral spirits and believed that supernatural spirits (''hyang'') might inhabit certain places such as large trees, stones, forests, mountains, or sacred sites.", "Examples of Indonesian native belief systems include the Sundanese Sunda Wiwitan, Dayak's Kaharingan, and the Javanese Kejawèn.", "They have significantly impacted how other faiths are practised, evidenced by a large proportion of people—such as the Javanese abangan, Balinese Hindus, and Dayak Christians—practising a less orthodox, syncretic form of their religion.Hindu influences reached the archipelago as early as the first century CE.", "The Sundanese Kingdom of Salakanagara in western Java around 130 was the first historically recorded Indianised kingdom in the archipelago.", "Buddhism arrived around the 6th century, and its history in Indonesia is closely related to that of Hinduism, as some empires based on Buddhism had their roots around the same period.", "The archipelago has witnessed the rise and fall of powerful and influential Hindu and Buddhist empires such as Majapahit, Sailendra, Srivijaya, and Mataram.", "Though no longer a majority, Hinduism and Buddhism remain to have a substantial influence on Indonesian culture.Baiturrahman Grand Mosque in Banda Aceh, Aceh.", "The spread of Islam in Indonesia began in the region.Islam was introduced by Sunni traders of the Shafi'i school as well as Sufi traders from the Indian subcontinent and southern Arabia as early as the 8th century CE.", "For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, resulting in a distinct form of Islam (''santri'').", "Trade, Islamic missionary activity such as by the Wali Sanga and Chinese explorer Zheng He, and military campaigns by several sultanates helped accelerate the spread of Islam.", "By the end of the 16th century, it had supplanted Hinduism and Buddhism as the dominant religion of Java and Sumatra.Catholic Mass at the Jakarta Cathedral\|alt=Catholicism was brought by Portuguese traders and missionaries such as Jesuit Francis Xavier, who visited and baptised several thousand locals.", "Its spread faced difficulty due to the Dutch East India Company policy of banning the religion and the Dutch hostility due to the Eighty Years' War against Catholic Spain's rule.", "Protestantism is mostly a result of Calvinist and Lutheran missionary efforts during the Dutch colonial era.", "Although they are the most common branch, there is a multitude of other denominations elsewhere in the country.There was a small Jewish presence in the archipelago until 1945, mostly Dutch and some Baghdadi Jews.", "Since most left after Indonesia proclaimed independence, Judaism was never accorded official status, and only a tiny number of Jews remain today, mostly in Jakarta and Surabaya.At the national and local level, Indonesia's political leadership and civil society groups have played a crucial role in interfaith relations, both positively and negatively.", "The invocation of the first principle of Indonesia's philosophical foundation, Pancasila (i.e.", "the belief in the one and only God), often serves as a reminder of religious tolerance, though instances of intolerance have occurred.", "An overwhelming majority of Indonesians consider religion to be essential and an integral part of life.=== Education and healthcare ===alt=Education is compulsory for 12 years.", "Parents can choose between state-run, non-sectarian schools or private or semi-private religious (usually Islamic) schools, supervised by the ministries of Education and Religion, respectively.", "Private international schools that do not follow the national curriculum are also available.", "The enrolment rate is 93% for primary education, 79% for secondary education, and 36% for tertiary education (2018).", "The literacy rate is 96% (2018), and the government spends about 3.6% of GDP (2015) on education.", "In 2018, there were 4,670 higher educational institutions in Indonesia, with most (74%) located in Sumatra and Java.", "According to the QS World University Rankings, Indonesia's top universities are the University of Indonesia, Gadjah Mada University and the Bandung Institute of Technology.Government expenditure on healthcare was about 3.3% of GDP in 2016.As part of an attempt to achieve universal health care, the government launched the National Health Insurance (''Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional'', JKN) in 2014.It includes coverage for a range of services from the public and also private firms that have opted to join the scheme.", "Despite remarkable improvements in recent decades, such as rising life expectancy (from 62.3 years in 1990 to 71.7 years in 2019) and declining child mortality (from 84 deaths per 1,000 births in 1990 to 23.9 deaths in 2019), challenges remain, including maternal and child health, low air quality, malnutrition, high rate of smoking, and infectious diseases.=== Issues ===Riots on the streets of Jakarta on 14 May 1998In the economic sphere, there is a gap in wealth, unemployment rate, and health between densely populated islands and economic centres (such as Sumatra and Java) and sparsely populated, disadvantaged areas (such as Maluku and Papua).", "This is created by a situation in which nearly 80% of Indonesia's population lives in the western parts of the archipelago and yet grows slower than the rest of the country.In the social arena, numerous cases of racism and discrimination, especially against Chinese Indonesians and Papuans, have been well documented throughout Indonesia's history.", "Such cases have sometimes led to violent conflicts, most notably the May 1998 riots and the Papua conflict, which has continued since 1962.LGBT people also regularly face challenges.", "Although LGBT issues have been relatively obscure, the 2010s (especially after 2016) has seen a rapid surge of anti-LGBT rhetoric, putting LGBT Indonesians into a frequent subject of intimidation, discrimination, and even violence.", "In addition, Indonesia has been reported to have sizeable numbers of child and forced labourers, with the former being prevalent in the palm oil and tobacco industries, while the latter in the fishing industry." ], [ "Culture", " The cultural history of the Indonesian archipelago spans more than two millennia.", "Influences from the Indian subcontinent, mainland China, the Middle East, Europe, Melanesian and Austronesian peoples have historically shaped the cultural, linguistic and religious makeup of the archipelago.", "As a result, modern-day Indonesia has a multicultural, multilingual and multi-ethnic society, with a complex cultural mixture that differs significantly from the original indigenous cultures.", "Indonesia currently holds thirteen items of UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage, including a wayang puppet theatre, kris, batik, pencak silat, angklung, gamelan, and the three genres of traditional Balinese dance.=== Art and architecture ===Indonesian arts include both age-old art forms developed through centuries and recently developed contemporary art.", "Despite often displaying local ingenuity, Indonesian arts have absorbed foreign influences—most notably from India, the Arab world, China and Europe, due to contacts and interactions facilitated, and often motivated by trade.", "Painting is an established and developed art in Bali, where its people are famed for their artistry.", "Their painting tradition started as classical Kamasan or Wayang style visual narrative, derived from visual art discovered on ''candi'' bas reliefs in eastern Java.There have been numerous discoveries of megalithic sculptures in Indonesia.", "Subsequently, tribal art has flourished within the culture of Nias, Batak, Asmat, Dayak and Toraja.", "Wood and stone are common materials used as the media for sculpting among these tribes.", "Between the 8th and 15th centuries, the Javanese civilisation developed refined stone sculpting art and architecture influenced by the Hindu-Buddhist Dharmic civilisation.", "The temples of Borobudur and Prambanan are among the most famous examples of the practice.As with the arts, Indonesian architecture has absorbed foreign influences that have brought cultural changes and profound effects on building styles and techniques.", "The most dominant has traditionally been Indian; however, Chinese, Arab, and European influences have also been significant.", "Traditional carpentry, masonry, stone and woodwork techniques and decorations have thrived in vernacular architecture, with numbers of traditional houses' (''rumah adat'') styles that have been developed.", "The traditional houses and settlements vary by ethnic group, and each has a specific custom and history.", "Examples include Toraja's Tongkonan, Minangkabau's Rumah Gadang and Rangkiang, Javanese style Pendopo pavilion with Joglo style roof, Dayak's longhouses, various Malay houses, Balinese houses and temples, and also different forms of rice barns (''lumbung'').=== Music, dance and clothing ===The music of Indonesia predates historical records.", "Various indigenous tribes incorporate chants and songs accompanied by musical instruments in their rituals.", "Angklung, kacapi suling, gong, gamelan, talempong, kulintang, and sasando are examples of traditional Indonesian instruments.", "The diverse world of Indonesian music genres results from the musical creativity of its people and subsequent cultural encounters with foreign influences.", "These include gambus and qasida from the Middle East, keroncong from Portugal, and dangdut—one of Indonesia's most popular music genres—with notable Hindi influence as well as Malay orchestras.", "Today, the Indonesian music industry enjoys both nationwide and regional popularity in Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei, due to the common culture and mutual intelligibility between Indonesian and Malay.wikkelrok with batik geometric patternIndonesian dances have a diverse history, with more than 3,000 original dances.", "Scholars believe that they had their beginning in rituals and religious worship.", "Examples include war dances, a dance of witch doctors, and a dance to call for rain or any agricultural rituals such as Hudoq.", "Indonesian dances derive their influences from the archipelago's prehistoric and tribal, Hindu-Buddhist, and Islamic periods.", "Recently, modern dances and urban teen dances have gained popularity due to the influence of Western culture and those of Japan and South Korea to some extent.", "However, various traditional dances, including those of Java, Bali and Dayak, remain a living and dynamic tradition.Indonesia has various clothing styles due to its long and rich cultural history.", "The national costume originates from the country's indigenous culture and traditional textile traditions.", "The Javanese Batik and Kebaya are arguably Indonesia's most recognised national costumes, though they have Sundanese and Balinese origins as well.", "Each province has a representation of traditional attire and dress, such as Ulos of Batak from North Sumatra; Songket of Malay and Minangkabau from Sumatra; and Ikat of Sasak from Lombok.", "People wear national and regional costumes during traditional weddings, formal ceremonies, music performances, government and official occasions, and they vary from traditional to modern attire.=== Theatre and cinema ===Pandavas and Krishna in an act of the ''Wayang Wong'' performance\|alt=Wayang, the Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese shadow puppet theatre displays several legends from Hindu mythology such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.", "Other forms of local drama include the Javanese Ludruk and Ketoprak, the Sundanese Sandiwara, Betawi Lenong, and various Balinese dance dramas.", "They incorporate humour and jest and often involve audiences in their performances.", "Some theatre traditions also include music, dancing and silat martial art, such as Randai from the Minangkabau people of West Sumatra.", "It is usually performed for traditional ceremonies and festivals and based on semi-historical Minangkabau legends and love story.", "Modern performing art also developed in Indonesia with its distinct style of drama.", "Notable theatre, dance, and drama troupe such as ''Teater Koma'' are famous as it often portrays social and political satire of Indonesian society.Advertisement for ''Loetoeng Kasaroeng'' (1926), the first fiction film produced in the Dutch East IndiesThe first film produced in the archipelago was ''Loetoeng Kasaroeng'', a silent film by Dutch director L. Heuveldorp.", "The film industry expanded after independence, with six films made in 1949 rising to 58 in 1955.Usmar Ismail, who made significant imprints in the 1950s and 1960s, is generally considered the pioneer of Indonesian films.", "The latter part of the Sukarno era saw the use of cinema for nationalistic, anti-Western purposes, and foreign films were subsequently banned, while the New Order utilised a censorship code that aimed to maintain social order.", "Production of films peaked during the 1980s, although it declined significantly in the next decade.", "Notable films in this period include ''Pengabdi Setan'' (1980), ''Nagabonar'' (1987), ''Tjoet Nja' Dhien'' (1988), ''Catatan Si Boy'' (1989), and Warkop's comedy films.Independent film making was a rebirth of the film industry since 1998, when films started addressing previously banned topics, such as religion, race, and love.", "Between 2000 and 2005, the number of films released each year steadily increased.", "Riri Riza and Mira Lesmana were among the new generation of filmmakers who co-directed ''Kuldesak'' (1999), ''Petualangan Sherina'' (2000), ''Ada Apa dengan Cinta?''", "(2002), and ''Laskar Pelangi'' (2008).", "In 2022, ''KKN di Desa Penari'' smashed box office records, becoming the most-watched Indonesian film with 9.2 million tickets sold.", "Indonesia has held annual film festivals and awards, including the Indonesian Film Festival (''Festival Film Indonesia'') held intermittently since 1955.It hands out the Citra Award, the film industry's most prestigious award.", "From 1973 to 1992, the festival was held annually and then discontinued until its revival in 2004.=== Mass media and literature ===Metro TV at Gelora Bung Karno Stadium, reporting the 2010 AFF ChampionshipMedia freedom increased considerably after the fall of the New Order, during which the Ministry of Information monitored and controlled domestic media and restricted foreign media.", "The television market includes several national commercial networks and provincial networks that compete with public TVRI, which held a monopoly on TV broadcasting from 1962 to 1989.By the early 21st century, the improved communications system had brought television signals to every village, and people can choose from up to 11 channels.", "Private radio stations carry news bulletins while foreign broadcasters supply programmes.", "The number of printed publications has increased significantly since 1998.Like other developing countries, Indonesia began developing Internet in the early 1990s.", "Its first commercial Internet service provider, PT.", "Indo Internet began operation in Jakarta in 1994.The country had 171 million Internet users in 2018, with a penetration rate that keeps increasing annually.", "Most are between the ages of 15 and 19 and depend primarily on mobile phones for access, outnumbering laptops and computers.Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Indonesia's most famous novelist.", "Many considered him to be Southeast Asia's leading candidate for a Nobel Prize in Literature.", "The oldest evidence of writing in the Indonesian archipelago is a series of Sanskrit inscriptions dated to the 5th century.", "Many of Indonesia's peoples have firmly rooted oral traditions, which help define and preserve their cultural identities.", "In written poetry and prose, several traditional forms dominate, mainly syair, pantun, gurindam, hikayat and babad.", "Examples of these forms include ''Syair Abdul Muluk'', ''Hikayat Hang Tuah'', ''Sulalatus Salatin'', and ''Babad Tanah Jawi''.Early modern Indonesian literature originates in the Sumatran tradition.", "Literature and poetry flourished during the decades leading up to and after independence.", "Balai Pustaka, the government bureau for popular literature, was instituted in 1917 to promote the development of indigenous literature.", "Many scholars consider the 1950s and 1960s to be the Golden Age of Indonesian Literature.", "The style and characteristics of modern Indonesian literature vary according to the dynamics of the country's political and social landscape, most notably the war of independence in the second half of the 1940s and the anti-communist mass killings in the mid-1960s.", "Notable literary figures of the modern era include Hamka, Chairil Anwar, Mohammad Yamin, Merari Siregar, Marah Roesli, Pramoedya Ananta Toer, and Ayu Utami.=== Cuisine ===''Nasi Padang'' with ''rendang'', ''gulai'' and vegetables\|alt=Indonesian cuisine is one of the world's most diverse, vibrant, and colourful, full of intense flavour.", "Many regional cuisines exist, often based upon indigenous culture and foreign influences such as Chinese, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents.", "Rice is the leading staple food and is served with side dishes of meat and vegetables.", "Spices (notably chilli), coconut milk, fish and chicken are fundamental ingredients.Some popular dishes such as ''nasi goreng'', ''gado-gado'', ''sate'', and ''soto'' are ubiquitous and considered national dishes.", "The Ministry of Tourism, however, chose ''tumpeng'' as the official national dish in 2014, describing it as binding the diversity of various culinary traditions.", "Other popular dishes include ''rendang'', one of the many Minangkabau cuisines along with ''dendeng'' and ''gulai''.", "Another fermented food is ''oncom'', similar in some ways to ''tempeh'' but uses a variety of bases (not only soy), created by different fungi, and is prevalent in West Java.=== Sports ===A demonstration of ''Pencak Silat'', a form of martial artsBadminton and football are the most popular sports in Indonesia.", "Indonesia is among the few countries that have won the Thomas and Uber Cup, the world team championship of men's and women's badminton.", "Along with weightlifting, it is the sport that contributes the most to Indonesia's Olympic medal tally.", "Liga 1 is the country's premier football club league.", "On the international stage, Indonesia was the first Asian team to participate in the FIFA World Cup in 1938 as the Dutch East Indies.", "On a regional level, Indonesia won a bronze medal at the 1958 Asian Games as well as three gold medals at the 1987, 1991 and 2023 Southeast Asian Games (SEA Games).", "Indonesia's first appearance at the AFC Asian Cup was in 1996 and successfully qualified for a total of five tournaments.Other popular sports include boxing and basketball, which has a long history in Indonesia and was part of the first National Games (''Pekan Olahraga Nasional'', PON) in 1948.", "''Sepak takraw'' and ''karapan sapi'' (bull racing) in Madura are some examples of Indonesia's traditional sports.", "In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as ''caci'' in Flores and ''pasola'' in Sumba.", "''Pencak Silat'' is an Indonesian martial art and, in 2018, became one of the sporting events in the Asian Games, with Indonesia appearing as one of the leading competitors.", "In Southeast Asia, Indonesia is one of the top sports powerhouses by topping the SEA Games medal table ten times since 1977, most recently in 2011." ], [ "See also", "* List of Indonesia-related topics* Index of Indonesia-related articles* Outline of Indonesia" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Winters, Jeffrey A.", "\"Oligarchy and democracy in Indonesia.\"", "in ''Beyond Oligarchy'' (Cornell UP, 2014) pp.", "11–34.online " ], [ "External links", " Indonesia.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Indonesia from BBC News* Key Development Forecasts for Indonesia from International Futures===Government===* Minister of The State Secretary * Statistics Indonesia* Chief of State and Cabinet Members ===General===* Indonesia ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''* * Indonesia ''Encyclopædia Britannica''* * * Official site of Indonesian Tourism" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Indian Ocean" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Indian Ocean''' is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or ~20% of the water on Earth's surface.", "It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east.", "To the south it is bounded by the Southern Ocean, or Antarctica, depending on the definition in use.", "Along its core, the Indian Ocean has large marginal, or regional seas, such as the Arabian Sea, Laccadive Sea, Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea.It is named after India, which projects into it, and been known by its current name since at least 1515.Previously, it was called the Eastern Ocean.", "It has an average depth of 3,741 m. All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere.", "Unlike the Atlantic and Pacific, the Indian Ocean is bordered by landmasses and an archipelago on three sides, making it more like an embayed ocean centered on the Indian Peninsula.", "Its coasts and shelves differ from other oceans, with distinct features, such as a narrower continental shelf.", "In terms of geology, the Indian Ocean is the youngest of the major oceans, with active spreading ridges and features like seamounts and ridges formed by hotspots.The climate of the Indian Ocean is characterized by monsoons.", "It is the warmest ocean, with a significant impact on global climate due to its interaction with the atmosphere.", "Its waters are affected by the Indian Ocean Walker circulation, resulting in unique oceanic currents and upwelling patterns.", "The Indian Ocean is ecologically diverse, with important marine life and ecosystems like coral reefs, mangroves, and sea grass beds.", "It hosts a significant portion of the world's tuna catch and is home to endangered marine species.", "It faces challenges like overfishing and pollution, including a significant garbage patch.Historically, the Indian Ocean has been a hub of cultural and commercial exchange since ancient times.", "It played a key role in early human migrations and the spread of civilizations.", "In modern times, it remains crucial for global trade, especially in oil and hydrocarbons.", "Environmental and geopolitical concerns in the region include the effects of climate change, piracy, and strategic disputes over island territories." ], [ "Etymology", "The Indian Ocean has been known by its present name since at least 1515, when the Latin form ''Oceanus Orientalis Indicus'' (\"Indian Eastern Ocean\") is attested, named after India, which projects into it.", "It was earlier known as the ''Eastern Ocean'', a term that was still in use during the mid-18th century, as opposed to the ''Western Ocean'' (Atlantic) before the Pacific was surmised.The Hindi name for the Ocean is (; ).Conversely, Chinese explorers (e.g., Zheng He during the Ming dynasty) who traveled to the Indian Ocean during the 15th century called it the Western Oceans.", "In Ancient Greek geography, the Indian Ocean region known to the Greeks was called the Erythraean Sea." ], [ "Geography", "===Extent and data===The borders of the Indian Ocean, as delineated by the International Hydrographic Organization in 1953 included the Southern Ocean but not the marginal seas along the northern rim but in 2002 the IHO delimited the Southern Ocean separately, which removed waters south of 60°s from the Indian Ocean but included the northern marginal seas.", "Meridionally, the Indian Ocean is delimited from the Atlantic Ocean by the 20° east meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas, South Africa, and from the Pacific Ocean by the meridian of 146°49'E, running south from South East Cape on the island of Tasmania in Australia.", "The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean (including marginal seas) is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf.The Indian Ocean covers , including the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf but excluding the Southern Ocean, or 19.5% of the world's oceans; its volume is or 19.8% of the world's oceans' volume; it has an average depth of and a maximum depth of .All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere and the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere, the 90th meridian east, passes through the Ninety East Ridge.===Coasts and shelves===In contrast to the Atlantic and Pacific, the Indian Ocean is enclosed by major landmasses and an archipelago on three sides and does not stretch from pole to pole, and can be likened to an embayed ocean.", "It is centered on the Indian Peninsula.", "Although this subcontinent has played a significant role in its history, the Indian Ocean has foremostly been a cosmopolitan stage, interlinking diverse regions by innovations, trade, and religion since early in human history.The active margins of the Indian Ocean have an average width (horizontal distance from land to shelf break) of with a maximum width of .", "The passive margins have an average width of .The average width of the slopes (horizontal distance from shelf break to foot of slope) of the continental shelves are for active and passive margins respectively, with a maximum width of .In correspondence of the Shelf break, also known as Hinge zone, the Bouguer gravity ranges from 0 to 30 mGals that is unusual for a continental region of around 16 km thick sediments.", "It has been hypothesized that the \"Hinge zone may represent the relict of continental and proto-oceanic crustal boundary formed during the rifting of India from Antarctica.", "\"Australia, Indonesia, and India are the three countries with the longest shorelines and exclusive economic zones.", "The continental shelf makes up 15% of the Indian Ocean.More than two billion people live in countries bordering the Indian Ocean, compared to 1.7 billion for the Atlantic and 2.7 billion for the Pacific (some countries border more than one ocean).====Rivers====The Indian Ocean drainage basin covers , virtually identical to that of the Pacific Ocean and half that of the Atlantic basin, or 30% of its ocean surface (compared to 15% for the Pacific).", "The Indian Ocean drainage basin is divided into roughly 800 individual basins, half that of the Pacific, of which 50% are located in Asia, 30% in Africa, and 20% in Australasia.", "The rivers of the Indian Ocean are shorter on average () than those of the other major oceans.", "The largest rivers are (order 5) the Zambezi, Ganges-Brahmaputra, Indus, Jubba, and Murray rivers and (order 4) the Shatt al-Arab, Wadi Ad Dawasir (a dried-out river system on the Arabian Peninsula) and Limpopo rivers.", "After the breakup of East Gondwana and the formation of the Himalayas, the Ganges-Brahmaputra rivers flow into the world's largest delta known as the Bengal delta or Sunderbans.===Marginal seas===Marginal seas, gulfs, bays and straits of the Indian Ocean include:Along the east coast of Africa, the Mozambique Channel separates Madagascar from mainland Africa, while the Sea of Zanj is located north of Madagascar.On the northern coast of the Arabian Sea, Gulf of Aden is connected to the Red Sea by the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb.", "In the Gulf of Aden, the Gulf of Tadjoura is located in Djibouti and the Guardafui Channel separates Socotra island from the Horn of Africa.", "The northern end of the Red Sea terminates in the Gulf of Aqaba and Gulf of Suez.", "The Indian Ocean is artificially connected to the Mediterranean Sea without ship lock through the Suez Canal, which is accessible via the Red Sea.", "The Arabian Sea is connected to the Persian Gulf by the Gulf of Oman and the Strait of Hormuz.", "In the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Bahrain separates Qatar from the Arabic Peninsula.Along the west coast of India, the Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Khambat are located in Gujarat in the northern end while the Laccadive Sea separates the Maldives from the southern tip of India.", "The Bay of Bengal is off the east coast of India.", "The Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait separate Sri Lanka from India, while Adam's Bridge separates the two.", "The Andaman Sea is located between the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Islands.In Indonesia, the so-called Indonesian Seaway is composed of the Malacca, Sunda and Torres Straits.The Gulf of Carpentaria of located on the Australian north coast while the Great Australian Bight constitutes a large part of its southern coast.# Arabian Sea - 3.862 million km2# Bay of Bengal - 2.172 million km2# Andaman Sea - 797,700 km2# Laccadive Sea - 786,000 km2# Mozambique Channel - 700,000 km2# Timor Sea - 610,000 km2# Red Sea - 438,000 km2# Gulf of Aden - 410,000 km2# Persian Gulf - 251,000 km2# Flores Sea - 240,000 km2# Molucca Sea - 200,000 km2# Oman Sea - 181,000 km2# Great Australian Bight - 45,926 km2# Gulf of Aqaba - 239 km2# Gulf of Khambhat# Gulf of Kutch# Gulf of Suez" ], [ "Climate", "During summer, warm continental masses draw moist air from the Indian Ocean hence producing heavy rainfall.", "The process is reversed during winter, resulting in dry conditions.Several features make the Indian Ocean unique.", "It constitutes the core of the large-scale Tropical Warm Pool which, when interacting with the atmosphere, affects the climate both regionally and globally.", "Asia blocks heat export and prevents the ventilation of the Indian Ocean thermocline.", "That continent also drives the Indian Ocean monsoon, the strongest on Earth, which causes large-scale seasonal variations in ocean currents, including the reversal of the Somali Current and Indian Monsoon Current.", "Because of the Indian Ocean Walker circulation there are no continuous equatorial easterlies.", "Upwelling occurs near the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula in the Northern Hemisphere and north of the trade winds in the Southern Hemisphere.", "The Indonesian Throughflow is a unique Equatorial connection to the Pacific.The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate.", "Strong north-east winds blow from October until April; from May until October south and west winds prevail.", "In the Arabian Sea, the violent Monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent.", "In the southern hemisphere, the winds are generally milder, but summer storms near Mauritius can be severe.", "When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.", "Some 80% of the total annual rainfall in India occurs during summer and the region is so dependent on this rainfall that many civilisations perished when the Monsoon failed in the past.", "The huge variability in the Indian Summer Monsoon has also occurred pre-historically, with a strong, wet phase 33,500–32,500 BP; a weak, dry phase 26,000–23,500 BC; and a very weak phase 17,000–15,000 BP,corresponding to a series of dramatic global events: Bølling–Allerød warming, Heinrich, and Younger Dryas.Air pollution in South Asia spread over the Bay of Bengal and beyond.The Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world.", "Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, at about (compared to for the warm pool region) during 1901–2012.Research indicates that human induced greenhouse warming, and changes in the frequency and magnitude of El Niño (or the Indian Ocean Dipole), events are a trigger to this strong warming in the Indian Ocean.South of the Equator (20–5°S), the Indian Ocean is gaining heat from June to October, during the austral winter, while it is losing heat from November to March, during the austral summer.In 1999, the Indian Ocean Experiment showed that fossil fuel and biomass burning in South and Southeast Asia caused air pollution (also known as the Asian brown cloud) that reach as far as the Intertropical Convergence Zone.", "This pollution has implications on both a local and global scale." ], [ "Oceanography", "Forty percent of the sediment of the Indian Ocean is found in the Indus and Ganges fans.", "The oceanic basins adjacent to the continental slopes mostly contain terrigenous sediments.", "The ocean south of the polar front (roughly 50° south latitude) is high in biologic productivity and dominated by non-stratified sediment composed mostly of siliceous oozes.", "Near the three major mid-ocean ridges the ocean floor is relatively young and therefore bare of sediment, except for the Southwest Indian Ridge due to its ultra-slow spreading rate.The ocean's currents are mainly controlled by the monsoon.", "Two large gyres, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise (including the Agulhas Current and Agulhas Return Current), constitute the dominant flow pattern.", "During the winter monsoon (November–February), however, circulation is reversed north of 30°S and winds are weakened during winter and the transitional periods between the monsoons.The Indian Ocean contains the largest submarine fans of the world, the Bengal Fan and Indus Fan, and the largest areas of slope terraces and rift valleys.The inflow of deep water into the Indian Ocean is 11 Sv, most of which comes from the Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW).", "The CDW enters the Indian Ocean through the Crozet and Madagascar basins and crosses the Southwest Indian Ridge at 30°S.", "In the Mascarene Basin the CDW becomes a deep western boundary current before it is met by a re-circulated branch of itself, the North Indian Deep Water.", "This mixed water partly flows north into the Somali Basin whilst most of it flows clockwise in the Mascarene Basin where an oscillating flow is produced by Rossby waves.Water circulation in the Indian Ocean is dominated by the Subtropical Anticyclonic Gyre, the eastern extension of which is blocked by the Southeast Indian Ridge and the 90°E Ridge.", "Madagascar and the Southwest Indian Ridge separate three cells south of Madagascar and off South Africa.", "North Atlantic Deep Water reaches into the Indian Ocean south of Africa at a depth of and flows north along the eastern continental slope of Africa.", "Deeper than NADW, Antarctic Bottom Water flows from Enderby Basin to Agulhas Basin across deep channels (<) in the Southwest Indian Ridge, from where it continues into the Mozambique Channel and Prince Edward Fracture Zone.North of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is , exceeding to the east.", "Southward of 40° south latitude, temperatures drop quickly.The Bay of Bengal contributes more than half () of the runoff water to the Indian Ocean.", "Mainly in summer, this runoff flows into the Arabian Sea but also south across the Equator where it mixes with fresher seawater from the Indonesian Throughflow.", "This mixed freshwater joins the South Equatorial Current in the southern tropical Indian Ocean.Sea surface salinity is highest (more than 36 PSU) in the Arabian Sea because evaporation exceeds precipitation there.", "In the Southeast Arabian Sea salinity drops to less than 34 PSU.", "It is the lowest (c. 33 PSU) in the Bay of Bengal because of river runoff and precipitation.", "The Indonesian Throughflow and precipitation results in lower salinity (34 PSU) along the Sumatran west coast.", "Monsoonal variation results in eastward transportation of saltier water from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal from June to September and in westerly transport by the East India Coastal Current to the Arabian Sea from January to April.", "An Indian Ocean garbage patch was discovered in 2010 covering at least .", "Riding the southern Indian Ocean Gyre, this vortex of plastic garbage constantly circulates the ocean from Australia to Africa, down the Mozambique Channel, and back to Australia in a period of six years, except for debris that gets indefinitely stuck in the centre of the gyre.The garbage patch in the Indian Ocean will, according to a 2012 study, decrease in size after several decades to vanish completely over centuries.", "Over several millennia, however, the global system of garbage patches will accumulate in the North Pacific.There are two amphidromes of opposite rotation in the Indian Ocean, probably caused by Rossby wave propagation.Icebergs drift as far north as 55° south latitude, similar to the Pacific but less than in the Atlantic where icebergs reach up to 45°S.", "The volume of iceberg loss in the Indian Ocean between 2004 and 2012 was 24 Gt.Since the 1960s, anthropogenic warming of the global ocean combined with contributions of freshwater from retreating land ice causes a global rise in sea level.", "Sea level also increases in the Indian Ocean, except in the south tropical Indian Ocean where it decreases, a pattern most likely caused by rising levels of greenhouse gases." ], [ "Marine life", "Among the tropical oceans, the western Indian Ocean hosts one of the largest concentrations of phytoplankton blooms in summer, due to the strong monsoon winds.", "The monsoonal wind forcing leads to a strong coastal and open ocean upwelling, which introduces nutrients into the upper zones where sufficient light is available for photosynthesis and phytoplankton production.", "These phytoplankton blooms support the marine ecosystem, as the base of the marine food web, and eventually the larger fish species.", "The Indian Ocean accounts for the second-largest share of the most economically valuable tuna catch.", "Its fish are of great and growing importance to the bordering countries for domestic consumption and export.", "Fishing fleets from Russia, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan also exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna.Research indicates that increasing ocean temperatures are taking a toll on the marine ecosystem.", "A study on the phytoplankton changes in the Indian Ocean indicates a decline of up to 20% in the marine plankton in the Indian Ocean, during the past six decades.", "The tuna catch rates have also declined 50–90% during the past half-century, mostly due to increased industrial fisheries, with the ocean warming adding further stress to the fish species.Endangered and vulnerable marine mammals and turtles: Name Distribution Trend Endangered Australian sea lion(''Neophoca cinerea'') Southwest Australia Decreasing Blue whale(''Balaenoptera musculus'') Global Increasing Sei whale(''Balaenoptera borealis'') Global Increasing Irrawaddy dolphin(''Orcaella brevirostris'') Southeast Asia Decreasing Indian Ocean humpback dolphin(''Sousa plumbea'') Western Indian Ocean Decreasing Green sea turtle(''Chelonia mydas'') Global Decreasing Vulnerable Dugong(''Dugong dugon'') Equatorial Indian Ocean and Pacific Decreasing Sperm whale(''Physeter macrocephalus'') Global Unknown Fin whale(''Balaenoptera physalus'') Global Increasing Australian snubfin dolphin(''Orcaella heinsohni'') Northern Australia, New Guinea Decreasing Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin(''Sousa chinensis'') Southeast Asia Decreasing Indo-Pacific finless porpoise(''Neophocaena phocaenoides'') Northern Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia Decreasing Australian humpback dolphin(''Sousa sahulensis'') Northern Australia, New Guinea Decreasing Leatherback(''Dermochelys coriacea'') Global Decreasing Olive ridley sea turtle(''Lepidochelys olivacea'') Global Decreasing Loggerhead sea turtle(''Caretta caretta'') Global Decreasing80% of the Indian Ocean is open ocean and includes nine large marine ecosystems: the Agulhas Current, Somali Coastal Current, Red Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Gulf of Thailand, West Central Australian Shelf, Northwest Australian Shelf and Southwest Australian Shelf.", "Coral reefs cover c. .", "The coasts of the Indian Ocean includes beaches and intertidal zones covering and 246 larger estuaries.", "Upwelling areas are small but important.", "The hypersaline salterns in India covers between and species adapted for this environment, such as ''Artemia salina'' and ''Dunaliella salina'', are important to bird life.Coral reefs, sea grass beds, and mangrove forests are the most productive ecosystems of the Indian Ocean — coastal areas produce 20 tones of fish per square kilometre.", "These areas, however, are also being urbanised with populations often exceeding several thousand people per square kilometre and fishing techniques become more effective and often destructive beyond sustainable levels while the increase in sea surface temperature spreads coral bleaching.Mangroves covers in the Indian Ocean region, or almost half of the world's mangrove habitat, of which is located in Indonesia, or 50% of mangroves in the Indian Ocean.", "Mangroves originated in the Indian Ocean region and have adapted to a wide range of its habitats but it is also where it suffers its biggest loss of habitat.In 2016, six new animal species were identified at hydrothermal vents in the Southwest Indian Ridge: a \"Hoff\" crab, a \"giant peltospirid\" snail, a whelk-like snail, a limpet, a scaleworm and a polychaete worm.The West Indian Ocean coelacanth was discovered in the Indian Ocean off South Africa in the 1930s and in the late 1990s another species, the Indonesian coelacanth, was discovered off Sulawesi Island, Indonesia.", "Most extant coelacanths have been found in the Comoros.", "Although both species represent an order of lobe-finned fishes known from the Early Devonian (410 ) and though extinct 66 mya, they are morphologically distinct from their Devonian ancestors.", "Over millions of years, coelacanths evolved to inhabit different environments — lungs adapted for shallow, brackish waters evolved into gills adapted for deep marine waters." ], [ "Biodiversity", "Of Earth's 36 biodiversity hotspot nine (or 25%) are located on the margins of the Indian Ocean.Madagascar's Elephant bird, Mauritius's Dodo bird and ostrich (from left to right)* Madagascar and the islands of the western Indian Ocean (Comoros, Réunion, Mauritius, Rodrigues, the Seychelles, and Socotra), includes 13,000 (11,600 endemic) species of plants; 313 (183) birds; reptiles 381 (367); 164 (97) freshwater fishes; 250 (249) amphibians; and 200 (192) mammals.The origin of this diversity is debated; the break-up of Gondwana can explain vicariance older than 100 mya, but the diversity on the younger, smaller islands must have required a Cenozoic dispersal from the rims of the Indian Ocean to the islands.", "A \"reverse colonisation\", from islands to continents, apparently occurred more recently; the chameleons, for example, first diversified on Madagascar and then colonised Africa.", "Several species on the islands of the Indian Ocean are textbook cases of evolutionary processes; the dung beetles, day geckos, and lemurs are all examples of adaptive radiation.Many bones (250 bones per square metre) of recently extinct vertebrates have been found in the Mare aux Songes swamp in Mauritius, including bones of the Dodo bird (''Raphus cucullatus'') and ''Cylindraspis'' giant tortoise.", "An analysis of these remains suggests a process of aridification began in the southwest Indian Ocean began around 4,000 years ago.", "* Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany (MPA); 8,100 (1,900 endemic) species of plants; 541 (0) birds; 205 (36) reptiles; 73 (20) freshwater fishes; 73 (11) amphibians; and 197 (3) mammals.Mammalian megafauna once widespread in the MPA was driven to near extinction in the early 20th century.", "Some species have been successfully recovered since then — the population of white rhinoceros (''Ceratotherium simum simum'') increased from less than 20 individuals in 1895 to more than 17,000 as of 2013.Other species still depend on fenced areas and management programs, including black rhinoceros (''Diceros bicornis minor''), African wild dog (''Lycaon pictus''), cheetah (''Acynonix jubatus''), elephant (''Loxodonta africana''), and lion (''Panthera leo'').", "* Coastal forests of eastern Africa; 4,000 (1,750 endemic) species of plants; 636 (12) birds; 250 (54) reptiles; 219 (32) freshwater fishes; 95 (10) amphibians; and 236 (7) mammals.This biodiversity hotspot (and namesake ecoregion and \"Endemic Bird Area\") is a patchwork of small forested areas, often with a unique assemblage of species within each, located within from the coast and covering a total area of c. .", "It also encompasses coastal islands, including Zanzibar and Pemba, and Mafia.", "* Horn of Africa; 5,000 (2,750 endemic) species of plants; 704 (25) birds; 284 (93) reptiles; 100 (10) freshwater fishes; 30 (6) amphibians; and 189 (18) mammals.Coral reefs of the MaldivesThis area, one of the only two hotspots that are entirely arid, includes the Ethiopian Highlands, the East African Rift valley, the Socotra islands, as well as some small islands in the Red Sea and areas on the southern Arabic Peninsula.", "Endemic and threatened mammals include the dibatag (''Ammodorcas clarkei'') and Speke's gazelle (''Gazella spekei''); the Somali wild ass (''Equus africanus somaliensis'') and hamadryas baboon (''Papio hamadryas'').", "It also contains many reptiles.In Somalia, the centre of the hotspot, the landscape is dominated by Acacia-Commiphora deciduous bushland, but also includes the Yeheb nut (''Cordeauxia edulus'') and species discovered more recently such as the Somali cyclamen (''Cyclamen somalense''), the only cyclamen outside the Mediterranean.", "Warsangli linnet (''Carduelis johannis'') is an endemic bird found only in northern Somalia.", "An unstable political situation and mismanagement has resulted in overgrazing which has produced one of the most degraded hotspots where only c. 5 % of the original habitat remains.", "* The Western Ghats–Sri Lanka; 5,916 (3,049 endemic) species of plants; 457 (35) birds; 265 (176) reptiles; 191 (139) freshwater fishes; 204 (156) amphibians; and 143 (27) mammals.Encompassing the west coast of India and Sri Lanka, until c. 10,000 years ago a landbridge connected Sri Lanka to the Indian Subcontinent, hence this region shares a common community of species.", "* Indo-Burma; 13.500 (7,000 endemic) species of plants; 1,277 (73) birds; 518 (204) reptiles; 1,262 (553) freshwater fishes; 328 (193) amphibians; and 401 (100) mammals.Aldabra giant tortoise from the islands of the Aldabra Atoll in the SeychellesIndo-Burma encompasses a series of mountain ranges, five of Asia's largest river systems, and a wide range of habitats.", "The region has a long and complex geological history, and long periods rising sea levels and glaciations have isolated ecosystems and thus promoted a high degree of endemism and speciation.", "The region includes two centres of endemism: the Annamite Mountains and the northern highlands on the China-Vietnam border.Several distinct floristic regions, the Indian, Malesian, Sino-Himalayan, and Indochinese regions, meet in a unique way in Indo-Burma and the hotspot contains an estimated 15,000–25,000 species of vascular plants, many of them endemic.", "* Sundaland; 25,000 (15,000 endemic) species of plants; 771 (146) birds; 449 (244) reptiles; 950 (350) freshwater fishes; 258 (210) amphibians; and 397 (219) mammals.Sundaland encompasses 17,000 islands of which Borneo and Sumatra are the largest.", "Endangered mammals include the Bornean and Sumatran orangutans, the proboscis monkey, and the Javan and Sumatran rhinoceroses.", "* Wallacea; 10,000 (1,500 endemic) species of plants; 650 (265) birds; 222 (99) reptiles; 250 (50) freshwater fishes; 49 (33) amphibians; and 244 (144) mammals.", "* Southwest Australia; 5,571 (2,948 endemic) species of plants; 285 (10) birds; 177 (27) reptiles; 20 (10) freshwater fishes; 32 (22) amphibians; and 55 (13) mammals.Stretching from Shark Bay to Israelite Bay and isolated by the arid Nullarbor Plain, the southwestern corner of Australia is a floristic region with a stable climate in which one of the world's largest floral biodiversity and an 80% endemism has evolved.", "From June to September it is an explosion of colours and the Wildflower Festival in Perth in September attracts more than half a million visitors." ], [ "Geology", "As the youngest of the major oceans, the Indian Ocean has active spreading ridges that are part of the worldwide system of mid-ocean ridges.", "In the Indian Ocean these spreading ridges meet at the Rodrigues Triple Point with the Central Indian Ridge, including the Carlsberg Ridge, separating the African Plate from the Indian Plate; the Southwest Indian Ridge separating the African Plate from the Antarctic Plate; and the Southeast Indian Ridge separating the Australian Plate from the Antarctic Plate.", "The Central Indian Ridge is intercepted by the Owen Fracture Zone.Since the late 1990s, however, it has become clear that this traditional definition of the Indo-Australian Plate cannot be correct; it consists of three plates — the Indian Plate, the Capricorn Plate, and Australian Plate — separated by diffuse boundary zones.Since 20 Ma the African Plate is being divided by the East African Rift System into the Nubian and Somalia plates.There are only two trenches in the Indian Ocean: the -long Java Trench between Java and the Sunda Trench and the -long Makran Trench south of Iran and Pakistan.A series of ridges and seamount chains produced by hotspots pass over the Indian Ocean.", "The Réunion hotspot (active 70–40 million years ago) connects Réunion and the Mascarene Plateau to the Chagos-Laccadive Ridge and the Deccan Traps in north-western India; the Kerguelen hotspot (100–35 million years ago) connects the Kerguelen Islands and Kerguelen Plateau to the Ninety East Ridge and the Rajmahal Traps in north-eastern India; the Marion hotspot (100–70 million years ago) possibly connects Prince Edward Islands to the Eighty Five East Ridge.", "These hotspot tracks have been broken by the still active spreading ridges mentioned above.There are fewer seamounts in the Indian Ocean than in the Atlantic and Pacific.", "These are typically deeper than and located north of 55°S and west of 80°E.", "Most originated at spreading ridges but some are now located in basins far away from these ridges.", "The ridges of the Indian Ocean form ranges of seamounts, sometimes very long, including the Carlsberg Ridge, Madagascar Ridge, Central Indian Ridge, Southwest Indian Ridge, Chagos-Laccadive Ridge, 85°E Ridge, 90°E Ridge, Southeast Indian Ridge, Broken Ridge, and East Indiaman Ridge.", "The Agulhas Plateau and Mascarene Plateau are the two major shallow areas.The opening of the Indian Ocean began 156 when Africa separated from East Gondwana.", "The Indian Subcontinent began to separate from Australia-Antarctica 135–125 Ma and as the Tethys Ocean north of India began to close 118–84 Ma the Indian Ocean opened behind it." ], [ "History", "The Indian Ocean, together with the Mediterranean, has connected people since ancient times, whereas the Atlantic and Pacific have had the roles of barriers or ''mare incognitum''.", "The written history of the Indian Ocean, however, has been Eurocentric and largely dependent on the availability of written sources from the European colonial era.", "This history is often divided into an ancient period followed by an Islamic period; the subsequent periods are often subdivided into Portuguese, Dutch, and British periods.A concept of an \"Indian Ocean World\" (IOW), similar to that of the \"Atlantic World\", exists but emerged much more recently and is not well established.", "The IOW is, nevertheless, sometimes referred to as the \"first global economy\" and was based on the monsoon which linked Asia, China, India, and Mesopotamia.", "It developed independently from the European global trade in the Mediterranean and Atlantic and remained largely independent from them until European 19th-century colonial dominance.The diverse history of the Indian Ocean is a unique mix of cultures, ethnic groups, natural resources, and shipping routes.", "It grew in importance beginning in the 1960s and 1970s and, after the Cold War, it has undergone periods of political instability, most recently with the emergence of India and China as regional powers.===First settlements===According to the ''Coastal hypothesis'', modern humans spread from Africa along the northern rim of the Indian Ocean.Pleistocene fossils of ''Homo erectus'' and other pre–''H.", "sapiens'' hominid fossils, similar to ''H.", "heidelbergensis'' in Europe, have been found in India.", "According to the Toba catastrophe theory, a supereruption c. 74,000 years ago at Lake Toba, Sumatra, covered India with volcanic ashes and wiped out one or more lineages of such archaic humans in India and Southeast Asia.The ''Out of Africa'' theory states that ''Homo sapiens'' spread from Africa into mainland Eurasia.", "The more recent ''Southern Dispersal'' or ''Coastal hypothesis'' instead advocates that modern humans spread along the coasts of the Arabic Peninsula and southern Asia.", "This hypothesis is supported by mtDNA research which reveals a rapid dispersal event during the Late Pleistocene (11,000 years ago).", "This coastal dispersal, however, began in East Africa 75,000 years ago and occurred intermittently from estuary to estuary along the northern perimeter of the Indian Ocean at a rate of per year.", "It eventually resulted in modern humans migrating from Sunda over Wallacea to Sahul (Southeast Asia to Australia).", "Since then, waves of migration have resettled people and, clearly, the Indian Ocean littoral had been inhabited long before the first civilisations emerged.", "5000–6000 years ago six distinct cultural centres had evolved around the Indian Ocean: East Africa, the Middle East, the Indian Subcontinent, South East Asia, the Malay World and Australia; each interlinked to its neighbours.Food globalisation began on the Indian Ocean littoral c. 4.000 years ago.", "Five African crops — sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, cowpea and hyacinth bean — somehow found their way to Gujarat in India during the Late Harappan (2000–1700 BCE).", "Gujarati merchants evolved into the first explorers of the Indian Ocean as they traded African goods such as ivory, tortoise shells, and slaves.", "Broomcorn millet found its way from Central Asia to Africa, together with chicken and zebu cattle, although the exact timing is disputed.", "Around 2000 BCE black pepper and sesame, both native to Asia, appear in Egypt, albeit in small quantities.", "Around the same time the black rat and the house mouse emigrate from Asia to Egypt.", "Banana reached Africa around 3000 years ago.Andaman Negritos are thought to be the first inhabitants of the Andaman Islands, having emigrated from the mainland tens of thousands of years ago.At least eleven prehistoric tsunamis have struck the Indian Ocean coast of Indonesia between 7400 and 2900 years ago.", "Analysing sand beds in caves in the Aceh region, scientists concluded that the intervals between these tsunamis have varied from series of minor tsunamis over a century to dormant periods of more than 2000 years preceding megathrusts in the Sunda Trench.", "Although the risk for future tsunamis is high, a major megathrust such as the one in 2004 is likely to be followed by a long dormant period.A group of scientists have argued that two large-scale impact events have occurred in the Indian Ocean: the Burckle Crater in the southern Indian Ocean in 2800 BCE and the Kanmare and Tabban craters in the Gulf of Carpentaria in northern Australia in 536 CE.", "Evidences for these impacts, the team argue, are micro-ejecta and Chevron dunes in southern Madagascar and in the Australian gulf.", "Geological evidences suggest the tsunamis caused by these impacts reached above sea level and inland.", "The impact events must have disrupted human settlements and perhaps even contributed to major climate changes.===Antiquity===The history of the Indian Ocean is marked by maritime trade; cultural and commercial exchange probably date back at least seven thousand years.", "Human culture spread early on the shores of the Indian Ocean and was always linked to the cultures of the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf.", "Before , however, cultures on its shores were only loosely tied to each other; bronze, for example, was developed in Mesopotamia but remained uncommon in Egypt before 1800 BCE.During this period, independent, short-distance oversea communications along its littoral margins evolved into an all-embracing network.", "The début of this network was not the achievement of a centralised or advanced civilisation but of local and regional exchange in the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and the Arabian Sea.", "Sherds of Ubaid (2500–500 BCE) pottery have been found in the western Gulf at Dilmun, present-day Bahrain; traces of exchange between this trading centre and Mesopotamia.", "The Sumerians traded grain, pottery, and bitumen (used for reed boats) for copper, stone, timber, tin, dates, onions, and pearls.Coast-bound vessels transported goods between the Indus Valley civilisation (2600–1900 BCE) in the Indian subcontinent (modern-day Pakistan and Northwest India) and the Persian Gulf and Egypt.Austronesian maritime trade network was the first trade routes in the Indian Ocean.The Red Sea, one of the main trade routes in Antiquity, was explored by Egyptians and Phoenicians during the last two millennia BCE.", "In the 6th century, BCE Greek explorer Scylax of Caryanda made a journey to India, working for the Persian king Darius, and his now-lost account put the Indian Ocean on the maps of Greek geographers.", "The Greeks began to explore the Indian Ocean following the conquests of Alexander the Great, who ordered a circumnavigation of the Arabian Peninsula in 323 BCE.", "During the two centuries that followed the reports of the explorers of Ptolemaic Egypt resulted in the best maps of the region until the Portuguese era many centuries later.", "The main interest in the region for the Ptolemies was not commercial but military; they explored Africa to hunt for war elephants.The Rub' al Khali desert isolates the southern parts of the Arabic Peninsula and the Indian Ocean from the Arabic world.", "This encouraged the development of maritime trade in the region linking the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf to East Africa and India.", "The monsoon (from ''mawsim'', the Arabic word for season), however, was used by sailors long before being \"discovered\" by Hippalus in the 1st century.", "Indian wood have been found in Sumerian cities, there is evidence of Akkad coastal trade in the region, and contacts between India and the Red Sea dates back to 2300 B.C.", "The archipelagoes of the central Indian Ocean, the Laccadive and Maldive islands, were probably populated during the 2nd century B.C.", "from the Indian mainland.", "They appear in written history in the account of merchant Sulaiman al-Tajir in the 9th century but the treacherous reefs of the islands were most likely cursed by the sailors of Aden long before the islands were even settled.Greco-Roman trade with ancient India according to the ''Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'' 1st century CE''Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'', an Alexandrian guide to the world beyond the Red Sea — including Africa and India — from the first century CE, not only gives insights into trade in the region but also shows that Roman and Greek sailors had already gained knowledge about the monsoon winds.", "The contemporaneous settlement of Madagascar by Austronesian sailors shows that the littoral margins of the Indian Ocean were being both well-populated and regularly traversed at least by this time.", "Albeit the monsoon must have been common knowledge in the Indian Ocean for centuries.The Indian Ocean's relatively calmer waters opened the areas bordering it to trade earlier than the Atlantic or Pacific oceans.", "The powerful monsoons also meant ships could easily sail west early in the season, then wait a few months and return eastwards.", "This allowed ancient Indonesian peoples to cross the Indian Ocean to settle in Madagascar around 1 CE.In the 2nd or 1st century BCE, Eudoxus of Cyzicus was the first Greek to cross the Indian Ocean.", "The probably fictitious sailor Hippalus is said to have learnt the direct route from Arabia to India around this time.", "During the 1st and 2nd centuries AD intensive trade relations developed between Roman Egypt and the Tamil kingdoms of the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas in Southern India.", "Like the Indonesian people above, the western sailors used the monsoon to cross the ocean.", "The unknown author of the ''Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'' describes this route, as well as the commodities that were traded along various commercial ports on the coasts of the Horn of Africa and India circa 1 CE.", "Among these trading settlements were Mosylon and Opone on the Red Sea littoral.===Age of Discovery===The economically important Silk Road was blocked from Europe by the Ottoman Empire in 1453 with the fall of the Byzantine Empire.", "This spurred exploration, and a new sea route around Africa was found, triggering the Age of Discovery.Unlike the Pacific Ocean where the civilization of the Polynesians reached most of the far-flung islands and atolls and populated them, almost all the islands, archipelagos and atolls of the Indian Ocean were uninhabited until colonial times.", "Although there were numerous ancient civilizations in the coastal states of Asia and parts of Africa, the Maldives were the only island group in the Central Indian Ocean region where an ancient civilization flourished.", "Maldivians, on their annual trade trip, took their oceangoing trade ships to Sri Lanka rather than mainland India, which is much closer, because their ships were dependent of the Indian Monsoon Current.Arabic missionaries and merchants began to spread Islam along the western shores of the Indian Ocean from the 8th century, if not earlier.", "A Swahili stone mosque dating to the 8th–15th centuries has been found in Shanga, Kenya.", "Trade across the Indian Ocean gradually introduced Arabic script and rice as a staple in Eastern Africa.Muslim merchants traded an estimated 1000 African slaves annually between 800 and 1700, a number that grew to during the 18th century, and 3700 during the period 1800–1870.Slave trade also occurred in the eastern Indian Ocean before the Dutch settled there around 1600 but the volume of this trade is unknown.From 1405 to 1433 admiral Zheng He said to have led large fleets of the Ming dynasty on several treasure voyages through the Indian Ocean, ultimately reaching the coastal countries of East Africa.For most of the 16th century, the Portuguese dominated the Indian Ocean trade.The Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope during his first voyage in 1497 and became the first European to sail to India.", "The Swahili people he encountered along the African east coast lived in a series of cities and had established trade routes to India and to China.", "Among them, the Portuguese kidnapped most of their pilots in coastal raids and on board ships.", "A few of the pilots, however, were gifts by local Swahili rulers, including the sailor from Gujarat, a gift by a Malindi ruler in Kenya, who helped the Portuguese to reach India.", "In expeditions after 1500, the Portuguese attacked and colonised cities along the African coast.European slave trade in the Indian Ocean began when Portugal established Estado da Índia in the early 16th century.", "From then until the 1830s, slaves were exported from Mozambique annually and similar figures has been estimated for slaves brought from Asia to the Philippines during the Iberian Union (1580–1640).The Ottoman Empire began its expansion into the Indian Ocean in 1517 with the conquest of Egypt under Sultan Selim I.", "Although the Ottomans shared the same religion as the trading communities in the Indian Ocean the region was unexplored by them.", "Maps that included the Indian Ocean had been produced by Muslim geographers centuries before the Ottoman conquests; Muslim scholars, such as Ibn Battuta in the 14th century, had visited most parts of the known world; contemporarily with Vasco da Gama, Arab navigator Ahmad ibn Mājid had compiled a guide to navigation in the Indian Ocean; the Ottomans, nevertheless, began their own parallel era of discovery which rivalled the European expansion.British invasion of Mauritius during the Napoleonic Wars on 29 November 1810The establishment of the Dutch East India Company in the early 17th century lead to a quick increase in the volume of the slave trade in the region; there were perhaps up to slaves in various Dutch colonies during the 17th and 18th centuries in the Indian Ocean.", "For example, some 4000 African slaves were used to build the Colombo fortress in Dutch Ceylon.", "Bali and neighbouring islands supplied regional networks with slaves 1620–1830.Indian and Chinese slave traders supplied Dutch Indonesia with perhaps slaves during the 17th and 18th centuries.The East India Company (EIC) was established during the same period and in 1622 one of its ships carried slaves from the Coromandel Coast to Dutch East Indies.", "The EIC mostly traded in African slaves but also some Asian slaves purchased from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders.", "The French established colonies on the islands of Réunion and Mauritius in 1721; by 1735 some 7,200 slaves populated the Mascarene Islands, a number which had reached in 1807.The British captured the islands in 1810, however, and because the British had prohibited the slave trade in 1807 a system of clandestine slave trade developed to bring slaves to French planters on the islands; in all – slaves were exported to the Mascarene Islands from 1670 until 1848.In all, European traders exported – slaves within the Indian Ocean between 1500 and 1850 and almost that same amount were exported from the Indian Ocean to the Americas during the same period.", "Slave trade in the Indian Ocean was, nevertheless, very limited compared to slaves exported across the Atlantic.", "The island of Zanzibar was the center of the Indian Ocean slave trade in the 19th century.", "In the mid-19th century, as many as 50,000 slaves passed annually through the port.===Late modern era===Malé's population has increased from 20,000 people in 1987 to more than 220,000 people in 2020.Scientifically, the Indian Ocean remained poorly explored before the International Indian Ocean Expedition in the early 1960s.", "However, the ''Challenger'' expedition 1872–1876 only reported from south of the polar front.", "The ''Valdivia'' expedition 1898–1899 made deep samples in the Indian Ocean.", "In the 1930s, the John Murray Expedition mainly studied shallow-water habitats.", "The Swedish Deep Sea Expedition 1947–1948 also sampled the Indian Ocean on its global tour and the Danish ''Galathea'' sampled deep-water fauna from Sri Lanka to South Africa on its second expedition 1950–1952.The Soviet research vessel ''Vityaz'' also did research in the Indian Ocean.The Suez Canal opened in 1869 when the Industrial Revolution dramatically changed global shipping – the sailing ship declined in importance as did the importance of European trade in favour of trade in East Asia and Australia.The construction of the canal introduced many non-indigenous species into the Mediterranean.", "For example, the goldband goatfish (''Upeneus moluccensis'') has replaced the red mullet (''Mullus barbatus''); since the 1980s huge swarms of scyphozoan jellyfish (''Rhopilema nomadica'') have affected tourism and fisheries along the Levantian coast and clogged power and desalination plants.", "Plans announced in 2014 to build a new, much larger Suez Canal parallel to the 19th-century canal will most likely boost the economy in the region but also cause ecological damage in a much wider area.Chagossian on Diego Garcia in 1971, before the British expelled the islanders.", "He spoke a French-based creole language and his ancestors were likely brought as slaves in the 19th century.Throughout the colonial era, islands such as Mauritius were important shipping nodes for the Dutch, French, and British.", "Mauritius, an inhabited island, became populated by slaves from Africa and indenture labour from India.", "The end of World War II marked the end of the colonial era.", "The British left Mauritius in 1974 and with 70% of the population of Indian descent, Mauritius became a close ally of India.", "In the 1980s, during the Cold War, the South African regime acted to destabilise several island nations in the Indian Ocean, including the Seychelles, Comoros, and Madagascar.", "India intervened in Mauritius to prevent a coup d'état, backed up by the United States who feared the Soviet Union could gain access to Port Louis and threaten the U.S. base on Diego Garcia.Iranrud was an unrealised plan by Iran and the Soviet Union to build a canal between the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf.Testimonies from the colonial era are stories of African slaves, Indian indentured labourers and white settlers.", "But, while there was a clear racial line between free men and slaves in the Atlantic World, this delineation is less distinct in the Indian Ocean — there were Indian slaves and settlers as well as black indentured labourers.", "There were also a string of prison camps across the Indian Ocean, such as Cellular Jail in the Andamans, in which prisoners, exiles, POWs, forced labourers, merchants and people of different faiths were forcefully united.", "On the islands of the Indian Ocean, therefore, a trend of creolisation emerged.On 26 December 2004, fourteen countries around the Indian Ocean were hit by a wave of tsunamis caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.", "The waves radiated across the ocean at speeds exceeding , reached up to in height, and resulted in an estimated 236,000 deaths.In the late 2000s, the ocean evolved into a hub of pirate activity.", "By 2013, attacks off the Horn region's coast had steadily declined due to active private security and international navy patrols, especially by the Indian Navy.Malaysia Airlines Flight 370, a Boeing 777 airliner with 239 persons on board, disappeared on 8 March 2014 and is alleged to have crashed into the southern Indian Ocean about from the coast of southwest Western Australia.", "Despite an extensive search, the whereabouts of the remains of the aircraft is unknown.The Sentinelese people of North Sentinel Island, which lies near South Andaman Island in the Bay of Bengal, have been called by experts the most isolated people in the world.The sovereignty of the Chagos Archipelago in the Indian Ocean is disputed between the United Kingdom and Mauritius.", "In February 2019, the International Court of Justice in The Hague issued an advisory opinion stating that the UK must transfer the Chagos Archipelago to Mauritius." ], [ "Trade", "ocean trade routes in the world include the northern Indian Ocean.The sea lanes in the Indian Ocean are considered among the most strategically important in the world with more than 80 percent of the world's seaborne trade in oil transits through the Indian Ocean and its vital chokepoints, with 40 percent passing through the Strait of Hormuz, 35 percent through the Strait of Malacca and 8 percent through the Bab el-Mandab Strait.The Indian Ocean provides major sea routes connecting the Middle East, Africa, and East Asia with Europe and the Americas.", "It carries a particularly heavy traffic of petroleum and petroleum products from the oil fields of the Persian Gulf and Indonesia.", "Large reserves of hydrocarbons are being tapped in the offshore areas of Saudi Arabia, Iran, India, and Western Australia.", "An estimated 40% of the world's offshore oil production comes from the Indian Ocean.", "Beach sands rich in heavy minerals, and offshore placer deposits are actively exploited by bordering countries, particularly India, Pakistan, South Africa, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.Mombasa Port on Kenya's Indian Ocean coastIn particular, the maritime part of the Silk Road leads through the Indian Ocean on which a large part of the global container trade is carried out.", "The Silk Road runs with its connections from the Chinese coast and its large container ports to the south via Hanoi to Jakarta, Singapore and Kuala Lumpur through the Strait of Malacca via the Sri Lankan Colombo opposite the southern tip of India via Malé, the capital of the Maldives, to the East African Mombasa, from there to Djibouti, then through the Red Sea over the Suez Canal into the Mediterranean, there via Haifa, Istanbul and Athens to the Upper Adriatic to the northern Italian junction of Trieste with its international free port and its rail connections to Central and Eastern Europe.The Silk Road has become internationally important again on the one hand through European integration, the end of the Cold War and free world trade and on the other hand through Chinese initiatives.", "Chinese companies have made investments in several Indian Ocean ports, including Gwadar, Hambantota, Colombo and Sonadia.", "This has sparked a debate about the strategic implications of these investments.", "There are also Chinese investments and related efforts to intensify trade in East Africa and in European ports such as Piraeus and Trieste." ], [ "See also", "* Indo-Pacific* Indian Ocean Geoid Low* Indian Ocean in World War II* Indian Ocean literature* Indian Ocean Naval Symposium* Indian Ocean Research Group* List of islands in the Indian Ocean* List of sovereign states and dependent territories in the Indian Ocean* Indian Ocean Rim Association* Maritime Silk Road* Territorial claims in Antarctica" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Bahl, Christopher D. \"Transoceanic Arabic historiography: sharing the past of the sixteenth-century western Indian Ocean.\"", "''Journal of Global History'' 15.2 (2020): 203–223.", "* Palat, Ravi.", "''The Making of an Indian Ocean World-Economy, 1250–1650: Princes, Paddy fields, and Bazaars'' (2015).", "* Pearson, Michael (2015).", "''Trade, Circulation, and Flow in the Indian Ocean World'' (Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies), .", "* Schnepel, Burkhard and Edward A. Alpers, eds.", "''Connectivity in Motion: Island Hubs in the Indian Ocean World'' (2017).", "* Schottenhammer, Angela, ed.", "''Early Global Interconnectivity across the Indian Ocean World, Volume I: Commercial Structures and Exchanges'' (2019).", "* Schottenhammer, Angela, ed.", "''Early Global Interconnectivity across the Indian Ocean World, Volume II: Exchange of Ideas, Religions, and Technologies'' (2019).", "* Serels, Steven, ed.", "''The Impoverishment of the African Red Sea Littoral, 1640–1945'' (2018)." ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ich bin ein Berliner" ], [ "Introduction", "\"\" (; \"'''I am a Berliner'''\") is a speech by United States President John F. Kennedy given on June 26, 1963, in West Berlin.", "It is one of the best-known speeches of the Cold War and among the most famous anti-communist speeches.Twenty-two months earlier, East Germany had erected the Berlin Wall to prevent mass emigration to West Berlin.", "The speech was aimed as much at the Soviet Union as it was at West Berliners.", "Another phrase in the speech was also spoken in German, ''\"Lasst sie nach Berlin kommen\"'' (\"Let them come to Berlin\"), addressed at those who claimed \"we can work with the Communists\", a remark at which Nikita Khrushchev scoffed only days later.The speech is considered one of Kennedy's finest, delivered at the height of the Cold War and the New Frontier.Speaking to an audience of 120,000 on the steps of Rathaus Schöneberg, Kennedy said,Kennedy used the phrase twice in his speech, including at the end, pronouncing the sentence with his Boston accent and reading from his note \"ish bin ein Bear''lee''ner\", which he had written out using English orthography to approximate the German pronunciation – his actual pronunciation though is fairly close to correct German and much better than how he is usually quoted.", "He also used the classical Latin pronunciation of ''civis romanus sum'', with the c pronounced and the v as (i.e.", "\"''kiwis romanus sum''\").For decades, competing claims about the origins of the \"Ich bin ein Berliner\" overshadowed the history of the speech.", "In 2008, historian Andreas Daum provided a comprehensive explanation, based on archival sources and interviews with contemporaries and witnesses.", "He highlighted the authorship of Kennedy himself and his 1962 speech in New Orleans as a precedent, and demonstrated that by straying from the prepared script in Berlin, Kennedy created the climax of an emotionally charged political performance, which became a hallmark of the Cold War epoch.There is a widespread misconception that Kennedy accidentally said that he was a Berliner, a type of German doughnut.", "This is an urban legend which emerged several decades after the speech, and it is not true that residents of Berlin in 1963 would have mainly understood the word \"Berliner\" to refer to a jelly doughnut or that the audience laughed at Kennedy's use of this expression – if nothing else because this type of doughnut is called \"Pfannkuchen\" (literally: Pan cake) in Berlin and the word \"Berliner\" is only used outside of Berlin." ], [ "Background", "The four sectors of BerlinGermany's capital, Berlin, was deep within the area controlled by the Soviet Union after World War II.", "Initially governed in four sectors controlled by the four Allied powers (United States, United Kingdom, France and the Soviet Union), tensions of the Cold War escalated until the Soviet forces implemented the Berlin Blockade of the city's western sectors, which the Western allies relieved with the dramatic airlift.", "Afterward, the sectors controlled by the NATO Allies became an effective exclave of West Germany, completely surrounded by East Germany.", "Starting in 1952, the border between East and West was closed everywhere but in Berlin.", "Hundreds of thousands of East Germans defected to the West via West Berlin, a labour drain that threatened East Germany with economic collapse.In 1961, the East German government under Walter Ulbricht erected a barbed-wire barrier around West Berlin, officially called the ''antifaschistischer Schutzwall'' (anti-fascist protective barrier).", "The East German authorities argued that it was meant to prevent spies and agents of West Germany from crossing into the East.", "However, it was universally known as the Berlin Wall and its real purpose was to keep East German citizens from escaping to the West.", "Over a period of months the wall was rebuilt using concrete, and buildings were demolished to create a \"death zone\" in view of East German guards armed with machine guns.", "The Wall closed the biggest loophole in the Iron Curtain, and Berlin went from being one of the easiest places to cross from East Europe to West Europe to being one of the most difficult.The West, including the U.S., was accused of failing to respond forcefully to the erection of the Wall.", "Officially, Berlin was under joint occupation by the four allied powers, each with primary responsibility for a certain zone.", "Kennedy's speech marked the first instance where the U.S. acknowledged that East Berlin was part of the Soviet bloc along with the rest of East Germany.", "On July 25, 1961, Kennedy insisted in a presidential address that the U.S. would defend West Berlin, asserting its Four-Power rights, while making it clear that challenging the Soviet presence in Germany was not possible." ], [ "Genesis and execution of the speech", "===Origins===thumbThe ''Ich bin ein Berliner'' speech is in part derived from a speech Kennedy gave at a Civic Reception on May 4, 1962, in New Orleans; there also he used the phrase ''civis Romanus sum'' by saying,The phrases \"I am a Berliner\" and \"I am proud to be in Berlin\" were typed already a week before the speech on a list of expressions to be used, including a phonetic transcription of the German translation.", "Such transcriptions are also found in the third draft of the speech (in Kennedy's own handwriting), from June 25.The final typed version of the speech does not contain the transcriptions, which are added by hand by Kennedy himself.In practice sessions before the trip, Kennedy had run through a number of sentences, even paragraphs, to recite in German; in these sessions, he was helped by Margaret Plischke, a translator working for the US State Department; by Ted Sorensen, Kennedy's counsel and habitual speechwriter; and by an interpreter, Robert Lochner, who had grown up in Berlin.", "It became clear quickly that the president did not have a gift for languages and was more likely to embarrass himself if he were to cite in German for any length.But there are differing accounts on the origin of the phrase ''Ich bin ein Berliner''.", "Plischke wrote a 1997 account of visiting Kennedy at the White House weeks before the trip to help compose the speech and teach him the proper pronunciation; she also claims that the phrase had been translated stateside already by the translator scheduled to accompany him on the trip (\"a rather unpleasant man who complained bitterly that he had had to interrupt his vacation just to watch the President’s mannerisms\").", "Additionally, Ted Sorensen claimed in his memoir ''Counselor: A Life at the Edge of History'' (2008) to have had a hand in the speech, and said he had incorrectly inserted the word ''ein'', incorrectly taking responsibility for the \"jelly doughnut misconception\", below, a claim apparently supported by Berlin mayor Willy Brandt but dismissed by later scholars since the final typed version, which does not contain the words, is the last one Sorensen could have worked on.", "Robert Lochner claimed in his memoirs that Kennedy had asked him for a translation of \"I am a Berliner\", and that they practiced the phrase in Brandt's office.", "Daum credited the origin of the phrase ''Ich bin ein Berliner'' to Kennedy and his 1962 speech in New Orleans quoted above.", "According to Daum, Kennedy was affected by seeing the Berlin Wall, so that he \"falls back on the most memorable passage of his New Orleans speech given the year before, changing pride in being an American in being a Berliner.", "\"===Delivery===Kennedy delivering his speech in BerlinBehind the long table set up on the steps of the Rathaus Schöneberg were U.S. and German dignitaries, including Dean Rusk (Kennedy's Secretary of State), Lucius D. Clay (the former US administrator of Germany), Konrad Adenauer (the German chancellor), Willy Brandt, the Mayor of Berlin and Otto Bach (President of the ''Abgeordnetenhaus'' of Berlin).", "The crowd was estimated at 450,000 people.", "Bach spoke first, of the recent developments in Berlin, especially the wall.", "He was followed by Konrad Adenauer, who spoke briefly and introduced the president.Kennedy was accompanied not by Robert Lochner, but by Heinz Weber of the Berlin mission; Weber translated the president's speech to the audience.", "Besides the typescript, Kennedy had a cue card on which he himself had written the phonetic spelling, and he surprised everyone by completely disregarding the speech, which had taken weeks to prepare.", "Instead, he improvised: \"He says more than he should, something different from what his advisers had recommended, and is more provocative than he had intended to be.", "\"The speech culminated with the second use in the speech of the ''Ich bin ein Berliner'' phrase: \"Today, in the world of freedom, the proudest boast is ''Ich bin ein Berliner!''\"", "The crowd was quiet while Weber translated and repeated the president's German line; Kennedy was obviously relieved at the crowd's positive response and thanked Weber for his translation.", "Weber translated this compliment also.", "According to Daum, after this first successful delivery, \"Kennedy, who fiddles a bit with his suit jacket, is grinning like a boy who has just pulled off a coup.", "\"Kennedy's National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy thought the speech had gone \"a little too far\", and the two revised the text of a second major speech scheduled at the Freie Universität Berlin later that day for a softer stance which \"amounted to being a bit more conciliatory toward the Soviets.\"" ], [ "Consequences and legacy", "Plaque commemorating Kennedy's speech next to the front entrance of Rathaus SchönebergWhile the immediate response from the West German population was positive, the Soviet authorities were less pleased with the combative ''Lasst sie nach Berlin kommen''.", "Only two weeks before, in his American University speech (formally titled \"A Strategy of Peace\"), Kennedy had spoken in a more conciliatory tone, speaking of \"improving relations with the Soviet Union\": in response to Kennedy's Berlin speech, Nikita Khrushchev, days later, remarked that \"one would think that the speeches were made by two different Presidents.", "\"Ronald Reagan would evoke both the sentiment and the legacy of Kennedy's speech 24 years later in his \"Tear down this wall!\"", "speech.There are commemorative sites to Kennedy in Berlin, such as the German-American John F. Kennedy School and the John F. Kennedy-Institute for North American Studies of the FU Berlin.", "The public square in front of the Rathaus Schöneberg was renamed John-F.-Kennedy-Platz.", "A large plaque dedicated to Kennedy is mounted on a column at the entrance of the building and the room above the entrance and overlooking the square is dedicated to Kennedy and his visit.", "A video of Kennedy delivering the speech plays as part of the main exhibit at the Checkpoint Charlie Museum.The original manuscript of the speech is stored with the National Archives and Records Administration." ], [ "\"I am a doughnut\" confusion", "Berliner with plum jam fillingThere is a widespread false belief that Kennedy made an embarrassing mistake by saying ''Ich bin '''ein''' Berliner''.", "By including the indefinite article \"ein,\" he supposedly changed the meaning of the sentence from the intended \"I am a citizen of Berlin\" to \"I am a Berliner\" (a Berliner being a type of German pastry, similar to a jam- or jelly-filled doughnut), amusing Germans throughout the city.", "However, this is incorrect from both a grammatical perspective and a historical perspective.While the phrase \"Ich bin ein Berliner\" can be understood as having a double meaning, it is neither wrong to use it the way Kennedy did nor was it embarrassing.", "According to some grammar texts, the indefinite article can be omitted in German when speaking of an individual's profession or origin but is in any case used when speaking in a figurative sense.", "Furthermore, although the word \"Berliner\" has traditionally been used for a doughnut filled with fruit jam or jelly in the north, west, and southwest of Germany, it has never been used in Berlin itself or the surrounding region, where the usual word is \"Pfannkuchen\" (literally \"pancake\").", "Therefore, no Berliner would mistake ''Berliner'' for a doughnut.A further part of the misconception is that the audience to his speech laughed at his supposed error.", "They actually cheered and applauded both times the phrase was used.", "They laughed and cheered a few seconds after the first use of the phrase when Kennedy joked with the interpreter: \"I appreciate my interpreter translating my German.", "\"The misconception appears to have originated in Len Deighton's 1983 spy novel ''Berlin Game'', which contains the following passage, spoken by Bernard Samson:In Deighton's novel, Samson is an unreliable narrator, and his words cannot be taken at face value.", "However, ''The New York Times''' review of Deighton's novel appeared to treat Samson's remark as factual and added the detail that Kennedy's audience found his remark funny:Four years later, it found its way into a ''New York Times'' op-ed:The doughnut misconception has since been repeated by media such as the BBC (by Alistair Cooke in his ''Letter from America'' program), ''The Guardian'', MSNBC, CNN, ''Time'' magazine, and ''The New York Times''; mentioned in several books about Germany written by English-speaking authors, including Norman Davies and Kenneth C. Davis; and used in the manual for the Speech Synthesis Markup Language.", "It is also mentioned in Robert Dallek's 2003 biography of Kennedy, ''An Unfinished Life: John F. Kennedy, 1917–1963''.Another reference to this misconception appears in David Foster Wallace's 1996 novel ''Infinite Jest'', which contains the following passage:In the ''Discworld'' novel ''Monstrous Regiment'' by Terry Pratchett, special envoy Sam Vimes, tasked with ending a war between the bellicose nation of Borogravia and an alliance of its aggrieved neighbours, intended to express his support for Borogravia by saying \"I am a citizen of Borogravia\" in its native language.", "However, Polly Perks, the main character, corrects him, saying he called himself a cherry pancake.The stand up comedy tour Dress to Kill by comedian Eddie Izzard also mentioned Kennedy's speech, speculating the German audience thought it must just be American slang, for an American.The jelly doughnut myth was largely unknown to Germans until the social web enhanced cross-cultural exchange in the 2000s.", "At the death of Robert Lochner in September 2003, German media retold the story on the creation of Kennedy's phrase without mentioning the myth, while on the same occasion English language media still added the myth as fact, as for example the New York Times informed by Associated Press.", "The German Historical Museum in Berlin opened an exhibition in 2003 without providing a hint to the myth either.", "The myth entered the German Wikipedia article \"Ich bin Berliner\" in May 2005 brought over from the English version where it had been discussed since the creation of the article in October 2001.It was already marked as an urban legend at the time in 2005.The German version settled on a section title \"misconception in the english-speaking world\" () by January 2007.The Kennedy Museum in Berlin picked up the story in November 2008, debunking the myth, while an English article in Spiegel International about the opening of the museum in 2006 did quote the myth as fact.", "A reference to the myth in the national newspaper \"Die Welt\" as of July 2008 shows that the knowledge about the misconception in the US was well understood by then, referencing Wikipedia in the text." ], [ "The phrase in fiction", "In Terry Pratchett's book Monstrous Regiment (pp.", "329, Hardcover), Samuel Vimes makes a speech in which he says \"Ze chzy Brogocia proztfik!", "\", intending this to mean \"I am a citizen of Borogravia!\".", "What he actually says is \"I am a cherry pancake!", "\"." ], [ "See also", "* ''Je suis Charlie''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Daum, Andreas (2014).", "\"Berlin\", in ''A Companion to John F. Kennedy'', ed.", "Marc J. Selverstone.", "Malden, Mass.", ": Wiley Blackwell, 2014, 209–227.", "* Daum, Andreas (2014).", "\"Ich bin ein Berliner: John F. Kennedys Ansprache vor dem Schöneberger Rathaus in Berlin\", in ''Der Sound des Jahrhunderts'', ed.", "Gerhard Paul and Ralph Schock.", "Göttingen: Wallstein, 392–396 (in German).", "" ], [ "External links", " Who famously said \"Ich bin ein Berliner\" on this day in 1963?", "* Text, audio, video of address* About.com article * John F. Kennedy Letter On Success of Trip to Europe 1963 Shapell Manuscript Foundation* Text: Kennedy's Berlin speech text" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Iqaluit" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Iqaluit''' ( ; Inuktitut syllabics: , , ; ) is the capital of the Canadian territory of Nunavut.", "It is the territory's largest community and its only city.", "It was known as '''Frobisher Bay''' from 1942 to 1987, after the large bay on the coast on which the city is situated.", "The northernmost city in Canada, its traditional Inuktitut name was restored in 1987.In 1999, Iqaluit was designated the capital of Nunavut after the division of the Northwest Territories into two separate territories.", "Before this event, Iqaluit was a small city and not well known outside the Canadian Arctic or Canada, with population and economic growth highly limited.", "This is due to the city's isolation and heavy dependence on expensive imported supplies, as the city, like the rest of Nunavut, has no road or rail, and only has ship connections for part of the year to the rest of Canada.", "The city has a polar climate, influenced by the cold deep waters of the Labrador Current just off Baffin Islandthis makes the city of Iqaluit cold, although it is well south of the Arctic Circle.As of the 2021 Canadian census, the population was 7,429 (population centre: 6,991), a decrease of 4.0 percent from the 2016 census.", "Iqaluit has the lowest population of any capital city in Canada.", "Inhabitants of Iqaluit are called ''Iqalummiut'' (singular: ''Iqalummiuq'')." ], [ "History", "Iqaluit has been a traditional fishing location used by Inuit and their predecessors, the Paleo-Eskimo (Dorset culture) and Thule, for thousands of years.", "The name, ''Iqaluit,'' comes from Inuktitut Iqaluit (ᐃᖃᓗᐃᑦ), which means ''place of many fish''.World War II resulted in an influx of non-Inuit to the area in 1942, when the United States built Frobisher Bay Air Base there, on a long-term lease from the Government of Canada, in order to provide a stop-over and refuelling site for the short-range aircraft being ferried to Europe to support the war effort.", "Iqaluit's first permanent resident was Nakasuk, an Inuk guide who helped United States Army Air Forces planners to choose a site with a large flat area suitable for a landing strip.", "The wartime airstrip was known as Crystal Two, was part of the Crimson Route and operates today as Iqaluit Airport.It had long been used as a campsite and fishing spot by the Inuit, who called it ''Iqaluit'' – \"place of many fish\" in Inuktitut.", "The US and Canadian authorities named it ''Frobisher Bay'', after the name of the body of water it borders.The Hudson's Bay Company moved its south Baffin operations to Apex in 1949 (pictured in 2005) to take advantage of the nearby airfield.In 1949, after the war, the Hudson's Bay Company moved its south Baffin operations to the neighbouring valley of ''Niaqunngut'', officially called Apex, in order to use the airfield.", "In the mid-1950s, the population of Frobisher Bay increased rapidly during the construction of the Distant Early Warning Line (DEW line), a system of defensive radar stations—see North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD).Hundreds of mostly non-Inuit construction workers, military personnel, and administrative staff moved into the community, and several hundred Inuit followed, to take advantage of the access to jobs and medical care provided by the base operations.", "By 1957, 489 of the town's 1,200 residents were reported to be Inuit.", "After 1959, the Canadian government established permanent services at Frobisher Bay, including full-time doctors, a school, and social services.", "The Inuit population grew rapidly in response, as the government encouraged Inuit to settle permanently in communities supported by government services.Naval Radio Station (NRS) Frobisher Bay (HMCS Frobisher Bay), callsign CFI, was established in July 1954 as a result of the closure of NRS Chimo, Quebec.", "Station CFI was part of the Supplementary Radio network.", "Because of its remoteness and size, it was very expensive to operate.", "Renamed CFS Frobisher Bay in 1966, advancing technology eventually forced the closure of CFI later that year.The American military left Iqaluit in 1963, as their development of the intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM) diminished the strategic value of the DEW line and Arctic airbases.", "Canada continued to operate an administrative and logistical centre for much of the eastern Arctic at Frobisher Bay.", "In 1964, the first local elections were held for a community council, and in 1979 for the first mayor.", "The founding of the Gordon Robertson Educational Centre, now Inuksuk High School, in the early 1970s at Iqaluit confirmed the government's commitment to the community as an administrative centre.", "At the time of its founding, this was the sole high school operating in what constituted more than one-seventh of Canadian territory.On 1 January 1987, the name of the municipality was changed from \"Frobisher Bay\" to \"Iqaluit\" – aligning official usage with the name that the Inuit population had always used (Many documents were made that referred to Iqaluit as Frobisher Bay for several years after 1987).", "In the non-binding 1995 Nunavut capital plebiscite, held 11 December, the residents of what would become the new territory selected Iqaluit (over Rankin Inlet) to serve as the future capital.", "On 19 April 2001, it was designated a city.Canada designated Iqaluit as the host city for the 2010 meeting of the Group of Seven finance ministers, held on 5–6 February.", "The requirements for the international meeting strained the northern communications technology infrastructure and required supplemental investment.=== Timeline ===1576 – Englishman Martin Frobisher sails into Frobisher Bay believing he has found the westward route to China.", "He held the first Anglican church service in North America here.", "1861 – Charles Francis Hall, an American, camps at the Sylvia Grinnell River and explores the waters of Koojesse Inlet, which he names after his Inuit guide.", "1942 – The United States Army Air Forces selects this area as the site of a major air base to support war efforts in the United Kingdom and Europe.", "1949 – The Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) moves its trading post from Ward Inlet to nearby Apex.", "1955 – Frobisher Bay becomes the centre for the United States/Canada DEW Line construction operations.", "Many Inuit continue to settle here for local services.", "1958 – Telephone exchange service established by Bell Canada.", "1963 – United States military move out, resulting in some population loss.", "1964 – First community council formed; the population of Frobisher Bay is 900.", "1970 – Frobisher Bay officially recognized as a settlement.", "1974 – Settlement of Frobisher Bay gains village status.", "1976 – Inuit present a proposal for a separate Nunavut Territory to the Federal government.", "1979 – The first mayor elected, Bryan Pearson.", "1980 – Frobisher Bay designated as a town.", "1982 – Government of Canada agrees in principle to the creation of Nunavut.", "1987 – Frobisher Bay is renamed as ''Iqaluit,'' its original Inuktitut name meaning \"place of (many) fish\".", "1993 – The Nunavut Land Claims Agreement is signed in Iqaluit.", "1995 – Nunavut residents select Iqaluit as the capital of the new territory1 April 1999 – The Territory of Nunavut is established.", "19 April 2001 – Iqaluit is chartered as a city.", "2002 – Iqaluit, along with Nuuk, Greenland, co-host the first jointly hosted Arctic Winter Games; the Arctic Winter Games Arena was constructed in Iqaluit for the event.", "5 February 2010 – Canada designates Iqaluit to host the finance meeting as part of the 2010 Group of Seven summit.", "29 July 2022 – Pope Francis visits Iqaluit to meet with a group of former residential school alumni on his penitential apostolic visit to Canada.", "He is the first Pope to visit Nunavut." ], [ "Geography", "Iqaluit is situated on the Everett MountainsIqaluit is the northernmost city in Canada, at 63 degrees north of the Equator.", "Iqaluit is located in the Everett Mountains, which rise from Koojesse Inlet, an inlet of Frobisher Bay, on the southeast part of Baffin Island.", "It is well to the east of Nunavut's mainland, and northeast of Hudson Bay.=== Climate ===Iqaluit has a tundra climate, featuring long, cold winters, and brief summers that are too cool to permit the growth of large trees.Iqaluit has a tundra climate (Köppen: ''ET'') typical of the Arctic region, although it is well outside the Arctic Circle.", "The city features long, cold winters and brief, cool summers.", "Average monthly temperatures are below freezing for eight months of the year.", "Iqaluit averages just over of precipitation annually, much wetter than many other localities in the Arctic Archipelago, with the summer being the wettest season.", "Temperatures of the winter months are comparable to other northern communities further west on the continent such as Yellowknife and to some extent even Fairbanks, Alaska, even though Iqaluit is a few degrees colder than the latter.", "Summer temperatures are, however, much colder due to its easterly maritime position affected by the waters of the cold Baffin Island Current.", "This means that the tree line is much further south in the eastern part of Canada, being as southbound, in spite of low elevation, as northern Labrador.Although it is north of the natural tree line, there are some short, south-facing imported black spruce (''Picea mariana'') specimens protected by snowdrifts in the winter, in addition to a few shrubs, which are woody plants.", "These include the Arctic willow (''Salix arctica'').", "The Arctic willow may be up to around horizontally, but only tall.The climate of Iqaluit is also colder than Gulf Stream locations on the same latitude.", "For example, the Norwegian city of Trondheim has an annual mean temperature that is milder.The lowest temperature ever recorded was on 10 February 1967.The highest temperature ever recorded in Iqaluit was on 21 July 2008." ], [ "Cityscape", "Skyline of Downtown, the central business district of Iqaluit.===Neighbourhoods===Downtown (central)Happy Valley (north)Lake Subdivision (north) – residential areaLower Base (south)Lower Iqaluit (southeast)North 40 (northwest) – located on the north side of the airportPlateau Subdivision (northwest) – residential areaRoad To Nowhere (north)Tundra Valley (west)Tundra Ridge (west) – home to two of the city's schools and youth centreWest 40 (southwest) – commercial areaApex, a suburban neighbourhood of Iqaluit.=== Suburbs ===Apex (Niaqunngut), officially and functionally part of the City of Iqaluit, is a small community about southeast () from Iqaluit's centre and is known in Inuktitut as ''Niaqunngut''.", "It is located on a small peninsula separating Koojesse Inlet from Tarr Inlet.", "There is a women's shelter, a church, a primary school (Nanook Elementary School), a design shop and a bed and breakfast in the community.", "Apex was where most Inuit lived when Iqaluit was a military site and off-limits to anyone not working at the base.===Architecture and attractions===The Legislative Building of Nunavut is a distinctive building in Iqaluit.Much of Iqaluit's architecture is functionaldesigned to minimize material costs, while retaining heat and withstanding the climate.", "Early architecture runs from the 1950s military barracks of the original DEW line installation, through the 1970s white hyper-modernist fibreglass block of the Nakasuk School and Municipal Offices and Arena, to the lines of the steel-reinforced concrete high-rise complex on the hill above it.", "A number of older Hudson's Bay Company and early 1950s buildings have been retained and restored in Apex (the former nursing station has been revived as the Rannva Bed and Breakfast, the HBC buildings as an art gallery).", "The newer buildings are more colourful and diverse, and closer to the norms of southern architecture.The principal exception is the Nunavut Legislative Assembly Building, which is remarkable for its colourful interior, adorned with some of the very best in Inuit art.", "A new legislative building is in planning to be developed and built outside the city on the Apex Road.Shaped like an igloo, St. Jude's Cathedral is the seat of the Anglican Diocese of The Arctic.Another distinctive building was St. Jude's Anglican Cathedral, see of the Anglican Diocese of The Arctic, which was a white building shaped like an igloo.", "The altar was built by the parishioners, under the guidance of Markoosie Peter, a traditional master carpenter.", "It was shaped like a traditional Inuit sled, and the cross composed of two crossed narwhal tusks.", "An incident of arson severely affected the Cathedral structure and interior on 5 November 2005, and it was demolished on 1 June 2006.The cathedral is slowly being rebuilt (foundation 2008 superstructure 2010) and fund-raising continues locally and internationally.", "In December 2010, the exterior of a similarly shaped replacement cathedral was completed, and interior work was planned for 2011 with a potential opening for Christmas 2011.The current building, informally referred to as the Igloo Cathedral, was opened on 3 June 2012.The unique building, in the shape of an igloo, has traditionally been a landmark and tourist attraction in Iqaluit, besides its important spiritual role for Iqalummiut (people of Iqaluit).On a ridge overlooking the city is the distinctive blue and white Inuksuk High School.", "The school is made up of four square sections joined that give a cloverleaf shape when viewed from the air.The city is also the location of the Nunatta Sunakkutaangit Museum, which houses a large collection of Inuit and Arctic objects.", "The museum is housed in a restored and extended Hudson's Bay Company building, clad in the HBC signature red and white, transported to Iqaluit from its original site on the Apex Beach.Sylvia Grinnell River in Sylvia Grinnell Territorial Park.", "The territorial park is located just outside the city limits.Just west of Iqaluit is the Sylvia Grinnell Territorial Park.", "This park is dominated by the valley of the Sylvia Grinnell River.", "A small visitor's centre with viewing platform is located on top of a hill overlooking scenic waterfalls, tidal flats and traditional fishing sites.Nearby on an island near Peterhead Inlet, is the Qaummaarviit Territorial Park.", "It is a site with a long Inuit history and numerous artifacts have been recovered, including the remains of 11 semi-buried sod houses.A little farther, across Frobisher Bay, are the Katannilik Territorial Park Reserve and the Soper River, a Canadian Heritage River, forming a park corridor linking Iqaluit along traditional overland travel routes with Kimmirut (formerly Lake Harbour).", "Frobisher Bay extends for almost to the east, with moderate hills, glaciers and traditional and summer camp sites, opening into the Davis Strait, which divides Nunavut from Greenland.Iqaluit, like many Nunavut communities, has a volunteer-run annual spring festival.", "Called Toonik Tyme it involves a combination of traditional Inuit activities combined with more modern events, while the Alianait Music and Arts Festival is held for a week each 21 June.", "The festival has attracted Canadian and international artists such as Joshua Haulli, Quantum Tangle, Washboard Hank and Namgar." ], [ "Demographics", "In the 2021 Canadian census conducted by Statistics Canada, Iqaluit had a population of 7,429 living in 2,708 of its 3,297 total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of 7,740.With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.The median value of these dwellings is $376,639, quite a bit higher than the national median at $280,552.The average household has about 2.8 people living in it, and the average family has 1.4 children living at home with them.", "The median (after-tax) household income in Iqaluit is quite high, $98,921, almost double the national rate at $54,089.The median income for an individual in the city, is also high, $60,688.5.9 per cent of people (over 15 years old) are either divorced or separated, which is quite a bit lower than the national rate at 8.6 per cent.", "Also, 53.3 per cent of the population is either married or living with a common law partner.Iqaluit has quite a young population, the median age of the population is more than 10 years younger than the national rate, 30.1 years old compared to 40.6 years old.For those over the age of 25:75.7% are high school educated (15.9% as their highest level of education)59.8% are post-secondary school educated24.3% have no certificate, diploma or degreeThe 2021 census reported that immigrants (individuals born outside Canada) comprise 750 persons or 10.3% of the total population of Iqaluit.", "Of the total immigrant population, the top countries of origin were Philippines (195 persons or 26.0%), Cameroon (50 persons or 6.7%), United Kingdom (40 persons or 5.3%), Nigeria (40 persons or 5.3%), Zimbabwe (40 persons or 5.3%), United States of America (35 persons or 4.7%), India (25 persons or 3.3%), Pakistan (20 persons or 2.7%), China (20 persons or 2.7%), Jamaica (20 persons or 2.7%), and Ethiopia (20 persons or 2.7%).=== Ethnicity ===As of 2016, Iqaluit has the most Inuit in both numbers (3,900) and per centages (59.1 per cent), of all Canadian cities with populations greater than 5,000.+ Panethnic groups in the City of Iqaluit (2001–2021)Panethnic group20212016201120062001 Indigenous 4,055 4,505 4,040 3,650 3,065 European 2,350 2,500 2,265 2,235 2,030 African 395 225 70 45 25 Southeast Asian 235 165 70 35 15 South Asian 100 65 55 30 15 East Asian 55 60 60 65 25 Latin American 40 25 15 10 10 Middle Eastern 35 30 10 10 10 Other 40 10 10 10 0 Total responses 7,310 7,590 6,600 6,085 5,195 Total population 7,429 7,740 6,699 6,184 5,236 A stop sign in Iqaluit.", "The sign features the two most-spoken languages in the city, English and Inuktitut.Catholic Church=== Language ===There is no \"majority mother tongue\" in Iqaluit, as 45.4 percent reported their mother tongue as being English, and 45.4 percent also reported their mother tongue as Inuktitut.", "English is spoken by 97.2 percent of Iqalummiuts, however, whereas only 53.1 percent can speak Inuktitut.", "French was the mother tongue of 4.8 percent of the population, which is the same figure of the population who can speak the language.", "As of 2012, \"Pirurvik, Iqaluit's Inuktitut language training centre, has a new goal: to train instructors from Nunavut communities to teach Inuktitut in different ways and in their own dialects when they return home.", "\"=== Religion ===According to the 2021 census, religious groups in Iqaluit included:Christianity (3,975 persons or 54.4%)Irreligion (3,060 persons or 41.9%)Islam (90 persons or 1.2%)Indigenous Spirituality (50 persons or 0.7%)Hinduism (30 persons or 0.4%)Judaism (20 persons or 0.3%)Buddhism (10 persons or 0.1%)Other (75 persons or 1.0%)" ], [ "Education", "Nakasuk School is one of six publicly funded schools in the city.Nunatta Sunakkutaangit MuseumJoamie Ilinniarvik SchoolThe Qikiqtani School Operations based in Pond Inlet operates five schools in the area.", "Nanook Elementary School, located in Apex, Nakasuk School and Joamie Ilinniarvik School offer kindergarten to grade 5.Aqsarniit Ilinniarvik School offers grades 6 to 8 and Inuksuk High School offers grades 9 to 12.The Commission scolaire francophone du Nunavut runs École des Trois-Soleils and offers kindergarten to grade 12.At the post-secondary level there are two, Nunavut Arctic College (Nunatta Campus) and Akitsiraq Law School." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Emergency services===Royal Canadian Mounted Police during a Canada Day parade in 1999.Policing is provided by the RCMP's V Division.Iqaluit HospitalEmergency services (fire and ambulance) are provided by city from a single station on Niaqunngusiariaq.The emergency services fleet consists of:1 engine1 ladder2 staff vehicles3 ambulancesIqaluit Airport Emergency Services is responsible for fire services at the airport.", "Following a fire at the airport in 1998, the Government of Nunavut re-opened the fire station at the airport.", "Their fleet consists of:Waltek C-5500 ARFFOshkosh T3000 ARFFPolicing in Iqaluit, as with the rest of Nunavut, is contracted to the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) V Division and the city is home to the divisional headquarters.===Medical services===Qikiqtani General Hospital is the primary care facility in the city.", "There is also a Family Practice Clinic providing primary care services by Nurse Practitioners.", "Two dental clinics exist in the city.===Sports facilities===Iqaluit features two arenas, the Arctic Winter Games Arena and Arnaitok, the Iqaluit Aquaplex, a curling rink, the Timmianut Pikiuqarvik disc golf course, the Frobisher Inn Fitness Centre, in the W.G.", "Brown Building/Astro Hill Complex, a golf course, outdoor basketball courts, soccer nets, seasonal outdoor ice rinks, a shooting range, a skatepark, and more.===Transportation===Iqaluit is the smallest Canadian capital in terms of population, and the only capital that is not connected to other settlements by a highway.", "Located on an island remote from the Canadian highway system, Iqaluit is generally only accessible by aircraft and, subject to ice conditions, by boat.Iqaluit Airport hosts a number of scheduled flights to Ottawa, Montreal, Rankin Inlet, Kuujjuaq, and smaller communities throughout Nunavut.Iqaluit Airport is a modern facility with a runway long enough for most modern jet aircraft.", "A new, larger passenger terminal building north of the old terminal was completed in 2018.Canadian North serves Iqaluit from Ottawa, Yellowknife, and several communities in Nunavut.", "Locally based airlines Air Nunavut, Canadian Helicopters, Nunasi Helicopters, and Unaalik Aviation provide air charters, and Air Nunavut and Keewatin Air provide MEDIVAC/air ambulance service.", "Air Canada Jazz provided daily service to Iqaluit from Ottawa in 2010 and 2011, but cancelled service due to rising fuel costs, which prevented the route from being profitable.Iqaluit shared its runway with the Royal Canadian Air Force until the Canadian Forces stopped using Iqaluit as a Canadian NORAD Region Forward Operating Location.", "The barracks and CF-188 hangars are maintained.", "The airport has been a centre for cold-weather testing of new aircraft, such as the Airbus A380 in February 2006.Rumours that Iqaluit was an emergency landing site for the Space Shuttle are false.In the middle of summer, a few ships—generally no larger than a ''Liberty''-class vessel—transport bulk and heavy goods to the city.", "Cargo is currently off-loaded onto barges as the harbour is not deep enough; however, the city is currently constructing a deep-seaport that is expected to open in 2023.The deep-seaport, which will cost approximately $85 million, will provide all-tide access to ships and will have space for one ship to dock and unload, with the ability to offload a second using a barge-and-ramp method.", "Initial plans for the port included facilities for a vehicle ferry connection to Happy Valley-Goose Bay, Newfoundland and Labrador, however these plans were dropped due to high cost.", "Experienced locals also cross the Hudson Strait from the Canadian mainland when it freezes over, either on foot or by dog sled or snowmobile, a distance of over .Iqaluit has a local road system that does not extend far beyond the city limits.", "During the winter, remote areas near the city are only accessible by snowmobiles, dog sled, or foot.Iqaluit has a local road system only stretching from the nearby community of Apex to the Sylvia Grinnell Territorial Park, west of town.", "Iqaluit has no public transportation, although there is citywide taxi service.", "Iqaluit Public Transit used to offer bus service in the city, but the service was cancelled due to low ridership.", "Motor cars are increasing in number, to the extent of causing occasional traffic jams known locally as \"the rush minute\".", "The cost of shipping automobiles and the wear-and-tear of the harsh Arctic climate combined with its notoriously rough roadways mean that snowmobiles remain the preferred form of personal transportation.", "All-terrain vehicles are also common in most of the Canadian Arctic.", "Snowmobiles are used to travel within the city and in the surrounding area.", "In winter, dog sleds are still used, but primarily for recreation.", "In winter, the nearby Qaummaarviit Territorial Park and the more remote Katannilik Territorial Park Reserve are only accessible by snowmobile, dog sled or foot.", "In the summer, both are accessible by boat.", "Most major roads within Iqaluit are paved with asphalt, but local and smaller roads are gravel.", "Roads do not have traffic signals, but use stop signs to control intersections.Residents and businesses identify their locations mostly by building number, and occasionally by the name of a prominent structure.", "Residents know where in the city certain series of building numbers are located; numbers tend to be aggregated in blocks, so someone might say that they live in the 2600s.", "Around 2003, street names were developed, although there were delays in finalizing them and posting the signs.", "Street numbers have not been assigned, and building numbers continue to be used.", "Iqaluit is the only Canadian capital city not to have traffic signals, although some have been installed on a temporary basis.===Waste and water treatment===The city's infrastructure is stressed by growth and lack of means to upgrade.", "Waste from the city is disposed of into an open air dump on Akilliq Drive (West 40) located south of the city.Although the city has water treatment facilities, raw sewage from the city is often dumped untreated into nearby Frobisher Bay.As the dump has reached capacity, the city plans to open a second dump north of the city.", "Iqaluit does not have a recycling program in place; all recyclable materials are sent into the waste stream." ], [ "Media", "Offices for the Nunatsiaq News.", "Nunatsiaq News is one of two weekly newspapers that circulate in Iqaluit.Harbour viewHarbour view===Communications===Landline services in Iqaluit (established in 1958 by Bell Canada) and throughout northern Canada (established by Northwestel in five western Nunavut communities, and by Bell Canada elsewhere in Nunavut), are provided since 1992 by Northwestel.Cell service is provided by Ice Wireless, Bell Mobility, and Qiniq.Internet service is available through Northwestel, Ice Wireless, Qiniq, Xplornet and Meshnet.", "Meshnet Community WiFi is a free community WiFi and paid service available in most areas of the city.", "Free services include access to Isuma.tv, and many other resources.===Press===''Nunatsiaq News ''''News/North''CFFB radio, and the regional network centre for Nunavut for CBC North.===Radio===FrequencyCall signBrandingFormatOwnerNotesAM 1230 & FM 91.1CFFBCBC Radio OneTalk radio, public radioCanadian Broadcasting CorporationPart of CBC North; broadcasts English and Inuktitut programmingFM 88.3CBM-FM-3CBC MusicAssorted music, public radioCanadian Broadcasting CorporationRebroadcaster of CBM-FM (Montreal)FM 93.3CIQA-FMWeatheradio CanadaWeather radioMeteorological Service of CanadaRebroadcaster of VEV284 (Iqaluit Airport)FM 99.9CKIQ-FMIce FMClassic rockNorthern Lights EntertainmentFM 103.5CKGC-FMCapital FMOldiesNorthern Lights EntertainmentFM 107.3CFRT-FM107.3 CFRTCommunity radioAssociation des Francophones du NunavutFrench language community radio===Television=== OTA channelCall signNetworkNotes10 (VHF)CH4161Aboriginal Peoples Television NetworkEastern Time Zone feed12 (VHF)CH2260Ici Radio-Canada TéléCommunity-owned rebroadcaster of CBFT-DT (Montreal)Iqaluit was served by CFFB-TV channel 8, a CBC Television/CBC North repeater of CFYK-DT (Yellowknife) until 31 July 2012 when it was closed because of budget cuts at the CBC." ], [ "Notable people", "Eva Aariak, politician, former Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) and second Premier of NunavutPaul-André Brasseur, child actorAlexander Fathoullin, speed skaterAnn Meekitjuk Hanson, former Commissioner of NunavutKenn Harper, grocer, amateur historian, and entrepreneurLucie Idlout, rock singer, songwriterMatty McNair, US-born explorerMosha Michael, filmmakerSimonie Michael, first Inuk to be elected to what is now the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories in 1966Nakasuk, founder of IqaluitPaul Okalik, lawyer, politician, member of the Legislative Assembly of Nunavut, first Premier of Nunavut and former Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Nunavut.", "Unsuccessful federal Liberal candidate for NunavutAbe Okpik, politician, worked on Project Surname to obtain family names for Inuit rather than disc numbers and first Inuk to sit (appointed) on what is now the NWT Legislative AssemblyDennis Patterson, politician, former MLA and Premier of the NWT (prior to division), former Canadian Senator for NunavutBryan Pearson, politician, former MLA, first mayor of Iqaluit, businessmanEd Picco, politician, former MLA in NWT and NunavutAnnabella Piugattuk, actressElisapee Sheutiapik, ex-politician & mayorEnooyaq Sudlovenick, marine biologistHunter Tootoo, territorial and federal politician, and former speaker of the Nunavut Legislative AssemblySheila Watt-Cloutier, politician, environmental activist, Nobel nominee" ], [ "See also", "List of municipalities in Nunavut" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "Baffin Regional Health Board (Nunavut), and Health Needs Assessment Project (Nunavut).", "''Iqaluit Community Profile''.", "Iqaluit, Nunavut?", ": Health Needs Assessment Project, Baffin Regional Health Board?, 1994.", "Eno, Robert V. ''Crystal Two: The Origin of Iqaluit''.", "Arctic.", "2003.", "Hodgson, D. A. Quaternary geology of western Meta Incognita Peninsula and Iqaluit area, Baffin Island, Nunavut.", "Ottawa: Geological Survey of Canada, 2005.", "Keen, Jared.", "Iqaluit Gateway to the Arctic.", "Calgary: Weigl Educational Publishers Limited, 2000.", "Kublu, Alexina, and Mélanie Gagnon.", "''Inuit Recollections on the Military Presence in Iqaluit''.", "Memory and history in Nunavut, v. 2.Iqaluit, N.W.T.", ": Nunavut Arctic College, 2002.", "Newbery, Nick.", "''Iqaluit gateway to Baffin''.", "Iqaluit, NT: Published for the Royal Canadian Legion Branch No.", "4, Iqaluit by Nortext Pub.", "Co, 1995." ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Island" ], [ "Introduction", "Aerial image of Süderoog, a privately owned island belonging to the ''Halligen'' group of islands in GermanyAn '''island''' or '''isle''' is a piece of subcontinental land completely surrounded by water.", "Very small islands such as emergent land features on atolls can be called islets, skerries, cays or keys.", "An island in a river or a lake island may be called an eyot or ait, and a small island off the coast may be called a holm.", "Sedimentary islands in the Ganges Delta are called chars.", "A grouping of geographically or geologically related islands, such as the Philippines, is referred to as an archipelago.There are two main types of islands in the sea: continental islands and oceanic islands.", "There are also artificial islands (man-made islands).There are about 900,000 official islands in the world.", "This number consists of all the officially-reported islands of each country.", "The total number of islands in the world is unknown.", "There may be hundreds of thousands of tiny islands that are unknown and uncounted.", "The number of sea islands in the world is estimated to be more than 200,000.The total area of the world's sea islands is approx.", "9,963,000 km2, which is similar to the area of Canada and accounts for roughly 1/15 (or 6.7%) of the total land area of Earth." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''island'' derives from Middle English '''', from Old English ''igland'' (from ''ig'' or ''ieg'', similarly meaning 'island' when used independently, and -land carrying its contemporary meaning; cf.", "Dutch ''eiland'' (\"island\"), German ''Eiland'' (\"small island\")).The spelling of the word was modified in the 15th century because of a false etymology caused by an incorrect association with the etymologically unrelated Old French loanword ''isle'', which itself comes from the Latin word ''insula''.", "Old English ''ieg'' is actually a cognate of Swedish ''ö'' and German ''Aue'', and more distantly related to Latin '''' (water)." ], [ "Relationships with continents", "=== Differentiation from continents ===There is no standard of size that distinguishes islands from continents, or from islets.There is a widely accepted difference between islands and continents in terms of geology.", "Continents are often considered to be the largest landmass of a particular continental plate; this holds true for Australia, which sits on its own continental lithosphere and tectonic plate (the Australian Plate).By contrast, islands are usually seen as being extensions of the oceanic crust (e.g.", "volcanic islands), or as belonging to a continental plate containing a larger landmass (continental islands); the latter is the case of Greenland, which sits on the North American Plate.=== Continental islands ===Continental islands are bodies of land that lie on the continental shelf of a continent.", "Examples are Borneo, Java, Sumatra, Sakhalin, Taiwan and Hainan off Asia; New Guinea, Tasmania, and Kangaroo Island off Australia; Great Britain, Ireland, and Sicily off Europe; Greenland, Newfoundland, Long Island, and Sable Island off North America; and Barbados, the Falkland Islands, and Trinidad off South America.==== Microcontinental islands ====A special type of continental island is the microcontinental island, which is created when a continent is horizontally displaced or rifted.", "Examples are Madagascar and Socotra off Africa, New Caledonia, New Zealand, and some of the Seychelles.==== Subcontinental islands ====A lake such as Wollaston Lake drains in two different directions, thus creating an island.", "If this island has a seashore as well as being encircled by two river systems, it becomes what might be called a ''subcontinental island''.", "The one formed by Wollaston Lake is very large, about .==== Bars ====Another subtype is an island or bar formed by deposition of tiny rocks where water current loses some of its carrying capacity.", "This includes:* barrier islands, which are accumulations of sand deposited by sea currents on the continental shelves* fluvial or alluvial islands formed in river deltas or midstream within large rivers.", "While some are transitory and may disappear if the volume or speed of the current changes, others are stable and long-lived.=== Oceanic islands ===Oceanic islands are typically considered to be islands that do not sit on continental shelves.", "Other definitions limit the term to only refer to islands with no past geological connections to a continental landmass.", "The vast majority are volcanic in origin, such as Saint Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean, and the archipelago of Bermuda in the North Atlantic Ocean (a limestone capped volcanic seamount).==== Tectonic ====The few oceanic islands that are not volcanic are tectonic in origin and arise where plate movements have lifted up the ocean floor above the surface.", "Examples are the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago in the North Atlantic Ocean and Macquarie Island in the South Pacific Ocean.==== Volcanic islands ========= Arcs =====One type of volcanic oceanic island is found in a volcanic island arc.", "These islands arise from volcanoes where the subduction of one plate under another is occurring.", "Examples are the Aleutian Islands, the Mariana Islands, and most of Tonga in the Pacific Ocean.", "The only examples in the Atlantic Ocean are some of the Lesser Antilles and the South Sandwich Islands.===== Oceanic rifts =====Another type of volcanic oceanic island occurs where an oceanic rift reaches the surface.", "There are two examples: Iceland, which is the world's second-largest volcanic island, and Jan Mayen.", "Both islands are in the Atlantic Ocean.===== Hotspots =====A third type of volcanic oceanic island is formed over volcanic hotspots.", "A hotspot is more or less stationary relative to the moving tectonic plate above it, so a chain of islands results as the plate drifts.", "Over long periods of time, this type of island is eventually \"drowned\" by isostatic adjustment and eroded, becoming a seamount.", "Plate movement across a hot-spot produces a line of islands oriented in the direction of the plate movement.", "An example is the Hawaiian Islands, from Hawaii to Kure, which continue beneath the sea surface in a more northerly direction as the Emperor Seamounts.", "Another chain with similar orientation is the Tuamotu Archipelago; its older, northerly trend is the Line Islands.", "The southernmost chain is the Austral Islands, with its northerly trending part the atolls in the nation of Tuvalu.", "Tristan da Cunha is an example of a hotspot volcano in the Atlantic Ocean.", "Another hotspot in the Atlantic is the island of Surtsey, which was formed in 1963.===== Atolls =====An atoll is an island formed from a coral reef that has grown on an eroded and submerged volcanic island.", "The reef rises to the surface of the water and forms a new island.", "Atolls are typically ring-shaped with a central lagoon.", "Examples are the Line Islands in the Pacific Ocean and Maldives in the Indian Ocean.Map from Charles Darwin's 1842 ''The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs'' showing the world's major groups of atolls and coral reefs" ], [ "Tropical islands", "Plane landing on an airport island, Velana International Airport, Hulhulé Island, MaldivesApproximately 45,000 tropical islands with an area of at least exist.", "Examples formed from coral reefs include Maldives, Tonga, Samoa, Nauru, and Polynesia.", "Granite islands include Seychelles and Tioman.The socio-economic diversity of tropical islands ranges from the Stone Age societies in the interior of North Sentinel, Madagascar, Borneo, and Papua New Guinea to the high-tech lifestyles of the city-islands of Singapore and Hong Kong.", "International tourism is a significant factor in the economy of many tropical islands including Seychelles, Sri Lanka, Mauritius, Réunion, Hawaii, Puerto Rico and the Maldives." ], [ "De-islanding", "The process of de-islandisation is often concerning bridging, but there are other forms of linkages such as causeways: fixed transport links across narrow necks of water, some of which are only operative at low tides (e.g.", "that connecting Cornwall's St Michael's Mount to the peninsular mainland), while others (such as the Canso Causeway connecting Cape Breton to the Nova Scotia mainland) are usable all year round (aside from interruptions during storm surge periods).Some places may retain \"island\" in their names for historical reasons after being connected to a larger landmass by a land bridge or landfill, such as Coney Island and Coronado Island, though these are, strictly speaking, tied islands.", "Conversely, when a piece of land is separated from the mainland by a man-made canal, for example the Peloponnese by the Corinth Canal, more or less the entirety of Fennoscandia by the White Sea Canal, or Marble Hill in northern Manhattan during the time between the building of the United States Ship Canal and the filling in of the Harlem River which surrounded the area, it is generally not considered an island.Another type of connection is fostered by harbor walls/breakwaters that incorporate offshore islets into their structures, such as those in Sai harbor in northern Honshu, Japan, and the connection to the mainland which transformed Ilhéu do Diego from an islet.", "De-islanded through its fixed link to the mainland, the former islet's name, , became functionally redundant (and thereby archaic) and the location took the fort as its namesake.", "Some former island sites have retained designations as islands after the draining/subsidence of surrounding waters and their fixed linkage to land (England's Isle of Ely and Vancouver's Granville Island being respective cases in point).", "Their names are thereby archaic in that they reflect the islands' pasts rather than their present structures or transport logistics.", "Other examples include Singapore and its causeway, and the various Dutch delta islands, such as IJsselmonde." ], [ "Artificial islands", "Almost all of Earth's islands are natural and have been formed by tectonic forces or volcanic eruptions.", "However, artificial (man-made) islands also exist, such as the island in Osaka Bay off the Japanese island of Honshu, on which Kansai International Airport is located.", "Artificial islands can be built using natural materials (e.g., earth, rock, or sand) or artificial ones (e.g., concrete slabs or recycled waste).Sometimes natural islands are artificially enlarged, such as Vasilyevsky Island in the Russian city of St. Petersburg, which had its western shore extended westward by some 0.5 km in the construction of the Passenger Port of St. Petersburg.Kansai International Airport, on an artificial islandArtificial islands are sometimes built on pre-existing \"low-tide elevation,\" a naturally formed area of land which is surrounded by and above water at low tide but submerged at high tide.", "Legally these are not islands and have no territorial sea of their own." ], [ "Island superlatives", "* Largest island: Greenland* Largest island in a lake: Manitoulin Island, Ontario, Canada** Largest lake island within a lake island: Treasure Island, in Lake Mindemoya on Manitoulin Island* Largest island in a river: Bananal Island, Tocantins, Brazil* Largest island in fresh water: Marajó, Pará, Brazil* Largest sand island: Fraser Island, Queensland, Australia* Largest artificial island: Flevopolder, the Netherlands (created 1969)* Largest uninhabited island: Devon Island, Nunavut, Canada* Most populous island: Java, Indonesia* Lowest island: Franchetti Island, Lake Afrera, Ethiopia* Island shared by largest number of countries: Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia)* Island with the highest point: New Guinea (Puncak Jaya, ), Indonesia* Northernmost island: Kaffeklubben Island, Greenland* Southernmost island (not fully surrounded by permanent ice): Ross Island, Antarctica* Island with the most populated city: Honshu (Tokyo), Japan* Most remote island (from nearest land): Bouvet Island* Island with earliest known settlement: Sumatra (Lida Ajer cave), Indonesia" ], [ "See also", "* Desert island* Great wall of sand* Island biogeography* Island ecology* Island country* Island hopping* Lake island* List of ancient islands* List of archipelagos* List of artificial islands* List of divided islands* List of fictional islands* List of island countries* List of islands by area* List of islands by body of water* List of islands by continent* List of islands by country* List of islands by highest point* List of islands by name* List of islands by population* List of islands by population density* List of islands named after people* Phantom island* Private island* River island* Rock fever* Small Island Developing States* Tidal island" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Definition of island from United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea* Listing of islands from United Nations Island Directory." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Iao Valley" ], [ "Introduction", "'''ʻĪao Valley''' (Hawaiian: ''Īao'': \"cloud supreme\", pronounced similar to \"EE-yow\") is a lush, stream-cut valley in West Maui, Hawaii, located west of Wailuku.", "Because of its natural environment and history, it has become a tourist location.", "It was designated a National Natural Landmark in 1972." ], [ "ʻĪao Valley State Monument", "The ʻĪao Needle.", "Rising from the valley floor, it is taller than the alt=Photo of vegetation-covered lava promontoryThe state park is located on at the end of ʻĪao Valley Road (Highway 32).", "The ʻĪao Needle (Kūkaʻemoku), a landmark in the state park, is a vegetation-covered lava remnant rising from the valley floor or above sea level.", "The \"needle\" is a sharp ridge that gives the appearance of being a spire when viewed end-on.", "The needle is an extension of and surrounded by the cliffs of the West Maui Mountains, an extinct volcano.", "There is a short trail (ʻĪao Needle Lookout Trail and Ethnobotanical Loop) to a windy overlook." ], [ "Rainforest", "ʻĪao Valley is covered in dense rainforest, most of which consists of introduced vegetation on the valley floor.", "The Puu Kukui summit area at the valley's head receives an average of rainfall per year, making it the state's second wettest location after The Big Bog, slightly wetter than Mount Waialeale.", "Much of this rainfall ends up flowing into the ʻĪao Stream.", "Trails in the State Park run alongside ʻĪao Stream and through the forest.Above the ʻĪao valley at the Puʻu Kukui watershed is a native cloud forest of ʻOhiʻa and Koa.", "This forest is home to many native species including birds like the ʻIʻiwi, ʻApapane, and ʻAmakihi." ], [ "History", "The Hawaiian god Kāne is considered to be the procreator and the provider of life.", "He is associated with wai (fresh water) as well as clouds, rain, streams, and springs.", "Kanaloa, the Hawaiian god of the underworld, is represented by the phallic stone of the ʻĪao Needle.Kapawa, the king of Hawaii prior to Pili, was buried here.", "Maui's ruler Kakae, in the late 15th century, designated ʻĪao Valley as an alii burial ground.", "The remains were buried in secret places.", "In 1790, the Battle of Kepaniwai took place there, in which Kamehameha the Great defeated Kalanikūpule and the Maui army during his campaign to unify the islands.", "The battle was said to be so bloody that dead bodies blocked ʻĪao Stream, and the battle site was named ''Kepaniwai'' (\"the damming of the waters\")." ], [ "Kepaniwai Park and Heritage Gardens", "Established in 1952, the Heritage Gardens in Kepaniwai Park recognize the multicultural history of Maui.", "Tributes and structures celebrate the contributions of Hawaiian, American missionary, Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Korean, and Filipino cultures.", "The gardens had become overgrown and were restored in 1994.The Hawaii nature center, just outside the gardens, has a museum and children's education about Hawaii and conservation." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Troll (slang)" ], [ "Introduction", "vandalizing an article on Wikipedia by replacing content with an insult.\|alt=In slang, a '''troll''' is a person who posts or makes inflammatory, insincere, digressive, extraneous, or off-topic messages online (such as in social media, a newsgroup, a forum, a chat room, an online video game) or in real life, with the intent of provoking others into displaying emotional responses, or manipulating others' perception, thus acting as a bully or a provocateur.", "The behavior is typically for the troll's amusement, or to achieve a specific result such as disrupting a rival's online activities or purposefully causing confusion or harm to other people.In this context, both the noun and the verb forms of \"troll\" are frequently associated with Internet discourse.", "Media attention in recent years has equated trolling with online harassment.", "''The Courier-Mail'' and ''The Today Show'' have used \"troll\" to mean \"a person who defaces Internet tribute sites with the aim of causing grief to families\".", "In addition, depictions of trolling have been included in popular fictional works, such as the HBO television program ''The Newsroom'', in which a main character encounters harassing persons online and tries to infiltrate their circles by posting negative sexual comments." ], [ "Usage", "Application of the term ''troll'' is subjective.", "Some readers may characterize a post as ''trolling'', while others may regard the same post as a legitimate contribution to the discussion, even if controversial.", "More potent acts of trolling are blatant harassment or off-topic banter.", "However, the term ''Internet troll'' has also been applied to information warfare, hate speech, and even political activism.The \"Trollface\" is an image occasionally used to indicate trolling in Internet culture.At times, the word is incorrectly used to refer to anyone with controversial, or differing, opinions.", "Such usage goes against the ordinary meaning of troll in multiple ways.", "While psychologists have determined that psychopathological sadism, dark triad, and dark tetrad personality traits are common among Internet trolls, some observers claim that trolls do not actually believe the controversial views they claim.", "Farhad Manjoo criticises this view, noting that if the person really is trolling, they are more intelligent than their critics would believe." ], [ "Responses", "ignore rather than engage with a troll is sometimes phrased as \"Please don't feed the trolls\".The most common advice to deal with someone who gets enjoyment out of provoking others is to ignore them and deprive them of the pleasure of watching people react.", "This is typically phrased as \"don't feed the trolls\", however, some believe this to be bad or incomplete advice for effectively dealing with trolls." ], [ "Origin and etymology", "There are competing theories of where and when \"troll\" was first used in Internet slang, with numerous unattested accounts of BBS and Usenet origins in the early 1980s or before.The English noun \"troll\" in the standard sense of ugly dwarf or giant dates to 1610 and originates from the Old Norse word \"troll\" meaning giant or demon.", "The word evokes the trolls of Scandinavian folklore and children's tales: antisocial, quarrelsome and slow-witted creatures which make life difficult for travelers.", "Trolls have existed in folklore and fantasy literature for centuries, and online trolling has been around for as long as the Internet has existed.In modern English usage, \"trolling\" may describe the fishing technique of slowly dragging a lure or baited hook from a moving boat, whereas ''trawling'' describes the generally commercial act of dragging a fishing net.", "Early non-Internet slang use of \"trolling\" can be found in the military: by 1972 the term \"trolling for MiGs\" was documented in use by US Navy pilots in Vietnam.", "It referred to use of \"...decoys, with the mission of drawing...fire away...\" The contemporary use of the term is said to have appeared on the Internet in the late 1980s, but the earliest known attestation according to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' is in 1992.The context of the quote cited in the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' sets the origin in Usenet in the early 1990s as in the phrase \"trolling for newbies\", as used in ''alt.folklore.urban'' (AFU).", "Commonly, what is meant is a relatively gentle inside joke by veteran users, presenting questions or topics that had been so overdone that only a new user would respond to them earnestly.", "For example, a veteran of the group might make a post on the common misconception that glass flows over time.", "Long-time readers would both recognize the poster's name and know that the topic had been discussed repeatedly, but new subscribers to the group would not realize, and would thus respond.", "These types of trolls served as a practice to identify group insiders.", "This definition of trolling, considerably narrower than the modern understanding of the term, was considered a positive contribution.", "One of the most notorious AFU trollers, David Mikkelson, went on to create the urban folklore website Snopes.com.By the late 1990s, ''alt.folklore.urban'' had such heavy traffic and participation that trolling of this sort was frowned upon.", "Others expanded the term to include the practice of playing a seriously misinformed user, even in newsgroups where one was not a regular; these were often attempts at humor rather than provocation.", "The noun ''troll'' usually referred to an act of trolling – or to the resulting discussion – rather than to the author, though some posts punned on the dual meaning of ''troll.", "''The August 26, 1997 strip of webcomic ''Kevin and Kell'' used the word ''troll'' to describe those that deliberately harass or provoke other Internet users, similar to the modern sense of the word.=== In other languages ===In Chinese, trolling is referred to as ''bái mù'' (), which can be straightforwardly explained as \"eyes without pupils\", in the sense that while the pupil of the eye is used for vision, the white section of the eye cannot see, and trolling involves blindly talking nonsense over the Internet, having total disregard to sensitivities or being oblivious to the situation at hand, akin to having eyes without pupils.", "An alternative term is ''bái làn'' (), which describes a post completely nonsensical and full of folly made to upset others, and derives from a Taiwanese slang term for the male genitalia, where genitalia that is pale white in color represents that someone is young, and thus foolish.", "Both terms originate from Taiwan, and are also used in Hong Kong and mainland China.", "Another term, ''xiǎo bái'' (), is a derogatory term for both ''bái mù'' and ''bái làn'' that is used on anonymous posting Internet forums.", "Another common term for a troll used in mainland China is ''pēn zi'' ().In Japanese, means \"fishing\" and refers to intentionally misleading posts whose only purpose is to get the readers to react, i.e.", "get trolled.", "means \"laying waste\" and can also be used to refer to simple spamming.In Icelandic, ''þurs'' (a thurs) or ''tröll'' (a troll) may refer to trolls, the verbs ''þursa'' (to troll) or ''þursast'' (to be trolling, to troll about) may be used.In Korean, ''nak-si'' (낚시) means \"fishing\" and refers to Internet trolling attempts, as well as purposely misleading post titles.", "A person who recognizes the troll after having responded (or, in case of a post title, ''nak-si'', having read the actual post) would often refer to themselves as a caught fish.In Portuguese, more commonly in its Brazilian variant, troll (pronounced in most of Brazil as spelling pronunciation) is the usual term to denote Internet trolls (examples of common derivate terms are ''trollismo'' or ''trollagem'', \"trolling\", and the verb ''trollar'', \"to troll\", which entered popular use), but an older expression, used by those which want to avoid anglicisms or slangs, is ''complexo do pombo enxadrista'' to denote trolling behavior, and ''pombos enxadristas'' (literally, \"chessplayer pigeons\") or simply ''pombos'' are the terms used to name the trolls.", "The terms are explained by an adage or popular saying: \"Arguing with ''fulano'' (i.e., John Doe) is the same as playing chess with a pigeon: it defecates on the table, drops the pieces and simply flies off, claiming victory.", "\"In Thai, the term ''krian'' (เกรียน) has been adopted to address Internet trolls.", "According to the Royal Institute of Thailand, the term, which literally refers to a closely cropped hairstyle worn by schoolboys in Thailand, is from the behaviour of these schoolboys who usually gather to play online games and, during which, make annoying, disruptive, impolite, or unreasonable expressions." ], [ "Trolling, identity, and anonymity", "Early incidents of trolling were considered to be the same as flaming, but this has changed with modern usage by the news media to refer to the creation of any content that targets another person.", "The Internet dictionary, NetLingo, suggests there are four grades of trolling: playtime trolling, tactical trolling, strategic trolling, and domination trolling.The relationship between trolling and flaming was observed in open-access forums in California, on a series of modem-linked computers.", "''CommuniTree'' was begun in 1978 but was closed in 1982 when accessed by high school teenagers, becoming a ground for trashing and abuse.Some psychologists have suggested that flaming would be caused by deindividuation or decreased self-evaluation: the anonymity of online postings would lead to disinhibition amongst individuals.", "Others have suggested that although flaming and trolling is often unpleasant, it may be a form of normative behavior that expresses the social identity of a certain user group.According to Tom Postmes, a professor of social and organisational psychology at the universities of Exeter, England, and Groningen, The Netherlands, and the author of ''Individuality and the Group'', who has studied online behavior for 20 years, \"Trolls aspire to violence, to the level of trouble they can cause in an environment.", "They want it to kick off.", "They want to promote antipathetic emotions of disgust and outrage, which morbidly gives them a sense of pleasure.\"", "Someone who brings something off topic into the conversation in order to make that person mad is trolling.The practice of trolling has been documented by a number of academics since the 1990s.", "This included Steven Johnson in 1997 in the book ''Interface Culture'', and a paper by Judith Donath in 1999.Donath's paper outlines the ambiguity of identity in a disembodied \"virtual community\" such as Usenet:Donath provides a concise overview of identity deception games which trade on the confusion between physical and epistemic community:Whitney Phillips observes in ''This is Why We Can't Have Nice Things: Mapping the Relationship Between Online Trolling and Mainstream Culture'' that certain behaviors are consistent among different types of trolls.", "First, trolls of the subcultural variety self-identify as trolls.", "Trolls are also motivated by what is known as lulz, a type of unsympathetic, ambiguous laughter.", "The final behavior is the insistent need for anonymity.", "According to Phillips, anonymity allows trolls to engage in behaviors they would not replicate in professional or public settings, with the effectiveness of trolling often being dependent upon the target's lack of anonymity.", "This can include the disclosure of real-life attachments, interests, and vulnerabilities of the target.A troll can disrupt the discussion on a newsgroup or online forum, disseminate bad advice, and damage the feeling of trust in the online community.", "In a group that has become sensitized to trollingwhere the rate of deception is highmany honestly naïve questions may be quickly rejected as trolling.", "This can be quite off-putting to the new user who upon first posting is immediately bombarded with angry accusations.", "Even if the accusations are unfounded, being branded a troll may be damaging to one's online reputation.Susan Herring and colleagues, in \"Searching for Safety Online: Managing 'Trolling' in a Feminist Forum\", point out the difficulty inherent in monitoring trolling and maintaining freedom of speech in online communities: \"harassment often arises in spaces known for their freedom, lack of censure, and experimental nature\".", "Free speech may lead to tolerance of trolling behavior, complicating the members' efforts to maintain an open, yet supportive discussion area, especially for sensitive topics such as race, gender, and sexuality.Cyberbullying laws vary by state, as trolling is not a crime under U.S. federal law.", "In an effort to reduce uncivil behavior by increasing accountability, many web sites (e.g.", "Reuters, Facebook, and Gizmodo) now require commenters to register their names and e-mail addresses.Trolling itself has become its own form of Internet subculture and has developed its own set of rituals, rules, specialized language, and dedicated spaces of practice.", "The appeal of trolling primarily comes from the thrill of how long one can keep the ruse going before getting caught, and exposed as a troll.", "When understood this way, Internet trolls are less like vulgar, indiscriminate bullies, and closer to countercultural respondents to a (so called) overly sensitive public.The main elements of why people troll are interactions; trolling exists in the interactive communications between Internet users, influencing people's views both from objective and emotional standpoints.", "Further, trolling does not target a single individual, but rather targets multiple members of a discussion.", "Trolling can be easily identified by its offensive content, intended to provoke an emotional reaction from an audience." ], [ "Corporate, political, and special-interest sponsored trolls", "Organizations and countries may utilize trolls to manipulate public opinion as part and parcel of an astroturfing initiative.", "When trolling is sponsored by the government, it is often called state-sponsored Internet propaganda or state-sponsored trolling.", "Teams of sponsored trolls are sometimes referred to as sockpuppet armies.A 2016 study by Harvard political scientist Gary King reported that the Chinese government's 50 Cent Party creates 440 million pro-government social media posts per year.", "The report said that government employees were paid to create pro-government posts around the time of national holidays to avoid mass political protests.", "The Chinese Government ran an editorial in the state-funded ''Global Times'' defending censorship and 50 Cent Party trolls.A 2016 study for the NATO Strategic Communications Centre of Excellence on hybrid warfare notes that the Russo-Ukrainian War \"demonstrated how fake identities and accounts were used to disseminate narratives through social media, blogs, and web commentaries in order to manipulate, harass, or deceive opponents.\"", "The NATO report describes that a \"Wikipedia troll\" uses a type of message design where a troll does not add \"emotional value\" to reliable \"essentially true\" information in re-posts, but presents it \"in the wrong context, intending the audience to draw false conclusions.\"", "For example, information, without context, from Wikipedia about the military history of the United States \"becomes value-laden if it is posted in the comment section of an article criticizing Russia for its military actions and interests in Ukraine.", "The Wikipedia troll is 'tricky', because in terms of actual text, the information is true, but the way it is expressed gives it a completely different meaning to its readers.", "\"Unlike \"classic trolls\", Wikipedia trolls \"have no emotional input, they just supply misinformation\" and are one of \"the most dangerous\" as well as one of \"the most effective trolling message designs.\"", "Even among people who are \"emotionally immune to aggressive messages\" and apolitical, \"training in critical thinking\" is needed, according to the NATO report, because \"they have relatively blind trust in Wikipedia sources and are not able to filter information that comes from platforms they consider authoritative.\"", "While Russian-language hybrid trolls use the Wikipedia troll message design to promote anti-Western sentiment in comments, they \"mostly attack aggressively to maintain emotional attachment to issues covered in articles.\"", "Discussions about topics other than international sanctions during the Ukrainian crisis \"attracted very aggressive trolling\" and became polarized, according to the NATO report, which \"suggests that in subjects in which there is little potential for re-educating audiences, emotional harm is considered more effective\" for pro-Russian Latvian-language trolls.A 2016 study on fluoridation decision-making in Israel coined the term \"Uncertainty Bias\" to describe the efforts of power in government, public health and media to aggressively advance agendas by misrepresentation of historical and scientific fact.", "The authors noted that authorities tended to overlook or to deny situations that involve uncertainty while making unscientific arguments and disparaging comments in order to undermine opposing positions.", "''The New York Times'' reported in late October 2018 that Saudi Arabia used an online army of Twitter trolls to harass the late Saudi dissident journalist Jamal Khashoggi and other critics of the Saudi government.In October 2018, ''The Daily Telegraph'' reported that Facebook \"banned hundreds of pages and accounts which it says were fraudulently flooding its site with partisan political content – although they came from the US instead of being associated with Russia.", "\"While corporate networking site LinkedIn is considered a platform of good taste and professionalism, companies searching for personal information by promoting jobs that were not real and fake accounts posting political messages has caught the company off guard." ], [ "Psychological characteristics", "''Aggravation'' by Briton Rivière (1896).", "Radford suggests that many trolls perceive themselves as jester-like figures, tormenting their targets from a position of relative safety.Researcher Ben Radford wrote about the phenomenon of clowns in history and the modern day in his book ''Bad Clowns'', and found that \"bad clowns\" have evolved into Internet trolls.", "They do not dress up as traditional clowns but, for their own amusement, they tease and exploit \"human foibles\" in order to speak the \"truth\" and gain a reaction.", "Like clowns in make-up, Internet trolls hide behind \"anonymous accounts and fake usernames\".", "In their eyes, they are the trickster and are performing for a nameless audience via the Internet.", "Studies conducted in the fields of human–computer interaction and cyberpsychology by other researchers have corroborated Radford's analysis on the phenomenon of Internet trolling as a form of deception-serving entertainment and its correlations to aggressive behaviour, katagelasticism, black humor, and the Dark tetrad.Trolling correlates positively with sadism, trait psychopathy, and Machiavellianism (see Dark triad).", "Trolls take pleasure from causing pain and emotional suffering.", "Their ability to upset or harm gives them a feeling of power.", "Psychological researches conducted in the fields of personality psychology and cyberpsychology report that trolling behaviour qualifies as an anti-social behaviour and is strongly correlated to sadistic personality disorder (SPD).", "Researches have shown that men, compared with women, are more likely to perpetrate trolling behaviour; these gender differences in online anti-social behaviour may be a reflection of gender stereotypes, where agentic characteristics such as competitiveness and dominance are encouraged in men.", "The results corroborated that gender (male) is a significant predictor of trolling behaviour, alongside trait psychopathy and sadism to be significant positive predictors.", "Moreover, these studies have shown that people who enjoy trolling online tend to also enjoy hurting other people in everyday life, therefore corroborating a longstanding and persistent pattern of psychopathological sadism.A psychoanalytic and sexologic study on the phenomenon of Internet trolling asserts that anonymity increases the incidence of the trolling behaviour, and that \"the internet is becoming a medium to invest our anxieties and not thinking about the repercussions of trolling and affecting the victims mentally and incite a sense of guilt and shame within them\"." ], [ "Concern troll", "''Concern trolls'' pretend to be sympathetic to a certain point of view which they are actually critical of.", "A concern troll will often declare an interest in joining or allying with a certain cause, while subtly ridiculing it.", "The concern troll posts in web forums devoted to their declared point of view and attempts to sway the group's actions or opinions while claiming to share their goals, but with professed \"concerns\".", "The goal is to sow fear, uncertainty, and doubt within the group, sometimes by appealing to outrage culture.For example, a person who wishes to shame obese people, but disguises this impulse as concern for the health of overweight people, could be considered a concern troll.A verifiable example of concern trolling within politics occurred in 2006 when Tad Furtado, a member of staff for then-Congressman Charles Bass (R-N.H.), was caught posing as a \"concerned\" supporter of Bass's opponent, Democrat Paul Hodes, on several liberal New Hampshire blogs, using the pseudonyms \"IndieNH\" or \"IndyNH\".", "\"IndyNH\" expressed concern that Democrats might just be wasting their time or money on Hodes, because Bass was unbeatable.", "Hodes eventually won the election.Although the term \"concern troll\" originated in discussions of online behavior, it now sees increasing use to describe similar offline behaviors.", "For example, James Wolcott of ''Vanity Fair'' accused a conservative ''New York Daily News'' columnist of \"concern troll\" behavior in his efforts to downplay the Mark Foley scandal.", "Wolcott links what he calls concern trolls to what Saul Alinsky calls \"Do-Nothings\", giving a long quote from Alinsky on the Do-Nothings' method and effects:''The Hill'' published an op-ed piece by Markos Moulitsas of the liberal blog ''Daily Kos'' titled \"Dems: Ignore 'Concern Trolls.", "The concern trolls in question were not Internet participants but rather Republicans offering public advice and warnings to the Democrats that could be considered deceptive." ], [ "Troll sites", "The online forum TOTSE, as created in 1997, is considered one of the earliest trolling communities, predating 4chan by several years.", "A ''New York Times'' article discussed troll activity at 4chan and at Encyclopedia Dramatica, which it described as \"an online compendium of troll humor and troll lore\".", "4chan's /b/ board is recognized as \"one of the Internet's most infamous and active trolling hotspots\".", "This site and others are often used as a base to troll against sites that their members can not normally post on.", "These trolls feed off the reactions of their victims because \"their agenda is to take delight in causing trouble\".", "Places like Reddit, 4chan, and other anonymous message boards are prime real-estate for online trolls.", "Because there is no easy way of tracing who someone is, trolls can post very inflammatory content without repercussion.The online French group Ligue du LOL has been accused of organized harassment and described as a troll group." ], [ "Media coverage and controversy", "Mainstream media outlets have focused their attention on the willingness of some Internet users to go to extreme lengths to participate in organized psychological harassment.=== Australia ===In February 2010, the Australian government became involved after users defaced the Facebook tribute pages of murdered children Trinity Bates and Elliott Fletcher.", "Australian communications minister Stephen Conroy decried the attacks, committed mainly by 4chan users, as evidence of the need for greater Internet regulation, stating, \"This argument that the Internet is some mystical creation that no laws should apply to, that is a recipe for anarchy and the wild west.\"", "Facebook responded by strongly urging administrators to be aware of ways to ban users and remove inappropriate content from Facebook pages.", "In 2012, the ''Daily Telegraph'' started a campaign to take action against \"Twitter trolls\", who abuse and threaten users.", "Several high-profile Australians including Charlotte Dawson, Robbie Farah, Laura Dundovic, and Ray Hadley have been victims of this phenomenon.=== India ===According to journalist Swati Chaturvedi and others, the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) runs networks of social media trolls tasked with intimidating political opponents.Bollywood celebrities can face strong social media backlash for their political comments.", "When actor Shah Rukh Khan criticized the country's intolerance and called for secularism, many promoted a boycott of his upcoming movie, including several right-wing politicians, one of whom compared Khan to a terrorist.", "In 2015, when the Maharashtra state government banned the sale and consumption of cattle meat (reflecting Hindu beliefs), online trolls attacked stars who criticized the law; actor Rishi Kapoor received insults and had his Hindu faith questioned.", "Though the death sentence of convicted terrorist Yakub Memon was criticized by \"many\", including human rights activists and a former Supreme Court chief justice, Bollywood star Salman Khan received \"overwhelming\" online anger for expressing the same views; the trolling spilled over into real life, with some protestors burning his effigy.Newslaundry covered the phenomenon of \"Twitter trolling\" in its \"Criticles\", also characterizing Twitter trolls in its weekly podcasts.The Kerala troll community has founded to new malayalam troll slangs in Kerala, some troll events have gone viral and then its use of new words has given rise to new words.", "The main words is, Kummanadi, OMKV and Kiduve (Kidu) ===Japan===In July 2022, Japanese law banned \"online insults\", punishable by up to one year of imprisonment.", "Under this law, an \"insult\" is defined as \"publicly demeaning someone's social standing without referring to specific facts about them or a specific action.", "\"=== United Kingdom ===In the United Kingdom, contributions made to the Internet are covered by the Malicious Communications Act 1988 as well as Section 127 of the Communications Act 2003, under which jail sentences were, until 2015, limited to a maximum of six months.", "In October 2014, the UK's Justice Secretary, Chris Grayling, said that \"Internet trolls\" would face up to two years in jail, under measures in the Criminal Justice and Courts Bill that extend the maximum sentence and time limits for bringing prosecutions.", "The House of Lords Select Committee on Communications had earlier recommended against creating a specific offence of trolling.", "Sending messages which are \"grossly offensive or of an indecent, obscene or menacing character\" is an offence whether they are received by the intended recipient or not.", "Several people have been imprisoned in the UK for online harassment.Trolls of the testimonial page of Georgia Varley faced no prosecution due to misunderstandings of the legal system in the wake of the term trolling being popularized.", "In October 2012, a twenty-year-old man was jailed for twelve weeks for posting offensive jokes to a support group for friends and family of April Jones.=== United States ===On 31 March 2010, NBC's ''Today'' ran a segment detailing the deaths of three separate adolescent girls and trolls' subsequent reactions to their deaths.", "Shortly after the suicide of high school student Alexis Pilkington, anonymous posters began performing organized psychological harassment across various message boards, referring to Pilkington as a \"suicidal slut\", and posting graphic images on her Facebook memorial page.", "The segment also included an exposé of a 2006 accident, in which an eighteen-year-old fatally crashed her father's car into a highway pylon; trolls emailed her grieving family the leaked pictures of her mutilated corpse (see Nikki Catsouras photographs controversy).In 2007, the media was fooled by trollers into believing that students were consuming a drug called Jenkem, purportedly made of human waste.", "A user named Pickwick on TOTSE posted pictures implying that he was inhaling this drug.", "Major news corporations such as Fox News Channel reported the story and urged parents to warn their children about this drug.", "Pickwick's pictures of Jenkem were fake and the pictures did not actually feature human waste.In August 2012, the subject of trolling was featured on the HBO television series ''The Newsroom''.", "The character Neal Sampat encounters harassing individuals online, particularly looking at 4chan, and he ends up choosing to post negative comments himself on an economics-related forum.", "The attempt by the character to infiltrate trolls' inner circles attracted debate from media reviewers critiquing the series.In 2019, it was alleged that progressive Democrats had created a fake Facebook page which mis-represented the political stance of Roy Moore, a Republican candidate, in the attempt to alienate him from pro-business Republicans.", "It was also alleged that a \"false flag\" experiment attempted to link Moore to the use of Russian Twitter bots.", "''The New York Times'', when exposing the scam, quoted a New Knowledge report that boasted of its fabrications: \"We orchestrated an elaborate 'false flag' operation that planted the idea that the Roy Moore campaign was amplified on social media by a Russian botnet.The 2020 Democratic presidential candidate Bernie Sanders has faced criticism for the behavior of some of his supporters online, but has deflected such criticism, suggesting that \"Russians\" were impersonating people claiming to be \"Bernie Bro\" supporters.", "Twitter rejected Sanders' suggestion that Russia could be responsible for the bad reputation of his supporters.", "A Twitter spokesperson told CNBC: \"Using technology and human review in concert, we proactively monitor Twitter to identify attempts at platform manipulation and mitigate them.", "As is standard, if we have reasonable evidence of state-backed information operations, we'll disclose them following our thorough investigation to our public archive — the largest of its kind in the industry.\"", "Twitter had suspended 70 troll accounts that posted content in support of Michael Bloomberg's presidential campaign.The 45th American president, Donald J. Trump, infamously used Twitter to denigrate his political opponents and spread misinformation for which he earned the moniker Troll-In-Chief." ], [ "Examples", "So-called Gold Membership trolling originated in 2007 on 4chan boards, when users posted fake images claiming to offer upgraded 4chan account privileges; without a \"Gold\" account, one could not view certain content.", "This turned out to be a hoax designed to fool board members, especially newcomers.", "It was copied and became an Internet meme.", "In some cases, this type of troll has been used as a scam, most notably on Facebook, where fake Facebook Gold Account upgrade ads have proliferated in order to link users to dubious websites and other content.The case of ''Zeran v. America Online, Inc.'' resulted primarily from trolling.", "Six days after the Oklahoma City bombing, anonymous users posted advertisements for shirts celebrating the bombing on AOL message boards, claiming that the shirts could be obtained by contacting Mr. Kenneth Zeran.", "The posts listed Zeran's address and home phone number.", "Zeran was subsequently harassed.Anti-scientology protests by Anonymous, commonly known as Project Chanology, are sometimes labeled as \"trolling\" by media such as ''Wired'', and the participants sometimes explicitly self-identify as \"trolls\".Neo-Nazi website ''The Daily Stormer'' orchestrates what it calls a \"Troll Army\", and has encouraged trolling of Jewish MP Luciana Berger and Muslim activist Mariam Veiszadeh.In 2012, after feminist Anita Sarkeesian started a Kickstarter campaign to fund a series of YouTube videos chronicling misogyny in video games, she received bomb threats at speaking engagements, doxing threats, rape threats, and an unwanted starring role in a video game called Beat Up Anita Sarkeesian.In 2018 the Russian government was accused of using sockpuppet armies, consisting of 13 Russians and about three Russian companies, including Concord Management, to alter the outcome of the 2016 US presidential election.", "With the aim of ensuring that the Republican nominee, Donald Trump, emerged victorious, the sockpuppets allegedly pushed various criminal conspiracies, political rallies, and disparaging comments about Trump's major opponent, Hillary Clinton, on social media.", "Initially only Twitter and Facebook detected the campaign but other reports suggest that YouTube, Tumblr, Google+, PayPal, and Instagram were used.", "Donald Trump denied plotting with the Russian government to run the propaganda and the Russian Government vehemently denied ties to the companies indicted.In 2020, the official Discord server and Twitch channel for the U.S. Army Esports team became a target of trolling, as people sent anti-U.S. Army messages, memes, and references to war crimes committed by the United States to both.", "When the team started banning users from their Twitch channel for trolling, they were accused of violating the First Amendment to the United States Constitution by the ACLU and Knight First Amendment Institute at Columbia University.", "The team has since denied these allegations.In 2021, the ''Salon'' columnist Amanda Marcotte, author of ''Troll Nation: How the Right Became Trump-Worshipping Monsters Set on Rat-Fcking Liberals, America, and Truth Itself'' (2018), described the American far-right exclusively male organization Proud Boys, the conservative pundit Tucker Carlson, and podcast host Joe Rogan as political commentators who have mastered \"the art of trolling as a far-right recruitment strategy\" by preying upon the American male insecurities, mediocrity, and fragility.", "In particular, regarding their respective discriminatory comments about transgender people, she remarks \"how crucial gender anxiety is to far-right recruitment\"." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " Walter, T.; Hourizi, R.; Moncur, W.; Pitsillides (2012). \"", "Does the Internet Change How We Die And Mourn?\"", "— An overview Online." ], [ "External links", "=== Trolling advocacy and safety ===* The Trolling Academy – trolling advice, comment, and training* Get Safe Online – free expert advice on online safety=== Background and definitions ===* * NetLingo definition=== Academic and debate ===* Searching for Safety Online: Managing \"Trolling\" in a Feminist Forum * How to Respond to Internet Rage* Malwebolence – The World of Web Trolling; ''New York Times Magazine'', By Mattathias Schwartz; 3 August 2008.", "* Internet Trolls Are Narcissists, Psychopaths, and Sadists.", "Jennifer Golbeck for ''Psychology Today''.", "18 September 2014." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of India" ], [ "Introduction", " India is situated north of the equator between 8°4' north (the mainland) to 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' east to 97°25' east longitude.", "It is the seventh-largest country in the world, with a total area of .", "India measures from north to south and from east to west.", "It has a land frontier of and a coastline of .On the south, India projects into and is bounded by the Indian Ocean—in particular, by the Arabian Sea on the west, the Lakshadweep Sea to the southwest, the Bay of Bengal on the east, and the Indian Ocean proper to the south.", "The Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar separate India from Sri Lanka to its immediate southeast, and the Maldives are some to the south of India's Lakshadweep Islands across the Eight Degree Channel.", "India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands, some southeast of the mainland, share maritime borders with Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia.", "The southernmost tip of the Indian mainland (8°4′38″N, 77°31′56″E) is just south of Kanyakumari, while the southernmost point in India is Indira Point on Great Nicobar Island.", "The northernmost point which is under Indian administration is Indira Col, Siachen Glacier.", "India's territorial waters extend into the sea to a distance of from the coast baseline.", "India has the 18th largest Exclusive Economic Zone of .The northern frontiers of India are defined largely by the Himalayan mountain range, where the country borders China, Bhutan, and Nepal.", "Its western border with Pakistan lies in the Karakoram and Western Himalayan ranges, Punjab Plains, the Thar Desert and the Rann of Kutch salt marshes.", "In the far northeast, the Chin Hills and Kachin Hills, deeply forested mountainous regions, separate India from Burma.", "On the east, its border with Bangladesh is largely defined by the Khasi Hills and Mizo Hills, and the watershed region of the Indo-Gangetic Plain.The Ganges is the longest river originating in India.", "The Ganges–Brahmaputra system occupies most of northern, central, and eastern India, while the Deccan Plateau occupies most of southern India.", "Kangchenjunga, in the Indian state of Sikkim, is the highest point in India at and the world's third highest peak.", "The climate across India ranges from equatorial in the far south, to alpine and tundra in the upper regions of the Himalayas.", "Geologically, India lies on the Indian Plate, the northern part of the Indo-Australian Plate." ], [ "Geological development", "The Indian PlateIndia is situated entirely on the Indian Plate, a major tectonic plate that was formed when it split off from the ancient continent Gondwanaland (ancient landmass, consisting of the southern part of the supercontinent of Pangea).", "The Indo-Australian plate is subdivided into the Indian and Australian plates.", "About 90 million years ago, during the late Cretaceous Period, the Indian Plate began moving north at about 15 cm/year (6 in/yr).", "About 50 to 55 million years ago, in the Eocene Epoch of the Cenozoic Era, the plate collided with Asia after covering a distance of , having moved faster than any other known plate.", "In 2007, German geologists determined that the Indian Plate was able to move so quickly because it is only half as thick as the other plates which formerly constituted Gondwanaland.", "The collision with the Eurasian Plate along the modern border between India and Nepal formed the orogenic belt that created the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas.", ", the Indian Plate is moving northeast at 5 cm/yr (2 in/yr), while the Eurasian Plate is moving north at only 2 cm/yr (0.8 in/yr).", "India is thus referred to as the \"fastest continent\".", "This is causing the Eurasian Plate to deform, and the Indian Plate to compress at a rate of 4 cm/yr (1.6 in/yr)." ], [ "Political geography", "India is divided into 28 States (further subdivided into districts) and 8 union territories including the National capital territory (i.e., Delhi).India's borders run a total length of .Its borders with Pakistan and Bangladesh were delineated according to the Radcliffe Line, which was created in 1947 during Partition of India.", "Its western border with Pakistan extends up to , dividing the Punjab region and running along the boundaries of the Thar Desert and the Rann of Kutch.", "This border runs along the Indian states and union territories of Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.", "Both nations delineated a Line of Control (LoC) to serve as the informal boundary between the Indian and Pakistan-administered areas of the Kashmir region.", "India claims the whole of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, which includes areas now administered by Pakistan and China, which according to India are illegally occupied areas.India's border with Bangladesh runs .", "West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram are the states which share the border with Bangladesh.", "Before 2015, there were 92 enclaves of Bangladesh on Indian soil and 106 enclaves of India were on Bangladeshi soil.", "These enclaves were eventually exchanged in order to simplify the border.", "After the exchange, India lost roughly 40 km2 (10,000 acres) to Bangladesh.The Line of Actual Control (LAC) is the effective border between India and the People's Republic of China.", "It traverses 4,057 km along the Indian states and union territories of Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.", "The border with Burma (Myanmar) extends up to along the eastern borders of India's northeastern states viz.", "Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram.", "Located amidst the Himalayan range, India's border with Bhutan runs .", "Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh are the states which share the border with Bhutan.", "The border with Nepal runs along the foothills of the Himalayas in northern India.", "Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim are the states which share the border with Nepal.", "The Siliguri Corridor, narrowed sharply by the borders of Bhutan, Nepal and Bangladesh, connects peninsular India with the northeastern states." ], [ "Physiographic regions", "Physical map of India with various physiographic divisions===Cratons===Topography of India Malani Igneous Suite, largest in India and third largest igneous suite in the world, at Jodhpur near Mehrangarh Fort.Cratons are a specific kind of continental crust made up of a top layer called platform and an older layer called basement.", "A shield is the part of a craton where basement rock crops out of the ground, and it is relatively the older and more stable section, unaffected by plate tectonics.The Indian Craton can be divided into five major cratons as such:* Aravalli Craton (Marwar-Mewar Craton or Western Indian Craton): Covers Rajasthan as well as western and southern Haryana.", "It comprises Mewar Craton in the east and Marwar Craton in the west.", "It is limited by the ''Great Boundary Fault'' in the east, sandy Thar Desert in the Thar desert in the west, Indo-ganetic alluvium in the north, Son-Narmada-Tapti in the south.", "It mainly has quartzite, marble, pelite, greywacke and extinct volcanos exposed in Aravalli-Delhi Orogen.", "Malani Igneous Suite is the largest in India and third largest igneous suite in the world.", "* Bundelkand Craton, covers 26,00 km2 in the Bundelkhand region of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh and forms the basis of the Malwa Plateau.", "It is limited by the Aravalli in the west, Narmada river and Satpura range in the south, and Indo-Gantetic alluvium in the north.", "It is similar to the Aravali Craton, which used to be a single craton before being divided into two with the evolution of Hindoli and Mahakoshal belts at the margins of two cratons.", "* Dharwar Craton (Karnataka Craton), 3.4 - 2.6 Ga, granite-greenstone terrain covers the state of Karnataka and parts of eastern and southern Maharashtra state, and forms the basis of the southern end of the Deccan Plateau.", "In 1886 it was divided into two tectonic blocks, namely Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC) and Western Dharwar Craton (WDC).", "* Singhbhum Craton, 4,000 km2 area which primarily covers Jharkhand as well as parts of Odisha, northern Andhra Pradesh, northern Telangana and eastern Maharashtra.", "It is limited by the Chhota Nagpur Plateau to the north, Eastern Ghats to the southeast, Bastar Craton to southwest and alluvium plain to the east.", "* Bastar Craton (Bastar-Bhandara Craton), primarily covers Chhattisgarh and forms the basis of the Chhota Nagpur Plateau.", "It is a remnant of 3.4-3.0 Ga old TTG gneisses of five types.", "It is subdivided into Kotri-Dongagarh Orogen and the Rest of Bastar Craton.", "It is limited by three rifts, Godavari rift in southwest, Narmada rift in northwest and Mahanadi rift in northeast.===Regions===India can be divided into six physiographic regions.", "They are:* Northern Mountains: Himalayas* Peninsular Plateau: contains mountain ranges (Aravalli, Vindhayachal and Satpura ranges), ghats (Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats) and plateaus (Malwa Plateau, Chhota Nagpur Plateau, Southern Garanulite terrain, Deccan Plateau and Kutch Kathiawar plateau).", "Indo-Gangetic Plain or The Northern PlainsThar Desert* Coastal Plains: Eastern Ghat folds and Western Ghats folds* Islands- The Andaman and Nicobar islands and the Lakshadweep islands.===The Himalayas===An arc of mountains consisting of the Himalayas, Hindu Kush, and Patkai ranges define the northern frontiers of the Indian subcontinent.", "These were formed by the ongoing tectonic plates collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates.", "The mountains in these ranges include some of the world's tallest mountains which act as a barrier to cold polar winds.", "They also facilitate the monsoon winds which in turn influence the climate in India.", "Rivers originating in these mountains flow through the fertile Indo–Gangetic plains.", "These mountains form the boundary between two biogeographic realms: the temperate Palearctic realm that covers most of Eurasia, and the tropical and subtropical Indomalayan realm which includes South Asia, Southeast Asia and Indonesia.Kedarnath range in the Garhwal Himalayas in India.The Himalayas in India extend from Ladakh in the north to the state of Arunachal Pradesh in the east.", "Several Himalayan peaks in India rise above , including Kanchenjunga () on the Sikkim–Nepal border, and Nanda Devi () in the Garhwal Himalayas of Uttarakhand.", "The snow line ranges between in Sikkim to around in Ladakh.", "The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid katabatic winds flowing down from Central Asia.", "Thus, northern India is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot.", "* The Karakoram range runs through Ladakh.", "The range is about in length and the most heavily glaciated part of the world outside of the polar regions.", "The Siachen Glacier at ranks as the world's second longest glacier outside the polar regions.", "The southern boundary of the Karakoram is formed by the Indus and Shyok rivers, which separate the range from the northwestern end of the Himalayas.", "The Patkai, or Purvanchal, are situated near India's eastern border with Burma.", "They were created by the same tectonic processes which led to the formation of the Himalayas.", "The physical features of the Patkai mountains are conical peaks, steep slopes and deep valleys.", "The Patkai ranges are not as rugged or tall as the Himalayas.", "There are three hill ranges that come under the Patkai: the Patkai–Bum, the Garo–Khasi–Jaintia and the Lushai hills.", "The Garo–Khasi range lies in Meghalaya.", "Mawsynram, a village near Cherrapunji lying on the windward side of these hills, has the distinction of being the wettest place in the world, receiving the highest annual rainfall.The Vindhyas in central India===The Peninsular Plateau===The main features of Indian Craton are: Mountain ranges (clockwise from top-left) '''Aravali Range''' is the oldest mountain range in India, running across Rajasthan from northeast to southwest direction, extending approximately .", "The northern end of the range continues as isolated hills and rocky ridges into Haryana, ending near Delhi.", "The highest peak in this range is Guru Shikhar at Mount Abu, rising to , lying near the border with Gujarat.", "The Aravali Range is the eroded stub of an ancient fold mountain system.", "The range rose in a Precambrian event called the Aravali–Delhi orogen.", "The range joins two of the ancient segments that make up the Indian craton, the Marwar segment to the northwest of the range, and the Bundelkhand segment to the southeast.", " '''Vindhya range''', lies north of Satpura range and east of Aravali range, runs across most of central India, extending .", "The average elevation of these hills is from and rarely goes above .", "They are believed to have been formed by the wastes created by the weathering of the ancient Aravali mountains.", "Geographically, it separates Northern India from Southern India.", "The western end of the range lies in eastern Gujarat, near its border with Madhya Pradesh, and runs east and north, almost meeting the Ganges at Mirzapur.", "Dry deciduous and thorny forests of plateau regions in India*'''Satpura Range''', lies south of Vindhya range and east of Aravali range, begins in eastern Gujarat near the Arabian Sea coast and runs east across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.", "It extends with many peaks rising above .", "It is triangular in shape, with its apex at Ratnapuri and the two sides being parallel to the Tapti and Narmada rivers.", "It runs parallel to the Vindhya Range, which lies to the north, and these two east–west ranges divide the Indo–Gangetic plain from the Deccan Plateau located north of River Narmada.", " Plateaus (clockwise from top-left)'''Malwa Plateau''' is spread across Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.", "The average elevation of the Malwa plateau is 500 metres, and the landscape generally slopes towards the north.", "Most of the region is drained by the Chambal River and its tributaries; the western part is drained by the upper reaches of the Mahi River.", " '''Chhota Nagpur Plateau''' is situated in eastern India, covering much of Jharkhand and adjacent parts of Odisha, Bihar and Chhattisgarh.", "Its total area is approximately and is made up of three smaller plateaus—the Ranchi, Hazaribagh, and Kodarma plateaus.", "The Ranchi plateau is the largest, with an average elevation of .", "Much of the plateau is forested, covered by the Chhota Nagpur dry deciduous forests.", "Vast reserves of metal ores and coal have been found in the Chota Nagpur plateau.", "'''Southern Garanulite terrain''': Covers South India especially Tamil Nadu excluding western and eastern ghats.", " '''Deccan Plateau''', also called Deccan Trapps, is a large triangular plateau, bounded by the Vindhyas to the north and flanked by the Eastern and Western Ghats.", "The Deccan covers a total area of 1.9 million km2 (735,000 mile2).", "It is mostly flat, with elevations ranging from .", "The average elevation of the plateau is above sea level.", "The surface slopes from in the west to in the east.", "It slopes gently from west to east and gives rise to several peninsular rivers such as the Godavari, the Krishna, the Kaveri and the Mahanadi which drain into the Bay of Bengal.", "This region is mostly semi-arid as it lies on the leeward side of both Ghats.", "Much of the Deccan is covered by thorn scrub forest scattered with small regions of deciduous broadleaf forest.", "Climate in the Deccan ranges from hot summers to mild winters.", " '''Kutch Kathiawar plateau''' is located in Gujarat state.", "The Kathiawar peninsula in western Gujarat is bounded by the Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of Khambat.", "The natural vegetation in most of the peninsula is xeric scrub, part of the Northwestern thorn scrub forests ecoregion.Western Ghats near MatheranKolli Hills of the Eastern Ghats, Tamil NaduDry Evergreen Forests along the Eastern Ghats, Andhra Pradesh* Ghats Western Ghats or Sahyadri mountains run along the western edge of India's Deccan Plateau and separate it from a narrow coastal plain along the Arabian Sea.", "The range runs approximately from south of the Tapti River near the Gujarat–Maharashtra border and across Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu to the southern tip of the Deccan peninsula.", "The average elevation is around .", "Anai Mudi in the Anaimalai Hills in Kerala is the highest peak in the Western Ghats.", " Eastern Ghats are a discontinuous range of mountains, which have been eroded and quadrisected by the four major rivers of southern India, the Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna, and Kaveri.", "These mountains extend from West Bengal to Odisha, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, along the coast and parallel to the Bay of Bengal.", "Though not as tall as the Western Ghats, some of its peaks are over in height.", "The Nilgiri hills in Tamil Nadu lies at the junction of the Eastern and Western Ghats.", "Arma Konda () in Andhra Pradesh is the tallest peak in Eastern Ghats.===Indo-Gangetic plain===Extent of the Indo-Gangetic plain across South AsiaMany areas remain flooded during the heavy rains brought by monsoon in the Indian state of West Bengal.The Indo-Gangetic plains, also known as the ''Great Plains'' are large alluvial plains dominated by three main rivers, the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra.", "They run parallel to the Himalayas, from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east, and drain most of northern and eastern India.", "The plains encompass an area of .", "The major rivers in this region are the Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra along with their main tributaries—Yamuna, Chambal, Gomti, Ghaghara, Kosi, Sutlej, Ravi, Beas, Chenab, and Tista—as well as the rivers of the Ganges Delta, such as the Meghna.The great plains are sometimes classified into four divisions:* The Bhabar belt is adjacent to the foothills of the Himalayas and consists of boulders and pebbles which have been carried down by streams.", "As the porosity of this belt is very high, the streams flow underground.", "The Bhabar is generally narrow with its width varying between .", "* The Tarai belt lies south of the adjacent Bhabar region and is composed of newer alluvium.", "The underground streams reappear in this region.", "The region is excessively moist and thickly forested.", "It also receives heavy rainfall throughout the year and is populated with a variety of wildlife.", "* The '''Bangar''' belt consists of older alluvium and forms the alluvial terrace of the flood plains.", "In the Gangetic plains, it has a low upland covered by laterite deposits.", "* The '''Khadar''' belt lies in lowland areas after the Bangar belt.", "It is made up of fresh newer alluvium which is deposited by the rivers flowing down the plain.The '''Indo-Gangetic belt''' is the world's most extensive expanse of uninterrupted alluvium formed by the deposition of silt by the numerous rivers.", "The plains are flat making it conducive for irrigation through canals.", "The area is also rich in ground water sources.", "The plains are one of the world's most intensely farmed areas.", "The main crops grown are rice and wheat, which are grown in rotation.", "Other important crops grown in the region include maize, sugarcane and cotton.", "The Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the world's most densely populated areas.===Thar Desert===Thar desert, RajasthanThe Thar Desert (also known as ''the deserts'') is by some calculations the world's seventh largest desert, by some others the tenth.", "It forms a significant portion of western India and covers an area of .", "The desert continues into Pakistan as the Cholistan Desert.", "Most of the Thar Desert is situated in Rajasthan, covering 61% of its geographic area.About 10 percent of this region consists of sand dunes, and the remaining 90 percent consist of craggy rock forms, compacted salt-lake bottoms, and interdunal and fixed dune areas.", "Annual temperatures can range from in the winter to over during the summer.", "Most of the rainfall received in this region is associated with the short July–September southwest monsoon that brings of precipitation.", "Water is scarce and occurs at great depths, ranging from below the ground level.", "Rainfall is precarious and erratic, ranging from below in the extreme west to eastward.", "The only river in this region is Luni.", "The soils of the arid region are generally sandy to sandy-loam in texture.", "The consistency and depth vary as per the topographical features.", "The low-lying loams are heavier may have a hard pan of clay, calcium carbonate or gypsum.In western India, the Kutch region in Gujarat and Koyna in Maharashtra are classified as a Zone IV region (high risk) for earthquakes.", "The Kutch city of Bhuj was the epicentre of the 2001 Gujarat earthquake, which claimed the lives of more than 1,337 people and injured 166,836 while destroying or damaging near a million homes.", "The 1993 Latur earthquake in Maharashtra killed 7,928 people and injured 30,000.Other areas have a moderate to low risk of an earthquake occurring.===Coastal plains ===Visakhapatnam beach view, Bay of Bengal, Andhra Pradesh.Varkala beach on Kerala's coast, Arabian SeaThe Eastern Coastal Plain is a wide stretch of land lying between the Eastern Ghats and the oceanic boundary of India.", "It stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south to West Bengal in the east.", "The Mahanadi, Godavari, Kaveri, and Krishna rivers drain these plains.", "The temperature in the coastal regions often exceeds , and is coupled with high levels of humidity.", "The region receives both the northeast monsoon and southwest monsoon rains.", "The southwest monsoon splits into two branches, the Bay of Bengal branch and the Arabian Sea branch.", "The Bay of Bengal branch moves northwards crossing northeast India in early June.", "The Arabian Sea branch moves northwards and discharges much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats.", "Annual rainfall in this region averages between .", "The width of the plains varies between .", "The plains are divided into six regions—the Mahanadi delta, the southern Andhra Pradesh plain, the Krishna-Godavari deltas, the Kanyakumari coast, the Coromandel Coast, and sandy coastal.The Western Coastal Plain is a narrow strip of land sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, ranging from in width.", "It extends from Gujarat in the north and extends through Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, and Kerala.", "Numerous rivers and backwaters inundate the region.", "Mostly originating in the Western Ghats, the rivers are fast-flowing, usually perennial, and empty into estuaries.", "Major rivers flowing into the sea are the Tapti, Narmada, Mandovi and Zuari.", "Vegetation is mostly deciduous, but the Malabar Coast moist forests constitute a unique ecoregion.", "The Western Coastal Plain can be divided into two parts, the Konkan and the Malabar Coast.=== Ghats ===Western GhatsThe word ''ghati'' () means valley.", "In Marathi, Hindi, Gujarati and Kannada, ''ghat'' is a term used to identify a difficult passage over a mountain.", "One such passage is the Bhor Ghat that connects the towns Khopoli and Khandala, on NH 4 about north of Mumbai.", "Charmadi Ghat of Karnataka is also notable.", "In many cases, the term is used to refer to a mountain range itself, as in the ''Western Ghats'' and ''Eastern Ghats''.", "'Ghattam' in Malayalam also refers to mountain ranges when used with the name of the ranges being addressed (e.g., paschima ghattam for Western Ghats), while the passage road would be called a 'churam'.", "Eastern Ghats on the east coast of India and Western Ghats on the west coast of India are the largest ghats in pensular India.Western Ghats, also known as ''Sahyadri'' (Benevolent Mountains), is a mountain range covers an area of 140,000 km2 in a stretch of 1,600 km parallel to the western coast of the Indian peninsula, traverse the States of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra and Gujarat.", "It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is one of the eight \"hottest hot-spots\" of biological diversity in the world.", "It is sometimes called the Great Escarpment of India.", "It is a biodiversity hotspot that contains a large proportion of the country's flora and fauna; many of which are only found here and nowhere else in the world.", "According to UNESCO, Western Ghats are older than Himalayan mountains.", "It also influences Indian monsoon weather patterns by intercepting the rain-laden monsoon winds that sweep in from the south-west during late summer.", "The range runs north to south along the western edge of the Deccan Plateau, and separates the plateau from a narrow coastal plain, called Konkan, along the Arabian Sea.", "A total of thirty-nine properties including national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserve forests were designated as world heritage sites - twenty in Kerala, ten in Karnataka, five in Tamil Nadu and four in Maharashtra.", "Ghati people, literally means the ''people of hills or ghats (valleys)'', is an exonym used for the marathi people specially those from the villages in Western Ghats, often in pejorative terms.The Eastern Ghats are a discontinuous range of mountains along India's eastern coast.", "The Eastern Ghats run from the northern Odisha through Andhra Pradesh to Tamil Nadu in the south passing some parts of Karnataka and in the Wayanad region of Kerala.", "They are eroded and cut through by four major rivers of peninsular India, viz.", "Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna, and Kaveri.", "The mountain ranges run parallel to the Bay of Bengal.", "The Deccan Plateau lies to the west of the range, between the Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats.", "The coastal plains, including the Coromandel Coast region, lie between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal.", "The Eastern Ghats are not as high as the Western Ghats.", "The Eastern Ghats are older than the Western Ghats, and have a complex geologic history related to the assembly and breakup of the ancient supercontinent of Rodinia and the assembly of the Gondwana supercontinent.", "The Eastern Ghats are made up of charnockites, granite gneiss, khondalites, metamorphic gneisses and quartzite rock formations.", "The structure of the Eastern Ghats includes thrusts and strike-slip faults all along its range.", "Limestone, bauxite and iron ore are found in the Eastern Ghats hill ranges.=== Islands ===Aerial view of the Andaman IslandsThe Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are India's two major island formations and are classified as union territories.The '''Lakshadweep''' Islands lie off the coast of Kerala in the Arabian sea with an area of .", "They consist of twelve atolls, three reefs, and five submerged banks, with a total of about 35 islands and islets.The '''Andaman and Nicobar''' Islands are located between 6° and 14° north latitude and 92° and 94° east longitude.", "They consist of 572 islands, lying in the Bay of Bengal near the Myanmar coast running in a north–south axis for approximately 910 km.", "They are located from Kolkata (Calcutta) and from Cape Negrais in Burma.", "The territory consists of two island groups, the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar Islands.", "The Andaman and Nicobar Islands consist of 572 islands which run in a north–south axis for around 910 km.", "The Andaman group has 325 islands which cover an area of 6,170 km2 (2,382 sq mi) while the Nicobar group has only 247 islands with an area of 1,765 km2 (681 sq mi).", "India's only active volcano, Barren Island is situated here.", "It last erupted in 2017.The Narcondum is a dormant volcano and there is a mud volcano at Baratang.", "Indira Point, India's southernmost land point, is situated in the Nicobar islands at 6°45’10″N and 93°49’36″E, and lies just from the Indonesian island of Sumatra, to the southeast.", "The highest point is Mount Thullier at .Other significant islands in India include Diu, a former Portuguese colony; Majuli, a river island of the Brahmaputra; Elephanta in Bombay Harbour; and Sriharikota, a barrier island in Andhra Pradesh.", "Salsette Island is India's most populous island on which the city of Mumbai (Bombay) is located.", "Forty-two islands in the Gulf of Kutch constitute the Marine National Park." ], [ "Natural resources", "===Ecological resources =======Water bodies====India has around 14,500 km of inland navigable waterways.", "There are twelve rivers which are classified as major rivers, with the total catchment area exceeding .", "All major rivers of India originate from one of the three main watersheds:* The Himalaya and the Karakoram ranges* Vindhya and Satpura range in central India* Sahyadri or Western Ghats in western IndiaThe Himalayan river networks are snow-fed and have a perennial supply throughout the year.", "The other two river systems are dependent on the monsoons and shrink into rivulets during the dry season.", "The Himalayan rivers that flow westward into Punjab are the Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej.Bhagirathi River at Gangotri, source river of the GangesNational Highway 31A winds along the banks of the Teesta River near Kalimpong (West Bengal), in the Darjeeling Himalayan hill region.The Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghana system has the largest catchment area of about .", "The Ganges Basin alone has a catchment of about .", "The Ganges originates from the Gangotri Glacier in Uttarakhand.", "It flows southeast, draining into the Bay of Bengal.", "(The Yamuna and Gomti rivers also arise in the western Himalayas and join the Ganges in the plains.", "The Brahmaputra originates in Tibet, China, where it is known as the Yarlung Tsangpo River) (or \"Tsangpo\").", "It enters India in the far-eastern state of Arunachal Pradesh, then flows west through Assam.", "The Brahmaputra merges with the Ganges in Bangladesh, where it is known as the Jamuna River.The Chambal, another tributary of the Ganges, via the Yamuna, originates from the Vindhya-Satpura watershed.", "The river flows eastward.", "Westward-flowing rivers from this watershed are the Narmada and Tapi, which drain into the Arabian Sea in Gujarat.", "The river network that flows from east to west constitutes 10% of the total outflow.The Godavari River at Papi Hills(The Western Ghats are the source of all Deccan rivers, which include the through Godavari River, Krishna River and Kaveri River, all draining into the Bay of Bengal.", "These rivers constitute 20% of India's total outflow).The heavy southwest monsoon rains cause the Brahmaputra and other rivers to distend their banks, often flooding surrounding areas.", "Though they provide rice paddy farmers with a largely dependable source of natural irrigation and fertilisation, such floods have killed thousands of people and tend to cause displacements of people in such areas.Major gulfs include the Gulf of Cambay, Gulf of Kutch, and the Gulf of Mannar.", "Straits include the Palk Strait, which separates India from Sri Lanka; the Ten Degree Channel, which separates the Andamans from the Nicobar Islands; and the Eight Degree Channel, which separates the Laccadive and Amindivi Islands from the Minicoy Island to the south.", "Important capes include the Kanyakumari (formerly called Cape Comorin), the southern tip of mainland India; Indira Point, the southernmost point in India (on Great Nicobar Island); Rama's Bridge, and Point Calimere.", "The Arabian Sea lies to the west of India, the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean lie to the east and south, respectively.", "Smaller seas include the Laccadive Sea and the Andaman Sea.", "There are four coral reefs in India, located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep, and the Gulf of Kutch.", "Important lakes include Sambhar Lake, the country's largest saltwater lake in Rajasthan, Vembanad Lake in Kerala, Kolleru Lake in Andhra Pradesh, Loktak Lake in Manipur, Dal Lake in Kashmir, Chilka Lake (lagoon lake) in Odisha, and Sasthamkotta Lake in Kerala.==== Wetlands ====A map of the Indian Sunderbans in West BengalPichavaram Mangroves, Tamil NaduIndia's wetland ecosystem is widely distributed from the cold and arid located in the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, and those with the wet and humid climate of peninsular India.", "Most of the wetlands are directly or indirectly linked to river networks.", "The Indian government has identified a total of 71 wetlands for conservation and are part of sanctuaries and national parks.", "Mangrove forests are present all along the Indian coastline in sheltered estuaries, creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and mudflats.", "The mangrove area covers a total of , which comprises 7% of the world's total mangrove cover.", "Prominent mangrove covers are located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Sundarbans delta, the Gulf of Kutch and the deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna rivers.", "Parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala also have large mangrove covers.The Sundarbans delta is home to the largest mangrove forest in the world.", "It lies at the mouth of the Ganges and spreads across areas of Bangladesh and West Bengal.", "The Sundarbans is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, but is identified separately as the Sundarbans (Bangladesh) and the Sundarbans National Park (India).", "The Sundarbans are intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests.", "The area is known for its diverse fauna, being home to a large variety of species of birds, spotted deer, crocodiles and snakes.", "Its most famous inhabitant is the Bengal tiger.", "It is estimated that there are now 400 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area.The Rann of Kutch is a marshy region located in northwestern Gujarat and the bordering Sindh province of Pakistan.", "It occupies a total area of .", "The region was originally a part of the Arabian Sea.", "Geologic forces such as earthquakes resulted in the damming up of the region, turning it into a large saltwater lagoon.", "This area gradually filled with silt thus turning it into a seasonal salt marsh.", "During the monsoons, the area turn into a shallow marsh, often flooding to knee-depth.", "After the monsoons, the region turns dry and becomes parched.===Economic resources =======Renewable water resources ====India's total renewable water resources are estimated at 1,907.8 km3 a year.", "Its annual supply of usable and replenshable groundwater amounts to 350 billion cubic metres.", "Only 35% of groundwater resources are being utilised.", "About 44 million tonnes of cargo is moved annually through the country's major rivers and waterways.", "Groundwater supplies 40% of water in India's irrigation canals.", "56% of the land is arable and used for agriculture.", "Black soils are moisture-retentive and are preferred for dry farming and growing cotton, linseed, etc.", "Forest soils are used for tea and coffee plantations.", "Red soils have a wide diffusion of iron content.====Mineral oil====Most of India's estimated in oil reserves are located in the Mumbai High, upper Assam, Cambay, the Krishna-Godavari and Cauvery basins.", "India possesses about seventeen trillion cubic feet of natural gas in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Odisha.", "Uranium is mined in Andhra Pradesh.", "India has 400 medium-to-high enthalpy thermal springs for producing geothermal energy in seven \"provinces\"—the Himalayas, Sohana, Cambay, the Narmada-Tapti delta, the Godavari delta and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (specifically the volcanic Barren Island.", ")====Minerals and ores ====Indian coal production is the 3rd highest in the world according to the 2008 Indian Ministry of Mines estimates.", "Shown above is a coal mine in Jharkhand.India is the world's biggest producer of mica blocks and mica splittings.", "India ranks second amongst the world's largest producers of barite and chromite.", "The Pleistocene system is rich in minerals.", "India is the third-largest coal producer in the world and ranks fourth in the production of iron ore.", "It is the fifth-largest producer of bauxite, second largest of crude steel as of February 2018 replacing Japan, the seventh-largest of manganese ore and the eighth-largest of aluminium.", "India has significant sources of titanium ore, diamonds and limestone.", "India possesses 24% of the world's known and economically viable thorium, which is mined along shores of Kerala.", "Gold had been mined in the now-defunct Kolar Gold Fields in Karnataka." ], [ "Climate", "India's Köppen climate classification map is based on native vegetation, temperature, precipitation and their seasonality.Based on the Köppen system, India hosts six major climatic subtypes, ranging from arid desert in the west, alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, and humid tropical regions supporting rainforests in the southwest and the island territories.", "The nation has four seasons: winter (January–February), summer (March–May), a monsoon (rainy) season (June–September) and a post-monsoon period (October–December).The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid katabatic winds flowing down from Central Asia.", "Thus, northern India is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot.", "Although the Tropic of Cancer—the boundary between the tropics and subtropics—passes through the middle of India, the whole country is considered to be tropical.Temperature averages in India; units are in degree CelsiusSummer lasts between March and June in most parts of India.", "Temperatures can exceed during the day.", "The coastal regions exceed coupled with high levels of humidity.", "In the Thar desert area temperatures can exceed .", "The rain-bearing monsoon clouds are attracted to the low-pressure system created by the Thar Desert.", "The southwest monsoon splits into two arms, the Bay of Bengal arm and the Arabian Sea arm.", "The Bay of Bengal arm moves northwards crossing northeast India in early June.", "The Arabian Sea arm moves northwards and deposits much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats.", "Winters in peninsula India see mild to warm days and cool nights.", "Further north the temperature is cooler.", "Temperatures in some parts of the Indian plains sometimes fall below freezing.", "Most of northern India is plagued by fog during this season.", "The highest temperature recorded in India was in Phalodi, Rajasthan.", ".", "And the lowest was in Dras, Jammu and Kashmir." ], [ "Geology", "Eparchaean Unconformity of Detrital rocks of Tirumala Hills, Eastern GhatsIndia's geological features are classified based on their era of formation.", "The Precambrian formations of Cudappah and Vindhyan systems are spread out over the eastern and southern states.", "A small part of this period is spread over western and central India.", "The Paleozoic formations from the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian system are found in the Western Himalaya region in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.", "The Mesozoic Deccan Traps formation is seen over most of the northern Deccan; they are believed to be the result of sub-aerial volcanic activity.", "The Trap soil is black in colour and conducive to agriculture.", "The Carboniferous system, Permian System and Triassic systems are seen in the western Himalayas.", "The Jurassic system is seen in the western Himalayas and Rajasthan.Geological regions of IndiaTertiary imprints are seen in parts of Manipur, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and along the Himalayan belt.", "The Cretaceous system is seen in central India in the Vindhyas and part of the Indo-Gangetic plains.", "The Gondwana system is seen in the Narmada River area in the Vindhyas and Satpuras.", "The Eocene system is seen in the western Himalayas and Assam.", "Oligocene formations are seen in Kutch and Assam.", "The Pleistocene system is found over central India.", "The Andaman and Nicobar Island are thought to have been formed in this era by volcanoes.", "The Himalayas were formed by the convergence and deformation of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian Plates.", "Their continued convergence raises the height of the Himalayas by one centimetre each year.Soils in India can be classified into eight categories: alluvial, black, red, laterite, forest, arid and desert, saline and alkaline and peaty and organic soils.", "Alluvial soil constitute the largest soil group in India, constituting 80% of the total land surface.", "It is derived from the deposition of silt carried by rivers and are found in the Great Northern plains from Punjab to the Assam valley.", "Alluvial soil are generally fertile but they lack nitrogen and tend to be phosphoric.", "National Disaster Management Authority says that 60% of Indian landmass is prone to earthquakes and 8% susceptible to cyclone risks.Black soil are well developed in the Deccan lava region of Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh.", "These contain high percentage of clay and are moisture retentive.", "Red soils are found in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka plateau, Andhra plateau, Chota Nagpur plateau and the Aravallis.", "These are deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus and humus.", "Laterite soils are formed in tropical regions with heavy rainfall.", "Heavy rainfall results in leaching out all soluble material of top layer of soil.", "These are generally found in Western ghats, Eastern ghats and hilly areas of northeastern states that receive heavy rainfall.", "Forest soils occur on the slopes of mountains and hills in Himalayas, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats.", "These generally consist of large amounts of dead leaves and other organic matter called humus." ], [ "See also", "* Geology of India* Borders of India* Climate change in India* Disputed territories of India * List of extreme points of India* Exclusive economic zone of India* List of disputed territories of India * Outline of India * Category:Lists of villages in India" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "" ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * * * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of India" ], [ "Introduction", "India is the most populous country in the world with one-sixth of the world's population.", "According to UN estimates, India overtook China in having the largest population in the world with a population of 1,425,775,850 at the end of April 2023.Between 1975 and 2010, the population doubled to 1.2 billion, reaching the billion mark in 2000.According to the UN's World Population dashboard, India's population now stands at slightly over 1.428 billion, edging past China's population of 1.425 billion people, as reported by the news agency Bloomberg.", "its population is set to reach 1.7 billion by 2050.In 2017 its population growth rate was 0.98%, ranking 112th in the world; in contrast, from 1972 to 1983, India's population grew by an annual rate of 2.3%.In 2022, the median age of an Indian was 28.7 years, compared to 38.4 for China and 48.6 for Japan; and, by 2030; India's dependency ratio will be just over 0.4.However, the number of children in India peaked more than a decade ago and is now falling.", "The number of children under the age of five peaked in 2007, and since then the number has been falling.", "The number of Indians under 15 years old peaked slightly later (in 2011) and is now also declining.India has more than two thousand ethnic groups, and every major religion is represented, as are four major families of languages (Indo-European, Dravidian, Austroasiatic and Sino-Tibetan languages) as well as two language isolates: the Nihali language, spoken in parts of Maharashtra, and the Burushaski language, spoken in parts of Jammu and Kashmir.", "1,000,000 people in India are Anglo-Indians and 700,000 United States citizens are living in India.", "They represent over 0.1% of the total population of India.", "Overall, only the continent of Africa exceeds the linguistic, genetic and cultural diversity of the nation of India.The sex ratio was 944 females for 1000 males in 2016, and 940 per 1000 in 2011.This ratio has been showing an upwards trend for the last two decades after a continuous decline in the 20th century." ], [ "History", "Historical population of India and China since 1100 with projection to 2100===Prehistory to early 19th century===The following table lists estimates for the population of India (including what are now Pakistan and Bangladesh) from prehistory up until 1820.It includes estimates and growth rates according to five economic historians, along with interpolated estimates and overall aggregate averages derived from their estimates.", "Year Maddison (2001) Clark (1967) Biraben (1979) Durand (1974) McEvedy (1978) Aggregate average Period Average % growth / century Population % growth / century Population % growth / century Population % growth / century Population % growth / century Population % growth / century Population % growth / century 10,000 BC — — — — — — — — — — Stone Age 3.9 4000 BC — — — — — — — — 3.9 3.9 2000 BC — — — — — — — — 9.4 9.4 Bronze Age 9.4 500 BC — — — — — — — — 10 10 Iron Age 10.2 400 BC — — — — — — — 6.3 13.2 200 BC — — — — 35.4 — — 6.3 22.5 Maurya era 22.5 1 AD — — –9.3 — 6.5 18.8 Classical era 5.3 200 0 1.7 –1.1 0 7.1 1.1 400 0 1.7 –18.6 0 7.4 –0.7 500 0 0 3.1 0 6.5 1.3 600 0 0 12.1 0 6.5 2.3 Early medieval era 1.9 700 0 0 35.1 0 10.3 5.9 800 0 0 –16.3 0 10.3 –0.5 900 0 –3.5 –13.2 0 11.4 0 1000 0 –3.5 5.3 0 11.4 2.1 1100 8 3.5 27.5 8.4 3.9 8.6 Late medieval era 8.1 1200 8 3.5 27.5 8.4 3.8 9 1300 8 0 27.5 8.4 6 9.3 1400 8 3.3 7 8.4 6.8 7 1500 8 3.3 7 8.4 6.4 7 1600 22.8 26.6 52.6 20.7 30 30.1 Mughal era 31.9 1650 22.2 125 20.7 20.7 24.4 36.2 1700 22.2 77.8 20.7 20.7 21.8 31.3 1750 21.8 0 9 20.7 12.9 12.1 Colonial era 12.2 1800 21.8 –10.8 9 — — 18.4 8 1820 21.8 0 9 — — 47.7 22The population grew from the South Asian Stone Age in 10,000 BC to the Maurya Empire in 200 BC at a steadily increasing growth rate, before population growth slowed down in the classical era up to 500 AD, and then became largely stagnant during the early medieval era era up to 1000 AD.", "The population growth rate then increased in the late medieval era (during the Delhi Sultanate) from 1000 to 1500.Under the Mughal Empire, India experienced a high economic and demographic upsurge, due to Mughal agrarian reforms that intensified agricultural production.", "15% of the population lived in urban centres, higher than the percentage of the population in 19th-century British India and contemporary Europe up until the 19th century.", "These estimates by Abraham Eraly and Paolo Malanima have been criticised by Tim Dyson, who considers them exaggerations and estimates urbanisation of the Mughal Empire to be less than 9% of the population.Under the reign of Akbar (reigned 1556–1605) in 1600, the Mughal Empire's urban population was up to 17 million people, larger than the urban population in Europe.", "By 1700, Mughal India had an urban population of 23 million people, larger than British India's urban population of 22.3 million in 1871.Nizamuddin Ahmad (1551–1621) reported that, under Akbar's reign, Mughal India had 120 large cities and 3,200 townships.", "A number of cities in India had a population between a quarter-million and half-million people, with larger cities including Agra (in Agra Subah) with up to 800,000 people and Dhaka (in Bengal Subah) with over 1 million people.", "Mughal India also had a large number of villages, with 455,698 villages by the time of Aurangzeb (reigned 1658–1707).=== Late 19th century to early 20th century ===The total fertility rate is the number of children born per woman.", "It is based on fairly good data for the entire years.", "Sources: Our World in Data and Gapminder Foundation.", "Years 188018811882188318841885188618871888188918901902Total Fertility Rate in India5.955.92 5.895.865.825.794.385.765.765.755.755.75 Years 1921192219231924192519261927192819291930Total Fertility Rate in India5.761 5.775.785.795.85.815.825.835.855.86Life expectancy from 1881 to 1950Years188118911901190519111915192119251931193519411950Life expectancy in India25.424.323.524.023.224.024.927.629.331.032.635.4The population of India under the British Raj (including what are now Pakistan and Bangladesh) according to censuses: Census year Population Growth (%) 1871 – 1881 6.3 1891 13.1 1901 2.2 1911 7.4 1921 1.2 1931 10.6 1941 10.2Studies of India's population since 1881 have focused on such topics as total population, birth and death rates, geographic distribution, literacy, the rural and urban divide, cities of a million, and the three cities with populations over eight million: Delhi, Greater Mumbai (Bombay), and Kolkata (Calcutta).Mortality rates fell in the period 1920–45, primarily due to biological immunisation.", "Suggestions that it was the benefits of colonialism are refuted by academic thinking: \"There can be no serious, informed belief… that… late colonial era mortality diminished and population grew rapidly because of improvements in income, living standards, nutrition, environmental standards, sanitation or health policies, nor was there a cultural transformation…\"." ], [ "Salient features", "Crude birth rate trends in India(per 1000 people, national average)Infant mortality rate trends in India(per 1000 births, under age 1, national average)India occupies 2.41% of the world's land area but supports over 18% of the world's population.", "At the 2001 census 72.2% of the population lived in about 638,000 villages and the remaining 27.8% lived in more than 5,100 towns and over 380 urban agglomerations.India's population exceeded that of the entire continent of Africa by 200 million people in 2010.However, because Africa's population growth is nearly double that of India, it is expected to surpass both China and India by 2025.=== Comparative demographics ===+ Comparative demographics Category Global ranking References Area 7th Population 1st Population growth rate 102nd of 212 in 2010 Population density 24th of 212 in 2010 Male to Female ratio, at birth 12th of 214 in 2009=== List of states and union territories by demographics ===+ Population growth of India per decade Census year Population Change (%) 1951 – 1961 21.6 1971 24.8 1981 24.7 1991 23.9 2001 21.5 2011 1,210,193,422 17.7+ Population distribution by states/union territories (2011) Rank State/UT Population Percent (%) Male Female Difference between male and female Sex ratio Rural Urban Area (km2) Density (per km2) 1 Uttar Pradesh 16.50 930 2 Maharashtra 9.28 929 3 Bihar 8.60 918 4 West Bengal 7.54 950 5 Madhya Pradesh 6.00 931 6 Tamil Nadu 5.96 996 7 Rajasthan 5.66 928 8 Karnataka 5.05 973 9 Gujarat 4.99 919 10 Andhra Pradesh 4.08 996 11 Odisha 3.47 979 12 Telangana 2.91 988 13 Kerala 2.76 1084 14 Jharkhand 2.72 948 15 Assam 2.58 958 16 Punjab 2.29 895 17 Chhattisgarh 2.11 991 18 Haryana 2.09 879 19 Delhi (UT) 1.39 868 20 Jammu and Kashmir 1.04 889 21 Uttarakhand 0.83 963 22 Himachal Pradesh 0.57 972 23 Tripura 0.30 960 24 Meghalaya 0.25 989 25 Manipur 0.24 985 26 Nagaland 0.16 931 27 Goa 0.12 973 28 Arunachal Pradesh 0.11 938 29 Puducherry (UT) 0.10 1037 30 Mizoram 0.09 976 31 Chandigarh (UT) 0.09 818 32 Sikkim 0.05 890 33 Andaman and Nicobar Islands (UT) 0.03 876 34 Dadra and Nagar Haveli (UT) 0.03 774 35 Daman and Diu (UT) 0.02 618 36 Lakshadweep (UT) 0.01 946 – Total (India) 100 943 === Religious demographics ===The table below summarises India's demographics (excluding the Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul subdivisions of Senapati district of Manipur state due to cancellation of census results) according to religion at the 2011 census in per cent.", "The data are \"unadjusted\" (without excluding Assam and Jammu and Kashmir); the 1981 census was not conducted in Assam and the 1991 census was not conducted in Jammu and Kashmir.", "Missing citing/reference for \"Changes in religious demagraphics over time\" table below.+ Religious populations' numbers (2011) Religion Population Percentage (%) Hindus 79.80 Muslims 14.23 Christians 2.30 Sikhs 1.72 Buddhists 0.70 Jains 0.37 Others 0.66 Not Stated 0.24+ Changes in religious demographics over time Religiousgroup Population % '''1951''' Population % '''1961''' Population % '''1971''' Population % '''1981''' Population % '''1991''' Population % '''2001''' Population % '''2011''' Hinduism 84.1% 83.45% 82.73% 82.30% 81.53% 80.46% 79.80% Islam 9.8% 10.69% 11.21% 11.75% 12.61% 13.43% 14.23% Christianity 2.3% 2.44% 2.60% 2.44% 2.32% 2.34% 2.30% Sikhism 1.79% 1.79% 1.89% 1.92% 1.94% 1.87% 1.72% Buddhism 0.74% 0.74% 0.70% 0.70% 0.77% 0.77% 0.70% Jainism 0.46% 0.46% 0.48% 0.47% 0.40% 0.41% 0.37% Zoroastrianism 0.13% 0.09% 0.09% 0.09% 0.08% 0.06% n/a Others/Religion not specified 0.43% 0.43% 0.41% 0.42% 0.44% 0.72% 0.9%;Characteristics of religious groups Religiousgroup Population (2011)% Growth(2001–2011) Sex ratio (2011)(total) Sex ratio (2011)(rural) Sex ratio (2011)(urban) Sex ratio (2011)(child) Literacy (2011)(%) Work participation (2011)(%) Hinduism 79.80% 16.8% 939 946 921 913 73.3% 41.0% Islam 14.23% 24.6% 951 957 941 943 68.5% 32.6% Christianity 2.30% 15.5% 1023 1008 1046 958 84.5% 41.9% Sikhism 1.72% 8.4% 903 905 898 828 75.4% 36.3% Buddhism 0.70% 6.1% 965 960 973 933 81.3% 43.1% Jainism0.37% 5.4% 954 935 959 889 94.9% 35.5% Others/Religion Not Specified 0.90% n/a 959 947 975 974 n/a n/aPercentage of total population of India's administrative divisions made up by Muslims (2011)=== Neonatal and infant demographics ===Male to female sex ratio for India, based on its official census data, from 1941 through 2011.The data suggest the existence of high sex ratios before and after the arrival of ultrasound-based prenatal care and sex screening technologies in India.The table below represents the infant mortality rate trends in India, based on sex, over the last 15 years.", "In the urban areas of India, average male infant mortality rates are slightly higher than average female infant mortality rates.+Infant mortality rate trend (deaths per 1000) As per NFHS & UNICEF Data.", "Year Male FemaleTotal 1998 69.8 73.571.6 2005 56.3 5857 2009 49 52 –201443.737.9040.7201829.9529.8829.94Some activists believe India's 2011 census shows a serious decline in the number of girls under the age of seven – activists posit that eight million female fetuses may have been aborted between 2001 and 2011.These claims are controversial.", "Scientists who study human sex ratios and demographic trends suggest that a birth sex ratio between 1.08 and 1.12 can be due to natural factors, such as the age of mother at the baby's birth, the age of father at conception, number of babies per couple, economic stress, endocrinological factors, and others.", "The 2011 census birth sex ratio in India, of 917 girls to 1000 boys, is similar to birth sex ratios (870–930 girls to 1000 boys) observed in Japanese, Chinese, Cuban, Filipino and Hawaiian ethnic groups in the United States between 1940 and 2005.They are also similar to birth sex ratios (below 900 girls to 1000 boys) observed in mothers of different age groups and gestation periods in the United States.=== Population within the age group of 0–6 ===+ Population between age 0–6 by state/union territory State or UT code State or UT Total Male Female Difference 1 Jammu and Kashmir 2 Himachal Pradesh 3 Punjab 4 Chandigarh 5 Uttarakhand 6 Haryana 7 Delhi 8 Rajasthan 9 Uttar Pradesh 10 Bihar 11 Sikkim 12 Arunachal Pradesh 13 Nagaland 14 Manipur 15 Mizoram 16 Tripura 17 Meghalaya 18 Assam 19 West Bengal 20 Jharkhand 21 Odisha 22 Chhattisgarh 23 Madhya Pradesh 24 Gujarat 25 Daman and Diu 26 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 27 Maharashtra 28 Andhra Pradesh 29 Karnataka 30 Goa 31 Lakshadweep 32 Kerala 33 Tamil Nadu 34 Puducherry 35 Andaman and Nicobar Islands – Total (India) === Population above the age of seven ===Life expectancy map of India, 2011–2016.+ Population above the age of seven by state/union territory State or UT code State or UT Total Male Female 1 Jammu and Kashmir – – – 2 Himachal Pradesh – – – 3 Punjab – – – 4 Chandigarh – – – 5 Uttarakhand – – – 6 Haryana 7 Delhi 8 Rajasthan 9 Uttar Pradesh 10 Bihar 11 Sikkim 12 Arunachal Pradesh 13 Nagaland 14 Manipur 15 Mizoram 16 Tripura 17 Meghalaya 18 Assam 19 West Bengal 20 Jharkhand 21 Odisha 22 Chhattisgarh 23 Madhya Pradesh 24 Gujarat 25 Daman and Diu 26 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 27 Maharashtra 28 Andhra Pradesh 29 Karnataka 30 Goa 31 Lakshadweep 32 Kerala – – – 33 Tamil Nadu 34 Puducherry 35 Andaman and Nicobar Islands – Total (India) === Literacy rate ===Literacy rate map of India, 2011.+ Literacy rate by state/union territory State or UT code State or UT Overall (%) Male (%) Female (%) 1 Jammu and Kashmir 68.74 76.75 58.01 2 Himachal Pradesh 83.78 90.83 76.60 3 Punjab 86.60 81.48 71.34 4 Chandigarh 86.43 90.54 81.38 5 Uttarakhand 79.63 88.33 70.70 6 Haryana 76.64 85.38 66.77 7 Delhi 86.34 91.03 80.93 8 Rajasthan 67.06 80.51 52.66 9 Uttar Pradesh 69.72 79.24 59.26 10 Bihar 63.82 73.39 53.33 11 Sikkim 82.20 87.29 76.43 12 Arunachal Pradesh 66.95 73.69 59.57 13 Nagaland 80.11 83.29 76.69 14 Manipur 79.85 86.49 73.17 15 Mizoram 91.58 93.72 89.40 16 Tripura 87.75 92.18 83.15 17 Meghalaya 75.48 77.17 73.78 18 Assam 73.18 78.81 67.27 19 West Bengal 77.08 82.67 71.16 20 Jharkhand 67.63 78.45 56.21 21 Odisha 72.90 82.40 64.36 22 Chhattisgarh 71.04 81.45 60.59 23 Madhya Pradesh 70.63 80.53 60.02 24 Gujarat 79.31 87.23 70.73 25 Daman and Diu 87.07 91.48 79.59 26 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 77.65 86.46 65.93 27 Maharashtra 83.20 89.82 75.48 28 Andhra Pradesh 67.35 74.77 59.96 29 Karnataka 75.60 82.85 68.13 30 Goa 87.40 92.81 81.84 31 Lakshadweep 92.28 96.11 88.25 32 Kerala 93.91 96.02 91.98 33 Tamil Nadu 80.33 86.81 73.86 34 Puducherry 86.55 92.12 81.22 35 Andaman and Nicobar Islands 86.27 90.11 81.84 – Overall (India) 74.03 82.14 65.46=== Linguistic demographics ===According to the 2001 census, 41.03% of the Indians spoke Hindi natively, while the rest spoke Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Maithili, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Odia, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu and a variety of other languages.", "There are a total of 122 languages and 234 mother tongues spoken in India.", "Of these, 22 languages are specified in the Eighth Schedule of Indian Constitution, while 100 are non-specified.The table below excludes Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul subdivisions of Senapati District of Manipur state due to cancellation of census results.+ Languages of India by number of native speakers at the 2001 census Rank Language Speakers Percentage (%) 1 Hindi 41.030 2 Bengali 8.110 3 Telugu 7.190 4 Marathi 6.990 5 Tamil 5.910 6 Urdu 5.010 7 Gujarati 4.480 8 Kannada 3.690 9 Malayalam 3.210 10 Odia 3.210 11 Punjabi 2.830 12 Assamese 1.280 13 Maithili 1.180 14 Bhili/Bhilodi 0.930 15 Santali 0.630 16 Kashmiri 0.540 17 Nepali 0.280 18 Gondi 0.260 19 Sindhi 0.250 20 Konkani 0.240 21 Dogri 0.220 22 Khandeshi 0.200 23 Kurukh 0.170 24 Tulu 0.170 25 Meitei (Manipuri) 0.140 26 Bodo 0.130 27 Khasi – Garo 0.112 28 Mundari 0.105 29 Ho 0.10330 Tripuri 0.103" ], [ "Largest cities of India" ], [ "Vital statistics", "=== UN estimates ===+ United Nations, World Population Prospects: The 2022 revision – IndiaYearMid-year population Births per year Deaths per year Natural change per year Crude birth rate(per 1000) Crude death rate(per 1000) Natural change(per 1000) Total Fertility rate Infant mortality (per 1000)Life expectancy1950357,021,00015,651,000 7,942,000 7,709,00043.822.221.65.73 181.2 41.71951364,922,00016,042,0008,171,0007,871,00044.022.421.65.77180.1 41.71952372,997,00016,458,0008,293,0008,165,00044.122.221.95.82177.542.01953381,228,00016,857,0008,442,0008,415,00044.222.122.15.87175.342.21954389,731,00017,247,0008,414,0008,833,00044.221.622.75.91172.243.01955398,578,00017,549,0008,468,0009,081,00044.021.222.85.91169.743.41956407,657,00017,844,0008,533,0009,310,00043.820.922.85.91167.343.81957416,935,00018,128,0008,618,0009,510,00043.520.722.85.91165.044.11958426,296,00018,370,0008,673,0009,696,00043.120.322.75.90162.744.41959435,900,00018,593,0008,688,0009,905,00042.619.922.75.89160.344.91960445,955,00018,958,0008,756,00010,201,00042.519.622.95.92158.245.21961456,352,00019,301,0008,874,00010,427,00042.319.422.85.94156.445.41962467,024,00019,663,0008,969,00010,693,00042.119.222.95.95154.545.71963477,934,00020,031,0009,064,00010,966,00041.919.022.95.97152.745.91964489,059,00020,407,0009,177,00011,230,00041.718.823.05.98151.146.21965500,114,00020,679,0009,824,00010,855,00041.319.621.75.94156.445.01966510,993,00020,913,0009,886,00011,027,00040.919.321.65.88154.745.31967521,987,00021,193,0009,963,00011,231,00040.619.121.55.83153.145.71968533,432,00021,454,0009,486,00011,968,00040.217.822.45.76145.047.51969545,315,00021,704,0009,551,00012,154,00039.817.522.35.68143.347.91970557,501,00022,043,0009,606,00012,437,00039.517.222.35.62141.748.21971569,999,00022,483,0009,658,00012,825,00039.416.922.55.57139.948.61972582,838,00022,835,0009,702,00013,133,00039.216.622.55.48138.549.01973596,107,00023,230,0009,701,00013,529,00039.016.322.75.40136.349.51974609,722,00023,559,0009,628,00013,931,00038.615.822.85.33133.350.21975623,524,00023,660,0009,592,00014,068,00037.915.422.65.20130.750.81976637,451,00024,021,0009,572,00014,449,00037.715.022.75.13127.951.41977651,686,00024,042,0009,555,00014,487,00036.914.722.25.01124.951.91978666,268,00024,243,0009,520,00014,723,00036.414.322.14.89121.752.51979681,248,00024,699,0009,515,00015,184,00036.314.022.34.81118.453.11980696,828,00025,235,0009,530,00015,705,00036.213.722.54.78115.253.61981712,869,00025,683,0009,532,00016,151,00036.013.422.74.70112.154.21982729,169,00025,964,0009,512,00016,452,00035.613.022.64.62109.354.71983745,827,00026,329,0009,487,00016,842,00035.312.722.64.57106.755.31984762,890,00526,777,0009,471,00017,307,00035.112.422.74.52104.255.81985780,242,00027,001,0009,444,00017,558,00034.612.122.54.43101.856.31986797,879,00027,522,0009,434,00018,088,00034.511.822.74.4099.456.81987815,716,00027,478,0009,400,00018,077,00033.711.522.24.3197.057.31988833,730,00027,654,0009,369,00018,286,00033.211.221.94.2294.657.81989852,013,00027,733,0009,335,00018,398,00032.511.021.64.1392.258.21990870,452,00027,692,0009,306,00018,386,00031.810.721.14.0589.858.71991888,942,00027,937,0009,295,00018,642,00031.410.521.03.9687.659.11992907,574,00028,057,0009,285,00018,772,00030.910.220.73.8885.559.51993926,351,00028,055,0009,283,00018,772,00030.310.020.33.8083.559.81994945,262,00028,207,0009,270,00018,937,00029.89.820.03.7281.460.21995964,279,00028,314,0009,269,00019,044,00029.49.619.73.6579.360.61996983,281,00028,305,0009,262,00019,043,00028.89.419.43.5877.161.019971,002,335,00028,341,0009,251,00019,090,00028.39.219.03.5174.861.419981,021,435,00028,381,0009,245,00019,136,00027.89.118.73.4572.561.819991,040,500,00028,365,0009,235,00019,130,00027.38.918.43.3870.262.220001,059,634,00028,615,0009,221,00019,394,00027.08.718.33.3567.862.720011,078,971,00028,843,0009,235,00019,608,00026.78.618.23.3065.463.120021,098,313,00028,648,0009,186,00019,462,00026.18.417.73.2263.163.620031,117,415,00028,356,0009,150,00019,206,00025.48.217.23.1260.864.120041,136,265,00028,099,0009,136,00018,963,00024.78.016.73.0558.664.520051,154,639,00027,646,0009,096,00018,550,00023.97.916.12.9656.365.020061,172,374,00027,229,0009,080,00018,149,00023.27.715.52.8654.165.420071,189,692,00027,030,0009,095,00017,935,00022.77.615.12.7851.965.820081,206,735,00026,890,0009,123,00017,767,00022.37.614.72.7249.666.120091,223,640,00026,848,0009,154,00017,694,00021.97.514.52.6747.466.520101,240,614,00026,599,0009,162,00017,437,00021.47.414.12.6045.266.920111,257,621,19126,342,0009,139,00017,203,00020.97.313.72.5443.067.420121,274,487,21526,027,0009,072,00016,954,00020.47.113.32.4740.867.920131,291,132,06325,740,0008,987,00016,753,00019.97.013.02.4138.768.520141,307,246,50924,899,0008,876,00016,023,00019.06.812.32.3136.769.120151,322,866,50524,828,0008,826,00016,003,00018.86.712.12.2934.769.620161,338,636,34024,783,0008,839,00015,944,00018.56.611.92.2732.870.120171,354,195,68024,254,0008,928,00015,326,00017.96.611.32.2031.170.520181,369,003,30624,168,0009,098,00015,070,00017.76.611.02.1829.470.720191,383,112,05023,583,0009,281,00014,302,00017.06.710.32.1127.9 70.920201,396,387,12723,139,00010,262,00012,876,00016.67.49.22.0526.670.120211,407,563,84223,114,00013,300,000 9,814,00016.49.47.02.0325.567.220221,417,173,17323,056,02712,862,01510,194,01216.39.17.22.01=== Census of India: sample registration system ===Total fertility rate map: average births per woman by states and union territories, 2012Total fertility rate map: average births per woman by districts, 2011+ Census of India: sample registration system Year Average population Live births1 Deaths1 Natural change Crude birth rate(per 1000) Crude death rate(per 1000) Natural change(per 1000) Total fertility rate 1981 716,493,000 33.9 12.5 21.4 4.52 1982 733,152,000 33.8 11.9 21.9 4.5 1983 750,034,000 33.7 11.9 21.8 4.5 1984 767,147,000 33.9 12.6 21.3 4.5 1985 784,491,000 32.9 11.8 21.1 4.3 1986 802,052,000 32.6 11.1 21.5 4.15 1987 819,800,000 32.1 10.9 21.2 4.1 1988 837,700,000 31.5 11.0 20.5 4.0 1989 855,707,000 30.6 10.3 20.3 3.9 1990 873,785,000 30.2 9.7 20.5 3.8 1991 891,910,000 29.3 9.8 19.5 3.64 1992 910,065,000 29.0 10.1 18.9 3.6 1993 928,226,000 0 9.3 19.4 3.5 1994 946,373,000 28.7 9.3 19.4 3.5 1995 964,486,000 28.3 9.0 19.3 3.5 1996 982,553,000 27.3 8.9 18.4 3.40 1997 1,000,558,000 27.2 8.9 18.3 3.3 1998 1,018,471,000 26.5 9.0 17.5 3.2 1999 1,036,259,000 26.0 8.7 17.3 3.2 2000 1,053,898,000 25.8 8.5 17.3 3.2 2001 1,071,374,000 25.4 8.4 17.0 3.10 2002 1,088,694,000 25.0 8.1 16.9 3.0 2003 1,105,886,000 24.8 8.0 16.8 3.0 2004 1,122,991,000 24.1 7.5 16.6 2.9 2005 1,140,043,000 23.8 7.6 16.2 2.9 2006 1,157,039,000 23.5 7.5 16.0 2.79 2007 1,134,024,000 23.1 7.4 15.7 2.7 2008 1,150,196,000 22.8 7.4 15.4 2.6 2009 1,166,228,000 22.5 7.3 15.2 2.6 2010 1,182,108,000 22.1 7.2 14.9 2.5 2011 1,197,658,000 21.8 7.1 14.7 2.44 2012 1,212,827,000 21.6 7.0 14.6 2.38 2013 1,227,012,000 21.4 7.0 14.4 2.34 2014 1,243,542,000 21.0 6.7 14.3 2.32 2015 1,259,108,000 20.8 6.5 14.3 2.27 20161,273,986,00025,989,3148,153,51017,835,804 20.4 6.4 14.0 2.26 20171,288,522,00026,028,1448,117,68917,910,455 20.2 6.3 13.9 2.18 20181,324,609,00026,492,1808,212,57618,279,604 20.0 6.2 13.8 2.15 20191,338,995,00024,820,8867,641,07617,179,810 18.5 5.7 12.8 2.0820201,353,378,00024,222,4448,115,88216,106,562 17.9 6.0 11.9 2.03 1 The numbers of births and deaths were calculated from the birth and death rates and the average population.=== Life expectancy ===Life expectancy in India since 1881Life expectancy in India since 1960 by genderPeriodLife expectancy inYears1950–195536.61955–196039.71960–196542.71965–197046.01970–197549.41975–198052.51980–198554.91985–199056.71990–199559.11995–200061.52000–200563.52005–201065.62010–201567.6Source: ''UN World Population Prospects''=== Structure of the population ===Structure of the population (Census 9.II.2011)+ Population by age group Age group Male Female Total Percentage (%)Cumulative Percentage 0–4 9.329.32 5–9 10.4819.8 10–14 10.9630.76 15–19 9.9540.71 20–24 9.2049.91 25–29 8.3858.29 30–34 7.3265.61 35–39 7.0372.64 40–44 5.9878.62 45–49 5.1583.77 50–54 4.0587.82 55–59 3.2391.05 60–64 3.1194.16 65–69 2.1896.34 70–74 1.5997.93 75–79 0.7698.69 80–84 0.5199.2 85–89 0.2099.4 90–94 0.1299.52 95–99 0.0599.57 100+ 0.0599.62 Unknown 0.3799.99 Total 100.00Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 194,351,375 178,092,741 372,444,116 30.76 15–64 394,175,879 373,559,847 767,735,726 63.40 65+ 32,370,123 33,815,210 66,185,333 5.47Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (03.III.2016) (Data are projections based on the 2011 Population Census.", "):Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 664,184,000 626,890,000 1,291,074,000 100 0–4 62,872,000 56,038,000 118,910,000 9.21 5–9 61,499,000 56,969,000 118,468,000 9.18 10–14 65,142,000 59,682,000 124,824,000 9.67 15–19 67,223,000 60,871,000 128,094,000 9.92 20–24 63,521,000 57,356,000 120,877,000 9.36 25–29 57,272,000 53,357,000 110,629,000 8.57 30–34 50,782,000 49,250,000 100,032,000 7.75 35–39 45,318,000 44,787,000 90,105,000 6.98 40–44 41,280,000 40,497,000 81,777,000 6.33 45–49 36,602,000 35,107,000 71,709,000 5.55 50–54 30,738,000 29,016,000 59,754,000 4.63 55–59 24,403,000 23,307,000 47,710,000 3.70 60–64 19,133,000 19,288,000 38,421,000 2.98 65–69 15,198,000 16,114,000 31,312,000 2.43 70–74 11,002,000 11,723,000 22,725,000 1.76 75–79 7,703,000 8,367,000 16,070,000 1.24 80+ 4,496,000 5,161,000 9,657,000 0.75Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 189,513,000 172,689,000 362,202,000 28.05 15–64 436,272,000 412,836,000 849,108,000 65.77 65+ 38,399,000 41,365,000 79,764,000 6.18Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.III.2021) (Includes data for the Indian-held part of Jammu and Kashmir, the final status of which has not yet been determined.", "Data are projections based on the 2011 Population Census.", "):Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 700 623 000 662 383 000 1 363 006 000 100 0–4 60 153 000 54 120 000 114 273 000 8.38 5–9 62 276 000 55 390 000 117 666 000 8.63 10–14 61 266 000 56 785 000 118 051 000 8.66 15–19 64 862 000 59 420 000 124 282 000 9.12 20–24 66 770 000 60 474 000 127 244 000 9.34 25–29 62 944 000 56 956 000 119 900 000 8.80 30–34 56 614 000 52 961 000 109 575 000 8.04 35–39 50 027 000 48 836 000 98 863 000 7.25 40–44 44 450 000 44 315 000 88 765 000 6.51 45–49 40 204 000 39 903 000 80 107 000 5.88 50–54 35 235 000 34 331 000 69 566 000 5.10 55–59 29 082 000 28 062 000 57 144 000 4.19 60–64 22 465 000 22 079 000 44 544 000 3.27 65–69 16 823 000 17 583 000 34 406 000 2.52 70–74 12 546 000 13 904 000 26 450 000 1.94 75–79 8 269 000 9 294 000 17 563 000 1.29 80+ 6 637 000 7 970 000 14 607 000 1.07Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 183 695 000 166 295 000 349 990 000 25.68 15–64 472 653 000 447 337 000 919 990 000 67.50 65+ 44 275 000 48 751 000 93 026 000 6.83=== Fertility rate ===From the Demographic Health Survey:TFR of India to 2016+ Crude birth rate and total fertility rate (wanted fertility rate) Year CBR – Total TFR – Total1 CBR – Urban TFR – Urban1 CBR – Rural TFR – Rural1 1992–1993 28.7 3.39 (2.64) 24.1 2.70 (2.09) 30.4 3.67 (2.86) 1998–1999 24.8 2.85 (2.13) 20.9 2.27 (1.73) 26.2 3.07 (2.28) 2005–2006 23.1 2.68 (1.90) 18.8 2.06 (1.60) 25.0 2.98 (2.10) 2015–2016 19.0 2.18 (1.8) 15.8 1.75 (1.5) 20.7 2.41 (1.9) 2019–2021 17.1 1.99 (1.6) 14.0 1.63 (1.4) 18.6 2.14 (1.7) CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman).", "1Number in parentheses represents the wanted fertility rate.+ Total fertility rate (wanted fertility rate) by religion Year Hindu Muslim Christian Sikh Buddhist/Neo-Buddhist Jain Other 2019–2021 1.94 (1.6) 2.36 (1.8) 1.88 (1.7) 1.61 (1.4) 1.39 (1.2) 1.60 (1.5) 2.15 (1.7) CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman).", "1Number in parentheses represents the wanted fertility rate.+ Crude birth rate and total fertility rate (wanted fertility rate) 2015–2016 State (Population 2011) CBR – Total TFR – Total1 CBR – Urban TFR – Urban1 CBR – Rural TFR – Rural1 Uttar Pradesh (199 812 341) 22.6 2.74 (2.06) 18.6 2.08 (1.62) 24.0 2.99 (2.22) Maharashtra (112 374 333) 16.6 1.87 (1.57) 15.5 1.68 (1.41) 17.5 2.06 (1.73) Bihar (104 099 452) 27.1 3.41 (2.48) 20.4 2.42 (1.83) 28.0 3.56 (2.58) West Bengal (91 276 115) 16.6 1.77 (1.53) 14.0 1.57 (1.38) 18.0 1.85 (1.58) Madhya Pradesh (72 626 809) 20.2 2.32 (1.82) 17.7 1.95 (1.61) 21.3 2.48 (1.91) Tamil Nadu (72 147 030) 15.5 1.70 (1.51) 13.9 1.54 (1.38) 17.2 1.86 (1.63) Rajasthan (68 548 437) 20.8 2.40 (1.81) 17.5 1.94 (1.52) 22.0 2.56 (1.91) Karnataka (61 095 297) 15.9 1.81 (1.42) 15.2 1.65 (1.30) 16.5 1.92 (1.50) Gujarat (60 439 692) 16.7 2.03 (1.54) 15.3 1.82 (1.39) 17.9 2.19 (1.64) Andhra Pradesh (49 386 799) 16.1 1.83 (1.64) 13.9 1.53 (1.39) 17.0 1.96 (1.75) Odisha (41 974 218) 18.1 2.05 (1.69) 15.6 1.73 (1.50) 18.7 2.12 (1.72) Telangana (35 193 978) 17.1 1.79 (1.59) 17.1 1.67 (1.53) 17.2 1.88 (1.64) Kerala (33 406 061) 11.2 1.56 (1.47) 11.4 1.57 (1.47) 11.0 1.55 (1.46) Jharkhand (32 988 134) 21.7 2.55 (2.06) 16.3 1.78 (1.47) 23.5 2.83 (2.27) Assam (31 205 576) 19.5 2.21 (1.78) 13.2 1.45 (1.25) 20.5 2.34 (1.87) Punjab (27 743 338) 13.8 1.62 (1.37) 13.5 1.59 (1.32) 14.0 1.63 (1.39) Chhattisgarh (25 545 198) 20.7 2.23 (1.88) 17.9 1.78 (1.58) 21.5 2.37 (1.97) Haryana (25 351 462) 18.7 2.05 (1.63) 16.3 1.78 (1.44) 20.2 2.22 (1.75) Jammu and Kashmir (12 541 302) 17.7 2.01 (1.67) 13.9 1.58 (1.39) 19.4 2.18 (1.77) Uttarakhand (10 086 292) 19.0 2.07 (1.60) 17.1 1.80 (1.43) 20.0 2.24 (1.71) Himachal Pradesh (6 864 602) 15.3 1.88 (1.55) 12.0 1.43 (1.15) 15.7 1.92 (1.59) Tripura (3 673 917) 15.3 1.69 (1.55) 12.7 1.40 (1.34) 16.4 1.80 (1.62) Meghalaya (2 966 889) 24.6 3.04 (2.79) 16.1 1.67 (1.57) 26.7 3.47 (3.18) Manipur (2 855 794) 21.2 2.61 (2.33) 17.5 2.14 (1.96) 23.7 2.92 (2.57) Nagaland (1 978 502) 21.4 2.74 (2.35) 16.3 1.78 (1.58) 24.1 3.38 (2.86) Goa (1 458 545) 12.8 1.66 (1.37) 13.4 1.72 (1.37) 11.7 1.55 (1.37) Arunachal Pradesh (1 383 727) 17.9 2.12 (1.64) 17.0 1.69 (1.26) 18.2 2.29 (1.79) Mizoram (1 097 206) 18.7 2.26 (2.15) 16.9 1.97 (1.89) 21.2 2.71 (2.54) Sikkim (610 577) 11.4 1.17 (0.88) 12.1 1.11 (0.82) 11.1 1.21 (0.91)CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman).", "1Number in parentheses represents the wanted fertility rate.+ Crude birth rate and total fertility rate (wanted fertility rate) 2019–2021 State (Population 2011) CBR – Total TFR – Total1 CBR – Urban TFR – Urban1 CBR – Rural TFR – Rural1 Uttar Pradesh (199 812 341) 20.5 2.35 (1.77) 16.7 1.88 (1.49) 21.8 2.50 (1.86) Maharashtra (112 374 333) 13.8 1.71 (1.43) 12.6 1.50 (1.27) 15.0 1.89 (1.58) Bihar (104 099 452) 25.9 2.98 (2.25) 20.4 2.35 (1.88) 27.0 3.11 (2.31) West Bengal (91 276 115) 15.5 1.64 (1.42) 12.4 1.39 (1.24) 17.0 1.73 (1.48) Madhya Pradesh (72 626 809) 17.2 1.99 (1.61) 13.7 1.61 (1.34) 18.5 2.12 (1.69) Tamil Nadu (72 147 030) 13.7 1.76 (1.59) 12.7 1.61 (1.50) 14.6 1.89 (1.66) Rajasthan (68 548 437) 18.7 2.01 (1.61) 15.3 1.67 (1.42) 19.8 2.11 (1.65) Karnataka (61 095 297) 14.2 1.67 (1.38) 13.2 1.50 (1.25) 14.9 1.79 (1.46) Gujarat (60 439 692) 15.0 1.86 (1.53) 13.3 1.65 (1.39) 16.3 2.0 (1.60) Andhra Pradesh (49 386 799) 13.8 1.68 (1.55) 12.5 1.47 (1.36) 14.3 1.78 (1.64) Odisha (41 974 218) 15.9 1.82 (1.52) 13.1 1.48 (1.26) 16.5 1.89 (1.57) Telangana (35 193 978) 15.3 1.75 (1.55) 16.0 1.75 (1.57) 15.3 1.74 (1.54) Kerala (33 406 061) 11.8 1.79 (1.68) 11.9 1.82 (1.71) 11.6 1.76 (1.65) Jharkhand (32 988 134) 20.2 2.26 (1.87) 14.2 1.56 (1.32) 22.0 2.48 (2.04) Assam (31 205 576) 16.8 1.87 (1.56) 13.1 1.50 (1.37) 17.4 1.93 (1.59) Punjab (27 743 338) 13.3 1.63 (1.35) 12.1 1.55 (1.29) 14.0 1.68 (1.38) Chhattisgarh (25 545 198) 16.4 1.82 (1.57) 13.6 1.42 (1.28) 17.2 1.94 (1.66) Haryana (25 351 462) 16.4 1.91 (1.54) 14.1 1.65 (1.38) 17.5 2.04 (1.62) Jammu and Kashmir (12 541 302) 13.1 1.41 (1.3) Uttarakhand (10 086 292) 16.7 1.85 (1.46) 16.8 1.84 (1.47) 16.6 1.86 (1.47) Himachal Pradesh (6 864 602) 12.7 1.66 (1.43) 11.2 1.43 (1.36) 12.9 1.69 (1.44) Tripura (3 673 917) 14.5 1.70 (1.49) 11.0 1.39 (1.29) 15.8 1.81 (1.56) Meghalaya (2 966 889) 24.2 2.91 (2.66) 14.8 1.57 (1.43) 26.5 3.31 (3.04) Manipur (2 855 794) 17.4 2.17 (1.98) 14.7 1.84 (1.73) 19.1 2.38 (2.13) Nagaland (1 978 502) 15.4 1.72 (1.57) 12.5 1.21 (1.13) 16.8 2.00 (1.82) Goa (1 458 545) 10.3 1.30 (1.21) 10.3 1.26 (1.19) 10.3 1.36 (1.24) Arunachal Pradesh (1 383 727) 16.0 1.80 (1.49) 14.8 1.44 (1.24) 16.2 1.88 (1.54) Mizoram (1 097 206) 15.0 1.87 (1.78) 13.9 1.63 (1.56) 16.4 2.19 (2.08) Sikkim (610 577) 10.2 1.05 (0.85) 7.8 0.71 (0.54) 11.7 1.32 (1.11) Delhi 14.8 1.62 (1.29) 14.6 1.60 (1.27) 23.4 2.47 (2.06)CBR = crude birth rate (per 1000); TFR = total fertility rate (number of children per woman).", "1Number in parentheses represents the wanted fertility rate.=== Regional vital statistics ===+ Birth rate, death rate, natural growth rate, and infant mortality rate, by state or UT(2010) State or UT Birth rate Death rate Natural growth rate Infant mortality rate Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Andaman and Nicobar Islands 15.6 15.5 15.8 4.3 4.8 3.3 11.3 10.7 12.6 25 29 18 Andhra Pradesh 17.9 18.3 16.7 7.6 8.6 5.4 10.2 9.7 11.3 46 51 33 Arunachal Pradesh 20.5 22.1 14.6 5.9 6.9 2.3 14.6 15.2 12.3 31 34 12 Assam 23.2 24.4 15.8 8.2 8.6 5.8 14.9 15.8 10.1 58 60 36 Bihar 28.1 28.8 22.0 6.8 7.0 5.6 21.3 21.8 16.4 48 49 38 Chandigarh 15.6 21.6 15.0 3.9 3.7 3.9 11.6 17.9 11.0 22 20 23 Chhattisgarh 25.3 26.8 18.6 8.0 8.4 6.2 17.3 18.4 12.4 51 52 44 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 26.6 26.0 28.6 4.7 5.1 3.3 21.9 20.9 25.3 38 43 22 Daman and Diu 18.8 19.1 18.3 4.9 4.9 4.8 13.9 14.2 13.6 23 19 29 Delhi 17.8 19.7 17.5 4.2 4.6 4.1 13.6 15.0 13.4 30 37 29 Goa 13.2 12.6 13.7 6.6 8.1 5.7 6.6 4.5 8.0 10 10 10 Gujarat 21.8 23.3 19.4 6.7 7.5 5.5 15.1 15.8 14.0 44 51 30 Haryana 22.3 23.3 19.8 6.6 7.0 5.6 15.7 16.3 14.3 48 51 38 Himachal Pradesh 16.9 17.5 11.5 6.9 7.2 4.2 10.0 10.3 7.3 40 41 29 Jammu and Kashmir 18.3 19.5 13.5 5.7 5.9 4.7 12.6 13.6 8.8 43 45 32 Jharkhand 25.3 26.7 19.3 7.0 7.4 5.4 18.3 19.3 13.9 42 44 30 Karnataka 19.2 20.2 17.5 7.1 8.1 5.4 12.1 12.1 12.1 38 43 28 Kerala 14.8 14.8 14.8 7.0 7.1 6.7 7.8 7.7 8.1 13 14 10 Lakshadweep 14.3 15.5 13.2 6.4 6.1 6.7 8.0 9.5 6.5 25 23 27 Madhya Pradesh 27.3 29.2 20.5 8.3 9.0 6.0 18.9 20.2 14.5 62 67 42 Maharashtra 17.1 17.6 16.4 6.5 7.5 5.3 10.6 10.2 11.1 28 34 20 Manipur 14.9 14.8 15.3 4.2 4.3 4.0 10.7 10.5 11.3 14 15 9 Meghalaya 24.5 26.6 14.8 7.9 8.4 5.6 16.6 18.2 9.2 55 58 37 Mizoram 17.1 21.1 13.0 4.5 5.4 3.7 12.5 15.7 9.3 37 47 21 Nagaland 16.8 17.0 16.0 3.6 3.7 3.3 13.2 13.3 12.7 23 24 20 Odisha 20.5 21.4 15.2 8.6 9.0 6.6 11.9 12.4 8.6 61 63 43 Puducherry 16.7 16.7 16.7 7.4 8.2 7.0 9.3 8.5 9.6 22 25 21 Punjab 16.6 17.2 15.6 7.0 7.7 5.8 9.6 9.5 9.8 34 37 28 Rajasthan 26.7 27.9 22.9 6.7 6.9 6.0 20.0 20.9 16.9 55 61 31 Sikkim 17.8 18.1 16.1 5.6 5.9 3.8 12.3 12.3 12.3 30 31 19 Tamil Nadu 15.9 16.0 15.8 7.6 8.2 6.9 8.3 7.8 8.9 24 25 22 Tripura 14.9 15.6 11.5 5.0 4.8 5.7 9.9 10.8 5.8 27 29 19 Uttar Pradesh 28.3 29.2 24.2 8.1 8.5 6.3 20.2 20.7 17.9 61 64 44 Uttarakhand 19.3 20.2 16.2 6.3 6.7 5.1 13.0 13.5 11.1 38 41 25 West Bengal 16.8 18.6 11.9 6.0 6.0 6.3 10.7 12.6 5.6 31 32 25" ], [ "CIA World Factbook demographic statistics", "Map showing the population density in India, per 2011 Census.The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.", ";Total population1,166,079,217 (July 2009 est.", "CIA), 1,210 million (2011 census), 1,389,637,446 (May 2022 est.", ");62.2%; male: 381,668,992, female: 360,948,755;''0–14 years:'' 27.34% (male 186,087,665/female 164,398,204)''15–24 years:'' 17.9% (male 121,879,786/female 107,583,437)''25–54 years:'' 41.08% (male 271,744,709/female 254,834,569)''55–64 years:'' 7.45% (male 47,846,122/female 47,632,532)''65+ years:'' 6.24% (male 37,837,801/female 42,091,086) (2017 est.", ");Total: 28.7 yearsMale: 28 yearsfemale: 29.5 years (2020 est.", ");0.67% (2022 est);Literacy rate:74% (age 7 and above, in 2011)81.4% (total population, age 15–25, in 2006);22% (2006 est.", ");7.8%;0.00 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2020 est.", ");''At birth:''1.12 male(s)/female''Under 10 years:''1.13 male(s)/female''15–24 years:''1.13 male(s)/female''24–64 years:''1.06 male(s)/female''65 years and over:''0.9 male(s)/female''Total population:''1.08 male(s)/female (2017 est.", ");Life expectancy''Total population:'' 69.7 years''Male:'' 68.4 years''Female:'' 71.2 years (2020 est.", ");2.35 (2020 est.", ")The TFR (total number of children born per women) by religion in 2005–2006 was: Hindus, 2.7; Muslims, 3.1; Christians, 2.4; and Sikhs, 2.0.;Hindus 79.5%, Muslims 15%, Christian 2.3%, Sikh 1.7%, other and unspecified 2% (2011 est.", ");Scheduled castes: 16.6% (2011 census);scheduled tribes: 8.6% (2011 census);LanguagesSee Languages of India and List of languages by number of native speakers in India.", "There are 216 languages with more than 10,000 native speakers in India.", "The largest of these is Hindi with some 337 million, and the second largest is Bengali with 238 million.", "22 languages are recognised as official languages.", "In India, there are 1,652 languages and dialects in total." ], [ "Caste/Tribe", "Caste and community statistics as recorded from \"Socially and Educationally Backward Classes Commission\" (SEBC) or Mandal Commission of 1979.", "''This was completed in 1983.", "''India has chosen not to officially count caste population since then.The following data are from the Mandal report:+Caste/Tribe demographics (1983)Caste/Tribepopulation percentagenotes'''Total population''' '''731,000,000''''''100%'''Margin of error 0.34%'''Scheduled castes and tribes''''''164,913,600''''''22.56%'''Scheduled castes110,015,50015.05%Scheduled tribes54,898,1007.51%'''Non OBC/SC/ST Hindu castes/communities''''''128,509,800''''''17.58%'''Brahmin (including Bhumihar)40,351,2005.52%Kshtriya (Rajput)28,509,0003.90%Maratha16,155,1002.21%Jats7,310,0001%Vaishya, Bania, etc.13,742,8001.88%Kayasthas7,821,7001.07%Others14,620,0002%'''Non-Hindu communities and groups''''''121,346,000''''''16.6%''''''Non-Hindu scheduled and OBC'''Muslim (Non S.T)81,798,90011.19%0.02%Christian (Non S.T)15,789,6002.16%0.44%Sikh (Non scheduled)12,207,7001.67%0.22%Buddhist (Non S.T)4,897,7000.67%0.03%Jain (Non scheduled)3,435,7000.47%'''Other backward classes and communities (OBC)''''''380,120,000''''''52%''''''OBC is a derived figure'''Hindu OBC318,716,00043.60%Non-Hindu OBC61,404,0008.40%'''52% of Non-Hindus'''" ], [ "Ethnic groups", "The national Census of India does not recognise racial or ethnic groups within India, but recognises many of the tribal groups as Scheduled Castes and Tribes (see list of Scheduled Tribes in India).According to a 2009 study published by Reich ''et al.", "''., the modern Indian population is composed of two genetically divergent and heterogeneous populations which mixed in ancient times (about 1,200–3,500 BP), known as Ancestral North Indians (ANI) and Ancestral South Indians (ASI).", "ASI corresponds to the Dravidian-speaking population of southern India, whereas ANI corresponds to the Indo-Aryan-speaking population of northern India.", "700,000 people from the United States of any race live in India.", "Between 300,000 and 1 million Anglo-Indians live in India.For a list of ethnic groups in the Republic of India (as well as neighbouring countries), see South Asian ethnic groups." ], [ "Genetics", "=== Y-chromosome DNA ===Y-Chromosome DNA Y-DNA represents the male lineage, The Indian Y-chromosome pool may be summarised as follows where haplogroups R-M420, H, R2, L and NOP comprise generally more than 80% of the total chromosomes.", " H ~ 30%* R1a ~ 34%* R2 ~ 15%* L ~ 10%* NOP ~ 10% (Excluding R)* Other Haplogroups 15%=== Mitochondrial DNA ===Mitochondrial DNA mtDNA represents the female lineage.", "The Indian mitochondrial DNA is primarily made up of Haplogroup M* Haplogroup M ~ 60%* Haplogroup UK ~ 15%* Haplogroup N ~ 25% (Excluding UK)=== Autosomal DNA ===Tripuri children preparing for a dance performance.", "The Tripuris are a Tibeto-Burman ethnic group.Numerous genomic studies have been conducted in the last 15 years to seek insights into India's demographic and cultural diversity.", "These studies paint a complex and conflicting picture.", "* In a 2003 study, Basu, Majumder ''et al''.", "have concluded on the basis of results obtained from mtDNA, Y-chromosome and autosomal markers that \"(1) there is an underlying unity of female lineages in India, indicating that the initial number of female settlers may have been small; (2) the tribal and the caste populations are highly differentiated; (3) the Austroasiatic tribals are the earliest settlers in India, providing support to one anthropological hypothesis while refuting some others; (4) a major wave of humans entered India through the northeast; (5) the Tibeto-Burman tribals share considerable genetic commonalities with the Austroasiatic tribals, supporting the hypothesis that they may have shared a common habitat in southern China, but the two groups of tribals can be differentiated on the basis of Y-chromosomal haplotypes; (6) the Dravidian speaking populations were possibly widespread throughout India but are regulated to South India now; (7) formation of populations by fission that resulted in founder and drift effects have left their imprints on the genetic structures of contemporary populations; (8) the upper castes show closer genetic affinities with Central Asian populations, although those of southern India are more distant than those of northern India; (9) historical gene flow into India has contributed to a considerable obliteration of genetic histories of contemporary populations so that there is at present no clear congruence of genetic and geographical or sociocultural affinities.", "\"* In a later 2010 review article, Majumder affirms some of these conclusions, introduces and revises some other.", "The ongoing studies, concludes Majumder, suggest India has served as the major early corridor for geographical dispersal of modern humans from out-of-Africa.", "The archaeological and genetic traces of the earliest settlers in India has not provided any conclusive evidence.", "The tribal populations of India are older than the non-tribal populations.", "The autosomal differentiation and genetic diversity within India's caste populations at 0.04 is significantly lower than 0.14 for continental populations and 0.09 for 31 world population sets studied by Watkins ''et al''., suggesting that while tribal populations were differentiated, the differentiation effects within India's caste population was less than previously thought.", "Majumder also concludes that recent studies suggest India has been a major contributor to the gene pool of southeast Asia.", "* Another study covering a large sample of Indian populations allowed Watkins ''et al''.", "to examine eight Indian caste groups and four endogamous south Indian tribal populations.", "The Indian castes data show low between-group differences, while the tribal Indian groups show relatively high between-group differentiation.", "This suggests that people between Indian castes were not reproductively isolated, while Indian tribal populations experienced reproductive isolation and drift.", "Furthermore, the genetic fixation index data show historical genetic differentiation and segregation between Indian castes population is much smaller than those found in east Asia, Africa and other continental populations; while being similar to the genetic differentiation and segregation observed in European populations.", "* In 2006, Sahoo ''et al''.", "reported their analysis of genomic data on 936 Y-chromosomes representing 32 tribal and 45 caste groups from different regions of India.", "These scientists find that the haplogroup frequency distribution across the country, between different caste groups, was found to be predominantly driven by geographical, rather than cultural determinants.", "They conclude there is clear evidence for both large-scale immigration into ancient India of Sino-Tibetan speakers and language change of former Austroasiatic speakers, in the northeast Indian region.", "* The genome studies conducted up until 2010 have been on relatively small population sets.", "Many are from just one southeastern state of Andhra Pradesh (including Telangana, which was part of the state until June 2014).", "Thus, any conclusions on demographic history of India must be interpreted with caution.", "A larger national genome study with demographic growth and sex ratio balances may offer further insights on the extent of genetic differentiation and segregation in India over the millenniums." ], [ "Charts" ], [ "See also", "* Census in British India* Culture of India* Non-resident Indian and Overseas Citizen of India* Demographics of Central Asia* Female foeticide in India* Hinduism in India* Jainism in India* Sikhism in India* Islam in India* Christianity in IndiaJudaism in India Zoroastrianism in India* Irreligion in India=== Government ===* 2011 Census of India* National Commission on Population=== Lists ===* List of states and union territories of India by fertility rate* List of states and union territories of India by population* List of cities in India by population* List of metropolitan areas in India* List of million-plus urban agglomerations in India" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Arnold, David.", "''Pandemic India: From Cholera to Covid-19'' (Oxford University Press, 2022) online review* Chakravorty, Swastika, Srinivas Goli, and Kuriath S. James.", "\"Family demography in India: Emerging patterns and its challenges.\"", "Sage Open 11.2 (2021): 21582440211008178.online.", "Joseph Chamie is former director of the United Nations Population Division and Barry Mirkin is former chief of the Population Policy Section of the United Nations Population Division.", " Chandrasekhar, S., and Ajay Sharma.", "\"Urbanization and spatial patterns of internal migration in India.\"", "''Spatial demography'' 3.2 (2015): 63–89.online* Sekher, T. V. \"Rural demography of India.\"", "in '' International handbook of rural demography'' (Springer, Dordrecht, 2012) pp. 169–189.", "* Smith, Robert D., and Mohandas K. Mallath.", "\"History of the growing burden of cancer in India: from antiquity to the 21st century.\"", "''Journal of Global Oncology'' 5 (2019): 1–15.online;Medieval India Lal, K. S. (1978).", "Growth of Muslim population in medieval India (A.D. 1000–1800).", "Delhi, Research Publications.", "Lal, K. S. (1995).", "Growth of scheduled tribes and castes in medieval India.", "New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan." ], [ "External links", "* Census of India; government site with detailed data from 2001 census* Population of India as per Census India 2011* Census of India map generator; generates maps based on 2001 census figures* Demographic data for India; provides sources of demographic data for India* 2001 maps; provides maps of social, economic and demographic data of India in 2001* Population of India 2011 map; distribution of population amongst states and union territories* India's Demographic Outlook: Implications and Trends* \" World Population Prospects \": Country Profile – India* Aggregated demographic statistics from Indian and global data sources* Demographic statistics for India – online on Bluenomics* India comparing with China population projection graph Based on data from database of UN Population Division." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of India" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Politics of India''' works within the framework of the country's Constitution.", "India is a parliamentary secular democratic republic in which the president of India is the head of state & first citizen of India and the Prime Minister of India is the head of government.", "It is based on the federal structure of government, although the word is not used in the Constitution itself.", "India follows the dual polity system, i.e.", "federal in nature, that consists of the central authority at the centre and states at the periphery.", "The Constitution defines the organizational powers and limitations of both central and state governments; it is well recognised, fluid (Preamble of the Constitution being rigid and to dictate further amendments to the Constitution) and considered supreme, i.e.", "the laws of the nation must conform to it.There is a provision for a bicameral legislature consisting of an upper house, the Rajya Sabha (Council of States), which represents the states of the Indian federation, and a lower house, the Lok Sabha (House of the People), which represents the people of India as a whole.", "The Constitution provides for an independent judiciary, which is headed by the Supreme Court.", "The court's mandate is to protect the Constitution, to settle disputes between the central government and the states, to settle inter-state disputes, to nullify any central or state laws that go against the Constitution and to protect the fundamental rights of citizens, issuing writs for their enforcement in cases of violation.There are 543 members in the Lok Sabha, who are elected using plurality voting (first past the post) system from 543 Single-member district.", "There are 245 members in the Rajya Sabha, out of which 233 are elected through indirect elections by single transferable vote by the members of the state legislative assemblies; 12 other members are elected/nominated by the President of India.", "Governments are formed through elections held every five years (unless otherwise specified), by parties that secure a majority of members in their respective lower houses (Lok Sabha in the central government and Vidhan Sabha in states).", "India had its first general election in 1951, which was won by the Indian National Congress, a political party that went on to dominate subsequent elections until 1977, when a non-Congress government was formed for the first time in independent India.", "The 1990s saw the end of single-party domination and the rise of coalition governments.", "The latest 17th Lok Sabha elections was conducted in seven phases from 11 April 2019 to 19 May 2019 by the Election commission of India.", "That elections once again brought back single-party rule in the country, with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) being able to claim a majority in the Lok Sabha.In recent decades, Indian politics has become a dynastic affair.", "Possible reasons for this could be the party stability, absence of party organisations, independent civil society associations that mobilise support for the parties and centralised financing of elections.", "According to the V-Dem Democracy indices India was 2023 the 19th most electoral democratic country in Asia." ], [ "Political parties and alliances", "A view of the Parliament of IndiaWhen compared to other democracies, India has had a large number of political parties during its history under democratic governance.", "It has been estimated that over 200 parties were formed after India became independent in 1947.And as per the current publication report dated 23 September 2021 from the Election Commission of the India, the total number of parties registered was 2858, with 9 national parties and 54 state parties, and 2796 unrecognized parties working in country.=== Types of political parties ===Every political party in India, whether a national or regional/state party, must have a symbol and must be registered with the Election Commission of India.", "Symbols are used in the Indian political system to identify political parties in part so that illiterate people can vote by recognizing the party symbols.In the current amendment to the Symbols Order, the commission has asserted the following five principles:# A party, national or state, must have a legislative presence.# A national party's legislative presence must be in the Lok Sabha.", "A state party's legislative presence must be in the State Assembly.# A party can set up a candidate only from amongst its own members.# A party that loses its recognition shall not lose its symbol immediately but shall be allowed to use that symbol for some time to try and retrieve its status.", "However, the grant of such facility to the party will not mean the extension of other facilities to it, as are available to recognized parties, such as free time on Doordarshan or AIR, free supply of copies of electoral rolls, etc.# Recognition should be given to a party only on the basis of its own performance in elections and not because it is a splinter group of some other recognized party.A political party shall be eligible to be recognized as a national party if:# it secures at least six percent (6%) of the valid votes polled in any four or more states, at a general election to the Lok Sabha or, to the State Legislative Assembly; and .# in addition, it wins at least four seats in the House of the People from any State or States.# or it wins at least two percent (2%) seats in the House of the People (i.e.", "11 seats in the existing House having 543 members), and these members are elected from at least three different states.Likewise, a political party shall be entitled to be recognized as a state party, if:# it secures at least six percent (6%) of the valid votes polled in the state at a general election, either to the Lok Sabha or to the Legislative Assembly of the State concerned; and# in addition, it wins at least two seats in the Legislative Assembly of the state concerned.# or it wins at least three percent (3%) of the total number of seats in the Legislative Assembly of the state, or at least three seats in the Assembly, whichever is more.===Party proliferation===Although a strict anti-defection law had been passed in 1984, there has been a continued tendency amongst politicians to float their own parties rather than join a broad based party such as the Congress or the BJP.", "Between the 1984 and 1989 elections, the number of parties contesting elections increased from 33 to 113.In the decades since, this fragmentation has continued.=== Alliances===300x300px* National Democratic Alliance (NDA) – Centre-right to right-wing coalition led by BJP was formed in 1998 after the elections.", "NDA formed a government, although the government did not last long as AIADMK withdrew support from it resulting in 1999 general elections, in which NDA won and resumed power.", "The coalition government went on to complete the full five-years term, becoming the first non-Congress government to do so.", "In the 2014 General Elections, NDA once again returned to powers for the second time, with a historic mandate of 336 out of 543 Lok Sabha seats.", "BJP itself won 282 seats, thereby electing Narendra Modi as the head of the government.", "In a historic win, the NDA stormed to power for the third term in 2019 with a combined strength of 353 seats, with the BJP itself winning an absolute majority with 303 seats.", "* Indian National Developmental Inclusive Alliance (I.N.D.I.A.)", "– formed by merger of United Progressive Alliance (UPA), Left Front and other smaller alliances, centre-left to left-wing coalition led by Indian National Congress (INC); this alliance was created ahead of the 2024 Indian general election, to take down the ruling National Democratic Alliance government led by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in the 2024 Indian general election.", "The alliance has been formed ahead of the ahead of the 2024 Indian general election with 26 opposition party, with the INC being the principal opposition party, but without the official status of the Leader of the Opposition since they failed to win the minimum required seats.===Corruption===India has seen political corruption for decades.", "Democratic institutions soon became federally owned, dissent was eliminated and a majority of citizens paid the price.", "India has consistently scored poorly on the Corruption Perceptions Index, with more than 39% of people paying bribes for public services.", "The political corruption in India is weakening its democracy and has led to the erosion of trust by the general public in the political system, as 89% of people in India recognize the widespread problem.===Candidate selection===Indian political parties have low level of internal party democracy and therefore, in Indian elections, both at the state or national level, party candidates are typically selected by the party elites, more commonly called the party high command.", "The party elites use a number of criteria for selecting candidates.", "These include the ability of the candidates to finance their own election, their educational attainment, and the level of organization the candidates have in their respective constituencies.", "Quite often the last criterion is associated with candidate criminality." ], [ "Local governance", "Panchayati Raj Institutions or Local self-government bodies play a crucial role in Indian politics, as it focuses on grassroot-level administration in India.On 24 April 1993, the Constitutional (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992 came into force to provide constitutional status to the Panchayati Raj institutions.", "This Act was extended to Panchayats in the tribal areas of eight states, namely Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Rajasthan from 24 December 1996.The Act aims to provide a three-tier system of Panchayati Raj for all States having a population of over 2 million, to hold Panchayat elections regularly every five years, to provide reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Women, to appoint State Finance Commission to make recommendations as regards the financial powers of the Panchayats and to constitute District Planning Committee to prepare a draft development plan for the district." ], [ "Role of political parties", "On 22 May 2004, Manmohan Singh was appointed the Prime Minister of India following the victory of the INC and the left front in the 2004 Lok Sabha election.", "The UPA ruled India without the support of the left front.", "Previously, Atal Bihari Vajpayee had taken office in October 1999 after a general election in which a BJP-led coalition of 13 parties called the National Democratic Alliance emerged with a majority.", "In May 2014, Narendra Modi of BJP was elected as the Prime Minister.", "In the 2019 Lok Sabha elections, Narendra Modi once again emerged as a dominant force, leading the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) to an extraordinary victory." ], [ "Political issues", "Door-to-door campaigning of Nationalist Congress Party workers=== Law and order ===Terrorism, Naxalism, religious violence and caste-related violence are important issues that affect the political environment of the Indian nation.", "Stringent anti-terror legislation such as TADA, POTA and MCOCA have received much political attention, both in favour and against, and some of these laws were disbanded eventually due to human rights violations.", "However, UAPA was amended in 2019 to negative effect vis-á-vis human rights.Terrorism has affected politics in India since its conception, be it the terrorism supported from Pakistan or the internal guerrilla groups such as Naxalites.", "In 1991 the former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated during an election campaign.", "The suicide bomber was later linked to the Sri Lankan terrorist group Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, as it was later revealed the killing was an act of vengeance for Rajiv Gandhi sending troops in Sri Lanka against them in 1987.The Godhra train killings and the Babri Masjid demolition on 6 December 1992 resulted in nationwide communal riots in two months, with the worst occurring in Mumbai with at least 900 dead.", "The riots were followed by 1993 Bombay bombings, which resulted in more deaths.Law and order issues, such as action against organised crime are issues which do not affect the outcomes of elections.", "On the other hand, there is a criminal–politician nexus.", "Many elected legislators have criminal cases against them.", "In July 2008, the ''The Washington Post'' reported that nearly a fourth of the 540 Indian Parliament members faced criminal charges, \"including human trafficking, child prostitution, immigration rackets, embezzlement, rape and even murder\".=== State of democracy ===From 2006 to 2022 the situation of Indian democracy worsened.", "Indians lost ''state identity'' caused by the naxalite rebellion, ''little state presence'' in tribal areas and tensions between Hindus and minorities.", "The rebellions are a sign of the governments loss of power.", "Interreligious riots where observed.", "''Political freedoms'' are limited since funding of NGOs, such as amnesty international, got more difficult due to the \"Foreign Contribution Regulatory Act\", though the constitution guarantees freedom of association.", "Hindu-nationalist groups created a climate of intimidation over the country.", "''Freedom of press'' is through the intimidation of journalists by police, criminals and politicians.In 2023, according to the Freedom in the World report by Freedom House, India was classified as a \"partly free\" country for the third consecutive year.", "The V-Dem Democracy Indices by V-Dem Institute classify India as an 'electoral autocracy'.", "In 2023, it referred to India as \"one of the worst autocratisers in the last 10 years\".", "According to the Democracy Index of the Economist Intelligence Unit, India is a Defective democracy." ], [ "High political offices in India", "=== President of India ===On 25 July 2022, Droupadi Murmu was sworn in as India's new president, becoming India's first tribal president.", "Although it is largely a ceremonial post, Murmu's election as tribal woman was historic.=== Vice President of India ===Like the president, the role of the vice-president is also ceremonial, with no real authority vested in him/her.", "The vice-president fills in a vacancy in the office of president (till the election of a new president).", "The only regular function is that the vice-president functions as the ''ex officio'' Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.", "No other duties/powers are vested in the office.", "The current vice-president is Jagdeep Dhankhar.=== The Prime Minister and the Union Council of Ministers ===" ], [ "State governments", "India has a federal form of government, and hence each state also has its own government.", "The executive of each state is the governor (equivalent to the president of India), whose role is ceremonial.", "The real power resides with the chief minister (equivalent to the prime minister) and the State Council of Ministers.", "States may either have a unicameral or bicameral legislature, varying from state to state.", "The chief minister and other state ministers are also members of the legislature." ], [ "Political families", "Since the 1980s, Indian politics has become dynastic, possibly due to the absence of a party organization, independent civil society associations that mobilize support for the party, and centralized financing of elections.", "One example of dynastic politics has been the Nehru–Gandhi family which produced three Indian prime ministers.", "Family members have also led the Congress party for most of the period since 1978 when Indira Gandhi floated the then Congress(I) faction of the party.", "The ruling Bharatiya Janata Party also features several senior leaders who are dynasts.", "Dynastic politics is prevalent also in a number of political parties with regional presence such as All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen (AIMIM), All India Trinamool Congress (AITC), Bharat Rashtra Samithi (BRS), Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam (DMDK), Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), Indian National Lok Dal (INLD), Jammu & Kashmir National Conference (JKNC), Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party (JKPDP), Janata Dal (Secular) (JD(S)), Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM), National People's Party (NPP), Nationalist Congress Party (NCP), Pattali Makkal Katchi (PMK), Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD), Rashtriya Lok Dal (RLD), Samajwadi Party (SP), Shiromani Akali Dal (SAD), Shiv Sena (SS), Telugu Desam Party (TDP) and YSR Congress Party (YSRCP)." ], [ "See also", "* Democracy in India* Political funding in India* Caste politics * Caste system in India* Democracy in Chola Dynasty* Disqualification of convicted representatives in India* Foreign relations of India * History of democracy in ancient India* List of scandals in India* Mandal Commission * Political families of India* Reservation in India * 2011 Socio Economic and Caste Census* State governments of India* Cronyism* Conservatism in India* Liberalism in India* Socialism in India* Communism in India" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * Chowdhuri, Satyabrata Rai.", "''Leftism in India, 1917-1947'' .", "Palgrave, U.K., 2007.", "* Karnad, Bharat.", "''Why India is Not a Great Power (Yet).''", "Oxford University Press, 2015.", "* Shively, W. Phillips.", "''Power and Choice: An Introduction to Political Science—Chapter 14 Example: Parliamentary Government in India.''", "McGraw Hill Higher Education, 2005.", "* Mitra, Subrata K. and Singh, V.B.. ''Democracy and Social Change in India: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of the National Electorate''.", "New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1999.", "(India HB) (U.S.", "HB).", "* Shourie, Arun (2007).", "The parliamentary system: What we have made of it, what we can make of it.", "New Delhi: Rupa & Co.* Shourie, Arun (2005).", "Governance and the sclerosis that has set in.", "New Delhi: ASA Publications.", "* Tawa Lama-Rewal, Stéphanie.", "''\"Studying Elections in India: Scientific and Political Debates\"''.", "''South Asia Multidisciplinary Academic Journal'', 3, 2009.", "* Sen, Ronojoy (2022).", "''House of the People : Parliament and the Making of Indian Democracy.''", "Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press." ], [ "External links", "* Outline of the Indian Government" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Telecommunications in India" ], [ "Introduction", " '''India's telecommunication network''' is the second largest in the world by number of telephone users (both fixed and mobile phones) with 114.8 crore subscribers .", "It has one of the lowest call tariffs in the world enabled by mega telecom operators and hyper-competition among them.", "India has the world's second-largest Internet user-base with 747.41 million broadband internet subscribers.Major sectors of the Indian telecommunication industry are telephone, internet and television broadcast industry in the country which is in an ongoing process of transforming into a Next-generation network, employs an extensive system of modern network elements such as digital telephone exchanges, Network switching subsystem, media gateways and Signaling gateway at the core, interconnected by a wide variety of transmission systems using Optical fiber or Microwave radio relay networks.", "The access network, which connects the subscriber to the core, is highly diversified with different copper-pair, Optical fiber and wireless technologies.", "Satellite television, a relatively new broadcasting technology has attained significant popularity in the Television segment.", "The introduction of private FM has boosted radio broadcasting in India.", "Telecommunication in India has greatly been supported by the Indian National Satellite System system of the country, one of the largest domestic satellite systems in the world.", "India possesses a diversified communications system, which links all parts of the country by telephone, Internet, radio, television and satellite.Indian telecom industry underwent a high pace of market liberalisation and growth since the 1990s and now has become the world's most competitive and one of the fastest growing telecom markets.Telecommunication has supported the socioeconomic development of India and has played a significant role in narrowing down the rural-urban digital divide to some extent.", "It also has helped to increase the transparency of governance with the introduction of e-governance in India.", "The government has pragmatically used modern telecommunication facilities to deliver mass education programmes for the rural folk of India.According to the London-based telecom trade body GSMA, the telecom sector accounted for 6.5% of India's GDP in 2015, or about , and supported direct employment for 2.2 million people in the country.", "GSMA estimates that the Indian telecom sector will contribute to the economy and support 3 million direct jobs and 2 million indirect jobs by 2020.In today's period of progress and wealth, technological modernization is increasingly seen as a foreseen necessity for every country.", "With better technology and more competition from established businesses, telecommunications has entered a new era of development.", "The continuous rise of the mobile industry is linked to technological advancements in the telecommunications sector.", "The service providers' primary goal is to build a loyal customer base by measuring their performance and maintaining existing consumers in order to profit from their loyalty.", "The purpose of the paper is to address these concerns." ], [ "History", "===The beginning===A microwave tower for short distance (~50 km) communicationProf.", "S. P. Chakravarti is known as the father of electronics and telecommunications engineering in India.", "He started electronics and telecommunications education, training and research in India.Telecommunications in India began with the introduction of the Telegraphy.", "The Indian postal and telecom sectors are one of the world's oldest.", "In 1850, the first experimental electric telegraph line was started between Kolkata and Diamond Harbour.", "In 1851, it was opened for the use of the East India Company.", "The Posts and Telegraphs department occupied a small corner of the Public Works Department at that time.The construction of of telegraph lines was started in November 1853.These connected Kolkata (then Calcutta) and Peshawar in the north; Agra, Mumbai (then Bombay) through Sindwa Ghats, and Chennai (then Madras) in the south; Ooty and Bangalore.", "William O'Shaughnessy, who pioneered the Telegraphy and telephone in India, belonged to the Public Works Department, and worked towards the development of telecom throughout this period.", "A separate department was opened in 1854 when telegraph facilities were opened to the public.In 1880, two Telephone company namely The Oriental Telephone Company Ltd. and The Anglo-Indian Telephone Company Ltd. approached the Government of India to establish Telephone exchange in India.", "The permission was refused on the grounds that the establishment of telephones was a Government monopoly and that the Government itself would undertake the work.", "In 1881, the Government later reversed its earlier decision and a licence was granted to the Oriental Telephone Company Limited of England for opening telephone exchanges at Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai and Ahmedabad and the first formal telephone service was established in the country.", "On 28 January 1882, Major E. Baring, Member of the Governor General of India's Council declared open the Telephone Exchanges in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.", "The exchange in Calcutta named the \"Central Exchange\" had a total of 93 subscribers in its early stage.", "Later that year, Bombay also witnessed the opening of a telephone exchange.===Further developments and milestones===Indian telegraph receipt 1912 (front top and back bottom) with additional labels* 1901 – First wireless telegraph station established between Sagar Island and Sandhead.", "* Pre-1902 – Cable telegraph.", "* 1907 – First Central Battery of telephones introduced in Kanpur.", "* 1913–1914 – First Automatic Exchange installed in Shimla.", "* 1927 – Radio-telegraph system between the UK and India, with Imperial Wireless Chain beam stations at Khadki and Daunt.", "Inaugurated by Lord Irwin on 23 July by exchanging greetings with King George V.* 1933 – Radiotelephone system inaugurated between the UK and India.", "* 1947 - First Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering department started in India at the Government Engineering College, Jabalpur.", "* 1951 - First TV transmitter of India was installed at the Government Engineering College, Jabalpur, on 24 October.", "* 1953 – 12 channel carrier system introduced.", "* 1960 – First subscriber trunk dialling route commissioned between Lucknow and Kanpur.", "* 1975 – First PCM system commissioned between Mumbai City and Andheri telephone exchanges.", "* 1976 – First digital microwave junction.", "* 1979 – First optical fibre system for local junction commissioned at Pune.", "* 1980 – First satellite earth station for domestic communications established at Sikandarabad, U.P.", "* 1983 – First analogue Stored Programme Control exchange for trunk lines commissioned at Mumbai.", "* 1984 – C-DOT established for indigenous development and production of digital exchanges.", "* 1995 – First mobile telephone service started on non-commercial basis on 15 August 1995 in Delhi.", "* 1995 – Internet Introduced in India starting with Laxmi Nagar, Delhi 15 August 1995'''Development of Broadcasting:''' Radio broadcasting was initiated in 1927 but became state responsibility only in 1930.In 1937 it was given the name ''All India Radio'' and since 1957 it has been called ''Akashvani''.", "Limited duration of television programming began in 1959, and complete broadcasting followed in 1965.The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting owned and maintained the audio-visual apparatus—including the television channel ''Doordarshan''—in the country prior to the economic reforms of 1991.In 1997, an autonomous body was established in the name of Prasar Bharti to take care of the public service broadcasting under the Prasar Bharti Act.", "All India Radio and Doordarshan, which earlier were working as media units under the Ministry of I&B became constituents of the body.", "'''Pre-liberalisation statistics:''' While all the major cities and towns in the country were linked with telephones during the British period, the total number of telephones in 1948 numbered only around 80,000.Post-independence, growth remained slow because the telephone was seen more as a status symbol rather than being an instrument of utility.", "The number of telephones grew leisurely to 980,000 in 1971, 2.15 million in 1981 and 5.07 million in 1991, the year economic reforms were initiated in the country.===Liberalisation and privatisation===A mobile phone tower in Leh, Ladakh, India, surrounded by Buddhist prayer flagsLiberalisation of Indian telecommunication in industry started in 1981 when Prime Minister Indira Gandhi signed contracts with Alcatel CIT of France to merge with the state owned Telecom Company (ITI), in an effort to set up 5,000,000 lines per year.", "But soon the policy was let down because of political opposition.", "Attempts to liberalise the telecommunication industry were continued by the following government under the prime-minister-ship of Rajiv Gandhi.", "He invited Sam Pitroda, a US-based Non-resident Indian NRI and a former Rockwell International executive to set up a Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT) which manufactured electronic telephone exchanges in India for the first time.", "Sam Pitroda had a significant role as a consultant and adviser in the development of telecommunication in India.In 1985, the Department of Telecom (DoT) was separated from Indian Post & Telecommunication Department.", "DoT was responsible for telecom services in entire country until 1986 when Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited (MTNL) and Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited (VSNL) were carved out of DoT to run the telecom services of metro cities (Delhi and Mumbai) and international long-distance operations respectively.The demand for telephones was ever increasing and in the 1990s Indian government was under increasing pressure to open up the telecom sector for private investment as a part of Liberalisation-Privatisation-Globalisation policies that the government had to accept to overcome the severe fiscal crisis and resultant balance of payments issue in 1991.Consequently, private investment in the sector of Value Added Services (VAS) was allowed and cellular telecom sector were opened up for competition from private investments.", "It was during this period that the Narsimha Rao-led government introduced the ''National Telecommunications policy (NTP)'' in 1994 which brought changes in the following areas: ownership, service and regulation of telecommunications infrastructure.", "The policy introduced the concept of ''telecommunication for all'' and its vision was to expand the telecommunication facilities to all the villages in India.", "Liberalisation in the basic telecom sector was also envisaged in this policy.", "They were also successful in establishing joint ventures between state owned telecom companies and international players.", "Foreign firms were eligible to 49% of the total stake.", "The multi-nationals were just involved in technology transfer, and not policy making.During this period, the World Bank and ITU had advised the Indian Government to liberalise long-distance services to release the monopoly of the state-owned DoT and VSNL and to enable competition in the long-distance carrier business which would help reduce tariff's and better the economy of the country.", "The Rao run government instead liberalised the local services, taking the opposite political parties into confidence and assuring foreign involvement in the long-distance business after 5 years.", "The country was divided into 20 telecommunication circles for basic telephony and 18 circles for mobile services.", "These circles were divided into category A, B and C depending on the value of the revenue in each circle.", "The government threw open the bids to one private company per circle along with government-owned DoT per circle.", "For cellular service two service providers were allowed per circle and a 15 years licence was given to each provider.", "During all these improvements, the government did face oppositions from ITI, DoT, MTNL, VSNL and other labour unions, but they managed to keep away from all the hurdles.In 1997, the government set up TRAI (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India) which reduced the interference of Government in deciding tariffs and policymaking.", "The political powers changed in 1999 and the new government under the leadership of Atal Bihari Vajpayee was more pro-reforms and introduced better liberalisation policies.", "In 2000, the Vajpayee government constituted the Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal (TDSAT) through an amendment of the TRAI Act, 1997.The primary objective of TDSAT's establishment was to release TRAI from adjudicatory and dispute settlement functions in order to strengthen the regulatory framework.", "Any dispute involving parties like licensor, licensee, service provider and consumers are resolved by TDSAT.", "Moreover, any direction, order or decision of TRAI can be challenged by appealing in TDSAT.", "The government corporatised the operations wing of DoT on 1 October 2000 and named it as ''Department of Telecommunication Services (DTS)'' which was later named as Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL).", "The proposal of raising the stake of foreign investors from 49% to 74% was rejected by the opposite political parties and leftist thinkers.", "Domestic business groups wanted the government to privatise VSNL.", "Finally in April 2002, the government decided to cut its stake of 53% to 26% in VSNL and to throw it open for sale to private enterprises.", "TATA finally took 25% stake in VSNL.This was a gateway to many foreign investors to get entry into the Indian telecom markets.", "After March 2000, the government became more liberal in making policies and issuing licences to private operators.", "The government further reduced licence fees for cellular service providers and increased the allowable stake to 74% for foreign companies.", "Because of all these factors, the service fees finally reduced and the call costs were cut greatly enabling every common middle-class family in India to afford a cell phone.", "Nearly 32 million handsets were sold in India.", "The data reveals the real potential for growth of the Indian mobile market.", "Many private operators, such as Reliance Communications, Jio, Tata Indicom, Vodafone, Loop Mobile, Airtel, Idea etc., successfully entered the high potential Indian telecom market.", "In the initial 5–6 years the average monthly subscribers additions were around 0.05 to 0.1 million only and the total mobile subscribers base in December 2002 stood at 10.5 million.", "However, after a number of proactive initiatives taken by regulators and licensors, the total number of mobile subscribers has increased rapidly to over 929 million subscribers as of May 2012.In March 2008, the total GSM and CDMA mobile subscriber base in the country was 375 million, which represented a nearly 50% growth when compared with previous year.As the unbranded Chinese cell phones which do not have International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) numbers pose a serious security risk to the country, Mobile network operators therefore suspended the usage of around 30 million mobile phones (about 8% of all mobiles in the country) by 30 April 2009.Phones without valid IMEI cannot be connected to cellular operators.India has opted for the use of both the GSM (global system for mobile communications) and CDMA (code-division multiple access) technologies in the mobile sector.", "In addition to landline and mobile phones, some of the companies also provide the WLL service.", "The mobile tariffs in India have also become the lowest in the world.", "A new mobile connection can be activated with a monthly commitment of US$0.15 only.===Licence cancellation===On 2 February 2012 the Supreme Court ruled on petitions filed by Subramanian Swamy and the Centre for Public Interest Litigation (CPIL) represented by Prashant Bhushan, challenging the 2008 allotment of 2G licenses, cancelling all 122 spectrum licences granted during A. Raja (Minister of Communications & IT from 2007 to 2009), the primary official accused's term as communications minister.", "and described the allocation of 2G spectrum as \"unconstitutional and arbitrary\".", "The bench of GS Singhvi and Asok Kumar Ganguly imposed a fine of on Unitech Wireless, Swan Telecom and Tata Teleservices and a fine on Loop Telecom, S Tel, Allianz Infratech and Sistema Shyam Tele Services.", "According to the ruling the then granted licences would remain in place for four months, after which time the government would reissue the licences.=== Consolidation ===Post starting of the commercial operation of Reliance Jio in September 2016, the telecom market saw a huge change in terms of falling tariff rates and reduction of data charges, which changed the economics for some of the telecom players.", "This resulted in exit of many smaller players from the market.", "Players like Videocon and Systema sold their spectrum under spectrum trading agreements to Airtel and RCOM respectively in Q4 2016.On 23 February 2017, Telenor India announced that Bharti Airtel will take over all its business and assets in India and deal will be completed in 12 months timeframe.", "On 14 May 2018, Department of Telecom approved the merger of Telenor India with Bharti Airtel paving the way for final commercial closing of the merger between the two companies.", "Telenor India has been acquired by Airtel almost without any cost.On 12 October 2017, Bharti Airtel announced that it would acquire the consumer mobile businesses of Tata Teleservices Ltd (TTSL) and Tata Teleservices Maharastra Ltd (TTML) in a debt-free cash-free deal.", "The deal was essentially free for Airtel which incurred TTSL's unpaid spectrum payment liability.", "TTSL will continue to operate its enterprise, fixed line and broadband businesses and its stake in tower company Viom Networks.", "The consumer mobile businesses of Tata Docomo, Tata Teleservices (TTSL) and Tata Teleservices Maharashtra Limited (TTML) have been merged into Bharti Airtel from 1 July 2019Reliance Communications had to shut down its 2G and 3G services including all voice services and only offer 4G data services from 29 December 2017, as a result of debt and a failed merger with Aircel.", "Surprisingly, the shut down was shortly after completion of acquisition of MTS India on 31 October 2017.In February 2019, the company filed for bankruptcy as it was unable to sell assets to repay its debt.", "It has an estimated debt of ₹ 57,383 crore against assets worth ₹18,000 crore.Aircel shut down its operations in unprofitable circles including, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh (West) from 30 January 2018.Aircel along with its units - Aircel Cellular and Dishnet Wireless - on 1 March 2018, filed for bankruptcy in the National Companies Law Tribunal (NCLT) in Mumbai due to huge competition and high levels of debt.Vodafone and Idea Cellular completed their merger on 31 August 2018, and the merged entity is renamed to Vi.", "The merger created the largest telecom company in India by subscribers and by revenue, and the second largest mobile network in terms of number of subscribers in the world.", "Under the terms of the deal, the Vodafone Group holds a 45.1% stake in the combined entity, the Aditya Birla Group holds 26% and the remaining shares will be held by the public.", "However, even after the merger both the brands have been continued to carry their own independent brands.With all this consolidation, the Indian mobile market has turned into a four-player market, with Jio as the number-one player, with revenue market share of 34%, Airtel India in second position, with revenue market share of 28% and Vi, with revenue market share of 27%.", "The government operator BSNL/MTNL is in the distant 4th position, with an approximate market share of 11%" ], [ "Telephony", "Private-sector and two state-run businesses dominate the telephony segment.", "Most companies were formed by a recent revolution and restructuring launched within a decade, directed by Ministry of Communications and IT, Department of Telecommunications and Minister of Finance.", "Since then, most companies gained 2G, 3G and 4G licences and engaged fixed-line, mobile and internet business in India.", "On landlines, intra-circle calls are considered local calls while inter-circle are considered long-distance calls.", "Foreign Direct Investment policy which increased the foreign ownership cap from 49% to 100%.", "The Government is working to integrate the whole country in one telecom circle.", "For long-distance calls, the area code prefixed with a zero is dialled first which is then followed by the number (i.e., to call Delhi, 011 would be dialled first followed by the phone number).", "For international calls, \"00\" must be dialled first followed by the country code, TNP and local Telephone number.", "The country code for India is 91.Several international fibre-optic links include those to Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong, Russia, and Germany.", "Some major telecom operators in India include the privately owned companies like Vi, Airtel, and Reliance Jio and the state-owned companies - BSNL and MTNL.===Landline===Before the New Telecom Policy was announced in 1999, only the Government-owned BSNL and MTNL were allowed to provide land-line phone services through Copper conductor in India with MTNL operating in Delhi and Mumbai and BSNL servicing all other areas of the country.", "Due to the rapid growth of the cellular phone industry in India, landlines are facing stiff competition from cellular operators, with the number of wireline subscribers fell from 37.90 million in December 2008 to 20 million in October 2020.This has forced land-line service providers to become more efficient and improve their quality of service.", "As of October 2020, India has 20 million wireline customers.===Mobile telephony===STD calls can be made) and internet kiosks in IndiaOn July 21, 1995, then Chief Minister of West Bengal, Jyoti Basu made the first mobile phone call in India using Nokia handset, inaugurating Modi Telstra's MobileNet service from Writers' Building to then Union Telecom Minister Sukhram at Sanchar Bhaban of New Delhi.", "Sixteen years later 4G services were launched in Kolkata in 2012.With a subscriber base of more than 1151.8 million (31 Oct 2020), the mobile telecommunications system in India is the second-largest in the world and it was thrown open to private players in the 1990s.", "GSM was comfortably maintaining its position as the dominant mobile technology with 80% of the mobile subscriber market, but CDMA seemed to have stabilised its market share at 20% for the time being.The country is divided into multiple zones, called circles (roughly along state boundaries).", "Government and several private players run local and long-distance telephone services.", "Competition, especially after entry of Reliance Jio, has caused prices to drop across India, which are already one of the cheapest in the world.", "The rates are supposed to go down further with new measures to be taken by the Information Ministry.In September 2004, the number of mobile phone connections crossed the number of fixed-line connections and presently dwarfs the wireline segment substantially.", "The mobile subscriber base has grown from 5 million subscribers in 2001 to over 1,179.32 million subscribers as of July 2018.India primarily follows the GSM mobile system, in the 900 MHz band.", "Recent operators also operate in the 1800 MHz band.", "The dominant players are Vi, Airtel, Jio, and BSNL/MTNL.", "International Roaming agreements exist between most operators and many foreign carriers.", "The government allowed Mobile number portability (MNP) which enables mobile telephone users to retain their mobile telephone numbers when changing from one mobile network operator to another.", "In 2014, Thiruvananthapuram became the first city in India to cross the mobile penetration milestone of 100 mobile connections per 100 people.", "In 2015 three more cities from Kerala, Kollam, Kochi and Kottayam crossed the 100 mark.", "In 2017 many other major cities in the country like Chennai, Mysore, Mangalore, Bangalore, Hyderabad, etc.", "also crossed the milestone.", "Currently Thiruvananthapuram tops the Indian cities with a mobile penetration of 168.4 followed by Kollam 143.2 and Kochi 141.7." ], [ "Internet", "Public, commercial Internet access in India was launched by Tata Communications (VSNL) on 15 August 1995, though access was available via the Educational Research Network (ERNET) to educational institutions as early as 1986.VSNL was able to add about 10,000 Internet users within 6 months.", "However, for the next 10 years the Internet experience in the country remained less attractive, with narrow-band connections having speeds less than 56 kbit/s (dial-up).", "In 2004, the government formulated its broadband policy which defined broadband as \"an always-on Internet connection with a download speed of 256 kbit/s or above.\"", "From 2005 onward the growth of the broadband sector in the country accelerated but remained below the growth estimates of the government and related agencies due to resource issues in last-mile access which were predominantly wired-line technologies.", "This bottleneck was removed in 2010 when the government auctioned 3G spectrum followed by an equally high-profile auction of 4G spectrum that set the scene for a competitive and invigorated wireless broadband market.", "Now Internet access in India is provided by both public and private companies using a variety of technologies and media including dial-up (PSTN), xDSL, coaxial cable, Ethernet, FTTH, ISDN, HSDPA (3G), 4G, WiFi, WiMAX, etc.", "at a wide range of speeds and costs.According to the Internet And Mobile Association of India (IAMAI), the Internet user base in the country stood at 190 million at the end of June 2013, rosing to 378.10 million in January 2018.Cumulative Annual Growth rate (CAGR) of broadband during the five-year period between 2005 and 2010 was about 117 per cent.There were 204 Internet service provider (ISPs) offering broadband services in India as of 31 December 2017.As of January 2018, the top five ISPs in terms subscriber base were Reliance Jio (168.39 million), Bharti Airtel (75.01 million), Vodafone (54.83 million), Idea Cellular (37.33 million) and BSNL (21.81 million).", "In 2009, about 37 per cent of the users access the Internet from cyber cafes, 30 per cent from an office, and 23 per cent from home.", "However, the number of mobile Internet users increased rapidly from 2009 on and there were about 359.80 million mobile users at the end of January 2018, with a majority using 4G mobile networks.One of the major issues facing the Internet segment in India is the lower average bandwidth of broadband connections compared to that of developed countries.", "According to 2007 statistics, the average download speed in India hovered at about 40 KB per second (256 Kbits/s), the minimum speed set by TRAI, whereas the international average was 5.6 Mbit/s during the same period.", "In order to attend this infrastructure issue the government declared 2007 as \"the year of broadband\".", "To compete with international standards of defining broadband speed the Indian Government has taken the aggressive step of proposing a $13 billion national broadband network to connect all cities, towns and villages with a population of more than 500 in two phases targeted for completion by 2012 and 2013.The network was supposed to provide speeds up to 10 Mbit/s in 63 metropolitan areas and 4 Mbit/s in an additional 352 cities.", "In February 2018, the average broadband speed of fixed-line connection in India was 20.72 Mbit/s, which is less than the global average download speed of 42.71 Mbit/s.", "In terms of mobile internet speed, India performed quite poorly, with average speed of 9.01 Mbit/s when compared with global average mobile broadband speed was 22.16 Mbit/s.As of December 2017, according to Internet and Mobile Association of India, the Internet penetration rate in India is one of the lowest in the world and only accounts for 35% of the population compared to the global average internet penetration is over 54.4%.", "Another issue is the digital divide where growth is biased in favour of urban areas; according to December 2017 statistics, internet penetration in urban India was 64.84%, whereas internet penetration in rural India is only 20.26%.", "Regulators have tried to boost the growth of broadband in rural areas by promoting higher investment in rural infrastructure and establishing subsidised tariffs for rural subscribers under the Universal service scheme of the Indian government.As of May 2014, the Internet was delivered to India mainly by 9 different undersea fibres, including SEA-ME-WE 3, Bay of Bengal Gateway and Europe India Gateway, arriving at 5 different landing points.===Net neutrality===In March 2015, the TRAI released a formal consultation paper on ''Regulatory Framework for Over-the-top (OTT)'' services, seeking comments from the public.", "The consultation paper was criticised for being one sided and having confusing statements.", "It was condemned by various politicians and internet users.", "By 18 April 2015, over 800,000 emails had been sent to TRAI demanding net neutrality.The TRAI on 8 February 2016, notified the Prohibition of Discriminatory Tariffs for Data Services Regulations, 2016 which barred telecom service providers from charging differential rates for data services.The 2016 Regulation, stipulates that:# No service provider can offer or charge discriminatory tariffs for data services on the basis of content.# No service provider shall enter into any arrangement, agreement or contract, by whatever name called, with any person, natural or legal, that the effect of discriminatory tariffs for data services being offered or charged by the service provider for the purpose of evading the prohibition in this regulation.# Reduced tariff for accessing or providing emergency services, or at times of public emergency has been permitted.# Financial disincentives for contravention of the regulation have also been specified.# TRAI may review these regulations after a period of two years." ], [ "Television broadcasting", "INSAT system.Television broadcasting began in India in 1959 by ''Doordarshan'', a state-run medium of communication, and had slow expansion for more than two decades.", "The policy reforms of the government in the 1990s attracted private initiatives in this sector, and since then, satellite television has increasingly shaped popular culture and Indian society.", "However, still, only the government-owned ''Doordarshan'' has the licence for terrestrial television broadcast.", "Private companies reach the public using satellite channels; both cable television as well as DTH has obtained a wide subscriber base in India.", "In 2012, India had about 148 million TV homes of which 126 million has access to cable and satellite services.Following the economic reforms in the 1990s, satellite television channels from around the world—BBC, CNN, CNBC, and other private television channels gained a foothold in the country.", "There are no regulations to control the ownership of satellite dish antennas and also for operating cable television systems in India, which in turn has helped for an impressive growth in the viewership.", "The growth in the number of satellite channels was triggered by corporate business houses such as Disney Networks Group Asia Pacific group and Zee Entertainment Enterprises.", "Initially restricted to music and entertainment channels, viewership grew, giving rise to several channels in regional languages, especially Hindi.", "The main news channels available were CNN and BBC News.", "In the late 1990s, many current affairs and news channels sprouted, becoming immensely popular because of the alternative viewpoint they offered compared to Doordarshan.", "Some of the notable ones are Aaj Tak (run by the India Today group) and ABP News, CNN-News18, Times Now, initially run by the NDTV group and their lead anchor, Prannoy Roy (NDTV now has its own channels, NDTV 24x7, NDTV Profit and NDTV India).", "Over the years, Doordarshan services also have grown from a single national channel to six national and eleven regional channels.", "Nonetheless, it has lost the leadership in market, though it underwent many phases of modernisation in order to contain tough competition from private channels.Today, television is the most penetrative media in India with industry estimates indicating that there are over 554 million TV consumers, 462 million with satellite connections, compared to other forms of mass media such as radio or internet.", "Government of India has used the popularity of TV and radio among rural people for the implementation of many social-programmes including that of mass-education.", "On 16 November 2006, the Government of India released the community radio policy which allowed agricultural centres, educational institutions and civil society organisations to apply for community based FM broadcasting licence.", "Community Radio is allowed 100 watts of Effective Radiated Power (ERP) with a maximum tower height of 30 metres.", "The licence is valid for five years and one organisation can only get one licence, which is non-transferable and to be used for community development purposes." ], [ "Radio", "AIR Radio TowerAs of June 2018, there are 328 private FM radio stations in India.", "Apart from the private FM radio stations, Akashvani, the national public radio broadcaster of India, runs multiple radio channels.", "AIR's service comprises 420 stations located across the country, reaching nearly 92% of the country's area and 99.19% of the total population.", "AIR originates programming in 23 languages and 179 dialects." ], [ "Next-generation networks (NGN)", "Historically, the role of telecommunication has evolved from that of plain information exchange to a multi-service field, with ''Value Added Services (VAS)'' integrated with various discrete networks like PSTN, PLMN, Internet Backbone etc.", "However, with decreasing average revenue per user and increasing demand for VAS has become a compelling reason for the service providers to think of the convergence of these parallel networks into a single core network with service layers separated from network layer.", "Next-generation networking is such a convergence concept which according to ITU-T is:Access network: The user can connect to the IP-core of NGN in various ways, most of which use the standard Internet Protocol (IP).", "User terminals such as mobile phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs) and computers can register directly on NGN-core, even when they are roaming in another network or country.", "The only requirement is that they can use IP and Session Initiation Protocol (SIP).", "Fixed access (e.g., digital subscriber line (DSL), cable modems, Ethernet), mobile access (e.g.", "UMTS, CDMA2000, GSM, GPRS) and wireless access (e.g.WLAN, WiMAX) are all supported.", "Other phone systems like plain old telephone service and non-compatible VoIP systems, are supported through gateways.", "With the deployment of the NGN, users may subscribe to many simultaneous access-providers providing telephony, internet or entertainment services.", "This may provide end-users with virtually unlimited options to choose between service providers for these services in NGN environment.The hyper-competition in the telecom market, which was effectively caused by the introduction of ''Universal Access Service (UAS)'' licence in 2003 became much tougher after 3G and 4G competitive auction.", "About of optical fibre has been laid in India by the major operators, including in the financially nonviable rural areas and the process continues.", "Keeping in mind the viability of providing services in rural areas, the government of India also took a proactive role to promote the NGN implementation in the country; an expert committee called ''NGN eCO'' was constituted in order to deliberate on the licensing, interconnection and quality of service (QoS) issues related to NGN and it submitted its report on 24 August 2007.Telecom operators found the NGN model advantageous, but huge investment requirements have prompted them to adopt a multi-phase migration and they have already started the migration process to NGN with the implementation of IP-based core-network." ], [ "Regulatory environment", "LIRNEasia's Telecommunications Regulatory Environment (TRE) index, which summarises stakeholders' perception on certain TRE dimensions, provides insight into how conducive the environment is for further development and progress.", "The most recent survey was conducted in July 2008 in eight Asian countries, including Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Pakistan, Thailand, and the Philippines.", "The tool measured seven dimensions: i) market entry; ii) access to scarce resources; iii) interconnection; iv) tariff regulation; v) anti-competitive practices; and vi) universal services; vii) quality of service, for the fixed, mobile and broadband sectors.The results for India, point out to the fact that the stakeholders perceive the TRE to be most conducive for the mobile sector followed by fixed and then broadband.", "Other than for Access to ScarceResources the fixed sector lags behind the mobile sector.", "The fixed and mobile sectors have the highest scores for Tariff Regulation.", "Market entry also scores well for the mobile sectoras competition is well entrenched with most of the circles with 4–5 mobile service providers.", "The broadband sector has the lowest score in the aggregate.", "The low penetration of broadband of mere 3.87 against the policy objective of 9 million at the end of 2007 clearly indicates that the regulatory environment is not very conducive.In 2013 the home ministry stated that legislation must ensure that law enforcement agencies are empowered to intercept communications." ], [ "S-band spectrum scam", "In India, electromagnetic spectrum, being a scarce resource for wireless communication, is auctioned by the Government of India to telecom companies for use.", "As an example of its value, in 2010, 20 Hertz of 3G spectrum was auctioned for .", "This part of the spectrum is allocated for terrestrial communication (cell phones).", "However, in January 2005, Antrix Corporation (commercial arm of ISRO) signed an agreement with Devas Multimedia (a private company formed by former ISRO employees and venture capitalists from USA) for lease of S band transponders (amounting to 70 MHz of spectrum) on two ISRO satellites (GSAT 6 and GSAT 6A) for a price of , to be paid over a period of 12 years.", "The spectrum used in these satellites (2500 MHz and above) is allocated by the International Telecommunication Union specifically for satellite-based communication in India.", "Hypothetically, if the spectrum allocation is changed for utilisation for terrestrial transmission and if this 70 MHz of spectrum were sold at the 2010 auction price of the 3G spectrum, its value would have been over .", "This was a hypothetical situation.", "However, the Comptroller and Auditor General of India considered this hypothetical situation and estimated the difference between the prices as a loss to the Indian Government.There were lapses on implementing Government of India procedures.", "Antrix/ISRO had allocated the capacity of the above two satellites to Devas Multimedia on an exclusive basis, while rules said it should always be non-exclusive.", "The Union Council of Ministers was misinformed in November 2005 that several service providers were interested in using satellite capacity, while the Devas deal was already signed.", "Also, the Space Commission was kept in the dark while taking approval for the second satellite (its cost was diluted so that Cabinet approval was not needed).", "ISRO committed to spending of public money on building, launching, and operating two satellites that were leased out for Devas.In late 2009, some ISRO insiders exposed information about the Devas-Antrix deal, and the ensuing investigations resulted in the deal being annulled.", "G. Madhavan Nair (ISRO Chairperson when the agreement was signed) was barred from holding any post under the Department of Space.", "Some former scientists were found guilty of \"acts of commission\" or \"acts of omission\".", "Devas and Deutsche Telekom demanded US$2 billion and US$1 billion, respectively, in damages.The Central Bureau of Investigation concluded investigations into the Antrix-Devas scam and registered a case against the accused in the Antrix-Devas deal under Section 120-B, besides Section 420 of IPC and Section 13(2) read with 13(1)(d) of PC Act, 1988 on 18 March 2015 against the then executive director of Antrix Corporation, two officials of USA-based company, Bangalore based private multimedia company, and other unknown officials of Antrix Corporation or Department of Space.Devas Multimedia started arbitration proceedings against Antrix in June 2011.In September 2015, the International Court of Arbitration of the International Chamber of Commerce ruled in favour of Devas, and directed Antrix to pay US$672 million (Rs 44.35 billion) in damages to Devas.", "Antrix opposed the Devas plea for tribunal award in the Delhi High Court." ], [ "Revenue and growth", "The adjusted gross revenue in the telecom service sector was in 2017 as against in 2016, registering a negative growth of 18.87%.", "The major contributions to this revenue are as follows (in INR crores):+Service providerCalendar year 2018-19(in INR crores)Calendar year 2019-20(in INR crores)% changeQ2 2020-21(in INR crores)Airtel80,780.2 87,539.0 +08.37%Reliance Jio48,660 68,462 +40.69%Vi37,823.6 45,996.8 +21.68%BSNL19,308 18,906 -02.08%'''Note:'''* Bharti Airtel acquired Telenor India in May 2018 and the data of Airtel and Telenor India has been merged.", "* On 31 August 2018, Vodafone and Idea merged to form the world's second-largest telecom company, and the largest in India, officially known as Vi and both the companies' data has been merged.", "* On 1 November 2017, MTS India merged with Reliance Communications and their data has been merged.", "* Videocon shut down its network and discontinued operations in the Gujarat and UP (West) circles on 26 December 2015, and in the Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and UP (East) circles on 11 May 2016.", "* Reliance Communications discontinued its wireless voice services on 29 December 2017, but continued its data and B2B services until 2018.Reliance Communications filed for bankruptcy as it was unable to sell its assets to Jio and closed its operations under mobile network division on 26 February 2019.", "* On 28 February 2018 Aircel filed for bankruptcy at NCLT and has discontinued operations.", "* Quadrant discontinued its wireless mobile services in April 2017; however, it has continued to provide wired line services in Punjab circle.", "* In July 2016, Virgin Mobile India and T24 Mobile merged their virtual network operations into Tata Docomo.", "* Bharti Airtel acquired the consumer mobile businesses of Tata Teleservices which include Tata Docomo in a debt-free deal on 1 July 2019." ], [ "International", "* Nine satellite earth stations – 8 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) and 1 Inmarsat (Indian Ocean region).", "* Nine gateway exchanges operating from Mumbai, New Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Jalandhar, Kanpur, Gandhinagar, Hyderabad and Thiruvananthapuram.===Submarine cables===* LOCOM linking Chennai to Penang, Malaysia* India-UAE cable linking Mumbai to Fujairah, UAE.", "* SEA-ME-WE 2 (South East Asia-Middle East-Western Europe 2)* SEA-ME-WE 3 (South East Asia-Middle East-Western Europe 3) – Landing sites at Kochi and Mumbai.", "Capacity of 960 Gbit/s.", "* SEA-ME-WE 4 (South East Asia-Middle East-Western Europe 4) – Landing sites at Mumbai and Chennai.", "Capacity of 1.28 Tbit/s.", "Fibre-optic Link Around the Globe (FLAG-FEA) with a landing site at Mumbai (2000).", "Initial design capacity 10 Gbit/s, upgraded in 2002 to 80 Gbit/s, upgraded to over 1 Tbit/s (2005).", " TIISCS (Tata Indicom India-Singapore Cable System), also known as TIC (Tata Indicom Cable), Chennai to Singapore.", "Capacity of 5.12 Tbit/s.", "* i2i – Chennai to Singapore.", "The capacity of 8.4 Tbit/s.", "* SEACOM From Mumbai to the Mediterranean, via South Africa.", "It joins with SEA-ME-WE 4 off the west coast of Spain to carry traffic onward to London (2009).", "Capacity of 1.28 Tbit/s.", "* I-ME-WE (India-Middle East-Western Europe) with two landing sites at Mumbai (2009).", "Capacity of 3.84 Tbit/s.", "* EIG (Europe-India Gateway), landing at Mumbai(2011).", "Capacity of 3.84 Tbit/s.", "* TGN-Eurasia Landing at Mumbai (2012), Capacity of 1.28 Tbit/s* TGN-Gulf Landing at Mumbai (2012), Capacity Unknown.", "* MENA (Middle East North Africa)(Announced).", "(due ?", "), Capacity of 5.76 Tbit/s." ], [ "See also", " * TRAI* Indian Telecommunication Service* Indian Telecom Spectrum Auction * List of telecom companies in India* List of countries by smartphone penetration * List of sovereign states by Internet connection speeds" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Telecom Regulatory Authority of India* Cellular Operators Association of India * IRAM - Radio Audience Measurement in India from 2016.", "* Internet Usage Stats and Telecommunications of India* Accounting & Reporting in Telecom Industry* Mergers & Acquisitions in Indian Telecom Industry" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in India" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Transport in India''' consists of transport by land, water and air.", "Road transport is the primary mode of transport for most Indian citizens, and India's road transport systems are among the most heavily used in the world.The Golden Quadrilateral connects the four major metro cities of India, viz., Delhi (north), Kolkata (east), Chennai (south) and Mumbai (west).India's road network is the second-largest, after the United States and one of the busiest in the world, transporting 8.225 billion passengers and over 980 million tonnes of cargo annually, as of 2015.India's rail network is the fourth largest and second busiest in the world, transporting 8.09 billion passengers and 1.20 billion tonnes of freight annually, Aviation in India is broadly divided into military and civil aviation which is the fastest-growing aviation market in the world (IATA data).", "India's waterways network, in the form of rivers, canals, backwaters and creeks, is the ninth largest waterway network in the world.", "Freight transport by waterways is highly under utilised in India with the total cargo moved (in tonne kilometres) by inland waterways being 0.1 percent of the total inland traffic in India.", "In total, about 21 percent of households have two wheelers whereas 4.70 percent of households in India have cars or vans as per the 2011 census of India.", "The automobile industry in India is currently growing rapidly with an annual production of over 4.6 million vehicles, with an annual growth rate of 10.5% and vehicle volume is expected to rise greatly in the future." ], [ "Traditional means of transport", "=== Walking ===Walking was a major transport form in ancient times.", "People used to cover long distances on foot or bullock carts.", "For instance, Adi Sankaracharya travelled all over India from Kalady near Kochi.", "Walking still constitutes an important mode of transport in rural areas.", "In the city of Mumbai, to further improve the transit conditions for pedestrians, the Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority, has commenced the construction of more than 50 skywalks, as part of the Mumbai Skywalk project, which is very helpful as walk enthusiasts take part in reducing traffic.", "The Dakshineswar Skywalk has also come up in West Bengal.=== Palanquins ===Royal Palanquin of Mehrangarh FortPalanquins, also known as ''palkis'', were one of the luxurious methods used by the rich and noblemen for travelling and also to carry a deity (idol) of a god.", "Many temples have sculptures of a god being carried in ''palkis''.", "Modern use of the palanquin is limited to Indian weddings, pilgrimage and carrying idols of gods.=== Bullock carts ===A bullock cartBullock carts were used to be ways of transportation in India, but it can't be seen today due to low speed and safety.Many years ago, the government banned bullock carts." ], [ "Bicycles", "Bicycles or cycles, have ownership rates ranging from around 30% to 75% at the state level.", "Along with walking, cycling accounts for 50% to 80% of the commuter trips for those in the informal sector in urban areas.", "However, recent developments suggest that bicycle riding is quickly becoming popular in Indian cities.", "In smaller Indian cities, non-motorized transport, which includes cycling, accounts for close to 50% of the total trips by the working-class population.", "In larger cities like Mumbai, Bengaluru, and Delhi, non-motorized transport accounts for 35%-37% of the total trips.", "In recent years, government development authorities all over India encourages the setup and use of separate bicycle lanes alongside the roads to combat pollution and ease traffic congestion.=== Human-pulled rickshaws ===Human-pulled rickshaws still run in KolkataHuman-pulled rickshaws are nowadays rarely available in various cities and villages in the country.", "Many local governments have proposed a ban on these rickshaws describing them as \"inhuman\".", "The Government of West Bengal proposed a ban on these rickshaws in 2005.Though a bill aiming to address this issue, termed as Calcutta Hackney Carriage Bill, was passed by the West Bengal Assembly in 2006, it has not yet been implemented.", "The Government of West Bengal is working on an amendment to this bill to avoid the loopholes that were exposed when the Hand-pulled Rickshaw Owners' Association filed a petition against the bill.=== Cycle rickshaw ===Cycle rickshaws were introduced in India in the 1940s.", "They are bigger than a tricycle where two people sit on an elevated seat at the back and a person pedals from the front.", "In the late 2000s, they were banned in several cities for causing traffic congestion.", "The Delhi Police recently submitted an affidavit against plying of cycle rickshaws to ease traffic congestion in the city but it was dismissed by the Delhi High Court.", "In addition, environmentalists have supported the retention of cycle rickshaws as a non-polluting mode of transport.Howrah Railway Station in Kolkata, West BengalDelhi–Meerut Expressway is India's widest expressway with 14 lanes." ], [ "Road", "Kathipara Junction, Chennai Bandra-Worli Bridge in MumbaiAs per 2017 estimates, the total road length in India is ; making the Indian road network the second largest road network in the world after the United States.", "At 0.66 km of highway per square kilometre of land the density of India's highway network is higher than that of the United States (0.65) and far higher than that of China's (0.16) or Brazil's (0.20).India has a network of National Highways connecting all the major cities and state capitals, forming the economic backbone of the country.", "As of 2013, India has a total of of National Highways, of which are classified as expressways.", "Although India has large network of four or more lane highways of international quality standards, but without access control (entry/exit control), they are not called as expressways but simply highways.As per the National Highways Authority of India, about 66% of freight and 82% passenger traffic is carried by the roads.", "The National Highways carry about 40% of total road traffic, though only about 2% of the road network is covered by these roads.", "Average growth of the number of vehicles has been around 10.16% per annum over recent years.India also has many bridges and flyovers in major cities to reduce traffic congestion.", "Some notable projects include Bandra - Worli Sea link in Mumbai and Kathipara Cloverleaf Interchange in Chennai.", "India's metropolitan intra-city average traffic vehicle speed in Delhi was , in Mumbai , in Chennai and in Kolkata , as per a study by Ola Cabs in 2017.Under National Highways Development Project (NHDP), work is under progress to equip national highways with at least four lanes; there is also a plan to convert some stretches of these roads to six lanes.", "In recent years construction has commenced on a nationwide system of multi-lane highways, including the Golden Quadrilateral connecting four important metropolitan cities of India (Delhi-Kolkata-Chennai-Mumbai) and North-South and East-West Corridors which link the largest cities in India.In 2000, around 40% of villages in India lacked access to all-weather roads and remained isolated during the monsoon season.", "To improve rural connectivity, ''Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana'' (Prime Minister's Rural Road Program), a project funded by the Central Government with the help of the World Bank, was launched in 2000 to build all-weather roads to connect all habitations with a population of 500 or above (250 or above for hilly areas).", "Type of road Length Expressways as of 2023 National Highways State Highways District and rural roads Total Length (Approx)The Trans Harbour bridge is the longest bridge in India.", "It will be opened on 12 January 2024, after Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurates the bridge.", "It connects Bombay with Navi Mumbai.", "=== Bus ===Mumbai's B.E.S.T.", "is India's oldest operating transport bodyBuses are an important means of public transport in India.", "Due to this social significance, urban bus transport is often owned and operated by public agencies, and most state governments operate bus services through a state road transport corporation.", "These corporations have proven extremely useful in connecting villages and towns across the country.", "Alongside the public companies there are many private bus fleets: As of 2012, there were 131,800 publicly owned buses in India, but 1,544,700 buses owned by private companies.However, the share of buses is negligible in most Indian cities as compared to personalised vehicles, and two-wheelers and cars account for more than 80 percent of the vehicle population in most large cities.==== Bus rapid transit systems ====Ahmedabad BRTSRaipur and Naya Raipur Bus Rapid Transit SystemA KSRTC Volvo bus.", "Such buses are common across the country.Bus rapid transit systems (BRTS), exist in several cities.", "Buses take up over 90% of public transport in Indian cities, and serve as an important mode of transport.", "Services are mostly run by state government owned transport corporations.", "In 1990s, all government state transport corporations have introduced various facilities like low-floor buses for the disabled and air-conditioned buses to attract private car owners to help decongest roads.In 2010, the Ahmedabad Bus Rapid Transit System won the prestigious Sustainable Transport Award from the Transportation Research Board in Washington.", "Rainbow BRTS in Pune is the first BRTS system in the country.", "Mumbai introduced air conditioned buses in 1998.Bangalore was the first city in India to introduce Volvo B7RLE intra-city buses in India in January 2005.Bangalore is the first Indian city to have an air-conditioned bus stop, located near Cubbon Park.", "It was built by Airtel.", "The city of Chennai houses one of Asia's largest bus terminus, the Chennai Mofussil Bus Terminus.=== Motor vehicles ======= Two-wheelers ====Motorised two-wheeler vehicles like scooters, motorcycles and mopeds are very popular due to their fuel efficiency and ease of use in congested roads or streets.", "The number of two-wheelers sold is several times to that of cars.", "There were 47.5 million powered two-wheelers in India in 2003 compared with just 8.6 million cars.Manufacture of motorcycles in India started when Royal Enfield began assembly in its plant in Chennai in 1948.Royal Enfield, an iconic brand name in the country, manufactures different variants of the British Bullet motorcycle which is a classic motorcycle that is still in production.", "Hero MotoCorp (formerly Hero Honda), Honda, Bajaj Auto, Yamaha, TVS Motors and Mahindra 2 Wheelers are the largest two-wheeler companies in terms of market-share.Manufacture of scooters in India started when Automobile Products of India (API) set up at Mumbai and incorporated in 1949.They began assembling Innocenti-built Lambretta scooters in India.", "They eventually acquired a licence for the Li150 series model, of which they began full-fledged production from the early 1960s onwards.", "In 1972, Scooters India Limited (SIL), a state-run enterprise based in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, bought the entire manufacturing rights of the last Innocenti Lambretta model.", "API has infrastructural facilities at Mumbai, Aurangabad, and Chennai, but has been non-operational since 2002.SIL stopped producing scooters in 1998.Motorcycles and scooters can be rented in many cities, Wicked Ride, Metro Bikes and many other companies are working with state governments to solve last-mile connectivity problems with mass-transit.", "Wearing protective headgear is mandatory for both the rider and the pillion-rider in most cities.==== Automobiles ====Private automobiles account for 30% of the total transport demand in urban areas of India.", "An average of 963 new private vehicles are registered every day in Delhi alone.", "The number of automobiles produced in India rose from 6.3 million in 2002–2003 to 11 million (11.2 million) in 2008–2009.There is substantial variation among cities and states in terms of dependence on private cars: Bangalore, Chennai, Delhi and Kolkata have 185, 127, 157 and 140 cars per 1,000 people respectively, which is much lower compared to developed countries.", "This reflects different levels of urban density and varied qualities of public transport infrastructure.", "Nationwide, India still has a very low rate of car ownership.", "When comparing car ownership between BRICS developing countries, it is on a par with China, and exceeded by Brazil and Russia.Hyundai's manufacturing plant at Sriperumbudur, Chennai, Tamil NaduCompact cars, especially hatchbacks predominate due to affordability, fuel efficiency, congestion, and lack of parking space in most cities.", "Chennai is known as the \"Detroit of India\" for its automobile industry.Maruti, Hyundai and Tata Motors are the most popular brands in the order of their market share.", "The Ambassador once had a monopoly, but is now an icon of pre-liberalisation India, and is still used by taxi companies.", "The Maruti 800 launched in 1984, created the first revolution in the Indian auto sector because of its low price and high quality.", "It had the highest market share until 2004, when it was overtaken by other low-cost models from Maruti such as the Alto and the Wagon R, the Indica from Tata Motors and the Santro from Hyundai.", "Over the 20 years since its introduction, about 2.4 million Maruti 800s have been sold.", "However, with the launch of the Tata Nano, the least expensive production car in the world, the Maruti 800 lost its popularity.", "India is also known for a variety of indigenous vehicles made in villages out of simple motors and vehicle spare parts.", "A few of these innovations are the jugaad, maruta, chhakda, and the peter rehra.In the city of Bangalore, Radio One and the Bangalore Traffic Police, launched a carpooling drive which has involved celebrities such as Robin Uthappa, and Rahul Dravid encouraging the public to carpool.", "The initiative got a good response, and by the end of May 2009, 10,000 people are said to have carpooled in the city.", "There have been efforts to improve the energy efficiency of transport systems in Indian cities, including by introducing performance standards for private automobiles or by banning particularly polluting older cars.", "The city of Kolkata, for example, passed a law in 2009/10 phasing out vehicles over 15 years old with the purpose of reducing air pollution.", "However, the effects were mixed.", "On the one hand, poorer urban residents are more likely to see public health improvements from better air quality, since they are more likely to live in polluted areas and work outdoors than richer urban residents.", "On the other hand, drivers of such vehicles suffered from losing their livelihoods as a result of this environmental regulation.==== Utility vehicles ====The first utility vehicle in India was manufactured by Mahindra.", "It was a copy of the original Jeep and was manufactured under licence.", "The vehicle was an instant hit and made Mahindra one of the top companies in India.", "The Indian Army and police extensively use Mahindra vehicles along with Maruti Gypsys for transporting personnel and equipment.", "Tata Motors, the automobile manufacturing arm of the Tata Group, launched its first utility vehicle, the Tata Sumo, in 1994.The Sumo, owing to its then-modern design, captured a 31% share of the market within two years.", "The Tempo Trax from Force Motors until recently was ruling the rural areas.", "Sports utility vehicles now form a sizeable part of the passenger vehicle market.", "Models from Tata, Honda, Hyundai, Ford and other brands are available.=== Taxis ===Most of the taxicabs in Mumbai and Kolkata are either Premier Padmini or Hindustan Ambassador cars.", "In all other cities, taxi fleets comprise more modern cars.", "However, foreign-developed app-based taxi services like Uber as well as an Indian-developed app-based taxi services like Ola coming to the fore, taxicabs now include sedans, SUVs and even motorcycle taxis.", "Depending on the city/state, taxis can either be hailed or hired from taxi-stands.", "In cities such as Bengaluru, Chennai, Hyderabad and Ahmedabad, taxis need to be hired over phone, whereas in cities like Kolkata and Mumbai, taxis can also be hailed on the street.", "According to Government of India regulations, all taxis are required to have a fare-meter installed.", "There are additional surcharges for luggage, late-night rides and toll taxes are to be paid by the passenger.", "Since year 2006, radio taxis have become increasingly popular with the public due to reasons of safety and convenience.In cities and localities where taxis are expensive or do not charge as per the government or municipal regulated fares, people use share taxis.", "These are normal taxis which carry one or more passengers travelling to destinations either on one route to the final destination, or near the final destination.", "The passengers are charged according to the number of people with different destinations.", "The city of Mumbai will soon be the first city in India to have an \"in-taxi\" magazine, titled ''MumBaee'', which will be issued to taxis which are part of the Mumbai Taximen's Union.", "The magazine debuted on 13 July 2009.In Kolkata, there are many ''no refusal taxis'' available with white and blue in colour.=== Auto ===LPG auto rickshaw in, Delhi, IndiaAn auto is a three-wheeler vehicle for hire that does not have doors and is generally characterised by a small cabin for the driver in the front and a seat for passengers in the rear.", "Generally it is painted in yellow, green or black and has a black, yellow or green canopy on the top, but designs vary considerably from place to place.", "The colour of the auto rickshaw is also determined by the fuel that it is powered by, for example Agartala, Ahmedabad, Mumbai, Pune and Delhi have green or black autos indicating the use of compressed natural gas, whereas the autos of Kolkata, Bengaluru, Hyderabad have green autos indicating the use of LPG.In Mumbai and other metropolitan cities, 'autos' or 'rickshaws', as they are popularly known, have regulated metered fares.", "A recent law prohibits auto rickshaw drivers from charging more than the specified fare, or charging night-fare before midnight, and also prohibits the driver from refusing to go to a particular location.", "Mumbai and Kolkata are also the only two cities, which prohibit auto rickshaws from entering a certain part of the city, in these cases being South Mumbai and certain parts of Downtown Kolkata.", "However, in cities like Chennai, it is common to see autorickshaw drivers demand more than the specified fare and refuse to use fare meter.Airports and railway stations at many cities such as Howrah, Chennai and Bengaluru provide a facility of prepaid auto booths, which requires a fixed payment, with a base fare of Rs.", "30 and a rate of Rs.14.20 per kilometre after 1.5 kilometres of travel, set by the authorities as of May, 2022.On this basis, the fare is calculated and is to be paid by the passenger.Electric rickshaw is new popular means of transport, rapidly growing in number in India, due to low running and initial cost, other economic and environmental benefits, these vehicles are becoming popular in India.", "E-Rickshaws are made in fiberglass or metal body, powered by a BLDC Electric Motor with max power 2000W and speed 25 km/h." ], [ "Rail", "Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj railway station entranceThe dining saloon of the luxurious Maharajas' Express.Kolkata Metro is the only metro system in India to be controlled by Indian Railways.Country-wide rail services in India are provided by the state-run Indian Railways (IR) under the supervision of the Ministry of Railways.", "IR is divided into eighteen zones including the Kolkata Metro Railway.", "The IR are further sub-divided into sixty seven divisions, each having a divisional headquarters.The railway network travels across the country, covering more than 7,321 stations over a total route length of more than and track length of about as of March 2021.About or 71% of the route-kilometre was electrified as in March 2019.IR provides an important mode of transport in India, transporting 23.1 million passengers and 3.3 million tons of freight daily as of March 2019.IR is the world's eighth-largest employer, it had 1.227 million employees as of March 2019.As to rolling stock, IR owns over 289,185 (freight) wagons, 74,003 coaches and 12,147 locomotives as of March 2019.It also owns locomotive and coach production facilities.", "It operates both long distance and suburban rail systems.The IR runs a number of special types of services which are given higher priority.", "The fastest train at present is the Vande Bharat Express with operation speeds of up to 180 km/h, though the fastest service is Gatimaan Express with an operational speed of and average speed of , since the Vande Bharat Express is capped at 120 km/h for safety reasons.", "The Rajdhani trains introduced in 1969 provides connectivity between the national capital, Delhi and capitals of the states.", "On the other hand, Shatabdi Express provides connectivity between centres of tourism, pilgrimage or business.", "The Shatabdi Express trains run over short to medium distances and do not have sleepers while the Rajdhani Expresses run over longer distances and have only sleeping accommodation.", "Both series of trains have a maximum permissible speed of but average speed of less than 100 km/h..Besides, the IR also operates a number of luxury trains which cater to various tourist circuits.", "For instance, the Palace on Wheels serves the Rajasthan circuit and The Golden Chariot serves the Karnataka and Goa circuits.", "There are two UNESCO World Heritage Sites on IR, the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus and the Mountain railways of India.", "The latter consists of three separate railway lines located in different parts of India, the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, a narrow gauge railway in Lesser Himalayas in West Bengal, the Nilgiri Mountain Railway, a rack railway in the Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu and the Kalka-Shimla Railway, a narrow gauge railway in the Siwalik Hills in Himachal Pradesh.In the freight segment, IR ferries various commodities and fuels in industrial, consumer, and agricultural segments across the length and breadth of India.", "IR has historically subsidised the passenger segment with income from the freight business.", "As a result, freight services are unable to compete with other modes of transport on both cost and speed of delivery, leading to continuous erosion of market share.", "To counter this downward trend, IR has started new initiatives in freight segments including upgrading of existing goods sheds, attracting private capital to build multi-commodity multi-modal logistics terminals, changing container sizes, operating time-tabled freight trains, and tweaking with the freight pricing/product mix.In 1999, the Konkan Railway Corporation introduced the Roll on Roll off (RORO) service, a unique road-rail synergy system, on the section between Kolad in Maharashtra and Verna in Goa, which was extended up to Surathkal in Karnataka in 2004.The RORO service, the first of its kind in India, allowed trucks to be transported on flatbed trailers.", "It was highly popular, carrying about trucks and bringing in about 740 million worth of earnings to the corporation until 2007.Perhaps the game-changer for IR in the freight segment are the new dedicated freight corridors that are expected to be completed by 2020.When fully implemented, the new corridors, spanning around 3300 km, could support hauling of trains up to 1.5 km in length with 32.5-ton axle-load at speeds of .", "Also, they will free-up capacity on dense passenger routes and will allow IR to run more trains at higher speeds.", "Additional corridors are being planned to augment the freight infrastructure in the country.===Commuter rail transport===In many Indian metropolitan regions, rail is the more efficient and affordable mode of public transport for daily commute.", "Examples of types of services include long-established local or suburban rail services in cities such as Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai, the century-old tram service in Kolkata, the more recent metro service in Kolkata, Delhi and Chennai and Monorail feeder service in Mumbai.==== Suburban rail ====Mumbai suburban rail.The Chennai MRTS and Chennai Suburban, the first elevated railway in India.The Mumbai Suburban Railway was the first rail system in India, which began its services in Mumbai in 1853, transporting 6.3 million passengers daily and has the highest passenger density in the world.", "The Kolkata Suburban Railway was established in 1854, and the Chennai Suburban Railway in 1931.The operational suburban rail systems in India are in Mumbai Suburban Railway, Kolkata Suburban Railway, Chennai Suburban Railway, Lucknow-Kanpur Suburban Railway, Delhi Suburban Railway, Pune Suburban Railway, Hyderabad Multi-Modal Transport System, Barabanki-Lucknow Suburban Railway and Karwar railway division.", "Other planned systems are Bengaluru Commuter Rail, Ahmedabad Suburban Railway and Coimbatore Suburban Railway.==== Mass rapid transit system ====The Chennai MRTS, which began services in 1995, remains the country's first and only mass rapid transit rail.", "Although distinct from the Chennai Suburban Railway, the MRTS remains integrated in a wider urban rail network.Chennai Metro ==== Metro ====The first modern rapid transit in India is the Kolkata Metro which started its operations in 1984 as the 17th Zone of the Indian Railways.", "The Delhi Metro in New Delhi is India's second conventional metro and began operations in 2002.The Namma Metro in Bengaluru is India's third operational rapid transit and began operations in 2011.The operational systems are Kolkata Metro, Delhi Metro, Bengaluru Metro, Gurgaon Metro, Mumbai Metro, Jaipur Metro, Chennai Metro, Kochi Metro, Lucknow Metro, Nagpur Metro, Noida Metro, Hyderabad Metro, Kanpur Metro, Ahmedabad Metro, Pune Metro, Navi Mumbai Metro.The under implementation systems are Metro-Link Express for Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad, Varanasi Metro, Bareilly Metro, Vijayawada Metro, Patna Metro, Meerut Metro, Guwahati Metro, Chandigarh Metro, Bhopal Metro, Kozhikode Light Metro, Indore Metro, Thiruvananthapuram Light Metro, Agra Metro, Coimbatore Metro, Visakhapatnam Metro, Surat Metro, Jammu Metro, Srinagar Metro, Greater Gwalior Metro, Jabalpur Metro and Greater Nashik Metro.", "Currently, rapid transit is under construction or in planning in several major cities of India and will be opened shortly.==== Monorail ====A monorail in MumbaiMonorail is generally considered as feeder system for the metro trains in India.", "In 2004, monorail was first proposed for Kolkata.", "But, later the idea was put on hold due to lack of funds and infeasibility.", "The Mumbai Monorail, which started in 2014, is the first operational monorail network in India (excluding the Skybus Metro) since the Patiala State Monorail Trainways closed in 1927.Other planned systems are Chennai Monorail, Kolkata Monorail, Allahabad Monorail, Bengaluru Monorail, Delhi Monorail, Indore Monorail, Kanpur Monorail, Navi Mumbai Monorail, Patna Monorail, Pune Monorail, Ahmedabad Monorail, Aizawl Monorail, Bhubaneswar Monorail, Jodhpur Monorail, Kota Monorail, Nagpur Monorail and Nashik Monorail.==== Tram ====New fibreglass made tramIn addition to trains, trams were introduced in many cities in late 19th century, though almost all of these were phased out.", "The trams in Kolkata is currently the only tram system in the country.=== International links ===Rail links between India and neighbouring countries are not well-developed.Bangladesh is connected by a biweekly train, the ''Maitree Express'' that runs from Kolkata to Dhaka and a weekly train, the ''Bandhan Express'' that runs from Kolkata to Khulna.", "Two rail links to Nepal exist—passenger services between Jaynagar and Bijalpura, and freight services between Raxaul and Birganj.No rail link exists with Myanmar but a railway line is to be built through from Jiribam (in Manipur) to Tamu through Imphal and Moreh.", "The construction of this missing link, as per the feasibility study conducted by the Ministry of External Affairs through RITES Ltd, is estimated to cost .", "An 18 km railway link with Bhutan is being constructed from Hashimara in West Bengal to Toribari in Bhutan.", "No rail link exists with either China or Sri Lanka.=== High-speed rail ===India does not have any railways classified as high-speed rail (HSR), which have operational speeds in excess of .Prior to the 2014 general election, the major national party (Indian National Congress and Bharatiya Janata Party) pledged to introduce high-speed rail.", "The INC pledged to connect \"all of India's million-plus cities by high-speed rail.\"", "Later, the BJP, which won the election, promised to build the Diamond Quadrilateral project, which would connect the cities of Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata, and Mumbai via high-speed rail.", "This project was approved as a priority for the new government in the incoming prime minister's speech.", "Construction of one kilometer of high speed railway track will cost – , which is 10–14 times higher than the construction of standard railway.Indian government approved the choice of Japan to build India's first high-speed railway.", "The planned rail would run some between Mumbai and the western city of Ahmedabad, at a top speed of .", "Under the proposal, construction is expected to begin in 2017 and be completed in 2023.It would cost about and be financed by a low-interest loan from Japan.", "India will use the wheel-based 300 km/h HSR technology, instead of new maglev 600 km/h technology of Japan used in Chūō Shinkansen.", "India is expected to have its HSR line operational from 2025 onwards, once the safety checks are completed.=== Light rail ===Like monorail, light rail is also considered as a feeder system for the metro systems.", "The planned systems are Kolkata Light Rail Transit and Delhi Light Rail Transit." ], [ "Airways", "Cochin International Airport is one of the busiest airport in IndiaDirectorate General of Civil Aviation is the national regulatory body for the aviation industry.", "It is controlled by the Ministry of Civil Aviation.", "The ministry also controls aviation related autonomous organisations like the Airports Authority of India (AAI), Bureau of Civil Aviation Security (BCAS), Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Akademi and Public Sector Undertakings including Pawan Hans Helicopters Limited and Hindustan Aeronautics Limited.Air India is India's national flag carrier after merging with Indian (airline) in 2011 and plays a major role in connecting India with the rest of the world.", "IndiGo, Air India, Spicejet, Vistara, Jet Airways and Go First are the major carriers in order of their market share.", "These airlines connect more than 80 cities across India and also operate overseas routes after the liberalisation of Indian aviation.", "Several other foreign airlines connect Indian cities with other major cities across the globe.", "However, a large section of country's air transport potential remains untapped, even though the Mumbai-Delhi air corridor was ranked the world's tenth busiest route by Amadeus in 2012.=== Airports ===Mumbai Airport TerminalPrime Minister Narendra Modi at the inauguration of Paykong Airport, Sikkim.While there are 346 civilian airfields in India – 253 with paved runways and 93 with unpaved runways, only 132 were classified as \"airports\" as of November 2014.Of these, Indira Gandhi International Airport in Delhi is the busiest in the country.", "The operations of the major airports in India have been privatised over the past five years and this has resulted in better equipped and cleaner airports.", "The terminals have either been refurbished or expanded.India also has 33 \"ghost airports,\" which were built in an effort to make air travel more accessible for those in remote regions but are now non-operational due to a lack of demand.", "The Jaisalmer Airport in Rajasthan, for example, was completed in 2013 and was expected to host 300,000 passengers a year but has yet to see any commercial flights take off.", "Despite the number of non-operational airports, India is currently planning on constructing another 200 \"low-cost\" airports over the next 20 years.Length of runwaysAirports with paved runwaysAirports with unpaved runways or more2115937668238Under 1445'''Total'''25393=== Heliports ===Pawan Hans VT-PHA Helicopter.As of 2021, there are 45 heliports in India.", "India also has the world's highest helipad at the Siachen Glacier at a height of above mean sea level.", "Pawan Hans Helicopters Limited is a public sector company that provides helicopter services to ONGC to its off-shore locations, and also to various State Governments in India, particularly in North-east India." ], [ "Water", "India has a coastline of , and thus ports are the main centres of trade.", "India also has an extensive network of inland waterways.Chennai Port is the largest container port in the Bay of Bengal.=== Ports and shipping ===Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust in Navi Mumbai ranks 25th in the world as per container traffic.In India, about 96% of the foreign trade by quantity and 70% by value takes place through the ports.", "Mumbai Port & JNPT(Navi Mumbai) handles 70% of maritime trade in India.", "There are twelve major ports: Navi Mumbai, Mumbai, Chennai, Ennore, Thoothukudi, Kochi, Kolkata (including Haldia), Paradip, Visakhapatnam, New Mangaluru, Mormugao and Kandla.", "Other than these, there are 187 minor and intermediate ports, 43 of which handle cargo.Maritime transportation in India is managed by the Shipping Corporation of India, a government-owned company that also manages offshore and other marine transport infrastructure in the country.", "It owns and operates about 35% of Indian tonnage and operates in practically all areas of shipping business servicing both national and international trades.", "The only Indian state with three ports is Tamil Nadu, they are Ennore, Chennai and Tuticorin.It has a fleet of 79 ships of 2,750,000 GT (4.8 million DWT) and also manages 53 research, survey and support vessels of 120,000 GT (060,000 DWT) on behalf of various government departments and other organisations.", "Personnel are trained at the Maritime Training Institute in Mumbai, a branch of the World Maritime University, which was set up in 1987.The corporation also operates in Malta and Iran through joint ventures.The distinction between major and minor ports is not based on the amount of cargo handled.", "The major ports are managed by port trusts which are regulated by the central government.", "They come under the purview of the Major Port Trusts Act, 1963.The minor ports are regulated by the respective state governments and many of these ports are private ports or captive ports.", "The total amount of traffic handled at the major ports in 2005–2006 was 382.33 Mt.=== Inland Waterways ===A parked vessel along the Chapora River in Goa.Boats sailing on National Waterway 2 at GuwahatiIndia has an extensive network of inland waterways in the form of rivers, canals, backwaters and creeks.", "The total navigable length is , out of which about of river and of canals can be used by mechanised crafts.", "Freight transport by waterways is highly underutilised in India compared to other large countries.", "The total cargo moved by inland waterways is just 0.15% of the total inland traffic in India, compared to the corresponding figures of 20% for Germany and 32% for Bangladesh.Cargo that is transported in an organised manner is confined to a few waterways in Goa, West Bengal, Assam and Kerala.", "The Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) is the statutory authority in charge of the waterways in India.", "It does the function of building the necessary infrastructure in these waterways, surveying the economic feasibility of new projects and also administration and regulation.", "The following waterways have been declared as National Waterways:* National Waterway 1: Prayagraj–Haldia stretch of the Ganga – Bhagirathi – Hooghly River system with a total length of on 27 October 1986.", "* National Waterway 2: ''Saidiya''–Dhubri stretch of the Brahmaputra river system with a total length of in 26 Oct 1988.", "* National Waterway 3: Kollam–Kottappuram stretch of the West Coast Canal along with Champakara and Udyogmandal canals, with a total length of in 1 Feb 1991.", "* National Waterway 4: Bhadrachalam–Rajahmundry and Wazirabad–Vijaywada stretch of the Krishna–Godavari river system along with the Kakinada–Puducherry canal network, with a total length of in 24 Nov 2008.", "* National Waterway 5: ''Mangalgadi''–Paradeep and Talcher–''Dhamara'' stretch of the Mahanadi–Brahmani river system along with the East Coast Canal, with a total length of in 24 Nov 2008." ], [ "Pipelines", "Oil and gas industry in India imports 82% of its oil needs and aims to bring that down to 67% by 2022 by replacing it with local exploration, renewable energy and indigenous ethanol fuel (c. Jan 2018).", "* Length of pipelines for crude oil is .", "* Length of Petroleum products pipeline is ." ], [ "Cable", "Cable transport, commonly known as Ropeways in India, are mostly located in mountainous areas such as in Kashmir.", "Some of them are also located in amusement parks such Nicco Park and Science City in Kolkata." ], [ "Logistics", "''Logistics in India'' ranking moved up to 35th place in 2016 from 54th in 2014 on World Bank's Global Logistics Performance Index.", "Government strategy aims to raise the share of global trade in India's GDP (US$2.7 trillion in FY 2017–18) to 40%, including half of it (20% of GDP) from exports (c. Jan 2019).", "Cost of logistics in India is 14% of GDP, which is higher than the developed nations, and government reforms aim to bring it down to 10% of GDP by 2022 (c. Jan 2018).", "Ministry of Commerce and Industry has created a new dedicated centralised Logistics division in collaboration with Singapore and Japan to handle the logistics which was earlier handled by several different ministries, such as railways, roads, shipping and aviation.", "To boot exports, each state will have exports and logistic policy and Nodal officers will be appointed at district level (c. Jan 2018).", "There are 64 transactions and 37 government agencies in the end-to-end production-to-export process.", "To further improve the ranking, improve speed of logistics, ease of doing business and reduce the cost of logistics, India is creating a ''\"common online integrated logistics e-marketplace portal\"'' that will cover all transactions in production and export, connect buyers with logistics service providers and government agencies such as the customs department Icegate system, Port Community Systems, Sea and Air Port terminals, Shipping lines, Railways, etc.", "(c. Jan 2018).As part of the US$125 billion port-led development project Sagarmala, the government will define the regulatory framework for the Indian logistics operational standards by India's 300 dry ports logistics parks (inland container depots or ICDs) to the top 10 logistics international best practices nations to boost exports, remove supply chain bottlenecks, reduce transaction costs, optimise logistics mix, set up new hub-and-spoke dry ports (c. January 2018).", "To reduce the logistics costs by 10% and emissions by 12%, the government is also developing 35 new \"Multimodal Logistics Parks\" (MMLPs) on 36 ring roads, which will facilitate 50% of the freight moved in India.", "Land has been earmarked and pre-feasibility studies are underway for six of these MMLPs (c. May 2017).Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) and government will organise an annual national logistics convention.", "Major shippers include Container Corporation of India and Transport Corporation of India, and ''Logistics Management'' magazine is one of the industry publications." ], [ "Modernisation", "In 1998, the Supreme Court of India published a directive that specified the date of April 2001 as deadline to replace or convert all buses, three-wheelers and taxis in Delhi to compressed natural gas.The Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation was the first state transport undertaking in India to utilise bio-fuels and ethanol-blended fuels.", "KSRTC took an initiative to do research in alternative fuel forms by experimenting with various alternatives — blending diesel with biofuels such as honge, palm, sunflower, groundnut, coconut and sesame.", "In 2009, the corporation decided to promote the use of biofuel buses.In 2017, the government announced that by 2030, only electric vehicles would be sold in the country.", "It also announced that by 2022 all trains would be electric.In March 2020, the Government of India temporarily suspended all passenger rail, metro and bus services due to COVID-19" ], [ "See also", "; Multimodel and internationalNorth-South Transport Corridor Ashgabat agreement, a multimodal transport agreement signed by India, Oman, Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, for creating an international transport and transit corridor facilitating transportation of goods between Central Asia and the Persian Gulf.", "; Similar rail development* Dedicated freight corridors in India* Future of rail transport in India, rail development; Similar roads development* Bharatmala Diamond Quadrilateral, subsumed in Bharatmala Golden Quadrilateral, completed national road development connectivity older scheme* India-China Border Roads, subsumed in Bharatmala* Expressways of India* Setu Bharatam, river road bridge development in India; Similar ports and river transport development* List of National Waterways in India* Sagar Mala project, national water port development connectivity scheme; Similar air transport development* Guided missiles of India* List of ISRO missions* Indian Human Spaceflight Programme* UDAN, national airport development connectivity scheme* List of ISRO missions; General* Traffic collisions in India* Urban rail transit in India* Aerial lift in India" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Follow a young commuter on her way through Mumbai, a web documentary by Deutsche Welle Global Ideas (www.dw.de/globalideas)* Ministry of Road Transport & Highways* ''Mile by Mile, India Paves a Smoother Road to Its Future'', ''The New York Times'', 4 December 2005.", "* Motor Vehicles Act, 1988" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of India" ], [ "Introduction", "India, officially the Republic of India, has full diplomatic relations with 201 states, including Palestine, the Holy See, and Niue.", "The Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) is the government agency responsible for the conduct of '''foreign relations of India'''.", "With the world's third largest military expenditure, second largest armed force, fifth largest economy by GDP nominal rates and third largest economy in terms of purchasing power parity, India is a prominent regional power and a rising superpower.According to the MEA, the main purposes of Indian diplomacy include protecting India's national interests, promoting friendly relations with other states, and providing consular services to \"foreigners and Indian nationals abroad.\"", "In recent decades, India has pursued an expansive foreign policy, including the neighborhood-first policy embodied by SAARC as well as the Look East policy to forge more extensive economic and strategic relationships with other East Asian countries.", "It has also maintained a policy of strategic ambiguity, which involves its \"no first use\" nuclear policy and its neutral stance on the Russo-Ukrainian War.India is a member of several intergovernmental organizations, such as the United Nations, the Asian Development Bank, BRICS, and the G-20.which is widely considered the main economic locus of emerging and developed nations.", "India exerts a salient influence as the founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement.", "India has also played an important and influential role in other international organisations, such as the East Asia Summit, World Trade Organization, International Monetary Fund (IMF), G8+5 and IBSA Dialogue Forum.", "India is also a member of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.", "As a former British colony, India is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations and continues to maintain relationships with other Commonwealth countries." ], [ "History", "India's relations with the world have evolved since the British Raj (1857–1947) when the British Empire took responsibility for handling external and defence relations.", "When India gained independence in 1947, few Indians had experience in making or conducting foreign policy.", "However, the country's oldest political party, the Indian National Congress, had established a small foreign department in 1925 to make overseas contacts and to publicise its independence struggle.", "From the late 1920s on, Jawaharlal Nehru, who had a long-standing interest in world affairs among independence leaders, formulated the Congress's stance on international issues.", "As Prime Minister and Minister of External Affairs from 1947, Nehru articulated India's approach to the world.India's international influence varied over the years after independence.", "Indian prestige and moral authority were high in the 1950s and facilitated the acquisition of developmental assistance from both East and West.", "Although the prestige stemmed from India's nonaligned stance, the nation was unable to prevent Cold War politics from becoming intertwined with interstate relations in South Asia.", "On the intensely debated Kashmir issue with Pakistan, India lost credibility by rejecting United Nations' calls for a plebiscite in the disputed area.In the 1960s and 1970s, India's international position among developed and developing countries faded during wars with China and Pakistan, disputes with other countries in South Asia, and India's attempt to match Pakistan's support from the United States and China by signing the Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation in August 1971.Although India obtained substantial Soviet military and economic aid, which helped to strengthen the nation, India's influence was undercut regionally and internationally by the perception that its friendship with the Soviet Union prevented a more forthright condemnation of the Soviet presence in Afghanistan.", "In the late 1980s, India improved relations with the United States, other developed countries, and China while continuing close ties with the Soviet Union.", "Relations with its South Asian neighbours, especially Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Nepal, occupied much of the energies of the Ministry of External Affairs.Even before independence, the Indian colonial government maintained semi-autonomous diplomatic relations.", "It had colonies (such as the Aden Settlement), that sent and received full missions.", "India was a founder member of both the League of Nations and the United Nations.", "After India gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, it soon joined the Commonwealth of Nations and strongly supported independence movements in other colonies, like the Indonesian National Revolution.", "The partition and various territorial disputes, particularly that over Kashmir, would strain its relations with Pakistan for years to come.", "During the Cold War, India adopted a foreign policy of not aligning itself with any major power bloc.", "However, India developed close ties with the Soviet Union and received extensive military support from it.The end of the Cold War significantly affected India's foreign policy, as it did for much of the world.", "The country now seeks to strengthen its diplomatic and economic ties with the United States, the European Union trading bloc, Japan, Israel, Mexico, and Brazil.", "India has also forged close ties with the member states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the African Union, the Arab League and Iran.Though India continues to have a military relationship with Russia, Israel has emerged as India's second-largest military partner while India has built a strong strategic partnership with the United States.", "The foreign policy of Narendra Modi indicated a shift towards focusing on the Asian region and, more broadly, trade deals." ], [ "Policy", " India's foreign policy has always regarded the concept of neighbourhood as one of widening concentric circles, around a central axis of historical and cultural commonalities.As many as 44 million people of Indian origin live and work abroad and constitute an important link with the mother country.", "An important role of India's foreign policy has been to ensure their welfare and well-being within the framework of the laws of the country where they live.===Role of the Prime Minister===Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first Prime Minister, promoted a strong personal role for the Prime Minister but a weak institutional structure.", "Nehru served concurrently as Prime Minister and Minister of External Affairs; he made all major foreign policy decisions himself after consulting with his advisers and then entrusted the conduct of international affairs to senior members of the Indian Foreign Service.", "He was the main founding father of the Panchsheel or the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence.His successors continued to exercise considerable control over India's international dealings, although they appointed separate ministers of external affairs.Jawaharlal Nehru, the 1st Prime Minister of India, addressing the United Nations India's second prime minister, Lal Bahadur Shastri (1964–66), expanded the Prime Minister's Office (sometimes called the Prime Minister's Secretariat) and enlarged its powers.", "By the 1970s, the Office of the Prime Minister had become the de facto coordinator and supra-ministry of the Indian government.", "The enhanced role of the office strengthened the prime minister's control over foreign policymaking at the expense of the Ministry of External Affairs.", "Advisers in the office provided channels of information and policy recommendations in addition to those offered by the Ministry of External Affairs.", "A subordinate part of the office—the Research and Analysis Wing (RAW)—functioned in ways that significantly expanded the information available to the prime minister and his advisers.", "The RAW gathered intelligence, provided intelligence analysis to the Office of the Prime Minister, and conducted covert operations abroad.The prime minister's control and reliance on personal advisers in the Office of the Prime Minister was particularly strong under the tenures of Indira Gandhi (1966–77 and 1980–84) and her son, Rajiv (1984–89), who succeeded her, and weaker during the periods of coalition governments.", "Observers find it difficult to determine whether the locus of decision-making authority on any issue lies with the Ministry of External Affairs, the Council of Ministers, the Office of the Prime Minister, or the prime minister himself.The Prime Minister is however free to appoint advisers and special committees to examine various foreign policy options and areas of interest.", "In a recent instance, Manmohan Singh appointed K. Subrahmanyam in 2005 to head a special government task force to study 'Global Strategic Developments' over the next decade.", "The Task Force submitted its conclusions to the Prime Minister in 2006.The report has not yet been released in the public domain.Pranab Mukherjee, the former Finance Minister of India and former President of India with former US President George W. Bush in 2008.India's historical inclination towards a \"non-aligned\" foreign policy has witnessed a shift under Prime Minister Narendra Modi's leadership since 2014, as New Delhi has displayed a heightened level of \"assertiveness\" in its international engagements.===Ministry of External Affairs===The Ministry of External Affairs is the Indian government's agency responsible for the foreign relations of India.", "The Minister of External Affairs holds cabinet rank as a member of the Council of Ministers.Subrahmanyam Jaishankar is the current Minister of External Affairs.", "The Ministry has a Minister of State V Muraleedharan.", "The Indian Foreign Secretary is the head of the Indian Foreign Service (IFS) and therefore, serves as the head of all Indian (ambassadors) and high commissioners.", "Vinay Mohan Kwatra is the current Foreign Secretary of India.===Act East Policy===In the post-Cold War era, a significant aspect of India's foreign policy is the Look East Policy.", "During the cold war, India's relations with its Southeast Asian neighbours were not strong.", "After the end of the cold war, the government of India particularly realised the importance of redressing this imbalance in India's foreign policy.", "Consequently, the Narsimha Rao government in the early nineties of the last century unveiled the look east policy.", "Initially, it focused on renewing political and economic contacts with the countries of East and South-East Asia.Prime Minister, Dr. Manmohan Singh at the opening ceremony of third Summit of the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC), at Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar on March 04, 2014 At present, under the Look East Policy, the Government of India is giving special emphasis on the economic development of the backward northeastern region of India taking advantage of a huge market of ASEAN as well as of the energy resources available in some of the member countries of ASEAN like Burma.", "The look-east policy was launched in 1991 just after the end of the cold war, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union.", "After the start of liberalisation, it was a very strategic policy decision taken by the government in foreign policy.", "To quote Prime Minister Manmohan Singh \"it was also a strategic shift in India's vision of the world and India's place in the evolving global economy\".The policy was given an initial thrust with the then Prime Minister Narasimha Rao visiting China, Japan, South Korea, Vietnam and Singapore and India becoming an important dialogue partner with ASEAN in 1992.Since the beginning of this century, India has given a big push to this policy by becoming a summit-level partner of ASEAN (2002) and getting involved in some regional initiatives such as the BIMSTEC and the Ganga–Mekong Cooperation and now becoming a member of the East Asia Summit (EAS) in December 2005.Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, India has forged a closer partnership with Western powers.", "In the 1990s, India's economic problems and the demise of the bipolar world political system forced India to reassess its foreign policy and adjust its foreign relations.", "Previous policies proved inadequate to cope with the serious domestic and international problems facing India.", "The end of the Cold War gutted the core meaning of nonalignment and left Indian foreign policy without significant direction.", "The hard, pragmatic considerations of the early 1990s were still viewed within the nonaligned framework of the past, but the disintegration of the Soviet Union removed much of India's international leverage, for which relations with Russia and the other post-Soviet states could not compensate.", "After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, India improved its relations with the United States, Canada, France, Japan, and Germany.", "In 1992, India established formal diplomatic relations with Israel and this relationship grew during the tenures of the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government and the subsequent United Progressive Alliance (UPA) governments.In the mid-1990s, India attracted the world's attention to Pakistan-backed terrorism in Kashmir.", "The Kargil War resulted in a major diplomatic victory for India.", "The United States and European Union recognised the fact that the Pakistani military had illegally infiltrated Indian territory and pressured Pakistan to withdraw from Kargil.", "Several anti-India militant groups based in Pakistan were labelled as terrorist groups by the United States and European Union.In 1998, India tested nuclear weapons for the second time (see Pokhran-II) which resulted in several US, Japanese and European sanctions on India.", "India's then defence minister, George Fernandes, said that India's nuclear programme was necessary as it provided a deterrence to potential Chinese nuclear threat.", "Most of the sanctions imposed on India were removed by 2001.India has often represented the interests of developing countries on various international platforms.", "Shown here are Vladimir Putin, Narendra Modi, Dilma Rousseff, Xi Jinping, and Jacob Zuma, 2014.After September 11 attacks in 2001, Indian intelligence agencies provided the US with significant information on Al-Qaeda and related groups' activities in Pakistan and Afghanistan.", "India's extensive contribution to the War on Terror, coupled with a surge in its economy, has helped India's diplomatic relations with several countries.", "Over the past three years, India has held numerous joint military exercises with US and European nations that have resulted in a strengthened US-India and EU-India bilateral relationship.", "India's bilateral trade with Europe and the United States had more than doubled in the five years since 2003.India has been pushing for reforms in the UN and WTO with mixed results.", "India's candidature for a permanent seat at the UN Security Council is currently backed by several countries including France, Russia, the United Kingdom, Germany, Japan, Brazil, Australia and UAE.", "In 2004, the United States signed a nuclear cooperation agreement with India even though the latter is not a part of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.", "The US argued that India's strong nuclear non-proliferation record made it an exception, however, this has not persuaded other Nuclear Suppliers Group members to sign similar deals with India.", "During a state visit to India in November 2010, US President Barack Obama announced US support for India's bid for permanent membership to UN Security Council as well as India's entry to Nuclear Suppliers Group, Wassenaar Arrangement, Australia Group and Missile Technology Control Regime.", "As of January 2018, India has become a member of Wassenaar Arrangement, Australia Group and Missile Technology Control Regime." ], [ "Strategic partners", "India's growing economy, strategic location, a mix of friendly and diplomatic foreign policy and large and vibrant diaspora has won it more allies than enemies.", "India has friendly relations with several countries in the developing world.", "Though India is not a part of any major military alliance, it has a close strategic and military relationship with most of its fellow major powers.The Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi, Deputy Supreme Commander of U.A.E.", "Armed Forces, General Sheikh Mohammed Bin Zayed Al Nahyan being received by the President, Shri Pranab Mukherjee and the Prime Minister, Shri Narendra ModiCountries considered India's closest include the United Arab Emirates, Russian Federation, Israel, Afghanistan, France, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and the United States.", "Russia is the largest supplier of military equipment to India, followed by Israel and France.", "According to some analysts, Israel is set to overtake Russia as India's largest military and strategic partner.", "The two countries also collaborate extensively in the sphere of counter-terrorism and space technology.", "India also enjoys strong military relations with several other countries, including the United Kingdom, the United States, Japan, Singapore, Brazil, South Africa and Italy.", "In addition, India operates an airbase in Tajikistan, signed a landmark defence accord with Qatar in 2008, and has leased out Assumption Island from Seychelles to build a naval base in 2015.India has also forged relationships with developing countries, especially South Africa, Brazil, and Mexico.", "These countries often represent the interests of developing countries through economic forums such as the G8+5, IBSA and WTO.", "India was seen as one of the standard bearers of the developing world and claimed to speak for a collection of more than 30 other developing nations at the Doha Development Round.", "Indian Look East policy has helped it develop greater economic and strategic partnerships with Southeast Asian countries, South Korea, Japan, and Taiwan.", "India also enjoys friendly relations with the Persian Gulf countries and most members of the African Union.The Foundation for National Security Research in New Delhi published ''India's Strategic Partners: A Comparative Assessment'' and ranked India's top strategic partners with a score out of 90 points: Russia comes out on top with 62, followed by the United States (58), France (51), UK (41), Germany (37), and Japan (34).", "One of the outcomes of the 2023 G20 summit is a transportation project that would facilitate Indian trade to the Middle East and Europe.===Partnership agreements===India has signed strategic partnership agreements with more than two dozen countries/supranational entities listed here in the chronological order of the pacts:+ Agreements S.no.", "Country Year of Agreement signed Reference119972200032001 4200352003 62004720048201792005102005112006122007 132008 142009 152009162010172010182010192011202011 21201222201723 2014242014252015262015272015282004292012302023312023322023===Future agreements===Currently, India is taking steps towards establishing strategic partnerships with Canada and Argentina.", "Although India has not signed any formal strategic partnership agreements with Bhutan and Qatar, its foreign ministry often describes relations with these countries as 'strategic'." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which India maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate1234567891011121314151617181920212223—2425262728293031323334353637383940414243444546474849505152535455565758596061626364656667686970717273747576777879808182838485868788899091929394959697 9899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122—123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145146147148— (cancelled)149150151152153154155156157158159160161162163164165166167168169170171172173174175176177178179180—181182183184185186187—188Unknown189Unknown190Unknown191Unknown192Unknown" ], [ "Africa", "Vice President, Shri M. Hamid Ansari calling on the President of Algeria, Mr. Abdelaziz Bouteflika, in Algiers, Algeria on October 19, 2016;Algeria'''Burkina Faso'''Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 March 1962;BurundiBurundi has an embassy in New Delhi.", "India is represented in Burundi by its embassy in Kampala, Uganda.", "Both countries have a number of bilateral agreements.", ";;ChadBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 18 October 1975;ComorosBoth countries established diplomatic relations in June 1976.", "Both countries are full members of the Indian-Ocean Rim Association.", ";CongoBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 26 August 1967.;DR Congo'''Djibouti'''Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 December 1981;EthiopiaBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 1 July 1948.India and Ethiopia have warm bilateral ties based on mutual cooperation and support.", "India has been a partner in Ethiopia's developmental efforts, training Ethiopian personnel under its ITEC programmer, providing it with several lines of credit and launching the Pan-African e-Network project there in 2007.The Second India–Africa Forum Summit was held in Addis Ababa in 2011.India is also Ethiopia's second-largest source of foreign direct investments.", ";EgyptBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 18 August 1947.213x213pxModern Egypt-India relations go back to the contacts between Saad Zaghloul and Mohandas Gandhi on the common goals of their respective movements of independence.", "In 1955, Egypt under Gamal Abdul Nasser and India under Jawaharlal Nehru became the founders of the Non-Aligned Movement.", "During the 1956 War, Nehru stood supporting Egypt to the point of threatening to withdraw his country from the Commonwealth of Nations.", "In 1967, following the Arab–Israeli conflict, India supported Egypt and the Arabs.", "In 1977, New Delhi described the visit of President Anwar al-Sadat to Jerusalem as a \"brave\" move and considered the peace treaty between Egypt and Israel a primary step on the path of a just settlement of the Middle East problem.", "Major Egyptian exports to India include raw cotton, raw and manufactured fertilisers, oil and oil products, organic and non-organic chemicals, and leather and iron products.", "Major imports into Egypt from India are cotton yarn, sesame, coffee, herbs, tobacco, lentils, pharmaceutical products and transport equipment.", "The Egyptian Ministry of Petroleum is also currently negotiating the establishment of a natural gas-operated fertiliser plant with another Indian company.", "In 2004 the Gas Authority of India Limited bought 15% of Egypt's Nat Gas distribution and marketing company.", "In 2008 Egyptian investment in India was worth some 750 million dollars, according to the Egyptian ambassador.", "After the Arab Spring of 2011, with ousting of Hosni Mubarak, Egypt asked for the help of India in conducting nationwide elections.", ";GabonGabon maintains an embassy in New Delhi.", "The Embassy of India in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo is jointly accredited to Gabon.", ";GhanaBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 6 March 1957.Relations between Ghana and India are generally close and cordial mixed with economic and cultural connections.", "Trade between India and Ghana amounted to US$818 million in 2010–11 and is expected to be worth US$1 billion by 2013.Ghana imports automobiles and buses from India and companies like Tata Motors and Ashok Leyland have a significant presence in the country.", "Ghanaian exports to India consist of gold, cocoa and timber while Indian exports to Ghana comprise pharmaceuticals, agricultural machinery, electrical equipment, plastics, steel and cement.The Government of India has extended $228 million in lines of credit to Ghana which has been used for projects in sectors like agro-processing, fish processing, waste management, rural electrification and the expansion of Ghana's railways.", "India has also offered to set up an India-Africa Institute of Information Technology (IAIIT) and a Food Processing Business Incubation Centre in Ghana under the India–Africa Forum Summit.India is among the largest foreign investors in Ghana's economy.", "At the end of 2011, Indian investments in Ghana amounted to $550 million covering some 548 projects.", "Indian investments are primarily in the agriculture and manufacturing sectors of Ghana while Ghanaian companies manufacture drugs in collaboration with Indian companies.", "The IT sector in Ghana too has a significant Indian presence in it.", "India and Ghana also have a Bilateral Investment Protection Agreement between them.", "India's Rashtriya Chemicals and Fertilisers is in the process of setting up a fertiliser plant in Ghana at Nyankrom in the Shama District of the Western Region of Ghana.", "The project entails an investment of US$1.3 billion and the plant would have an annual production capacity of 1.1 million tones, the bulk of which would be exported to India.", "There are also plans to develop a sugar processing plant entailing an investment of US$36 million.", "Bank of Baroda, Bharti Airtel, Tata Motors and Tech Mahindra are amongst the major Indian companies in Ghana.There are about seven to eight thousand Indians and Persons of Indian Origin living in Ghana today with some of them having been there for over 70 years.", "Ghana is home to a growing indigenous Hindu population that today numbers 3000 families.", "Hinduism first came to Ghana only in the late 1940s with the Sindhi traders who migrated here following India's Partition.", "It has been growing in Ghana and neighbouring Togo since the mid-1970s when an African Hindu monastery was established in Accra.", "'''Guinea'''Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 July 1960.;Ivory CoastThe bilateral relations between India and Ivory Coast have expanded considerably in recent years as India seeks to develop an extensive commercial and strategic partnership in the West African region.", "The Indian diplomatic mission in Abidjan was opened in 1979.Ivory Coast opened its resident mission in New Delhi in September 2004.Both nations are currently fostering efforts to increase trade, investments and economic cooperation.Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi presenting a guide for Indian Businesses: \"Doing Business in Kenya\" to the President of Kenya, Mr. Uhuru Kenyatta, at the India-Kenya Business Forum, at Nairobi, Kenya on July 11, 2016.;KenyaBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 14 December 1963As littoral states of the Indian Ocean, trade links and commercial ties between India and Kenya go back several centuries.", "Kenya has a large minority of Indians and Persons of Indian Origin living there who are descendants of labourers who were brought in by the British to construct the Uganda Railway and Gujarati merchants.", "India and Kenya have growing trade and commercial ties.", "Bilateral trade amounted to $2.4 billion in 2010–2011 but with Kenyan imports from India accounting for $2.3 billion, the balance of trade was heavily in India's favour.", "India is Kenya's sixth-largest trading partner and the largest exporter to Kenya.", "Indian exports to Kenya include pharmaceuticals, steel, machinery and automobiles while Kenyan exports to India are primary commodities such as soda ash, vegetables and tea.", "Indian companies have a significant presence in Kenya with Indian corporates like the Tata Group, Essar Group, Reliance Industries and Bharti Airtel operating there.", ";LesothoBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 8 June 1971.India operates a High Commission in Pretoria which serves Lesotho and Lesotho operates a residential mission in India.", "Lesotho and India have strong ties.", "Lesotho has backed India's bid for a Permanent UN seat and has also recognized Jammu and Kashmir as a part of India.", "India exported US$11 Million to Lesotho in the 2010–2011 year while only importing US$1 Million in goods from Lesotho.", "Since 2001, an Indian Army Training Team has trained several soldiers in the LDF.", ";LiberiaBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 7 July 1960.The bilateral relations between the Republic of India and the Republic of Liberia have expanded on growing bilateral trade and strategic cooperation.", "India is represented in Liberia through its embassy in Abidjan (Ivory Coast) and an active honorary consulate in Monrovia since 1984.Liberia was represented in India through its resident mission in New Delhi which subsequently closed due to budgetary constraints.", ";LibyaBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 20 July 1952.", "'''Malawi'''Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 October 1964.", "'''Mali'''Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 January 1962.;MauritaniaBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 22 October 1965.India is represented in Mauritania by its embassy in Bamako, Mali.", "India also has an honorary consulate in Nouakchott.", ";MauritiusBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 12 March 1968.RK Dhowan inspecting guard of honour in MauritiusThe relations between India and Mauritius existed since 1730, diplomatic relations were established in 1948 before Mauritius became an independent state.", "The relationship is very cordial due to cultural affinities and long historical ties that exist between the two nations.", "More than 68% of the Mauritian population are of Indian origin, most known as Indo-Mauritian.", "The economic and commercial corporation has been increasing over the years.", "India has become Mauritius' largest source of imports since 2007 and Mauritius imported US$816 million worth of goods in the April 2010 – March 2011 financial year.", "Mauritius has remained the largest source of FDI for India for more than a decade with FDI equity inflows totalling US$55.2 billion in the period April 2000 to April 2011.India and Mauritius co-operate in combating piracy which has emerged as a major threat in the Indian Ocean region and support India's stand against terrorism.The relationship between Mauritius and India date back to the early 1730s, when artisans were brought from Puducherry and Tamil Nadu.", "Diplomatic relations between India and Mauritius were established in 1948.Mauritius maintained contacts with India through successive Dutch, French and British rule.", "From the 1820s, Indian workers started coming to Mauritius to work on sugar plantations.", "From 1833 when slavery was abolished by Parliament, large numbers of Indian workers began to be brought into Mauritius as indentured labourers.", "On 2 November 1834, the ship named 'Atlas' docked in Mauritius carrying the first batch of Indian indentured labourers.", ";MoroccoMorocco has an embassy in New Delhi.", "It also has an Honorary Consul based in Mumbai.", "India operates an embassy in Rabat.", "Both nations are part of the Non-Aligned Movement.In the United Nations, India supported the decolonisation of Morocco and the Moroccan freedom movement.", "India recognised Morocco on 20 June 1956 and established relations in 1957.The Ministry of External Affairs of the Government of India states that \"India and Morocco have enjoyed cordial and friendly relations and over the years bilateral relations have witnessed significant depth and growth.", "\"The Indian Council for Cultural Relations promotes Indian culture in Morocco.", "Morocco seeks to increase its trade ties with India and is seeking Indian investment in various sectors The bilateral relations between India and Morocco strengthened after the Moroccan Ambassador to India spent a week in Srinagar, the capital city of Jammu and Kashmir.", "This showed Moroccan solidarity with India regarding Kashmir.", ";MozambiqueBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 25 June 1975.India has a high commissioner in Maputo and Mozambique has a high commissioner in New Delhi.", ";NamibiaRelations between India and Namibia are warm and cordial.India was one of SWAPO's earliest supporters during the Namibian liberation movement.", "The first SWAPO embassy was established in India in 1986.India's observer mission was converted to a full High Commissioner on Namibia's Independence Day of 21 March 1990.India has helped train the Namibian Air Force since its creation in 1995.The two countries work closely in mutual multilateral organisations such as the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement and the Commonwealth of Nations.", "Namibia supports the expansion of the United Nations Security Council to include a permanent seat for India.In 2008–09, trade between the two countries stood at approximately US$80 million.", "Namibia's main imports from India were drugs and pharmaceuticals, chemicals, agricultural machinery, automobile and automobile parts, glass and glassware, and plastic and linoleum products.", "India primarily imported nonferrous metals, ores, and metal scraps.", "Indian products are also exported to neighbouring South Africa and re-imported to Namibia as South African imports.", "Namibian diamonds are often exported to European diamond markets before being again imported to India.", "In 2009, the first direct sale of Namibian diamonds to India took place.", "In 2008, two Indian companies won a US$105 million contract from NamPower to lay a high-voltage direct current bi-polar line from Katima Mulilo to Otjiwarongo.", "Namibia is a beneficiary of the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) programme for telecommunications professionals from developing countries.India has a high commissioner in Windhoek and Namibia has a high commissioner in New Delhi.", "Namibia's high commissioner is also accredited for Bangladesh, the Maldives and Sri Lanka.", ";NigerBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 18 July 1977.;NigeriaIndia has close relations with this oil-rich West African country.", "Twenty percent of India's crude oil needs are met, by Nigeria.", "of oil, is the amount of oil, that India receives from Nigeria.", "Trade, between these two countries stands at $875 million in 2005–2006.Indian companies have also invested in manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, iron ore, steel, information technology, and communications, amongst other things.", "Both India and Nigeria, are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, G-77, and the Non-Aligned Movement.", "Former Nigerian President, Olusegun Obasanjo was the guest of honour, at the Republic Day parade, in 1999, and the Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh visited Nigeria in 2007 and addressed the Nigerian Parliament.Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi meeting the President of Rwanda, Mr. Paul Kagame, at Kigali, Rwanda on July 23, 2018 ;RwandaIndo-Rwandan relations are the foreign relations between the Republic of India and the Republic of Rwanda.", "India is represented in Rwanda through its honorary consulate in Kigali.", "Rwanda has been operating its Embassy in New Delhi since 1998 and appointed its first resident Ambassador in 2001.;Seychelles'''India–Seychelles relations''' are bilateral relations between the Republic of India and the Republic of Seychelles.", "India has a High Commission in Victoria while Seychelles maintains a High Commission in New Delhi.", ";South AfricaIndia and South Africa, have always had strong relations even though India revoked diplomatic relations in protest of the apartheid regime in the mid-20th century.", "The history of British rule connects both lands.", "There is a large group of Indian South Africans.", "Mahatma Gandhi, spent many years in South Africa, during which time, he fought for the rights of the ethnic Indians.", "Nelson Mandela was inspired by Gandhi.", "After India's independence, India strongly condemned apartheid and refused diplomatic relations while apartheid was conducted as state policy in South Africa.Mahatma Gandhi (middle row centre) with the leaders of the non-violent resistance movement in South Africa.The two countries, now have close economic, political, and sports relations.", "Trade between the two countries grew from $3 million in 1992–1993 to $4 billion in 2005–2006, and aim to reach trade of $12 billion by 2010.One-third of India's imports from South Africa is gold bar.", "Diamonds, that are mined from South Africa, are polished in India.", "Nelson Mandela was awarded the Gandhi Peace Prize.", "The two countries are also members of the IBSA Dialogue Forum, with Brazil.", "India hopes to get large amounts of uranium, from resource-rich South Africa, for India's growing civilian nuclear energy sector.", ";South SudanIndia recognised South Sudan on 10 July 2011, a day after South Sudan became an independent state.", "Right now, relations are economic.", "Pramit Pal Chaudhuri wrote in the ''Hindustan Times'' that South Sudan \"has other attractions.", "As the Indian Foreign Ministry's literature notes, South Sudan is reported to have \"some of the largest oil reserves in Africa outside Nigeria and Angola\".", "An article in ''''The Telegraph'''' reported that South Sudan is \"one of the poorest countries in the world, but is oil rich.", "Foreign ministry officials said New Delhi has a keen interest in increasing its investments in the oil fields in South Sudan, which now owns over two-thirds of erstwhile united Sudan's oil fields.", "\"In return for the oil resources that can be provided by South Sudan, India said it was willing to assist in developing infrastructure, training officials in health, education, and rural development.", "\"We have compiled a definite road map which India can help South Sudan.", "\";SudanBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 7 May 1956.INS ''Tarkash'' sailing with Sudan Navy ships Almazz (PC 411) & Nimer (PC 413) as part of Maritime Partnership Exercise.Indo-Sudanese relations have always been characterised as longstanding, close, and friendly, even since the early development stages of their countries.", "At the time of Indian independence, Sudan had contributed 70,000 pounds, which was used to build part of the National Defence Academy in Pune.", "The main building of NDA is called Sudan Block.", "The two nations established diplomatic relations shortly after India became known as one of the first Asian countries to recognise the newly independent African country.", "India and Sudan also share geographic and historical similarities, as well as economic interests.", "Both countries are former British colonies, and remotely border Saudi Arabia using a body of water.", "India and Sudan continue to have cordial relations, despite issues such as India's close relationship with Israel, India's solidarity with Egypt over border issues with Sudan, and Sudan's intimate bonds with Pakistan and Bangladesh.", "India had also contributed some troops as United Nations peacekeeping force in Darfur.", ";TogoBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 31 August 1962.Togo opened its embassy in New Delhi in October 2010.The High Commission of India in Accra, Ghana is concurrently accredited to Togo.", "Togolese President Gnassingbé Eyadéma made an official state visit to India in September 1994.During the visit, the two countries agreed to establish Joint Commission.", ";UgandaBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 9 October 1962.India and Uganda established diplomatic relations in 1965 and each maintains a High Commissioner in the other's capital.", "The Indian High Commission in Kampala has concurrent accreditation to Burundi and Rwanda.", "Uganda hosts a large Indian community and India–Uganda relations cover a broad range of sectors including political, economic, commercial, cultural, and scientific cooperation.Relations between India and Uganda began with the arrival of over 30,000 Indians in Uganda in the 19th century who were brought there to construct the Mombasa–Kampala railway line.", "Ugandan independence activists were inspired in their struggle for Ugandan independence by the success of the Indian independence movement and were also supported in their struggle by the Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru.Indo-Ugandan relations have been good since Uganda's independence except during the regime of Idi Amin.", "Amin in 1972 expelled over 55,000 people of Indian origin and 5,000 Indians who had formed the commercial and economic backbone of the country accusing them of exploiting native Ugandans.", "Since the mid-1980s when President Yoweri Museveni came to power, relations have steadily improved.", "Today some 20,000 Indians and PIOs live or work in Uganda.", "Ethnic tensions between Indians and Ugandans have been a recurring issue in bilateral relations given the role of Indians in the Ugandan economy.", ";Zambia;Zimbabwe;African UnionAs of the year 2011, India's total trade with Africa is over US$46 billion and its total investment is over US$11 billion with a US$5.7 billion line of credit for executing various projects in Africa.India has had good relationships with most sub-Saharan African nations for most of its history.", "In the Prime Minister's visit to Mauritius in 1997, the two countries secured a deal to new Credit Agreement of INR 105 million (US$3 million) to finance the import by Mauritius of capital goods, consultancy services and consumer durable from India.", "The government of India secured a rice and medicine agreement with the people of Seychelles.", "India continued to build upon its historically close relations with Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania.", "Visits from political ministers from Ethiopia provided opportunities for strengthening bilateral cooperation between the two countries in the fields of education and technical training, water resources management and development of small industries.", "This has allowed India to gain benefits from nations that are forgotten by other Western Nations.", "The South African President, Thabo Mbeki has called for a strategic relationship between India and South Africa to avoid imposition by Western Nations.", "India continued to build upon its close and friendly relations with Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Swaziland, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.", "The Minister of Foreign Affairs arranged for the sending of Special Envoys to each of these countries during 1996–97 as a reaffirmation of India's assurance to strengthening cooperation with these countries in a spirit of South-South partnership.", "These relations have created a position of strength with African nations that other nations may not possess." ], [ "Americas", "India's commonalities with developing nations in Latin America, especially Brazil and Mexico have continued to grow.", "India and Brazil continue to work together on the reform of the Security Council through the G4 nations while having also increased strategic and economic cooperation through the IBSA Dialogue Forum.", "The process of finalizing a Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) with MERCOSUR (Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay) is on the itinerary and negotiations are being held with Chile.", "Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva was the guest of honor at the 2004 Republic Day celebrations in New Delhi.===North===;Antigua and BarbudaIndian Prime Minister Narendra Modi meeting Barbadian Prime Minister Mia Mottley at COP26 in Glasgow, Scotland; November 2021Both countries have established diplomatic relations and have an Extradition Arrangement.", ";BarbadosIndia and Barbados established diplomatic relations on 30 November 1966 (the date of Barbados' national independence).", "On that date, the government of India gifted Barbados the throne in Barbados' national House of Assembly.", "India is represented in Barbados through its embassy in Suriname and an Indian consulate in Holetown, St. James.", "In 2011–12 the Indian-based firm Era's Lucknow Medical College and Hospital, established the American University of Barbados (AUB), as the island's first Medical School for international students.", "In 2015 the governments of Barbados and India signed a joint Open Skies Agreement.", "Today around 3,000 persons from India call Barbados home.", "Two-thirds are from India's Surat district of Gujarat known as Suratis.", "Most of the Suratis are involved in trading.", "The rest are of Sindhis ancestry.", ";BelizeIndia has an Honorary Consulate in Belize City and Belize has an Honorary Consulate in New Delhi.", "Bilateral trade stood at US$45.3 Million in 2014 and has steadily increased since.", "Belize and India have engaged in dialogue in Central American Integration System (SICA) discussing anti-terrorism, climate change and food security.", "India signed a Tax Information Exchange Agreement in 2013 with Belize.", "India also provides Belize with US$30 Million as part of its foreign aid commitment to SICA countries.", "Citizens of Belize are eligible for scholarships in Indian universities under Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation Programme and the Indian Council for Cultural Relations.The two nations share a close cultural link due to Belize's large East Indian Population, estimated at 4% of the total population.", ";CanadaCanadian Prime Minister, Justin Trudeau receiving a welcome ceremony in Rashtrapati Bhavan, New Delhi, with PM Narendra Modi along with his family.", "Indo-Canadian relations are the longstanding bilateral relations between India and Canada, which are built upon a \"mutual commitment to democracy\", \"pluralism\", and \"people-to-people links\", according to the government of Canada.", "In 2004, bilateral trade between India and Canada was at about C$2.45 billion.", "However, the botched handling of the Air India investigation and the case, in general, suffered a setback to Indo-Canadian relations.", "India's Smiling Buddha nuclear test led to connections between the two countries being frozen, with allegations that India broke the terms of the Colombo Plan.", "Although Jean Chrétien and Roméo LeBlanc both visited India in the late 1990s, relations were again halted after the Pokhran-II tests.Canada-India relations have been on an upward trajectory since 2005.Governments at all levels, private-sector organisations, academic institutes in two countries, and people-to-people contacts—especially diaspora networks—have contributed through individual and concerted efforts to significant improvements in the bilateral relationship.Stamp of India - 2017 - Diwali - Joint Issue With CanadaThe two governments have agreed on important policy frameworks to advance the bilateral relationship.", "In particular, the Nuclear Cooperation Agreement (signed in June 2010) and the current successful negotiations of the Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) constitute a watershed in Canada-India relations.The two governments have attempted to make up for lost time and are eager to complete CEPA negotiations by 2013 and ensure its ratification by 2014.After the conclusion of CEPA, Canada and India must define the areas for their partnership which will depend on their ability to convert common interests into common action and respond effectively for steady cooperation.", "For example, during \"pull-aside\" meetings between Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and Stephen Harper at the G-20 summit in Mexico in June 2012, and an earlier meeting in Toronto between External Affairs Minister S. M. Krishna and John Baird, the leaders discussed developing a more comprehensive partnership going beyond food security and including the possibility of tie-ups in the energy sector, hydrocarbon.", ";CubaRelations between India and Cuba are close and warm.", "Both nations are part of the Non-Aligned Movement.", "Cuba has repeatedly called for a more \"democratic\" representation of the United Nations Security Council and supports India's candidacy as a permanent member of a reformed Security Council.", "Fidel Castro said that \"The maturity of India..., its unconditional adherence to the principles which lay at the foundation of the Non-Aligned Movement give us the assurances that under the wise leadership of Indira Gandhi (the former Prime Minister of India), the non-aligned countries will continue advancing in their inalienable role as a bastion for peace, national independence and development...\"India has an embassy in Havana, the capital of Cuba which opened in January 1960.This had particular significance as it symbolised Indian solidarity with the Cuban revolution.", "India had been one of the first countries in the world to have recognised the new Cuban government after the Cuban Revolution.Cuba has an embassy in New Delhi, the Indian capital.", ";JamaicaRelations between India and Jamaica are generally cordial and close.", "There are many cultural and political connections inherited from British colonial rule, such as membership in the Commonwealth of Nations, parliamentary democracy, the English language and cricket.Both nations are members of the Non-Aligned Movement, the United Nations and the Commonwealth, and Jamaica supports India's candidacy for permanent membership in a reformed UN Security Council.During the British era, Indians voluntarily went to jobs in Jamaica and the West Indies.", "This has created a considerable population of people of Indian origin in Jamaica.", "India has a High Commission in Kingston, whilst Jamaica has a consulate in New Delhi and plans to upgrade it to a High Commission soon.", ";MexicoIndians in Mexico CityMexico is a very important and major economic partner of India.", "Nobel Prize laureate and ambassador to India Octavio Paz wrote his book ''In Light of India'' which is an analysis of Indian history and culture.", "Both nations are regional powers and members of the G-20 major economies.", " India has an embassy in Mexico City.", "* Mexico has an embassy in New Delhi and a consulate in Mumbai.", ";NicaraguaBilateral relations between India and Nicaragua have been limited to SICA dialogue and visits by Nicaraguan Ministers to India.", "India maintains an honorary consul general in Nicaragua, concurrently accredited to the Indian embassy in Panama City and Nicaragua used to maintain an embassy in India but was reduced to an honorary consulate general in New Delhi.", "the current Foreign minister Samuel Santos López visited India in 2008 for the SICA-India Foreign ministers' meeting and in 2013 for high-level talks with the then External Affairs Minister Salman Khurshid which also expanded bilateral trade with the two countries reaching a total of US$60.12 million during 2012–13.", ";PanamaVice President, Shri M. Venkaiah Naidu being bid farewell by the Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs, Mr. Luis Miguel Hincapie, on his departure, in Panama on May 10, 2018Bilateral relations between Panama and India have been growing steadily, reflecting the crucial role the Panama Canal plays in global trade and commerce.", "Moreover, with over 15,000 Indians living in Panama, diplomatic ties have considerably increased over the past decade.The opening of the expanded Canal in 2016 is expected to provide new prospects for maritime connectivity.", "In seeking to rapidly strengthen trade relations such as the flow of trade triples between the two countries, India is keen to leverage these transit trade facilities in Panama to access the wider market of Latin America.", "Along with pursuing a free trade agreement, India wants to promote investment in various sectors of Panama's economy, including the banking and maritime industry and the multimodal centre of the Colón Free Trade Zone.", ";ParaguayThe bilateral relations between the Republic of India and Paraguay have been traditionally strong due to strong commercial, cultural and strategic cooperation.", "India is represented in Paraguay through its embassy in Buenos Aires in Argentina.", "India also has an Honorary Consul-General in Asuncion.", "Paraguay opened its embassy in India in 2005.Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi meeting the Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago, Dr. Keith C. Rowley, on the sidelines of CHOGM 2018, in London on April 19, 2018;Trinidad & TobagoBilateral relations between the Republic of India and the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago have considerably expanded in recent years with both nations building strategic and commercial ties.", "Both nations formally established diplomatic relations in 1962.Both nations were part of the British Empire; India supported the independence of Trinidad and Tobago from British rule and established its diplomatic mission in 1962 – the year that Trinidad and Tobago officially gained independence.", "They possess diverse natural and economic resources and are the largest economies in their respective regions.", "Both are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Nations, G-77 and the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).The Republic of India operates a High Commission in Port of Spain, whilst the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago operates a High Commission in New Delhi.", ";United States of AmericaUS President Richard Nixon and Prime Minister of India Indira Gandhi in 1971.They had a deep personal antipathy that coloured bilateral relations.\|268x268pxBefore and during the Second World War, the United States under President Roosevelt gave strong support to the Indian independence movement despite being allies to Britain.", "Relations between India and the United States were lukewarm following Indian independence, as India took a leading position in the Non-Aligned Movement, and received support from the Soviet Union.", "The US provided support to India in 1962 during its war with China.", "For most of the Cold War, the USA tended to have warmer relations with Pakistan, primarily as a way to contain Soviet-friendly India and to use Pakistan to back the Afghan Mujahideen against the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan.", "An Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, signed in 1971, also positioned India against the USA.After the Sino-Indian War and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, India made considerable changes to its foreign policy.", "It developed a close relationship with the Soviet Union and started receiving massive military equipment and financial assistance from the USSR.", "This harmed the Indo-US relationship.", "The United States saw Pakistan as a counterweight to pro-Soviet India and started giving the former military assistance.", "This created an atmosphere of suspicion between India and the US.", "The Indo-US relationship suffered a considerable setback when the Soviets took over Afghanistan and India overtly supported the Soviet Union.Relations between India and the United States came to an all-time low during the early 1970s.", "Despite reports of atrocities in East Pakistan, and being told, most notably in the ''Blood telegram'', of genocidal activities being perpetrated by Pakistani forces, the US.", "Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and US President Richard Nixon did nothing to discourage then-Pakistani President Yahya Khan and the Pakistan Army.", "Kissinger was particularly concerned about Soviet expansion into South Asia as a result of a treaty of friendship that had recently been signed between India and the Soviet Union and sought to demonstrate to the People's Republic of China the value of a tacit alliance with the United States.", "During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, Indian Armed Forces, along with the Mukti Bahini, succeeded in liberating East Pakistan which soon declared independence.", "Nixon feared that an Indian invasion of West Pakistan would mean total Soviet domination of the region and that it would seriously undermine the global position of the United States and the regional position of America's new tacit ally, China.", "To demonstrate to China the ''bona fides'' of the United States as an ally, and in direct violation of the Congress-imposed sanctions on Pakistan, Nixon sent military supplies to Pakistan, routing them through Jordan and Iran, while also encouraging China to increase its arms supplies to Pakistan.When Pakistan's defeat in the eastern sector seemed certain, Nixon sent the to the Bay of Bengal, a move deemed by the Indians as a nuclear threat.", "The ''Enterprise'' arrived at the station on 11 December 1971.On 6 and 13 December, the Soviet Navy dispatched two groups of ships, armed with nuclear missiles, from Vladivostok; they trailed US Task Force 74 into the Indian Ocean from 18 December 1971 until 7 January 1972.The Soviets also sent nuclear submarines to ward off the threat posed by USS ''Enterprise'' in the Indian Ocean.Kamala Harris is the 49th Vice President of the United States.", "She is the first female, the first person of colour, as well as the first Indian American vice president.Though American efforts had no effect in turning the tide of the war, the incident involving USS ''Enterprise'' is viewed as the trigger for India's subsequent interest in developing nuclear weapons.", "American policy towards the end of the war was dictated primarily by a need to restrict the escalation of the war on the Western sector to prevent the 'dismemberment' of West Pakistan.", "Years after the war, many American writers criticised the White House policies during the war as being badly flawed and ill-serving to the interests of the United States.", "India carried out nuclear tests a few years later resulting in sanctions being imposed by the United States, further drifting the two countries apart.", "In recent years, Kissinger came under fire for comments made during the Indo-Pakistan War in which he described Indians as \"bastards\".", "Kissinger has since expressed his regret over the comments.", ";After the Cold WarSince the end of the Cold War, India-USA relations have improved dramatically.", "This has been fostered by the fact that the United States and India are both democracies and have a large and growing trade relationship.", "During the Gulf War, the economy of India went through an extremely difficult phase.", "The Government of India adopted liberalised economic systems.", "After the break-up of the Soviet Union, India improved diplomatic relations with the members of NATO, particularly Canada, France, and Germany.", "In 1992, India established formal diplomatic relations with Israel.In recent years, India-United States relations have still improved significantly during the Premiership of Narendra Modi since 2014.Both sides are committed to a \"Free and Open Indo-Pacific\".Prime Minister Narendra Modi in a bilateral meeting with U.S. President Joe Biden, at the White House;Pokhran tests reactionIn 1998, India tested nuclear weapons which resulted in several US, Japanese and European sanctions on India.", "India's then defence minister, George Fernandes, said that India's nuclear programme was necessary as it provided a deterrence to some potential nuclear threats.", "Most of the sanctions imposed on India were removed by 2001.India has categorically stated that it will never use weapons first but will defend itself if attacked.The economic sanctions imposed by the United States in response to India's nuclear tests in May 1998 appeared, at least initially, to seriously damage Indo-American relations.", "President Bill Clinton imposed wide-ranging sanctions according to the 1994 Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act.", "US sanctions on Indian entities involved in the nuclear industry and opposition to international financial institution loans for non-humanitarian assistance projects in India.", "The United States encouraged India to sign the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) immediately and without condition.", "The United States also called for restraint in missile and nuclear testing and deployment by both India and Pakistan.", "The non-proliferation dialogue initiated after the 1998 nuclear tests has bridged many of the gaps in understanding between the countries.Nobel Laurate Rabindranath Tagore and Argentine writer Victoria Ocampo on the grounds of Villa Ocampo===South===;ArgentinaFormal relations between both countries were first established in 1949.India has an embassy in Buenos Aires and Argentina has an embassy in New Delhi.", "The current Indian Ambassador to Argentina (concurrently accredited to Uruguay and Paraguay) is R Viswanathan.According to the Ministry of External Affairs of the Government of India, \"Under the 1968 Visa agreement, (Argentine) fees for transit and tourist visas have been abolished.", "Under the new visa agreement signed during the Argentine Presidential visit in October 2009, it has been agreed that five-year multi-entry business visas would be given free of cost.", "The Embassy of India in Buenos Aires gives Cafe Con Visa (coffee with visa) to Argentine visitors.", "The applicants are invited for coffee and a visa is given immediately.", "This has been praised by the Argentine media, public and the Foreign Minister himself.", "\";BrazilRelations between Brazil and India have been extended to diverse areas such as science and technology, pharmaceuticals and space as both are member nations of BRICS.", "The two-way trade in 2007 nearly tripled to US$3.12 billion from US$1.2 billion in 2004.India attaches tremendous importance to its relationship with this Latin American giant and hopes to see the areas of cooperation expand in the coming years.Both countries want the participation of developing countries in the UNSC permanent membership since the underlying philosophy for both of them are: UNSC should be more democratic, legitimate and representative – the G4 is a novel grouping for this realization.Dr.", "A.P.J.", "Abdul Kalam and the Prime Minister Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee receiving the Chief Guest, the President of the Federative Republic of Brazil Mr. Luiz Inacio Lula Da Silva on Republic Day Parade-2004Brazil and India are deeply committed to IBSA (South-South cooperation) initiatives and attach utmost importance to this trilateral cooperation between the three large, multi-ethnic, multi-racial and multi-religious developing countries, which are bound by the common principle of pluralism and democracy.", ";Bolivia;Chile;ColombiaBoth countries established diplomatic ties on 19 January 1959.Since then, the relationship between the two countries has been gradually increasing with more frequent diplomatic visits to promote political, commercial cultural and academic exchanges.", "Colombia is currently the commercial point of entry into Latin America for Indian companies.", ";EcuadorPrime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi meeting the President of the Republic of Peru, Mr. Ollanta Humala, on the sidelines of the Sixth BRICS Summit, at Brasilia, in Brazil on July 16, 2014;Guyana;Paraguay;Peru;Suriname;Uruguay;VenezuelaDiplomatic relations between India and Venezuela were established on 1 October 1959.India maintains an embassy in Caracas, while Venezuela maintains an embassy in New Delhi.Venezuelan President Nicolas Maduro, ONGC Executive Director Narendra Kumar Verma and PDVSA President Eulogio Del PinoThere have been several visits by heads of state and government, and other high-level officials between the countries.", "President Hugo Chávez visited New Delhi on 4–7 March 2005.Chávez met with Indian President APJ Abdul Kalam and Prime Minister Manmohan Singh.", "The two countries signed six agreements including one to establish a Joint Commission to promote bilateral relations and another on cooperation in the hydrocarbon sector.", "Foreign Minister Nicolás Maduro visited India to attend the First Meeting of the India-CELAC Troika Foreign Ministers meeting in New Delhi on 7 August 2012.The Election Commission of India (ECI) and the National Electoral Council (CNE) of Venezuela signed an MoU during a visit by Indian Election Commissioner V S Sampath to Caracas in 2012.The Minister of State for Corporate Affairs visited Venezuela to attend the state funeral of President Chavez in March 2013.The President and Prime Minister of India expressed condolences on the death of Chávez.", "The Rajya Sabha, the upper house of Parliament, observed a minute's silence to mark his death.", "Ambassador Smita Purushottam represented India at the swearing-in ceremony of Chávez's successor Nicolás Maduro on 19 April 2013.Citizens of Venezuela are eligible for scholarships under the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation Programme and the Indian Council for Cultural Relations." ], [ "Asia", "Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi receives a guard of honour during his visit to Kazakhstan in July 2015.===Central===;KazakhstanIndia is working towards developing strong relations with this resource-rich Central Asian country.", "The Indian oil company, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation has got oil exploration and petroleum development grants in Kazakhstan.", "The two countries are collaborating in petrochemicals, information technology, and space technology.", "Kazakhstan has offered India five blocks for oil and gas exploration.", "India and Kazakhstan, are to set up joint projects in construction, minerals and metallurgy.", "India also signed four other pacts, including an extradition treaty, in the presence of President Prathibha Patil and her Kazakh counterpart Nursultan Nazarbayev.", "Kazakhstan will provide Uranium and related products under the MoU between Nuclear Power Corp. of India and Kazatomprom.", "These MoU also open possibilities of joint exploration of uranium in Kazakhstan, which has the world's second-largest reserves, and India building atomic power plants in the Central Asian country.", ";KyrgyzstanKyrgyz President Almazbek Atambayev presents a copy of ''Manas-Semetei-Seitek'' to Indian Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi at Hyderabad House, in New Delhi on December 20, 2016.;TajikistanDiplomatic relations were established between India and Tajikistan following Tajikistan's independence from the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union, which had been friendly with India.", "Tajikistan occupies a strategically important position in Central Asia, bordering Afghanistan, the People's Republic of China and separated by a small strip of Afghan territory from Pakistan.", "India's role in fighting the Taliban and Al-Qaeda and its strategic rivalry with both China and Pakistan have made its ties with Tajikistan important to its strategic and security policies.", "Despite their common efforts, bilateral trade has been comparatively low, valued at US$12.09 million in 2005; India's exports to Tajikistan were valued at US$6.2 million and its imports at US$5.89 million.", "India's military presence and activities have been significant, beginning with India's extensive support of the anti-Taliban Afghan Northern Alliance (ANA).", "India began renovating the Farkhor Air Base and stationed aircraft of the Indian Air Force there.", "The Farkhor Air Base became fully operational in 2006, and 12 MiG-29 bombers and trainer aircraft are planned to be stationed there.", ";TurkmenistanPrime Minister Narendra Modi in Turkmenistan;UzbekistanIndia has an embassy in Tashkent.", "Uzbekistan has an embassy in New Delhi.", "Uzbekistan has had a great impact on Indian culture mostly due to the Mughal Empire which was founded by Babur of Ferghana (in present-day Uzbekistan) who created his empire southward first in Afghanistan and then in India.===East===;ChinaA Chinese container ship unloads cargo at the 220x220pxDespite lingering suspicions remaining from the 1962 Sino-Indian War, the 1967 Nathu La and Cho La incidents, and continuing boundary disputes over Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh, Sino-Indian relations have improved gradually since 1988.Both countries have sought to reduce tensions along the frontier, expand trade and cultural ties, and normalise relations.A series of high-level visits between the two nations have helped improve relations.", "In December 1996, PRC President Jiang Zemin visited India during a tour of South Asia.", "While in New Delhi, he signed with the Indian Prime Minister a series of confidence-building measures for the disputed borders.", "Sino-Indian relations suffered a brief setback in May 1998 when the Indian Defence minister justified the country's nuclear tests by citing potential threats from the PRC.", "However, in June 1999, during the Kargil crisis, then-External Affairs Minister Jaswant Singh visited Beijing and stated that India did not consider China a threat.", "By 2001, relations between India and the PRC were on the mend, and the two sides handled the move from Tibet to India of the 17th Karmapa in January 2000 with delicacy and tact.", "In 2003, India formally recognised Tibet as a part of China, and China recognised Sikkim as a formal part of India in 2004.The Current Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi and President of China Xi Jinping, at G7 Summit, China \|leftSince 2004, the economic rise of both China and India has also helped forge closer relations between the two.", "Sino-Indian trade reached US$65.47 billion in 2013–14, making China the single largest trading partner of India.", "The increasing economic reliance between India and China has also bought the two nations closer politically, with both India and China eager to resolve their boundary dispute.", "They have also collaborated on several issues ranging from WTO's Doha round in 2008 to regional free trade agreement.", "Similar to Indo-US nuclear deal, India and China have also agreed to cooperate in the field of civilian nuclear energy.", "However, China's economic interests have clashed with those of India.", "Both countries are the largest Asian investors in Africa and have competed for control over their large natural resources.There was a tense situation due to the soldiers' stand-off in Doklam, Bhutan; but that was resolved early.", "Liu Shaoqi, the then Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress with Indira Gandhi when she was the President of Indian National Congress.Relations were lost due to Galwan Valley skirmishes and its progress.", "India ceased imports of Chinese products.", "Various measures were taken, such as several contracts with the Chinese companies involved in railways, networks and several items productions, which were cancelled in response.", "The outbreak of the Coronavirus pandemic from Wuhan also hampered the relations.", "Following the straining of the bonds, both sides blamed each other for the conflict on LAC.", "On 29–30 August, it was reported that China had allegedly attempted to cross LAC to attain important hilltops, which was filed by Indian troops, as they were an advantage of acquiring important tops near LAC.", "India banned more than 250 Chinese apps, and on 16 October, it banned the import of ACs, Refrigerators and Coolers from China.", "Several core commanders' negotiations and talks were held, which resulted in nothing other than vague promises then.", "Cross-media blaming was common.There was even a conference held in Moscow, Russia, on 5 September between the Defence Minister of India, Rajnath Singh and Chinese Army General, Wei Fenghe, but that also ended up with no success.", "The recent meeting of the Quad-alliance was also questioned by China, but was then downed by India.In mid-January 2021, it was reported that both countries had finally agreed upon the de-escalation from their positions.", "Footage of Chinese troops removing tents/barracks was released.", "Both countries also agreed that India would move back to Finger-3, while China retained its position back to Finger-8, and also declared the area from Finger-3 to Finger-8 to be \"No man's land\".Two Japanese Naval warships took part in 220x220px;JapanIndia-Japan relations have always been strong.", "India has culturally influenced Japan through Buddhism.", "During World War II, the Imperial Japanese Army helped Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose's Indian National Army.", "Relations have remained warm since India's independence, despite Japan imposing sanctions on India after the 1998 Pokhran-II nuclear tests (the sanctions were removed in 2001).", "Japanese companies, like Sony, Toyota, and Honda, have manufacturing facilities in India, and with the growth of the Indian economy, India is a big market for Japanese firms.", "The most prominent Japanese company to have a big investment in India is automobiles giant Suzuki which is in partnership with Indian automobile company Maruti Suzuki, the largest car manufacturer in India.", "Honda was also a partner in \"Hero Honda\", one of the largest motorcycle sellers in the world (the companies split in 2011).Stamp of India - 2002 - Colnect 834423 - India Japan 50th Anniversary Diplomatic RelationsAccording to Former Prime Minister Shinzō Abe's ''arc of freedom'' theory, it is in Japan's interests to develop closer ties with India, the world's most populous democracy, while its relations with China remain chilly.", "To this end, Japan has funded many infrastructure projects in India, most notably in New Delhi's metro subway system.", "In December 2006, then Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's visit to Japan culminated in the signing of the \"Joint Statement Towards Japan-India Strategic and Global Partnership\".", "Indian applicants were welcomed in 2006 to the JET Programme, starting with just one slot available in 2006 and 41 in 2007.Also, in 2007, the Japan Self-Defense Forces took part in a naval exercise in the Indian Ocean, known as Malabar 2007, which also involved the naval forces of India, Australia, Singapore and the United States.220x220pxIn October 2008, Japan signed an agreement with India under which it would grant the latter a low-interest loan worth US$4.5 billion to construct a high-speed rail line between Delhi and Mumbai.", "This is the single largest overseas project being financed by Japan and reflects a growing economic partnership between the two.", "India and Japan signed a security cooperation agreement in which both will hold military exercises, police the Indian Ocean and conduct military-to-military exchanges on fighting terrorism, making India one of only three countries, the other two being the United States and Australia, with which Japan has such a security pact.", "There are 25,000 Indians in Japan as of 2008.;MongoliaThe relations between India and Mongolia are still at a nascent stage and Indo-Mongolian cooperation is limited to diplomatic visits, the provision of soft loans and financial aid and collaborations in the IT sector.India established diplomatic relations in December 1955.India was the first country outside the Soviet bloc to establish diplomatic relations with Mongolia.", "Since then, there have been treaties of mutual friendship and cooperation between the two countries in 1973, 1994, 2001 and 2004.;North KoreaIndia and North Korea have growing trade and diplomatic relations.", "India had a fully functioning embassy in Pyongyang which was closed down due to COVID-19 pandemic in the host country while North Korea still operates an embassy in New Delhi.", "India has said that it wants the \"reunification\" of Korea.", ";South KoreaThe Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi and the President of the Republic of South Korea, Mr.", "Moon Jae-in take Delhi Metro ride on the way to inaugurate the Samsung manufacturing plant, World's Largest Mobile Factory, in Noida, Uttar Pradesh.The cordial relationship between the two countries extends back to 48AD, when Queen Suro, or Princess Heo, travelled from the kingdom of Ayodhya to Korea.", "According to the Samguk Yusa, the princess had a dream about a heavenly king who was awaiting heaven's anointed ride.", "After Princess Heo had the dream, she asked her parents, the king and queen, for permission to set out and seek the man, which the king and queen urged with the belief that god orchestrated the whole fate.", "Upon approval, she set out on a boat, carrying gold, silver, a tea plant, and a stone which calmed the waters.", "Archeologists discovered a stone with two fish kissing each other, a symbol of the Gaya kingdom that is unique to the Mishra royal family in Ayodhya, India.", "This royal link provides further evidence that there was an active commercial engagement between India and Korea since the queen's arrival in Korea.", "Current descendants live in the city of Gimhae as well as abroad in the America states of New Jersey and Kentucky.", "Many of them became prominent and well known around the world like President Kim Dae Jung and Prime Minister Kim Jong-pil.", "The relations between the countries have been relatively limited, although much progress arose during the three decades.", "Princess Heo, travelled from the kingdom of Ayodhya to Korea.Since the formal establishment of diplomatic ties between the two countries in 1973, several trade agreements have been reached.", "Trade between the two nations has increased exponentially, exemplified by the $530 million during the fiscal year of 1992–1993, and the $10 billion during 2006–2007.During the 1997 Asian financial crisis, South Korean businesses sought to increase access to the global markets and began trade investments with India.", "The last two presidential visits from South Korea to India were in 1996 and 2006, and the embassy works between the two countries are seen as needing improvements.", "Recently, there have been acknowledgements in the Korean public and political spheres that expanding relations with India should be a major economic and political priority for South Korea.", "Much of the economic investments of South Korea have been drained into China; however, South Korea is currently the fifth largest source of investment in India.", "To The Times of India, President Roh Moo-hyun voiced his opinion that cooperation between India's software and Korea's IT industries would bring very efficient and successful outcomes.", "The two countries agreed to shift their focus to the revision of the visa policies between the two countries, expansion of trade, and establishment of free trade agreement to encourage further investment between the two countries.", "Korean companies such as LG, Hyundai and Samsung have established manufacturing and service facilities in India, and several Korean construction companies won grants for a portion of the many infrastructural building plans in India, such as the \"National Highway Development Project\".", "Tata Motor's purchase of Daewoo Commercial Vehicles at the cost of $102 million highlights India's investments in Korea, which consist mostly of subcontracting.Indian PM Narendra Modi, hosting President of Afghanistan, Ashraf Ghani, in New Delhi \|right===South===;AfghanistanBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 10 December 1947.Bilateral relations between India and Afghanistan have been traditionally strong and friendly.", "While India was the only South Asian country to recognise the Soviet-backed Democratic Republic of Afghanistan in the 1980s, its relations were diminished during the Afghan civil wars and the rule of the Islamist Taliban in the 1990s.", "India aided the overthrow of the Taliban and became the largest regional provider of humanitarian and reconstruction aid.", "The new democratically elected Afghan government strengthened its ties with India in the wake of persisting tensions and problems with Pakistan, which is continuing to shelter and support the Taliban.", "India pursues a policy of close cooperation to bolster its standing as a regional power and contains its rival Pakistan, which it maintains is supporting Islamic militants in Kashmir and other parts of India.", "India is the largest regional investor in Afghanistan, having committed more than US$3 billion for reconstruction purposes.", "After the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan collapsed, India participated in the evacuation of non-Muslim minorities and provided food aid to Taliban-ruled Afghanistan.", ";BangladeshPM Narendra Modi, along with PM of Bangladesh, Sheikh Hasina, and Chief Minister of West Bengal, Mamata Banerjee, in an agreement between Indian and Bangladeshi Government, with Minister of External Affairs (India), S. Jaishankar, and Bangladesh Govt.", "officialsIndia was the second country to recognise Bangladesh as a separate and independent state, doing so on 6 December 1971.India fought alongside the Bangladeshis to liberate Bangladesh from West Pakistan in 1971.Bangladesh's relationship with India has been difficult in terms of border killing, irrigation and land border disputes post-1976.However, India has enjoyed a favourable relationship with Bangladesh during governments formed by the Awami League in 1972 and 1996.The recent solutions to land and maritime disputes have taken out irritants in ties.At the outset, India's relations with Bangladesh could not have been stronger because of India's unalloyed support for independence and opposition against Pakistan in 1971.During the independence war, many refugees fled to India.", "When the struggle of resistance matured in November 1971, India also intervened militarily and may have helped bring international attention to the issue through Indira Gandhi's visit to Washington, D.C.", "Afterwards India furnished relief and reconstruction aid.", "India extended recognition to Bangladesh before the end of the war in 1971 (the second country to do so after Bhutan) and subsequently lobbied others to follow suit.", "India also withdrew its military from the land of Bangladesh when Sheikh Mujibur Rahman requested Indira Gandhi to do so during the latter's visit to Dhaka in 1972.Niazi signing the Instrument of Surrender under the gaze of Lt Gen Aurora, effectively ending Bangladesh Liberation War and creating the new state of Bangladesh.\|leftIndo-Bangladesh relations have been somewhat less friendly since the fall of the Mujib government in August 1975.over the years over issues such as South Talpatti Island, the Tin Bigha Corridor and access to Nepal, the Farakka Barrage and water sharing, border conflicts near Tripura and the construction of a fence along most of the border which India explains as security provision against migrants, insurgents and terrorists.", "Many Bangladeshis feel India likes to play \"big brother\" to smaller neighbours, including Bangladesh.", "Bilateral relations warmed in 1996, due to a softer Indian foreign policy and the new Awami League Government.", "A 30-year water-sharing agreement for the Ganges River was signed in December 1996, after an earlier bilateral water-sharing agreement for the Ganges River lapsed in 1988.Both nations also have cooperated on the issue of flood warnings and preparedness.", "The Bangladesh Government and tribal insurgents signed a peace accord in December 1997, which allowed for the return of tribal refugees who had fled to India, beginning in 1986, to escape violence caused by an insurgency in their homeland in the Chittagong Hill Tracts.", "The Bangladesh Army maintains a very strong presence in the area to this day.", "The army is increasingly concerned about the growing problem of the cultivation of illegal drugs.There are also small pieces of land along the border region that Bangladesh is diplomatically trying to reclaim.", "Padua, part of Sylhet Division before 1971, has been under Indian control since the war in 1971.This small strip of land was re-occupied by the BDR in 2001 but later given back to India after the Bangladesh government decided to solve the problem through diplomatic negotiations.", "The Indian New Moore island no longer exists, but Bangladesh repeatedly claims it to be part of the Satkhira district of Bangladesh.creation of Republic of Bangladesh.In recent years India has increasingly complained that Bangladesh does not secure its border properly.", "It fears an increasing flow of poor Bangladeshis and it accuses Bangladesh of harbouring Indian separatist groups like ULFA and alleged terrorist groups.", "The Bangladesh government has refused to accept these allegations.", "India estimates that over 20 million Bangladeshis are living illegally in India.", "One Bangladeshi official responded that \"there is not a single Bangladeshi migrant in India\".", "Since 2002, India has been constructing an India – Bangladesh Fence along much of the 2500-mile border.", "The failure to resolve migration disputes bears a human cost for illegal migrants, such as imprisonment and health risks (namely HIV/AIDS).India's prime minister Narendra Modi and his Bangladeshi counterpart Sheikh Hasina have completed a landmark deal redrawing their messy shared border and thereby solving disputes between India and Bangladesh.", "Bangladesh has also given India a transit route to travel through Bangladesh to its North East states.", "India and Bangladesh also have free trade agreement on 7 June 2015.Both countries solved their border dispute on 6 June 2015.To connect Kolkata with Tripura via Bangladesh through railway, the Union Government on 10 February 2016 sanctioned about 580 crore rupees.", "The project which is expected to be completed by 2017 will pass through Bangladesh.The Agartala-Akhaura rail link between Indian Railway and Bangladesh Railway will reduce the current 1700 km road distance between Kolkata to Agartala via Siliguri to just 350 kilometer by railway.The project ranks high on Prime Minister's 'Act East Policy', and is expected to increase connectivity and boost trade between India and Bangladesh.The King of Bhutan, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, at Prime Minister's Residence with PM Narendra Modi in New Delhi on 1 November 2017.;BhutanHistorically, there have been close ties with India.", "Both countries signed a friendship treaty in 1949, where India would assist Bhutan in foreign relations.", "On 8 February 2007, the Indo-Bhutan Friendship Treaty was substantially revised under the Bhutanese King, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck.", "Whereas in the Treaty of 1949 Article 2 read as \"The Government of India undertakes to exercise no interference in the internal administration of Bhutan.", "On its part, the Government of Bhutan agrees to be guided by the advice of the Government of India regarding its external relations.", "\"In the revised treaty it now reads as, \"In keeping with the abiding ties of close friendship and cooperation between Bhutan and India, the Government of the Kingdom of Bhutan and the Government of the Republic of India shall cooperate closely with each other on issues relating to their national interests.", "Neither government shall allow the use of its territory for activities harmful to the national security and interest of the other\".", "The revised treaty also includes in it the preamble \"Reaffirming their respect for each other's independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity\", an element that was absent in the earlier version.", "The Indo-Bhutan Friendship Treaty of 2007 strengthens Bhutan's status as an independent and sovereign nation.Indian PM Narendra Modi meets with Bhutanese PM Tshering TobgayIndia continues to be the largest trade and development partner of Bhutan.", "Planned development efforts in Bhutan began in the early 1960s.", "The First Five Year Plan (FYP) of Bhutan was launched in 1961.Since then, India has been extending financial assistance to Bhutan's FYPs.", "The 10th FYP ended in June 2013.India's overall assistance to the 10th FYP was a little over Rs.", "5000 crores, excluding grants for hydropower projects.", "India has committed Rs.", "4500 crores for Bhutan's 11th FYP along with Rs.", "500 crores as an Economic Stimulus Package.The hydropower sector is one of the main pillars of bilateral cooperation, exemplifying mutually beneficial synergy by providing clean energy to India and exporting revenue to Bhutan (power contributes 14% to the Bhutanese GDP, comprising about 35% of Bhutan's total exports).", "Three hydroelectric projects (HEPs) totaling 1416 MW, (336 MW Chukha HEP, the 60 MW Kurichu HEP, and the 1020 MW Tala HEP), are already exporting electricity to India.", "In 2008 the two governments identified ten more projects for development with a total generation capacity of 10,000 MW.", "Of these, three projects totaling 2940 MW (1200 MW Punatsangchu-I, 1020 MW Punatsangchu-II and 720 MW Mangdechu HEPs) are under construction and are scheduled to be commissioned in the last quarter of 2017–2018.Out of the remaining 7 HEPs, 4 projects totaling 2120 MW (600 MW Kholongchhu, 180 MW Bunakha, 570 MW Wangchu and 770 MW Chamkarchu) will be constructed under a Joint Venture model, for which a Framework Inter-Governmental Agreement was signed between both governments in 2014.Of these 4 JV-model projects, pre-construction activities for Kholongchhu HEP have commenced.", "Tata Power is also building a hydroelectric dam in Bhutan.India had assisted Bhutan by deploying its troops in Doklam in 2017- a territory claimed and controlled by the Bhutanese government- to resist a Chinese army's control and construction of military structures.PM Narendra Modi meeting President of Maldives, Ibrahim Mohamed Solih, in Malé ;MaldivesIndia enjoys a considerable influence over Maldives' foreign policy and provides extensive security cooperation, especially after Operation Cactus in 1988 during which India repelled Tamil mercenaries who invaded the country.As a founder member in 1985 of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, SAARC, which brings together Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, the country plays a very active role in SAARC.", "The Maldives has taken the lead in calling for a South Asian Free Trade Agreement, the formulation of a Social Charter, the initiation of informal political consultations in SAARC forums, the lobbying for greater action on environmental issues, the proposal of numerous human rights measures such as the regional convention on child rights and for setting up a SAARC Human Rights Resource Centre.", "The Maldives is also an advocate of greater international profile for SAARC such as through formulating common positions at the UN.India is starting the process to bring the island country into India's security grid.", "The move comes after the moderate Islamic nation approached New Delhi earlier this year over fears that one of its island resorts could be taken over by terrorists given its lack of military assets and surveillance capabilities.India also signed an agreement with the Maldives in 2011 which is centred around the following:* India shall permanently base two helicopters in the country to enhance its surveillance capabilities and ability to respond swiftly to threats.", "One helicopter from the Coast Guard was handed over during A. K. Antony's visit while another from the Navy will be cleared for transfer shortly.", "* Maldives has coastal radars on only two of its 26 atolls.", "India will help set up radars on all 26 for seamless coverage of approaching vessels and aircraft.", "* The coastal radar chain in the Maldives will be networked with the Indian coastal radar system.", "India has already undertaken a project to install radars along its entire coastline.", "The radar chains of the two countries will be interlinked and a central control room in India's Coastal Command will get a seamless radar picture.", "* The Indian Coast Guard (ICG) will carry out regular Dornier sorties over the island nation to look out for suspicious movements or vessels.", "The Southern Naval Command will facilitate the inclusion of Maldives into the Indian security grid.", "* PM Narendra Modi, with Former Prime Minister of Nepal, KP Sharma Oli, in BIMSTEC Summit 2018 at Kathmandu.Military teams from Maldives will visit the tri-services Andaman & Nicobar Command (ANC) to observe how India manages security and surveillance of the critical island chain.", ";NepalRelations between India and Nepal are close yet fraught with difficulties stemming from border disputes, geography, economics, the problems inherent in big power-small power relations, and common ethnic and linguistic identities that overlap the two countries borders.", "In 1950 New Delhi and Kathmandu initiated their intertwined relationship with the Treaty of Peace and Friendship and accompanying secret letters that defined security relations between the two countries, and an agreement governing both bilateral trade and trade transiting Indian soil.", "The 1950 treaty and letters stated that \"neither government shall tolerate any threat to the security of the other by a foreign aggressor\" and obligated both sides \"to inform each other of any serious friction or misunderstanding with any neighboring state likely to cause any breach in the friendly relations subsisting between the two governments\", and also granted the Indian and Nepali citizens right to get involved in any economic activity such as work and business-related activity in each other's territory.", "These accords cemented a \"special relationship\" between India and Nepal that granted Nepalese in India the same economic and educational opportunities as Indian citizens.Local Nepalese and Army persons are being evacuated by the Indian Air Force (IAF) Mi-17 V5 helicopter at the directions of Nepalese authority as part of relief & rescue operations following the 2015 Kathmandu Earthquake.Relations between India and Nepal reached their lowest in 1989 when India imposed a 13-month-long economic blockade on Nepal.", "Indian PM Narendra Modi visited Nepal in 2014, the first by an Indian PM in nearly 17 years.In 2015, a blockade of the India-Nepal border affected relations.", "The blockade is led by ethnic communities angered by Nepal's recently promulgated new constitution.", "However, the Nepalese government accuses India of deliberately worsening the embargo, but India denies it.India aided Nepal during the 2015 Kathmandu earthquake with the financial aid of $1 billion and launched Operation Maitri.The relations were strained during mid-2020, when it was reported that a firing took place by the Nepalese police across the Indo-Nepalese border of Bihar on 12 July.", "Nepalese Prime Minister KP Sharma Oli commented about the pandemic of Coronavirus that the \"Indian virus was deadlier\" than the one which spread from Wuhan.", "As time progressed, certain claims were also made on the Indian territories, for example, Kalapani, Limpiyadhura and Lipulekh of Uttarakhand.", "Similarly, the claims were also made culturally, when it was said that Hindu God Ram was Nepalese, that he was born in Thori, west of Birgunj, and that Ayodhya in Uttar Pradesh was fake.", "Rules were made strict for Indians in Nepal along with banning some Indian media.Indian media stated that the actions of the Oli government were souring the relations, \"and these were being done on the direction of China and propelled by Chinese ambassador Hou Yanqi\".", "Speculations were made that since China could not handle India directly, in the aftermath of the LAC skirmish, it was lurking and trapping its neighboring countries and provoking them against India.", "In August, there were reports about the Chinese \"illegal occupations\" in Nepal's border states' areas.Jawahar Lal Nehru and Muhammed Ali Jinnah walking in the grounds of Government House, Simla, British India.", ";PakistanBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 15 August 1947.Despite historical, cultural and ethnic links between them, relations between India and Pakistan have been \"plagued\" by years of mistrust and suspicion ever since the partition of India in 1947.The principal source of contention between India and its western neighbour has been the Kashmir conflict.", "After an invasion by Pashtun tribesmen and Pakistani paramilitary forces, the Hindu Maharaja of the Dogra Kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir, Hari Singh, and its Muslim Prime Minister, Sheikh Abdullah, signed an Instrument of Accession with New Delhi.", "The First Kashmir War started after the Indian Army entered Srinagar, the capital of the state, to secure the area from the invading forces.", "The war ended in December 1948 with the Line of Control dividing the erstwhile princely state into territories administered by Pakistan (northern and western areas) and India (southern, central and northeastern areas).", "Pakistan contested the legality of the Instrument of Accession since the Dogra Kingdom has signed a standstill agreement with it.", "The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 started following the failure of Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar, which was designed to infiltrate forces into Jammu and Kashmir to precipitate an insurgency against rule by India.", "The five-week war caused thousands of casualties on both sides.", "It ended in a United Nations (UN) mandated ceasefire and the subsequent issuance of the Tashkent Declaration.", "India and Pakistan went to war again in 1971, this time the conflict being over East Pakistan.", "The large-scale atrocities committed there by the Pakistan army led to millions of Bengali refugees pouring over into India.", "India, along with the Mukti Bahini, defeated Pakistan and the Pakistani forces surrendered on the eastern front.", "The war resulted in the creation of Bangladesh.", "In 1998, India carried out the Pokhran-II nuclear tests which was followed by Pakistan's Chagai-I tests.", "Following the Lahore Declaration in February 1999, relations briefly improved.", "A few months later, however, Pakistani paramilitary forces and Pakistan Army, infiltrated in large numbers into the Kargil district of Indian Kashmir.", "This initiated the Kargil War after India moved in thousands of troops to successfully flush out the infiltrators.", "Although the conflict did not result in a full-scale war between India and Pakistan, relations between the two reached an all-time low which worsened even further following the involvement of Pakistan-based terrorists in the hijacking of the Indian Airlines Flight 814 in December 1999.Attempts to normalise relations, such as the Agra summit held in July 2001, failed.", "An attack on the Indian Parliament in December 2001, which was blamed on Pakistan, which had condemned the attack caused a military standoff between the two countries which lasted for nearly a year raising fears of nuclear warfare.", "However, a peace process, initiated in 2003, led to improved relations in the following years.PM Narendra Modi meeting Former Prime Minister of Pakistan, Nawaz Sharif, at Raiwind, Pakistan Since the initiation of the peace process, several confidence-building measures (CBMs) between India and Pakistan have taken shape.", "The Samjhauta Express and Delhi–Lahore Bus service are two of these successful measures which have played a crucial role in expanding people-to-people contact between the two countries.", "The initiation of the Srinagar–Muzaffarabad Bus service in 2005 and the opening of a historic trade route across the Line of Control in 2008 further reflects increasing eagerness between the two sides to improve relations.", "Although bilateral trade between India and Pakistan was a modest US$1.7 billion in March 2007, it is expected to cross US$10 billion by 2010.After the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, India sent aid to affected areas in Pakistani Kashmir and Punjab as well as Indian Kashmir.The 2008 Mumbai attacks seriously undermined the relations between the two countries.", "India alleged Pakistan harbouring militants on their soil, while Pakistan vehemently denied such claims.A new chapter started in India-Pakistan relations when a new NDA government took charge in Delhi after victory in the 2014 election and invited SAARC members' leaders to an oath-taking ceremony.", "Subsequently, the visit of the Indian prime minister on 25 December informally wished Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif on his Birthday and participate in his daughter's wedding.", "It was hoped that the relationship between the neighbour will improve but an attack on an Indian army camp by Pakistani infiltrators on 18 September 2016 and a subsequent surgical strike by India aggravated the already strained relationship between the nations.India-Pakistan International Border near Wagah.", "Taken from the Pakistani side.A SAARC summit scheduled in Islamabad was called off because of a boycott by India and other SAARC members subsequently.The relationship took a further nosedive after another attack on CRPF in February 2019 by a terrorist associated with the Pakistan-based terror organisation, Jaish-e-Mohammed, when the terrorist rammed his vehicle packed with explosives against a bus carrying CRPF soldiers in Pulwama, Kashmir, killing 40.India blamed Pakistan which was denied by the Pakistani establishment.", "India retaliated with an airstrike on Balakot, a region claimed and controlled by Pakistan.A new chapter in peace was ignited when it was suddenly declared that a back-door peace settlement over ceasing the cross-border firing across LOC was signed between the armies of both sides, and a steady growth in the countries coming together was observed.", ";Sri LankaBilateral relations between Sri Lanka and India have enjoyed historically a good relationship.", "The two countries share near-identical racial and cultural ties.", "According to traditional Sri Lankan chronicles (Dipavamsa), Buddhism was introduced into Sri Lanka in the 4th century BCE by Venerable Mahinda, the son of Indian Emperor Ashoka, during the reign of Sri Lanka's King Devanampiya Tissa.", "During this time, a sapling of the Bodhi Tree was brought to Sri Lanka and the first monasteries and Buddhist monuments were established.Prime Minister's Residence, New Delhi with PM Narendra Modi Nevertheless, relations post-independence were affected by the Sri Lankan Civil War and by the failure of Indian intervention during the civil war as well as India's support for Tamil Tiger militants.", "India is Sri Lanka's only neighbour, separated by the Palk Strait; both nations occupy a strategic position in South Asia and have sought to build a common security umbrella in the Indian Ocean.India-Sri Lanka relations have undergone a qualitative and quantitative transformation in the recent past.", "Political relations are close, trade and investments have increased dramatically, infrastructural linkages are constantly being augmented, defence collaboration has increased and there is a general, broad-based improvement across all sectors of bilateral cooperation.", "India was the first country to respond to Sri Lanka's request for assistance after the tsunami in December 2004.In July 2006, India evacuated 430 Sri Lankan nationals from Lebanon, first to Cyprus by Indian Navy ships and then to Delhi and Colombo by special Air India flights.There exists a broad consensus within the Sri Lankan polity on the primacy of India in Sri Lanka's external relations matrix.", "Both the major political parties in Sri Lanka, the Sri Lanka Freedom Party and the United Nationalist Party have contributed to the rapid development of bilateral relations in the last ten years.", "Sri Lanka has supported India's candidature to the permanent membership of the UN Security Council.left;SAARCCertain aspects of India's relations within the subcontinent are conducted through the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).", "Its members other than India are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.", "Established in 1985, SAARC encourages cooperation in agriculture, rural development, science and technology, culture, health, population control, narcotics control and anti-terrorism.SAARC has intentionally stressed these \"core issues\" and avoided more divisive political issues, although the political dialogue is often conducted on the margins of SAARC meetings.", "In 1993, India and its SAARC partners signed an agreement to gradually lower tariffs within the region.", "Forward movement in SAARC has come to a standstill because of the tension between India and Pakistan, and the SAARC Summit originally scheduled for, but not held in, November 1999 has not been rescheduled.", "The Fourteenth SAARC Summit was held during 3–4 April 2007 in New Delhi.", "The 19th SAARC summit that was scheduled to be held in Islamabad was cancelled due to terrorist acts, particularly the Uri attack.Members of BIMSTEC.", ";BIMSTECBay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation is now an \"organization of member states\" that are littorals of the Bay of Bengal or adjacent to it.", "The BIMSTEC member states – Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand – are among the major South and Southeast Asia countries dependent on the Bay of Bengal.", "India and some other countries, frustrated by the obstacles in SAARC's efforts to promote regional cooperation, have been working to make BIMSTEC the premier vehicle in this regard.====Southeast====;BruneiBrunei has a high commission in New Delhi, and India has a high commission in Bandar Seri Begawan.", "Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.", ";CambodiaBoth nations have been in friendly relations.Jawaharlal Nehru and his daughter Indira Gandhi with Sukarno, Megawati Sukarnoputri and Guruh Sukarnoputra, Indonesia, 1950.\|240x240px\|left;IndonesiaThe ties between Indonesia and India date back to the times of the Ramayana, \"Yawadvipa\" (Java) is mentioned in India's earliest epic, the Ramayana.", "Sugriva, the chief of Rama's army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa, the island of Java, in search of Sita.", "Indonesians had absorbed many aspects of Indian culture since almost two millennia ago.", "The most obvious trace is the large adoption of Sanskrit into the Indonesian language.", "Several Indonesian toponymy has Indian parallel or origin, such as Madura with Mathura, Serayu and Sarayu rivers, Kalingga from Kalinga Kingdom, and Ngayogyakarta from Ayodhya.", "Indianised Hindu–Buddhist kingdoms, such as Kalingga, Srivijaya, Mataram, Sunda, Kadiri, Singhasari and Majapahit were the predominant governments in Indonesia, and lasted from 200 to the 1500s, with the last remaining being in Bali.", "An example of profound Hindu-Buddhist influences in Indonesian history is the 9th-century Prambanan and Borobudur temples.PM Narendra Modi meets Indonesian President Joko Widodo, in Jakarta In 1950, the first President of Indonesia – Sukarno called upon the peoples of Indonesia and India to \"intensify the cordial relations\" that had existed between the two countries \"for more than 1000 years\" before they had been \"disrupted\" by colonial powers.", "In the spring of 1966, the foreign ministers of both countries began speaking again of an era of friendly relations.", "India had supported Indonesian independence and Nehru had raised the Indonesian question in the United Nations Security Council.India has an embassy in Jakarta and Indonesia operates an embassy in Delhi.", "India regards Indonesia as a key member of ASEAN.", "Today, both countries maintain cooperative and friendly relations.", "India and Indonesia are one of the few (and also one of the largest) democracies in the Asian region which can be projected as a real democracy.", "Both nations had agreed to establish a strategic partnership.", "As fellow Asian democracies that share common values, it is natural for both countries to nurture and foster strategic alliances.", "Indonesia and India are member states of the G-20, the E7, the Non-Aligned Movement, and the United Nations.", ";LaosIn recent years, India has endeavoured to build relations, with this small Southeast Asian nation.", "They have strong military relations, and India shall be building an Airforce Academy in Laos.Stamp of India - IOCOM Submarine Telephone Cable;MalaysiaIndia has a high commission in Kuala Lumpur, and Malaysia has a high commission in New Delhi.", "Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations and the Asian Union.", "India and Malaysia are also connected by various cultural and historical ties that date back to antiquity.", "The two countries are on friendly terms with each other and Malaysia harbours a small population of Indian immigrants.", "Mahathir bin Mohamad the fourth and longest-serving Prime Minister of Malaysia is of Indian origin.", "His father Mohamad Iskandar, is a Malayalee Muslim who migrated from Kerala and his mother Wan Tampawan, is a Malay.Relations escalated when the Malaysian PM Mahathir Mohamad questioned the action of revocating the special status of Jammu and Kashmir and on CAA-NRC protests.", "The relations continue to be diminished, also during the palm oil export from Malaysia to India.Even with the new government in power, currently, there seems no recovery, as former Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad still favored Pakistan.", ";The Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi calling on the President of Myanmar, Mr. U. Thein Sein, at Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar on November 11, 2014MyanmarIndia established diplomatic relations after Burma's independence from Great Britain in 1948.For many years, Indo-Burmese relations were strong due to cultural links, flourishing commerce, common interests in regional affairs and the presence of a significant Indian community in Burma.", "India provided considerable support when Myanmar struggled with regional insurgencies.", "However, the overthrow of the democratic government by the Military of Burma led to strains in ties.", "Along with much of the world, India condemned the suppression of democracy and Myanmar ordered the expulsion of the Burmese Indian community, increasing its isolation from the world.", "Only China maintained close links with Myanmar while India supported the pro-democracy movement.Ms.", "Aung San Suu Kyi at the Joint Press Statement, at Hyderabad House, in New Delhi on 19 October 2016.However, due to geopolitical concerns, India revived its relations and recognised the military junta ruling Myanmar in 1993, overcoming strains over drug trafficking, the suppression of democracy and the rule of the military junta in Myanmar.", "Myanmar is situated to the south of the states of Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh in Northeast India.", "and the proximity of the People's Republic of China gives strategic importance to Indo-Burmese relations.", "The Indo-Burmese border stretches over 1,600 kilometers and some insurgents in North-east India seek refuge in Myanmar.", "Consequently, India has been keen on increasing military cooperation with Myanmar in its counter-insurgency activities.", "In 2001, the Indian Army completed the construction of a major road along its border with Myanmar.", "India has also been building major roads, highways, ports and pipelines within Myanmar in an attempt to increase its strategic influence in the region and also to counter China's growing strides in the Indochina peninsula.", "Indian companies have also sought active participation in oil and natural gas exploration in Myanmar.", "In February 2007, India announced a plan to develop the Sittwe port, which would enable ocean access from Indian Northeastern states like Mizoram, via the Kaladan River.India is a major customer of Burmese oil and gas.", "In 2007, Indian exports to Myanmar totaled US$185 million, while its imports from Myanmar were valued at around US$810 million, consisting mostly of oil and gas.", "India has granted US$100 million credit to fund highway infrastructure projects in Myanmar, while US$57 million has been offered to upgrade Burmese railways.", "A further US$27 million in grants has been pledged for road and rail projects.", "India is one of the few countries that has provided military assistance to the Burmese junta.", "However, there has been increasing pressure on India to cut some of its military supplies to Burma.", "Relations between the two remain close which was evident in the aftermath of Cyclone Nargis, when India was one of the few countries whose relief and rescue aid proposals were accepted by Myanmar's junta.India maintains embassies in Rangoon and consulate generals in Mandalay.left;PhilippinesThrough the Srivijaya and Majapahit empires, Hindu influence has been visible in Philippine history from the 10th to 14th centuries.", "During the 18th century, there was robust trade between Manila with the Coromandel Coast and Bengal, involving Philippine exports of tobacco, silk, cotton, indigo, sugar cane and coffee.Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Philippines President Rodrigo Roa Duterte meeting in Manila, 2017Formal diplomatic relations between the Philippines and India were established on 16 November 1949.The first Philippine envoy to India was the late Foreign Secretary Narciso Ramos.", "Seven years after India's independence in 1947, the Philippines and India signed a Treaty of Friendship on 11 July 1952 in Manila to strengthen the friendly relations existing between the two countries.", "Soon after, the Philippine Legation in New Delhi was established and then elevated to an embassy.", "However, due to foreign policy differences as a result of the bipolar alliance structure of the Cold War, the development of bilateral relations was stunted.", "It was only in 1976 that relations started to normalise when Aditya Birla, one of India's successful industrialists, met with then-President Ferdinand E. Marcos to explore possibilities of setting up joint ventures in the Philippines.Today, like India, the Philippines is the leading voice-operated business process outsourcing (BPO) source in terms of revenue (US$5.7) and number of people (500,000) employed in the sector.", "In partnership with the Philippines, India has 20 IT/BPO companies in the Philippines.", "Philippines-India bilateral trade stood at US$986.60 million in 2009.In 2004 it was US$600 million.", "Both countries aim to reach US$1 billion by 2010.60,000 Indians are living in the Philippines.", "The Philippines and India signed in October 2007 the Framework for Bilateral Cooperation which created the PH-India JCBC.", "It has working groups in trade, agriculture, tourism, health, and renewable energy, a regular policy consultation mechanism and security dialogue.Singapore Navy frigate RSS ''Formidable'' (68) steams alongside the Indian Navy frigate INS ''Brahmaputra'' (F-31) in the Bay of Bengal.", "Singapore is one of India's strongest allies in South East Asia.", ";SingaporeIndia and Singapore share long-standing cultural, commercial and strategic relations, with Singapore being a part of the \"Greater India\" cultural and commercial region.", "More than 300,000 people of Indian Tamil \"தமிழ்\" origin live in Singapore.", "Following its independence in 1965, Singapore was concerned with China-backed communist threats as well as domination from Malaysia and Indonesia and sought a close strategic relationship with India, which it saw as a counterbalance to Chinese influence and a partner in achieving regional security.", "Singapore had always been an important strategic trading post, giving India trade access to Maritime Southeast Asia and the Far East.", "Although the rival positions of both nations over the Vietnam War and the Cold War caused consternation between India and Singapore, their relationship expanded significantly in the 1990s; Singapore was one of the first to respond to the Indian Look East policy of expanding its economic, cultural and strategic ties in Southeast Asia to strengthen its standing as a regional power.", "Singapore, and especially, the Singaporean Foreign Minister, George Yeo, have taken an interest, in re-establishing the ancient Indian university, Nalanda University.Singapore is the 8th largest source of investment in India and the largest among ASEAN member nations.", "It is also India's 9th biggest trading partner as of 2005–06.Its cumulative investment in India totals US$3 billion as of 2006 and is expected to rise to US$5 billion by 2010 and US$10 billion by 2015.India's economic liberalisation and its \"Look East\" policy have led to a major expansion in bilateral trade, which grew from US$2.2 billion in 2001 to US$9–10 billion in 2006 – a 400% growth in five years – and to US$50 billion by 2010.Singapore accounts for 38% of India's trade with ASEAN member nations and 3.4% of its total foreign trade.", "India's main exports to Singapore in 2005 included petroleum, gemstones, jewellery, and machinery and its imports from Singapore included electronic goods, organic chemicals and metals.", "More than half of Singapore's exports to India are basically \"re-exports\" – items that had been imported from India.", ";Thailand The mural of the Temple of the Emerald Buddha depicting Ninlaphat (Nila in Ramayana) a monkey soldier, serves as a bridge during an event in Ramakien (\"Glory of Rama\"), a Thai version of the Hindu epic Ramayana.India's Indian Look East policy, saw India grow relations with ASEAN countries including Thailand, and Thailand's Look West policy, also saw it grow its relations with India.", "Both countries are members of BIMSTEC.", "Indian Prime Ministers Rajiv Gandhi, P.V.", "Narasimha Rao, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, and Manmohan Singh, have visited Thailand, which was reciprocated by contemporary Thai Prime Ministers Chatichai Choonhavan, Thaksin Sinawatra, and Surayud Chulanont.", "In 2003, a Free Trade Agreement was signed between the two countries.", "India is the 13th largest investor in Thailand.", "The spheres of trade are in chemicals, pharmaceuticals, textiles, nylon, tyre cord, real estate, rayon fibres, paper-grade pulps, steel wires, and rods.", "However, IT services, and manufacturing, are the main spheres.", "Through Buddhism, India has culturally influenced Thailand.", "The Indian epics, Mahabharata, and Ramayana, are popular and are widely taught in schools as part of the curriculum in Thailand.", "The example can also be seen in temples around Thailand, where the story of Ramayana and renowned Indian folk stories are depicted on the temple wall.", "Thailand has become a big tourist destination for Indians.Moreover, India and Thailand have been culturally linked for centuries and India has had a deep influence on Thai culture.", "There are a substantial number of words in Thai that are borrowed from Sanskrit, India's classical language.", "Pali, which was the language of Magadha and is a medium of Theravada, is another important root of Thai vocabulary.", "Buddhism, the major religion of Thailand, itself originates from India.", "The Hindu story of Ramayana is also well known throughout Thailand in the name Ramakien.", ";Timor-LesteBoth nations have friendly and collateral relations.Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru (left) and Vietnamese President Ho Chi Minh in Hanoi;VietnamIndia supported Vietnam's independence from France, opposed US involvement in the Vietnam War and supported the unification of Vietnam.", "India established official diplomatic relations in 1972 and maintained friendly relations, especially in the wake of Vietnam's hostile relations with the People's Republic of China, which had become India's strategic rival.India granted the \"Most favoured nation\" status to Vietnam in 1975 and both nations signed a bilateral trade agreement in 1978 and the Bilateral Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement (BIPPA) on 8 March 1997.In 2007, a fresh joint declaration was issued during the state visit of the Prime Minister of Vietnam Nguyen Tan Dung.", "Bilateral trade has increased rapidly since the liberalisation of the economies of both Vietnam and India.", "India is the 13th-largest exporter to Vietnam, with exports having grown steadily from US$11.5 million in 1985–86 to US$395.68 million by 2003.Vietnam's exports to India rose to US$180 million, including agricultural products, handicrafts, textiles, electronics and other goods.", "Between 2001 and 2006, the volume of bilateral trade expanded at 20–30% per annum to reach $1 billion by 2006.Continuing the rapid pace of growth, bilateral trade is expected to rise to $2 billion by 2008, two years ahead of the official target.", "India and Vietnam have also expanded cooperation in information technology, education and collaboration of the respective national space programmes.", "Direct air links and lax visa regulations have been established to bolster tourism.Bilateral signing ceremony in 2011India and Vietnam are members of the Mekong–Ganga Cooperation, created to develop to enhance close ties between India and nations of Southeast Asia.", "Vietnam has supported India's bid to become a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and join the Indo-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC).", "In the 2003 joint declaration, India and Vietnam envisaged creating an \"Arc of Advantage and Prosperity\" in Southeast Asia; to this end, Vietnam has backed a more important relationship and role between India and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and its negotiation of an Indo–ASEAN free trade agreement.", "India and Vietnam have also built strategic partnerships, including extensive cooperation in developing nuclear power, enhancing regional security and fighting terrorism, transnational crime and drug trafficking.", ";ASEANIndia's interaction with ASEAN during the Cold War was very limited.", "India declined to get associated with ASEAN in the 1960s when full membership was offered even before the grouping was formed.It is only with the formulation of the Look East policy in the last decade (1992), India started giving this region due importance in the foreign policy.", "India became a sectoral dialogue partner with ASEAN in 1992, a full dialogue partner in 1995, a member of the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in 1996, and a summit-level partner (on par with China, Japan and Korea) in 2002.The first India–ASEAN Business Summit was held in New Delhi in October 2002.The then Prime Minister A.", "B. Vajpayee addressed this meeting and since then this business summit has become an annual feature before the India–ASEAN Summits, as a forum for networking and exchange of business experiences between policymakers and business leaders from ASEAN and India.Four India-ASEAN Summits, first in 2002 at Phnom Penh (Cambodia), second in 2003 at Bali, Indonesia, third in 2004 at Vientiane, Laos, and the fourth in 2005 at Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, have taken place.Stamp of India - ASEAN India Summit Delhi 2018 - Shared Heritage of Ramayana.The following agreements have been entered into with ASEAN:* Framework Agreement on Comprehensive Economic Cooperation (for establishing an FTA in a time frame of 10 years) was concluded in Bali in 2003.", "* An ASEAN-India Joint Declaration for Cooperation to Combat International Terrorism has been adopted.", "* India acceded to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation (TAC) in 2003, on which ASEAN was formed initially (in 1967).", "* The agreement on \"India-ASEAN Partnership for Peace, Progress and Shared Prosperity\" was signed at the 3rd ASEAN-India Summit in November 2004.", "* Setting up of Entrepreneurship Development Centres in ASEAN member states – Cambodia, Burma, Laos, and Vietnam.", "(The one in Laos is already functional)The following proposals were announced by the Prime Minister at the 4th ASEAN-India Summit:* Setting up centres for English Language Training (ELT) in Cambodia, Laos, Burma and Vietnam.", "* Setting up a telemedicine and tele-education network for Cambodia, Burma, Laos and Vietnam.", "* Organising special training courses for diplomats from ASEAN countries.", "* Organising an India-ASEAN Technology Summit in 2006.", "* Organising education fairs and road shows in ASEAN countries.", "* Conducting an India-ASEAN IT Ministerial and Industry Forum in 2006.The ASEAN region has an abundance of natural resources and significant technological skills.", "These provide a natural base for the integration between ASEAN and India in both trade and investment.", "The present level of bilateral trade with ASEAN of nearly US$18 billion is reportedly increasing by about 25% per year.", "India hopes to reach the level of US$30 billion by 2007.India is also improving its relations with the help of other policy decisions like offers of lines of credit, better connectivity through the air (open skies policy), and rail and road links.===West===;ArmeniaIndia established diplomatic relations with Armenia in December 1992.It wasn't recognised by some countries including Pakistan, which most of the nations did.", "As of the earliest days of the silk route, there have been strong cultural, moral and ancient other traditional relations among the nations.", "It fully supports India's bid for a permanent seat in UNSC and even completely supports India on Kashmir conflicts.", "There exists a small community of Armenians in India while there is also a small community of Indians.", ";AzerbaijanIndia has an embassy in Baku and Azerbaijan has an embassy in New Delhi.", "Both have been connected through ancient cultural links and trade routes (especially the Silk Route).", ";BahrainPrime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi meeting the Foreign Minister of Bahrain, Shaikh Khalid Bin Mohamed Al Khalifa, in New Delhi on February 23, 2015India is a close ally of Bahrain, the Kingdom along with its GCC partners are (according to Indian officials) among the most prominent backers of India's bid for a permanent seat on the UN Security Council, and Bahraini officials have urged India to play a greater role in international affairs.", "For instance, over concerns about Iran's nuclear programme Bahrain's Crown Prince appealed to India to play an active role in resolving the crisis.Ties between India and Bahrain go back generations, with many of Bahrain's most prominent figures having close connections: poet and constitutionalist Ebrahim Al-Arrayedh grew up in Bombay, while 17th-century Bahraini theologians Sheikh Salih Al-Karzakani and Sheikh Ja'far bin Kamal al-Din were influential figures in the Kingdom of Golkonda and the development of Shia thought in the sub-continent.Bahraini politicians have sought to enhance these long-standing ties, with Parliamentary Speaker Khalifa Al Dhahrani in 2007 leading a delegation of parliamentarians and business leaders to meet the then Indian President Pratibha Patil, the then opposition leader L K Advani, and take part in training and media interviews.", "Politically, it is easier for Bahrain's politicians to seek training and advice from India than it is from the United States or other Western alternatives.Adding further strength to the ties, Sheikh Hamad Bin Isa Al-Khalifa visited India during which MOUs and bilateral deals worth $450 million were approved.", "India expressed its support for Bahrain's bid for a non-permanent seat in the UNSC in 2026–27.", ";CyprusPresident of the Republic of Cyprus, Mr. Nicos Anastasiades, at Hyderabad House, in New Delhi on April 28, 2017 * Cyprus has a High Commission in New Delhi and 2 honorary consulates (in Mumbai and Kolkata).", "* India has a High Commission in Nicosia.", "* Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.", "* Cypriot Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with IndiaIndia supported Cyprus during its struggle for independence from British colonial rule.", "India supported the Greeks in Cyprus during the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974 and lobbied for the international recognition of the Government of Nicosia as the sole legal representative of the entire nation.", "India has consistently supported and voted for a peaceful resolution of the Cyprus dispute at the United Nations.", ";Georgia* Georgia has an embassy in New Delhi.", "* India is represented in Georgia through its embassy in Yerevan (Armenia) and an honorary consulate in Tbilisi.", "* Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with IndiaRabindranath Tagore as a guest of Iran's parliament in the 1930s.\|left;IranIndependent India and Iran established diplomatic links on 15 March 1950.After the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Iran withdrew from CENTO and dissociated itself from US-friendly countries, including Pakistan, which automatically meant an improved relationship with the Republic of India.Currently, the two countries have friendly relations in many areas.", "There are significant trade ties, particularly in crude oil imports into India and diesel exports to Iran.", "Iran frequently objected to Pakistan's attempts to draft anti-India resolutions at international organisations such as the OIC.", "India welcomed Iran's inclusion as an observer state in the SAARC regional organisation.", "Lucknow continues to be a major centre of Shiite culture and Persian study in the subcontinent.In the 1990s, India and Iran both supported the Northern Alliance in Afghanistan against the Taliban regime.", "They continue to collaborate in supporting the broad-based anti-Taliban government led by Hamid Karzai and backed by the United States.PM Narendra Modi with Former President of Iran, Hassan Rouhani, in Tehran.", "However, one complex issue in Indo-Iran relations is the issue of Iran's nuclear programme.", "In this intricate issue, India tries to make a delicate balance.", "According to Rejaul Laskar, an Indian expert on international relations, \"India's position on Iran's nuclear programme has been consistent, principled and balanced, and makes an endeavour to reconcile Iran's quest for energy security with the international community's concerns on proliferation.", "So, while India acknowledges and supports Iran's ambitions to achieve energy security and in particular, its quest for peaceful use of nuclear energy, it is also India's principled position that Iran must meet all its obligations under international law, particularly its obligations under the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and other such treaties to which it is a signatory\"Following an attack on an Israeli diplomat in India in February 2012, the Delhi Police contended that the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps had some involvement in the attack.", "This was subsequently confirmed in July 2012, after a report by the Delhi Police found evidence that members of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps had been involved in the 13 February bomb attack in the capital.", ";IraqGandhi statue in Erbil, Iraqi KurdistanIraq was one of the few countries in the Middle East with which India established diplomatic relations at the embassy level immediately after its independence in 1947.Both nations signed the \"Treaty of Perpetual Peace and Friendship\" in 1952 and an agreement of cooperation on cultural affairs in 1954.India was amongst the first to recognise the Ba'ath Party-led government, and Iraq remained neutral during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965.However, Iraq sided alongside other Persian Gulf states in supporting Pakistan against India during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, which saw the creation of Bangladesh.", "The eight-year-long Iran–Iraq War caused a steep decline in trade and commerce between the two nations.During the 1991 Persian Gulf War, India remained neutral but permitted refuelling for US aircraft.", "It opposed UN sanctions on Iraq, but the period of war and Iraq's isolation further diminished India's commercial and diplomatic ties.", "From 1999 onwards, Iraq and India began to work towards a stronger relationship.", "Iraq had supported India's right to conduct nuclear tests following its tests of five nuclear weapons on 11 and 13 May 1998.In 2000, the then-Vice-President of Iraq Taha Yassin Ramadan visited India, and on 6 August 2002 President Saddam Hussein conveyed Iraq's \"unwavering support\" to India over the Kashmir conflict with Pakistan.", "India and Iraq established joint ministerial committees and trade delegations to promote extensive bilateral cooperation.", "Although initially disrupted during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, diplomatic and commercial ties between India and the new democratic government of Iraq have since been normalised.", ";leftIsraelThe establishment of Israel at the end of World War II was a complex issue.", "Based on its own experience during partition, when 14 million people were displaced and an estimated 200,000 to 500,000 people were killed in Punjab Province, India had recommended a single state, as did Iran and Yugoslavia (later to undergo its genocidal partition).", "The state could allocate Arab- and Jewish-majority provinces to prevent the partition of historic Palestine and prevent widespread conflict.", "But, the final UN resolution recommended the partition of Mandatory Palestine into Arab and Jewish states based on religious and ethnic majorities.", "India opposed this in the final vote as it did not agree with the concept of partition based on religion.PM Narendra Modi, with Former Prime Minister of Israel, Benjamin Netanyahu, during a press meet, in Jerusalem, Due to the security threat from a US-backed Pakistan and its nuclear programme in the 1980s, Israel and India started a clandestine relationship that involved cooperation between their respective intelligence agencies.", "Israel shared India's concerns about the growing danger posed by Pakistan and nuclear proliferation to Iran and other Arab states.Since the establishment of full diplomatic relations with Israel in 1992, India has improved its relationship with the Jewish state.", "India is regarded as Israel's strongest ally in Asia, and Israel is India's second-largest arms supplier.", "Since India achieved its independence in 1947, it has supported Palestinian self-determination.", "India recognised Palestine's statehood following Palestine's declaration on 18 November 1988 and Indo-Palestinian relations was first established in 1974.This has not adversely affected India's improved relations with Israel.India entertained the Israeli Prime Minister in a visit in 2003, and Israel has entertained Indian dignitaries such as Finance Minister Jaswant Singh in diplomatic visits.", "India and Israel collaborate in scientific and technological endeavours.", "Israel's Minister for Science and Technology has expressed interest in collaborating with the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) towards using satellites to better manage land and other resources.", "Israel has also expressed interest in participating in ISRO's Chandrayaan Mission involving an uncrewed mission to the moon.", "On 21 January 2008, India successfully launched an Israeli spy satellite into orbit from the Sriharikota space station in southern India.", "Narendra Modi's warm visit to Israel, hugging Former President Reuven Rivlin in 2017Israel and India share intelligence on terrorist groups.", "They have developed close defence and security ties since establishing diplomatic relations in 1992.India has bought more than $5 billion worth of Israeli equipment since 2002.In addition, Israel is training Indian military units and in 2008 was discussing an arrangement to give Indian commandos instruction in counter-terrorist tactics and urban warfare.", "In December 2008, Israel and India signed a memorandum to set up an Indo-Israel Legal Colloquium to facilitate discussions and exchange programmes between judges and jurists of the two countries.Following the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 2006, India stated that the Israeli use of force was \"disproportionate and excessive\".The India-Israel relationship has been very close and warm under the premiership of Narendra Modi since 2014.In 2017, he was the first ever Prime Minister of India to visit Israel.", ";LebanonIndia and Lebanon enjoy cordial and friendly relations based on many complementarities such as a political system based on parliamentary democracy, non-alignment, human rights, commitment to a just world order, regional and global peace, a liberal market economy and a vibrant entrepreneurial spirit.", "India has a peacekeeping force as part of the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL).", "One infantry battalion is deployed in Lebanon and about 900 personnel are stationed in the Eastern part of Southern Lebanon.", "The force also provided non-patrol aid to citizens.India and Lebanon have had very good relations since the 1950s.", ";OmanPrime Minister Narendra Modi meeting with Sultan Qaboos bin Said Al Said at Bait Al Baraka, Muscat in 2018.India–Oman relations are foreign relations between India and the Sultanate of Oman.", "India has an embassy in Muscat, Oman.", "The Indian consulate was opened in Muscat in February 1955 and five years later it was upgraded to a consulate general and later developed into a full-fledged embassy in 1971.The first Ambassador of India arrived in Muscat in 1973.Oman established its embassy in New Delhi in 1972 and a consulate general in Mumbai in 1976.$5.6 bn Oman-India energy pipeline plans progressing: Fox Petroleum Group envisions a roughly five-year timeframe for the execution of the pipeline project.Ajay Kumar, the chairman and managing director of Fox Petroleum, based in New Delhi, which is an associate company of Fox Petroleum FZC in the UAE, said that Mr. Modi had \"fired the best weapon of economic development and growth\".", "\"He has given a red carpet for global players to invest in India,\" Mr. Kumar added.", "\"It will boost all sectors of the industry – especially for small-scale manufacturing units and heavy industries too.", "\";Saudi ArabiaBilateral relations between India and Saudi Arabia have strengthened considerably owing to cooperation in regional affairs and trade.", "Saudi Arabia is the one of largest suppliers of oil to India, which is one of the top seven trading partners and the 5th biggest investor in Saudi Arabia.India was one of the first nations to establish ties with the Third Saudi State.", "During the 1930s, India heavily funded Nejd through financial subsidies.King Salman bin Abdul Aziz Al Saud of Saudi ArabiaIndia's strategic relations with Saudi Arabia have been affected by the latter's close ties with Pakistan.", "Saudi Arabia supported Pakistan's stance on the Kashmir conflict during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 at the expense of its relations with India.", "The Soviet Union's close relations with India also served as a source of consternation.", "During the Persian Gulf War (1990–91), India officially maintained neutrality.", "Saudi Arabia's close military and strategic ties with Pakistan have also been a source of continuing strain.Since the 1990s, both nations have taken steps to improve ties.", "Saudi Arabia has supported granting observer status to India in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and has expanded its cooperation with India to fight terrorism.", "In January 2006, King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia made a special visit to India, becoming the first Saudi monarch in 51 years to do so.", "The Saudi king and former Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh signed an agreement forging a strategic energy partnership that was termed the \"Delhi Declaration\".", "The pact provides for a \"reliable, stable and increased volume of crude oil supplies to India through long-term contracts.\"", "Both nations also agreed on joint ventures and the development of oil and natural gas in public and private sectors.", "An Indo-Saudi joint declaration in the Indian capital New Delhi described the king's visit as \"heralding a new era in India-Saudi Arabia relations\".", ";SyriaSyrian Christian Women in Kerala (1912)Bilateral relations between India and Syria are historic and the two have ancient civilizational ties.", "Both countries were on the Silk Road through which civilizational exchanges took place for centuries.", "Syriac Christianity, originating in ancient Syria, spread further to the East and created the first Christian communities in ancient India.", "The ancient Syriac language among the Syrian Christians of Kerala was also brought to Kerala by St Thomas in the 1st century CE.", "Even today the language continues to be taught in colleges and universities in Kerala.A common nationalism and secular orientation, membership of NAM and similar perceptions on many issues further strengthened the bond between the two states.", "India supported \"Syria's legitimate right to regain the occupied Golan Heights\".", "In turn, this was reciprocated with Syrian recognition that Kashmir is a bilateral issue as well as general support of India's concerns and even candidature at various international forums.", ";TurkeyDue to controversial issues such as Turkey's close relationship with Pakistan, relations between the two countries have often been blistered at certain times, but better at others.", "India and Turkey's relationship alters from unsureness to collaboration when the two nations work together to combat terrorism in Central and South Asia, and the Middle East.", "India and Turkey are also connected by history, seeing as they have known each other since the days of the Ottoman Empire, and seeing as India was one of the countries to send aid to Turkey following its war of independence.", "The Indian real estate firm GMR has invested in and is working towards the modernisation of Istanbul's Sabiha Gökçen International Airport.The relations took a nose-dive after Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan spoke against India on the Kashmir issue and supported Pakistan, during his address at United Nations General Assembly after Pakistan PM Imran Khan, in September 2019.In February 2020, he visited Islamabad and held talks with Imran Khan, on \"improving and bolding the relations with Islamabad\".", "At the end of the month, during the riots in Delhi and CAA-NRC protests in India, he criticized the government for its policies.", "He also criticized the move of the Indian Government on the Galwan Valley skirmishes with China on LAC.", ";United Arab EmiratesShri Pranab Mukherjee and the Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi with the Chief Guest of the Republic Day, The Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi, Deputy Supreme Commander of U.A.E.", "Armed Forces, General Sheikh Mohammed Bin Zayed Al Nahyan, at Rajpath, on the occasion of the 68th Republic Day Parade 2017, in New Delhi.India–United Arab Emirates relations refer to the bilateral relations that exist between the Republic of India and the United Arab Emirates.", "After the creation of the Federation in 1971, India-UAE relations flourished.", "Today UAE and India share political, economic and cultural links.", "There are over a million Indians in the United Arab Emirates, being by far the largest migrant group in the country.1 A large Indian expatriate community resides and engages in the UAE in economically productive activities and has played a significant role in the evolution of the UAE.", "In 2008–09, India emerged as the largest trade partner of the UAE with bilateral trade between the two countries exceeding US$44.5 billion.", "9 UAE and India are each other's main trading partners.", "The trade totals over $75 billion (AED275.25 billion).", ";Arab states of the Persian GulfIndia and the Arab states of the Persian Gulf enjoy strong cultural and economic ties.", "This is reflected in the fact that more than 50% of the oil consumed by India comes from the Persian Gulf countries and Indian nationals form the largest expatriate community in the Arabian peninsula.", "The annual remittance by Indian expatriates in the region amounted to US$20 billion in 2007.India is one of the largest trading partners of the CCASG with non-oil trade between India and Dubai alone amounting to US$19 billion in 2007.The Persian Gulf countries have also played an important role in addressing India's energy security concerns, with Saudi Arabia and Kuwait regularly increasing their oil supply to India to meet the country's rising energy demand.", "In 2005, Kuwait increased its oil exports to India by 10% increasing the net oil trade between the two to US$4.5 billion.", "In 2008, Qatar decided to invest US$5 billion in India's energy sector.India has maritime security arrangements in place with Oman and Qatar.", "In 2008, a landmark defence pact was signed, under which India committed its military assets to protect \"Qatar from external threats\".There has been progress in a proposed deep-sea gas pipeline from Qatar, via Oman, to India." ], [ "Europe", ";Albania;AustriaAustria–India relations refers to the bilateral ties between Austria and India.", "Indo-Austrian relations were established in May 1949 by the first Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru and the Chancellor of Austria Leopold Figl.", "Historically, Indo-Austrian ties have been particularly strong and India intervened in June 1953 in Austria's favour whilst negotiations were going on with the Soviet Union about the Austrian State Treaty.", "There is a fully functioning Indian embassy in Vienna, Austria's capital, which is concurrently accredited to the United Nations offices in the city.", "Austria is represented in India by its embassy and Trade Commission in New Delhi, India's capital, as well as honorary consulates in Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and Goa.Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Belarus President Alexander Lukashenko.", ";BelarusBelarus has an embassy in New Delhi.", "Since 14 May 1992, India has an embassy in Minsk.", ";BelgiumBelgium has an embassy in New Delhi, consulates in Chennai and Mumbai, and an honorary consulate in Kolkata.", "India has an embassy in Brussels.", ";Bosnia and Herzegovina;BulgariaBulgaria has an embassy in New Delhi and an honorary consulate in Kolkata.", "India has an embassy in Sofia.", ";CroatiaSince February 1995, Croatia has an embassy in New Delhi and an honorary consulate in Mumbai.", "Since 28 April 1996, India has an embassy in Zagreb.", ";Czech RepublicCzech-Indian relations were established in 1921 by a consulate in Bombay.", "The Czech Republic has an embassy in New Delhi.", "Consulates of the Czech Republic in India are in Chennai, Mumbai and Kolkata.", "India has an embassy in Prague.India released a stamp commemorating Henning Holck-Larsen, founder of Larsen & Toubro.\|left;DenmarkDenmark has an embassy in New Delhi, and India has an embassy in Copenhagen.Tranquebar, a town in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu, was a Danish colony in India from 1620 to 1845.It is spelled ''Trankebar'' or ''Tranquebar'' in Danish, which comes from the native Tamil, Tarangambadi, meaning \"place of the singing waves\".", "It was sold, along with the other Danish settlements in mainland India, most notably Serampore (now in West Bengal), to Great Britain in 1845.The Nicobar Islands were also colonised by Denmark until sold to the British in 1868, who made them part of the British Indian Empire.After Independence in 1947, Indian prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru's visit to Denmark in 1957 laid the foundation for a friendly relationship between India and Denmark that has endured ever since.", "The bilateral relations between India and Denmark are cordial and friendly, based on synergies in political, economic, academic and research fields.", "There have been periodic high-level visits between the two countries.The Denmark Tavern of Serampore in West BengalAnders Fogh Rasmussen, former Prime Minister of Denmark, accompanied by a large business delegation, paid a state visit to India from 4 to 8 February 2008.He visited Infosys, Biocon and IIM Bangalore in Bangalore and Agra.", "He launched an 'India Action Plan', which called for strengthening of the political dialogue, strengthening of cooperation in trade and investments, research in science and technology, energy, climate and environment, culture, education, student exchanges and attracting skilled manpower and IT experts to Denmark for short periods.", "The two countries signed an Agreement for the establishment of a Bilateral Joint Commission for Cooperation.In July 2012, the Government of India decided to scale down its diplomatic ties with Denmark after that country's refusal to appeal in their Supreme Court against a decision of its lower court rejecting the extradition of Purulia arms drop case prime accused Kim Davy a.k.a.", "Niels Holck.", "Agitated over Denmark's refusal to act on India's repeated requests to appeal in their apex court to facilitate Davy's extradition to India, the government issued a circular directing all senior officials not to meet or entertain any Danish diplomat posted in India.", ";EstoniaIndia's first recognition of Estonia came on 22 September 1921 when the former had just acquired membership in the League of Nations.", "India re-recognised Estonia on 9 September 1991 and diplomatic relations were established on 2 December of the same year in Helsinki.", "Neither country has a resident ambassador.", "Estonia is represented in India by an Embassy in New Delhi one honorary consulate in Mumbai.", "India is represented in Estonia through its embassy in Helsinki (Finland) and an honorary consulate in Tallinn.", ";FranceFrance and India established diplomatic relations before India's independence from the British Empire on 17 February 1947.France's Indian possessions were returned to India after a treaty of cession was signed by the two countries in May 1956.On 16 August 1962, India and France exchanged the instruments of ratification under which France ceded to India full sovereignty over the territories it held.", "Pondicherry and the other enclaves of Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam came to be administered as the Union Territory of Puducherry on 1 July 1963.France, Russia and Israel were the only countries that did not condemn India's decision to go nuclear in 1998.In 2003, France became the largest supplier of nuclear fuel and technology to India and remains a large military and economic trade partner.", "India's candidacy for permanent membership in the UN Security Council has found very strong support from former French President Nicolas Sarkozy.", "The Indian Government's decisions to purchase French s worth US$3 billion and 43 Airbus aircraft for Air India worth US$2.5 billion have further cemented the strategic, military and economic cooperation between India and France.France's decision to ban schoolchildren from wearing headdresses and veils had the unintended consequence of affecting Sikh children who have been refused entry into public schools.", "The Indian Government, citing the historic traditions of the Sikh community, has requested French authorities to review the situation to not exclude Sikh children from education.President Nicolas Sarkozy and François Hollande visited India in January 2008 and 2016 respectively as the Chief Guest of the annual Republic Day parade in New Delhi.", "France was the first country to sign a nuclear energy cooperation agreement with India; this was done during Prime Minister Singh's visit, following the waiver by the Nuclear Suppliers Group.", "During the Bastille Day celebrations on 14 July 2009, a detachment of 400 Indian troops marched alongside the French troops and the then Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh was the guest of honour.", ";FinlandIndia has an embassy in Helsinki.", "Finland has an embassy in New Delhi and three honorary consulates in Kolkata, Chennai, and Mumbai.256x256px;GermanyDuring the Cold War India maintained diplomatic relations with both West Germany and East Germany.", "Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the reunification of Germany, relations have further improved.Germany is India's largest trade partner in Europe.", "Between 2004 and 2013, Indo-German trade grew in volume but dropped in importance.", "According to Indian Ministry of Commerce MX data: Total trade between India and Germany was $5.5 billion (3.8% share of Indian trade and ranked 6) in 2004 and $21.6 billion (2.6% share of Indian trade and ranked 9) in 2013.Indian exports to Germany were $2.54 billion (3.99% ranked 6) in 2004 and $7.3billion (2.41% ranked 10) in 2013.Indian imports from Germany were $2.92 billion (3.73% ranked 6) in 2004 and $14.33 billion (2.92% ranked 10) in 2013.Embassy of the Republic of India in Berlin (2008)Indo-German ties are transactional.", "The strategic relationship between Germany and India suffers from sustained anti-Asian sentiment, institutionalized discrimination against minority groups, and xenophobic incidents against Indians in Germany.", "The 2007 Mügeln mob attack on Indians and the 2015 Leipzig University internship controversy have clouded the predominantly commercial-oriented relationship between the two countries.", "Stiff competition between foreign manufactured goods within the Indian market has seen machine tools, automotive parts and medical supplies from German ''Mittelstand'' ceding ground to high-technology imports manufactured by companies located in ASEAN & BRICS countries.", "The Volkswagen emissions scandal drew the spotlight on corrupt behaviour in German boardrooms and brought back memories of the HDW bribery scandal surrounding the procurement of s by the Indian Navy.", "The India-Germany strategic relationship is limited by the insignificance of German geopolitical influence in Asian affairs.", "Germany has no strategic footprint in Asia.", "Germany like India is working towards gaining permanent seats in the United Nations Security Council.Agathocles, circa 180 BCE.", "Besides the Greek god Zeus, the Indian deities have been variously identified as the Buddha, Vishnu, Shiva, Vasudeva or Balarama.\|223x223px;GreeceFor the Ancient Greeks \"India\" (Greek: Ινδία) meant only the upper Indus until the time of Alexander the Great.", "Afterwards, \"India\" meant to the Greeks most of the northern half of the Indian subcontinent.", "The Greeks referred to the Indians as \"Indói\" (Greek: Ἰνδοί), literally meaning \"the people of the Indus River\".", "Indians called the Greeks Yonas or \"Yavanas\" from Ionians.Indo-Greek kingdoms were founded by the successor of Alexander the Great.", "(Greek conquests in India)The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea was a manual written in Greek for navigators who carried trade between Roman Empire and other regions, including ancient India.", "It gives detailed information about the ports, routes and commodities.", "The Greek ethnographer and explorer of the Hellenistic period, Megasthenes was the ambassador of Seleucus I in India.", "In his work, Indika (Greek: Ινδικά), he wrote the history of Indians and their culture.", "Megasthenes also mentioned the prehistoric arrival of the God Dionysus and Herakles (Megasthenes' Herakles) in India.There is now tangible evidence indicating that the settlement of Greek merchants in Bengal must have begun as early as the beginning of the seventeenth century.", "Dimitrios Galanos (Greek: Δημήτριος Γαλανός, 1760–1833) was the earliest recorded Greek Indologist.", "His translations of Sanskrit texts into Greek made knowledge of the philosophical and religious ideas of India available to many Europeans.", "A \"Dimitrios Galanos\" Chair for Hellenic Studies was established at Jawaharlal Nehru University in New Delhi, India in September 2000.In modern times, diplomatic relations between Greece and India were established in May 1950.The new Greek Embassy building in New Delhi was inaugurated on 6 February 2001.As of 2020, the relationship between the two countries is closer than ever and is considered historical and strategic by both parties.Prime Minister of Hungary Viktor Orbán and Vice President of India Mohammad Hamid Ansari in Budapest in 2016;HungaryThe Indian embassy is located in Budapest.", ";IcelandIceland and India established diplomatic relations in 1972.The Embassy of Iceland in London was accredited to India and the Embassy of India in Oslo, Norway, was accredited to Iceland.", "However, it was only after 2003 that the two countries began close diplomatic and economic relationships.", "In 2003, President of Iceland Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson visited India on a diplomatic mission.", "This was the first visit by an Icelandic President to India.", "During the visit, Iceland pledged support to New Delhi's candidature for a permanent seat in the United Nations Security Council thus becoming the first Nordic country to do so.", "This was followed by an official visit of President of India A. P. J. Abdul Kalam to Iceland in May 2005.Following this, a new embassy of Iceland was opened in New Delhi on 26 February 2006.Soon, an Indian Navy team visited Iceland on a friendly mission.", "Gunnar Pálsson is the ambassador of Iceland to India.", "The Embassy's area of accreditation, apart from India includes Bangladesh, Indonesia, the Seychelles, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Maldives, Mauritius and Nepal.", "India appointed S. Swaminathan as the first resident ambassador to Iceland in March 2008.", "* India has an embassy established in 2006 in Reykjavík.", "* Iceland has an embassy established in 2005 in New Delhi.Annie Besant, one of the founders of the Banaras Hindu University, was regarded as a champion of human freedom, she was an ardent supporter of both Irish and Indian self-rule and the first woman president of the Indian National Congress;IrelandIndo-Irish relations picked up steam during their respective campaigns for independence from the British Empire.", "Political relations between the two states have largely been based on socio-cultural ties, although political and economic ties have also helped build relations.", "Indo-Irish relations were greatly strengthened by Pandit Nehru, Éamon de Valera, Rabindranath Tagore, W. B. Yeats, James Joyce, and, above all, Annie Besant.", "Politically, relations have not been cold or warm.", "Mutual benefit has led to economic ties that are fruitful for both states.", "Visits by government leaders have kept relations cordial at regular intervals.", "* India has an embassy in Dublin.", "* The Republic of Ireland has an embassy in New Delhi.", ";ItalyBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 25 March 1948India maintains an embassy in Rome and a consulate-general in Milan.", "Italy has an embassy in New Delhi, and consulate-generals in Mumbai and Calcutta.Indo-Italian relations have historically been cordial.", "In recent times, their state has mirrored the political fortunes of Sonia Maino-Gandhi, the Italian-born leader of the Indian National Congress and ''de facto'' leader of the UPA government of Manmohan Singh.Since 2012 the relationship has been affected by the ongoing Enrica Lexie case: two Indian fishermen were killed on the Indian fishing vessel ''St.", "Antony'' as a result of gunshot wounds following a confrontation with the Italian oil tanker ''Enrica Lexie'' in international waters, off the Kerala coast.After a period of tension, in 2017 Italian Prime Minister Paolo Gentiloni visited India and met his Indian counterpart Narendra Modi; they held extensive talks to strengthen the political cooperation and to boost the bilateral trade.Italian campaignThere are around 150,000 people of Indian Origins living in Italy.", "Around 1,000 Italian citizens reside in India, mostly working on behalf of Italian industrial groups.", ";Lithuania;LuxembourgRelations were established in 1947, following India's independence.", "Luxembourg operates an Embassy in New Delhi whilst India operates a Consulate General in Luxembourg City.", "Bilateral Trade stood at US$37 Million in 2014 and trade continues to grow every year.", "Diplomats from both countries have visited the other several times.", "In 2019, Luxembourg plans to host the annual Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and open an economic mission in India.", ";MaltaMalta opened a High Commission of Malta, New Delhi in New Delhi in 2007.Malta also has an honorary consulate in Mumbai.", "India is represented in Malta by its high commission in Valletta.", ";MoldovaThe Indian embassy to Moldova is accredited by Bucharest, Romania.", "Moldova maintains an honorary consulate in New Delhi and a consulate in Mumbai.Both countries have taken steps to deepen their ties, which are still maintained at a modest level.", "Both countries have been found supporting each other on many international platforms like the United Nations through reciprocal support mechanisms.", "India-Moldova bilateral trade has been rather modest.", ";MonacoFactory in Hugli-Chuchura, Dutch Bengal.", "Hendrik van Schuylenburgh, 1665.;NetherlandsIndia–Netherlands relations refer to foreign relations between India and the Netherlands.", "India maintains an embassy in The Hague, Netherlands and the Netherlands maintains an embassy in New Delhi and a consulate general in Mumbai.", "Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 April 1947.;NorwayIn 2012, Trond Giske met with Minister of Finance Pranab Mukherjee, to save Telenor's investments to put forth Norway's \"strong wish\" that there must not be a waiting period between the confiscation of telecom licenses and the re-sale of those.", "The leader of Telenor attended the meeting.", ";North MacedoniaMother Teresa, honoured in the Catholic Church as Saint Teresa of Calcutta became an Indian citizen in 1951, and was born in Skopje (in present-day North Macedonia) in 1910.India has an embassy in Sofia, Bulgaria jointly accredited to the Republic of Macedonia.", "Both Macedonia has an embassy in New Delhi and an honorary consulate in Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai and Bangalore.", ";PolandHistorically, relations have generally been close and friendly, characterised by understanding and cooperation on the international front.", "* India has an embassy in Warsaw.", "* Poland has an embassy in New Delhi.The Prime Minister of India, Manmohan Singh meeting the President of the Russian Federation, Mr. Vladimir Putin, in New Delhi on 24 December 2012.;PortugalIndia and Portugal have a long history of relations ever since the Portuguese colonisation in British Raj.", ";RussiaBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 13 April 1947India's ties with the Russian Federation are time-tested and based on continuity, trust and mutual understanding.", "There is a national consensus in both countries on the need to preserve and strengthen India-Russia relations and further consolidate the strategic partnership between the two countries.", "A Declaration on Strategic Partnership was signed between present Russian President Vladimir Putin and former Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in October 2000 the partnership is also referred to asa '''\"special and privileged strategic partnership\"'''.Russia and India have decided not to renew the 1971 Indo-Soviet Peace and Friendship Treaty and have sought to follow what both describe as a more pragmatic, less ideological relationship.", "Russian President Yeltsin's visit to India in January 1993 helped cement this new relationship.", "Ties have grown stronger with President Vladimir Putin's 2004 visit.", "The pace of high-level visits has since increased, as discussed in major defence purchases.", "Russia is working on the development of the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant, which will be capable of producing 1000 MW of electricity.", "Gazprom is working for the development of oil and natural gas, in the Bay of Bengal.", "India and Russia, have collaborated extensively, on space technology.", "Other areas of collaboration include software, Ayurveda, etc.", "India and Russia, have set a determination in increasing trade to $10 billion.", "Cooperation between clothing manufacturers of the two countries continues to strengthen.", "India and Russia signed an agreement on joint efforts to increase investment and trade volumes in the textile industry in both countries.", "In signing the document included representatives of the Russian Union of Entrepreneurs of Textile and Light Industry Council and apparel exports of India (AEPC).", "A cooperation agreement provides, inter alia, the exchange of technology and know-how in textile production.", "For this purpose, a special Commission on Affairs Textile (Textile Communication Committee).", "Counter-terrorism techniques are also in place between Russia and India.", "In 2007 President Vladimir Putin was the guest of honour at the Republic Day celebration on 26 January 2007.2008, has been declared by both countries as the Russia-India Friendship Year.", "Bollywood films are quite popular in Russia.", "The Indian public sector oil company ONGC bought Imperial Energy Corporation in 2008.In December 2008, during President Medvedev's visit, to New Delhi, India and Russia, signed a nuclear energy cooperation agreement.", "In March 2010, Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin signed an additional 19 pacts with India which included civilian nuclear energy, space and military cooperation and the final sale of Admiral Gorshkov (Aircraft Carrier) along with MiG-29K fighter jets.Indian PM Narendra Modi with Russian President Vladimir Putin.", "India and Russia enjoy strong strategic and military relations.", "During the 2014 Crimean crisis, India refused to support American sanctions against Russia and one of India's national security advisers Shivshankar Menon was reported to have said \"There are legitimate Russian and other interests involved and we hope they are discussed and resolved.", "\"On 7 August 2014, India and Russia held a joint counter-terrorism exercise near the Moscow boundary with China and Mongolia.", "It involved the use of tanks and armoured vehicles.India and Russia have so far conducted three rounds of INDRA exercises.", "The first exercise was carried out in 2005 in Rajasthan, followed by Prshkov in Russia.", "The third exercise was conducted at Chaubattia in Kumaon Hills in October 2010.;RomaniaIndia has an embassy in Bucharest and an honorary consulate in Timișoara.", "Romania has an embassy in New Delhi and an honorary consulate in Kolkata.", ";Serbia* India has an embassy in Belgrade.", "* Serbia has an embassy in New Delhi and an honorary consulate in Chennai.", "* The relations are seen as one of the closest for both nations.", ";SlovakiaIndia has an embassy in Bratislava and Slovakia has an embassy in New Delhi.", ";Slovenia* India has an embassy in Ljubljana.", "* Slovenia has an embassy in New Delhi.", ";SpainDiplomatic ties with Spain started in 1956.The first Spanish embassy was established in Delhi in 1958.India and Spain have had a cordial relationship with each other, especially after the establishment of democracy in Spain in 1978.Spain has been a main tourist spot for Indians over the years.", "Many presidents including Prathibha Patil visited Spain.", "The royal family of Spain has always liked the humble nature of the Indian government and they have thus paid several visits to India.", "There was no direct flight from India to Spain but it all changed in 1986 when Iberian travels started to fly directly from Mumbai to Madrid.", "However, it was stopped in 22 months.", "In 2006 this issue of the direct flight was reconsidered to improve the ties between India and Spain.", "\"Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara\" was shot completely in Spain in 2011.The tourism ministry of Spain is using this movie to promote tourism to Spain in India.", ";SwedenConsulate-General of India in GenevaIndia has an embassy in Stockholm, which is also accredited to Latvia.", "Sweden has an embassy in New Delhi, which is also accredited to Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and the Maldives.", "It has three honorary consulates in Chennai, Kolkata and Mumbai.", ";Switzerland* Switzerland has an embassy in New Delhi and a consulate in Bangalore and Mumbai.", "* India has an embassy in Bern and consulates in Geneva and Zürich.India is one of Switzerland's most important partners in Asia.", "Bilateral and political contacts are constantly developing, and trade and scientific cooperation between the two countries are flourishing.", "Switzerland was the first country in the World to sign a Friendship treaty with India in 1947.;UkraineDiplomatic relations between India and Ukraine were established in January 1992.The Indian Embassy in Kyiv was opened in May 1992 and Ukraine opened its mission in New Delhi in February 1993.The Consulate General of India in Odesa functioned from 1962 until its closure in March 1999.", "* India has an embassy in Kyiv.", "* Ukraine has an embassy in New Delhi and an honorary consulate in Mumbai.", ";United KingdomNarendra Modi addressing the British Parliament UK& India has a high commission in London and two consulates-general in Birmingham and Edinburgh.", "The United Kingdom has a high commission in New Delhi and five deputy high commissions in Mumbai, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad and Kolkata.", "Since 1947, India's relations with the United Kingdom have been bilateral, as well as through the Commonwealth of Nations framework.", "Although the Sterling Area no longer exists and the Commonwealth is much more an informal forum, India and the UK still have many enduring links.", "This is in part due to the significant number of people of Indian origin living in the UK.", "The large South Asian population in the UK results in steady travel and communication between the two countries.", "The British Raj allowed for both cultures to imbibe tremendously from the other.", "The English language and cricket are perhaps the two most evident British exports, whilst in the UK food from the Indian subcontinent is very popular.", "The United Kingdom's favourite food is often reported to be Indian cuisine, although no official study reports this.Economically the relationship between Britain and India is also strong.", "India is the second largest investor in Britain after the US.", "Britain is also one of the largest investors in India.", ";Vatican City & the Holy SeeFormal bilateral relations between India and Vatican City have existed since 12 June 1948.An Apostolic Delegation existed in India from 1881.The Holy See has a nunciature in New Delhi whilst India has accredited its embassy in Bern, Switzerland to the Holy See as well.", "India's Ambassador in Bern has traditionally been accredited to the Holy See.The connections between the Catholic Church and India can be traced back to the apostle St. Thomas, who, according to tradition, came to India in 52 CE in the 9th century, the patriarch of the Nestorians in Persia sent bishops to India.", "There is a record of an Indian bishop visiting Rome in the early part of the 12th century.The diplomatic mission was established as the Apostolic Delegation to the East Indies in 1881, and included Ceylon, and was extended to Malaca in 1889, then to Burma in 1920, and eventually included Goa in 1923.It was raised to an Internunciature by Pope Pius XII on 12 June 1948 and to a full Apostolic Nunciature by Pope Paul VI on 22 August 1967.There have been three Papal visits to India.", "The first Pope to visit India was Pope Paul VI, who visited Mumbai in 1964 to attend the Eucharistic Congress.", "Pope John Paul II visited India in February 1986 and November 1999.Several Indian dignitaries have, from time to time, called on the Pope in the Vatican.", "These include Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in 1981 and Prime Minister I. K. Gujral in September 1987.Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Prime Minister, called on the Pope in June2000 during his official visit to Italy.", "Vice-President Bhairon Singh Shekhawat represented the country at the funeral of Pope John Paul II.", ";European UnionIndian PM Narendra Modi with the president of the European Council Donald Tusk, and the president of the European Commission Jean-Claude Juncker, at the EU-India Summit, Brussels, 2016India was one of the first countries to develop relations with the European Union.", "The Joint Political Statement of 1993 and the 1994 Cooperation Agreement were the foundational agreements for the bilateral partnership.", "In 2004, India and European Union became \"Strategic Partners\".", "A Joint Action Plan was agreed upon in 2005 and updated in 2008.India-EU Joint Statements were published in 2009 and 2012 following the India-European Union Summits.India and the European Commission initiated negotiations on a ''Broad-based Trade and Investment Agreement'' (BTIA) in 2007.Seven rounds of negotiations have been completed without reaching a Free Trade Agreement.According to the Government of India, trade between India and the EU was $57.25 billion between April and October 2014 and stood at $101.5 billion for the fiscal period of 2014–2015.The European Union is India's second largest trade bloc, accounting for around 20% of Indian trade (Gulf Cooperation Council is the largest trade bloc with almost $160 billion in total trade).", "India was the European Union's 8th largest trading partner in 2010.EU-India trade grew from €28.6 billion in 2003 to €72.7 billion in 2013.France, Germany and UK collectively represent the major part of EU-India trade.", "Annual trade in commercial services tripled from €5.2billion in 2002 to €17.9 billion in 2010.Denmark, Sweden, Finland and the Netherlands are the other more prominent European Union countries that trade with India." ], [ "Oceania", ";AustraliaIndia & Australia are both Commonwealth members.", "Sporting and cultural ties are significant.", "Australian cricketers often undertake large commercial ventures in India, enhanced with the IPL, and, to a lesser degree, the ICL.", "Bollywood productions enjoy a large market in Australia.", "In 2007, PM John Howard visited Mumbai and its entertainment industry, in efforts to increase Tourism in India to Australia.One-day International cricket match between Australia and India, MCG January 2004\|220x220pxThere are ongoing strategic attempts to form an \"Asian NATO\" with India, Japan, the US and Australia through the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue.", "During the first decade of the 21st century, the deepening of strategic relations between the two nations was prevented by a range of policy disagreements, such as India's refusal to sign the NPT and Australia's consequent refusal to provide India with uranium.", "Australia's parliament later allowed for the sale of uranium to India, following changes in government.", "Closer strategic cooperation between India, Japan, the United States and Australia also began during the second half of the 2010s, which some analysts attributed to a desire to balance Chinese initiatives in the Indo-Pacific region.", ";Cook Islands;FijiFiji's relationship with the Republic of India is often seen by observers against the backdrop of the sometimes tense relations between its indigenous people and the 44 percent of the population who are of Indian descent.", "India has used its influence in international forums such as the Commonwealth of Nations and United Nations on behalf of ethnic Indians in Fiji, lobbying for sanctions against Fiji in the wake of the 1987 coups and the 2000 coup, both of which removed governments, one dominated and one led, by Indo-Fijians.", ";Kiribati;Marshall Islands;Micronesia;NauruIndia and Nauru relations have been established since the island nation's independence in 1968.Leaders of both countries have been meeting on the sidelines of some of the international forums of which both nations are part such as the United Nations and the Non-Aligned Movement.", "India is one of the largest donors to the island by improving the education ministry and creating transportation and computer connections for the MPs and the Speaker of the Parliament of Nauru.", "There were numerous visits by the President of Nauru to the republic to further strengthen ties and cooperation.India Vs New Zealand One Day International, 10 December 2010.Cricket is hugely popular in both nations and is seen as a connection between them.", ";New ZealandBilateral relations were established between India and New Zealand in 1952.India has a High Commission in Wellington with an Honorary Consulate in Auckland, while New Zealand has a High Commission in New Delhi along with a Consulate in Mumbai, trade offices in New Delhi and Mumbai and an Honorary Consulate in Chennai.India–New Zealand relations were cordial but not extensive after Indian independence.", "More recently, New Zealand has shown interest in extending ties with India due to India's impressive GDP growth.", ";Niue;Palau;Papua New GuineaIndia and Papua New Guinea established relations in 1975, following PNG's independence from Australia.", "Since 1975, relations have grown between the two nations.", "India maintains a High Commission in Port Moresby while Papua New Guinea maintains a High Commission in New Delhi In the 2010 Fiscal Year, Trade between the two nations grew to US$239 Million.", "PNG has sent numerous military officers and students to be trained and educated in India's academies and universities respectively.", "In recent years, India and PNG have signed an Economic Partnership Agreement, allowing India to further invest in PNG's infrastructure, telecommunications and educational institutions.", ";SamoaBoth countries established diplomatic relations in June 1970.;Solomon Islands;Tonga;Tuvalu;VanuatuIndia has its High Commission in Wellington, New Zealand, accredited to Vanuatu." ], [ "De Facto", ";KosovoSince its declaration of independence from Serbia, Kosovo sought recognition from the major of the world's most influential countries, among them, India.", "Indian views regarding the developments followed initial constringent to comment but dismissed to give recognition of statehood.", "There are almost negligible interactions.", ";PalestinePM, Narendra Modi and the President of the State of Palestine, Mahmoud Abbas, at Ramallah, where Shree Modi received the Grand Collar of the State of Palestine, After India achieved its independence in 1947, the country moved to support Palestinian self-determination following the partition of India.", "In light of a religious partition between India and Pakistan, the impetus to boost ties with Muslim states around the world was a further tie to India's support for the Palestinian cause.", "Though it started to waver in the late 1980s and 1990s, as the recognition of Israel led to diplomatic exchanges, the ultimate support for the Palestinian cause, was still an underlying concern.Beyond the recognition of Palestinian self-determination ties have been largely dependent upon socio-cultural bonds, while economic relations were neither cold nor warm.India recognised Palestine's statehood following its declaration on 18 November 1988; although relations were first established in 1974.PNA President Abbas paid a State visit to India in September 2012, during which India pledged $10 million as aid.", "Indian officials said it was the third such donation, adding that New Delhi was committed to helping other development projects.", "India also pledged support to Palestine's bid for full and equal membership of the UN.", ";TaiwanIndia recognized the Republic of China (R.O.C) from 1947 to 1950.On 1 April 1950, India officially recognised the People's Republic of China (P.R.C) as \"China\" and continued to recognise the PRC's \"One China\" policy in which the island of Taiwan is a part of the Chinese territory.", "However, the bilateral relations between India and Taiwan have improved since the 1990s despite both nations not maintaining official diplomatic relations.", "Taiwan and India maintain non-governmental interaction via India-Taipei Association and Taipei Economic and Cultural Centre respectively.", "In July 2020, the Indian government appointed a top career diplomat, Joint Secretary Gourangalal Das, the former head of the U.S. division in India's Ministry of External Affairs, as its new envoy to Taiwan." ], [ "International organizations", "India participates in the following international organisations:* AALCO – Asian–African Legal Consultative Organization* ADB – Asian Development Bank* AfDB – African Development Bank (non-regional members)* AG – Australia Group* ASEAN Regional Forum* ASEAN (dialogue partner)* BIMSTEC – Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation* BIS – Bank for International Settlements* BRICS – Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa* Commonwealth of Nations* CERN – European Organization for Nuclear Research* CP – Colombo Plan* EAS – East Asia Summit* FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations* G-4* G-15* G-20* G-24* G-77* IAEA – International Atomic Energy Agency* IBRD – International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank)* ICAO – International Civil Aviation Organization* ICC – International Chamber of Commerce* ICRM – International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement* IDA – International Development Association* IEA – International Energy Agency* IFAD – International Fund for Agricultural Development* IFC – International Finance Corporation* IFRCS – International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies* IHO – International Hydrographic Organization* ILO – International Labour Organization* IMF – International Monetary Fund* IMO – International Maritime Organization* IMSO – International Mobile Satellite Organization* Interpol – International Criminal Police Organization* IOC – International Olympic Committee* IOM – International Organization for Migration (observer)* IPEEC – International Partnership for Energy Efficiency Cooperation* IPU – Inter-Parliamentary Union* ISA – International Solar Alliance* ISO – International Organization for Standardization* ITSO – International Telecommunications Satellite Organization* ITU – International Telecommunication Union* ITUC – International Trade Union Confederation (the successor to ICFTU (International Confederation of Free Trade Unions) and the WCL (World Confederation of Labour))* LAS – League of Arab States (observer)* MIGA – Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency* MTCR – Missile Technology Control Regime* NAM – Non-Aligned Movement* OAS – Organization of American States (observer)* OPCW – Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons* PCA – Permanent Court of Arbitration* PIF – Pacific Islands Forum (partner)* SAARC – South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation* SACEP – South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme* SCO – Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (member)* UN – United Nations UNAIDS- United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS UNCTAD – United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNDOF – United Nations Disengagement Observer Force UNESCO – United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNHCR – United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNIDO – United Nations Industrial Development Organization UNIFIL – United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon UNMEE – United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea UNMIS – United Nations Mission in Sudan UNOCI – United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire** MONUSCO – United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo* UNWTO – World Tourism Organization* UPU – Universal Postal Union* WA – Wassenaar Arrangement* WCL – World Confederation of Labour* WCO – World Customs Organization* WFTU – World Federation of Trade Unions* WHO – World Health Organization* WIPO – World Intellectual Property Organization* WMO – World Meteorological Organization* WTO – World Trade Organization;India and the CommonwealthIndia became independent within the British Commonwealth in August 1947 as the Dominion of India after the partition of India into India and the Dominion of Pakistan.", "King George VI, the last Emperor of India became the King of India with the Governor-General of India as his viceregal representative.Memorial stone plaque dedicated to Brijuni Declaration of the Non-Aligned Movement, signed on 19 July 1956, exhibited in the Brijuni Museums, Republic of CroatiaIndia became the very first Commonwealth republic on 26 January 1950, as a result of the London Declaration.", ";Non-Aligned MovementIndia played an important role in the multilateral movements of colonies and newly independent countries that developed into the Non-Aligned Movement.Nonalignment had its origins in India's colonial experience and the nonviolent Indian independence movement led by the Congress, which left India determined to be the master of its fate in an international system dominated politically by Cold War alliances and economically by Western capitalism and Soviet communism.", "The principles of nonalignment, as articulated by Nehru and his successors, were the preservation of India's freedom of action internationally through refusal to align India with any bloc or alliance, particularly those led by the United States or the Soviet Union; nonviolence and international cooperation as a means of settling international disputes.", "Nonalignment was a consistent feature of Indian foreign policy by the late 1940s and enjoyed strong, almost unquestioning support among the Indian elite.The term \"Non-Alignment\" was coined by V K Menon in his speech at the UN in 1953 which was later used by Indian Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru during his speech in 1954 in Colombo, Sri Lanka.", "In this speech, Nehru described the five pillars to be used as a guide for China–India relations, which were first put forth by PRC Premier Zhou Enlai.", "Called Panchsheel (five restraints), these principles would later serve as the basis of the Non-Aligned Movement.", "The five principles were:# ''Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty''# ''Mutual non-aggression''# ''Mutual non-interference in domestic affairs''# ''Equality and mutual benefit''# ''Peaceful co-existence''From left to right: Prime Minister of Japan Yoshihide Suga, Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi, President of United States Joe Biden and Prime Minister of Australia Scott Morrison in White House, USA.Jawaharlal Nehru's concept of nonalignment brought India considerable international prestige among newly independent states that shared India's concerns about the military confrontation between the superpowers and the influence of the former colonial powers.", "New Delhi used nonalignment to establish a significant role for itself as a leader of the newly independent world in such multilateral organisations as the United Nations (UN) and the Nonaligned Movement.", "The signing of the Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Cooperation between India and the Soviet Union in 1971 and India's involvement in the internal affairs of its smaller neighbours in the 1970s and 1980s tarnished New Delhi's image as a nonaligned nation and led some observers to note that in practice, nonalignment applied only to India's relations with countries outside South Asia.", ";Quad AllianceThe '''Quadrilateral Security Dialogue''' ('''QSD''', also known as the '''Quad''') is an informal strategic dialogue between the United States, India, Japan and Australia that is maintained by talks between member countries.", "The dialogue was initiated in 2007 by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, with the support of American Vice President Dick Cheney, Australian Prime Minister John Howard and Former Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh.", "The dialogue was paralleled by joint military exercises of an unprecedented scale, titled Exercise Malabar.", "The diplomatic and military arrangement was widely viewed as a response to increased Chinese economic and military power.On 12 March 2021, '''the first summit meeting''' was held virtually between U.S President Joe Biden, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, Japanese Prime Minister Yoshihide Suga and Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison.", ";United NationsNarendra Modi, The current Prime Minister of India, addressing the 69th UNGA, in 2014India was among the original members of the United Nations that signed the Declaration by United Nations at Washington on 1 January 1942 and also participated in the United Nations Conference on International Organization in San Francisco from 25 April to 26 June 1945.As a founding member of the United Nations, India strongly supports the purposes and principles of the UN and has made significant contributions to implementing the goals of the Charter and the evolution of the UN's specialised programmes and agencies.", "India is a charter member of the United Nations and participates in all of its specialised agencies and organisations.", "India has contributed troops to United Nations peacekeeping efforts in Korea, Egypt and the Congo in its earlier years and in Somalia, Angola, Haiti, Liberia, Lebanon and Rwanda in recent years, and more recently in the South Sudan conflict.", "India has been a member of the UN Security Council for eight terms (a total of 16 years).", "India is a member of the G4 group of nations who back each other in seeking a permanent seat on the security council and advocate in favour of the reformation of the UNSC.", "India is also part of the Group of 77.;World Trade OrganizationDescribed by the WTO's former chief, Pascal Lamy, as one of the organisation's \"big brothers\", India was instrumental in bringing down the Doha Development Round of talks in 2008.It has played an important role in representing as many as 100 developing nations during WTO summits." ], [ "Former", ";Soviet UnionIndo-Soviet friendship & Cooperation\|246x246pxThe dissolution of the Soviet Union and the emergence of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) had major repercussions for Indian foreign policy.", "Substantial trade with the former Soviet Union plummeted after the Soviet collapse and has yet to recover.", "Longstanding military supply relationships were similarly disrupted due to questions over financing, although Russia continues to be India's largest supplier of military systems and spare parts.The relationship with USSR was tested (and proven) during the 1971 war with Pakistan, which led to the subsequent liberation of Bangladesh.", "Soon after the victory of the Indian Armed Forces, one of the foreign delegates to visit India was Admiral S.G. Gorshkov, Chief of the Soviet Navy.", "During his visit to Mumbai (Bombay), he came on board INS ''Vikrant''.", "During a conversation with Vice Admiral Swaraj Prakash, Gorshkov asked the Vice Admiral, \"Were you worried about a battle against the American carrier?\"", "He answered himself: \"Well, you had no reason to be worried, as I had a Soviet nuclear submarine trailing the American task force all the way into the Indian Ocean.", "\";YugoslaviaIndia had formal relations with the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia until 1992 with the Breakup of Yugoslavia." ], [ "Border disputes", "India's territorial disputes with neighbouring Pakistan and the People's Republic of China have played a crucial role in its foreign policy.", "India is also involved in minor territorial disputes with neighbouring Bangladesh, Nepal and Maldives.", "India currently maintains two manned stations in Antarctica but has made some unofficial territorial claims, which are yet to be clarified.India is involved in the following border disputes:;NepalKalapani village of India is claimed by Nepal and Susta village in Nawalparasi district of Nepal is claimed by India.", "The dispute between India and Nepal involves about of area in Kalapani, where China, India, and Nepal meet.", "Indian forces occupied the area in 1962 after China and India fought their border war.", "Three villages are located in the disputed zone: Kuti Kuthi, 30°19'N, 80°46'E, Gunji, and Knabe.", "India and Nepal disagree about how to interpret the 1816 Sugauli treaty between the British East India Company and Nepal, which delimited the boundary along the Maha Kali River (Sarda River in India).", "The dispute intensified in 1997 as the Nepali parliament considered a treaty on the hydroelectric development of the river.", "India and Nepal differ as to which stream constitutes the source of the river.", "Nepal regards the Limpiyadhura as the source; India claims the Lipu Lekh.", "Nepal has reportedly tabled an 1856 map from the British India Office to support its position.", "The countries have held several meetings about the dispute and discussed jointly surveying to resolve the issue.", "Although the Indo-Nepali dispute appears to be minor, it was aggravated in 1962 by tensions between China and India.", "Because the disputed area lies near the Sino-Indian frontier, it gains strategic value.", ";PakistanIndus and tributaries* The unresolved Kashmir conflict and the status of Kashmir with India: Pakistan claims that it is a disputed territory with India, meanwhile Pakistan claims its side of the disputed territory and calls it \"Azad Kashmir\".", "Dispute over Sir Creek and the maritime boundary regarding the Rann of Kachchh area of the southern tip of Sindh.", " Water-sharing problems with Pakistan over the Indus River (Wular Barrage).", "''(Indus Waters Treaty)'';China* India claims Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract, as part of Ladakh.", "* China claims most of Arunachal Pradesh, a contested disputed territory of north-east India by not recognising the McMahon Line.Two regions are claimed by both India and China.", "Aksai Chin is in the disputed territory of Ladakh, at the junction of India, Tibet and Xinjiang, India claims the 38,000-square-kilometre territory, currently administered by China after Sino-Indian War.", "India also considers the cessation of Shaksam Valley to China by Pakistan as illegal and a part of its territory.Arunachal Pradesh is a state of India in the country's northeast, bordering on Bhutan, Burma and China's Tibet, though it is under Indian administration since 1914, China claims the 90,000-square-kilometre area as South Tibet.", "Also, the boundary between the North Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand with China's Tibet is not properly demarcated with some portions under the de facto administration of India." ], [ "Diplomatic relations with India through philately", "List of countries commemorating anniversaries of diplomatic relations with India through philately Year Country Anniversary Milestone Type Sub type Image Date of issue 1972 25th Anniversary Postal Stationery Unilateral Issue 1972 2000 50th Anniversary Postal Stationery Unilateral Issue 1st Apr 2002 50th Anniversary Stamp Unilateral Issue 26th Apr 2002 30th Anniversary Stamp Joint Issue 10th Dec 2003 10th Anniversary Stamp Unilateral Issue 16th Oct 2007 Japan - India Friendship Stamp Unilateral Issue 23 May 2008 60th Anniversary Stamp Unilateral Issue 30th Dec 2009 60th Anniversary Stamp Joint Issue 16th Nov 2010 50th Anniversary Stamp Unilateral Issue 10th Feb 2012 20th Anniversary StampJoint Issue 5th Nov 2012 60th Anniversary Postal StationeryUnilateral Issue 2012 2013 50th Anniversary Stamp 19th Mar 2013 20th Anniversary Stamp Unilateral Issue 2nd Jul 2014 60th Anniversary Postal Stationery Unilateral Issue 2014 2014 The Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence by Myanmar, China & India Stamp + Postal Stationery Unilateral Issue 2014 2016 60th Anniversary Stamp Unilateral Issue 5th Apr 2017 25th Anniversary Postal Stationery Unilateral Issue 2017 2017 70th Anniversary Postal Stationery Unilateral Issue 2017 2017 25th Anniversary Stamp Joint Issue 12th Sep 2018 70th Anniversary Stamp Unilateral Issue 2nd Oct 2018 50th Anniversary Stamp Unilateral Issue 21st Feb 2018 25th Anniversary Stamp Unilateral Issue 14th Jun 2018 50th Anniversary Stamp Unilateral Issue 18th Aug 2018 70th Anniversary Stamp Joint Issue 15th Sep 2019 70th Anniversary Stamp (Personalized) Unilateral Issue 2019 2019 60th Anniversary Stamp Unilateral Issue 28th Jan 2019 Friendship Stamps Unilateral Issue 2019 2020 70th Anniversary Postal Stationery Unilateral Issue 1st Apr 2020 65th Anniversary Stamp Unilateral Issue 24th Dec 2021 50th Anniversary Stamp Joint Issue 27th Mar 2021 70th Anniversary Stamp Joint Issue 10th Jun 2021 60th Anniversary Stamp Unilateral Issue 5th Nov 2021 75th Anniversary of India's Independence Stamp Unilateral Issue 16th Sep 2022 Iraqi - India relations Stamp Unilateral Issue 17th Feb 2022 75th Anniversary of India's Independence Postmark Unilateral Issue 27th Jun 2022 75th Anniversary of India's Independence Stamp Joint Issue 30th Jun 2022 30th Anniversary Postal Stationery Unilateral Issue 3rd Aug 2022 75th Anniversary of India's Independence Stamp Unilateral Issue 18th Aug 2022 75th Anniversary of India's Independence Stamp Unilateral Issue 26th Aug 2022 75th Anniversary of India's Independence Stamp Unilateral Issue 3rd Oct 2022 75th Anniversary of India's Independence Postmark Unilateral Issue 7th Oct 2022 75th Anniversary of India's Independence Postmark Unilateral Issue 29th Nov 2022 75th Anniversary of India's Independence Stamp (Personalized) Unilateral Issue 29th Dec 2023 30th Anniversary of Diplomatic Relations Stamp Unilateral Issue 30th Jan 2023 75 Years of Friendship Between Luxembourg and India Miniature Sheet Joint Issue 15th Mar 2023 75 Years of India's Independence Miniature Sheet Unliateral Issue 7th Aug 2023 50th Anniversary of Diplomatic Relations Stamps Joint Issue 16th Oct 2023 75th Anniversary of Diplomatic Relations Stamps Joint Issue 2nd Nov 2023 100 years of Establishment of the Assistant High Commission of India in Kandy Stamp (Personalized) Unilateral Issue 7th Dec 2023 Celebrating Friendship Miniature Sheet & Stamps Joint Issue 15th DecPlanned philatelic issues on diplomatic relations that did not materialize.", "Year Postal administration Topic Note 2023 50th Anniversary of the Relationship 28th Jun / 8th Dec 2023 75th Anniversary of Diplomatic Relations November #top\|top" ], [ "See also", "* India and the United Nations* India and the Non-Aligned Movement* Cold War in Asia#India, 1947–1991* List of diplomatic missions in India* List of diplomatic missions of India* List of diplomatic visits to India* List of Republic of India extradition treaties* Research and Analysis Wing* Visa policy of India* Visa requirements for Indian citizens" ], [ "Notes", "=== Explanatory notes ======Citations===" ], [ "Further reading", "* Abraham, Itty.", "\"From Bandung to NAM: Non-alignment and Indian foreign policy, 1947–65.\"", "''Commonwealth & Comparative Politics'' 46.2 (2008): 195–219.", "* Bajpai, Kanti, Selina Ho, and Manjari Chatterjee Miller, eds.", "''Routledge Handbook of China–India Relations'' (Routledge, 2020).", "excerpt* Basrur, Rajesh.", "''Subcontinental Drift: Domestic Politics and India's Foreign Policy'' (Georgetown University Press, 2023).", "* Brands, H. W. ''India and the United States: The Cold Peace'' (1990) online* Bradnock, Robert W. '' India's Foreign Policy Since 1971'' (1990) 128pp; by a geographer* Budhwar, Prem K. \"India-Russia relations: Past, Present and the future.\"", "''India Quarterly'' 63.3 (2007): 51–83.", "* Budhwar, Prem K. et al.", "\"India-Canada Relations: a Roller-Coaster Ride.\"", "''Indian Foreign Affairs Journal'' 13.1 (2018): 1–50.essays by seven experts.", "online * Chacko, Priya.", "''Indian foreign policy: the politics of postcolonial identity from 1947 to 2004'' (Routledge, 2013).", "* Chakma, Bhumitra, ed.", "''The politics of nuclear weapons in South Asia'' (Ashgate, 2011).", "* Chaudhuri, Rudra.", "''Forged In Crisis: India and the United States since 1947'' (2014)* Cohen, Stephen P., and Sunil Dasgupta.", "''Arming Without Aiming: India's Military Modernisation'' (2010) excerpt and text search* Fonseca, Rena.", "\"Nehru and the Diplomacy of Nonalignment.\"", "''The Diplomats, 1939-1979'' (Princeton University Press, 2019) pp.", "371–397.online* Gaan, Narottam.", "''India and the United States: from Estrangement to Engagement'' (2007)* Ganguly, Sumit.", "''India's Foreign Policy: Retrospect and Prospect'' (2012)* Ganguly, Sumit.", "\"Has Modi Truly Changed India's Foreign Policy?.\"", "''The Washington Quarterly'' 40.2 (2017): 131–143.", "* Gopal, Sarvepalli.", "''Jawaharlal Nehru: 1947–56 v.2: A Biography'' (1979); ''Jawaharlal Nehru: Vol.3: 1956–1964: A Biography'' (1984), a major scholarly biography with full coverage of foreign policy* Gould, Harold A.", "''The South Asia story: The first sixty years of US relations with India and Pakistan'' (SAGE Publications India, 2010).", "* Guha, Ramachandra.", "''India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy'' (2008) excerpt and text search* Gupta, Surupa, et al.", "\"Indian Foreign Policy under Modi: A New Brand or Just Repackaging?.\"", "''International Studies Perspectives'' 20.1 (2019): 1–45.online* Heimsath, Charles H., and Surjit Mansingh.", "''Diplomatic History of Modern India'' (1971), major scholarly history online* Jain, B. M. ''Global Power: India's Foreign Policy, 1947–2006'' (2009)* Jain, Rashmi K. ''The United States and India: 1947–2006 A Documentary Study'' (2007)* Karunakaran, K.P.", "''India in World Affairs, August 1947 – January 1950'' (1952)* Karunakaran, K.P.", "''India in World Affairs'', Feb. 1950– Dec. 1953.Calcutta.", "(1958), * Kust, Matthew J.", "''Foreign Enterprise in India: Laws and Policies'' (2011)* Mallavarapu, Siddharth.", "\"Development of international relations theory in India.\"", "''International Studies'' 46.1–2 (2009): 165–183.", "* Malone, David.", "''Does the Elephant Dance?", ": Contemporary Indian Foreign Policy'' (2011) excerpt and text search* Malone, David et al.", "eds.", "''The Oxford Handbook of Indian Foreign Policy.''", "(2015) excerpt; a comprehensive overview by over 50 leading experts.", "* Mansinghm Surjit.", "''India's Search for Power: Indira Gandhi's Foreign Policy 1966–1982'' (1984)* Mansinghm Surjit.", "''Nehru's foreign policy, fifty years on'' (1998)* Michael, Arndt.", "''India's Foreign Policy and Regional Multilateralism'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013) excerpt* Miller, Manjari Chatterjee, and Kate Sullivan de Estrada.", "\"Pragmatism in Indian foreign policy: how ideas constrain Modi.\"", "''International Affairs'' 93.1 (2017): 27–49.online* Mukherjee, Mithi.", "\"'A World of Illusion': The Legacy of Empire in India's Foreign Relations, 1947–62.\"", "''International History Review'' 32.2 (2010): 253–271.online free* Muni, S. D. ''India's Foreign Policy: The Democracy Dimension'' (2009)* Pant, Harsh V., and Julie M. Super.", "\"India's 'non-alignment' conundrum: a twentieth-century policy in a changing world.\"", "''International Affairs'' 91.4 (2015): 747–764.", "* Pant, Harsh, and Yogesh Joshi.", "''The US Pivot and Indian Foreign Policy: Asia's Evolving Balance of Power'' (Springer, 2015).", "* Raghavan, Srinath.", "''The Most Dangerous Place: A History of the United States in South Asia.''", "(Penguin Random House India, 2018); also published as ''Fierce Enigmas: A History of the United States in South Asia.''(2018).", "online review; also see excerpt* Sathasivam, Kanishkan.", "''Uneasy Neighbors: India, Pakistan and US Foreign Policy'' (Routledge, 2017).", "* Schaffer, Teresita C. ''India and the United States in the 21st Century: Reinventing Partnership'' (2009)* Shukla, Subhash.", "\"Foreign Policy Of India Under Narasimha Rao Government\" (PhD dissertation, U of Allahabad, 1999) online free, bibliography pp 488–523.", "* Singh, Sangeeta.", "\"Trends in India's Foreign Policy: 1991–2009.\"", "(PhD dissertation, Aligarh Muslim University, 2016) online, bibliography pp 270–86.", "* Sridharan, Eswaran.", "\"Where is India headed?", "Possible future directions in Indian foreign policy.\"", "''International Affairs'' 93.1 (2017): 51–68.", "* Tharoor, Shashi.", "''Reasons of state: political development and India's foreign policy under Indira Gandhi, 1966-1977'' (1982) online" ], [ "External links", "* Briefs on India's Bilateral Relations, Ministry of External Affairs* Harvard University homepage India's Foreign Policy, Xenia Dormandy* List of Treaties ruling relations Argentina and India (Argentine Foreign Ministry, in Spanish)* IBSA – India, Brazil, South Africa – News and Media" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Indian religions" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Indian religions''', sometimes also termed '''Dharmic religions''' or '''Indic religions''', are the religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent.", "These religions, which include Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism, are also classified as Eastern religions.", "Although Indian religions are connected through the history of India, they constitute a wide range of religious communities, and are not confined to the Indian subcontinent.+ Indian religions by number of followers (2020 survey) Religion Population Hindus 15px 1.2 billion Buddhists 18px 520 million Sikhs 15px 30 million Jains18px 6 million Others 4 million Total '''1.76 billion'''Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings.", "The Harappan people of the Indus Valley civilisation, which lasted from 3300 to 1300 BCE (mature period 2600–1900 BCE), had an early urbanized culture which predates the Vedic religion.The documented history of Indian religions begins with the historical Vedic religion, the religious practices of the early Indo-Iranians, which were collected and later redacted into the ''Vedas'', as well as the Agamas of Dravidian origin.", "The period of the composition, redaction, and commentary of these texts is known as the Vedic period, which lasted from roughly 1750 to 500 BCE.", "The philosophical portions of the Vedas were summarized in Upanishads, which are commonly referred to as ''Vedānta'', variously interpreted to mean either the \"last chapters, parts of the Veda\" or \"the object, the highest purpose of the Veda\".", "The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, five of the eleven principal Upanishads were composed in all likelihood before 6th century BCE, and contain the earliest mentions of ''Yoga'' and Moksha.The śramaṇa period between 800 and 200 BCE marks a \"turning point between the Vedic Hinduism and Puranic Hinduism\".", "The Shramana movement, an ancient Indian religious movement parallel to but separate from Vedic tradition, often defied many of the Vedic and Upanishadic concepts of soul (Atman) and the ultimate reality (Brahman).", "In 6th century BCE, the Shramnic movement matured into Jainism and Buddhism and was responsible for the schism of Indian religions into two main philosophical branches of astika, which venerates Veda (e.g., six orthodox schools of Hinduism) and nastika (e.g., Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka, etc.).", "However, both branches shared the related concepts of Yoga, ''saṃsāra'' (the cycle of birth and death) and ''moksha'' (liberation from that cycle).The Puranic Period (200 BCE – 500 CE) and Early Medieval period (500–1100 CE) gave rise to new configurations of Hinduism, especially bhakti and Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, Smarta, and smaller groups like the conservative Shrauta.The early Islamic period (1100–1500 CE) also gave rise to new movements.", "Sikhism was founded in the 15th century on the teachings of Guru Nanak and the nine successive Sikh Gurus in Northern India.", "The vast majority of its adherents originate in the Punjab region.", "During the period of British rule in India, a reinterpretation and synthesis of Hinduism arose, which aided the Indian independence movement." ], [ "History", "=== Periodisation ===Scottish historian James Mill, in his seminal work ''The History of British India'' (1817), distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely the Hindu, Muslim, and British periods.", "This periodisation has been criticised, for the misconceptions it has given rise to.", "Another periodisation is the division into \"ancient, classical, medieval, and modern periods\", although this periodization has also received criticism.Romila Thapar notes that the division of Hindu-Muslim-British periods of Indian history gives too much weight to \"ruling dynasties and foreign invasions\", neglecting the social-economic history which often showed a strong continuity.", "The division in Ancient-Medieval-Modern overlooks the fact that the Muslim-conquests took place between the eight and the fourteenth century, while the south was never completely conquered.", "According to Thapar, a periodisation could also be based on \"significant social and economic changes\", which are not strictly related to a change of ruling powers.Smart and Michaels seem to follow Mill's periodisation, while Flood and Muesse follow the \"ancient, classical, mediaeval and modern periods\" periodisation.", "An elaborate periodisation may be as follows:* Indian pre-history including Indus Valley civilisation (until c. 1750 BCE)* Iron Age including Vedic period (c. 1750–600 BCE)* \"Second Urbanisation\" (c. 600–200 BCE)* Classical period (c. 200 BCE-1200 CE) Pre-Classical period (c. 200 BCE-320 CE) \"Golden Age\" (Gupta Empire) (c. 320–650 CE)** Late-Classical period (c. 650–1200 CE)* Medieval period (c. 1200–1500 CE)* Early Modern (c. 1500–1850)* Modern period (British Raj and independence) (from c. 1850)=== Prevedic religions (before c. 1750 BCE) ======= Prehistory ====The earliest religion followed by the peoples of the Indian subcontinent, including those of the Indus Valley and Ganges Valley, was likely local animism that did not have missionaries.", "\"Priest King\" of Indus Valley civilisationEvidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings such as at Bhimbetka, depicting dances and rituals.", "Neolithic agriculturalists inhabiting the Indus River Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic.", "Other South Asian Stone Age sites, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.==== Indus Valley civilisation ====The religion and belief system of the Indus valley people have received considerable attention, especially from the view of identifying precursors to deities and religious practices of Indian religions that later developed in the area.", "However, due to the sparsity of evidence, which is open to varying interpretations, and the fact that the Indus script remains undeciphered, the conclusions are partly speculative and largely based on a retrospective view from a much later Hindu perspective.", "An early and influential work in the area that set the trend for Hindu interpretations of archaeological evidence from the Harrapan sites was that of John Marshall, who in 1931 identified the following as prominent features of the Indus religion: a Great Male God and a Mother Goddess; deification or veneration of animals and plants; symbolic representation of the phallus (linga) and vulva (yoni); and, use of baths and water in religious practice.", "Marshall's interpretations have been much debated, and sometimes disputed over the following decades.The so-called ''Pashupati seal'', showing a seated and possibly ithyphallic figure, surrounded by animals.One Indus valley seal shows a seated, possibly ithyphallic and tricephalic, figure with a horned headdress, surrounded by animals.", "Marshall identified the figure as an early form of the Hindu god Shiva (or Rudra), who is associated with asceticism, yoga, and linga; regarded as a lord of animals; and often depicted as having three eyes.", "The seal has hence come to be known as the Pashupati Seal, after ''Pashupati'' (lord of all animals), an epithet of Shiva.", "While Marshall's work has earned some support, many critics and even supporters have raised several objections.", "Doris Srinivasan has argued that the figure does not have three faces, or yogic posture, and that in Vedic literature Rudra was not a protector of wild animals.", "Herbert Sullivan and Alf Hiltebeitel also rejected Marshall's conclusions, with the former claiming that the figure was female, while the latter associated the figure with ''Mahisha'', the Buffalo God and the surrounding animals with vahanas (vehicles) of deities for the four cardinal directions.", "Writing in 2002, Gregory L. Possehl concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognise the figure as a deity, its association with the water buffalo, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would be going too far.", "Despite the criticisms of Marshall's association of the seal with a proto-Shiva icon, it has been interpreted as the Tirthankara Rishabha by Jains and Vilas Sangave or an early Buddha by Buddhists.", "Historians like Heinrich Zimmer, Thomas McEvilley are of the opinion that there exists some link between first Jain Tirthankara Rishabha and Indus Valley civilisation.Marshall hypothesized the existence of a cult of Mother Goddess worship based upon excavation of several female figurines, and thought that this was a precursor of the Hindu sect of Shaktism.", "However the function of the female figurines in the life of Indus Valley people remains unclear, and Possehl does not regard the evidence for Marshall's hypothesis to be \"terribly robust\".", "Some of the baetyls interpreted by Marshall to be sacred phallic representations are now thought to have been used as pestles or game counters instead, while the ring stones that were thought to symbolise ''yoni'' were determined to be architectural features used to stand pillars, although the possibility of their religious symbolism cannot be eliminated.Many Indus Valley seals show animals, with some depicting them being carried in processions, while others show chimeric creations.", "One seal from Mohen-jodaro shows a half-human, half-buffalo monster attacking a tiger, which may be a reference to the Sumerian myth of such a monster created by goddess Aruru to fight Gilgamesh.", "Some seals show a man wearing a hat with two horns and a plant sitting on a throne with animals surrounding him.", "Some scholars theorize that this was a predecessor to Shiva wearing a hat worn by some Sumerian divine beings and kings.In contrast to contemporary Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilisations, the Indus Valley lacks any monumental palaces, even though excavated cities indicate that the society possessed the requisite engineering knowledge.", "This may suggest that religious ceremonies, if any, may have been largely confined to individual homes, small temples, or the open air.", "Several sites have been proposed by Marshall and later scholars as possibly devoted to religious purpose, but at present only the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro is widely thought to have been so used, as a place for ritual purification.", "The funerary practices of the Harappan civilisation is marked by its diversity with evidence of supine burial; fractional burial in which the body is reduced to skeletal remains by exposure to the elements before final interment; and even cremation.=== Vedic period (1750–800 BCE) ===The documented history of Indian religions begins with the historical Vedic religion, the religious practices of the early Indo-Aryans, which were collected and later redacted into the ''Samhitas'' (usually known as the Vedas), four canonical collections of hymns or mantras composed in archaic Sanskrit.", "These texts are the central ''shruti'' (revealed) texts of Hinduism.", "The period of the composition, redaction, and commentary of these texts is known as the Vedic period, which lasted from roughly 1750 to 500 BCE.The Vedic Period is most significant for the composition of the four Vedas, Brahmanas and the older Upanishads (both presented as discussions on the rituals, mantras and concepts found in the four Vedas), which today are some of the most important canonical texts of Hinduism, and are the codification of much of what developed into the core beliefs of Hinduism.Some modern Hindu scholars use the \"Vedic religion\" synonymously with \"Hinduism.\"", "According to Sundararajan, Hinduism is also known as the Vedic religion.", "Other authors state that the Vedas contain \"the fundamental truths about Hindu Dharma\" which is called \"the modern version of the ancient Vedic Dharma\" The Arya Samaj is recognize the Vedic religion as true Hinduism.", "Nevertheless, according to Jamison and Witzel,==== Early Vedic period – early Vedic compositions (c. 1750–1200 BCE) ====The rishis, the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda, were considered inspired poets and seers.The mode of worship was the performance of Yajna, sacrifices which involved sacrifice and sublimation of the havana sámagri (herbal preparations) in the fire, accompanied by the singing of Samans and 'mumbling' of Yajus, the sacrificial mantras.", "The sublime meaning of the word yajna is derived from the Sanskrit verb yaj, which has a three-fold meaning of worship of deities (devapujana), unity (saògatikaraña), and charity (dána).", "An essential element was the sacrificial fire – the divine Agni – into which oblations were poured, as everything offered into the fire was believed to reach God.Central concepts in the Vedas are Satya and Rta.", "''Satya'' is derived from Sat, the present participle of the verbal root ''as'', \"to be, to exist, to live\".", "''Sat'' means \"that which really exists ... the really existent truth; the Good\", and ''Sat-ya'' means \"is-ness\".", "''Rta'', \"that which is properly joined; order, rule; truth\", is the principle of natural order which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it.", "\"Satya (truth as being) and rita (truth as law) are the primary principles of Reality and its manifestation is the background of the canons of dharma, or a life of righteousness.\"", "\"Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute, rita is its application and function as the rule and order operating in the universe.\"", "Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment.", "Panikkar remarks:The term rta is inherited from the Proto-Indo-Iranian religion, the religion of the Indo-Iranian peoples prior to the earliest Vedic (Indo-Aryan) and Zoroastrian (Iranian) scriptures.", "\"Asha\" is the Avestan language term (corresponding to Vedic language ṛta) for a concept of cardinal importance to Zoroastrian theology and doctrine.", "The term \"dharma\" was already used in Brahmanical thought, where it was conceived as an aspect of Rta.Major philosophers of this era were Rishis Narayana, Kanva, Rishaba, Vamadeva, and Angiras.==== Middle Vedic period (c. 1200–850 BCE) ====During the Middle Vedic period, the mantras of the Yajurveda and the older Brahmana texts were composed.", "The Brahmans became powerful intermediairies.Historical roots of Jainism in India is traced back to 9th-century BC with the rise of Parshvanatha and his non-violent philosophy.==== Late Vedic period (from 850 BCE) ====The Vedic religion evolved into Hinduism and Vedanta, a religious path considering itself the 'essence' of the Vedas, interpreting the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with 'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of Ishvara and Brahman.", "This post-Vedic systems of thought, along with the Upanishads and later texts like the epics (the Ramayana and the Mahabharata), is a major component of modern Hinduism.", "The ritualistic traditions of Vedic religion are preserved in the conservative Śrauta tradition.=== Sanskritization ===Since Vedic times, \"people from many strata of society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanic norms\", a process sometimes called Sanskritization.", "It is reflected in the tendency to identify local deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts.=== Shramanic period (c. 800–200 BCE) ===During the time of the shramanic reform movements \"many elements of the Vedic religion were lost\".", "According to Michaels, \"it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions\".==== Late Vedic period – Brahmanas and Upanishads – Vedanta (850–500 BCE) ====The late Vedic period (9th to 6th centuries BCE) marks the beginning of the Upanisadic or Vedantic period.", "This period heralded the beginning of much of what became classical Hinduism, with the composition of the Upanishads, later the Sanskrit epics, still later followed by the Puranas.Upanishads form the speculative-philosophical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as Vedanta (conclusion of the Vedas).", "The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual.", "Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.", "The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and death.Scholars believe that Parsva, the 23rd Jain ''tirthankara'' lived during this period in the 9th century BCE.==== Rise of Shramanic tradition (7th to 5th centuries BCE) ====Buddha statue at DarjeelingJainism and Buddhism belong to the śramaṇa traditions.", "These religions rose into prominence in 700–500 BCE in the Magadha kingdom., reflecting \"the cosmology and anthropology of a much older, pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India\", and were responsible for the related concepts of ''saṃsāra'' (the cycle of birth and death) and ''moksha'' (liberation from that cycle).The shramana movements challenged the orthodoxy of the rituals.", "The shramanas were wandering ascetics distinct from Vedism.", "Mahavira, proponent of Jainism, and Buddha (c. 563-483), founder of Buddhism were the most prominent icons of this movement.Shramana gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara, and the concept of liberation.", "The influence of Upanishads on Buddhism has been a subject of debate among scholars.", "While Radhakrishnan, Oldenberg and Neumann were convinced of Upanishadic influence on the Buddhist canon, Eliot and Thomas highlighted the points where Buddhism was opposed to Upanishads.", "Buddhism may have been influenced by some Upanishadic ideas, it however discarded their orthodox tendencies.", "In Buddhist texts Buddha is presented as rejecting avenues of salvation as \"pernicious views\".===== Jainism =====Jainism was established by a lineage of 24 enlightened beings culminating with Parshvanatha (9th century BCE) and Mahavira (6th century BCE).The 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, Mahavira, stressed five vows, including ''ahimsa'' (non-violence), ''satya'' (truthfulness), ''asteya'' (non-stealing), and ''aparigraha'' (non-attachment).", "Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time and scholars believe Parshva, accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara, was a historical figure.", "The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the shramana movement.===== Buddhism =====Buddhist Monks performing traditional Sand mandala made from coloured sandBuddhism was historically founded by Siddhartha Gautama, a Kshatriya prince-turned-ascetic, and was spread beyond India through missionaries.", "It later experienced a decline in India, but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka, and remains more widespread in Southeast and East Asia.Gautama Buddha, who was called an \"awakened one\" (Buddha), was born into the Shakya clan living at Kapilavastu and Lumbini in what is now southern Nepal.", "The Buddha was born at Lumbini, as emperor Ashoka's Lumbini pillar records, just before the kingdom of Magadha (which traditionally is said to have lasted from c. 546–324 BCE) rose to power.", "The Shakyas claimed Angirasa and Gautama Maharishi lineage, via descent from the royal lineage of Ayodhya.Buddhism emphasises enlightenment (nibbana, nirvana) and liberation from the rounds of rebirth.", "This objective is pursued through two schools, Theravada, the Way of the Elders (practiced in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, SE Asia, etc.)", "and Mahayana, the Greater Way (practiced in Tibet, China, Japan, etc.).", "There may be some differences in the practice between the two schools in reaching the objective.==== Spread of Jainism and Buddhism (500–200 BCE) ====Both Jainism and Buddhism spread throughout India during the period of the Magadha empire.Buddhism flourished during the reign of Ashoka of the Maurya Empire, who patronised Buddhist teachings and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE.", "He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia.", "Jainism began its golden period during the reign of Emperor Kharavela of Kalinga in the 2nd century BCE.==== Dravidian culture ====The early Dravidian religion constituted of non-Vedic form of Hinduism in that they were either historically or are at present Āgamic.", "The Agamas are non-vedic in origin and have been dated either as post-vedic texts.", "or as pre-vedic oral compositions.", "The ''Agamas'' are a collection of Tamil and later Sanskrit scriptures chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation of ''murti'', worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga.", "The worship of tutelary deity, sacred flora and fauna in Hinduism is also recognized as a survival of the pre-Vedic Dravidian religion.Saga Agastya, father of Tamil literatureAncient Tamil grammatical works Tolkappiyam, the ten anthologies Pattuppāṭṭu, the eight anthologies Eṭṭuttokai also sheds light on early religion of ancient Dravidians.", "''Seyon'' was glorified as ''the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent,'' as ''the favored god of the Tamils.''", "Sivan was also seen as the supreme God.", "Early iconography of Seyyon and Sivan and their association with native flora and fauna goes back to Indus Valley Civilization.", "The Sangam landscape was classified into five categories, ''thinais'', based on the mood, the season and the land.", "Tolkappiyam, mentions that each of these ''thinai'' had an associated deity such Seyyon in ''Kurinji''-the hills, Thirumaal in ''Mullai''-the forests, and Kotravai in ''Marutham''-the plains, and Wanji-ko in the ''Neithal''-the coasts and the seas.", "Other gods mentioned were Mayyon and Vaali who were all assimilated into Hinduism over time.", "Dravidian linguistic influence on early Vedic religion is evident, many of these features are already present in the oldest known Indo-Aryan language, the language of the ''Rigveda'' (c. 1500 BCE), which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian.", "This represents an early religious and cultural fusion or synthesis between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans, which became more evident over time with sacred iconography, traditions, philosophy, flora, and fauna that went on to influence Hinduism, Buddhism, Charvaka, Sramana, and Jainism.Typical layout of Dravidian architecture which evolved from ''koyil'' as king's residence.Throughout Tamilakam, a king was considered to be divine by nature and possessed religious significance.", "The king was 'the representative of God on earth' and lived in a \"koyil\", which means the \"residence of a god\".", "The Modern Tamil word for temple is koil.", "Titual worship was also given to kings.", "Modern words for god like \"kō\" (\"king\"), \"iṟai\" (\"emperor\"), and \"āṇḍavar\" (\"conqueror\") now primarily refer to gods.", "These elements were incorporated later into Hinduism like the legendary marriage of Shiva to Queen Mīnātchi who ruled Madurai or Wanji-ko, a god who later merged into Indra.", "Tolkappiyar refers to the Three Crowned Kings as the \"Three Glorified by Heaven\".", "In the Dravidian-speaking South, the concept of divine kingship led to the assumption of major roles by state and temple.The cult of the mother goddess is treated as an indication of a society which venerated femininity.", "This mother goddess was conceived as a virgin, one who has given birth to all and one, typically associated with Shaktism.", "The temples of the Sangam days, mainly of Madurai, seem to have had priestesses to the deity, which also appear predominantly a goddess.", "In the Sangam literature, there is an elaborate description of the rites performed by the Kurava priestess in the shrine Palamutircholai.", "Among the early Dravidians the practice of erecting memorial stones ''Natukal'' or ''Hero Stone'' had appeared, and it continued for quite a long time after the Sangam age, down to about 16th century.", "It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship these hero stones to bless them with victory.=== Epic and Early Puranic Period (200 BCE – 500 CE) ===Keshi, 5th century, Gupta period.Flood and Muesse take the period between 200 BCE and 500 BCE as a separate period, in which the epics and the first puranas were being written.", "Michaels takes a greater timespan, namely the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE, which saw the rise of so-called \"Classical Hinduism\", with its \"golden age\" during the Gupta Empire.Lalita flanked by Gaṇeśa and Kārttikeya, Pala era.According to Alf Hiltebeitel, a period of consolidation in the development of Hinduism took place between the time of the late Vedic Upanishad (c. 500 BCE) and the period of the rise of the Guptas (c. 320–467 CE), which he calls the \"Hindus synthesis\", \"Brahmanic synthesis\", or \"orthodox synthesis\".", "It develops in interaction with other religions and peoples:The end of the Vedantic period around the 2nd century CE spawned a number of branches that furthered Vedantic philosophy, and which ended up being seminaries in their own right.", "Prominent among these developers were Yoga, Dvaita, Advaita, and the medieval Bhakti movement.==== Smriti ====The ''smriti'' texts of the period between 200 BCE–100 CE proclaim the authority of the Vedas, and \"nonrejection of the Vedas comes to be one of the most important touchstones for defining Hinduism over and against the heterodoxies, which rejected the Vedas.\"", "Of the six Hindu darsanas, the Mimamsa and the Vedanta \"are rooted primarily in the Vedic ''sruti'' tradition and are sometimes called ''smarta'' schools in the sense that they develop ''smarta'' orthodox current of thoughts that are based, like ''smriti'', directly on ''sruti''.\"", "According to Hiltebeitel, \"the consolidation of Hinduism takes place under the sign of ''bhakti''.\"", "It is the ''Bhagavadgita'' that seals this achievement.", "The result is a universal achievement that may be called ''smarta''.", "It views Shiva and Vishnu as \"complementary in their functions but ontologically identical\".==== Vedanta – Brahma sutras (200 BCE) ====In earlier writings, Sanskrit 'Vedānta' simply referred to the Upanishads, the most speculative and philosophical of the Vedic texts.", "However, in the medieval period of Hinduism, the word Vedānta came to mean the school of philosophy that interpreted the Upanishads.", "Traditional Vedānta considers shabda pramāṇa (scriptural evidence) as the most authentic means of knowledge, while pratyakṣa (perception) and anumāna (logical inference) are considered to be subordinate (but valid).The systematisation of Vedantic ideas into one coherent treatise was undertaken by Badarāyana in the Brahma Sutras which was composed around 200 BCE.", "The cryptic aphorisms of the Brahma Sutras are open to a variety of interpretations.", "This resulted in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own sub-commentaries.==== Indian philosophy ====After 200 CE several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimāṃsā and Advaita Vedanta.", "Hinduism, otherwise a highly polytheistic, pantheistic or monotheistic religion, also tolerated atheistic schools.", "The thoroughly materialistic and anti-religious philosophical Cārvāka school that originated around the 6th century BCE is the most explicitly atheistic school of Indian philosophy.", "Cārvāka is classified as a ''nāstika'' (\"heterodox\") system; it is not included among the six schools of Hinduism generally regarded as orthodox.", "It is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism.", "Our understanding of Cārvāka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and it is no longer a living tradition.", "Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include Samkhya and Mimāṃsā.==== Hindu literature ====The Golden Temple of Mahalakshmi at Vellore.Two of Hinduism's most revered ''epics'', the Mahabharata and Ramayana were compositions of this period.", "Devotion to particular deities was reflected from the composition of texts composed to their worship.", "For example, the ''Ganapati Purana'' was written for devotion to Ganapati (or Ganesh).", "Popular deities of this era were Shiva, Vishnu, Durga, Surya, Skanda, and Ganesh (including the forms/incarnations of these deities).In the latter Vedantic period, several texts were also composed as summaries/attachments to the Upanishads.", "These texts collectively called as Puranas allowed for a divine and mythical interpretation of the world, not unlike the ancient Hellenic or Roman religions.", "Legends and epics with a multitude of gods and goddesses with human-like characteristics were composed.==== Jainism and Buddhism ====The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronized Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy.", "Buddhism continued to have a significant presence in some regions of India until the 12th century.There were several Buddhistic kings who worshiped Vishnu, such as the Gupta Empire, Pala Empire, Chalukyas, Somavanshi, and Satavahana.", "Buddhism survived followed by Hindus.==== Tantra ====Tantrism originated in the early centuries CE and developed into a fully articulated tradition by the end of the Gupta period.", "According to Michaels this was the \"Golden Age of Hinduism\" (c. 320–650 CE), which flourished during the Gupta Empire (320 to 550 CE) until the fall of the Harsha Empire (606 to 647 CE).", "During this period, power was centralised, along with a growth of far distance trade, standardizarion of legal procedures, and general spread of literacy.", "Mahayana Buddhism flourished, but the orthodox Brahmana culture began to be rejuvenated by the patronage of the Gupta Dynasty.", "The position of the Brahmans was reinforced, and the first Hindu temples emerged during the late Gupta age.=== Medieval and Late Puranic Period (500–1500 CE) ======= Late-Classical Period (c. 650–1100 CE) ====:''See also Late-Classical Age and Hinduism Middle Ages''After the end of the Gupta Empire and the collapse of the Harsha Empire, power became decentralised in India.", "Several larger kingdoms emerged, with \"countless vasal states\".", "The kingdoms were ruled via a feudal system.", "Smaller kingdoms were dependent on the protection of the larger kingdoms.", "\"The great king was remote, was exalted and deified\", as reflected in the Tantric Mandala, which could also depict the king as the centre of the mandala.The disintegration of central power also lead to regionalisation of religiosity, and religious rivalry.", "Local cults and languages were enhanced, and the influence of \"Brahmanic ritualistic Hinduism\" was diminished.", "Rural and devotional movements arose, along with Shaivism, Vaisnavism, Bhakti, and Tantra, though \"sectarian groupings were only at the beginning of their development\".", "Religious movements had to compete for recognition by the local lords.", "Buddhism lost its position, and began to disappear in India.===== Vedanta =====In the same period Vedanta changed, incorporating Buddhist thought and its emphasis on consciousness and the working of the mind.", "Buddhism, which was supported by the ancient Indian urban civilisation lost influence to the traditional religions, which were rooted in the countryside.", "In Bengal, Buddhism was even prosecuted.", "But at the same time, Buddhism was incorporated into Hinduism, when Gaudapada used Buddhist philosophy to reinterpret the Upanishads.", "This also marked a shift from Atman and Brahman as a \"living substance\" to \"maya-vada\", where Atman and Brahman are seen as \"pure knowledge-consciousness\".", "According to Scheepers, it is this \"maya-vada\" view which has come to dominate Indian thought.===== Buddhism =====Between 400 and 1000 CE Hinduism expanded as the decline of Buddhism in India continued.", "Buddhism subsequently became effectively extinct in India but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka.===== Bhakti =====The Bhakti movement began with the emphasis on the worship of God, regardless of one's status – whether priestly or laypeople, men or women, higher social status or lower social status.", "The movements were mainly centered on the forms of Vishnu (Rama and Krishna) and Shiva.", "There were however popular devotees of this era of Durga.", "The best-known proponents of this movement were the Alvars and the Nayanars from southern India.", "The most popular Shaiva teacher of the south was Basava, while of the north it was Gorakhnath.", "Female saints include figures like Akkamadevi, Lalleshvari and Molla.The Alvars (, ''āḻvārkaḷ'' , those immersed in god) were the Tamil poet-saints of south India, who lived between the 6th and 9th centuries CE and espoused \"emotional devotion\" or bhakti to Vishnu-Krishna in their songs of longing, ecstasy and service.", "The most popular Vaishnava teacher of the south was Ramanuja, while of the north it was Ramananda.Several important icons were women.", "For example, within the Mahanubhava sect, the women outnumbered the men, and administration was many times composed mainly of women.", "Mirabai is the most popular female saint in India.Sri Vallabha Acharya (1479–1531) is a very important figure from this era.", "He founded the Shuddha Advaita (''Pure Non-dualism'') school of Vedanta thought.According to ''The Centre for Cultural Resources and Training'',==== Early Islamic rule (c. 1100–1500 CE) ====In the 12th and 13th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Rajput holdings.", "The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, approximately equal in extent to the ancient Gupta Empire, while the Khalji dynasty conquered most of central India but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting the subcontinent.", "The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance.", "The resulting \"Indo-Muslim\" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing.===== Bhakti movement =====During the 14th to 17th centuries, a great ''Bhakti'' movement swept through central and northern India, initiated by a loosely associated group of teachers or ''Sants''.", "Ramananda, Ravidas, Srimanta Sankardeva, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Vallabha Acharya, Sur, Meera, Kabir, Tulsidas, Namdev, Dnyaneshwar, Tukaram, and other mystics spearheaded the Bhakti movement in the North while Annamacharya, Bhadrachala Ramadas, Tyagaraja, and others propagated Bhakti in the South.", "They taught that people could cast aside the heavy burdens of ritual and caste, and the subtle complexities of philosophy, and simply express their overwhelming love for God.", "This period was also characterized by a spate of devotional literature in vernacular prose and poetry in the ethnic languages of the various Indian states or provinces.===== Lingayatism =====Lingayatism is a distinct Shaivite tradition in India, established in the 12th century by the philosopher and social reformer Basavanna.", "The adherents of this tradition are known as Lingayats.", "The term is derived from Lingavantha in Kannada, meaning \"one who wears ''Ishtalinga'' on their body\" (''Ishtalinga'' is the representation of the God).", "In Lingayat theology, ''Ishtalinga'' is an oval-shaped emblem symbolising Parasiva, the absolute reality.", "Contemporary Lingayatism follows a progressive reform–based theology propounded, which has great influence in South India, especially in the state of Karnataka.===== Unifying Hinduism =====An aerial view of the Meenakshi Temple from the top of the southern gopuram, looking north.", "The temple was rebuilt by the Vijayanagar Empire.\|alt=aerial image of a temple campus.According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and 16th century,The tendency of \"a blurring of philosophical distinctions\" has also been noted by Mikel Burley.", "Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus, and a process of \"mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other\", which started well before 1800.Both the Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term \"Hinduism\" in the 19th century were influenced by these philosophers.===== Sikhism (15th century) =====Harmandir Sahib (''The Golden Temple'') is culturally the most significant place of worship for the Sikhs.Sikhism originated in 15th-century Punjab, Delhi Sultanate (present-day India and Pakistan) with the teachings of Nanak and nine successive gurus.", "The principal belief in Sikhism is faith in ''Vāhigurū''— represented by the sacred symbol of ''ēk ōaṅkār'' meaning one god.", "Sikhism's traditions and teachings are distinctly associated with the history, society and culture of the Punjab.", "Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs (''students'' or ''disciples'') and number over 27 million across the world.=== Modern period (1500–present) ======= Early modern period ====According to Gavin Flood, the modern period in India begins with the first contacts with western nations around 1500.The period of Mughal rule in India saw the rise of new forms of religiosity.==== Modern India (after 1800) ====Mahamagam Festival is a holy festival celebrated once in twelve years in Tamil Nadu.", "Mahamagam Festival, which is held at Kumbakonam.", "This festival is also called as Kumbamela of South.Maha Kumbh Mela held in Prayag attracted around 70 million Hindus from around the world.===== Hinduism =====In the 19th century, under influence of the colonial forces, a synthetic vision of Hinduism was formulated by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Mahatma Gandhi.", "These thinkers have tended to take an inclusive view of India's religious history, emphasising the similarities between the various Indian religions.The modern era has given rise to dozens of Hindu saints with international influence.", "For example, Brahma Baba established the Brahma Kumaris, one of the largest new Hindu religious movements which teaches the discipline of Raja Yoga to millions.", "Representing traditional Gaudiya Vaishnavism, Prabhupada founded the Hare Krishna movement, another organisation with a global reach.", "In late 18th-century India, Swaminarayan founded the Swaminarayan Sampraday.", "Anandamurti, founder of the Ananda Marga, has also influenced many worldwide.", "Through the international influence of all of these new Hindu denominations, many Hindu practices such as yoga, meditation, mantra, divination, and vegetarianism have been adopted by new converts.===== Jainism =====Jainism continues to be an influential religion and Jain communities live in Indian states Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.", "Jains authored several classical books in different Indian languages for a considerable period of time.===== Buddhism =====The Dalit Buddhist movement also referred to as Navayana is a 19th- and 20th-century Buddhist revival movement in India.", "It received its most substantial impetus from B. R. Ambedkar's call for the conversion of Dalits to Buddhism in 1956 and the opportunity to escape the caste-based society that considered them to be the lowest in the hierarchy." ], [ "Similarities and differences", "Abrahamic (pink) and Indian religions (yellow) in each countryAccording to Tilak, the religions of India can be interpreted \"differentially\" or \"integrally\", that is by either highlighting the differences or the similarities.", "According to Sherma and Sarma, western Indologists have tended to emphasise the differences, while Indian Indologists have tended to emphasise the similarities.=== Similarities ===Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share certain key concepts, which are interpreted differently by different groups and individuals.", "Until the 19th century, adherents of those various religions did not tend to label themselves as in opposition to each other, but \"perceived themselves as belonging to the same extended cultural family.", "\"==== Dharma ====A devotee facing the Ganga, reading a stack of holy books (\"Chalisa\" of various god) at the Kumbh MelaThe spectrum of these religions are called Dharmic religions because of their overlap over the core concept of Dharma.", "It has various meanings depending on the context.", "For example it could mean duty, righteousness, spiritual teachings, conduct, etc.==== Soteriology ====Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share the concept of moksha, liberation from the cycle of rebirth.", "They differ however on the exact nature of this liberation.==== Ritual ====Common traits can also be observed in ritual.", "The head-anointing ritual of ''abhiseka'' is of importance in three of these distinct traditions, excluding Sikhism (in Buddhism it is found within Vajrayana).", "Other noteworthy rituals are the cremation of the dead, the wearing of vermilion on the head by married women, and various marital rituals.", "In literature, many classical narratives and purana have Hindu, Buddhist or Jain versions.", "All four traditions have notions of ''karma'', ''dharma'', ''samsara'', ''moksha'' and various ''forms of Yoga''.==== Mythology ====Rama is a heroic figure in all of these religions.", "In Hinduism he is the God-incarnate in the form of a princely king; in Buddhism, he is a Bodhisattva-incarnate; in Jainism, he is the perfect human being.", "Among the Buddhist Ramayanas are: ''Vessantarajataka'', Reamker, Ramakien, Phra Lak Phra Lam, Hikayat Seri Rama, etc.", "There also exists the ''Khamti Ramayana'' among the Khamti tribe of Asom wherein Rama is an Avatar of a Bodhisattva who incarnates to punish the demon king Ravana (B.Datta 1993).", "The ''Tai Ramayana'' is another book retelling the divine story in Asom.=== Differences ===Critics point out that there exist vast differences between and even within the various Indian religions.", "All major religions are composed of innumerable sects and subsects.==== Mythology ====Indian mythology also reflects the competition between the various Indian religions.", "A popular story tells how Vajrapani kills Mahesvara, a manifestation of Shiva depicted as an evil being.", "The story occurs in several scriptures, most notably the ''Sarvatathagatatattvasamgraha'' and the ''Vajrapany-abhiseka-mahatantra''.", "According to Kalupahana, the story \"echoes\" the story of the conversion of Ambattha.", "It is to be understood in the context of the competition between Buddhist institutions and Shaivism." ], [ "''Āstika'' and ''nāstika'' categorisation", "''Āstika'' and ''nāstika'' are variously defined terms sometimes used to categorise Indian religions.", "The traditional definition, followed by Adi Shankara, classifies religions and persons as ''āstika'' and ''nāstika'' according to whether they accept the authority of the main Hindu texts, the Vedas, as supreme revealed scriptures, or not.", "By this definition, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Vedanta are classified as ''āstika'' schools, while Charvaka is classified as a ''nāstika'' school.", "Buddhism and Jainism are also thus classified as ''nāstika'' religions since they do not accept the authority of the Vedas.Another set of definitions—notably distinct from the usage of Hindu philosophy—loosely characterise ''āstika'' as \"theist\" and ''nāstika'' as \"atheist\".", "By these definitions, ''Sāṃkhya'' can be considered a ''nāstika'' philosophy, though it is traditionally classed among the Vedic ''āstika'' schools.", "From this point of view, Buddhism and Jainism remain ''nāstika'' religions.Buddhists and Jains have disagreed that they are nastika and have redefined the phrases āstika and nāstika in their own view.", "Jains assign the term nastika to one who is ignorant of the meaning of the religious texts, or those who deny the existence of the soul was well known to the Jainas." ], [ "Use of term \"Dharmic religions\"", "Frawley and Malhotra use the term \"Dharmic traditions\" to highlight the similarities between the various Indian religions.", "According to Frawley, \"all religions in India have been called the Dharma\", and can beAccording to Paul Hacker, as described by Halbfass, the term \"dharma\"The emphasis on the similarities and integral unity of the dharmic faiths has been criticised for neglecting the vast differences between and even within the various Indian religions and traditions.", "According to Richard E. King it is typical of the \"inclusivist appropriation of other traditions\" of Neo-Vedanta:The \"Council of Dharmic Faiths\" (UK) regards Zoroastrianism, while not originating in the Indian subcontinent, also as a Dharmic religion." ], [ "Status of non-Hindus in the Republic of India", "The inclusion of Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs within Hinduism is part of the Indian legal system.", "The 1955 Hindu Marriage Act \"defines as Hindus all Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs and anyone who is not a Christian, Muslim, Parsee (Zoroastrian) or Jew\".", "And the Indian Constitution says that \"reference to Hindus shall be construed as including a reference to persons professing the Sikh, Jaina or Buddhist religion\".In a judicial reminder, the Indian Supreme Court observed Sikhism and Jainism to be sub-sects or ''special'' faiths within the larger Hindu fold, and that Jainism is a denomination within the Hindu fold.", "Although the Indian Government counted Jains in India as a major religious community right from the first Census conducted in 1873, after independence in 1947 Sikhs and Jains were not treated as national minorities.", "In 2005, the Supreme Court of India declined to issue a writ of Mandamus granting Jains the status of a religious minority throughout India.", "The Court however left it to the respective states to decide on the minority status of Jain religion.However, some individual states have over the past few decades differed on whether Jains, Buddhists, and Sikhs are religious minorities or not, by either pronouncing judgments or passing legislation.", "One example is the judgment passed by the Supreme Court in 2006, in a case pertaining to the state of Uttar Pradesh, which declared Jainism to be indisputably distinct from Hinduism, but mentioned that, \"The question as to whether the Jains are part of the Hindu religion is open to debate.", "However, the Supreme Court also noted various court cases that have held Jainism to be a distinct religion.Another example is the Gujarat Freedom of Religion Bill, that is an amendment to a legislation that sought to define Jains and Buddhists as denominations within Hinduism.", "Ultimately on 31 July 2007, finding it not in conformity with the concept of freedom of religion as embodied in Article 25 (1) of the Constitution, Governor Naval Kishore Sharma returned the Gujarat Freedom of Religion (Amendment) Bill, 2006 citing the widespread protests by the Jains as well as Supreme Court's extrajudicial observation that Jainism is a \"special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion by the Supreme Court\"." ], [ "See also", "* Abrahamic religions, a similar term used to refer Judaism, Christianity, and Islam* Taoic religions, a similar terms used to refer to East Asian religions such as Taoism, Shintoism and MuismAhimsa Buddhism in India* Christianity in India* Demographics of India* Hinduism in India* Indology* Iranian religions* Jainism in India* Kalasha (religion)* Proto-Indo-European mythology* Proto-Indo-Iranian religion* Sanamahism* Sikhism in India* Tribal religions in IndiaVegetarianism Zoroastrianism in India" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "=== Printed sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * === Web sources ===" ], [ "External links", ";Statistics* ;Constitution and law* ;Reports*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Idaho" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Idaho''' ( ) is a state in the Mountain West subregion of the United States.", "It shares a small portion of the Canada–United States border to the north, with the province of British Columbia.", "It borders Montana and Wyoming to the east, Nevada and Utah to the south, and Washington and Oregon to the west.", "The state's capital and largest city is Boise.", "With an area of , Idaho is the 14th largest state by land area.", "With a population of approximately 1.8 million, it ranks as the 13th least populous and the 6th least densely populated of the 50 U.S. states.For thousands of years, and prior to European colonization, Idaho has been inhabited by native peoples.", "In the early 19th century, Idaho was considered part of the Oregon Country, an area of dispute between the U.S. and the British Empire.", "It officially became a U.S. territory with the signing of the Oregon Treaty of 1846, but a separate Idaho Territory was not organized until 1863, instead being included for periods in Oregon Territory and Washington Territory.", "Idaho was eventually admitted to the Union on July 3, 1890, becoming the 43rd state.Forming part of the Pacific Northwest (and the associated Cascadia bioregion), Idaho is divided into several distinct geographic and climatic regions.", "The state's north, the relatively isolated Idaho Panhandle, is closely linked with Eastern Washington, with which it shares the Pacific Time Zone—the rest of the state uses the Mountain Time Zone.", "The state's south includes the Snake River Plain (which has most of the population and agricultural land), and the southeast incorporates part of the Great Basin.", "Idaho is quite mountainous and contains several stretches of the Rocky Mountains.", "The United States Forest Service holds about 38% of Idaho's land, the highest proportion of any state.Industries significant for the state economy include manufacturing, agriculture, mining, forestry, and tourism.", "Several science and technology firms are either headquartered in Idaho or have factories there, and the state also contains the Idaho National Laboratory, which is the country's largest Department of Energy facility.", "Idaho's agricultural sector supplies many products, but the state is best known for its potato crop, which comprises around one-third of the nationwide yield.", "The official state nickname is the \"Gem State.\"" ], [ "Etymology", "The name's origin remains a mystery.", "In the early 1860s, when the U.S. Congress was considering organizing a new territory in the Rocky Mountains, the name \"Idaho\" was suggested by George M. Willing, a politician posing as an unrecognized delegate from the unofficial Jefferson Territory.", "Willing claimed that the name was derived from a Shoshone term meaning \"the sun comes from the mountains\" or \"gem of the mountains\", but it was revealed later that there was no such term and Willing claimed that he had been inspired to coin the name when he met a little girl named ''Ida''.", "Since the name appeared to be fabricated, the U.S. Congress ultimately decided to name the area Colorado Territory instead when it was created in February 1861, but by the time this decision was made, the town of Idaho Springs, Colorado had already been named after Willing's proposal.The same year Congress created Colorado Territory, a county called Idaho County was created in eastern Washington Territory.", "The county was named after a steamship named ''Idaho'', which was launched on the Columbia River in 1860.It is unclear whether the steamship was named before or after Willing's claim was revealed.", "Regardless, part of Washington Territory, including Idaho County, was used to create Idaho Territory in 1863.Idaho Territory would later change its boundaries to the area that became the U.S. state." ], [ "History", "Humans may have been present in the Idaho area as long as 14,500 years ago.", "Excavations at Wilson Butte Cave near Twin Falls in 1959 revealed evidence of human activity, including arrowheads, that rank among the oldest dated artifacts in North America.", "American Indian peoples predominant in the area included the Nez Percé in the north and the Northern and Western Shoshone in the south.A Late Upper Paleolithic site was identified at Cooper's Ferry in western Idaho near the town of Cottonwood by archaeologists in 2019.Based on evidence found at the site, first people lived in this area 15,300 to 16,600 years ago, predating the Beringia land bridge by about a thousand years.", "The discoverers emphasized that they possess similarities with tools and artifacts discovered in Japan that date from 16,000 to 13,000 years ago.", "The discovery also showed that the first people might not have come to North America by land, as previously theorized.", "On the contrary, they probably came through the water, using a Pacific coastal route.An early presence of French-Canadian trappers is visible in names and toponyms: ''Nez Percé, Cœur d'Alène, Boisé, Payette''.", "Some of these names appeared prior to the Lewis and Clark and Astorian expeditions, which included significant numbers of French and Métis guides recruited for their familiarity with the terrain.Idaho, as part of the Oregon Country, was claimed by both the United States and Great Britain until the United States gained undisputed jurisdiction in 1846.From 1843 to 1859, present-day Idaho was under the de facto jurisdiction of the Provisional Government of Oregon.", "When Oregon became a state in 1859, what is now Idaho was situated in what remained of the original Oregon Territory, designated as the Washington Territory.Between 1849 and the creation of the Idaho Territory in 1863, parts of present-day Idaho were included in the Oregon, Washington, and Dakota Territories.", "The new Idaho territory included present-day Idaho, Montana, and most of Wyoming.", "The Lewis and Clark expedition crossed Idaho in 1805 on the way to the Pacific, and in 1806, on the return trip, largely following the Clearwater River in both directions.", "The first non-indigenous settlement was Kullyspell House, established on the shore of Lake Pend Oreille in 1809 by David Thompson of the North West Company for fur trading.", "In 1812 Donald Mackenzie, working for the Pacific Fur Company at the time, established a post on the lower Clearwater River near present-day Lewiston.", "This post, known as \"MacKenzie's Post\" or \"Clearwater\", operated until the Pacific Fur Company was bought out by the North West Company in 1813, after which the post was abandoned.", "The first organized non-indigenous communities within the present borders of Idaho were established by Mormon pioneers in 1860.The first permanent, substantial incorporated community was Lewiston, in 1861.Early in its history, Idaho saw a large influx of Chinese immigrants, who by 1870 made up about 28.5% of the territory's population.Idaho achieved statehood in 1890, following a difficult start as a territory, including the chaotic transfer of the territorial capital from Lewiston to Boise, disenfranchisement of Mormon polygamists upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1890, and a federal attempt to split the territory between Washington Territory, which gained statehood in 1889, a year before Idaho, and the state of Nevada which had been a state since 1864.Idaho was one of the hardest hit of the Pacific Northwest states during the Great Depression.", "Prices plummeted for Idaho's major crops: in 1932 a bushel of potatoes brought only ten cents compared to 1919 for $1.51, while Idaho farmers saw their annual income of $686 in 1929 drop to $250 by 1932.In recent years, Idaho has expanded its commercial base as a tourism and agricultural state to include science and technology industries.", "Science and technology have become the largest single economic center (over 25% of the state's total revenue) within the state and are greater than agriculture, forestry and mining combined.During the COVID-19 pandemic, Idaho enacted statewide crisis standards of care as COVID-19 patients overwhelmed hospitals.", "The state had one of the lowest vaccination rates in the country as of mid-October 2021." ], [ "Geography", " Idaho shares a border with six U.S. states and one Canadian province.", "The states of Washington and Oregon are to the west, Nevada and Utah are to the south, and Montana and Wyoming are to the east.", "Idaho also shares a short border with the Canadian province of British Columbia to the north.The landscape is rugged, with some of the largest unspoiled natural areas in the United States.", "For example, at 2.3 million acres (930,000 ha), the Frank Church-River of No Return Wilderness Area is the largest contiguous area of protected wilderness in the continental United States.", "Idaho is a Rocky Mountain state with abundant natural resources and scenic areas.", "The state has snow-capped mountain ranges, rapids, vast lakes and steep canyons.", "The waters of the Snake River run through Hells Canyon, the deepest gorge in the United States.", "Shoshone Falls falls down cliffs from a height greater than Niagara Falls.By far, the most important river in Idaho is the Snake River, a major tributary of the Columbia River.", "The Snake River flows from Yellowstone in northwestern Wyoming through the Snake River Plain in southern Idaho before turning north, leaving the state at Lewiston before joining the Columbia in Kennewick.", "Other major rivers are the Clark Fork/Pend Oreille River, the Spokane River, and, many major tributaries of the Snake River, including the Clearwater River, the Salmon River, the Boise River, and the Payette River.", "The Salmon River empties into the Snake in Hells Canyon and forms the southern boundary of Nez Perce County on its north shore, of which Lewiston is the county seat.", "The Port of Lewiston, at the confluence of the Clearwater and the Snake Rivers is the farthest inland seaport on the West Coast at 465 river miles from the Pacific at Astoria, Oregon.A portion of Yellowstone national Park is located in Idaho.", "The other parts are in Montana and Wyoming.The vast majority of Idaho's population lives in the Snake River Plain, a valley running from across the entirety of southern Idaho from east to west.", "The valley contains the major cities of Boise, Meridian, Nampa, Caldwell, Twin Falls, Idaho Falls, and Pocatello.", "The plain served as an easy pass through the Rocky Mountains for westward-bound settlers on the Oregon Trail, and many settlers chose to settle the area rather than risking the treacherous route through the Blue Mountains and the Cascade Range to the west.", "The western region of the plain is known as the Treasure Valley, bound between the Owyhee Mountains to the southwest and the Boise Mountains to the northeast.", "The central region of the Snake River Plain is known as the Magic Valley.Idaho's highest point is Borah Peak, , in the Lost River Range north of Mackay.", "Idaho's lowest point, , is in Lewiston, where the Clearwater River joins the Snake River and continues into Washington.", "The Sawtooth Range is often considered Idaho's most famous mountain range.", "Other mountain ranges in Idaho include the Bitterroot Range, the White Cloud Mountains, the Lost River Range, the Clearwater Mountains, and the Salmon River Mountains.Salmon-Challis National Forest is located in the east central sections of the state, with Salmon National Forest to the north and Challis National Forest to the south.", "The forest is in an area known as the Idaho Cobalt Belt, which consists of a long geological formation of sedimentary rock that contains some of the largest cobalt deposits in the U.S.Idaho has two time zones, with the dividing line approximately midway between Canada and Nevada.", "Southern Idaho, including the Boise metropolitan area, Idaho Falls, Pocatello, and Twin Falls, are in the Mountain Time Zone.", "A legislative error ( §264) theoretically placed this region in the Central Time Zone, but this was corrected with a 2007 amendment.", "Areas north of the Salmon River, including Coeur d'Alene, Moscow, Lewiston, and Sandpoint, are in the Pacific Time Zone, which contains less than a quarter of the state's population and land area.===Climate===Köppen climate types of Idaho, using 1991–2020 climate normalsIdaho's climate varies widely.", "Although the state's western border is about from the Pacific Ocean, the maritime influence is still felt in Idaho; especially, in the winter when cloud cover, humidity, and precipitation are at their maximum extent.", "This influence has a moderating effect in the winter where temperatures are not as low as would otherwise be expected for a northern state with predominantly high elevations.", "In the panhandle, moist air masses from the coast are released as precipitation over the North Central Rockies forests, creating the North American inland temperate rainforest.", "The maritime influence is least prominent in the state's eastern part where the precipitation patterns are often reversed, with wetter summers and drier winters, and seasonal temperature differences are more extreme, showing a more semi-arid continental climate.Idaho can be hot, although extended periods over are rare, except for the lowest point in elevation, Lewiston, which correspondingly sees little snow.", "Hot summer days are tempered by the low relative humidity and cooler evenings during summer months since, for most of the state, the highest diurnal difference in temperature is often in the summer.", "Winters can be cold, although extended periods of bitter cold weather below zero are unusual.", "Idaho's all-time highest temperature of was recorded at Orofino on July 28, 1934; the all-time lowest temperature of was recorded at Island Park Dam on January 18, 1943.Monthly normal high and low temperatures for various Idaho cities.", "(°F) City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Boise 38/24 45/27 55/33 62/38 72/46 81/53 91/59 90/59 79/50 65/40 48/31 38/23 Lewiston 42/30 47/32 55/36 62/41 72/48 79/54 91/61 90/60 80/52 63/42 49/35 41/30 Pocatello 33/16 38/19 49/27 59/33 68/40 78/46 88/52 88/51 76/42 62/33 45/24 33/16 Orofino 38/25 46/28 55/32 64/38 72/44 80/50 89/54 90/53 79/45 63/36 46/31 37/26''''===Lakes and rivers===Lake Coeur d'Alene in North IdahoRedfish Lake in central IdahoPriest River winding through Whitetail Butte===Protected areas===As of 2018:====National parks, reserves, monuments and historic sites====* Salmon-Challis National Forest* California National Historic Trail* City of Rocks National Reserve* Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve* Hagerman Fossil Beds National Monument* Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail* Minidoka National Historic Site* Nez Perce National Historical Park* Oregon National Historic Trail* Yellowstone National Park* Pacific Northwest National Scenic Trail====National recreation areas========National wildlife refuges and Wilderness Areas========National conservation areas====* Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation AreaBear Lake viewed from Bear Lake State Park====State parks====Bruneau Dunes State Park" ], [ "Demographics", "===Population===Idaho population density mapThe United States Census Bureau determined Idaho's population was 1,900,923 on July 1, 2021, a 21% increase since the 2010 U.S. census.Idaho had an estimated population of 1,754,208 in 2018, which was an increase of 37,265, from the prior year and an increase of 186,626, or 11.91%, since 2010.This included a natural increase since the last census of 58,884 (111,131 births minus 52,247 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 75,795 people into the state.", "There are large numbers of Americans of English and German ancestry in Idaho.", "Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 14,522 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 61,273 people.According to the American Immigration Council, in 2018, the top countries of origin for Idaho's immigrants were Mexico, Canada, the Philippines, China and Germany.Idaho's population increased by 17.3% from 2010 to 2020, the second fastest state growth rate in the decade.Nampa, about west of downtown Boise, became the state's second largest city in the late 1990s, passing Pocatello and Idaho Falls.", "Nampa's population was under 29,000 in 1990 and grew to over 81,000 by 2010.Located between Nampa and Boise, Meridian also experienced high growth, from fewer than 10,000 residents in 1990 to more than 75,000 in 2010 and is now Idaho's third largest city.", "Growth of 5% or more over the same period has also been observed in Caldwell, Coeur d'Alene, Post Falls, and Twin Falls.From 1990 to 2010, Idaho's population increased by over 560,000 (55%).", "The Boise metropolitan area (officially known as the Boise City-Nampa, ID Metropolitan Statistical Area) is Idaho's largest metropolitan area.", "Other metropolitan areas in order of size are Coeur d'Alene, Idaho Falls, Pocatello and Lewiston.According to HUD's 2022 Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 1,998 homeless people in Idaho.The table below shows the ethnic composition of Idaho's population as of 2016.+ '''Idaho ethnic composition of population''' Race Population (2017 est.)", "Percentage ''Total population'' ''1,657,375'' ''100%'' White or European American 1,507,880 91.0% Black or African American 11,231 0.7% American Indian and Alaska Native 21,323 1.3% Asian 22,720 1.4% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander 2,343 0.1% Other race 47,964 2.9% Two or more races 43,914 2.6%Ethnic origins in Idaho+ '''Idaho historical racial composition''' Racial composition 1970 1990 2000 2010 2020 White or European American 98.1% 94.4% 90.1% 89.1% 82.1% Indigenous 0.9% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% Asian 0.5% 0.9% 0.9% 1.2% 1.5% Black 0.3% 0.3% 0.4% 0.6% 0.9% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander —— 0.1% 0.1% 0.2% Other race 0.2% 3.0% 4.2% 5.1% 5.6% Two or more races —— 2.0% 2.5% 8.3%There are large numbers of Americans of German and English ancestry in Idaho.According to the 2017 American Community Survey, 12.2% of Idaho's population were of Hispanic or Latino origin (of any race): Mexican (10.6%), Puerto Rican (0.2%), Cuban (0.1%), and other Hispanic or Latino origin (1.3%).", "The five largest ancestry groups were: German (17.5%), English (16.4%), Irish (9.3%), American (8.1%), and Scottish (3.2%).The majority of Idaho's population is of European (white) descent.", "Most Idaho's white population trace their ancestry to the United Kingdom, Germany, Ireland, France, Italy, or Poland.", "Latinos constitute around one-tenth of the population.", "There are also small numbers of Native Americans, Asians, and African Americans in the state.In 2018, The top countries of origin for Idaho's immigrants were Mexico, Canada, the Philippines, China and Germany.", ";;Birth dataMap of counties in Idaho by racial plurality, per the 2020 census''Note: Births in table don't add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.", "''+ Live Births by Single Race/Ethnicity of Mother Race 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 White: 21,246 (94.9%) 21,696 (94.8%) 21,618 (94.7%) ... ... ... ... ... ... > Non-Hispanic White 17,951 (80.2%) 18,188 (79.5%) 18,087 (79.2%) 17,543 (78.0%) 17,151 (77.3%) 16,574 (77.4%) 16,959 (76.9%) 16,463 (76.4%) 17,039 (76.0%) Asian 491 (2.2%) 501 (2.2%) 516 (2.3%) 363 (1.6%) 366 (1.7%) 348 (1.6%) 350 (1.6%) 327 (1.5%) 380 (1.7%) Black 225 (1.0%) 250 (1.1%) 287 (1.2%) 217 (1.0%) 243 (1.1%) 233 (1.1%) 261 (1.2%) 265 (1.2%) 271 (1.2%) American Indian 421 (1.9%) 429 (1.9%) 406 (1.8%) 261 (1.2%) 337 (1.5%) 285 (1.3%) 291 (1.3%) 206 (0.9%) 232 (1.0%) ''Hispanic'' (of any race) ''3,422'' (15.3%) ''3,651'' (16.0%) ''3,645'' (16.0%) ''3,614'' (16.1%) ''3,598'' (16.2%) ''3,549'' (16.6%) ''3,702'' (16.8%) ''3,687'' (17.1%) ''3,887'' (17.3%) '''Total Idaho''' '''22,383''' (100%) '''22,876''' (100%) '''22,827''' (100%) '''22,482''' (100%) '''22,181''' (100%) '''21,403''' (100%) '''22,063''' (100%) '''21,533''' (100%) '''22,427''' (100%)* Since 2016, data for births of White Hispanic origin are not collected, but included in one ''Hispanic'' group; persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.===Religion===The Idaho Falls Idaho Temple of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 2006According to the Pew Research Center on Religion & Public Life, the self-identified religious affiliations of Idahoans over the age of 18 in 2008 and 2014 were: Denomination 2008 2014 '''Christian, including:''''''81%''''''67%''' * Evangelical Protestant22%21% * Mainline Protestant16%16% * Catholic18%10% * Eastern Orthodox< 0.5%1% * Historically Black Protestant< 0.5%< 1% * The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints23%19% * Jehovah's Witnesses1%< 1% * Other Christian< 0.5%< 1% '''Unaffiliated, including:''''''18%''''''27%''' * Nothing in particularn/d22% * Agnosticn/d3% * Atheistn/d2% '''Non-Christian faiths, including:''''''n/d''''''4%''' * Muslim< 0.5%1% * Jewish< 0.5%< 1% * Buddhist< 0.5%< 1% * Hindu< 0.5%< 1% * Other world religions< 0.5%< 1% * Other faiths (New Age, Native American, etc.", ")n/d2% '''Don't know/refused''''''< 0.5%''''''1%'''According to the Association of Religion Data Archives, the largest denominations by number of members in 2010 were The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 409,265; the Catholic Church with 123,400; the non-denominational Protestants with 62,637; and the Assemblies of God with 22,183.In 2020, the Association of Religion Data Archives revealed Mormons remained the largest with 462,069, followed by Catholics (203,790), and non-denominational Protestantism (98,996).In 2022, the Public Religion Research Institute's ''American Values Survey'' estimated altogether, 72% of the population was Christian, 26% were religiously unaffiliated, and 3% were New Agers.", "Of its Christian population, 37% were Protestant, 24% Mormon, 9% Catholic, and 2% Jehovah's Witnesses.===Language===English is the state's predominant language.", "Minority languages include Spanish and various Native American languages." ], [ "Economy", "As of 2016, the state's total employment was 562,282, and the total employer establishments were 45,826.Gross state product for 2015 was $64.9 billion, and the per capita income based on 2015 GDP and 2015 population estimates was $39,100.Important industries in Idaho are food processing, lumber and wood products, machinery, chemical products, paper products, electronics manufacturing, silver and other mining, and tourism.", "The world's largest factory for barrel cheese, the raw product for processed cheese, is in Gooding, Idaho.", "It has a capacity of 120,000 metric tons per year of barrel cheese and belongs to the Glanbia group.Hewlett-Packard has operated a large plant in Boise since the 1970s, which is devoted primarily to LaserJet printers production.Idaho has a state gambling lottery, which contributed $333.5 million in payments to all Idaho public schools and Idaho higher education from 1990 to 2006.US ID AmericanFalls.jpg\|American Falls DamWheat harvest.jpg\|Wheat harvest on the Palouse===Taxation===Tax is collected by the Idaho State Tax Commission.The state personal income tax is a flat 5.8%.", "Idahoans may apply for state tax credits for taxes paid to other states, as well as for donations to Idaho state educational entities and some nonprofit youth and rehabilitation facilities.The state sales tax is 6% with a very limited, selective local option up to 6.5%.", "Sales tax applies to the sale, rental or lease of tangible personal property and some services.", "Food is taxed, but prescription drugs are not.", "Hotel, motel, and campground accommodations are taxed at a higher rate (7% to 11%).", "Some jurisdictions impose local option sales tax.The sales tax was introduced at 3% in 1965, easily approved by voters, where it remained at 3% until 1983." ], [ "Energy", "Idaho has a regulated electricity market, with the Idaho Public Utilities Commission regulating the three major utilities of Avista Utilities, Idaho Power, and Rocky Mountain Power.Idaho consumes almost four times more energy than it produces.", "In 2022, renewable energy sources accounted for 75% of the total electricity generated in the state, the fourth-highest share of renewable electricity for any state.", "In 2022, half of Idaho's utility-scale (1 megawatt or larger) electricity generating capacity is at hydroelectric power plants, 25% from natural gas, 17% of the state's total in-state electricity net generation came from wind facilities, 4% from solar and 1% from geothermal.", "Washington State provides most of the natural gas used in Idaho through one of the two major pipeline systems supplying the state.Idaho has an upper-boundary estimate of development potential to generate 44,320 GWh/year from 18,076 MW of wind power, and 7,467,000 GWh/year from solar power using 2,061,000 MW of photovoltaics (PV), including 3,224 MW of rooftop photovoltaics, and 1,267,000 MW of concentrated solar power.", "Idaho had 973 MW of installed wind power as of 2020." ], [ "Transportation", "The Idaho Transportation Department is the government agency responsible for Idaho's transportation infrastructure, including operations and maintenance, as well as planning for future needs.", "The agency is also responsible for overseeing the disbursement of federal, state, and grant funding for the transportation programs of the state.===Highways===I-15 shieldUS-95 shieldMajor federal aid highways in Idaho:===Airports===Major airports include the Boise Airport which serves the southwest region of Idaho and the Spokane International Airport (in Spokane, Washington) which serves northern Idaho.", "Other airports with scheduled service are the Pullman-Moscow Regional Airport serving the Palouse; the Lewiston-Nez Perce County Airport, serving the Lewis-Clark Valley and north central and west central Idaho; The Magic Valley Regional Airport in Twin Falls; Friedman Memorial Airport in Hailey; the Idaho Falls Regional Airport; and the Pocatello Regional Airport.===Railroads===Idaho is served by three transcontinental railroads.", "The Burlington Northern Santa Fe (BNSF) connects the Idaho Panhandle with Seattle, Portland, and Spokane to the west, and Minneapolis and Chicago to the east.", "The BNSF travels through Kootenai, Bonner, and Boundary counties.", "The Union Pacific Railroad crosses North Idaho, entering from Canada through Boundary and Bonner, and proceeding to Spokane.", "Canadian Pacific Railway uses Union Pacific Railroad tracks in North Idaho, carrying products from Alberta to Spokane and Portland, Oregon.", "Amtrak's Empire Builder crosses northern Idaho, with its only stop being in Sandpoint.", "Montana Rail Link also operates between Billings, Montana, and Sandpoint, Idaho.The Union Pacific Railroad also crosses southern Idaho traveling between Portland, Oregon, Green River, Wyoming, and Ogden, Utah, and serves Boise, Nampa, Twin Falls, and Pocatello.===Ports===The Port of Lewiston is the farthest inland Pacific port on the west coast.", "A series of dams and locks on the Snake River and Columbia River facilitate barge travel from Lewiston to Portland, where goods are loaded on ocean-going vessels." ], [ "Law and government", "The Idaho State Capitol in Boise===State constitution===The constitution of Idaho is roughly modeled on the national constitution, with several additions.", "The constitution defines the form and functions of the state government, and may be amended through plebiscite.", "The state constitution presently requires the state government to maintain a balanced budget.===Idaho Code and Statutes===All of Idaho's state laws are contained in the Idaho Code and Statutes.", "The code is amended through the legislature with the approval of the governor.", "Idaho still operates under its original (1889) state constitution.Idaho has one of the strictest abortion laws in the nation.", "In April 2023, the Idaho became the first state to restrict interstate travel for abortion services.", "Nearly all abortions are banned and private citizens can sue abortion providers.", "The Idaho Supreme Court has ruled there is no constitutional right to abortion.", "A federal judge ruled in 2022 that doctors cannot be punished for performing an abortion to protect a patient's health.", "The state abortion laws have led to an outmigration of physicians who specialize in maternal/fetal care.===State government===The constitution of Idaho provides for three branches of government: the executive, legislative and judicial branches.", "Idaho has a bicameral legislature, elected from 35 legislative districts, each represented by one senator and two representatives.Since 1946, statewide elected constitutional officers have been elected to four-year terms.", "They include: Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of State, Idaho state controller (Auditor before 1994), Treasurer, Attorney General, and Superintendent of Public Instruction.Last contested in 1966, Inspector of Mines was an originally elected constitutional office.", "Afterward it was an appointed position and ultimately done away with entirely in 1974.Idaho's government has an alcohol monopoly; the Idaho State Liquor Division.====Executive branch====The governor of Idaho serves a four-year term and is elected during what is nationally referred to as midterm elections.", "As such, the governor is not elected in the same election year as the president of the United States.", "The current governor is Republican Brad Little, who was first elected in 2018 and re-elected in 2022.Idaho is 1 of 13 states with no term limits for Governor.====Legislative branch====Chamber of the House of Representatives in 2018Idaho's legislature is part-time.", "Because of this, Idaho's legislators are considered \"citizen legislators\", meaning their position as a legislator is not their main occupation.", "However, the session may be extended if necessary, and often is.Terms for both the Senate and House of Representatives are two years.", "Legislative elections occur every even numbered year.Both of Idaho's state legislative chambers have been continuously controlled by Republicans since 1961, although Democratic legislators are routinely elected from Boise, Pocatello, Blaine County and the northern Panhandle.====Judicial branch====The highest court in Idaho is the Idaho Supreme Court.", "There is also an intermediate appellate court, the Idaho Court of Appeals, which hears cases assigned to it from the Supreme Court.", "The state's District Courts serve seven judicial districts.====Politics====Party registration by Idaho county (January 2023):+ Voter Registration Totals as of February 2024 Party Number of Voters Percentage Republican 581,198 58.21% Unaffiliated 275,781 27.62% Democratic 126,100 12.63% Libertarian 11,256 1.13% Constitution 4,146 0.41% Total 998,481 100.00%After the Civil War, many Midwestern and Southern Democrats moved to the Idaho Territory.", "As a result, the early territorial legislatures were solidly Democrat-controlled.", "In contrast, most of the territorial governors were appointed by Republican presidents and were Republicans.", "This led to sometimes-bitter clashes between the two parties, including a range war with the Democrats backing the sheepherders and the Republicans the cattlemen, which ended in the \"Diamondfield\" Jack Davis murder trial.", "In the 1880s, Republicans became more prominent in local politics.In 1864, Clinton DeWitt Smith removed the territorial seal and the state constitution from a locked safe, and took them to Boise.", "This effectively moved the capital from where they were stored (Lewiston, Idaho) to the current capital, Boise.Since statehood, the Republican Party has usually been the dominant party in Idaho.", "At one time, Idaho had two Democratic parties, one being the mainstream and the other called the Anti-Mormon Democrats, lasting into the early 20th century.", "In the 1890s and early 1900s, the Populist Party enjoyed prominence, while the Democratic Party maintained a brief dominance in the 1930s during the Great Depression.", "Since World WarII, most statewide-elected officials have been Republicans, though the Democrats did hold the majority in the House (by one seat) in 1958 and the governorship from 1971 to 1995.Idaho Congressional delegations have also been generally Republican since statehood.", "Several Idaho Democrats have had electoral success in the U.S. House of Representatives over the years, but the Senate delegation has been a Republican stronghold for decades.", "Several Idaho Republicans, including current Senators Mike Crapo and Jim Risch, have won reelection to the Senate, but only Frank Church has won reelection as a Democrat.", "Church's 1974 victory was the last win for his party for either Senate seat, and Walt Minnick's 2008 victory in the 1st congressional district was the last Democratic win in any congressional race.In modern times, Idaho has been a reliably Republican state in presidential politics.", "It has not supported a Democrat for president since 1964.Even in that election, Lyndon Johnson defeated Barry Goldwater in the state by fewer than two percentage points, compared to a landslide nationally.", "In 2004, Republican George W. Bush carried Idaho by a margin of 38 percentage points and with 68.4% of the vote, winning in 43 of 44 counties.", "Only Blaine County, which contains the Sun Valley ski resort, supported John Kerry, who owns a home in the area.", "In 2008 Barack Obama's 36.1 percent showing was the best for a Democratic presidential candidate in Idaho since 1976.However, Republican margins were narrower in 1992 and 1976.In the 2006 elections, Republicans, led by gubernatorial candidate Butch Otter, won all the state's constitutional offices and retained both of the state's seats in the House.", "However, Democrats picked up several seats in the Idaho Legislature, notably in the Boise area.Republicans lost one of the House seats in 2008 to Minnick, but Republican Jim Risch retained Larry Craig's Senate seat for the GOP by a comfortable margin.", "Minnick lost his seat in the 2010 election to Republican State Rep. Raul Labrador.Idaho retains the death penalty.", "Pending the outcome of a legal challenge on a bill passed on 20 March 2023, authorized methods of execution include the Firing Squad." ], [ "Education", "===K–12===As of January 2020, the State of Idaho contains 105 school districts and 62 charter schools.", "The school districts range in enrollment from two to 39,507 students.Idaho school districts are governed by elected school boards, which are elected in November of odd-numbered years, except for the Boise School District, whose elections are held in September.===Colleges and universities===The Jacob Spori Building at Brigham Young University-Idaho in RexburgIdaho State University in PocatelloUniversity of Idaho Arboretum in MoscowThe Idaho State Board of Education oversees three comprehensive universities.", "The University of Idaho in Moscow was the first university in the state (founded in 1889).", "It opened its doors in 1892 and is the land-grant institution and primary research university of the state.", "Idaho State University in Pocatello opened in 1901 as the Academy of Idaho, attained four-year status in 1947 and university status in 1963.Boise State University is the most recent school to attain university status in Idaho.", "The school opened in 1932 as Boise Junior College and became Boise State University in 1974.Lewis-Clark State College in Lewiston is the only public, non-university four-year college in Idaho.", "It opened as a normal school in 1893.Idaho has four regional community colleges: North Idaho College in Coeur d'Alene; College of Southern Idaho in Twin Falls; College of Western Idaho in Nampa, which opened in 2009, College of Eastern Idaho in Idaho Falls, which transitioned from a technical college in 2017.Private institutions in Idaho are Boise Bible College, affiliated with congregations of the Christian churches and churches of Christ; Brigham Young University-Idaho in Rexburg, which is affiliated with The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and a sister college to Brigham Young University; The College of Idaho in Caldwell, which still maintains a loose affiliation with the Presbyterian Church; Northwest Nazarene University in Nampa; and New Saint Andrews College in Moscow, of reformed Christian theological background.", "McCall College is a non-affiliated two-year private college in McCall, which was founded in 2011 and later opened in 2013." ], [ "Sports", "Central Idaho is home to one of North America's oldest ski resorts, Sun Valley, where the world's first chairlift was installed in 1936.Other noted outdoor sites include Hells Canyon, the Salmon River, and its embarkation point of Riggins.", "Club Sport League Boise HawksBaseballPioneer League Boise State BroncosNCAADiv I FBS, MWCIdaho VandalsNCAADiv I FCS, Big SkyIdaho State BengalsNCAADiv I FCS, Big SkyIdaho Falls ChukarsBaseballPioneer LeagueIdaho SteelheadsIce hockeyECHLIdaho Falls Spud Kings Ice hockeyUSPHLThe Boise Open professional golf tournament has been played at Hillcrest Country Club since 1990 as part of the Korn Ferry Tour.", "The Open has been part of the Korn Ferry Tour Finals since 2016.High school sports are overseen by the Idaho High School Activities Association (IHSAA).In 2016, Meridian's Michael Slagowski ran 800 meters in 1:48.70.That is one of the 35 fastest 800-meter times ever run by a high school boy in the United States." ], [ "In popular culture", "The 1980 film ''Bronco Billy'' filmed in Boise, Idaho for two months.", "The 1985 film ''Pale Rider'' was primarily filmed in the Boulder Mountains and the Sawtooth National Recreation Area in central Idaho, just north of Sun Valley.", "River Phoenix and Keanu Reeves starred in the 1991 movie ''My Own Private Idaho'', portions of which take place in Idaho.", "The 2004 cult film ''Napoleon Dynamite'' takes place in Preston, Idaho; the film's director, Jared Hess, attended Preston High School." ], [ "See also", "* Index of Idaho-related articles* Outline of Idaho* USS ''Idaho'', five ships" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Schwantes, Carlos A.", "''In mountain shadows: A history of Idaho'' (U of Nebraska Press, 1991).", "online* Schwantes, Carlos A.", "''The Pacific Northwest: an interpretive history'' (U of Nebraska Press, 1996).", "** Stapilus, Randy.", "''Idaho Myths and Legends: The True Stories Behind History's Mysteries'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2020) online" ], [ "External links", "* .", "* Idaho State Guide, from the Library of Congress* * .", "* .", "* .", "* —Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Idaho state agencies.", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Italian" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Italian'''('''s''') may refer to:* Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries Italians, an Romance ethnic group related to or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom Italian language, a Romance language* Regional Italian, regional variants of the Italian language Languages of Italy, languages and dialects spoken in Italy Italian culture, cultural features of Italy Italian cuisine, traditional foods Folklore of Italy, the folklore and urban legends of Italy Mythology of Italy, traditional religion and beliefs" ], [ "Other uses", "* Italian dressing, a vinaigrette-type salad dressing or marination* Italian or Italian-A, alternative names for the Ping-Pong virus, an extinct computer virus* ''Italien'' (magazine), pro-Fascist magazine in Germany between 1927 and 1944" ], [ "See also", "* * * Italia (disambiguation)* Italic (disambiguation)* Italo (disambiguation)* The Italian (disambiguation)* Italian people (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Interrogatories" ], [ "Introduction", "In law, '''interrogatories''' (also known as '''requests for further information''') are a formal set of written questions propounded by one litigant and required to be answered by an adversary in order to clarify matters of fact and help to determine in advance what facts will be presented at any trial in the case." ], [ "Use", "Interrogatories are used to gain information from the other party relevant to the issues in a lawsuit.", "The law and issues will differ depending upon the facts of a case and the laws of the jurisdiction in which a lawsuit is filed.", "For some types of cases there are standard sets of interrogatories available that cover the essential facts, and may be modified for the case in which they are used.When a lawsuit is filed, the pleadings filed by the parties are intended to let the other parties know what each side intends to prove at trial, and what legal case they have to answer.", "However, in most cases, the parties will require additional information to fully understand each other's legal and factual claims.", "The discovery process, including the use of interrogatories, can help the parties obtain that information from each other.For an example of how interrogatories may be used, in a motor vehicle accident lawsuit, an injured plaintiff typically asserts that the defendant driver committed the tort of negligence in causing the accident.", "To prove negligence, the law requires the injured plaintiff to show that the driver owed them a duty of care and breached it, causing the injury.", "Assuming that the defendant did not dispute driving a vehicle that was involved in the accident that injured the plaintiff, the case would come down to whether the driver drove in accordance with the standard of a reasonable driver, and whether the injured person's injuries are a foreseeable consequence of the driving.The parties may use interrogatories to seek information, including concessions as to how the accident occurred, from each other.", "The injured plaintiff might serve interrogatories on the defendant driver seeking information that would support the plaintiff's theory of the case.", "If the plaintiff is alleging that the defendant was speeding, the plaintiff might ask the defendant to state the speed of the defendant's vehicle at the time of the accident.", "If the plaintiff alleges that the defendant failed to control the car properly or failed to pay proper attention to the road and other vehicles, the plaintiff could ask interrogatory questions that would help prove those allegations or require disclosure of the basis of any denial of negligence by the defendant.", "The driver may have a defense to those allegations, perhaps if the accident occurred at low speed, and was unavoidable (maybe due to some third party intervention).", "The injured person may, however, argue that the driver was still responsible (perhaps the driver should have used the horn of the vehicle to alert the third party), or there may be other allegations.The defense may similarly use interrogatories to help build legal and factual defenses to the plaintiff's case.", "Continuing with the example of a car accident, the defendant may seek information or concessions from the plaintiff that would suggest that a different driver was partially or wholly responsible for the accident, or that under the facts the accident was unavoidable despite the proper exercise of care." ], [ "Specific jurisdictions", "===England and Wales===In England and Wales, this procedure is governed by Part 18 of the Civil Procedure Rules.", "It is known as a ''Request for Further Information''.In the ''Request for Further Information'' procedure, use of standard pre-printed forms is not common, and any such request would almost certainly be looked upon critically by the courts, as use of standard forms rather than requests tailored specifically to the case is likely to offend against the 'Overriding Objective' in that it is unlikely to be proportionate to the case, and instead result in the parties or their lawyers having to spend time, money and resources in answering the questions.", "The way the rules work, this could easily result in the party making the request having to pay both their own costs and the costs of the opponent - even if they win the case at the end.In England and Wales, firstly the person wanting to know the information requests it in writing, either in letter form or, more usually, on a blank document with the questions on one side of the page and space for the answers on the other side.", "A deadline is set for the opponent to answer the request.", "If they fail to answer, the person requesting can make an Application on Notice to the court and ask the procedural judge to make an order compelling the opponent to answer the questions.", "Whether the judge will make an order is discretionary and will be determined in accordance with the overriding objective, and in the context of the questions asked.In particular, the procedure is not intended to be used to ask questions that would ordinarily be dealt with at trial.===United States===In the United States, use of interrogatories is governed by the law where the case has been filed.", "All federal courts operate under the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, which places various limitations on the use of this device, permitting individual jurisdictions to limit interrogatories to twenty-five questions per party.", "Interrogatories are typically \"verified\", meaning that the response will include an affidavit and will therefore be under oath.", "The affidavit may distinguish interrogatories from requests for admission, which are not normally answered under oath.California, on the other hand, operates under the Civil Discovery Act of 1986 (a revision of an older 1957 act), which is codified in the California Code of Civil Procedure.", "The Discovery Act allows up to thirty-five specially prepared interrogatories per party, but this limit may be exceeded simply by executing and serving a declaration of necessity with the interrogatories.", "However, because the declaration of necessity must be executed under penalty of perjury, it can expose an attorney to ''personal'' sanctions for propounding an excessive number of harassing and burdensome interrogatories.In nearly all U.S. jurisdictions, interrogatories are called just that and are supposed to be custom-written, although many questions can be reused from one case to the next.", "In the U.S. states of California, New Jersey, and Florida, the courts have promulgated standard \"form\" interrogatories.", "In California these come on an official court form promulgated by the Judicial Council of California and a party may ask another party to answer any of them by checking the appropriate boxes.", "The advantage of the California form interrogatories is that they do not count against the limit of 35 (except when used in limited civil cases); the disadvantage is that they are written in a very generic fashion, so about half of the questions are useful only in the simplest cases.", "In turn, California calls custom-written interrogatories \"specially prepared interrogatories.", "\"Because interrogatories are so heavily used in American discovery, there are two major compilations of generic interrogatories covering almost every conceivable type of legal case: ''Bender's Forms of Discovery: Interrogatories'' (published by LexisNexis) and ''Pattern Discovery'' (published by West)." ], [ "See also", "* Inspection of documents* Subpoena duces tecum* Subpoena ad testificandum* Request for admissions" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "List of infectious diseases" ], [ "Introduction", "This is a list of infectious diseases arranged by name, along with the infectious agents that cause them, the vaccines that can prevent or cure them when they exist and their current status." ], [ "List", " Infectious agent Common name Signs and symptoms Diagnosis Treatment Current status Vaccine(s)''Acinetobacter baumannii''''Acinetobacter'' infections* Blood infection: Fever, chills, vomiting, confusion* Urinary tract infection: bloody urine, cloudy urine* Pneumonia: Fever, chills, coughingCultureSupportive care ''Actinomyces israelii'', ''Actinomyces gerencseriae'' and ''Propionibacterium propionicus''ActinomycosisPainful abscessesHistologic findingsPenicillin, doxycycline, and sulfonamides''Adenoviridae''Adenovirus infection* high fever that lasts 4–6 days* pharyngitis (sore throat)* conjunctivitis (inflamed eyes, usually without pus formation like pink eye)* enlargement of the lymph nodes of the neck* headache, malaise, and weakness* Incubation period of 5–9 daysAntigen detection, polymerase chain reaction assay, virus isolation, and serologyMost infections are mild and require no therapy or only symptomatic treatment.", "''Trypanosoma brucei''African sleeping sickness (African trypanosomiasis)* Hemolymphatic phase: Fever, lymphadenopathy* Neurological phase: Sleep disorders, neurological symptoms, psychiatric symptomsIdentification of trypanosomes in a sample by microscopic examinationFexinidazole by mouth or pentamidine by injection for ''T.", "b. gambiense''.Suramin by injection is used for ''T.", "b. rhodesiense''Undergoing worldwide elimination as a public health problem and regional control HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus)AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)Opportunistic infectionsAntibody test, p24 antigen test, PCRTreatment is typically a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) plus two nucleoside analog reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs)''Entamoeba histolytica''AmoebiasisMost are asymptomatic.MicroscopyThose with symptoms require treatment with an amoebicidal tissue-active agent and a luminal cysticidal agent.", "Individuals that are asymptomatic only need a luminal cysticidal agent.", "''Anaplasma'' speciesAnaplasmosisFever, leukopenia, abnormally elevated levels of liver enzymesindirect immunofluorescence antibody assay for IgGTetracycline drugs (including tetracycline, chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, rolitetracycline, doxycycline, and minocycline) and imidocarb''Angiostrongylus''AngiostrongyliasisAbdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and weakness, fever, central nervous system (CNS) symptomsLumbar puncture, brain imaging, serologyAlbendazole''Anisakis''AnisakiasisSevere abdominal pain, malnutrition, and vomitingGastroscopic examination, or histopathologic examinationAlbendazole''Bacillus anthracis''Anthraxboil-like skin lesion that eventually forms an ulcer with a black center (eschar)Culture, PCRLarge doses of intravenous and oral antibiotics, such as fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin), doxycycline, erythromycin, vancomycin, or penicillin''Arcanobacterium haemolyticum'' ''Arcanobacterium haemolyticum'' infectionHead and neck infections, pharyngitis, and sinusitisCulture in human blood agar plateserythromycin (proposed as the first-line drug), clindamycin, gentamicin, and cephalosporinsJunin virusArgentine hemorrhagic fever Fever, headache, loss of appetite, vomiting, if left untreated: organ failure''Ascaris lumbricoides'' AscariasisMigrating larvae, intestinal blockage, and bowel obstructionFecal smearAlbendazole, mebendazole, levamisole and pyrantel pamoate''Aspergillus'' speciesAspergillosisHemoptysis, chest painChest X-ray and CT, microscopy by silver stainsVoriconazole and liposomal amphotericin B in combination with surgical debridement''Astroviridae'' speciesAstrovirus infectionDiarrhoea, followed by nausea, vomiting, fever, malaise and abdominal painElectron microscopy, enzyme-immunoassay (ELISA), immunofluorescence, and polymerase chain reactionSupportive care''Babesia'' speciesBabesiosisFever and hemolytic anemiaGiemsa-stained thin-film blood smearAtovaquone and azithromycin.", "In life-threatening cases, exchange transfusion is performed.", "''Bacillus cereus'' ''Bacillus cereus'' infectionNausea, vomiting, and diarrheaCultureVancomycinmultiple bacteriaBacterial meningitisneck stiffness, sudden high fever, and altered mental statusLumbar puncture (contraindicated if there is a mass in the brain or the intracranial pressure is elevated), CT or MRIAntibioticsmultiple bacteriaBacterial pneumoniaFever, rigors, cough, and runny nose, chest painSputum Gram stain and culture, Chest radiographyAntibiotics List of bacterial vaginosis microbiotaBacterial vaginosisIncreased vaginal discharge that usually smells like fishGram stain and whiff testMetronidazole or clindamycin''Bacteroides'' species''Bacteroides'' infection ''Balantidium coli''BalantidiasisIntermittent diarrhea, constipation, vomiting, abdominal pain, anorexia, weight loss, headache, colitis, and marked fluid lossmicroscopic examination of stools, or colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopyTetracycline, metronidazole or iodoquinol''Bartonella''BartonellosisCarrión's disease, trench fever, cat-scratch disease, bacillary angiomatosis, peliosis hepatis, chronic bacteremia, endocarditis, chronic lymphadenopathy, and neurological disordersmicroscopy, serology, and PCRAntibiotics''Baylisascaris'' species ''Baylisascaris'' infectionBK virusBK virus infectionusually asymptomatic; fever, difficulty urinating''Piedraia hortae'' Black piedraformation of nodules on the scalp, moustache and pubic hairStain or cultureAntifungal shampoos such as pyrithione zinc, formaldehyde and salicylic acid''Blastocystis'' speciesBlastocystosisabdominal pain, itching, usually anal itching, constipation, diarrhea, watery or loose stoolmicroscopic examination of a chemically preserved stool specimenLack of scientific study to support the efficacy of any particular treatment''Blastomyces dermatitidis''Blastomycosisfever, chills, arthralgia (joint pain), myalgia (muscle pain), headache, and a nonproductive coughKOH prep, cytology, or histologyItraconazole or ketoconazole Machupo virusBolivian hemorrhagic feverHeadache, fever, myalgia, external and internal bleeding, convulsions, tremors (1/3 of cases)''Clostridium botulinum''; Note: Botulism is not an infection by ''Clostridium botulinum'' but caused by the intake of botulinum toxin.", "Botulism (and Infant botulism)Double vision, drooping of both eyelids, loss of facial expression and swallowing problemsEnzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs), electrochemiluminescent (ECL) testsBotulism antitoxin and supportive care Sabiá virusBrazilian hemorrhagic feverFlushing of face and chest, petechiae, bodily swelling caused by edema, low blood pressure, vomiting, malaise, diarrhea, capillary bleeding, hypocoagulability (severe cases)''Brucella'' species Brucellosisfevers, sweating (often with characteristic foul, moldy smell sometimes likened to wet hay), and migratory arthralgia and myalgia (joint and muscle pain)CultureTetracyclines, rifampicin, and the aminoglycosides streptomycin and gentamicin''Yersinia pestis''Bubonic plagueChills, malaise, high fever, muscle cramps, seizuresCultureAminoglycosides such as streptomycin and gentamicin, tetracyclines (especially doxycycline), and the fluoroquinolone ciprofloxacin usually ''Burkholderia cepacia'' and other ''Burkholderia'' species''Burkholderia'' infection''Mycobacterium ulcerans''Buruli ulcerSwollen bumpreal-time PCRThe most widely used antibiotic regimen is once daily oral rifampicin plus twice daily oral clarithromycin.", "''Caliciviridae'' speciesCalicivirus infection (Norovirus and Sapovirus)Vomiting, diarrhea, stomach pain''Campylobacter'' species CampylobacteriosisFever, headache, and myalgia, followed by diarrheaStool cultureErythromycin can be used in children, and tetracycline in adults.", "usually ''Candida albicans'' and other ''Candida'' speciesCandidiasis (Moniliasis; Thrush)Redness, itching, and discomfortIn oral candidiasis, simply inspecting the person's mouth for white patches and irritation may make the diagnosis.Symptoms of vaginal candidiasis are vaginal itching or soreness, pain during sexual intercourseAntifungal medications Intestinal disease by ''Capillaria philippinensis'', hepatic disease by ''Capillaria hepatica'' and pulmonary disease by ''Capillaria aerophila''Capillariasis''Streptococcus mutans ''Dental cariesTooth pain, difficulty eating, discoloration, tooth loss''Bartonella bacilliformis''Carrion's diseaseFever, pale appearance, malaise, painless liver enlargement, jaundice, enlarged lymph nodes, and enlarged spleenPeripheral blood smear with Giemsa stain, Columbia blood agar cultures, immunoblot, indirect immunofluorescence, and PCRFluoroquinolones (such as ciprofloxacin) or chloramphenicol in adults and chloramphenicol plus beta-lactams in children are the antibiotic regimens of choice during the acute phase of Carrion's disease.", "''Bartonella henselae''Cat-scratch diseaseMalaise, decreased appetite, and achesPolymerase chain reactionAzithromycin usually Group A ''Streptococcus'' and ''Staphylococcus''CellulitisAn area that is red, hot, and painfulBy history and physical examinationPenicillinase-resistant semisynthetic penicillin or a first-generation cephalosporin''Trypanosoma cruzi''Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis)Fever, malaise, headache, and enlargement of the liver, spleen, and lymph nodesMicroscopic examination of fresh anticoagulated blood, or its buffy coat, for motile parasites; or by preparation of thin and thick blood smears stained with Giemsa, for direct visualization of parasitesBenznidazole and nifurtimox (though benznidazole is the only drug available in most of Latin America)Undergoing elimination of human transmissions and regional control''Haemophilus ducreyi''ChancroidPainful sores on the genitaliaClinical diagnosisThe CDC recommendation is either a single oral dose (1 gram) of azithromycin, a single IM dose (250 mg) of ceftriaxone, oral (500 mg) of erythromycin three times a day for seven days, or oral (500 mg) of ciprofloxacin twice a day for three days.Varicella zoster virus (VZV)Chickenpoxnausea, loss of appetite, aching muscles, and headache, followed by the characteristic rash or oral sores, malaise, and a low-grade feverThe diagnosis of chickenpox is primarily based on the signs and symptoms, with typical early symptoms followed by a characteristic rash.", "Confirmation of the diagnosis is by examination of the fluid within the vesicles of the rash, or by testing blood for evidence of an acute immunologic response.Aciclovir''Alphavirus''Chikungunyasudden onset, combining high fever, joint pain, and rashLaboratory criteria include a decreased lymphocyte count consistent with viremia.", "However a definitive laboratory diagnosis can be accomplished through viral isolation, RT-PCR, or serological diagnosis.Supportive care''Chlamydia trachomatis''ChlamydiaIn women, those who have an asymptomatic infection that is not detected by their doctor, approximately half will develop pelvic inflammatory disease (PID),In men, painful or burning sensation when urinatingNucleic acid amplification tests (NAAT), such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), transcription mediated amplification (TMA), and the DNA strand displacement amplification (SDA)azithromycin, doxycycline, erythromycin, levofloxacin or ofloxacin''Chlamydophila pneumoniae'' ''Chlamydophila pneumoniae'' infection (Taiwan acute respiratory agent or TWAR) ''Vibrio cholerae''CholeraProfuse diarrhea and vomiting of clear fluidA rapid dipstick test is available.oral rehydration therapy (ORT) usually ''Fonsecaea pedrosoi''ChromoblastomycosisUsually, the infection slowly spreads to the surrounding tissue while still remaining localized to the area around the original wound.microscopy (KOH scrapings)Itraconazole, an antifungal azole, is given orally, with or without flucytosine.", "''Batrachochytrium dendrabatidis''''Chytridiomycosis'' ''Clonorchis sinensis''Clonorchiasis''Clostridium difficile'' ''''Clostridium difficile'' colitis''diarrhea, recent antibiotic exposure, abdominal pain, fever, and a distinctive foul odorColonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy, cytotoxicity assay, toxin ELISAVancomycin or fidaxomicin by mouth ''Coccidioides immitis'' and ''Coccidioides posadasii''CoccidioidomycosisColorado tick fever virus (CTFV)Colorado tick fever (CTF) usually rhinoviruses and coronavirusesCommon cold (Acute viral rhinopharyngitis; Acute coryza)Cough, runny nose, sneezing, nasal congestion, and a sore throatBased on symptomsSupportive careSevere acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)Fever, cough, loss of taste and smellCoxsackie B virusCoxsackie B virus infectionFever, headache, sore throat, gastrointestinal distress, extreme fatigue as well as chest and muscle painEnterovirus infection is diagnosed mainly via serological tests such as ELISA and from cell culture.There is no well-accepted treatment for the Coxsackie B group of viruses.", "PRNPCreutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD)Memory loss, behavioral changes, poor coordination Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF)''Cryptococcus neoformans''CryptococcosisCough, shortness of breath, chest pain and feverIndia ink of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)Intravenous Amphotericin B combined with flucytosine by mouth''Cryptosporidium'' speciesCryptosporidiosisGastrointestinal and respiratory symptoms usually ''Ancylostoma braziliense''; multiple other parasitesCutaneous larva migrans (CLM)''Cyclospora cayetanensis''Cyclosporiasis''Taenia solium''Cysticercosis ''Cytomegalovirus''Cytomegalovirus infectionFatigue, swollen glands, fever, sore throat, muscle achesBlood and urine tests, biopsyCidofovir, foscarnet, ganciclovir, valganciclovirDengue viruses (DEN-1, DEN-2, DEN-3 and DEN-4) – ''Flaviviruses'' Dengue feverSudden-onset fever, headache, muscle and joint pains, and a rashClinical diagnosisTreatment depends on the symptoms.", "Green algae Desmodesmus armatusDesmodesmus infection''Dientamoeba fragilis'' Dientamoebiasis''Corynebacterium diphtheriae''Diphtheriafever of 38 °C (100.4 °F) or above; chills; fatigue; bluish skin coloration (cyanosis); sore throat; hoarseness; cough; headache; difficulty swallowing; painful swallowing; difficulty breathing; rapid breathing; foul-smelling and bloodstained nasal discharge; and lymphadenopathyLaboratory criteria* Isolation of ''C.", "diphtheriae'' culture* Histopathologic diagnosisToxin demonstration* In vivo tests (guinea pig inoculation)* In vitro test: Elek's gel precipitation test, PCR, ELISA, ICAClinical criteria* URT illness with sore throat* Low-grade fever* An adherent, dense, grey pseudomembrane covering the posterior aspect of the pharynxMetronidazole, Erythromycin, Procaine penicillin G''Diphyllobothrium''Diphyllobothriasis''Dracunculus medinensis''DracunculiasisBurning pain, blister from which worm emergesUndergoing worldwide eradicationEastern equine encephalitis virusEastern equine encephalitis (EEE)High fever, muscle pain, altered mental status, headache, meningeal irritation, photophobia, and seizuresBlood testsCorticosteroids, anticonvulsants, and supportive measures (treating symptoms) Ebolavirus (EBOV)Ebola hemorrhagic feverFlu-like symptoms, severe internal and external bleeding''Echinococcus'' species EchinococcosisImaging, Serology testSurgical removal of the cysts combined with chemotherapy''Ehrlichia'' speciesEhrlichiosis''Enterobius vermicularis''Enterobiasis (Pinworm infection)Anal itching that gets worse at night, disturbed sleep''Enterococcus'' species ''Enterococcus'' infectionEnterovirus speciesEnterovirus infection''Rickettsia prowazekii'' Epidemic typhus Parvovirus B19Erythema infectiosum (Fifth disease)Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) and human herpesvirus 7 (HHV-7) Exanthem subitum (Sixth disease)''Fasciola hepatica'' and ''Fasciola gigantica'' Fasciolasis''Fasciolopsis buski''Fasciolopsiasis PRNPFatal familial insomnia (FFI)Severe insomnia followed by dementia, hallucinations, and deathFilarioidea superfamily Filariasis''Clostridium perfringens'' Food poisoning by ''Clostridium perfringens''Diarrhea, vomiting, and feverStool testSupportive caremultipleFree-living amebic infection''Fusobacterium'' species''Fusobacterium'' infection usually ''Clostridium perfringens''; other ''Clostridium'' speciesGas gangrene (Clostridial myonecrosis)Discoloration, large black blisters, foul odor, pain and numbness''Geotrichum candidum''Geotrichosis PRNPGerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome (GSS)''Giardia lamblia'' GiardiasisSymptoms vary from none to severe diarrhea with poor absorption of nutrients.Detection of antigens on the surface of organisms in stoolTreatment is not always necessary.", "If medications are needed, a nitroimidazole medication is used such as metronidazole, tinidazole, secnidazole or ornidazole.", "''Burkholderia mallei''Glanders''Gnathostoma spinigerum'' and ''Gnathostoma hispidum''Gnathostomiasis''Neisseria gonorrhoeae''GonorrheaSwelling, itching, pain, and the formation of pusGram stain and cultureCeftriaxone by injection and azithromycin by mouth''Klebsiella granulomatis''Granuloma inguinale (Donovanosis)''Streptococcus pyogenes''Group A streptococcal infection* impetigo, cellulitis, and erysipelas – infections of the skin which can be complicated by necrotizing fasciitis – skin, fascia and muscle* strep throat AKA strep pharyngitis – pharynxCulturePenicillin''Streptococcus agalactiae''Group B streptococcal infection* Pneumonia: fever, lung consolidation, pleural effusion, tachypnea, tachycardia, or hypotension* Meningitis: fever, confusion, hypotension, headache, nuchal rigidity, or changing mental status* Bacteremia: fever, murmur, evidence of an embolic event, hypotension, phlebitis, tachycardia, tachypnea, splenomegaly, or evidence of heart failure* Skin and soft tissue infection, osteomyelitis, septic arthritis, or discitis: fever, cellulitis, arthritis, arthralgia, localized pain, decubitus ulcer, vascular insufficiency of the lower extremity, back pain, wound infection, or neurologic dysfunction* Urinary tract infection or pelvic abscess: fever, flank pain, pelvic pain, or abdominal painGram stainPenicillin and ampicillin''Haemophilus influenzae'' ''Haemophilus influenzae'' infectionPain, feverGram stainIn severe cases, cefotaxime and ceftriaxone delivered directly into the bloodstream are the elected antibiotics, and, for the less severe cases, an association of ampicillin and sulbactam, cephalosporins of the second and third generation, or fluoroquinolones are preferred.Enteroviruses, mainly Coxsackie A virus and enterovirus 71 (EV71)Hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD)Fever, rash, small blistersA diagnosis usually can be made by the presenting signs and symptoms alone.", "If the diagnosis is unclear, a throat swab or stool specimen may be taken to identify the virus by culture.Medications are usually not needed as hand, foot, and mouth disease is a viral disease that typically resolves on its own.", "Currently, there is no specific curative treatment for hand, foot and mouth disease.Sin Nombre virusHantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS) Heartland virusHeartland virus disease''Helicobacter pylori''''Helicobacter pylori'' infectionStomach ulcers ''Escherichia coli'' O157:H7, O111 and O104:H4Hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS)thrombocytopenia and microangiopathic hemolysis, plus one or more of the following: neurological symptoms (e.g., confusion, cerebral convulsions, seizures); renal impairment (e.g., elevated creatinine, decreased estimated glomerular filtration rate eGFR, abnormal urinalysis); and gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms (e.g., diarrhea, nausea/vomiting, abdominal pain, gastroenteritis).First diagnosis of aHUS is often made in the context of an initial, complement-triggering infection, and Shiga-toxin has also been implicated as a trigger that identifies patients with aHUS.Treatment involves supportive care and may include dialysis, steroids, blood transfusions, and plasmapheresis.", "Bunyaviridae speciesHemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS)Redness of cheeks and nose, fever, chills, sweaty palms, diarrhea, malaise, headaches, nausea, abdominal and back pain, respiratory problemsHFRS is difficult to diagnose on clinical grounds alone and serological evidence is often needed.There is no cure for HFRS.", "Treatment involves supportive therapy including renal dialysis.", "Hendra virus Hendra virus infection Hepatitis A virus Hepatitis ANausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dark urine, jaundice, fever, abdominal painBlood testsSupportive care, liver transplantation Hepatitis B virus Hepatitis BNone, yellowish skin, tiredness, dark urine, abdominal painBlood testsAntiviral medication (tenofovir, interferon), liver transplantation Hepatitis C virus Hepatitis CTypically noneBlood testing for antibodies or viral RNAAntivirals (sofosbuvir, simeprevir, others) Hepatitis D Virus Hepatitis DFeeling tired, nausea and vomitingImmunoglobulin GAntivirals, pegylated interferon alpha Hepatitis E virus Hepatitis ENausea, jaundiceHepatitis E virus (HEV)Rest, ribavirin (if chronic)Herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) Herpes simplexBlisters on genitalia and lipsBased on symptoms, PCR, viral cultureAciclovir, valaciclovir, paracetamol (acetaminophen), topical lidocaine''Histoplasma capsulatum''HistoplasmosisNonspecific respiratory symptoms, often cough or flu-likeHistoplasmosis can be diagnosed by samples containing the fungus taken from sputum (via bronchoalveolar lavage), blood, or infected organs.", "It can also be diagnosed by detection of antigens in blood or urine samples by ELISA or polymerase chain reaction.In the majority of immunocompetent individuals, histoplasmosis resolves without any treatment.", "Antifungal medications are used to treat severe cases of acute histoplasmosis and all cases of chronic and disseminated disease.", "Typical treatment of severe disease first involves treatment with amphotericin B, followed by oral itraconazole.", "''Ancylostoma duodenale'' and ''Necator americanus''Hookworm infection Human bocavirus (HBoV)Human bocavirus infection''Ehrlichia ewingii'' Human ewingii ehrlichiosisFever, headache, myalgias, and malaiseThe diagnosis can be confirmed by using PCR.", "A peripheral blood smear can also be examined for intracytoplasmic inclusions called morulae.Doxycycline''Anaplasma phagocytophilum''Human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA)* fever* severe headache* muscle aches (myalgia)* chills and shaking, similar to the symptoms of influenza* nausea* vomiting* loss of appetite* unintentional weight loss* abdominal pain* coughPCRDoxycycline Human metapneumovirus (hMPV)Human metapneumovirus infection''Ehrlichia chaffeensis'' Human monocytic ehrlichiosisFever, headache, malaise, and muscle aches (myalgia).PCRDoxycycline One of the human papillomavirusesHuman papillomavirus (HPV) infectionWarts Human parainfluenza viruses (HPIV)Human parainfluenza virus infectionHuman T-lymphotropic virus 1 (HTLV-1)Human T-lymphotropic virus 1 infection''Hymenolepis nana'' and Hymenolepis diminuta HymenolepiasisAbdominal pain, loss of appetite, itching around the anus, irritability, and diarrheaExamination of the stool for eggs and parasitesPraziquantel, niclosamide Epstein–Barr virus (EBV)Epstein–Barr virus infectious mononucleosis (Mono)* Fever – usually lasting 14 days; often mild* Sore throat – usually severe for 3–5 days, before resolving in the next 7–10 days.", "* Swollen glands – mobile; usually located around the back of the neck (posterior cervical lymph nodes) and sometimes throughout the body.Diagnostic modalities for infectious mononucleosis include:* Person's age, with highest risk at 10 to 30 years.", "* Medical history, such as close contact with other people with infectious mononucleosis, and the presence and time of onset of \"mononucleosis-like symptoms\" such as fever and sore throat.", "* Physical examination, including palpation of any enlarged lymph nodes in the neck, or enlarged spleen.", "* The heterophile antibody test is a screening test that gives results within a day, but has significantly less than full sensitivity (70–92%) in the first two weeks after clinical symptoms begin.", "* Serological tests take longer time than the heterophile antibody test, but are more accurate.Infectious mononucleosis is generally self-limiting, so only symptomatic or supportive treatments are used.Orthomyxoviridae species Influenza (flu)The onset of symptoms is sudden, and initial symptoms are predominately non-specific, including fever, chills, headaches, muscle pain or aching, a feeling of discomfort, loss of appetite, lack of energy/fatigue, and confusion.", "These symptoms are usually accompanied by respiratory symptoms such as a dry cough, sore or dry throat, hoarse voice, and a stuffy or runny nose.Diagnostic methods that can identify influenza include viral cultures, antibody- and antigen-detecting tests, and nucleic acid-based tests.Treatment of influenza in cases of mild or moderate illness is supportive and includes anti-fever medications such as acetaminophen and ibuprofen, adequate fluid intake to avoid dehydration, and resting at home.", "''Isospora belli'' IsosporiasisInfection causes acute, non-bloody diarrhea with crampy abdominal pain, which can last for weeks and result in malabsorption and weight lossMicroscopic demonstration of the large typically shaped oocysts is the basis for diagnosis.", "Because the oocysts may be passed in small amounts and intermittently, repeated stool examinations and concentration procedures are recommended.", "If stool examinations are negative, examination of duodenal specimens by biopsy or string test (Enterotest) may be needed.", "The oocysts can be visualized on wet mounts by microscopy with bright-field, differential interference contrast (DIC), and epifluorescence.", "They can also be stained by modified acid-fast stain.Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazoleJapanese encephalitis virusJapanese encephalitisFever, headache and malaise, cachexia, hemiparesis, convulsions and a raised body temperature between 38–41 °C (100.4–105.8 °F), Mental retardationAvailable tests detecting JE virus-specific IgM antibodies in serum and/or cerebrospinal fluid, for example by IgM capture ELISA.Supportive unknown; evidence supports that it is infectiousKawasaki diseaseFever > 5 days, large lymph nodes, rash, sore throat, diarrheaBased on symptoms, ultrasound of the heartAspirin, immunoglobulin multipleKeratitisTreatment depends on the cause of the keratitis.", "Infectious keratitis can progress rapidly, and generally requires urgent antibacterial, antifungal, or antiviral therapy to eliminate the pathogen.", "Antibacterial solutions include levofloxacin, gatifloxacin, moxifloxacin, ofloxacin.", "It is unclear if steroid eye drops are useful or not''Kingella kingae''''Kingella kingae'' infectionPRNPKuruBody tremors, random outbursts of laughter, gradual loss of coordinationAutopsyNoneLassa virus Lassa feverPartial or complete, temporary or permanent hearing lossLaboratory testingSupportive''Legionella pneumophila'' Legionellosis (Legionnaires' disease)Cough, shortness of breath, fever, muscle pains, headachesUrinary antigen test, sputum cultureEffective antibiotics include most macrolides, tetracyclines, ketolides, and quinolones.", "''Legionella pneumophila''Pontiac fever''Leishmania'' speciesLeishmaniasisSkin ulcers, fever, low red blood cells, enlarged liverLeishmaniasis is diagnosed in the hematology laboratory by direct visualization of the amastigotes (Leishman–Donovan bodies).", "Buffy-coat preparations of peripheral blood or aspirates from marrow, spleen, lymph nodes, or skin lesions should be spread on a slide to make a thin smear and stained with Leishman stain or Giemsa stain (pH 7.2) for 20 minutes.For visceral leishmaniasis in India, South America, and the Mediterranean, liposomal amphotericin B is the recommended treatment and is often used as a single dose.", "Rates of cure with a single dose of amphotericin have been reported as 95%.", "In India, almost all infections are resistant to pentavalent antimonials.", "In Africa, a combination of pentavalent antimonials and paromomycin is recommended.", "These, however, can have significant side effects.", "Miltefosine, an oral medication, is effective against both visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis.", "''Mycobacterium leprae'' and ''Mycobacterium lepromatosis''LeprosyNumbness, small nodules, deformation of extremitiesIn countries where people are frequently infected, a person is considered to have leprosy if they have one of the following two signs:* Skin lesion consistent with leprosy and with definite sensory loss.", "* Positive skin smears.Rifampicin, dapsone, clofazimineUndergoing worldwide elimination of transmission''Leptospira'' speciesLeptospirosisNone, headaches, muscle pains, feversTesting blood for antibodies against the bacterium or its DNADoxycycline, penicillin, ceftriaxone''Listeria monocytogenes''ListeriosisDiarrhea, fever, headacheCulture of blood or spinal fluidAmpicillin, gentamicin''Borrelia burgdorferi'', ''Borrelia garinii'', and ''Borrelia afzelii''Lyme disease (Lyme borreliosis)Expanding area of redness at the site of a tick bite, fever, headache, tirednessBased on symptoms, tick exposure, blood testsDoxycycline, amoxicillin, ceftriaxone, cefuroxime''Wuchereria bancrofti'' and ''Brugia malayi''Lymphatic filariasis (Elephantiasis)Severe swelling of extremities, thickened skinMicroscopic examination of bloodAlbendazole with ivermectin or diethylcarbamazineUndergoing worldwide eliminationLymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV)Lymphocytic choriomeningitisFever, lack of appetite, headache, muscle aches, malaise, nausea, and/or vomitingBlood testSymptomatic and supportive''Plasmodium'' speciesMalariaHeadache, fever, shivering, joint pain, vomiting, hemolytic anemia, jaundice, hemoglobin in the urine, retinal damage, and convulsionsExamination of the blood, antigen detection testsAntimalarial medicationUndergoing worldwide eradicationMarburg virusMarburg hemorrhagic fever (MHF)Fever, weakness, myalgiasBlood testSupportiveMeasles virusMeaslesFever, cough, runny nose, red Fever, cough, runny nose, inflamed eyes, rashTypically, clinical diagnosis begins with the onset of fever and malaise about 10 days after exposure to the measles virus, followed by the emergence of cough, coryza, and conjunctivitis that worsen in severity over 4 days of appearing.", "Observation of Koplik's spots is also diagnostic.Supportive careUndergoing regional elimination Middle East respiratory syndrome–related coronavirus Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS)Fever, cough, shortness of breathrRT-PCR testingSymptomatic and supportive''Burkholderia pseudomallei''Melioidosis (Whitmore's disease)None, fever, pneumonia, multiple abscessesGrowing the bacteria in culture mediumsCeftazidime, meropenem, co-trimoxazole multipleMeningitisFever, headache, neck stiffnessLumbar punctureAntibiotics, antivirals, steroids''Neisseria meningitidis''Meningococcal diseaseFlu-like symptoms, stiff neck, altered mental status, seizures, purpuraTreatment in primary care usually involves prompt intramuscular administration of benzylpenicillin, and then an urgent transfer to hospital (hopefully, an academic level I medical center, or at least a hospital with round the clock neurological care, ideally with neurological intensive and critical care units) for further care.", "Once in the hospital, the antibiotics of choice are usually IV broad spectrum 3rd generation cephalosporins, e.g., cefotaxime or ceftriaxone.", "Benzylpenicillin and chloramphenicol are also effective.", "usually ''Metagonimus yokagawai''MetagonimiasisDiarrhea and colicky abdominal painMetagonimiasis is diagnosed by eggs seen in feces.Praziquantel Microsporidia phylumMicrosporidiosisPCRFumagillin has been used in the treatment.", "Another agent used is albendazole.", "Molluscum contagiosum virus (MCV) Molluscum contagiosum (MC)Small, raised, pink lesions with a dimple in the centerBased on appearanceCimetidine, podophyllotoxin Monkeypox virus MonkeypoxFever, headache, muscle pains, shivering, blistering rash, swollen lymph nodesTesting for viral DNASupportive, antivirals, vaccinia immune globulin Mumps virus MumpsParotitis and non-specific symptoms such as fever, headache, malaise, muscle pain, and loss of appetiteAntibody testing, viral cultures, and reverse transcription polymerase chain reactionSupportive''Rickettsia typhi'' Murine typhus (Endemic typhus)Headache, fever, muscle pain, joint pain, nausea and vomitingEarly diagnosis continued to be based on clinical suspicion.The most effective antibiotics include tetracycline and chloramphenicol.", "''Mycoplasma pneumoniae''Mycoplasma pneumoniaFever, malaise, cough, headacheChest X-Ray, Chest CT, blood testErythromycin, doxycycline''Mycoplasma genitalium''Mycoplasma genitalium infectionDischarge and pain from genitalsNucleic acid amplification testAzithromycin, moxifloxacin numerous species of bacteria (Actinomycetoma) and fungi (Eumycetoma)MycetomaTriad: painless firm skin lump, multiple weeping sinuses, grainy dischargeUltrasound, fine needle aspirationAntibiotics or antifungal medicationparasitic dipterous fly larvaeMyiasisBoil with larva insideExamination and serologic testingPetroleum jelly over the central punctum most commonly ''Chlamydia trachomatis'' and ''Neisseria gonorrhoeae''Neonatal conjunctivitis (Ophthalmia neonatorum)Antibiotic ointment (erythromycin, tetracycline, or rarely silver nitrate or Argyrol) Nipah virusNipah virus infectionNorovirus NorovirusDiarrhea, vomiting, stomach pain, headacheBased on symptomsSupportive carePRNP(New) Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (vCJD, nvCJD) usually ''Nocardia asteroides'' and other ''Nocardia'' species Nocardiosis'''Pulmonary infection'''* Night sweats, fever, cough, chest pain'''Neurological infection'''* Headache, lethargy, confusion, seizures, sudden onset of neurological deficit'''Cardiac conditions'''* In recorded cases, it has caused damage to heart valves whether natural or prosthetic'''Lymphocutaneous disease'''* Nocardial cellulitis is akin to erysipelas but is less acute'''Ocular disease'''* Very rarely, nocardiae cause keratitis'''Disseminated nocardiosis'''* Fever, moderate or very high can be seenchest x-ray to analyze the lungs, a bronchoscopy, a brain/lung/skin biopsy, or a sputum culture.trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole or high doses of sulfonamides''Onchocerca volvulus''Onchocerciasis (River blindness)Undergoing elimination in the WHO regions of the Americas and Africa''Opisthorchis viverrini'' and ''Opisthorchis felineus''Opisthorchiasis''Paracoccidioides brasiliensis''Paracoccidioidomycosis (South American blastomycosis) usually ''Paragonimus westermani'' and other ''Paragonimus'' speciesParagonimiasis''Pasteurella'' speciesPasteurellosis''Pediculus humanus capitis''Pediculosis capitis (Head lice)Itching, nits attached to hair''Pediculus humanus corporis''Pediculosis corporis (Body lice)''Pthirus pubis''Pediculosis pubis (pubic lice, crab lice) multiplePelvic inflammatory disease (PID)Lower abdominal pain, vaginal discharge, fever, burning with urination, pain with sex, irregular menstruationBased on symptoms, ultrasound, laparoscopic surgeryTypical regimens include cefoxitin or cefotetan plus doxycycline, and clindamycin plus gentamicin.", "''Bordetella pertussis''Pertussis (whooping cough)Severe coughing fits ending in gaspsNasopharyngeal swaberythromycin, clarithromycin, or azithromycin''Yersinia pestis''PlagueFever, weakness, headacheFinding the bacterium in a lymph node, blood, sputumGentamicin and a fluoroquinolone''Streptococcus pneumoniae''Pneumococcal infectionPneumococcal pneumonia, otitis media, bloodstream infections and bacterial meningitis.Culturecephalosporins, and fluoroquinolones such as levofloxacin and moxifloxacin''Pneumocystis jirovecii''Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP)shortness of breath and/or difficulty breathing (of gradual onset), fever, dry/non-productive cough, weight loss, night sweatschest X-ray and an arterial oxygen leveltrimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole multiplePneumoniaCough, shortness of breath, chest pain, feverBased on symptoms, chest X-rayAntibiotics, antivirals, oxygen therapy PoliovirusPoliomyelitisFever, sore throatFinding the virus in the feces or antibodies in the bloodsupportive careUndergoing worldwide eradication''Prevotella'' species''Prevotella'' infectionusually ''Naegleria fowleri''Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM)Fever, vomiting, stiff neck, seizures, poor coordination, confusion, deathflagellation testMiltefosine, fluconazole, amphotericin B, posaconazole, voriconazole, targeted temperature management JC virusProgressive multifocal leukoencephalopathyclumsiness, progressive weakness, and visual, speech, and sometimes personality changesfinding JC virus DNA in spinal fluid, brain CT''Chlamydophila psittaci'' Psittacosissevere pneumoniaCulturetetracyclines and chloramphenicol''Coxiella burnetii''Q feverfever, malaise, profuse perspiration, severe headache, muscle pain, joint pain, loss of appetite, upper respiratory problems, dry cough, pleuritic pain, chills, confusion, and gastrointestinal symptoms, such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrheaBased on serologydoxycycline, tetracycline, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, and ofloxacin Rabies virusRabiesFever, extreme aversion to water, confusion, excessive salivary secretion, hallucinations, disrupted sleep, paralysis, coma, hyperactivity, headache, nausea, vomiting, anxietyfluorescent antibody test (FAT)Supportive careUndergoing worldwide elimination in humans and animals''Borrelia hermsii'', ''Borrelia recurrentis'', and other ''Borrelia'' species Relapsing feverfever, chills, headaches, muscle or joint aches, and nauseablood smearTetracycline-class antibiotics Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)Respiratory syncytial virus infectionwide variety of signs and symptoms that range from mild upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) to severe and potentially life-threatening lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI)A variety of laboratory testsTreatment for RSV infection is focused primarily on supportive care.", "''Rhinosporidium seeberi'' Rhinosporidiosis RhinovirusRhinovirus infection''Rickettsia'' species Rickettsial infection''Rickettsia akari''Rickettsialpox Rift Valley fever virusRift Valley fever (RVF)''Rickettsia rickettsii'' Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) RotavirusRotavirus infection Rubella virus RubellaUndergoing regional elimination''Salmonella'' species SalmonellosisSARS coronavirusSevere acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)''Sarcoptes scabiei'' ScabiesGroup A ''Streptococcus'' speciesScarlet fever''Schistosoma'' speciesSchistosomiasisUndergoing regional elimination and being eliminated as a public health problem multipleSepsis''Shigella'' speciesShigellosis (bacillary dysentery)Varicella zoster virus (VZV)Shingles (Herpes zoster)Variola major or Variola minorSmallpox (variola)Eradicated worldwide''Sporothrix schenckii'' Sporotrichosis''Staphylococcus'' speciesStaphylococcal food poisoning''Staphylococcus'' speciesStaphylococcal infection''Strongyloides stercoralis''Strongyloidiasis Measles virusSubacute sclerosing panencephalitis''Treponema pallidum'' Bejel, Syphilis, and YawsYaws is undergoing worldwide eradication''Taenia'' speciesTaeniasis''Clostridium tetani''Tetanus (lockjaw)Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV)Tick-borne encephalitis usually ''Trichophyton'' speciesTinea barbae (barber's itch) usually ''Trichophyton tonsurans''Tinea capitis (ringworm of the scalp) usually ''Trichophyton'' speciesTinea corporis (ringworm of the body) usually ''Epidermophyton floccosum'', ''Trichophyton rubrum'', and ''Trichophyton mentagrophytes''Tinea cruris (Jock itch)''Trichophyton rubrum''Tinea manum (ringworm of the hand) usually ''Hortaea werneckii''Tinea nigra usually ''Trichophyton'' speciesTinea pedis (athlete's foot) usually ''Trichophyton'' speciesTinea unguium (onychomycosis)''Malassezia'' speciesTinea versicolor (Pityriasis versicolor)''Staphylococcus aureus'' or ''Streptococcus pyogenes''Toxic shock syndrome (TSS)''Toxocara canis'' or ''Toxocara cati''Toxocariasis (ocular larva migrans (OLM))''Toxocara canis'' or ''Toxocara cati''Toxocariasis (visceral larva migrans (VLM))''Toxoplasma gondii''Toxoplasmosis''Chlamydia trachomatis''TrachomaUndergoing regional elimination and worldwide elimination as a public health problem''Trichinella spiralis''Trichinosis''Trichomonas vaginalis''Trichomoniasis''Trichuris trichiura''Trichuriasis (whipworm infection) usually ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis''TuberculosisUndergoing worldwide elimination as a public health problem''Francisella tularensis''Tularemia''Salmonella enterica subsp.", "enterica, serovar typhi''Typhoid fever''Rickettsia''Typhus fever''Ureaplasma urealyticum'' ''Ureaplasma urealyticum'' infection ''Coccidioides immitis'' or ''Coccidioides posadasii''.Valley fever Venezuelan equine encephalitis virusVenezuelan equine encephalitis Guanarito virus Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever''Vibrio vulnificus''Vibrio vulnificus infection''Vibrio parahaemolyticus''Vibrio parahaemolyticus enteritis multiple virusesViral pneumonia West Nile virusWest Nile fever''Trichosporon beigelii'' White piedra (tinea blanca)''Yersinia pseudotuberculosis'' ''Yersinia pseudotuberculosis'' infection ''Yersinia enterocolitica''Yersiniosis Yellow fever virusYellow feverZeaspora fungus Zeaspora ''Zika virus''Zika feverrash, fever, red or swollen eyes, pain in joints, Mucorales order (Mucormycosis) and Entomophthorales order (Entomophthoramycosis) Zygomycosis" ], [ "See also", "* * List of oncogenic bacteria* − including specific infectious diseases and classes thereof* " ], [ "References", " Chin J.", "B., ed.", "Control of Communicable Diseases Manual.", "17th ed.", "APHA American Public Health Association Press; 2000.", "* Red Book: 2009 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases.", "2009.American Academy of Pediatrics.", "28th ed.", "* Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.", "CDC Works 24/7.Retrieved on August 4, 2009." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Intel" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Intel Corporation''' is an American multinational corporation and technology company headquartered in Santa Clara, California, and incorporated in Delaware.", "Intel is one of the world's largest semiconductor chip manufacturers by revenue and ranked in the ''Fortune'' 500 list of the largest United States corporations by revenue for nearly a decade, from 2007 to 2016 fiscal years, until it was removed from the ranking in 2018.In 2020, it was reinstated and ranked 45th, being the 7th-largest technology company in the ranking.Intel supplies microprocessors for most manufacturers of computer systems, and is one of the developers of the x86 series of instruction sets found in most personal computers (PCs).", "It also manufactures chipsets, network interface controllers, flash memory, graphics processing units (GPUs), field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), and other devices related to communications and computing.", "Intel has a strong presence in the high-performance and gaming PC market with its Intel Core line of CPUs, whose high-end models are among the fastest consumer CPUs, as well as its Intel Arc series of GPUs, and sponsors the Intel Extreme Masters, a series of international esports tournaments.", "The Open Source Technology Center at Intel hosts PowerTOP and LatencyTOP, and supports other open source projects such as Wayland, Mesa, Threading Building Blocks (TBB), and Xen.Intel (''Int''egrated ''el''ectronics) was founded on July 18, 1968, by semiconductor pioneers Gordon Moore (of Moore's law), Robert Noyce and Arthur Rock, and is associated with the executive leadership and vision of Andrew Grove.", "The company was a key component of the rise of Silicon Valley as a high-tech center, as well as being an early developer of SRAM and DRAM memory chips, which represented the majority of its business until 1981.Although Intel created the world's first commercial microprocessor chip in 1971, it was not until the success of the PC in the early 1990s that this became its primary business.During the 1990s, the partnership between Microsoft Windows and Intel, known as \"Wintel\", became instrumental in shaping the PC landscape and solidified Intel's position on the market.", "As a result, Intel invested heavily in new microprocessor designs in the mid to late 1990s, fostering the rapid growth of the computer industry.", "During this period, it became the dominant supplier of PC microprocessors and was known for aggressive and anti-competitive tactics in defense of its market position, particularly against AMD, as well as a struggle with Microsoft for control over the direction of the PC industry.", "Since the 2000s and especially the late 2010s, Intel has faced increasing competition from AMD, resulting in a significant decline of its dominance and market share in the PC market.", "Nevertheless, with a 68.4% market share as of 2023, Intel still leads the x86 market by a wide margin." ], [ "Current operations", "===Operating segments===* '''Client Computing Group'''51.8% of 2020 revenuesproduces PC processors and related components.", "* '''Data Center Group'''33.7% of 2020 revenuesproduces hardware components used in server, network, and storage platforms.", "* '''Internet of Things Group'''5.2% of 2020 revenuesoffers platforms designed for retail, transportation, industrial, buildings and home use.", "* '''Programmable Solutions Group'''2.4% of 2020 revenuesmanufactures programmable semiconductors (primarily FPGAs).===Customers===In 2023, Dell accounted for about 19% of Intel's total revenues, Lenovo accounted for 11% of total revenues, and HP Inc. accounted for 10% of total revenues.", "As of August 2021, the US Department of Defense is another large customer for Intel.===Market share===According to IDC, while Intel enjoyed the biggest market share in both the overall worldwide PC microprocessor market (73.3%) and the mobile PC microprocessor (80.4%) in the second quarter of 2011, the numbers decreased by 1.5% and 1.9% compared to the first quarter of 2011.Intel's market share decreased significantly in the enthusiast market as of 2019, and they have faced delays for their 10 nm products.", "According to former Intel CEO Bob Swan, the delay was caused by the company's overly aggressive strategy for moving to its next node.====Historical market share====In the 1980s, Intel was among the world's top ten sellers of semiconductors (10th in 1987).", "Along with Microsoft Windows, it was part of the \"Wintel\" personal computer domination in the 1990s and early 2000s.", "In 1992, Intel became the biggest chip maker by revenue and held the position until 2018 when Samsung Electronics surpassed it, but Intel returned to its former position the year after.", "Other major semiconductor companies include TSMC, GlobalFoundries, Texas Instruments, Toshiba, STMicroelectronics, United Microelectronics Corporation (UMC), Micron, SK Hynix, Kioxia, and SMIC.===Major competitors===Intel's competitors in PC chipsets included AMD, VIA Technologies, Silicon Integrated Systems, and Nvidia.", "Intel's competitors in networking include NXP Semiconductors, Infineon, Broadcom Limited, Marvell Technology Group and Applied Micro Circuits Corporation, and competitors in flash memory included Spansion, Samsung Electronics, Qimonda, Kioxia, STMicroelectronics, Micron, and SK Hynix.The only major competitor in the x86 processor market is AMD, with which Intel has had full cross-licensing agreements since 1976: each partner can use the other's patented technological innovations without charge after a certain time.", "However, the cross-licensing agreement is canceled in the event of an AMD bankruptcy or takeover.Some smaller competitors, such as VIA Technologies, produce low-power x86 processors for small factor computers and portable equipment.", "However, the advent of such mobile computing devices, in particular, smartphones, has in recent years led to a decline in PC sales.", "Since over 95% of the world's smartphones currently use processors cores designed by Arm, using the Arm instruction set, Arm has become a major competitor for Intel's processor market.", "Arm is also planning to make attempts at setting foot into the PC and server market, with Ampere and IBM each individually designing CPUs for servers and supercomputers.", "The only other major competitor in processor instruction sets is RISC-V, which is an open source CPU instruction set.", "The major Chinese phone and telecommunications manufacturer Huawei has released chips based on the RISC-V instruction set due to US sanctions.Intel has been involved in several disputes regarding the violation of antitrust laws, which are noted below.===Carbon footprint===Intel reported total CO2e emissions (direct + indirect) for the twelve months ending December 31, 2020, at 2,882 Kt (+94/+3.4% y-o-y).", "Intel plans to reduce carbon emissions 10% by 2030 from a 2020 base year.+ Intel's annual total CO2e emissions (direct + indirect) in kilotonnes Dec. 2017 Dec. 2018 Dec. 2019 Dec. 2020 Dec. 2021 2,461 2,578 2,788 2,8823,274=== Manufacturing locations ===Intel has self-reported that they have wafer fabs in the United States, Ireland, and Israel.", "They have also self-reported that they have assembly and testing sites mostly in China, Costa Rica, Malaysia, and Vietnam, with only one assembly and/or testing site in the United States." ], [ "History", "===Origins===Andy Grove, Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore in 1978Intel was incorporated in Mountain View, California, on July 18, 1968, by Gordon E. Moore (known for \"Moore's law\"), a chemist, Robert Noyce, a physicist and co-inventor of the integrated circuit and Arthur Rock, an investor and venture capitalist.", "Moore and Noyce had left Fairchild Semiconductor and were part of the \"traitorous eight\".", "There were originally 500,000 shares outstanding of which Dr. Noyce bought 245,000 shares, Dr. Moore 245,000 shares, and Mr. Rock 10,000 shares; all at $1 per share.", "Rock offered $2,500,000 of convertible debentures to a limited group of private investors (equivalent to $21 million in 2022), convertible at $5 per share.", "Just 2 years later, Intel became a public company via an initial public offering (IPO), raising $6.8 million ($23.50 per share).", "Intel's third employee was Andy Grove, a chemical engineer, who later ran the company through much of the 1980s and the high-growth 1990s.In deciding on a name, Moore and Noyce quickly rejected \"Moore Noyce\", near homophone for \"more noise\" – an ill-suited name for an electronics company, since noise in electronics is usually undesirable and typically associated with bad interference.", "Instead, they founded the company as '''NM Electronics''' (or '''MN Electronics''') on July 18, 1968, but by the end of the month had changed the name to '''Intel''' which stood for '''Int'''egrated '''El'''ectronics.", "Since \"Intel\" was already trademarked by the hotel chain Intelco, they had to buy the rights for the name.===Early history===At its founding, Intel was distinguished by its ability to make logic circuits using semiconductor devices.", "The founders' goal was the semiconductor memory market, widely predicted to replace magnetic-core memory.", "Its first product, a quick entry into the small, high-speed memory market in 1969, was the 3101 Schottky TTL bipolar 64-bit static random-access memory (SRAM), which was nearly twice as fast as earlier Schottky diode implementations by Fairchild and the Electrotechnical Laboratory in Tsukuba, Japan.", "In the same year, Intel also produced the 3301 Schottky bipolar 1024-bit read-only memory (ROM) and the first commercial metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) silicon gate SRAM chip, the 256-bit 1101.While the 1101 was a significant advance, its complex static cell structure made it too slow and costly for mainframe memories.", "The three-transistor cell implemented in the first commercially available dynamic random-access memory (DRAM), the 1103 released in 1970, solved these issues.", "The 1103 was the bestselling semiconductor memory chip in the world by 1972, as it replaced core memory in many applications.", "Intel's business grew during the 1970s as it expanded and improved its manufacturing processes and produced a wider range of products, still dominated by various memory devices.Federico Faggin, designer of the Intel 4004Intel created the first commercially available microprocessor, the Intel 4004, in 1971.The microprocessor represented a notable advance in the technology of integrated circuitry, as it miniaturized the central processing unit of a computer, which then made it possible for small machines to perform calculations that in the past only very large machines could do.", "Considerable technological innovation was needed before the microprocessor could actually become the basis of what was first known as a \"mini computer\" and then known as a \"personal computer\".", "Intel also created one of the first microcomputers in 1973.Intel opened its first international manufacturing facility in 1972, in Malaysia, which would host multiple Intel operations, before opening assembly facilities and semiconductor plants in Singapore and Jerusalem in the early 1980s, and manufacturing and development centers in China, India, and Costa Rica in the 1990s.", "By the early 1980s, its business was dominated by DRAM chips.", "However, increased competition from Japanese semiconductor manufacturers had, by 1983, dramatically reduced the profitability of this market.", "The growing success of the IBM personal computer, based on an Intel microprocessor, was among factors that convinced Gordon Moore (CEO since 1975) to shift the company's focus to microprocessors and to change fundamental aspects of that business model.", "Moore's decision to sole-source Intel's 386 chip played into the company's continuing success.By the end of the 1980s, buoyed by its fortuitous position as microprocessor supplier to IBM and IBM's competitors within the rapidly growing personal computer market, Intel embarked on a 10-year period of unprecedented growth as the primary (and most profitable) hardware supplier to the PC industry, part of the winning 'Wintel' combination.", "Moore handed over his position as CEO to Andy Grove in 1987.By launching its Intel Inside marketing campaign in 1991, Intel was able to associate brand loyalty with consumer selection, so that by the end of the 1990s, its line of Pentium processors had become a household name.===Challenges to dominance (2000s)===After 2000, growth in demand for high-end microprocessors slowed.", "Competitors, most notably AMD (Intel's largest competitor in its primary x86 architecture market), garnered significant market share, initially in low-end and mid-range processors but ultimately across the product range, and Intel's dominant position in its core market was greatly reduced, mostly due to controversial NetBurst microarchitecture.", "In the early 2000s then-CEO, Craig Barrett attempted to diversify the company's business beyond semiconductors, but few of these activities were ultimately successful.====Litigation====Intel had also for a number of years been embroiled in litigation.", "U.S. law did not initially recognize intellectual property rights related to microprocessor topology (circuit layouts), until the Semiconductor Chip Protection Act of 1984, a law sought by Intel and the Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA).", "During the late 1980s and 1990s (after this law was passed), Intel also sued companies that tried to develop competitor chips to the 80386 CPU.", "The lawsuits were noted to significantly burden the competition with legal bills, even if Intel lost the suits.", "Antitrust allegations had been simmering since the early 1990s and had been the cause of one lawsuit against Intel in 1991.In 2004 and 2005, AMD brought further claims against Intel related to unfair competition.===Reorganization and success with Intel Core (2005–2015)===In 2005, CEO Paul Otellini reorganized the company to refocus its core processor and chipset business on platforms (enterprise, digital home, digital health, and mobility).On June 6, 2005, Steve Jobs, then CEO of Apple, announced that Apple would be using Intel's x86 processors for its Macintosh computers, switching from the PowerPC architecture developed by the AIM alliance.", "This was seen as win for Intel; an analyst called the move \"risky\" and \"foolish\", as Intel's current offerings at the time were considered to be behind those of AMD and IBM.In 2006, Intel unveiled its Core microarchitecture to widespread critical acclaim; the product range was perceived as an exceptional leap in processor performance that at a stroke regained much of its leadership of the field.", "In 2008, Intel had another \"tick\" when it introduced the Penryn microarchitecture, fabricated using the 45 nm process node.", "Later that year, Intel released a processor with the Nehalem architecture to positive reception.On June 27, 2006, the sale of Intel's XScale assets was announced.", "Intel agreed to sell the XScale processor business to Marvell Technology Group for an estimated $600 million and the assumption of unspecified liabilities.", "The move was intended to permit Intel to focus its resources on its core x86 and server businesses, and the acquisition completed on November 9, 2006.In 2008, Intel spun off key assets of a solar startup business effort to form an independent company, SpectraWatt Inc.", "In 2011, SpectraWatt filed for bankruptcy.In February 2011, Intel began to build a new microprocessor manufacturing facility in Chandler, Arizona, completed in 2013 at a cost of $5 billion.", "The building is now the 10 nm-certified Fab 42 and is connected to the other Fabs (12, 22, 32) on Ocotillo Campus via an enclosed bridge known as the Link.", "The company produces three-quarters of its products in the United States, although three-quarters of its revenue come from overseas.The Alliance for Affordable Internet (A4AI) was launched in October 2013 and Intel is part of the coalition of public and private organizations that also includes Facebook, Google, and Microsoft.", "Led by Sir Tim Berners-Lee, the A4AI seeks to make Internet access more affordable so that access is broadened in the developing world, where only 31% of people are online.", "Google will help to decrease Internet access prices so that they fall below the UN Broadband Commission's worldwide target of 5% of monthly income.====Attempts at entering the smartphone market====In April 2011, Intel began a pilot project with ZTE Corporation to produce smartphones using the Intel Atom processor for China's domestic market.", "In December 2011, Intel announced that it reorganized several of its business units into a new mobile and communications group that would be responsible for the company's smartphone, tablet, and wireless efforts.", "Intel planned to introduce Medfield – a processor for tablets and smartphones – to the market in 2012, as an effort to compete with Arm.", "As a 32-nanometer processor, Medfield is designed to be energy-efficient, which is one of the core features in Arm's chips.At the Intel Developers Forum (IDF) 2011 in San Francisco, Intel's partnership with Google was announced.", "In January 2012, Google announced Android 2.3, supporting Intel's Atom microprocessor.", "In 2013, Intel's Kirk Skaugen said that Intel's exclusive focus on Microsoft platforms was a thing of the past and that they would now support all \"tier-one operating systems\" such as Linux, Android, iOS, and Chrome.In 2014, Intel cut thousands of employees in response to \"evolving market trends\", and offered to subsidize manufacturers for the extra costs involved in using Intel chips in their tablets.", "In April 2016, Intel cancelled the SoFIA platform and the Broxton Atom SoC for smartphones, effectively leaving the smartphone market.====Intel custom foundry====Finding itself with excess fab capacity after the failure of the Ultrabook to gain market traction and with PC sales declining, in 2013 Intel reached a foundry agreement to produce chips for Altera using a 14 nm process.", "General Manager of Intel's custom foundry division Sunit Rikhi indicated that Intel would pursue further such deals in the future.", "This was after poor sales of Windows 8 hardware caused a major retrenchment for most of the major semiconductor manufacturers, except for Qualcomm, which continued to see healthy purchases from its largest customer, Apple.As of July 2013, five companies were using Intel's fabs via the ''Intel Custom Foundry'' division: Achronix, Tabula, Netronome, Microsemi, and Panasonicmost are field-programmable gate array (FPGA) makers, but Netronome designs network processors.", "Only Achronix began shipping chips made by Intel using the 22 nm Tri-Gate process.", "Several other customers also exist but were not announced at the time.The foundry business was closed in 2018 due to Intel's issues with its manufacturing.===Security and manufacturing challenges (2016–2021)===Intel continued its tick-tock model of a microarchitecture change followed by a die shrink until the 6th-generation Core family based on the Skylake microarchitecture.", "This model was deprecated in 2016, with the release of the 7th-generation Core family (codenamed Kaby Lake), ushering in the process–architecture–optimization model.", "As Intel struggled to shrink their process node from 14 nm to 10 nm, processor development slowed down and the company continued to use the Skylake microarchitecture until 2020, albeit with optimizations.====10 nm process node issues====While Intel originally planned to introduce 10 nm products in 2016, it later became apparent that there were manufacturing issues with the node.", "The first microprocessor under that node, Cannon Lake (marketed as 8th-generation Core), was released in small quantities in 2018.The company first delayed the mass production of their 10 nm products to 2017.They later delayed mass production to 2018, and then to 2019.Despite rumors of the process being cancelled, Intel finally introduced mass-produced 10 nm 10th-generation Intel Core mobile processors (codenamed \"Ice Lake\") in September 2019.Intel later acknowledged that their strategy to shrink to 10 nm was too aggressive.", "While other foundries used up to four steps in 10 nm or 7 nm processes, the company's 10 nm process required up to five or six multi-pattern steps.", "In addition, Intel's 10 nm process is denser than its counterpart processes from other foundries.", "Since Intel's microarchitecture and process node development were coupled, processor development stagnated.====Security flaws====In early January 2018, it was reported that all Intel processors made since 1995, excluding Intel Itanium and pre-2013 Intel Atom processors, have been subject to two security flaws dubbed Meltdown and Spectre.", "It is believed that \"hundreds of millions\" of systems could be affected by these flaws.", "More security flaws were disclosed on May 3, 2018, on August 14, 2018, on January 18, 2019, and on March 5, 2020.On March 15, 2018, Intel reported that it will redesign its CPUs to protect against the Spectre security vulnerability, the redesigned processors were sold later in 2018.Existing chips vulnerable to Meltdown and Spectre can be fixed with a software patch at a cost to performance.===Renewed competition and other developments (2018–present)===Due to Intel's issues with its 10 nm process node and the company's slow processor development, the company now found itself in a market with intense competition.", "The company's main competitor, AMD, introduced the Zen microarchitecture and a new chiplet-based design to critical acclaim.", "Since its introduction, AMD, once unable to compete with Intel in the high-end CPU market, has undergone a resurgence, and Intel's dominance and market share have considerably decreased.", "In addition, Apple began to transition away from the x86 architecture and Intel processors to their own Apple silicon for their Macintosh computers in 2020.The transition is expected to affect Intel minimally; however, it might prompt other PC manufacturers to reevaluate their reliance on Intel and the x86 architecture.===='IDM 2.0' strategy====On March 23, 2021, CEO Pat Gelsinger laid out new plans for the company.", "These include a new strategy, called IDM 2.0, that includes investments in manufacturing facilities, use of both internal and external foundries, and a new foundry business called Intel Foundry Services (IFS), a standalone business unit.", "Unlike Intel Custom Foundry, IFS will offer a combination of packaging and process technology, and Intel's IP portfolio including x86 cores.", "Other plans for the company include a partnership with IBM and a new event for developers and engineers, called \"Intel ON\".", "Gelsinger also confirmed that Intel's 7 nm process is on track, and that the first products using their 7 nm process (also known as Intel 4) are Ponte Vecchio and Meteor Lake.In January 2022, Intel reportedly selected New Albany, Ohio, near Columbus, Ohio, as the site for a major new manufacturing facility.", "The facility will cost at least $20 billion.", "The company expects the facility to begin producing chips by 2025.The same year Intel also choose Magdeburg, Germany, as a site for two new chip mega factories for €17 billion (topping Tesla's investment in Brandenburg).", "The start of the construction was initially planned for 2023, but this has been postponed to late 2024, while production start is planned for 2027.Including subcontractors this would create 10,000 new jobs.In August 2022, Intel signed a $30billion partnership with Brookfield Asset Management to fund its recent factory expansions.", "As part of the deal, Intel would have a controlling stake by funding 51% of the cost of building new chip-making facilities in Chandler, with Brookfield owning the remaining 49% stake, allowing the companies to split the revenue from those facilities.On January 31, 2023, as part of $3 billion in cost reductions, Intel announced pay cuts affecting employees above midlevel, ranging from 5% upwards.", "It also suspended bonuses and merit pay increases, while reducing retirement plan matching.", "These cost reductions followed layoffs announced in the fall of 2022.In October 2023, Intel confirmed it would be the first commercial user of high-NA EUV lithography tool, as part of its plan to regard process leadership from TSMC.==== Artificial intelligence ====In December 2023 Intel unveiled Gaudi3, an artificial intelligence (AI) chip for generative AI software which will launch in 2024 and compete with rival chips from Nvidia and AMD." ], [ "Product and market history", "===SRAMs, DRAMs, and the microprocessor===Intel's first products were shift register memory and random-access memory integrated circuits, and Intel grew to be a leader in the fiercely competitive DRAM, SRAM, and ROM markets throughout the 1970s.", "Concurrently, Intel engineers Marcian Hoff, Federico Faggin, Stanley Mazor, and Masatoshi Shima invented Intel's first microprocessor.", "Originally developed for the Japanese company Busicom to replace a number of ASICs in a calculator already produced by Busicom, the Intel 4004 was introduced to the mass market on November 15, 1971, though the microprocessor did not become the core of Intel's business until the mid-1980s.", "(Note: Intel is usually given credit with Texas Instruments for the almost-simultaneous invention of the microprocessor.", ")In 1983, at the dawn of the personal computer era, Intel's profits came under increased pressure from Japanese memory-chip manufacturers, and then-president Andy Grove focused the company on microprocessors.", "Grove described this transition in the book ''Only the Paranoid Survive''.", "A key element of his plan was the notion, then considered radical, of becoming the single source for successors to the popular 8086 microprocessor.Until then, the manufacture of complex integrated circuits was not reliable enough for customers to depend on a single supplier, but Grove began producing processors in three geographically distinct factories, and ceased licensing the chip designs to competitors such as AMD.", "When the PC industry boomed in the late 1980s and 1990s, Intel was one of the primary beneficiaries.===Early x86 processors and the IBM PC===die from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontroller that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O in the same chipDespite the ultimate importance of the microprocessor, the 4004 and its successors the 8008 and the 8080 were never major revenue contributors at Intel.", "As the next processor, the 8086 (and its variant the 8088) was completed in 1978, Intel embarked on a major marketing and sales campaign for that chip nicknamed \"Operation Crush\", and intended to win as many customers for the processor as possible.", "One design win was the newly created IBM PC division, though the importance of this was not fully realized at the time.IBM introduced its personal computer in 1981, and it was rapidly successful.", "In 1982, Intel created the 80286 microprocessor, which, two years later, was used in the IBM PC/AT.", "Compaq, the first IBM PC \"clone\" manufacturer, produced a desktop system based on the faster 80286 processor in 1985 and in 1986 quickly followed with the first 80386-based system, beating IBM and establishing a competitive market for PC-compatible systems and setting up Intel as a key component supplier.In 1975, the company had started a project to develop a highly advanced 32-bit microprocessor, finally released in 1981 as the Intel iAPX 432.The project was too ambitious and the processor was never able to meet its performance objectives, and it failed in the marketplace.", "Intel extended the x86 architecture to 32 bits instead.====386 microprocessor====During this period Andrew Grove dramatically redirected the company, closing much of its DRAM business and directing resources to the microprocessor business.", "Of perhaps greater importance was his decision to \"single-source\" the 386 microprocessor.", "Prior to this, microprocessor manufacturing was in its infancy, and manufacturing problems frequently reduced or stopped production, interrupting supplies to customers.", "To mitigate this risk, these customers typically insisted that multiple manufacturers produce chips they could use to ensure a consistent supply.", "The 8080 and 8086-series microprocessors were produced by several companies, notably AMD, with which Intel had a technology-sharing contract.Grove made the decision not to license the 386 design to other manufacturers, instead, producing it in three geographically distinct factories: Santa Clara, California; Hillsboro, Oregon; and Chandler, a suburb of Phoenix, Arizona.", "He convinced customers that this would ensure consistent delivery.", "In doing this, Intel breached its contract with AMD, which sued and was paid millions of dollars in damages but could not manufacture new Intel CPU designs any longer.", "(Instead, AMD started to develop and manufacture its own competing x86 designs.", ")As the success of Compaq's Deskpro 386 established the 386 as the dominant CPU choice, Intel achieved a position of near-exclusive dominance as its supplier.", "Profits from this funded rapid development of both higher-performance chip designs and higher-performance manufacturing capabilities, propelling Intel to a position of unquestioned leadership by the early 1990s.====486, Pentium, and Itanium====Intel introduced the 486 microprocessor in 1989, and in 1990 established a second design team, designing the processors code-named \"P5\" and \"P6\" in parallel and committing to a major new processor every two years, versus the four or more years such designs had previously taken.", "Engineers Vinod Dham and Rajeev Chandrasekhar (Member of Parliament, India) were key figures on the core team that developed the 486 chip and later, Intel's signature Pentium chip.", "The P5 project was earlier known as \"Operation Bicycle\", referring to the cycles of the processor through two parallel execution pipelines.", "The P5 was introduced in 1993 as the Intel Pentium, substituting a registered trademark name for the former part number.", "(Numbers, such as 486, cannot be legally registered as trademarks in the United States.)", "The P6 followed in 1995 as the Pentium Pro and improved into the Pentium II in 1997.New architectures were developed alternately in Santa Clara, California and Hillsboro, Oregon.The Santa Clara design team embarked in 1993 on a successor to the x86 architecture, codenamed \"P7\".", "The first attempt was dropped a year later but quickly revived in a cooperative program with Hewlett-Packard engineers, though Intel soon took over primary design responsibility.", "The resulting implementation of the IA-64 64-bit architecture was the Itanium, finally introduced in June 2001.The Itanium's performance running legacy x86 code did not meet expectations, and it failed to compete effectively with x86-64, which was AMD's 64-bit extension of the 32-bit x86 architecture (Intel uses the name '''Intel 64''', previously '''EM64T''').", "In 2017, Intel announced that the Itanium 9700 series (Kittson) would be the last Itanium chips produced.The Hillsboro team designed the Willamette processors (initially code-named P68), which were marketed as the Pentium 4.During this period, Intel undertook two major supporting advertising campaigns.", "The first campaign, the 1991 \"Intel Inside\" marketing and branding campaign, is widely known and has become synonymous with Intel itself.", "The idea of \"ingredient branding\" was new at the time, with only NutraSweet and a few others making attempts to do so.", "One of the key architects of the marketing team was the head of the microprocessor division, David House.", "He coined the slogan \"Intel Inside\".", "This campaign established Intel, which had been a component supplier little-known outside the PC industry, as a household name.The second campaign, Intel's Systems Group, which began in the early 1990s, showcased manufacturing of PC motherboards, the main board component of a personal computer, and the one into which the processor (CPU) and memory (RAM) chips are plugged.", "The Systems Group campaign was lesser known than the Intel Inside campaign.Shortly after, Intel began manufacturing fully configured \"white box\" systems for the dozens of PC clone companies that rapidly sprang up.", "At its peak in the mid-1990s, Intel manufactured over 15% of all PCs, making it the third-largest supplier at the time.During the 1990s, Intel Architecture Labs (IAL) was responsible for many of the hardware innovations for the PC, including the PCI Bus, the PCI Express (PCIe) bus, and Universal Serial Bus (USB).", "IAL's software efforts met with a more mixed fate; its video and graphics software was important in the development of software digital video, but later its efforts were largely overshadowed by competition from Microsoft.", "The competition between Intel and Microsoft was revealed in testimony by then IAL Vice-president Steven McGeady at the Microsoft antitrust trial (''United States v. Microsoft Corp.'').====Pentium flaw====In June 1994, Intel engineers discovered a flaw in the floating-point math subsection of the P5 Pentium microprocessor.", "Under certain data-dependent conditions, the low-order bits of the result of a floating-point division would be incorrect.", "The error could compound in subsequent calculations.", "Intel corrected the error in a future chip revision, and under public pressure it issued a total recall and replaced the defective Pentium CPUs (which were limited to some 60, 66, 75, 90, and 100 MHz models) on customer request.The bug was discovered independently in October 1994 by Thomas Nicely, Professor of Mathematics at Lynchburg College.", "He contacted Intel but received no response.", "On October 30, he posted a message about his finding on the Internet.", "Word of the bug spread quickly and reached the industry press.", "The bug was easy to replicate; a user could enter specific numbers into the calculator on the operating system.", "Consequently, many users did not accept Intel's statements that the error was minor and \"not even an erratum\".", "During Thanksgiving, in 1994, ''The New York Times'' ran a piece by journalist John Markoff spotlighting the error.", "Intel changed its position and offered to replace every chip, quickly putting in place a large end-user support organization.", "This resulted in a $475 million charge against Intel's 1994 revenue.", "Dr. Nicely later learned that Intel had discovered the FDIV bug in its own testing a few months before him (but had decided not to inform customers).The \"Pentium flaw\" incident, Intel's response to it, and the surrounding media coverage propelled Intel from being a technology supplier generally unknown to most computer users to a household name.", "Dovetailing with an uptick in the \"Intel Inside\" campaign, the episode is considered to have been a positive event for Intel, changing some of its business practices to be more end-user focused and generating substantial public awareness, while avoiding a lasting negative impression.=== Intel Core ===The Intel Core line originated from the original Core brand, with the release of the 32-bit ''Yonah'' CPU, Intel's first dual-core mobile (low-power) processor.", "Derived from the Pentium M, the processor family used an enhanced version of the P6 microarchitecture.", "Its successor, the Core 2 family, was released on July 27, 2006.This was based on the Intel Core microarchitecture, and was a 64-bit design.", "Instead of focusing on higher clock rates, the Core microarchitecture emphasized power efficiency and a return to lower clock speeds.", "It also provided more efficient decoding stages, execution units, caches, and buses, reducing the power consumption of Core 2-branded CPUs while increasing their processing capacity.In November 2008, Intel released the 1st-generation Core processors based on the Nehalem microarchitecture.", "Intel also introduced a new naming scheme, with the three variants now named Core i3, i5, and i7 (as well as i9 from 7th-generation onwards).", "Unlike the previous naming scheme, these names no longer correspond to specific technical features.", "It was succeeded by the Westmere microarchitecture in 2010, with a die shrink to 32 nm and included Intel HD Graphics.In 2011, Intel released the Sandy Bridge-based 2nd-generation Core processor family.", "This generation featured an 11% performance increase over Nehalem.", "It was succeeded by Ivy Bridge-based 3rd-generation Core, introduced at the 2012 Intel Developer Forum.", "Ivy Bridge featured a die shrink to 22 nm, and supported both DDR3 memory and DDR3L chips.Intel continued its tick-tock model of a microarchitecture change followed by a die shrink until the 6th-generation Core family based on the Skylake microarchitecture.", "This model was deprecated in 2016, with the release of the 7th-generation Core family based on Kaby Lake, ushering in the process–architecture–optimization model.", "From 2016 until 2021, Intel later released more optimizations on the Skylake microarchitecture with Kaby Lake R, Amber Lake, Whiskey Lake, Coffee Lake, Coffee Lake R, and Comet Lake.", "Intel struggled to shrink their process node from 14 nm to 10 nm, with the first microarchitecture under that node, Cannon Lake (marketed as 8th-generation Core), only being released in small quantities in 2018.In 2019, Intel released the 10th-generation of Core processors, codenamed \"Amber Lake\", \"Comet Lake\", and \"Ice Lake\".", "Ice Lake, based on the Sunny Cove microarchitecture, was produced on the 10 nm process and was limited to low-power mobile processors.", "Both Amber Lake and Comet Lake were based on a refined 14 nm node, with the latter being used for desktop and high-performance mobile products and the former used for low-power mobile products.In September 2020, 11th-generation Core mobile processors, codenamed Tiger Lake, were launched.", "Tiger Lake is based on the Willow Cove microarchitecture and a refined 10 nm node.", "Intel later released 11th-generation Core desktop processors (codenamed \"Rocket Lake\"), fabricated using Intel's 14 nm process and based on the Cypress Cove microarchitecture, on March 30, 2021.It replaced Comet Lake desktop processors.", "All 11th-generation Core processors feature new integrated graphics based on the Intel Xe microarchitecture.Both desktop and mobile products were unified under a single process node with the release of 12th-generation Intel Core processors (codenamed \"Alder Lake\") in late 2021.This generation will be fabricated using Intel's 7 nm process, called Intel 7, for both desktop and mobile processors, and is based on a hybrid architecture utilizing high-performance Golden Cove cores and high-efficiency Gracemont (Atom) cores.====Meltdown, Spectre, and other security vulnerabilities====In early January 2018, it was reported that all Intel processors made since 1995 (besides Intel Itanium and pre-2013 Intel Atom) have been subject to two security flaws dubbed Meltdown and Spectre.The impact on performance resulting from software patches is \"workload-dependent\".", "Several procedures to help protect home computers and related devices from the Spectre and Meltdown security vulnerabilities have been published.", "Spectre patches have been reported to significantly slow down performance, especially on older computers; on the newer 8th-generation Core platforms, benchmark performance drops of 2–14% have been measured.", "Meltdown patches may also produce performance loss.", "It is believed that \"hundreds of millions\" of systems could be affected by these flaws.On March 15, 2018, Intel reported that it will redesign its CPUs (performance losses to be determined) to protect against the Spectre security vulnerability, and expects to release the newly redesigned processors later in 2018.On May 3, 2018, eight additional Spectre-class flaws were reported.", "Intel reported that they are preparing new patches to mitigate these flaws.On August 14, 2018, Intel disclosed three additional chip flaws referred to as L1 Terminal Fault (L1TF).", "They reported that previously released microcode updates, along with new, pre-release microcode updates can be used to mitigate these flaws.On January 18, 2019, Intel disclosed three new vulnerabilities affecting all Intel CPUs, named \"Fallout\", \"RIDL\", and \"ZombieLoad\", allowing a program to read information recently written, read data in the line-fill buffers and load ports, and leak information from other processes and virtual machines.", "Coffee Lake-series CPUs are even more vulnerable, due to hardware mitigations for Spectre.On March 5, 2020, computer security experts reported another Intel chip security flaw, besides the Meltdown and Spectre flaws, with the systematic name (or \"Intel CSME Bug\").", "This newly found flaw is not fixable with a firmware update, and affects nearly \"all Intel chips released in the past five years\".===Use of Intel products by Apple Inc. (2005–2019)===On June 6, 2005, Steve Jobs, then CEO of Apple, announced that Apple would be transitioning the Macintosh from its long favored PowerPC architecture to the Intel x86 architecture because the future PowerPC road map was unable to satisfy Apple's needs.", "This was seen as a win for Intel, although an analyst called the move \"risky\" and \"foolish\", as Intel's current offerings at the time were considered to be behind those of AMD and IBM.", "The first Mac computers containing Intel CPUs were announced on January 10, 2006, and Apple had its entire line of consumer Macs running on Intel processors by early August 2006.The Apple Xserve server was updated to Intel Xeon processors from November 2006 and was offered in a configuration similar to Apple's Mac Pro.Despite Apple's use of Intel products, relations between the two companies were strained at times.", "Rumors of Apple switching from Intel processors to their own designs began circulating as early as 2011.On June 22, 2020, during Apple's annual WWDC, Tim Cook, Apple's CEO, announced that it would be transitioning the company's entire Mac line from Intel CPUs to custom Apple-designed processors based on the Arm architecture over the course of the next two years.", "In the short term, this transition was estimated to have minimal effects on Intel, as Apple only accounted for 2% to 4% of its revenue.", "However, Apple's shift to its own chips might prompt other PC manufacturers to reassess their reliance on Intel and the x86 architecture.", "By November 2020, Apple unveiled the M1, its processor custom-designed for the Mac.===Solid-state drives (SSD)===An Intel mSATA SSDIn 2008, Intel began shipping mainstream solid-state drives (SSDs) with up to 160 GB storage capacities.", "As with their CPUs, Intel develops SSD chips using ever-smaller nanometer processes.", "These SSDs make use of industry standards such as NAND flash, mSATA, PCIe, and NVMe.", "In 2017, Intel introduced SSDs based on 3D XPoint technology under the Optane brand name.In 2021, SK Hynix acquired most of Intel's NAND memory business for $7 billion, with a remaining transaction worth $2 billion expected in 2025.Intel also discontinued its consumer Optane products in 2021.In July 2022, Intel disclosed in its Q2 earnings report that it would cease future product development within its Optane business, which in turn effectively discontinued the development of 3D XPoint as a whole.===Supercomputers===The Intel Scientific Computers division was founded in 1984 by Justin Rattner, to design and produce parallel computers based on Intel microprocessors connected in hypercube internetwork topology.", "In 1992, the name was changed to the Intel Supercomputing Systems Division, and development of the iWarp architecture was also subsumed.", "The division designed several supercomputer systems, including the Intel iPSC/1, iPSC/2, iPSC/860, Paragon and ASCI Red.", "In November 2014, Intel stated that it was planning to use optical fibers to improve networking within supercomputers.===Fog computing===On November 19, 2015, Intel, alongside Arm, Dell, Cisco Systems, Microsoft, and Princeton University, founded the OpenFog Consortium, to promote interests and development in fog computing.", "Intel's Chief Strategist for the IoT Strategy and Technology Office, Jeff Fedders, became the consortium's first president.===Self-driving cars===Intel is one of the biggest stakeholders in the self-driving car industry, having joined the race in mid 2017 after joining forces with Mobileye.", "The company is also one of the first in the sector to research consumer acceptance, after an AAA report quoted a 78% nonacceptance rate of the technology in the U.S.Safety levels of autonomous driving technology, the thought of abandoning control to a machine, and psychological comfort of passengers in such situations were the major discussion topics initially.", "The commuters also stated that they did not want to see everything the car was doing.", "This was primarily a referral to the auto-steering wheel with no one sitting in the driving seat.", "Intel also learned that voice control regulator is vital, and the interface between the humans and machine eases the discomfort condition, and brings some sense of control back.", "It is important to mention that Intel included only 10 people in this study, which makes the study less credible.", "In a video posted on YouTube, Intel accepted this fact and called for further testing.=== Programmable devices ===Intel formed a new business unit called the Programmable Solutions Group (PSG) on completion of its Altera acquisition.", "Intel has since sold Stratix, Arria, and Cyclone FPGAs.", "In 2019, Intel released Agilex FPGAs: chips aimed at data centers, 5G applications, and other uses.In October 2023, Intel announced it would be spinning off PSG into a separate company at the start of 2024, while maintaining majority ownership.===Competition, antitrust and espionage===By the end of the 1990s, microprocessor performance had outstripped software demand for that CPU power.", "Aside from high-end server systems and software, whose demand dropped with the end of the \"dot-com bubble\", consumer systems ran effectively on increasingly low-cost systems after 2000.Intel's strategy was to develop processors with better performance in a short time, from the appearance of one to the other, as seen with the appearance of the Pentium II in May 1997, the Pentium III in February 1999, and the Pentium 4 in the fall of 2000, making the strategy ineffective since the consumer did not see the innovation as essential, and leaving an opportunity for rapid gains by competitors, notably AMD.", "This, in turn, lowered the profitability of the processor line and ended an era of unprecedented dominance of the PC hardware by Intel.Intel's dominance in the x86 microprocessor market led to numerous charges of antitrust violations over the years, including FTC investigations in both the late 1980s and in 1999, and civil actions such as the 1997 suit by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and a patent suit by Intergraph.", "Intel's market dominance (at one time it controlled over 85% of the market for 32-bit x86 microprocessors) combined with Intel's own hardball legal tactics (such as its infamous 338 patent suit versus PC manufacturers) made it an attractive target for litigation, culminating in Intel agreeing to pay AMD $1.25 billion and grant them a perpetual patent cross-license in 2009 as well as several anti-trust judgements in Europe, Korea, and Japan.A case of industrial espionage arose in 1995 that involved both Intel and AMD.", "Bill Gaede, an Argentine formerly employed both at AMD and at Intel's Arizona plant, was arrested for attempting in 1993 to sell the i486 and P5 Pentium designs to AMD and to certain foreign powers.", "Gaede videotaped data from his computer screen at Intel and mailed it to AMD, which immediately alerted Intel and authorities, resulting in Gaede's arrest.", "Gaede was convicted and sentenced to 33 months in prison in June 1996." ], [ "Corporate affairs", "===Leadership and corporate structure===Paul Otellini, Craig Barrett and Sean Maloney in 2006Robert Noyce was Intel's CEO at its founding in 1968, followed by co-founder Gordon Moore in 1975.Andy Grove became the company's president in 1979 and added the CEO title in 1987 when Moore became chairman.", "In 1998, Grove succeeded Moore as chairman, and Craig Barrett, already company president, took over.", "On May 18, 2005, Barrett handed the reins of the company over to Paul Otellini, who had been the company president and COO and who was responsible for Intel's design win in the original IBM PC.", "The board of directors elected Otellini as president and CEO, and Barrett replaced Grove as Chairman of the Board.", "Grove stepped down as chairman but is retained as a special adviser.", "In May 2009, Barrett stepped down as chairman of the board and was succeeded by Jane Shaw.", "In May 2012, Intel vice chairman Andy Bryant, who had held the posts of CFO (1994) and Chief Administrative Officer (2007) at Intel, succeeded Shaw as executive chairman.In November 2012, president and CEO Paul Otellini announced that he would step down in May 2013 at the age of 62, three years before the company's mandatory retirement age.", "During a six-month transition period, Intel's board of directors commenced a search process for the next CEO, in which it considered both internal managers and external candidates such as Sanjay Jha and Patrick Gelsinger.", "Financial results revealed that, under Otellini, Intel's revenue increased by 55.8% (US$34.2 to 53.3 billion), while its net income increased by 46.7% (US$7.5 billion to 11 billion), proving that his illegal business practices were more profitable than the fines levied against the company as punishment for employing them.On May 2, 2013, Executive Vice President and COO Brian Krzanich was elected as Intel's sixth CEO, a selection that became effective on May 16, 2013, at the company's annual meeting.", "Reportedly, the board concluded that an insider could proceed with the role and exert an impact more quickly, without the need to learn Intel's processes, and Krzanich was selected on such a basis.", "Intel's software head Renée James was selected as president of the company, a role that is second to the CEO position.As of May 2013, Intel's board of directors consists of Andy Bryant, John Donahoe, Frank Yeary, Ambassador Charlene Barshefsky, Susan Decker, Reed Hundt, Paul Otellini, James Plummer, David Pottruck, and David Yoffie and Creative director will.i.am.", "The board was described by former ''Financial Times'' journalist Tom Foremski as \"an exemplary example of corporate governance of the highest order\" and received a rating of ten from GovernanceMetrics International, a form of recognition that has only been awarded to twenty-one other corporate boards worldwide.On June 21, 2018, Intel announced the resignation of Brian Krzanich as CEO, with the exposure of a relationship he had with an employee.", "Bob Swan was named interim CEO, as the Board began a search for a permanent CEO.On January 31, 2019, Swan transitioned from his role as CFO and interim CEO and was named by the Board as the seventh CEO to lead the company.On January 13, 2021, Intel announced that Swan would be replaced as CEO by Pat Gelsinger, effective February 15.Gelsinger is a former Intel chief technology officer who had previously been head of VMWare.In October 2023, Intel announced it would be spinning off its Programmable Solutions Group business unit into a separate company at the start of 2024, while maintaining majority ownership and intending to seek an IPO within three years to raise funds.===Board of directors===:* Frank D. Yeary (chairman), managing member of Darwin Capital* Pat Gelsinger, CEO of Intel* James Goetz, managing director of Sequoia Capital* Andrea Goldsmith, dean of engineering and applied science at Princeton University* Alyssa Henry, Square, Inc. executive* Omar Ishrak, chairman and former CEO of Medtronic* Risa Lavizzo-Mourey, former president and CEO of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation* Tsu-Jae King Liu, professor at the UC Berkeley College of Engineering* Barbara G. Novick, co-founder of BlackRock* Gregory Smith, CFO of Boeing* Dion Weisler, former president and CEO of HP Inc.* Lip-Bu Tan, executive chairman of Cadence Design Systems===Employment===Intel microprocessor facility in Costa Rica was responsible in 2006 for 20% of Costa Rican exports and 4.9% of the country's GDP.Intel has a mandatory retirement policy for its CEOs when they reach age 65.Andy Grove retired at 62, while both Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore retired at 58.Grove retired as chairman and as a member of the board of directors in 2005 at age 68.Intel's headquarters are located in Santa Clara, California, and the company has operations around the world.", "Its largest workforce concentration anywhere is in Washington County, Oregon (in the Portland metropolitan area's \"Silicon Forest\"), with 18,600 employees at several facilities.", "Outside the United States, the company has facilities in China, Costa Rica, Malaysia, Israel, Ireland, India, Russia, Argentina and Vietnam, in 63 countries and regions internationally.", "In March 2022, because of international sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War, Intel stopped supplying Russian market.", "In the U.S. Intel employs significant numbers of people in California, Colorado, Massachusetts, Arizona, New Mexico, Oregon, Texas, Washington and Utah.", "In Oregon, Intel is the state's largest private employer.", "The company is the largest industrial employer in New Mexico while in Arizona the company has 12,000 employees as of January 2020.Intel invests heavily in research in China and about 100 researchersor 10% of the total number of researchers from Intelare located in Beijing.In 2011, the Israeli government offered Intel $290 million to expand in the country.", "As a condition, Intel would employ 1,500 more workers in Kiryat Gat and between 600 and 1000 workers in the north.In January 2014, it was reported that Intel would cut about 5,000 jobs from its workforce of 107,000.The announcement was made a day after it reported earnings that missed analyst targets.In March 2014, it was reported that Intel would embark upon a $6 billion plan to expand its activities in Israel.", "The plan calls for continued investment in existing and new Intel plants until 2030., Intel employs 10,000 workers at four development centers and two production plants in Israel.Due to declining PC sales, in 2016 Intel cut 12,000 jobs.", "In 2021, Intel reversed course under new CEO Pat Gelsinger and started hiring thousands of engineers.==== Diversity ====Intel has a Diversity Initiative, including employee diversity groups as well as supplier diversity programs.", "Like many companies with employee diversity groups, they include groups based on race and nationality as well as sexual identity and religion.", "In 1994, Intel sanctioned one of the earliest corporate Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender employee groups, and supports a Muslim employees group, a Jewish employees group, and a Bible-based Christian group.Intel has received a 100% rating on numerous Corporate Equality Indices released by the Human Rights Campaign including the first one released in 2002.In addition, the company is frequently named one of the 100 Best Companies for Working Mothers by ''Working Mother'' magazine.In January 2015, Intel announced the investment of $300 million over the next five years to enhance gender and racial diversity in their own company as well as the technology industry as a whole.In February 2016, Intel released its Global Diversity & Inclusion 2015 Annual Report.", "The male-female mix of US employees was reported as 75.2% men and 24.8% women.", "For US employees in technical roles, the mix was reported as 79.8% male and 20.1% female.", "NPR reports that Intel is facing a retention problem (particularly for African Americans), not just a pipeline problem.====Economic impact in Oregon in 2009====In 2011, ECONorthwest conducted an economic impact analysis of Intel's economic contribution to the state of Oregon.", "The report found that in 2009 \"the total economic impacts attributed to Intel's operations, capital spending, contributions and taxes amounted to almost $14.6 billion in activity, including $4.3 billion in personal income and 59,990 jobs\".", "Through multiplier effects, every 10 Intel jobs supported, on average, was found to create 31 jobs in other sectors of the economy.=== Intel Israel ===Intel has been operating in the State of Israel since Dov Frohman founded the Israeli branch of the company in 1974 in a small office in Haifa.", "Intel Israel currently has development centers in Haifa, Jerusalem and Petah Tikva, and has a manufacturing plant in the Kiryat Gat industrial park that develops and manufactures microprocessors and communications products.", "Intel employed about 10,000 employees in Israel in 2013.Maxine Fesberg has been the CEO of Intel Israel since 2007 and the Vice President of Intel Global.", "In December 2016, Fesberg announced her resignation, her position of chief executive officer (CEO) has been filled by Yaniv Gerti since January 2017.===Key acquisitions and investments (2010–present)===In 2010, Intel purchased McAfee, a manufacturer of computer security technology, for $7.68 billion.", "As a condition for regulatory approval of the transaction, Intel agreed to provide rival security firms with all necessary information that would allow their products to use Intel's chips and personal computers.", "After the acquisition, Intel had about 90,000 employees, including about 12,000 software engineers.", "In September 2016, Intel sold a majority stake in its computer-security unit to TPG Capital, reversing the five-year-old McAfee acquisition.In August 2010, Intel and Infineon Technologies announced that Intel would acquire Infineon's Wireless Solutions business.", "Intel planned to use Infineon's technology in laptops, smart phones, netbooks, tablets and embedded computers in consumer products, eventually integrating its wireless modem into Intel's silicon chips.In March 2011, Intel bought most of the assets of Cairo-based SySDSoft.In July 2011, Intel announced that it had agreed to acquire Fulcrum Microsystems Inc., a company specializing in network switches.", "The company used to be included on the EE Times list of 60 Emerging Startups.In October 2011, Intel reached a deal to acquire Telmap, an Israeli-based navigation software company.", "The purchase price was not disclosed, but Israeli media reported values around $300 million to $350 million.In July 2012, Intel agreed to buy 10% of the shares of ASML Holding NV for $2.1 billion and another $1 billion for 5% of the shares that need shareholder approval to fund relevant research and development efforts, as part of a EUR3.3 billion ($4.1 billion) deal to accelerate the development of 450-millimeter wafer technology and extreme ultra-violet lithography by as much as two years.In July 2013, Intel confirmed the acquisition of Omek Interactive, an Israeli company that makes technology for gesture-based interfaces, without disclosing the monetary value of the deal.", "An official statement from Intel read: \"The acquisition of Omek Interactive will help increase Intel's capabilities in the delivery of more immersive perceptual computing experiences.\"", "One report estimated the value of the acquisition between US$30 million and $50 million.The acquisition of a Spanish natural language recognition startup, Indisys was announced in September 2013.The terms of the deal were not disclosed but an email from an Intel representative stated: \"Intel has acquired Indisys, a privately held company based in Seville, Spain.", "The majority of Indisys employees joined Intel.", "We signed the agreement to acquire the company on May 31 and the deal has been completed.\"", "Indysis explains that its artificial intelligence (AI) technology \"is a human image, which converses fluently and with common sense in multiple languages and also works in different platforms\".In December 2014, Intel bought PasswordBox.In January 2015, Intel purchased a 30% stake in Vuzix, a smart glasses manufacturer.", "The deal was worth $24.8 million.In February 2015, Intel announced its agreement to purchase German network chipmaker Lantiq, to aid in its expansion of its range of chips in devices with Internet connection capability.In June 2015, Intel announced its agreement to purchase FPGA design company Altera for $16.7 billion, in its largest acquisition to date.", "The acquisition completed in December 2015.In October 2015, Intel bought cognitive computing company Saffron Technology for an undisclosed price.In August 2016, Intel purchased deep-learning startup Nervana Systems for over $400 million.In December 2016, Intel acquired computer vision startup Movidius for an undisclosed price.In March 2017, Intel announced that they had agreed to purchase Mobileye, an Israeli developer of \"autonomous driving\" systems for US$15.3 billion.In June 2017, Intel Corporation announced an investment of over for its upcoming Research and Development (R&D) centre in Bangalore, India.In January 2019, Intel announced an investment of over $11 billion on a new Israeli chip plant, as told by the Israeli Finance Minister.In November 2021, Intel recruited some of the employees of the Centaur Technology division from VIA Technologies, a deal worth $125 million, and effectively acquiring the talent and knowhow of their x86 division.", "VIA retained the x86 licence and associated patents, and its Zhaoxin CPU joint-venture continues.In December 2021, Intel said it will invest $7.1 billion to build a new chip-packaging and testing factory in Malaysia.", "The new investment will expand the operations of its Malaysian subsidiary across Penang and Kulim, creating more than 4,000 new Intel jobs and more than 5,000 local construction jobs.In December 2021, Intel announced its plan to take Mobileye automotive unit via an IPO of newly issued stock in 2022, maintaining its majority ownership of the company.In February 2022, Intel agreed to acquire Israeli chip manufacturer Tower Semiconductor for $5.4 billion.", "In August 2023, Intel terminated the acquisition as it failed to obtain approval from Chinese regulators within the 18-month transaction deadline.In May 2022, Intel announced that they have acquired Finnish graphics technology firm Siru innovations.", "The firm founded by ex-AMD Qualcomm mobile GPU engineers, is focused on developing software and silicon building blocks for GPU's made by other companies and is set to join Intel's fledgling Accelerated Computing Systems and Graphics Group.In May 2022, it was announced that Ericsson and Intel are pooling research and development to create high-performing cloud RAN solutions.The organisations have pooled to launch a tech hub in California, U.S.", "The hub focuses on the benefits that Ericsson Cloud RAN and Intel technology can bring to: improving energy efficiency and network performance, reducing time to market, and monetizing new business opportunities such as enterprise applications.===Ultrabook fund (2011)===In 2011, Intel Capital announced a new fund to support startups working on technologies in line with the company's concept for next-generation notebooks.", "The company is setting aside a $300 million fund to be spent over the next three to four years in areas related to ultrabooks.", "Intel announced the ultrabook concept at Computex in 2011.The ultrabook is defined as a thin (less than 0.8 inches ~2 cm thick) notebook that utilizes Intel processors and also incorporates tablet features such as a touch screen and long battery life.At the Intel Developers Forum in 2011, four Taiwan ODMs showed prototype ultrabooks that used Intel's Ivy Bridge chips.", "Intel plans to improve power consumption of its chips for ultrabooks, like new Ivy Bridge processors in 2013, which will only have 10W default thermal design power.Intel's goal for Ultrabook's price is below $1000; however, according to two presidents from Acer and Compaq, this goal will not be achieved if Intel does not lower the price of its chips.=== Open source support ===Intel has a significant participation in the open source communities since 1999.For example, in 2006 Intel released MIT-licensed X.org drivers for their integrated graphic cards of the i965 family of chipsets.", "Intel released FreeBSD drivers for some networking cards, available under a BSD-compatible license, which were also ported to OpenBSD.", "Binary firmware files for non-wireless Ethernet devices were also released under a BSD licence allowing free redistribution.", "Intel ran the Moblin project until April 23, 2009, when they handed the project over to the Linux Foundation.", "Intel also runs the ''LessWatts.org'' campaigns.However, after the release of the wireless products called Intel Pro/Wireless 2100, 2200BG/2225BG/2915ABG and 3945ABG in 2005, Intel was criticized for not granting free redistribution rights for the firmware that must be included in the operating system for the wireless devices to operate.", "As a result of this, Intel became a target of campaigns to allow free operating systems to include binary firmware on terms acceptable to the open source community.", "Linspire-Linux creator Michael Robertson outlined the difficult position that Intel was in releasing to open source, as Intel did not want to upset their large customer Microsoft.", "Theo de Raadt of OpenBSD also claimed that Intel is being \"an Open Source fraud\" after an Intel employee presented a distorted view of the situation at an open source conference.", "In spite of the significant negative attention Intel received as a result of the wireless dealings, the binary firmware still has not gained a license compatible with free software principles.Intel has also supported other open source projects such as Blender and Open 3D Engine.== Corporate identity ===== Logo ===In its history, Intel has had three logos.", "The first Intel logo featured the company's name stylized in all lowercase, with the letter e dropped below the other letters.", "The second logo was inspired by the \"Intel Inside\" campaign, featuring a swirl around the Intel brand name.The third logo, introduced in 2020, was inspired by the previous logos.", "It removes the swirl as well as the classic blue color in almost all parts of the logo, except for the dot in the \"i\".===Intel Inside===Intel has become one of the world's most recognizable computer brands following its long-running ''Intel Inside'' campaign.", "The idea for \"Intel Inside\" came out of a meeting between Intel and one of the major computer resellers, MicroAge.In the late 1980s, Intel's market share was being seriously eroded by upstart competitors such as AMD, Zilog, and others who had started to sell their less expensive microprocessors to computer manufacturers.", "This was because, by using cheaper processors, manufacturers could make cheaper computers and gain more market share in an increasingly price-sensitive market.", "In 1989, Intel's Dennis Carter visited MicroAge's headquarters in Tempe, Arizona, to meet with MicroAge's VP of Marketing, Ron Mion.", "MicroAge had become one of the largest distributors of Compaq, IBM, HP, and others and thus was a primaryalthough indirectdriver of demand for microprocessors.", "Intel wanted MicroAge to petition its computer suppliers to favor Intel chips.", "However, Mion felt that the marketplace should decide which processors they wanted.", "Intel's counterargument was that it would be too difficult to educate PC buyers on why Intel microprocessors were worth paying more for.Mion felt that the public did not really need to fully understand why Intel chips were better, they just needed to feel they were better.", "So Mion proposed a market test.", "Intel would pay for a MicroAge billboard somewhere saying, \"If you're buying a personal computer, make sure it has Intel inside.\"", "In turn, MicroAge would put \"Intel Inside\" stickers on the Intel-based computers in their stores in that area.", "To make the test easier to monitor, Mion decided to do the test in Boulder, Colorado, where it had a single store.", "Virtually overnight, the sales of personal computers in that store dramatically shifted to Intel-based PCs.", "Intel very quickly adopted \"Intel Inside\" as its primary branding and rolled it out worldwide.", "As is often the case with computer lore, other tidbits have been combined to explain how things evolved.", "\"Intel Inside\" has not escaped that tendency and there are other \"explanations\" that had been floating around.Intel's branding campaign started with \"The Computer Inside\" tagline in 1990 in the U.S. and Europe.", "The Japan chapter of Intel proposed an \"Intel in it\" tagline and kicked off the Japanese campaign by hosting EKI-KON (meaning \"Station Concert\" in Japanese) at the Tokyo railway station dome on Christmas Day, December 25, 1990.Several months later, \"The Computer Inside\" incorporated the Japan idea to become \"Intel Inside\" which eventually elevated to the worldwide branding campaign in 1991, by Intel marketing manager Dennis Carter.", "A case study, \"Inside Intel Inside\", was put together by Harvard Business School.", "The five-note jingle was introduced in 1994 and by its tenth anniversary was being heard in 130 countries around the world.", "The initial branding agency for the \"Intel Inside\" campaign was DahlinSmithWhite Advertising of Salt Lake City.", "The Intel ''swirl'' logo was the work of DahlinSmithWhite art director Steve Grigg under the direction of Intel president and CEO Andy Grove.The ''Intel Inside'' advertising campaign sought public brand loyalty and awareness of Intel processors in consumer computers.", "Intel paid some of the advertiser's costs for an ad that used the ''Intel Inside'' logo and xylo-marimba jingle.In 2008, Intel planned to shift the emphasis of its Intel Inside campaign from traditional media such as television and print to newer media such as the Internet.", "Intel required that a minimum of 35% of the money it provided to the companies in its co-op program be used for online marketing.", "The Intel 2010 annual financial report indicated that $1.8 billion (6% of the gross margin and nearly 16% of the total net income) was allocated to all advertising with Intel Inside being part of that.===Intel jingle===The D–D–G–D–A xylophone/marimba jingle, known as the \"Intel bong\", used in Intel advertising was produced by Musikvergnuegen and written by Walter Werzowa, once a member of the Austrian 1980s sampling band Edelweiss.", "The Intel jingle was made in 1994 to coincide with the launch of the Pentium.", "It was modified in 1999 to coincide with the launch of the Pentium III, although it overlapped with the 1994 version which was phased out in 2004.Advertisements for products featuring Intel processors with prominent MMX branding featured a version of the jingle with an embellishment (shining sound) after the final note.The jingle was remade a second time in 2004 to coincide with the new logo change.", "Again, it overlapped with the 1999 version and was not mainstreamed until the launch of the Core processors in 2006, with the melody unchanged.Another remake of the jingle debuted with Intel's new visual identity.", "The company has made use of numerous variants since its rebranding in 2020 (while retaining the mainstream 2006 version).===Processor naming strategy===The 2020 Intel badge representing the Core i7 brand combined with the vPRO platform marketing termIn 2006, Intel expanded its promotion of open specification platforms beyond Centrino, to include the Viiv media center PC and the business desktop Intel vPro.In mid-January 2006, Intel announced that they were dropping the long running ''Pentium'' name from their processors.", "The Pentium name was first used to refer to the P5 core Intel processors and was done to comply with court rulings that prevent the trademarking of a string of numbers, so competitors could not just call their processor the same name, as had been done with the prior 386 and 486 processors (both of which had copies manufactured by IBM and AMD).", "They phased out the Pentium names from mobile processors first, when the new Yonah chips, branded Core Solo and Core Duo, were released.", "The desktop processors changed when the Core 2 line of processors were released.", "By 2009, Intel was using a good–better–best strategy with Celeron being good, Pentium better, and the Intel Core family representing the best the company has to offer.According to spokesman Bill Calder, Intel has maintained only the Celeron brand, the Atom brand for netbooks and the vPro lineup for businesses.", "Since late 2009, Intel's mainstream processors have been called Celeron, Pentium, Core i3, Core i5, Core i7, and Core i9 in order of performance from lowest to highest.", "The 1st-generation Core products carry a 3 digit name, such as i5-750, and the 2nd-generation products carry a 4 digit name, such as the i5-2500, and from 10th-generation onwards, Intel processors will have a 5 digit name, such as i9-10900K for desktop.", "In all cases, a 'K' at the end of it shows that it is an unlocked processor, enabling additional overclocking abilities (for instance, 2500K).", "vPro products will carry the Intel Core i7 vPro processor or the Intel Core i5 vPro processor name.", "In October 2011, Intel started to sell its Core i7-2700K \"Sandy Bridge\" chip to customers worldwide.Since 2010, \"Centrino\" is only being applied to Intel's WiMAX and Wi-Fi technologies.In 2022, Intel announced that they are dropping the Pentium and Celeron naming schemes for their desktop and laptop entry level processors.", "The \"Intel Processor\" branding will be replacing the old Pentium and Celeron naming schemes starting in 2023.In 2023, Intel announced that they will be dropping the 'i' in their future processor markings.", "For example, products such as Core i9, will now be called Core 9.Ultra will be added to the endings of processors that are in the higher end, such as Core Ultra 9.===Typography===Neo Sans Intel is a customized version of Neo Sans based on the Neo Sans and Neo Tech, designed by Sebastian Lester in 2004.It was introduced alongside Intel's rebranding in 2006.Previously, Intel used Helvetica as its standard typeface in corporate marketing.Intel Clear is a global font announced in 2014 designed for to be used across all communications.", "The font family was designed by Red Peek Branding and Dalton Maag Initially available in Latin, Greek and Cyrillic scripts, it replaced Neo Sans Intel as the company's corporate typeface.", "Intel Clear Hebrew, Intel Clear Arabic were added by Dalton Maag Ltd. Neo Sans Intel remained in logo and to mark processor type and socket on the packaging of Intel's processors.In 2020, as part of a new visual identity, a new typeface, Intel One, was designed.", "It replaced Intel Clear as the font used by the company in most of its branding, however, it is used alongside Intel Clear typeface.", "In logo, it replaced Neo Sans Intel typeface.", "However, it is still used to mark processor type and socket on the packaging of Intel's processors.===Intel Brand Book===It is a book produced by Red Peak Branding as part of new brand identity campaign, celebrating Intel's achievements while setting the new standard for what Intel looks, feels and sounds like." ], [ "Charity", "Paddington Bear statue in London designed by Intel, auctioned for the NSPCCIn November 2014, Intel designed a Paddington Bear statue—themed \"Little Bear Blue\"—one of fifty statues created by various celebrities and companies which were located around London.", "Created prior to the release of the film ''Paddington'', the Intel designed statue was located outside Framestore in Chancery Lane, London, a British visual-effects company which uses Intel technology for films including ''Paddington''.", "The statues were then auctioned to raise funds for the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC)." ], [ "Litigations and regulatory disputes", "===Patent infringement litigation (2006–2007)===In October 2006, a Transmeta lawsuit was filed against Intel for patent infringement on computer architecture and power efficiency technologies.", "The lawsuit was settled in October 2007, with Intel agreeing to pay US$150 million initially and US$20 million per year for the next five years.", "Both companies agreed to drop lawsuits against each other, while Intel was granted a perpetual non-exclusive license to use current and future patented Transmeta technologies in its chips for 10 years.===Antitrust allegations and litigation (2005–2023)===In September 2005, Intel filed a response to an AMD lawsuit, disputing AMD's claims, and claiming that Intel's business practices are fair and lawful.", "In a rebuttal, Intel deconstructed AMD's offensive strategy and argued that AMD struggled largely as a result of its own bad business decisions, including underinvestment in essential manufacturing capacity and excessive reliance on contracting out chip foundries.", "Legal analysts predicted the lawsuit would drag on for a number of years, since Intel's initial response indicated its unwillingness to settle with AMD.", "In 2008, a court date was finally set.On November 4, 2009, New York's attorney general filed an antitrust lawsuit against Intel Corp, claiming the company used \"illegal threats and collusion\" to dominate the market for computer microprocessors.On November 12, 2009, AMD agreed to drop the antitrust lawsuit against Intel in exchange for $1.25 billion.", "A joint press release published by the two chip makers stated \"While the relationship between the two companies has been difficult in the past, this agreement ends the legal disputes and enables the companies to focus all of our efforts on product innovation and development.", "\"An antitrust lawsuit and a class-action suit relating to cold calling employees of other companies has been settled.====Allegations by Japan Fair Trade Commission (2005)====In 2005, the local Fair Trade Commission found that Intel violated the Japanese Antimonopoly Act.", "The commission ordered Intel to eliminate discounts that had discriminated against AMD.", "To avoid a trial, Intel agreed to comply with the order.====Allegations by regulators in South Korea (2007)====In September 2007, South Korean regulators accused Intel of breaking antitrust law.", "The investigation began in February 2006, when officials raided Intel's South Korean offices.", "The company risked a penalty of up to 3% of its annual sales if found guilty.", "In June 2008, the Fair Trade Commission ordered Intel to pay a fine of US$25.5 million for taking advantage of its dominant position to offer incentives to major Korean PC manufacturers on the condition of not buying products from AMD.====Allegations by regulators in the United States (2008–2010)====New York started an investigation of Intel in January 2008 on whether the company violated antitrust laws in pricing and sales of its microprocessors.", "In June 2008, the Federal Trade Commission also began an antitrust investigation of the case.", "In December 2009, the FTC announced it would initiate an administrative proceeding against Intel in September 2010.In November 2009, following a two-year investigation, New York Attorney General Andrew Cuomo sued Intel, accusing them of bribery and coercion, claiming that Intel bribed computer makers to buy more of their chips than those of their rivals and threatened to withdraw these payments if the computer makers were perceived as working too closely with its competitors.", "Intel has denied these claims.On July 22, 2010, Dell agreed to a settlement with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to pay $100 million in penalties resulting from charges that Dell did not accurately disclose accounting information to investors.", "In particular, the SEC charged that from 2002 to 2006, Dell had an agreement with Intel to receive rebates in exchange for not using chips manufactured by AMD.", "These substantial rebates were not disclosed to investors, but were used to help meet investor expectations regarding the company's financial performance; \"These exclusivity payments grew from 10% of Dell's operating income in FY 2003 to 38% in FY 2006, and peaked at 76% in the first quarter of FY 2007.\"", "Dell eventually did adopt AMD as a secondary supplier in 2006, and Intel subsequently stopped their rebates, causing Dell's financial performance to fall.====Allegations by the European Union (2007–2023)====In July 2007, the European Commission accused Intel of anti-competitive practices, mostly against AMD.", "The allegations, going back to 2003, include giving preferential prices to computer makers buying most or all of their chips from Intel, paying computer makers to delay or cancel the launch of products using AMD chips, and providing chips at below standard cost to governments and educational institutions.", "Intel responded that the allegations were unfounded and instead qualified its market behavior as consumer-friendly.", "General counsel Bruce Sewell responded that the commission had misunderstood some factual assumptions regarding pricing and manufacturing costs.In February 2008, Intel announced that its office in Munich had been raided by European Union regulators.", "Intel reported that it was cooperating with investigators.", "Intel faced a fine of up to 10% of its annual revenue if found guilty of stifling competition.", "AMD subsequently launched a website promoting these allegations.", "In June 2008, the EU filed new charges against Intel.", "In May 2009, the EU found that Intel had engaged in anti-competitive practices and subsequently fined Intel €1.06 billion (US$1.44 billion), a record amount.", "Intel was found to have paid companies, including Acer, Dell, HP, Lenovo and NEC, to exclusively use Intel chips in their products, and therefore harmed other, less successful companies including AMD.", "The European Commission said that Intel had deliberately acted to keep competitors out of the computer chip market and in doing so had made a \"serious and sustained violation of the EU's antitrust rules\".", "In addition to the fine, Intel was ordered by the commission to immediately cease all illegal practices.", "Intel has said that they will appeal against the commission's verdict.", "In June 2014, the General Court, which sits below the European Court of Justice, rejected the appeal.In 2022 the €1.06 billion fine was dropped, but was successively re-imposed in September 2023 as a €376.36 million fine.===Corporate responsibility record===Intel has been accused by some residents of Rio Rancho, New Mexico of allowing volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to be released in excess of their pollution permit.", "One resident claimed that a release of 1.4 tons of carbon tetrachloride was measured from one acid scrubber during the fourth quarter of 2003 but an emission factor allowed Intel to report no carbon tetrachloride emissions for all of 2003.Another resident alleges that Intel was responsible for the release of other VOCs from their Rio Rancho site and that a necropsy of lung tissue from two deceased dogs in the area indicated trace amounts of toluene, hexane, ethylbenzene, and xylene isomers, all of which are solvents used in industrial settings but also commonly found in gasoline, retail paint thinners and retail solvents.", "During a sub-committee meeting of the New Mexico Environment Improvement Board, a resident claimed that Intel's own reports documented more than of VOCs were released in June and July 2006.Intel's environmental performance is published annually in their corporate responsibility report.====Conflict-free production====In 2009, Intel announced that it planned to undertake an effort to remove conflict resources—materials sourced from mines whose profits are used to fund armed militant groups, particularly within the Democratic Republic of the Congo—from its supply chain.", "Intel sought conflict-free sources of the precious metals common to electronics from within the country, using a system of first- and third-party audits, as well as input from the Enough Project and other organizations.", "During a keynote address at Consumer Electronics Show 2014, Intel CEO at the time, Brian Krzanich, announced that the company's microprocessors would henceforth be conflict free.", "In 2016, Intel stated that it had expected its entire supply chain to be conflict-free by the end of the year.In its 2012 rankings on the progress of consumer electronics companies relating to conflict minerals, the Enough Project rated Intel the best of 24 companies, calling it a \"Pioneer of progress\".", "In 2014, chief executive Brian Krzanich urged the rest of the industry to follow Intel's lead by also shunning conflict minerals.===Age discrimination complaints===Intel has faced complaints of age discrimination in firing and layoffs.", "Intel was sued in 1993 by nine former employees, over allegations that they were laid off because they were over the age of 40.A group called FACE Intel (Former and Current Employees of Intel) claims that Intel weeds out older employees.", "FACE Intel claims that more than 90% of people who have been laid off or fired from Intel are over the age of 40.", "''Upside'' magazine requested data from Intel breaking out its hiring and firing by age, but the company declined to provide any.", "Intel has denied that age plays any role in Intel's employment practices.", "FACE Intel was founded by Ken Hamidi, who was fired from Intel in 1995 at the age of 47.Hamidi was blocked in a 1999 court decision from using Intel's email system to distribute criticism of the company to employees, which overturned in 2003 in Intel Corp. v. Hamidi.===Tax dispute in India===In August 2016, Indian officials of the Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (BBMP) parked garbage trucks on Intel's campus and threatened to dump them for evading payment of property taxes between 2007 and 2008, to the tune of .", "Intel had reportedly been paying taxes as a non-air-conditioned office, when the campus in fact had central air conditioning.", "Other factors, such as land acquisition and construction improvements, added to the tax burden.", "Previously, Intel had appealed the demand in the Karnataka high court in July, during which the court ordered Intel to pay BBMP half the owed amount of plus arrears by August 28 of that year." ], [ "See also", "* 5 nm process* ASCI Red* Bumpless Build-up Layer* Comparison of ATI Graphics Processing Units* Comparison of Intel processors* Comparison of Nvidia graphics processing units* Cyrix* Engineering sample (CPU)* Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)* Intel Developer Zone (Intel DZ)* Intel Driver Update Utility* Intel GMA (Graphics Media Accelerator)* Intel HD and Iris Graphics* Intel Level Up* Intel Loihi* Intel Museum* Intel Science Talent Search* List of Intel chipsets* List of Intel CPU microarchitectures* List of Intel manufacturing sites* List of Intel microprocessors* List of Intel graphics processing units* List of mergers and acquisitions by Intel* List of semiconductor fabrication plants* Intel Management Engine'''Intel-related biographical articles on Wikipedia'''* Andy Grove* Bill Gaede* Bob Colwell* Craig Barrett (chief executive)* Gordon Moore* Justin Rattner* Pat Gelsinger* Paul Otellini* Robert Noyce* Sean Maloney" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "İsmet İnönü" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mustafa İsmet İnönü''' (; 24 September 1884 – 25 December 1973) was a Turkish army officer and statesman who served as the second president of Turkey from November 11, 1938, to May 22 May 1950, and as its prime minister three times: from 1923 to 1924, 1925 to 1937, and 1961 to 1965.İnönü is acknowledged by many as Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's right-hand man, with their friendship going back to the Caucasus campaign.", "In the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, he served as the first chief of the General Staff from 1922 to 1924 for the regular Turkish army, during which he commanded forces during the First and Second Battles of İnönü.", "Atatürk bestowed İsmet with the surname İnönü, the site of the battles, when the 1934 Surname Law was adopted.", "He was also chief negotiator in the Mudanya and Lausanne conferences for the Ankara government, successfully negotiating away the Sevre treaty for the Treaty of Lausanne.", "As his prime minister for most of his presidency, İnönü executed many of Atatürk's modernizing and nationalist reforms.", "İnönü gave the orders to carry out the Zilan Massacre.İnönü succeeded Atatürk as president of Turkey after his death in 1938 and was granted the official title of (\"''National Chief\"'' by the parliament.", "As president and chairman of the Republican People's Party (CHP), İnönü initially continued Turkey's one party state.", "Kemalist style programs continued to make great strides in education by supporting projects such as Village Institutes.", "His governments implemented notably heavy statist economic policies.", "The Hatay State was annexed in 1939, and Turkey was able to maintain an armed neutrality during World War II, joining the Allied powers only three months before the end of the European Theater.", "The Turkish Straits crisis prompted İnönü to build closer ties with the Western powers, with the country eventually joining NATO in 1952, though by then he was no longer president.Factionalism between statists and liberals in the CHP led to the creation of the Democrat Party in 1946.İnönü held the first multiparty elections in the Republic's history that year, beginning Turkey's multiparty period.", "1950 saw a peaceful transfer of power to the Democrats when the CHP suffered defeat in the elections.", "For ten years, İnönü served as the leader of the opposition before returning to power as prime minister following the 1961 election, held after the 1960 coup-d'état.", "The 1960s saw İnönü reinvent the CHP as a political party, which was \"Left of Center\" as a new party cadre led by Bülent Ecevit became more influential.", "İnönü remained leader of the CHP until 1972, when he was defeated by Ecevit in a leadership contest.", "He died on December 25, 1973, of a heart attack, at the age of 89.He is interred opposite to Atatürk's mausoleum at Anıtkabir in Ankara.Mevhibe, and their three children, Ömer, Özden (later Toker), and Erdal." ], [ "Early life (1884–1903)", "İsmet İnönü (born Mustafa İsmet) was born in 1884 in Smyrna (İzmir) in the Aidin Vilayet to Hacı Reşit and Cevriye (later Cevriye Temelli).", "Hacı Reşit was retired after serving as director of the First Examinant Department of the Legal Affairs Bureau of the War Ministry (''Harbiye Nezareti Muhakemat Dairesi Birinci Mümeyyizliği'').", "A member of the Kürümoğlu family of Bitlis, İnönü's father was born in Malatya.", "According to its members studying the ancestral background of the family, Kürümoğlus were of Turkish origin, while secondary sources refer to the family as of Kurdish descent.", "His mother was the daughter of Müderris Hasan Efendi, who belonged to the ulema and was a member of the Turkish family of Razgrad (present-day Bulgaria).", "İsmet was the family's second child; he had three brothers, including the family's first child, Ahmet Midhat, two younger brothers, Hasan Rıza and Hayri (Temelli), as well as a sister Seniha (Otakan).", "Due to his father's assignments, the family moved from one city to another." ], [ "Military career (1903–1923)", "=== In the Ottoman Empire ===Captain İsmet Bey after returning from Yemenİnönü completed his primary education in Sivas and graduated from Sivas Military Junior High School (''Sivas Askerî Rüştiyesi'') in 1894.He then studied at the Sivas School for Civil Servants (''Sivas Mülkiye İdadisi'') for a year.", "He graduated from the Imperial School of Military Engineering in 1903 as a lieutenant gunnery officer and entered the Military Academy to graduate as a first-rank staff captain on September 26, 1906.İnönü started his duty in the Second Army based in Adrianople (Edirne) on October 2, 1906, in the 3rd Battery Command of the 8th Field Artillery Regiment.", "As part of his platoon officer staff internship, he gave lessons in military strategy and artillery.", "Captain İsmet was also part of the Ottoman–Bulgarian commissions.Through Ali Fethi (Okyar), he briefly joined the Committee of Union and Progress in 1907, which wished to overthrow Sultan Abdul Hamid II.", "During the 31 March Incident, he was on the staff of the Second Cavalry Division, which was mobilized to join the Action Army and marched on Constantinople (İstanbul) to depose Abdul Hamid II.", "Returning to Adrianople following the suppression of the mutiny, İnönü left the committee in the summer of 1909.He won his first military victory by suppressing Imam Yahya Muhammad Hamiddin's revolt in Yemen.", "İsmet eventually became chief of staff of the force sent to suppress the rebellion and personally negotiated with Imam Yahya in Kaffet-ül-Uzer to bring Yemen back into the empire.", "For this, he was promoted to the rank of major.", "He returned to Constantinople in March 1913 to defend the capital from Bulgarian attack during the First Balkan War.", "İnönü was part of the Turkish delegation that negotiated the Treaty of Constantinople with the Bulgarians as a military adviser.", "He held a close relationship with Enver Pasha and played an active role in the reformation of the army.=== World War I ===The Ottoman general staff of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, 1914.İsmet İnönü can be seen on the top row second from the right side.İnönü began climbing the ranks during World War I, becoming lieutenant colonel on November 29, 1914, and then being appointed as the First Branch Manager of the General Headquarters on December 2.He was appointed chief of staff of the Second Army on October 9, 1915, and was promoted to the rank of colonel on December 14 December 1915.Inönü married Emine Mevhibe Hanim on April 13, 1916, three weeks before he left for the front to return home only after the conclusion of the Armistice of Mudros on October 30, 1918.Of which she later bore his three sons and one daughter.", "He began working with Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) Pasha as a corps commander on the Caucasian Front.", "İnönü was appointed to the IV Corps Command on January 12, 1917, upon the recommendation of Atatürk.", "He was recalled to Constantinople after a while and returned to take part as a corps commander of the Seventh Army.", "On May 1, he was appointed to command XX Corps on the Palestine Front, and then III Corps on June 20.He once again came into contact with Atatürk when he assumed command of the Seventh Army.", "İnönü's forces received the brunt of Edmond Allenby's attack on Beersheba that ended the stalemate on the Sinai front.", "He was wounded in the Battle of Megiddo and was sent back to Constantinople, where he held various administrative positions in the War Ministry during the armistice period.=== Turkish War of Independence ===After the military occupation of Constantinople on March 16, 1920, İnönü decided to escape to Anatolia to join the Ankara government.", "He and his chief of staff, Major Saffet (Arıkan) escaped Maltepe in the evening of March 19 and arrived in Ankara on April 9.He joined the Grand National Assembly (GNA), which was opened on April 23, 1920, as a deputy of Edirne.", "Like many others in the Turkish National Movement, he was sentenced to death ''in absentia'' by the Ottoman government on June 6, 1920.In May 1920, he was appointed chief of the general staff.", "The next year, he was appointed commander of the Western Front of the Army of the GNA, a position in which he remained during the Turkish War of Independence.", "He was promoted to the rank of Mirliva (to that extent, Pasha) after winning the First and Second Battle of İnönü.", "When the 1934 Surname Law was adopted Atatürk bestowed İsmet Pasha with the surname İnönü, where the battles took place.Turkish delegation after having signed the Treaty of Lausanne.", "The delegation was led by İsmet İsmet (in the middle) and Rıza Nur (on the left wearing the top hat).İnönü was replaced by Mustafa Fevzi Pasha (Çakmak), who was also the prime minister and minister of defense at the time, as the chief of staff after the Turkish forces lost major battles against the advancing Greek Army in July 1921, as a result of which the cities of Afyonkarahisar, Kütahya and Eskişehir were temporarily lost.", "During the war, İnönü's infant son İzzet died before his victory in Sakarya and this news was only delivered to him in the spring of 1922.His wife, Emine Mevhibe hid the news and the severity of his son's sickness due to the intensity of the war.", "He participated as a staff officer (with the rank Brigadier General) in the later battles, including Dumlupınar.=== Chief negotiator in Mudanya and Lausanne ===After the War of Independence was won, İnönü was appointed as the chief negotiator of the Turkish delegation, both for the Armistice of Mudanya and for the Treaty of Lausanne.The Lausanne conference convened in late 1922 to settle the terms of a new treaty that would take the place of the Treaty of Sèvres.", "İnönü became famous for his stubborn resolve in determining the position of Ankara as the legitimate, sovereign government of Turkey.", "After delivering his position, İsmet turned off his hearing aid during the speeches of British foreign secretary Lord Curzon.", "When Curzon had finished, İnönü reiterated his position as if Curzon had never said a word." ], [ "Prime ministry (1923–1924, 1925–1937)", "İsmet İnönü served as the prime minister of Turkey throughout Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's presidency, stepping down as prime minister for three months during Fethi Okyar's premiership and in the last year of Atatürk's presidency when he was replaced by Celal Bayar.", "İnönü therefore helped to execute most of Atatürk's reformist programs.", "It was his suggestion to make Ankara the capital of Turkey, which was approved by the parliament.", "İnönü was also an important factor in the proclamation of the Republic and the abolition of the Caliphate and Evkaf Ministry.", "He resigned from the premiership for health reasons on November 22, 1924 for Fethi Okyar, but since he was not able to achieve a vote of confidence from parliament due to the Sheikh Said rebellion, İnönü returned to the prime ministry.İnönü immediately banned all opposition parties (including the Progressive Republican Party) and the press.", "Independence Tribunals were reestablished to prosecute the Kurdish rebels.", "In 1926, it allegedly came out that former members of the CUP attempted to assassinate Atatürk in the İzmir plot, which resulted in the remaining CUP leaders being executed.", "İnönü retired his military command in 1927.=== Nationalist policy ===Autochrome portrait by Georges Chevalier, 1927While dealing with the Sheikh Said revolt, İnönü proclaimed a Turkish nationalist policy and encouraged the Turkification of the non-Turkish population.", "Following the suppression of the Sheikh Said rebellion, he presided over the Reform Council for the East, which prepared the Report for Reform in the East, which recommended impede the establishment of a Kurdish elite, forbid non-Turkish languages, and create regional administrative units called Inspectorates-General, which were to be governed by martial law.", "He stated the following in regards to the Kurds; \"We're frankly nationalists, and nationalism is our only factor of cohesion.", "Before the Turkish majority, other elements had no kind of influence.", "At any price, we must turkify the inhabitants of our land, and we will annihilate those who oppose.\"", "Following this report, three Inspectorates-General were established in the Kurdish areas, which comprise several provinces.", "On the direct order of İnönü, the Zilan massacre of thousands of Kurdish civilians was perpetrated by the Turkish Land Forces in the Zilan Valley of Van Province on July 12 and 13, 1930, during the Ararat rebellion.", "Nation building was codified into law when a new settlement regime was enacted in 1934, resettling Albanians, Abkhazians, Circassians, and Kurds in new areas in order to create a homogeneous Turkish state.=== Social policy ===Thracian Maneuversİnönü was responsible for most of the reformist legislation promulgated during Turkey's one party period.", "The Hat Law and the closure of Dervish lodges were enacted in 1925; in 1928, the Turkish alphabet switched to being written with Latin characters, and in 1934, titles such as Efendi, Bey, and Pasha were abolished; and certain articles of religious clothing were banned, though İnönü was and still is popularly known as İsmet Pasha.", "1934 was also the year that the Surname Law was adopted, with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk bestowing İsmet with the surname İnönü, the location where İsmet won the battles against the Greek army in 1921.He was also a proponent of replacing foreign loan words with \"Pure Turkish\" words.=== Economic policy ===İnönü managed the economy with heavy-handed government intervention, especially during the Great Depression, by implementing an economic plan inspired by the ''Five Year Plan'' of the Soviet Union.", "In doing so, he took much private property under government control.", "Due to his efforts, to this day, more than 70% of land in Turkey is still owned by the state.Desiring a more liberal economic system, Atatürk dissolved the government of İnönü in 1937 and appointed Celâl Bayar, the founder of the first Turkish commercial bank, Türkiye İş Bankası, as prime minister, thus beginning a decades long rivalry between Bayar and İnönü." ], [ "Presidency (1938–1950)", "=== Prewar ===Celâl Bayar and İnönü visiting the Bakırköy Cloth FactoryAfter the death of Atatürk on November 10, 1938, İnönü was viewed as the most appropriate candidate to succeed him and was unanimously elected the second president of the Republic of Turkey and leader of the Republican People's Party (CHP).", "He attempted to build himself a cult of personality by receiving the official title of ''Millî Şef'', i.e., \"National Chief\".One of his first actions was to annex in 1939 the Hatay State, which declared independence from French Syria.", "İnönü also wished to move on from one-party rule by taking incremental steps to multiparty politics.", "He hoped to accomplish this by establishing the Independent Group as a force of opposition in the parliament, but they fell short of expectations under wartime conditions.", "İnönü dismissed Bayar's government because of differences between the two on economic policy in 1939.İnönü was an avowed statist, while Bayar wished for a more liberal economy.", "Turkey's early industrialization accelerated under İnönü but the onset of World War II disrupted economic growth.Much reform in education was accomplished during İnönü's presidency through the efforts of Hasan Âli Yücel, who was minister of education throughout İnönü's governments.", "1940 saw the establishment of the Village Institutes, in which well-performing students from the country were selected to train as teachers and return to their hometown to run community development programs.=== World War II ======= Foreign policy ====MG08 machine gun on the minaret of the Hagia Sophia 1941World War II broke out in the first year of his presidency, and both the Allies and the Axis pressured İnönü to bring Turkey into the war on their side.", "The Germans sent Franz von Papen to Ankara in April 1939, while the British sent Hughe Knatchbull-Hugessen and the French René Massigli.", "On April 23, 1939, Turkish Foreign Minister Şükrü Saracoğlu told Knatchbull-Hugessen of his nation's fears of Italian claims to the Mediterranean as ''Mare Nostrum'' and German control of the Balkans and suggested an Anglo-Soviet-Turkish alliance as the best way of countering the Axis.", "In May 1939, during the visit of Maxime Weygand to Turkey, İnönü told the French Ambassador René Massigli that he believed that the best way of stopping Germany was an alliance of Turkey, the Soviet Union, France and Britain; that if such an alliance came into being, the Turks would allow Soviet ground and air forces onto their soil; and that he wanted a major programme of French military aid to modernize the Turkish armed forces.March 31st 1941 Egyptian political cartoon showing Hitler being rebuffed by Turkish President İsmet İnönü.The signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact on August 23, 1939, drew Turkey away from the Allies; the Turks always believed that it was essential to have the Soviet Union as an ally to counter Germany, and thus the signing of the German-Soviet pact undercut completely the assumptions behind Turkish security policy.", "With the signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact, İnönü chose to be neutral in World War II as taking on Germany and the Soviet Union at the same time would be too much for Turkey, though he signed a tripartite treaty of alliance with Britain and France on October 19, 1939, obligating Turkey's entry into the war if fighting spread to the Mediterranean.", "However, with France's defeat in June 1940 İnönü abandoned the pro-Allied neutrality that he had followed since the beginning of the war.", "A major embarrassment for the Turks occurred in July 1940 when the Germans captured and published documents from the Quai d'Orsay in Paris showing the Turks were aware of Operation Pike—as the Anglo-French plan in the winter of 1939–40 to bomb the oil fields in the Soviet Union from Turkey was codenamed—which was intended by Berlin to worsen relations between Ankara and Moscow.", "In turn, worsening relations between the Soviet Union and Turkey were intended to drive Turkey into the arms of the ''Reich''.", "After the publication of the French documents relating to Operation Pike, İnönü pulled out of the tripartide pact signed with Britain and France and signed the German–Turkish Treaty of Friendship and the Clodius Agreement, which placed Turkey within the German economic sphere of influence, but İnönü went no further towards the Axis.Franz von Pappen and Şükrü Saraçoğlu signing the Turkish-German friendship treatyIn the first half of 1941, Germany, which was intent on invading the Soviet Union, went out of its way to improve relations with Turkey as the ''Reich'' hoped for benevolent Turkish neutrality when the German-Soviet war began.", "At the same time, the British had great hopes in the spring of 1941 when they dispatched an expeditionary force to Greece that İnönü could be persuaded to enter the war on the Allied side as the British leadership had high hopes of creating a Balkan front that would tie down German forces, which thus led to a major British diplomatic offensive with Foreign Secretary Sir Anthony Eden visiting Ankara several times to meet with İnönü.", "İnönü always told Eden that the Turks would not join the British forces in Greece, and the Turks would only enter the war if Germany attacked Turkey.", "For his part, Papen offered İnönü parts of Greece if Turkey were to enter the war on the Axis side, an offer İnönü declined.", "In May 1941 when the Germans dispatched an expeditionary force to Iraq to fight against the British, İnönü refused Papen's request that the German forces be allowed transit rights to Iraq.", "Another attempt by Hitler to woo Turkey came in February 1943, when Talaat Pasha's remains were returned to Turkey for a state burial.Internal opposition to Turkish neutrality came from ultra-nationalist circles and factions of the military that wished to incorporate the Turkic-populated areas of the Soviet Union by allying with Germany.", "This almost erupted into a coup d'état against the government.", "Leading pan-Turkists including Alparslan Türkeş, Nihal Atsız, and Şaik Gökyay were arrested and sentenced time in prison in the Racism-Turanism trials.Roosevelt, İnönü and Churchill at the Second Cairo Conference on 4–6 December 1943\|leftBritish Prime Minister Winston Churchill traveled to Ankara in January 1943 for a conference with President İnönu to urge Turkey's entry into the war on the allied side.", "Churchill met secretly with İnönü inside a railroad car at the Yenice Station near Adana.", "By 4–6 December 1943, İnönü felt confident enough about the outcome of the war that he met openly with Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill at the Second Cairo Conference.", "Until 1941, both Roosevelt and Churchill thought that Turkey's continued neutrality would serve the interests of the Allies by blocking the Axis from reaching the strategic oil reserves of the Middle East.", "But the early victories of the Axis up to the end of 1942 caused Roosevelt and Churchill to re-evaluate possible Turkish participation in the war on the side of the Allies.", "Turkey had maintained a decently-sized army and air force throughout the war, and Churchill wanted the Turks to open a new front in the Balkans.", "Roosevelt, on the other hand, still believed that a Turkish attack would be too risky and an eventual Turkish failure would have disastrous effects for the Allies.Winston Churchill and İsmet İnönü in conversation during a two-day secret conference in a train car at Adana, near the Turkish-Syrian borderİnönü knew very well the hardships that his country had suffered during decades of incessant war between 1908 and 1922 and was determined to keep Turkey out of another war as long as he could.", "The young Turkish Republic was still re-building, recovering from the losses due to earlier wars, and lacked any modern weapons and the infrastructure to enter a war to be fought along and possibly within its borders.", "İnönü based his neutrality policy during the Second World War on the premise that Western Allies and the Soviet Union would sooner or later have a falling out after the war.", "Thus, İnönu wanted assurances on financial and military aid for Turkey, as well as a guarantee that the United States and the United Kingdom would stand beside Turkey in the event of a Soviet invasion of the Turkish Straits after the war.", "In August 1944, İnönü broke off diplomatic relations with Germany, and on January 5, 1945, İnönü severed diplomatic relations with Japan.", "Shortly afterwards, İnönü allowed Allied shipping to use the Turkish Straits to send supplies to the Soviet Union, and on February 25, 1945, he declared war on Germany and Japan.", "For this Turkey became a founding member of the United Nations.The post-war tensions and arguments surrounding the Turkish Straits would come to be known as the Turkish Straits crisis.", "The fear of Soviet invasion and Joseph Stalin's unconcealed desire for Soviet military bases in the Turkish Straits eventually caused Turkey to give up its principle of neutrality in foreign relations and join NATO in February 1952.==== Domestic policy ====Maintaining an armed neutrality proved to be disruptive for the young republic.", "The country existed in a practical state of war throughout the Second World War: military production was prioritized at the expense of peacetime goods, rationing and curfews were implemented, and high taxes were put in place, causing severe economic hardship for many.", "One such tax was the Wealth Tax (Varlık Vergisi), a discriminatory tax that demanded very high one-time payments from Turkey's non-Muslim minorities.", "This tax is seen by many to be a continuation of the Jizya tax paid by dhimmis during Ottoman times, or ''Millî İktisat'' (National Economy) economic policy implemented by the Committee of Union and Progress regime three decades ago.", "It was only repealed in 1944 under American and British pressure.A famous story of İnönü happened in a meeting in Bursa for the 1969 general elections.", "A young man yelled at him, \"You let us go without food!\"", "İnönü replied to him by saying, \"Yes, I let you go without food, but I did not let you become fatherless,\" implying the death of millions of people from both sides of World War II.=== Post-War democratization ===For the Kemalists there was always a desire for Turkey to develop into a democracy.", "Before the Independent Group, Atatürk experimented with opposition through the Liberal Republican Party, which lasted three months before it had to be shut down when reactionaries threatened to hijack the party.", "In an opening speech to the Grand National Assembly on November 1, 1945, İnönü openly expressed the country's need for an opposition party.", "He welcomed Celal Bayar establishing the Democrat Party (DP), which separated from the CHP.", "However, due to the anti-Communist hysteria brought on by the new Soviet threat, new leftist parties were swiftly banned, and rural development initiatives such as the Village Institutes and People's Rooms were closed.", "Even with such pressure on the left, İnönü established the Ministry of Labour in 1945 and signed into law important protections for workers.", "Universities were given autonomy, and İnönü's title of \"unchangeable chairman\" of CHP was abolished.İnönü allowed for Turkey's first multiparty elections to be held in 1946; however, the elections were infamously not free and fair; voting was carried out under the gaze of onlookers who could determine which voters had voted for which parties, and secrecy prevailed as to the subsequent counting of votes.", "Instead of inviting Şükrü Saraçoğlu to form another government, he assigned CHP hardliner Recep Peker to the task, who contributed to a polarizing atmosphere in the parliament.", "İnönü had to act as a mediator several times between Peker and Bayar, who threatened to have the DP walk from parliament if they didn't have some of their demands met, such as ensuring judicial review, secret ballots, and public counting for elections.", "On 12 July 1947 İsmet İnönü gave a speech broadcast on radio and in newspapers that he would stand equal distance from the government and opposition, prompting Peker's resignation.Free and fair national elections had to wait until 1950, and on that occasion, İnönü's government was defeated.", "In the 1950 election campaign, the leading figures of the Democrat Party used the slogan ''\"Geldi İsmet, kesildi kısmet\"'' (\"İsmet arrived, our fortune left\").", "CHP lost the election with 41% of the vote against DP's 55%, but due to the winner-takes-all electoral system, DP received 85% of the seats in parliament.", "İnönü presided over the peaceful transfer of power to the DP leaders, Bayar and Adnan Menderes.", "Bayar would serve as Turkey's third president, and Menderes would be its first prime minister not from the CHP." ], [ "Leader of the opposition (1950–1960)", "For ten years, İnönü served as the leader of the opposition.", "In opposition, the CHP established its youth and women's branches.", "On June 22 June 1953, the establishment of trade unions and vocational chambers was proposed, and the right to strike for workers was added to the party program.", "The CHP formed an electoral alliance with the Republican Nation Party and Liberty party for the 1957 election, which was blocked by the DP government.In the lead-up to the elections prepared for 1960, İnönü and CHP members faced regular harassment from the authorities and DP supporters, to the point where he was almost lynched several times.", "In 1958, the DP mayor of Zile declared martial law and mobilized the gendarmerie to prevent İnönü from conducting a rally in the city; a similar event happened in the city of Çankırı.", "In 1959, İnönü began a campaign tour that followed the same path he took thirty years ago as a Pasha from Uşak to İzmir and ended in victory for the Turkish nationalists.", "The DP minister of interior refused to promise protection to him.", "In Uşak, a crowd blocked İnönü from going to his podium, and he was hit in the head with a stone.", "Following his \"Great Offensive,\" he flew to Istanbul, where he was almost lynched by a DP-organized mob on the way to Topkapı Palace.", "He was also banned from speaking in rallies in Kayseri and Yeşilhisar.İnönü was banned from 12 sessions of parliament.", "This coincided an authoritarian turn of the Democrat Party, which culminated in a military coup." ], [ "Later life (1961–1973)", "Prime Minister İnönü and Levi Eshkol, 1964On May 27 May 1960, the Turkish Armed Forces overthrew the government.", "After one year of junta rule in which the Democrat Party was banned and its top leaders executed in the Yassıada Trials, elections were held once the military returned to their barracks.", "İnönü returned to power as Prime Minister after the 1961 election, in which the CHP won the election.", "Right-wing parties have since continuously attacked İnönü and the CHP for their perceived involvement in the hanging of Prime minister Menderes, even though İnönü advocated for Menderes' pardoning.İnönü's governments were defined by an effort to deescalate tensions between radical forces in the Turkish army wishing for extended junta rule and former Democrats that wished for amnesty.", "İnönü's CHP did not gain enough seats in the legislature to win a majority in the elections, so in an effort to create reconciliation, he formed coalition governments with the neo-Democrat Justice Party the New Turkey Party and the Republican Villagers Nation Party until 1965.Forming coalitions with DP successor parties, however, provoked radical officers into action.", "Colonel twice attempted to overthrow the government in 1962 and .", "Aydemir was later executed for conducting both coups.", "Aydemir's 1962 coup had the most potential to succeed when İnönü, President Cemal Gürsel and Chief of Staff Cevdet Sunay were held up in Çankaya Mansion by the putschists.", "Aydemir decided to let the group go, which foiled the coup.While in coalition with the far-right Republican Villagers Nation Party, İnönü renounced the Greco-Turkish Treaty of Friendship of 1930 and took actions against the Greek minority.", "The Turkish government also strictly enforced a long-overlooked law barring Greek nationals from 30 professions and occupations; for example, Greeks could not be doctors, nurses, architects, shoemakers, tailors, plumbers, cabaret singers, ironsmiths, cooks, tourist guides, etc., and 50,000 more Greeks were deported.", "These actions were taken because of the growing anti-Greek sentiment in Turkey after the ethnic conflict in Cyprus flared up again.", "With an invasion of the island imminent, American President Lyndon Johnson sent a memorandum to İnönü, effectively vetoing Turkish intervention.", "A subsequent meeting at the White House between İnönü and Johnson on June 22, 1964, meant Cyprus' status quo continued for another ten years.", "An event a couple years earlier also strained the otherwise amicable relationship İnönü held with Washington, namely the withdrawal of the nuclear-armed PGM-19 Jupiter MRBMs briefly stationed in Turkey, which was undertaken in the aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis.", "While Washington withdrew the MRBMs, some B61 nuclear bombs are still stored in İncirlik Air Base.İnönü's governments established the National Security Council, Turkish Statistical Institute, and Turkey's leading research institute, TÜBİTAK.", "Turkey signed the Ankara agreement, the first treaty of cooperation with the European Economic Community, and also increased ties with Iran and Pakistan.", "The army was modernized, and the National Intelligence Organization was founded.", "İnönü was instrumental in establishing CHP as \"Left of Center\" on the political spectrum as a new left-wing party cadre led by his protégé Bülent Ecevit became more influential.", "İnönü survived an assassination attempt from a Menderes supporter in 1964.İnönü returned to the opposition after losing both the 1965 and 1969 general elections to a much younger man, Justice Party leader Süleyman Demirel.", "He remained leader of the CHP until 1972, when an interparty crisis over his endorsement of the 1971 military memorandum led to his defeat by Ecevit in the 5th extraordinary CHP convention.", "This was the first overthrow of a party leader in a leadership contest in the Republic's history.", "İnönü left his party and resigned his parliamentarianship afterward.", "Being a former president he was a member of the Senate in the last year of his life." ], [ "Death", "İnönü's tomb at leftOn December 25, 1973, İsmet İnönü died of a heart attack at the age of 89.The parliament declared national mourning until his burial.", "He was interred at Anıtkabir opposite Atatürk's mausoleum, on December 28.Following the 1980 coup, Kenan Evren transferred twelve graves from Anıtkabir, but kept İnönü's in place.", "İnönü's tomb took its present shape in January 1997." ], [ "Legacy", "İnönü University and Malatya İnönü Stadium in Malatya are named after him, as is the İnönü Stadium in Istanbul, home of the Beşiktaş football club.", "A highly educated man, İnönü was able to speak fluently in Arabic, English, French and German in addition to his native Turkish.=== Portrayal ===Australian actor Gerard Kennedy played Colonel Ismet Bey in 1987's ''The Lighthorsemen''.=== Honours ======= National Honours ====* Turkey: 80x80px Medal of Independence, November 21, 1923" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Atatürk ve İnönü.jpg\|With Mustafa Kemal Atatürk near the front lines in the Turkish War of IndependenceFile:Ismet and Kiazim Zeyrek.jpg\|With Kazım KarabekirFile:Atatürk ve İnönü 16-06-1936.jpg\|With Atatürk, 1936File:Jahangir bey Novruzov with Ismet Inonu.jpg\|With Jahangir NovruzovFile:İsmet İnönü Hatay'da (1939).jpg\|In newly annexed HatayFile:Benito Mussolini and İsmet İnönü (1932).jpg\|With Benito Mussolini, 1932File:Ismet's visit to Moscow.jpg\|At Moscow, 1932File:Ismet Inonu at the congress of CHP.jpg\|At a CHP congressFile:İsmet İnönü ve Refik Saydam, 1939.jpg\|With Refik Saydam, 1939File:Atatürk, Rıza Şah Pehlevi ve İnönü.jpg\|With Atatürk and Reza Shah PahlaviFile:Kemal Paşa ve İsmet Paşa II.", "İnönü Muharebesi'nden sonra askerleri teftişte.jpg\|alt=\|Inspecting troops with Atatürk after the Second Battle of İnönüFile:Aanslag op Inönü, premier van Turkije, Bestanddeelnr 916-0781.jpg\|alt=\|Receiving an attack in parliament, 1964" ], [ "References", "=== Sources === === See also ===* Pembe Köşk – Private home from 1925 to 1973* Çankaya Köşkü – The Presidency of the Republic of Turkey* List of high-ranking commanders of the Turkish War of Independence=== Further reading ===Kinross, Lord, ''Atatürk: A Biography of Mustafa Kemal, Father of Modern Turkey'' (New York: William Morrow & Company, 1965).", " Liebmann, George W. ''Diplomacy between the Wars: Five Diplomats and the Shaping of the Modern World'' (London I.", "B. Tauris, 2008)* Mango, Andrew, ''The Turks Today'' (New York: The Overlook Press, 2004).", ".", "* Pope, Nicole and Pope, Hugh, ''Turkey Unveiled: A History of Modern Turkey'' (New York: The Overlook Press, 2004).", "." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Inorganic chemistry" ], [ "Introduction", "The structure of the ionic framework in potassium oxide, K2O'''Inorganic chemistry''' deals with synthesis and behavior of inorganic and organometallic compounds.", "This field covers chemical compounds that are not carbon-based, which are the subjects of organic chemistry.", "The distinction between the two disciplines is far from absolute, as there is much overlap in the subdiscipline of organometallic chemistry.", "It has applications in every aspect of the chemical industry, including catalysis, materials science, pigments, surfactants, coatings, medications, fuels, and agriculture." ], [ "Key concepts", "Many inorganic compounds are ionic compounds, consisting of cations and anions joined by ionic bonding.", "Examples of salts (which are ionic compounds) are magnesium chloride MgCl2, which consists of magnesium cations Mg2+ and chloride anions Cl−; or sodium oxide Na2O, which consists of sodium cations Na+ and oxide anions O2−.", "In any salt, the proportions of the ions are such that the electric charges cancel out, so that the bulk compound is electrically neutral.", "The ions are described by their oxidation state and their ease of formation can be inferred from the ionization potential (for cations) or from the electron affinity (anions) of the parent elements.Important classes of inorganic compounds are the oxides, the carbonates, the sulfates, and the halides.", "Many inorganic compounds are characterized by high melting points.", "Many inorganic compounds have high melting point and ease of crystallization.", "Some salts (e.g., NaCl) are very soluble in water, others (e.g., FeS) are not.The simplest inorganic reaction is double displacement when in mixing of two salts the ions are swapped without a change in oxidation state.", "In redox reactions one reactant, the ''oxidant'', lowers its oxidation state and another reactant, the ''reductant'', has its oxidation state increased.", "The net result is an exchange of electrons.", "Electron exchange can occur indirectly as well, e.g., in batteries, a key concept in electrochemistry.When one reactant contains hydrogen atoms, a reaction can take place by exchanging protons in acid-base chemistry.", "In a more general definition, any chemical species capable of binding to electron pairs is called a Lewis acid; conversely any molecule that tends to donate an electron pair is referred to as a Lewis base.", "As a refinement of acid-base interactions, the HSAB theory takes into account polarizability and size of ions.Inorganic compounds are found in nature as minerals.", "Soil may contain iron sulfide as pyrite or calcium sulfate as gypsum.", "Inorganic compounds are also found multitasking as biomolecules: as electrolytes (sodium chloride), in energy storage (ATP) or in construction (the polyphosphate backbone in DNA).The first important man-made inorganic compound was ammonium nitrate for soil fertilization through the Haber process.", "Inorganic compounds are synthesized for use as catalysts such as vanadium(V) oxide and titanium(III) chloride, or as reagents in organic chemistry such as lithium aluminium hydride.Subdivisions of inorganic chemistry are organometallic chemistry, cluster chemistry and bioinorganic chemistry.", "These fields are active areas of research in inorganic chemistry, aimed toward new catalysts, superconductors, and therapies.===Industrial inorganic chemistry===Inorganic chemistry is a highly practical area of science.", "Traditionally, the scale of a nation's economy could be evaluated by their productivity of sulfuric acid.", "The manufacturing of fertilizers, which often begins with the Haber-Bosch process, is another practical application of industrial inorganic chemistry." ], [ "Descriptive inorganic chemistry", "Descriptive inorganic chemistry focuses on the classification of compounds based on their properties.", "Partly the classification focuses on the position in the periodic table of the heaviest element (the element with the highest atomic weight) in the compound, partly by grouping compounds by their structural similarities.===Coordination compounds===EDTA chelates an octahedrally coordinated Co3+ ion in Classical coordination compounds feature metals bound to \"lone pairs\" of electrons residing on the main group atoms of ligands such as H2O, NH3, Cl−, and CN−.", "In modern coordination compounds almost all organic and inorganic compounds can be used as ligands.", "The \"metal\" usually is a metal from the groups 3–13, as well as the ''trans''-lanthanides and ''trans''-actinides, but from a certain perspective, all chemical compounds can be described as coordination complexes.The stereochemistry of coordination complexes can be quite rich, as hinted at by Werner's separation of two enantiomers of hexol\|Co((OH)2Co(NH3)4)36+, an early demonstration that chirality is not inherent to organic compounds.", "A topical theme within this specialization is supramolecular coordination chemistry.", "* Examples: Co(EDTA)−, Cobalt(III) hexammine chloride\|Co(NH3)63+, TiCl4(THF)2.===Main group compounds===Tetrasulfur tetranitride, S4N4, is a main group compound that continues to intrigue chemistsThese species feature elements from groups I, II, III, IV, V,VI, VII, 0 (excluding hydrogen) of the periodic table.", "Due to their often similar reactivity, the elements in group 3 (Sc, Y, and La) and group 12 (Zn, Cd, and Hg) are also generally included, and the lanthanides and actinides are sometimes included as well.Main group compounds have been known since the beginnings of chemistry, e.g., elemental sulfur and the distillable white phosphorus.", "Experiments on oxygen, O2, by Lavoisier and Priestley not only identified an important diatomic gas, but opened the way for describing compounds and reactions according to stoichiometric ratios.", "The discovery of a practical synthesis of ammonia using iron catalysts by Carl Bosch and Fritz Haber in the early 1900s deeply impacted mankind, demonstrating the significance of inorganic chemical synthesis.Typical main group compounds are SiO2, SnCl4, and N2O.", "Many main group compounds can also be classed as \"organometallic\", as they contain organic groups, e.g., B(CH3)3).", "Main group compounds also occur in nature, e.g., phosphate in DNA, and therefore may be classed as bioinorganic.", "Conversely, organic compounds lacking (many) hydrogen ligands can be classed as \"inorganic\", such as the fullerenes, buckytubes and binary carbon oxides.", "* Examples: tetrasulfur tetranitride S4N4, diborane B2H6, silicones, buckminsterfullerene C60.===Noble gas compounds===Noble gases are elements which have filled valence electron shells in their neutral state, and are thus stable as lone atoms.", "Historically known as being inert, methods were discovered to react with them.", "The trend within the group is for the larger elements to be more reactive.", "Xenon and krypton are more easily ionized, and can combine with extremely electronegative elements to make fluorides and oxides and form solid ionic compounds.", "Argon, neon, and helium are much less reactive, though in cosmochemistry ArH+ has been observed spectroscopically in interstellar gas.", "Noble gases can also be trapped in solids while not being directly coordinated in clathrates or in endohedral fullerenes.", "* Examples: xenon hexafluoride XeF6, xenon trioxide XeO3, krypton difluoride KrF2, argon fluorohydride HArF===Transition metal compounds===Compounds containing metals from group 4 to 11 are considered transition metal compounds.", "Compounds with a metal from group 3 or 12 are sometimes also incorporated into this group, but also often classified as main group compounds.Transition metal compounds show a rich coordination chemistry, varying from tetrahedral for titanium (e.g., TiCl4) to square planar for some nickel complexes to octahedral for coordination complexes of cobalt.", "A range of transition metals can be found in biologically important compounds, such as iron in hemoglobin.", "* Examples: iron pentacarbonyl, titanium tetrachloride, cisplatin===Organometallic compounds===Organolithium reagents are most often found in polymeric form, such as ''n''-butyllithium shown here Usually, organometallic compounds are considered to contain the M-C-H group.", "The metal (M) in these species can either be a main group element or a transition metal.", "Operationally, the definition of an organometallic compound is more relaxed to include also highly lipophilic complexes such as metal carbonyls and even metal alkoxides.Organometallic compounds are mainly considered a special category because organic ligands are often sensitive to hydrolysis or oxidation, necessitating that organometallic chemistry employs more specialized preparative methods than was traditional in Werner-type complexes.", "Synthetic methodology, especially the ability to manipulate complexes in solvents of low coordinating power, enabled the exploration of very weakly coordinating ligands such as hydrocarbons, H2, and N2.Because the ligands are petrochemicals in some sense, the area of organometallic chemistry has greatly benefited from its relevance to industry.", "* Examples: Cyclopentadienyliron dicarbonyl dimer (C5H5)Fe(CO)2CH3, ferrocene Fe(C5H5)2, molybdenum hexacarbonyl Mo(CO)6, triethylborane Et3B, Tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0) Pd2(dba)3)===Cluster compounds===Decaborane is a powerfully toxic cluster compound of boronIron–sulfur clusters are central components of iron–sulfur proteins, essential for human metabolismClusters can be found in all classes of chemical compounds.", "According to the commonly accepted definition, a cluster consists minimally of a triangular set of atoms that are directly bonded to each other.", "But metal-metal bonded dimetallic complexes are highly relevant to the area.", "Clusters occur in \"pure\" inorganic systems, organometallic chemistry, main group chemistry, and bioinorganic chemistry.", "The distinction between very large clusters and bulk solids is increasingly blurred.", "This interface is the chemical basis of nanoscience or nanotechnology and specifically arise from the study of quantum size effects in cadmium selenide clusters.", "Thus, large clusters can be described as an array of bound atoms intermediate in character between a molecule and a solid.", "* Examples: Fe3(CO)12, B10H14, Molybdenum(II) chloride\|Mo6Cl142−, 4Fe-4S===Bioinorganic compounds===The octahedral cobalt centre of Vitamin B12By definition, these compounds occur in nature, but the subfield includes anthropogenic species, such as pollutants (e.g., methylmercury) and drugs (e.g., Cisplatin).", "The field, which incorporates many aspects of biochemistry, includes many kinds of compounds, e.g., the phosphates in DNA, and also metal complexes containing ligands that range from biological macromolecules, commonly peptides, to ill-defined species such as humic acid, and to water (e.g., coordinated to gadolinium complexes employed for MRI).", "Traditionally bioinorganic chemistry focuses on electron- and energy-transfer in proteins relevant to respiration.", "Medicinal inorganic chemistry includes the study of both non-essential and essential elements with applications to diagnosis and therapies.", "* Examples: hemoglobin, methylmercury, carboxypeptidase===Solid state compounds===YBa2Cu3O7, or YBCO, is a high temperature superconductor able to levitate above a magnet when colder than its critical temperature of about 90 K (−183 °C)This important area focuses on structure, bonding, and the physical properties of materials.", "In practice, solid state inorganic chemistry uses techniques such as crystallography to gain an understanding of the properties that result from collective interactions between the subunits of the solid.", "Included in solid state chemistry are metals and their alloys or intermetallic derivatives.", "Related fields are condensed matter physics, mineralogy, and materials science.", "* Examples: silicon chips, zeolites, YBa2Cu3O7" ], [ "Theoretical inorganic chemistry", "An alternative perspective on the area of inorganic chemistry begins with the Bohr model of the atom and, using the tools and models of theoretical chemistry and computational chemistry, expands into bonding in simple and then more complicated molecules.", "Precise quantum mechanical descriptions for multielectron species, the province of inorganic chemistry, is difficult.", "This challenge has spawned many semi-quantitative or semi-empirical approaches including molecular orbital theory and ligand field theory, In parallel with these theoretical descriptions, approximate methodologies are employed, including density functional theory.Exceptions to theories, qualitative and quantitative, are extremely important in the development of the field.", "For example, CuII2(OAc)4(H2O)2 is almost diamagnetic below room temperature whereas crystal field theory predicts that the molecule would have two unpaired electrons.", "The disagreement between qualitative theory (paramagnetic) and observation (diamagnetic) led to the development of models for magnetic coupling, such as the exchange interaction.", "These improved models led to the development of new magnetic materials and new technologies.===Qualitative theories===Crystal field theory explains why Ferricyanide\|FeIII(CN)63− has only one unpaired electronInorganic chemistry has greatly benefited from qualitative theories.", "Such theories are easier to learn as they require little background in quantum theory.", "Within main group compounds, VSEPR theory powerfully predicts, or at least rationalizes, the structures of main group compounds, such as an explanation for why NH3 is pyramidal whereas ClF3 is T-shaped.", "For the transition metals, crystal field theory allows one to understand the magnetism of many simple complexes, such as why Ferricyanide\|FeIII(CN)63− has only one unpaired electron, whereas FeIII(H2O)63+ has five.", "A particularly powerful qualitative approach to assessing the structure and reactivity begins with classifying molecules according to electron counting, focusing on the numbers of valence electrons, usually at the central atom in a molecule.===Molecular symmetry group theory===Nitrogen dioxide, NO2, exhibits ''C2v'' symmetryA central construct in inorganic chemistry is the theory of molecular symmetry.", "Mathematical group theory provides the language to describe the shapes of molecules according to their point group symmetry.", "Group theory also enables factoring and simplification of theoretical calculations.Spectroscopic features are analyzed and described with respect to the symmetry properties of the, ''inter alia'', vibrational or electronic states.", "Knowledge of the symmetry properties of the ground and excited states allows one to predict the numbers and intensities of absorptions in vibrational and electronic spectra.", "A classic application of group theory is the prediction of the number of C-O vibrations in substituted metal carbonyl complexes.", "The most common applications of symmetry to spectroscopy involve vibrational and electronic spectra.Group theory highlights commonalities and differences in the bonding of otherwise disparate species.", "For example, the metal-based orbitals transform identically for WF6 and W(CO)6, but the energies and populations of these orbitals differ significantly.", "A similar relationship exists CO2 and molecular beryllium difluoride." ], [ "Thermodynamics and inorganic chemistry", "An alternative quantitative approach to inorganic chemistry focuses on energies of reactions.", "This approach is highly traditional and empirical, but it is also useful.", "Broad concepts that are couched in thermodynamic terms include redox potential, acidity, phase changes.", "A classic concept in inorganic thermodynamics is the Born–Haber cycle, which is used for assessing the energies of elementary processes such as electron affinity, some of which cannot be observed directly." ], [ "Mechanistic inorganic chemistry", "An important aspect of inorganic chemistry focuses on reaction pathways, i.e.", "reaction mechanisms.===Main group elements and lanthanides===The mechanisms of main group compounds of groups 13-18 are usually discussed in the context of organic chemistry (organic compounds are main group compounds, after all).", "Elements heavier than C, N, O, and F often form compounds with more electrons than predicted by the octet rule, as explained in the article on hypervalent molecules.", "The mechanisms of their reactions differ from organic compounds for this reason.", "Elements lighter than carbon (B, Be, Li) as well as Al and Mg often form electron-deficient structures that are electronically akin to carbocations.", "Such electron-deficient species tend to react via associative pathways.", "The chemistry of the lanthanides mirrors many aspects of chemistry seen for aluminium.===Transition metal complexes===Transition metal and main group compounds often react differently.", "The important role of d-orbitals in bonding strongly influences the pathways and rates of ligand substitution and dissociation.", "These themes are covered in articles on coordination chemistry and ligand.", "Both associative and dissociative pathways are observed.An overarching aspect of mechanistic transition metal chemistry is the kinetic lability of the complex illustrated by the exchange of free and bound water in the prototypical complexes M(H2O)6n+::M(H2O)6n+ + 6 H2O* → M(H2O)6n+ + 6 H2O:where H2O denotes isotopically enriched water, e.g., H217OThe rates of water exchange varies by 20 orders of magnitude across the periodic table, with lanthanide complexes at one extreme and Ir(III) species being the slowest.====Redox reactions====Redox reactions are prevalent for the transition elements.", "Two classes of redox reaction are considered: atom-transfer reactions, such as oxidative addition/reductive elimination, and electron-transfer.", "A fundamental redox reaction is \"self-exchange\", which involves the degenerate reaction between an oxidant and a reductant.", "For example, permanganate and its one-electron reduced relative manganate exchange one electron::MnO4− + MnO42− → MnO42− + MnO4−====Reactions at ligands====Coordinated ligands display reactivity distinct from the free ligands.", "For example, the acidity of the ammonia ligands in Cobalt(III) hexammine chloride\|Co(NH3)63+ is elevated relative to NH3 itself.", "Alkenes bound to metal cations are reactive toward nucleophiles whereas alkenes normally are not.", "The large and industrially important area of catalysis hinges on the ability of metals to modify the reactivity of organic ligands.", "Homogeneous catalysis occurs in solution and heterogeneous catalysis occurs when gaseous or dissolved substrates interact with surfaces of solids.", "Traditionally homogeneous catalysis is considered part of organometallic chemistry and heterogeneous catalysis is discussed in the context of surface science, a subfield of solid state chemistry.", "But the basic inorganic chemical principles are the same.", "Transition metals, almost uniquely, react with small molecules such as CO, H2, O2, and C2H4.The industrial significance of these feedstocks drives the active area of catalysis.", "Ligands can also undergo ligand transfer reactions such as transmetalation." ], [ "Characterization of inorganic compounds", "Because of the diverse range of elements and the correspondingly diverse properties of the resulting derivatives, inorganic chemistry is closely associated with many methods of analysis.", "Older methods tended to examine bulk properties such as the electrical conductivity of solutions, melting points, solubility, and acidity.", "With the advent of quantum theory and the corresponding expansion of electronic apparatus, new tools have been introduced to probe the electronic properties of inorganic molecules and solids.", "Often these measurements provide insights relevant to theoretical models.", "Commonly encountered techniques are:* X-ray crystallography: This technique allows for the 3D determination of molecular structures.", "* Dual polarisation interferometer: This technique measures the conformation and conformational change of molecules.", "* Various forms of spectroscopy: Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy: Historically, this has been an important tool, since many inorganic compounds are strongly colored NMR spectroscopy: Besides 1H and 13C many other NMR-active nuclei (e.g., 11B, 19F, 31P, and 195Pt) can give important information on compound properties and structure.", "The NMR of paramagnetic species can provide important structural information.", "Proton (1H) NMR is also important because the light hydrogen nucleus is not easily detected by X-ray crystallography.", " Infrared spectroscopy: Mostly for absorptions from carbonyl ligands Electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) spectroscopy Mössbauer spectroscopy Electron-spin resonance: ESR (or EPR) allows for the measurement of the environment of paramagnetic metal centres.", "* Electrochemistry: Cyclic voltammetry and related techniques probe the redox characteristics of compounds." ], [ "Synthetic inorganic chemistry", "Although some inorganic species can be obtained in pure form from nature, most are synthesized in chemical plants and in the laboratory.Inorganic synthetic methods can be classified roughly according to the volatility or solubility of the component reactants.", "Soluble inorganic compounds are prepared using methods of organic synthesis.", "For metal-containing compounds that are reactive toward air, Schlenk line and glove box techniques are followed.", "Volatile compounds and gases are manipulated in \"vacuum manifolds\" consisting of glass piping interconnected through valves, the entirety of which can be evacuated to 0.001 mm Hg or less.", "Compounds are condensed using liquid nitrogen (b.p.", "78K) or other cryogens.", "Solids are typically prepared using tube furnaces, the reactants and products being sealed in containers, often made of fused silica (amorphous SiO2) but sometimes more specialized materials such as welded Ta tubes or Pt \"boats\".", "Products and reactants are transported between temperature zones to drive reactions." ], [ "See also", "* Important publications in inorganic chemistry" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Insert (filmmaking)" ], [ "Introduction", "This sequence from ''It's a Wonderful Life'' (1946) uses two insert shots—one of a sign and one of a record player—to add visual detail to the actions performed by Donna Reed.In film, an '''insert''' is a shot of part of a scene as filmed from a different angle and/or focal length from the master shot.", "Inserts cover action already covered in the master shot, but emphasize a different aspect of that action due to the different framing.", "An insert differs from a cutaway as cutaways cover action ''not'' covered in the master shot.There are more exact terms to use when the new, inserted shot is another view of actors: close-up, head shot, knee shot, two shot.", "So the term \"insert\" is often confined to views of objects—and body parts, other than the head.", "Often inserts of this sort are done separately from the main action, by a second-unit director using stand-ins.Inserts and cutaways can both be vexatious for directors, as care must be taken to preserve continuity by keeping the objects in the same relative position as in the main take, and having the lighting be the same." ], [ "In popular culture", "The 1975 movie ''Inserts'' directed by John Byrum about a pornographic film production, which starred Richard Dreyfuss and was originally released with an X rating, took its name from the double meaning that \"insert\" both refers to this film technique (often used in pornographic filmmaking) and to sexual intercourse." ], [ "See also", "Continuity editingCutaway (filmmaking)" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Ingmar Bergman" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ernst Ingmar Bergman''' (14 July 1918 – 30 July 2007) was a Swedish film and theatre director and screenwriter.", "Widely considered one of the greatest and most influential film directors of all time, his films have been described as \"profoundly personal meditations into the myriad struggles facing the psyche and the soul\".", "Some of his most acclaimed works include ''The Seventh Seal'' (1957), ''Wild Strawberries'' (1957), ''Persona'' (1966) and ''Fanny and Alexander'' (1982), which were included in the 2012 edition of ''Sight & Sound'' Greatest Films of All Time.", "He was also ranked No.", "8 on the magazine's 2002 \"Greatest Directors of All Time\" list.Bergman directed more than 60 films and documentaries, most of which he also wrote, for both cinema releases and television screenings.", "Most of his films were set in Sweden, and many of his films from 1961 onward were filmed on the island of Fårö.", "He forged a creative partnership with his cinematographers Gunnar Fischer and Sven Nykvist.", "Bergman also had a theatrical career that included periods as Leading Director of Sweden's Royal Dramatic Theatre in Stockholm and of Germany's Residenztheater in Munich.", "He directed more than 170 plays.", "Among his company of actors were Harriet Andersson, Bibi Andersson, Liv Ullmann, Gunnar Björnstrand, Erland Josephson, Ingrid Thulin, Gunnel Lindblom and Max von Sydow." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life===Ernst Ingmar Bergman was born in Uppsala on 14 July 1918, the son of nurse Karin (née Åkerblom) and Lutheran minister (and later chaplain to the King of Sweden) Erik Bergman.", "His mother was of Walloon descent.", "The Bergman family was originally from Järvsö.", "On his father's side, Bergman was a descendant of the noble Bröms, Ehrenskiöld, and Stockenström clergy families of Finnish, German, and Swedish origin.", "His father also descended from the German noble families and de Frese introduced at the Swedish Riddarhuset.", "Bergman's paternal grandmother and maternal grandfather were cousins, making his parents second cousins.", "On his mother's side, he was descended from Dutch merchant Paul Calwagen, who left Holland for Sweden in the 17th century; Paul's Dutch-Swedish wife, Maria van der Hagen, was a descendant of the court painter Laurens van der Plas.", "Bergman's mother was also a descendant of the noble Tigerschiöld and Weinholz families, as well as the family.Bergman as a young manBergman grew up with his older brother Dag and younger sister Margareta surrounded by religious imagery and discussion.", "His father was a conservative parish minister with strict ideas of parenting.", "Ingmar was locked up in dark closets for infractions such as wetting himself.", "\"While father preached away in the pulpit and the congregation prayed, sang, or listened\", Ingmar wrote in his autobiography ''Laterna Magica'', \"I devoted my interest to the church's mysterious world of low arches, thick walls, the smell of eternity, the coloured sunlight quivering above the strangest vegetation of medieval paintings and carved figures on ceilings and walls.", "There was everything that one's imagination could desire—angels, saints, dragons, prophets, devils, humans...\" Although raised in a devout Lutheran household, Bergman later stated that he lost his faith at age eight, and came to terms with this fact while making ''Winter Light'' in 1962.His interest in theatre and film began early; at the age of nine, he traded a set of tin soldiers for a magic lantern.", "Within a year, he had created a private world by playing with this toy in which he felt completely at home.", "He fashioned his own scenery, marionettes, and lighting effects and gave puppet productions of Strindberg plays in which he spoke all the parts.", "\"Bergman attended the Palmgren School as a teenager.", "His school years were unhappy, and he remembered them unfavourably in later years.", "In a 1944 letter concerning the film ''Torment'' (sometimes known as ''Frenzy''), which sparked debate on the condition of Swedish high schools (and which Bergman had written), the school's principal Henning Håkanson wrote, among other things, that Bergman had been a \"problem child\".", "Bergman wrote in a response that he had strongly disliked the emphasis on homework and testing in his formal schooling.In 1934, aged 16, he was sent to Germany to spend the summer holidays with family friends.", "He attended a Nazi rally in Weimar at which he saw Adolf Hitler.", "He later wrote in ''Laterna Magica'' (''The Magic Lantern'') about the visit to Germany, describing how the German family had put a portrait of Hitler on the wall by his bed, and that \"for many years, I was on Hitler's side, delighted by his success and saddened by his defeats\".", "Bergman commented that \"Hitler was unbelievably charismatic.", "He electrified the crowd.", "...", "The Nazism I had seen seemed fun and youthful.\"", "Bergman did two five-month stretches of mandatory military service in Sweden.", "He later reflected, \"When the doors to the concentration camps were thrown open ...", "I was suddenly ripped of my innocence.", "\"Bergman enrolled at Stockholm University College (later renamed Stockholm University) in 1937, to study art and literature.", "He spent most of his time involved in student theatre and became a \"genuine movie addict\".", "At the same time, a romantic involvement led to a physical confrontation with his father which resulted in a break in their relationship which lasted for many years.", "Although he did not graduate from the university, he wrote a number of plays and an opera, and became an assistant director at a local theatre.", "In 1942, he was given the opportunity to direct one of his own scripts, ''Caspar's Death''.", "The play was seen by members of Svensk Filmindustri, which then offered Bergman a position working on scripts.", "He married Else Fisher in 1943.===Film career until 1975===Bergman in 1957Bergman's film career began in 1941 with his work rewriting scripts, but his first major accomplishment was in 1944 when he wrote the screenplay for ''Torment'' (a.k.a.", "''Frenzy'') (''Hets''), a film directed by Alf Sjöberg.", "Along with writing the screenplay, he was also appointed assistant director of the film.", "In his second autobiographical book, ''Images: My Life in Film'', Bergman describes the filming of the exteriors as his actual film directorial debut.", "The film sparked debate on Swedish formal education.", "When Henning Håkanson (the principal of the high school Bergman had attended) wrote a letter following the film's release, Bergman, according to scholar Frank Gado, disparaged in a response what he viewed as Håkanson's implication that students \"who did not fit some arbitrary prescription of worthiness deserved the system's cruel neglect\".", "Bergman also stated in the letter that he \"hated school as a principle, as a system and as an institution.", "And as such I have definitely not wanted to criticize my own school, but all schools.\"", "The international success of this film led to Bergman's first opportunity to direct a year later.", "During the next ten years he wrote and directed more than a dozen films, including ''Prison'' (''Fängelse'') in 1949, as well as ''Sawdust and Tinsel'' (''Gycklarnas afton'') and ''Summer with Monika'' (''Sommaren med Monika''), both released in 1953.Bergman and Victor Sjöström on the set of ''Wild Strawberries'' (1957)Bergman first achieved worldwide success with ''Smiles of a Summer Night'' (''Sommarnattens leende'', 1955), which won for \"Best poetic humour\" and was nominated for the Palme d'Or at Cannes the following year.", "This was followed by ''The Seventh Seal'' (''Det sjunde inseglet'') and ''Wild Strawberries'' (''Smultronstället''), released in Sweden ten months apart in 1957.", "''The Seventh Seal'' won a special jury prize and was nominated for the Palme d'Or at Cannes, and ''Wild Strawberries'' won numerous awards for Bergman and its star, Victor Sjöström.", "Bergman continued to be productive for the next two decades.", "From the early 1960s, he spent much of his life on the island of Fårö, where he made several films.In the early 1960s he directed three films that explored the theme of faith and doubt in God, ''Through a Glass Darkly'' (''Såsom i en Spegel'', 1961), ''Winter Light'' (''Nattvardsgästerna'', 1962), and ''The Silence'' (''Tystnaden'', 1963).", "Critics created the notion that the common themes in these three films made them a trilogy or cinematic triptych.", "Bergman initially responded that he did not plan these three films as a trilogy and that he could not see any common motifs in them, but he later seemed to adopt the notion, with some equivocation.", "His parody of the films of Federico Fellini, ''All These Women'' (''För att inte tala om alla dessa kvinnor'') was released in 1964.", "''Persona'' (1966), starring Bibi Andersson and Liv Ullmann, is a film Bergman considered one of his most important works.", "While the highly experimental film won few awards, it has been considered his masterpiece.", "Other films of the period include ''The Virgin Spring'' (''Jungfrukällan'', 1960), ''Hour of the Wolf'' (''Vargtimmen'', 1968), ''Shame'' (''Skammen'', 1968) and ''The Passion of Anna'' (''En Passion'', 1969).", "With his cinematographer Sven Nykvist, Bergman made use of a crimson color scheme for ''Cries and Whispers'' (1972), which received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Picture.", "He also produced extensively for Swedish television at this time.", "Two works of note were ''Scenes from a Marriage'' (''Scener ur ett äktenskap'', 1973) and ''The Magic Flute'' (''Trollflöjten'', 1975).Bergman with his long-time cinematographer Sven Nykvist during the production of ''Through a Glass Darkly'' (1960)===Tax evasion charges in 1976===On 30 January 1976, while rehearsing August Strindberg's ''The Dance of Death'' at the Royal Dramatic Theatre in Stockholm, he was arrested by two plainclothes police officers and charged with income tax evasion.", "The impact of the event on Bergman was devastating.", "He suffered a nervous breakdown as a result of the humiliation, and was hospitalised in a state of deep depression.The investigation was focused on an alleged 1970 transaction of 500,000 Swedish kronor (SEK) between Bergman's Swedish company ''Cinematograf'' and its Swiss subsidiary ''Persona'', an entity that was mainly used for the paying of salaries to foreign actors.", "Bergman dissolved ''Persona'' in 1974 after having been notified by the Swedish Central Bank and subsequently reported the income.", "On 23 March 1976, the special prosecutor Anders Nordenadler dropped the charges against Bergman, saying that the alleged crime had no legal basis, saying it would be like bringing \"charges against a person who has stolen his own car, thinking it was someone else's\".", "Director General Gösta S Ekman, chief of the Swedish Internal Revenue Service, defended the failed investigation, saying that the investigation was dealing with important legal material and that Bergman was treated just like any other suspect.", "He expressed regret that Bergman had left the country, hoping that Bergman was a \"stronger\" person now when the investigation had shown that he had not done any wrong.Although the charges were dropped, Bergman became disconsolate, fearing he would never again return to directing.", "Despite pleas by the Swedish prime minister Olof Palme, high public figures, and leaders of the film industry, he vowed never to work in Sweden again.", "He closed down his studio on the island of Fårö, suspended two announced film projects, and went into self-imposed exile in Munich, West Germany.", "Harry Schein, director of the Swedish Film Institute, estimated the immediate damage as ten million SEK (kronor) and hundreds of jobs lost.===Aftermath following arrest===Bergman then briefly considered the possibility of working in America; his next film, ''The Serpent's Egg'' (1977) was a West German-U.S. production and his second English-language film (the first being ''The Touch'', 1971).", "This was followed by a British-Norwegian co-production, ''Autumn Sonata'' (''Höstsonaten'', 1978) starring Ingrid Bergman (no relation) and Liv Ullmann, and ''From the Life of the Marionettes'' (''Aus dem Leben der Marionetten'', 1980) which was a British-West German co-production.He temporarily returned to his homeland to direct ''Fanny and Alexander'' (''Fanny och Alexander'', 1982).", "Bergman stated that the film would be his last, and that afterwards he would focus on directing theatre.", "After that he wrote several film scripts and directed a number of television specials.", "As with previous work for television, some of these productions were later theatrically released.", "The last such work was ''Saraband'' (2003), a sequel to ''Scenes from a Marriage'' and directed by Bergman when he was 84 years old.Although he continued to operate from Munich, by mid-1978 Bergman had overcome some of his bitterness toward the Swedish government.", "In July of that year he visited Sweden, celebrating his sixtieth birthday on the island of Fårö, and partly resumed his work as a director at Royal Dramatic Theatre.", "To honour his return, the Swedish Film Institute launched a new Ingmar Bergman Prize to be awarded annually for excellence in filmmaking.", "Still, he remained in Munich until 1984.In one of the last major interviews with Bergman, conducted in 2005 on the island of Fårö, Bergman said that despite being active during the exile, he had effectively lost eight years of his professional life.===Retirement and death===Bergman retired from filmmaking in December 2003.He had hip surgery in October 2006 and was making a difficult recovery.", "He died in his sleep at age 89; his body was found at his home on the island of Fårö, on 30 July 2007.It was the same day another renowned existentialist film director, Michelangelo Antonioni, died.", "The interment was private, at the Fårö Church on 18 August 2007.A place in the Fårö churchyard was prepared for him under heavy secrecy.", "Although he was buried on the island of Fårö, his name and date of birth were inscribed under his wife's name on a tomb at Roslagsbro churchyard, Norrtälje Municipality, several years before his death." ], [ "Filmography" ], [ "Bibliography", "* ''Four Screenplays: Smiles of a Summer Night, The Seventh Seal, Wild Strawberries, and The Magician'' (1969) screenplays* ''Three Films: Through a Glass Darkly, Winter Light, and The Silence'' (1970) screenplays* ''Persona and Shame: the Screenplays of Ingmar Bergman'' (1972) screenplays* ''Four Stories: The Touch, Cries and Whispers, The Hour of the Wolf, and The Passion of Anna'' (1976) screenplays* ''From the Life of the Marionettes'' (1980) screenplay* ''Fanny and Alexander'' (1982) screenplay* ''The Marriage Scenarios: Scenes from a Marriage, Face to Face, and Autumn Sonata'' (1983) screenplays* ''The Magic Lantern: An Autobiography'' (1987) nonfiction* ''The Best Intentions'' (1991) novel* ''Sunday's Children'' (1993) novel* ''Private Confessions'' (1996) novel* ''Images: My Life in Film'' (2017) nonfiction" ], [ "Style of working", "===Repertory company===Bergman and actress Ingrid Thulin during the production of ''The Silence'', 1963Bergman developed a personal \"repertory company\" of Swedish actors whom he repeatedly cast in his films, including Max von Sydow, Bibi Andersson, Harriet Andersson, Erland Josephson, Ingrid Thulin, Gunnel Lindblom, and Gunnar Björnstrand, each of whom appeared in at least five Bergman features.", "Norwegian actress Liv Ullmann, who appeared in nine of Bergman's films and one televisual film (''Saraband''), was the last to join this group (in the film ''Persona''), and ultimately became the most closely associated with Bergman, both artistically and personally.", "They had a daughter together, Linn Ullmann (born 1966).In Bergman's working arrangement with Sven Nykvist, his best-known cinematographer, the two men developed sufficient rapport to allow Bergman not to worry about the composition of a shot until the day before it was filmed.", "On the morning of the shoot, he would briefly speak to Nykvist about the mood and composition he hoped for, and then leave Nykvist to work, lacking interruption or comment until post-production discussion of the next day's work.===Financing===A great number of Bergman's interior scenes were filmed at the ''Filmstaden'' studios north of Stockholm.By Bergman's own account, he never had a problem with funding.", "He cited two reasons for this: one, that he did not live in the United States, which he viewed as obsessed with box-office earnings; and two, that his films tended to be low-budget affairs.", "(''Cries and Whispers'', for instance, was finished for about $450,000, while ''Scenes from a Marriage'', a six-episode television feature, cost only $200,000.", ")===Technique===Bergman usually wrote his films' screenplays, thinking about them for months or years before starting the actual process of writing, which he viewed as somewhat tedious.", "His earlier films are carefully constructed and are either based on his plays or written in collaboration with other authors.", "Bergman stated that in his later works, when on occasion his actors would want to do things differently from his own intention, he would let them, noting that the results were often \"disastrous\" when he did not do so.", "As his career progressed, Bergman increasingly let his actors improvise their dialogue.", "In his later films, he wrote just the ideas informing the scene and allowed his actors to determine the exact dialogue.", "When viewing daily rushes, Bergman stressed the importance of being critical but unemotive, claiming that he asked himself not if the work was great or terrible, but rather if it was sufficient or needed to be reshot.===Subjects===Bergman's films usually deal with existential questions of mortality, loneliness, and religious faith.", "In addition to these cerebral topics, however, sexual desire features in the foreground of most of his films, whether the central event is medieval plague (''The Seventh Seal''), upper-class family activity in early twentieth century Uppsala (''Fanny and Alexander''), or contemporary alienation (''The Silence'').", "His female characters are usually more in touch with their sexuality than their male equivalents, and unafraid to proclaim it, sometimes with breathtaking overtness (as in ''Cries and Whispers'') as would define the work of \"the conjurer,\" as Bergman called himself in a 1960 ''TIME'' cover story.", "In an interview with ''Playboy'' in 1964, he said: \"The manifestation of sex is very important, and particularly to me, for above all, I don't want to make merely intellectual films.", "I want audiences to feel, to sense my films.", "This to me is much more important than their understanding them.\"", "Film, Bergman said, was his demanding mistress.", "While he was a social democrat as an adult, Bergman stated that \"as an artist I'm not politically involved ...", "I don't make propaganda for either one attitude or the other.", "\"===Bergman's views on his career===When asked in the series of interviews later titled \"Ingmar Bergman – 3 dokumentärer om film, teater, Fårö och livet\" conducted by Marie Nyreröd for Swedish TV and released in 2004, Bergman said that of his works, he held ''Winter Light'', ''Persona'', and ''Cries and Whispers'' in the highest regard.", "There he also states that he managed to push the envelope of film making in the films ''Persona'' and ''Cries and Whispers''.", "Bergman stated on numerous occasions (for example in the interview book ''Bergman on Bergman'') that ''The Silence'' meant the end of the era in which religious questions were a major concern of his films.", "Bergman said that he would get depressed by his own films: \"jittery and ready to cry... and miserable.\"", "In the same interview he also stated: \"If there is one thing I miss about working with films, it is working with Sven\" (Nykvist), the third cinematographer with whom he had collaborated.===Theatrical work===Although Bergman was universally famous for his contribution to cinema, he was also an active and productive stage director throughout his life.", "During his studies at what was then Stockholm University College, he became active in its student theatre, where he made a name for himself early on.", "His first work after graduation was as a trainee-director at a Stockholm theatre.", "At twenty-six years, he became the youngest theatrical manager in Europe at the Helsingborg City Theatre.", "He stayed at Helsingborg for three years and then became the director at Gothenburg city theatre from 1946 to 1949.He became director of the Malmö City Theatre in 1953, and remained for seven years.", "Many of his star actors were people with whom he began working on stage.", "He was the director of the Royal Dramatic Theatre in Stockholm from 1960 to 1966, and manager from 1963 to 1966, where he began a long-time collaboration with choreographer Donya Feuer.After Bergman left Sweden because of the tax evasion incident, he became director of the ''Residenz Theatre'' of Munich, West Germany (1977–1984).", "He remained active in theatre throughout the 1990s and made his final production on stage with Henrik Ibsen's ''Ghosts'' at the Brooklyn Academy of Music in 2003." ], [ "Personal life", "===Marriages and children===IngridBergman was married five times:25 March 1943 – 1945, to Else Fisher (1 March 1918 – 3 March 2006), choreographer and dancer (divorced).", "Children:Lena Bergman, actress, born 1943.", "22 July 1945 – 1950, to Ellen Lundström (23 April 1919 – 6 March 2007), choreographer and film director (divorced).", "Children:Eva Bergman, film director, born 1945Jan Bergman, film director (1946–2000)*the twins Mats and Anna Bergman, both actors and film directors, born in 1948.", "1951 – 1959, to Gun Grut (1916–1971), journalist (divorced).", "Children:*Ingmar Bergman Jr., retired airline captain, born 1951.", "1959 – 1969, to Käbi Laretei (14 July 1922 – 31 October 2014), concert pianist (divorced).", "Children:*Daniel Bergman, film director, born 1962.", "11 November 1971 – 20 May 1995, to Ingrid von Rosen (maiden name Karlebo).", "Children:*Maria von Rosen, author, born 1959.The first four marriages ended in divorce, while the last ended when his wife Ingrid died of stomach cancer in 1995, aged 65.Aside from his marriages, Bergman had romantic relationships with actresses Harriet Andersson (1952–1955), Bibi Andersson (1955–1959), and Liv Ullmann (1965–1970).", "He was the father of writer Linn Ullmann with Ullmann.", "In all, Bergman had nine children, one of whom predeceased him.", "Bergman eventually married all the mothers of his children, with the exception of Liv Ullmann.", "His daughter with his last wife, Ingrid von Rosen, was born twelve years before their marriage.", "He had dozens of mistresses throughout his life and would justify the affairs to his various wives by telling them: \"I have so many lives.", "\"Although Bergman once described himself as one who had lost his faith in an afterlife, in 2000 he stated that a conversation he had with Erland Josephson helped him to believe that he would see Ingrid again.", "He said, \"I'm not actually afraid of dying.", "On the contrary, really.", "I think it'll be interesting.\"", "In 2012, Max von Sydow stated in an interview that he had had many discussions with Bergman about religion which seemed to indicate that Bergman believed in an afterlife.", "In an early draft of his autobiography, Bergman admitted to raping his then-girlfriend Karin Lannby.", "The portion was edited out for the final version.===Health===Bergman suffered from physical ailments such as insomnia and severe stomach problems dating back to childhood.", "He called his nervous stomach \"a calamity as foolish as it is humiliating\" and joked that the private lavatories he secured at the theatres in which he worked represented his \"most lasting contribution to the history of theatre.\"" ], [ "Awards and nominations", "In 1958, he won the Best Director award for ''Brink of Life'' at the Cannes Film Festival, and won the Golden Bear for ''Wild Strawberries'' at the Berlin International Film Festival.", "In 1960 Bergman was featured in the cover of TIME, the first foreign-language filmmaker to do so since Leni Riefenstahl in 1936.In 1971, Bergman received the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award at the Academy Awards ceremony.", "Three of his films (''The Virgin Spring'', ''Through a Glass Darkly'', and ''Fanny and Alexander'') won the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.", "In 1997, he was awarded the Palme des Palmes (Palm of the Palms) at the 50th anniversary of the Cannes Film Festival.", "He won many other awards and has been nominated for numerous other awards.", "'''Academy Awards'''YearCategoryNominated workResult 1959 Best Original Screenplay ''Wild Strawberries'' 1960 Best Foreign Language Film ''The Virgin Spring'' 1961 ''Through a Glass Darkly'' 1962 Best Original Screenplay 1973 Best Picture ''Cries and Whispers'' Best Director Best Original Screenplay 1976 Best Director ''Face to Face'' 1978 Best Original Screenplay ''Autumn Sonata'' 1983 Best Foreign Language Film ''Fanny and Alexander'' Best Director Best Original Screenplay" ], [ "Legacy", "A bust of Bergman in Celebrity Alley in Kielce, PolandIn 1996, ''Entertainment Weekly'' ranked Bergman at No.", "8 in its \"50 Greatest Directors\" list.In 2002, Bergman was listed at number nine on the British Film Institute's ''Sight & Sound'' list of the top ten film directors of modern times.", "MovieMaker magazine ranked Bergman at No.", "13 on their 2002 list of ''The 25 Most Influential Directors of All Time''.", "Bergman was ranked at No.", "36 on Empire magazine's \"Top 40 Greatest Directors of All-Time\" list in 2005.In 2007, ''Total Film'' magazine ranked Bergman at No.", "7 on its \"100 Greatest Film Directors Ever\" list.In 2017, ''New York'' magazine ranked Bergman at number 55 on their list of ''The 100 Best Screenwriters of All Time''.", "Stanley Kubrick admired the work of Bergman and expressed it in personal letter: \"Your vision of life has moved me deeply, much more deeply than I have ever been moved by any films.", "I believe you are the greatest film-maker at work today ..., unsurpassed by anyone in the creation of mood and atmosphere, the subtlety of performance, the avoidance of the obvious, the truthfulness and completeness of characterization.", "To this one must also add everything else that goes into the making of a film; ... and I shall look forward with eagerness to each of your films.\"", "Film critic Philip French referred to Bergman as \"one of the greatest artists of the 20th century ... he found in literature and the performing arts a way of both recreating and questioning the human condition.\"", "Director Martin Scorsese commented that \"it's impossible to overestimate the effect that his films had on people.\"", "Terrence Rafferty of ''The New York Times'' wrote that throughout the 1960s, when Bergman \"was considered pretty much the last word in cinematic profundity, his every tic was scrupulously pored over, analyzed, elaborated in ingenious arguments about identity, the nature of film, the fate of the artist in the modern world and so on.", "\"Bergman's work was a point of reference and inspiration for director Woody Allen.", "He described Bergman as “probably the greatest film artist, all things considered, since the invention of the motion picture camera”.", "Bergman's films are mentioned and praised in ''Annie Hall'' and other Allen films.", "Allen also admired Bergman's longtime director of photography Sven Nykvist and invited him to return as his DP on ''Crimes and Misdemeanors''.", "Danish Director Thomas Vinterberg has cited Bergman as one of his major influences, \"Bergman is always in my head.", "He is part of my upbringing and I was fortunate to meet him and get advice from him.\"", "Writer and director Richard Ayoade counts Bergman as one of his inspirations.", "In 2017, the British Film Institute (BFI) hosted an Ingmar Bergman season and Ayoade said in a ''Guardian'' interview that he saw everything in it, \"which was one of the best two months ever.\"", "The BFI's programme included a discussion with Ayoade on Bergman's 1966 film, ''Persona'', before a screening.After Bergman died, a large archive of notes was donated to the Swedish Film Institute.", "Among the notes are several unpublished and unfinished scripts both for stage and films, and many more ideas for works in different stages of development.", "A never-performed play has the title ''Kärlek utan älskare'' (\"Love without lovers\"), and has the note \"Complete disaster!\"", "written on the envelope; the play is about a director who disappears and an editor who tries to complete a work he has left unfinished.", "Other canceled projects include the script for a pornographic film which Bergman abandoned since he did not think it was alive enough, a play about a cannibal, some loose scenes set inside a womb, a film about the life of Jesus, a film about ''The Merry Widow'', and a play with the title ''Från sperm till spöke'' (\"From sperm to spook\").", "The Swedish director Marcus Lindeen went through the material, and inspired by ''Kärlek utan älskare'' he took samples from many of the works and turned them into a play, titled ''Arkivet för orealiserbara drömmar och visioner'' (\"The archive for unrealisable dreams and visions\").", "Lindeen's play premiered on 28 May 2012 at the Stockholm City Theatre.In 2018, in honor of Bergman's 100th birthday, The Criterion Collection compiled and released a Blu-ray disc box set comprising 39 of Bergman's features.", "The set spans Bergman's early career, beginning in the 1940s, up to his final film in 2003.The films are organized non-chronologically, and are instead presented in four groupings that mimic the procession of a film festival.", "Accompanying the discs is a book featuring critical essays on each of the films, intended to guide the viewer through the experience.", "Upon its release, ''The New York Times'' critic Glenn Kenny assessed the set as \"impressive and almost exhaustive\", and interpreted it as \"a fresh case for Bergman's continuing importance\", in response to criticisms such as Jonathan Rosenbaum's 2007 opinion piece \"Scenes From an Overrated Career\".The Ingmar Bergman International Debut Award is awarded annually at the Gothenburg Film Festival, in partnership with the Ingmar Bergman Foundation, the Bergman Estate and the Bergman Center on Fårö.", "The prize includes a visit to the Bergman Estate as well as to Bergmans personal archive in Stockholm." ], [ "See also", "Cinema of SwedenList of film director and actor collaborations" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "''Bergman on Bergman: Interviews with Ingmar Bergman.''", "By Stig Björkman, Torsten Manns, and Jonas Sima; translated by Paul Britten Austin.", "Simon & Schuster, New York.", "Swedish edition copyright 1970; English translation 1973.", "''Filmmakers on filmmaking: the American Film Institute seminars on motion pictures and television'' (edited by Joseph McBride).", "Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1983.", "'' Images: my life in film'', Ingmar Bergman.", "Translated by Marianne Ruuth.", "New York, Arcade Pub., 1994, *'' The Magic Lantern'', Ingmar Bergman.", "Translated by Joan Tate New York, Viking Press, 1988, '' The Demons of Modernity: Ingmar Bergman and European Cinema'', John Orr, Berghahn Books, 2014.", "" ], [ "External links", " Ingmar Bergman Foundation Ingmar Bergman, film on ''The Guardian''* Ingmar Bergman on the British Film Institute* The Ingmar Bergman Foundation* Ingmar Bergman all posters * ''The Guardian''/NFT interview with Liv Ullmann by Shane Danielson, 23 January 2001* Bergman Week* Regilexikon* DVD Beaver's Director's Chair on Bergman, with links to DVD and Blu-ray comparisons of his major films;Bibliographies* Ingmar Bergman Bibliography (via UC Berkeley)* Ingmar Bergman Site* Collection of interviews with Bergman" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Isaac Newton" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir Isaac Newton''' (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1726/27) was an English polymath active as a mathematician, physicist, astronomer, alchemist, theologian, and author who was described in his time as a natural philosopher.", "He was a key figure in the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment that followed.", "His pioneering book (''Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy''), first published in 1687, consolidated many previous results and established classical mechanics.", "Newton also made seminal contributions to optics, and shares credit with German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for developing infinitesimal calculus, though he developed calculus years before Leibniz.", "He is considered one of the greatest and most influential scientists in history.In the , Newton formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation that formed the dominant scientific viewpoint for centuries until it was superseded by the theory of relativity.", "Newton used his mathematical description of gravity to derive Kepler's laws of planetary motion, account for tides, the trajectories of comets, the precession of the equinoxes and other phenomena, eradicating doubt about the Solar System's heliocentricity.", "He demonstrated that the motion of objects on Earth and celestial bodies could be accounted for by the same principles.", "Newton's inference that the Earth is an oblate spheroid was later confirmed by the geodetic measurements of Maupertuis, La Condamine, and others, convincing most European scientists of the superiority of Newtonian mechanics over earlier systems.Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a sophisticated theory of colour based on the observation that a prism separates white light into the colours of the visible spectrum.", "His work on light was collected in his highly influential book ''Opticks'', published in 1704.He also formulated an empirical law of cooling, made the first theoretical calculation of the speed of sound, and introduced the notion of a Newtonian fluid.", "In addition to his work on calculus, as a mathematician Newton contributed to the study of power series, generalised the binomial theorem to non-integer exponents, developed a method for approximating the roots of a function, and classified most of the cubic plane curves.Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge.", "He was a devout but unorthodox Christian who privately rejected the doctrine of the Trinity.", "He refused to take holy orders in the Church of England, unlike most members of the Cambridge faculty of the day.", "Beyond his work on the mathematical sciences, Newton dedicated much of his time to the study of alchemy and biblical chronology, but most of his work in those areas remained unpublished until long after his death.", "Politically and personally tied to the Whig party, Newton served two brief terms as Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge, in 1689–1690 and 1701–1702.He was knighted by Queen Anne in 1705 and spent the last three decades of his life in London, serving as Warden (1696–1699) and Master (1699–1727) of the Royal Mint, as well as president of the Royal Society (1703–1727)." ], [ "Early life", "Isaac Newton was born (according to the Julian calendar in use in England at the time) on Christmas Day, 25 December 1642 (NS 4 January 1643) at Woolsthorpe Manor in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, a hamlet in the county of Lincolnshire.", "His father, also named Isaac Newton, had died three months before.", "Born prematurely, Newton was a small child; his mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that he could have fit inside a quart mug.", "When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, the Reverend Barnabas Smith, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Margery Ayscough (née Blythe).", "Newton disliked his stepfather and maintained some enmity towards his mother for marrying him, as revealed by this entry in a list of sins committed up to the age of 19: \"Threatening my father and mother Smith to burn them and the house over them.\"", "Newton's mother had three children (Mary, Benjamin, and Hannah) from her second marriage.=== The King's School ===From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The King's School in Grantham, which taught Latin and Ancient Greek and probably imparted a significant foundation of mathematics.", "He was removed from school and returned to Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth by October 1659.His mother, widowed for the second time, attempted to make him a farmer, an occupation he hated.", "Henry Stokes, master at The King's School, persuaded his mother to send him back to school.", "Motivated partly by a desire for revenge against a schoolyard bully, he became the top-ranked student, distinguishing himself mainly by building sundials and models of windmills.=== University of Cambridge ===In June 1661, Newton was admitted to Trinity College at the University of Cambridge.", "His uncle Reverend William Ayscough, who had studied at Cambridge, recommended him to the university.", "At Cambridge, Newton started as a subsizar, paying his way by performing valet duties until he was awarded a scholarship in 1664, which covered his university costs for four more years until the completion of his MA.", "At the time, Cambridge's teachings were based on those of Aristotle, whom Newton read along with then more modern philosophers, including Descartes and astronomers such as Galileo Galilei and Thomas Street.", "He set down in his notebook a series of \"''Quaestiones''\" about mechanical philosophy as he found it.", "In 1665, he discovered the generalised binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that later became calculus.", "Soon after Newton obtained his BA degree at Cambridge in August 1665, the university temporarily closed as a precaution against the Great Plague.Although he had been undistinguished as a Cambridge student, Newton's private studies at his home in Woolsthorpe over the next two years saw the development of his theories on calculus, optics, and the law of gravitation.In April 1667, Newton returned to the University of Cambridge, and in October he was elected as a fellow of Trinity.", "Fellows were required to take holy orders and be ordained as Anglican priests, although this was not enforced in the Restoration years, and an assertion of conformity to the Church of England was sufficient.", "He made the commitment that \"I will either set Theology as the object of my studies and will take holy orders when the time prescribed by these statutes 7 years arrives, or I will resign from the college.\"", "Up until this point he had not thought much about religion and had twice signed his agreement to the Thirty-nine Articles, the basis of Church of England doctrine.", "By 1675 the issue could not be avoided, and by then his unconventional views stood in the way.His academic work impressed the Lucasian professor Isaac Barrow, who was anxious to develop his own religious and administrative potential (he became master of Trinity College two years later); in 1669, Newton succeeded him, only one year after receiving his MA.", "The terms of the Lucasian professorship required that the holder be active in the church – presumably to leave more time for science.", "Newton argued that this should exempt him from the ordination requirement, and King Charles II, whose permission was needed, accepted this argument; thus, a conflict between Newton's religious views and Anglican orthodoxy was averted.Newton was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1672." ], [ "Mid-life", "=== Calculus ===Newton's work has been said \"to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied\".", "His work on the subject, usually referred to as fluxions or calculus, seen in a manuscript of October 1666, is now published among Newton's mathematical papers.", "His work ''De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas'', sent by Isaac Barrow to John Collins in June 1669, was identified by Barrow in a letter sent to Collins that August as the work \"of an extraordinary genius and proficiency in these things\".", "Newton later became involved in a dispute with Leibniz over priority in the development of calculus (the Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy).", "Most modern historians believe that Newton and Leibniz developed calculus independently, although with very different mathematical notations.", "However, it is established that Newton came to develop calculus much earlier than Leibniz.", "Leibniz's notation and \"differential Method\", nowadays recognised as much more convenient notations, were adopted by continental European mathematicians, and after 1820 or so, also by British mathematicians.His work extensively uses calculus in geometric form based on limiting values of the ratios of vanishingly small quantities: in the ''Principia'' itself, Newton gave demonstration of this under the name of \"the method of first and last ratios\" and explained why he put his expositions in this form, remarking also that \"hereby the same thing is performed as by the method of indivisibles.\"", "Because of this, the ''Principia'' has been called \"a book dense with the theory and application of the infinitesimal calculus\" in modern times and in Newton's time \"nearly all of it is of this calculus.\"", "His use of methods involving \"one or more orders of the infinitesimally small\" is present in his ''De motu corporum in gyrum'' of 1684 and in his papers on motion \"during the two decades preceding 1684\".Newton in 1702 by Godfrey KnellerNewton had been reluctant to publish his calculus because he feared controversy and criticism.", "He was close to the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier.", "In 1691, Duillier started to write a new version of Newton's ''Principia'', and corresponded with Leibniz.", "In 1693, the relationship between Duillier and Newton deteriorated and the book was never completed.", "Starting in 1699, other members of the Royal Society accused Leibniz of plagiarism.", "The dispute then broke out in full force in 1711 when the Royal Society proclaimed in a study that it was Newton who was the true discoverer and labelled Leibniz a fraud; it was later found that Newton wrote the study's concluding remarks on Leibniz.", "Thus began the bitter controversy which marred the lives of both Newton and Leibniz until the latter's death in 1716.Newton is generally credited with the generalised binomial theorem, valid for any exponent.", "He discovered Newton's identities, Newton's method, classified cubic plane curves (polynomials of degree three in two variables), made substantial contributions to the theory of finite differences, and was the first to use fractional indices and to employ coordinate geometry to derive solutions to Diophantine equations.", "He approximated partial sums of the harmonic series by logarithms (a precursor to Euler's summation formula) and was the first to use power series with confidence and to revert power series.", "Newton's work on infinite series was inspired by Simon Stevin's decimals.=== Optics ===A replica of the reflecting telescope Newton presented to the Royal Society in 1672 (the first one he made in 1668 was loaned to an instrument maker but there is no further record of what happened to it).In 1666, Newton observed that the spectrum of colours exiting a prism in the position of minimum deviation is oblong, even when the light ray entering the prism is circular, which is to say, the prism refracts different colours by different angles.", "This led him to conclude that colour is a property intrinsic to light – a point which had, until then, been a matter of debate.From 1670 to 1672, Newton lectured on optics.", "During this period he investigated the refraction of light, demonstrating that the multicoloured image produced by a prism, which he named a spectrum, could be recomposed into white light by a lens and a second prism.", "Modern scholarship has revealed that Newton's analysis and resynthesis of white light owes a debt to corpuscular alchemy.He showed that coloured light does not change its properties by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects, and that regardless of whether reflected, scattered, or transmitted, the light remains the same colour.", "Thus, he observed that colour is the result of objects interacting with already-coloured light rather than objects generating the colour themselves.", "This is known as Newton's theory of colour.Illustration of a dispersive prism separating white light into the colours of the spectrum, as discovered by NewtonFrom this work, he concluded that the lens of any refracting telescope would suffer from the dispersion of light into colours (chromatic aberration).", "As a proof of the concept, he constructed a telescope using reflective mirrors instead of lenses as the objective to bypass that problem.", "Building the design, the first known functional reflecting telescope, today known as a Newtonian telescope, involved solving the problem of a suitable mirror material and shaping technique.", "Newton ground his own mirrors out of a custom composition of highly reflective speculum metal, using Newton's rings to judge the quality of the optics for his telescopes.", "In late 1668, he was able to produce this first reflecting telescope.", "It was about eight inches long and it gave a clearer and larger image.", "In 1671, the Royal Society asked for a demonstration of his reflecting telescope.", "Their interest encouraged him to publish his notes, ''Of Colours'', which he later expanded into the work ''Opticks''.", "When Robert Hooke criticised some of Newton's ideas, Newton was so offended that he withdrew from public debate.", "Newton and Hooke had brief exchanges in 1679–80, when Hooke, appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence, opened up a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions, which had the effect of stimulating Newton to work out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector.", "But the two men remained generally on poor terms until Hooke's death.William Briggs, commenting on Briggs' ''A New Theory of Vision''Newton argued that light is composed of particles or corpuscles, which were refracted by accelerating into a denser medium.", "He verged on soundlike waves to explain the repeated pattern of reflection and transmission by thin films (''Opticks'' Bk.", "II, Props.", "12), but still retained his theory of 'fits' that disposed corpuscles to be reflected or transmitted (Props.13).", "However, later physicists favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for the interference patterns and the general phenomenon of diffraction.", "Today's quantum mechanics, photons, and the idea of wave–particle duality bear only a minor resemblance to Newton's understanding of light.In his ''Hypothesis of Light'' of 1675, Newton posited the existence of the ether to transmit forces between particles.", "The contact with the Cambridge Platonist philosopher Henry More revived his interest in alchemy.", "He replaced the ether with occult forces based on Hermetic ideas of attraction and repulsion between particles.", "John Maynard Keynes, who acquired many of Newton's writings on alchemy, stated that \"Newton was not the first of the age of reason: He was the last of the magicians.\"", "Newton's contributions to science cannot be isolated from his interest in alchemy.", "This was at a time when there was no clear distinction between alchemy and science, and had he not relied on the occult idea of action at a distance, across a vacuum, he might not have developed his theory of gravity.In 1704, Newton published ''Opticks'', in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light.", "He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles, that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation \"Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another, ... and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition?\"", "Newton also constructed a primitive form of a frictional electrostatic generator, using a glass globe.In his book ''Opticks'', Newton was the first to show a diagram using a prism as a beam expander, and also the use of multiple-prism arrays.", "Some 278 years after Newton's discussion, multiple-prism beam expanders became central to the development of narrow-linewidth tunable lasers.", "Also, the use of these prismatic beam expanders led to the multiple-prism dispersion theory.Subsequent to Newton, much has been amended.", "Young and Fresnel discarded Newton's particle theory in favour of Huygens' wave theory to show that colour is the visible manifestation of light's wavelength.", "Science also slowly came to realise the difference between perception of colour and mathematisable optics.", "The German poet and scientist, Goethe, could not shake the Newtonian foundation but \"one hole Goethe did find in Newton's armour, ... Newton had committed himself to the doctrine that refraction without colour was impossible.", "He, therefore, thought that the object-glasses of telescopes must forever remain imperfect, achromatism and refraction being incompatible.", "This inference was proved by Dollond to be wrong.", "\"Engraving of ''Portrait of Newton'' by John Vanderbank=== Gravity ===Principia'' with Newton's hand-written corrections for the second edition, now housed in the Wren Library at Trinity College, CambridgeNewton had been developing his theory of gravitation as far back as 1665.In 1679, Newton returned to his work on celestial mechanics by considering gravitation and its effect on the orbits of planets with reference to Kepler's laws of planetary motion.", "This followed stimulation by a brief exchange of letters in 1679–80 with Hooke, who had been appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence, and who opened a correspondence intended to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions.", "Newton's reawakening interest in astronomical matters received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter of 1680–1681, on which he corresponded with John Flamsteed.", "After the exchanges with Hooke, Newton worked out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector.", "Newton communicated his results to Edmond Halley and to the Royal Society in ''De motu corporum in gyrum'', a tract written on about nine sheets which was copied into the Royal Society's Register Book in December 1684.This tract contained the nucleus that Newton developed and expanded to form the ''Principia''.The ''Principia'' was published on 5 July 1687 with encouragement and financial help from Halley.", "In this work, Newton stated the three universal laws of motion.", "Together, these laws describe the relationship between any object, the forces acting upon it and the resulting motion, laying the foundation for classical mechanics.", "They contributed to many advances during the Industrial Revolution which soon followed and were not improved upon for more than 200 years.", "Many of these advances continue to be the underpinnings of non-relativistic technologies in the modern world.", "He used the Latin word ''gravitas'' (weight) for the effect that would become known as gravity, and defined the law of universal gravitation.In the same work, Newton presented a calculus-like method of geometrical analysis using 'first and last ratios', gave the first analytical determination (based on Boyle's law) of the speed of sound in air, inferred the oblateness of Earth's spheroidal figure, accounted for the precession of the equinoxes as a result of the Moon's gravitational attraction on the Earth's oblateness, initiated the gravitational study of the irregularities in the motion of the Moon, provided a theory for the determination of the orbits of comets, and much more.", "Newton's biographer David Brewster reported that the complexity of applying his theory of gravity to the motion of the moon was so great it affected Newton's health: \"He was deprived of his appetite and sleep\" during his work on the problem in 1692–93, and told the astronomer John Machin that \"his head never ached but when he was studying the subject\".", "According to Brewster, Edmund Halley also told John Conduitt that when pressed to complete his analysis Newton \"always replied that it made his head ache, and ''kept him awake so often, that he would think of it no more''\".", "Emphasis in originalNewton made clear his heliocentric view of the Solar System—developed in a somewhat modern way because already in the mid-1680s he recognised the \"deviation of the Sun\" from the centre of gravity of the Solar System.", "For Newton, it was not precisely the centre of the Sun or any other body that could be considered at rest, but rather \"the common centre of gravity of the Earth, the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem'd the Centre of the World\", and this centre of gravity \"either is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a right line\".", "(Newton adopted the \"at rest\" alternative in view of common consent that the centre, wherever it was, was at rest.", ")Newton's postulate of an invisible force able to act over vast distances led to him being criticised for introducing \"occult agencies\" into science.", "Later, in the second edition of the ''Principia'' (1713), Newton firmly rejected such criticisms in a concluding General Scholium, writing that it was enough that the phenomena implied a gravitational attraction, as they did; but they did not so far indicate its cause, and it was both unnecessary and improper to frame hypotheses of things that were not implied by the phenomena.", "(Here Newton used what became his famous expression ''\"Hypotheses non fingo\"''.", ")With the ''Principia'', Newton became internationally recognised.", "He acquired a circle of admirers, including the Swiss-born mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier.In 1710, Newton found 72 of the 78 \"species\" of cubic curves and categorised them into four types.", "In 1717, and probably with Newton's help, James Stirling proved that every cubic was one of these four types.", "Newton also claimed that the four types could be obtained by plane projection from one of them, and this was proved in 1731, four years after his death." ], [ "Later life", "=== Royal Mint ===Isaac Newton in old age in 1712, portrait by Sir James ThornhillIn the 1690s, Newton wrote a number of religious tracts dealing with the literal and symbolic interpretation of the Bible.", "A manuscript Newton sent to John Locke in which he disputed the fidelity of 1 John 5:7—the Johannine Comma—and its fidelity to the original manuscripts of the New Testament, remained unpublished until 1785.Newton was also a member of the Parliament of England for Cambridge University in 1689 and 1701, but according to some accounts his only comments were to complain about a cold draught in the chamber and request that the window be closed.", "He was, however, noted by Cambridge diarist Abraham de la Pryme to have rebuked students who were frightening locals by claiming that a house was haunted.Newton moved to London to take up the post of warden of the Royal Mint in 1696, a position that he had obtained through the patronage of Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, then Chancellor of the Exchequer.", "He took charge of England's great recoining, trod on the toes of Lord Lucas, Governor of the Tower, and secured the job of deputy comptroller of the temporary Chester branch for Edmond Halley.", "Newton became perhaps the best-known Master of the Mint upon the death of Thomas Neale in 1699, a position Newton held for the last 30 years of his life.", "These appointments were intended as sinecures, but Newton took them seriously.", "He retired from his Cambridge duties in 1701, and exercised his authority to reform the currency and punish clippers and counterfeiters.As Warden, and afterwards as Master, of the Royal Mint, Newton estimated that 20 percent of the coins taken in during the Great Recoinage of 1696 were counterfeit.", "Counterfeiting was high treason, punishable by the felon being hanged, drawn and quartered.", "Despite this, convicting even the most flagrant criminals could be extremely difficult, but Newton proved equal to the task.Disguised as a habitué of bars and taverns, he gathered much of that evidence himself.", "For all the barriers placed to prosecution, and separating the branches of government, English law still had ancient and formidable customs of authority.", "Newton had himself made a justice of the peace in all the home counties.", "A draft letter regarding the matter is included in Newton's personal first edition of ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica'', which he must have been amending at the time.", "Then he conducted more than 100 cross-examinations of witnesses, informers, and suspects between June 1698 and Christmas 1699.Newton successfully prosecuted 28 coiners.Coat of arms of the Newton family of Great Gonerby, Lincolnshire, afterwards used by Sir IsaacNewton was made president of the Royal Society in 1703 and an associate of the French Académie des Sciences.", "In his position at the Royal Society, Newton made an enemy of John Flamsteed, the Astronomer Royal, by prematurely publishing Flamsteed's ''Historia Coelestis Britannica'', which Newton had used in his studies.=== Knighthood ===In April 1705, Queen Anne knighted Newton during a royal visit to Trinity College, Cambridge.", "The knighthood is likely to have been motivated by political considerations connected with the parliamentary election in May 1705, rather than any recognition of Newton's scientific work or services as Master of the Mint.", "Newton was the second scientist to be knighted, after Francis Bacon.As a result of a report written by Newton on 21 September 1717 to the Lords Commissioners of His Majesty's Treasury, the bimetallic relationship between gold coins and silver coins was changed by royal proclamation on 22 December 1717, forbidding the exchange of gold guineas for more than 21 silver shillings.", "This inadvertently resulted in a silver shortage as silver coins were used to pay for imports, while exports were paid for in gold, effectively moving Britain from the silver standard to its first gold standard.", "It is a matter of debate as to whether he intended to do this or not.", "It has been argued that Newton conceived of his work at the Mint as a continuation of his alchemical work.Newton was invested in the South Sea Company and lost some £20,000 (£4.4 million in 2020) when it collapsed in around 1720.Toward the end of his life, Newton took up residence at Cranbury Park, near Winchester, with his niece and her husband, until his death.", "His half-niece, Catherine Barton, served as his hostess in social affairs at his house on Jermyn Street in London; he was her \"very loving Uncle\", according to his letter to her when she was recovering from smallpox.=== Death ===Death mask of Newton, photographed Newton died in his sleep in London on 20 March 1727 (OS 20 March 1726; NS 31 March 1727).", "He was given a ceremonial funeral, attended by nobles, scientists, and philosophers, and was buried in Westminster Abbey among kings and queens.", "He was the first scientist to be buried in the abbey.", "Voltaire may have been present at his funeral.", "A bachelor, he had divested much of his estate to relatives during his last years, and died intestate.", "His papers went to John Conduitt and Catherine Barton.Shortly after his death, a plaster death mask was moulded of Newton.", "It was used by Flemish sculptor John Michael Rysbrack in making a sculpture of Newton.", "It is now held by the Royal Society, who created a 3D scan of it in 2012.Newton's hair was posthumously examined and found to contain mercury, probably resulting from his alchemical pursuits.", "Mercury poisoning could explain Newton's eccentricity in late life." ], [ "Personality", "Although it was claimed that he was once engaged, Newton never married.", "The French writer and philosopher Voltaire, who was in London at the time of Newton's funeral, said that he \"was never sensible to any passion, was not subject to the common frailties of mankind, nor had any commerce with women—a circumstance which was assured me by the physician and surgeon who attended him in his last moments.” There exists a widespread belief that Newton died a virgin, and writers as diverse as mathematician Charles Hutton, economist John Maynard Keynes, and physicist Carl Sagan have commented on it.Newton had a close friendship with the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, whom he met in London around 1689—some of their correspondence has survived.", "Their relationship came to an abrupt and unexplained end in 1693, and at the same time Newton suffered a nervous breakdown, which included sending wild accusatory letters to his friends Samuel Pepys and John Locke.", "His note to the latter included the charge that Locke had endeavoured to \"embroil\" him with \"woemen & by other means\".Newton was relatively modest about his achievements, writing in a letter to Robert Hooke in February 1676, \"If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.\"", "Two writers think that the sentence, written at a time when Newton and Hooke were in dispute over optical discoveries, was an oblique attack on Hooke (said to have been short and hunchbacked), rather than—or in addition to—a statement of modesty.", "On the other hand, the widely known proverb about standing on the shoulders of giants, published among others by seventeenth-century poet George Herbert (a former orator of the University of Cambridge and fellow of Trinity College) in his ''Jacula Prudentum'' (1651), had as its main point that \"a dwarf on a giant's shoulders sees farther of the two\", and so its effect as an analogy would place Newton himself rather than Hooke as the 'dwarf'.In a later memoir, Newton wrote, \"I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me.\"" ], [ "Theology", "=== Religious views ===Although born into an Anglican family, by his thirties Newton held a Christian faith that, had it been made public, would not have been considered orthodox by mainstream Christianity, with one historian labelling him a heretic.By 1672, he had started to record his theological researches in notebooks which he showed to no one and which have only been available for public examination since 1972.Over half of what Newton wrote concerned theology and alchemy, and most has never been printed.", "His writings demonstrate an extensive knowledge of early Church writings and show that in the conflict between Athanasius and Arius which defined the Creed, he took the side of Arius, the loser, who rejected the conventional view of the Trinity.", "Newton \"recognized Christ as a divine mediator between God and man, who was subordinate to the Father who created him.\"", "He was especially interested in prophecy, but for him, \"the great apostasy was trinitarianism.", "\"Newton tried unsuccessfully to obtain one of the two fellowships that exempted the holder from the ordination requirement.", "At the last moment in 1675 he received a dispensation from the government that excused him and all future holders of the Lucasian chair.In Newton's eyes, worshipping Christ as God was idolatry, to him the fundamental sin.", "In 1999, historian Stephen D. Snobelen wrote, \"Isaac Newton was a heretic.", "But ... he never made a public declaration of his private faith—which the orthodox would have deemed extremely radical.", "He hid his faith so well that scholars are still unraveling his personal beliefs.\"", "Snobelen concludes that Newton was at least a Socinian sympathiser (he owned and had thoroughly read at least eight Socinian books), possibly an Arian and almost certainly an anti-trinitarian.Newton'' (1795, detail) by William Blake.", "Newton is depicted critically as a \"divine geometer\".Although the laws of motion and universal gravitation became Newton's best-known discoveries, he warned against using them to view the Universe as a mere machine, as if akin to a great clock.", "He said, \"So then gravity may put the planets into motion, but without the Divine Power it could never put them into such a circulating motion, as they have about the sun\".Along with his scientific fame, Newton's studies of the Bible and of the early Church Fathers were also noteworthy.", "Newton wrote works on textual criticism, most notably ''An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture'' and ''Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John''.", "He placed the crucifixion of Jesus Christ at 3 April, AD 33, which agrees with one traditionally accepted date.He believed in a rationally immanent world, but he rejected the hylozoism implicit in Leibniz and Baruch Spinoza.", "The ordered and dynamically informed Universe could be understood, and must be understood, by an active reason.", "In his correspondence, Newton claimed that in writing the ''Principia'' \"I had an eye upon such Principles as might work with considering men for the belief of a Deity\".", "He saw evidence of design in the system of the world: \"Such a wonderful uniformity in the planetary system must be allowed the effect of choice\".", "But Newton insisted that divine intervention would eventually be required to reform the system, due to the slow growth of instabilities.", "For this, Leibniz lampooned him: \"God Almighty wants to wind up his watch from time to time: otherwise it would cease to move.", "He had not, it seems, sufficient foresight to make it a perpetual motion.", "\"Newton's position was vigorously defended by his follower Samuel Clarke in a famous correspondence.", "A century later, Pierre-Simon Laplace's work ''Celestial Mechanics'' had a natural explanation for why the planet orbits do not require periodic divine intervention.", "The contrast between Laplace's mechanistic worldview and Newton's one is the most strident considering the famous answer which the French scientist gave Napoleon, who had criticised him for the absence of the Creator in the ''Mécanique céleste'': \"Sire, j'ai pu me passer de cette hypothèse\" (\"Sir, I didn't need this hypothesis\").Scholars long debated whether Newton disputed the doctrine of the Trinity.", "His first biographer, David Brewster, who compiled his manuscripts, interpreted Newton as questioning the veracity of some passages used to support the Trinity, but never denying the doctrine of the Trinity as such.", "In the twentieth century, encrypted manuscripts written by Newton and bought by John Maynard Keynes (among others) were deciphered and it became known that Newton did indeed reject Trinitarianism.=== Religious thought ===Newton and Robert Boyle's approach to the mechanical philosophy was promoted by rationalist pamphleteers as a viable alternative to the pantheists and enthusiasts, and was accepted hesitantly by orthodox preachers as well as dissident preachers like the latitudinarians.", "The clarity and simplicity of science was seen as a way to combat the emotional and metaphysical superlatives of both superstitious enthusiasm and the threat of atheism, and at the same time, the second wave of English deists used Newton's discoveries to demonstrate the possibility of a \"Natural Religion\".The attacks made against pre-Enlightenment \"magical thinking\", and the mystical elements of Christianity, were given their foundation with Boyle's mechanical conception of the universe.", "Newton gave Boyle's ideas their completion through mathematical proofs and, perhaps more importantly, was very successful in popularising them." ], [ "Alchemy", "Of an estimated ten million words of writing in Newton's papers, about one million deal with alchemy.", "Many of Newton's writings on alchemy are copies of other manuscripts, with his own annotations.", "Alchemical texts mix artisanal knowledge with philosophical speculation, often hidden behind layers of wordplay, allegory, and imagery to protect craft secrets.", "Some of the content contained in Newton's papers could have been considered heretical by the church.In 1888, after spending sixteen years cataloguing Newton's papers, Cambridge University kept a small number and returned the rest to the Earl of Portsmouth.", "In 1936, a descendant offered the papers for sale at Sotheby's.", "The collection was broken up and sold for a total of about £9,000.John Maynard Keynes was one of about three dozen bidders who obtained part of the collection at auction.", "Keynes went on to reassemble an estimated half of Newton's collection of papers on alchemy before donating his collection to Cambridge University in 1946.All of Newton's known writings on alchemy are currently being put online in a project undertaken by Indiana University: \"The Chymistry of Isaac Newton\" and summarised in a book.In June 2020, two unpublished pages of Newton's notes on Jan Baptist van Helmont's book on plague, ''De Peste'', were being auctioned online by Bonhams.", "Newton's analysis of this book, which he made in Cambridge while protecting himself from London's 1665–1666 infection, is the most substantial written statement he is known to have made about the plague, according to Bonhams.", "As far as the therapy is concerned, Newton writes that \"the best is a toad suspended by the legs in a chimney for three days, which at last vomited up earth with various insects in it, on to a dish of yellow wax, and shortly after died.", "Combining powdered toad with the excretions and serum made into lozenges and worn about the affected area drove away the contagion and drew out the poison\"." ], [ "Legacy", "=== Fame ===Newton's tomb monument in Westminster Abbey by John Michael RysbrackThe mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange said that Newton was the greatest genius who ever lived, and once added that Newton was also \"the most fortunate, for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish.\"", "English poet Alexander Pope wrote the famous epitaph:But this was not allowed to be inscribed in the monument.", "The epitaph in the monument is as follows:which can be translated as follows:In a 2005 survey of members of Britain's Royal Society (formerly headed by Newton) asking who had the greater effect on the history of science, Newton or Albert Einstein, the members deemed Newton to have made the greater overall contribution.", "In 1999, an opinion poll of 100 of the day's leading physicists voted Einstein the \"greatest physicist ever,\" with Newton the runner-up, while a parallel survey of rank-and-file physicists by the site PhysicsWeb gave the top spot to Newton.", "''New Scientist'' called Newton \"the supreme genius and most enigmatic character in the history of science\".", "Einstein kept a picture of Newton on his study wall alongside ones of Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell.The SI derived unit of force is named the newton in his honour.Woolsthorpe Manor is a Grade I listed building by Historic England through being his birthplace and \"where he discovered gravity and developed his theories regarding the refraction of light\".In 1816, a tooth said to have belonged to Newton was sold for £730 in London to an aristocrat who had it set in a ring.", "''Guinness World Records 2002'' classified it as the most valuable tooth in the world, which would value approximately £25,000 (35,700) in late 2001.Who bought it and who currently has it has not been disclosed.=== Apple incident ===Newton himself often told the story that he was inspired to formulate his theory of gravitation by watching the fall of an apple from a tree.", "The story is believed to have passed into popular knowledge after being related by Catherine Barton, Newton's niece, to Voltaire.", "Voltaire then wrote in his ''Essay on Epic Poetry'' (1727), \"Sir Isaac Newton walking in his gardens, had the first thought of his system of gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a tree.", "\"Although it has been said that the apple story is a myth and that he did not arrive at his theory of gravity at any single moment, acquaintances of Newton (such as William Stukeley, whose manuscript account of 1752 has been made available by the Royal Society) do in fact confirm the incident, though not the apocryphal version that the apple actually hit Newton's head.", "Stukeley recorded in his ''Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life'' a conversation with Newton in Kensington on 15 April 1726:John Conduitt, Newton's assistant at the Royal Mint and husband of Newton's niece, also described the event when he wrote about Newton's life:A wood engraving of Newton's famous steps under the apple treeIt is known from his notebooks that Newton was grappling in the late 1660s with the idea that terrestrial gravity extends, in an inverse-square proportion, to the Moon; however, it took him two decades to develop the full-fledged theory.", "The question was not whether gravity existed, but whether it extended so far from Earth that it could also be the force holding the Moon to its orbit.", "Newton showed that if the force decreased as the inverse square of the distance, one could indeed calculate the Moon's orbital period, and get good agreement.", "He guessed the same force was responsible for other orbital motions, and hence named it \"universal gravitation\".Various trees are claimed to be \"the\" apple tree which Newton describes.", "The King's School, Grantham claims that the tree was purchased by the school, uprooted and transported to the headmaster's garden some years later.", "The staff of the (now) National Trust-owned Woolsthorpe Manor dispute this, and claim that a tree present in their gardens is the one described by Newton.", "A descendant of the original tree can be seen growing outside the main gate of Trinity College, Cambridge, below the room Newton lived in when he studied there.", "The National Fruit Collection at Brogdale in Kent can supply grafts from their tree, which appears identical to Flower of Kent, a coarse-fleshed cooking variety.=== Commemorations ===Newton statue on display at the Oxford University Museum of Natural HistoryNewton's monument (1731) can be seen in Westminster Abbey, at the north of the entrance to the choir against the choir screen, near his tomb.", "It was executed by the sculptor Michael Rysbrack (1694–1770) in white and grey marble with design by the architect William Kent.", "The monument features a figure of Newton reclining on top of a sarcophagus, his right elbow resting on several of his great books and his left hand pointing to a scroll with a mathematical design.", "Above him is a pyramid and a celestial globe showing the signs of the Zodiac and the path of the comet of 1680.A relief panel depicts putti using instruments such as a telescope and prism.", "The Latin inscription on the base translates as:From 1978 until 1988, an image of Newton designed by Harry Ecclestone appeared on Series D £1 banknotes issued by the Bank of England (the last £1 notes to be issued by the Bank of England).", "Newton was shown on the reverse of the notes holding a book and accompanied by a telescope, a prism and a map of the Solar System.A statue of Isaac Newton, looking at an apple at his feet, can be seen at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History.", "A large bronze statue, ''Newton, after William Blake'', by Eduardo Paolozzi, dated 1995 and inspired by Blake's etching, dominates the piazza of the British Library in London.", "A bronze statue of Newton was erected in 1858 in the centre of Grantham where he went to school, prominently standing in front of Grantham Guildhall.The still-surviving farmhouse at Woolsthorpe By Colsterworth is a Grade I listed building by Historic England through being his birthplace and \"where he discovered gravity and developed his theories regarding the refraction of light\"." ], [ "The Enlightenment", "Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors—Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally—as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of nature and natural law to every physical and social field of the day.", "In this respect, the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded.It is held by European philosophers of the Enlightenment and by historians of the Enlightenment that Newton's publication of the ''Principia'' was a turning point in the Scientific Revolution and started the Enlightenment.", "It was Newton's conception of the universe based upon natural and rationally understandable laws that became one of the seeds for Enlightenment ideology.", "Locke and Voltaire applied concepts of natural law to political systems advocating intrinsic rights; the physiocrats and Adam Smith applied natural conceptions of psychology and self-interest to economic systems; and sociologists criticised the current social order for trying to fit history into natural models of progress.", "Monboddo and Samuel Clarke resisted elements of Newton's work, but eventually rationalised it to conform with their strong religious views of nature." ], [ "Works", "=== Published in his lifetime ===* ''De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas'' (1669, published 1711)* ''Of Natures Obvious Laws & Processes in Vegetation'' (unpublished, –75)* ''De motu corporum in gyrum'' (1684)* ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica'' (1687)* ''Scala graduum Caloris.", "Calorum Descriptiones & signa'' (1701)* ''Opticks'' (1704)* ''Reports as Master of the Mint'' (1701–1725)* ''Arithmetica Universalis'' (1707)=== Published posthumously ===* ''De mundi systemate'' (''The System of the World'') (1728)* ''Optical Lectures'' (1728)* ''The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended'' (1728)* ''Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John'' (1733)* ''Method of Fluxions'' (1671, published 1736)* ''An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture'' (1754)" ], [ "See also", "* ''Elements of the Philosophy of Newton'', a book by Voltaire* List of multiple discoveries: seventeenth century* List of things named after Isaac Newton* List of presidents of the Royal Society" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Citations ====== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "=== Primary === Newton, Isaac.", "''The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.''", "University of California Press, (1999)** Brackenridge, J. Bruce.", "''The Key to Newton's Dynamics: The Kepler Problem and the Principia: Containing an English Translation of Sections 1, 2, and 3 of Book One from the First (1687) Edition of Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy'', University of California Press (1996)* Newton, Isaac.", "''The Optical Papers of Isaac Newton.", "Vol.", "1: The Optical Lectures, 1670–1672'', Cambridge University Press (1984) Newton, Isaac.", "''Opticks'' (4th ed.", "1730) online edition Newton, I.", "(1952).", "Opticks, or A Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections & Colours of Light.", "New York: Dover Publications.", "* Newton, I.", "''Sir Isaac Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy and His System of the World'', tr.", "A. Motte, rev.", "Florian Cajori.", "Berkeley: University of California Press (1934)* – 8 volumes.", "* Newton, Isaac.", "''The correspondence of Isaac Newton,'' ed.", "H.W.", "Turnbull and others, 7 vols (1959–77)* ''Newton's Philosophy of Nature: Selections from His Writings'' edited by H.S.", "Thayer (1953; online edition)* Isaac Newton, Sir; J Edleston; Roger Cotes, ''Correspondence of Sir Isaac Newton and Professor Cotes, including letters of other eminent men'', London, John W. Parker, West Strand; Cambridge, John Deighton (1850, Google Books)* Maclaurin, C. (1748).", "''An Account of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophical Discoveries, in Four Books''.", "London: A. Millar and J. Nourse* Newton, I.", "(1958).", "''Isaac Newton's Papers and Letters on Natural Philosophy and Related Documents'', eds.", "I.B.", "Cohen and R.E.", "Schofield.", "Cambridge: Harvard University Press* Newton, I.", "(1962).", "''The Unpublished Scientific Papers of Isaac Newton: A Selection from the Portsmouth Collection in the University Library, Cambridge'', ed.", "A.R.", "Hall and M.B.", "Hall.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press* Newton, I.", "(1975).", "''Isaac Newton's 'Theory of the Moon's Motion''' (1702).", "London: Dawson=== Alchemy ===* * * – Preface by Albert Einstein.", "Reprinted by Johnson Reprint Corporation, New York (1972)* * Keynes took a close interest in Newton and owned many of Newton's private papers.", "* (edited by A.H. White; originally published in 1752)* Trabue, J.", "\"Ann and Arthur Storer of Calvert County, Maryland, Friends of Sir Isaac Newton,\" ''The American Genealogist'' 79 (2004): 13–27.=== Religion ===* Dobbs, Betty Jo Tetter.", "''The Janus Faces of Genius: The Role of Alchemy in Newton's Thought.''", "(1991), links the alchemy to Arianism* Force, James E., and Richard H. Popkin, eds.", "''Newton and Religion: Context, Nature, and Influence.''", "(1999), pp.", "xvii, 325.; 13 papers by scholars using newly opened manuscripts* * * * === Science ===* * Berlinski, David.", "''Newton's Gift: How Sir Isaac Newton Unlocked the System of the World.''", "(2000); * * Cohen, I. Bernard and Smith, George E., ed.", "''The Cambridge Companion to Newton.''", "(2002).", "Focuses on philosophical issues only; excerpt and text search; complete edition online * This well documented work provides, in particular, valuable information regarding Newton's knowledge of Patristics* * * * * * Hawking, Stephen, ed.", "''On the Shoulders of Giants''.", "Places selections from Newton's ''Principia'' in the context of selected writings by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Einstein* * Newton, Isaac.", "''Papers and Letters in Natural Philosophy'', edited by I. Bernard Cohen.", "Harvard University Press, 1958, 1978; .", "* " ], [ "External links", " Enlightening Science digital project: Texts of his papers, \"Popularisations\" and podcasts at the Newton Project* * === Writings by Newton ===* Newton's works – full texts, at the Newton Project* Newton's papers in the Royal Society's archives* The Newton Manuscripts at the National Library of Israel – the collection of all his religious writings* * * * \"Newton Papers\" – Cambridge Digital Library" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Immanuel Kant" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Immanuel Kant''' (22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher and one of the central Enlightenment thinkers.", "Born in Königsberg, Kant's comprehensive and systematic works in epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics have made him one of the most influential and controversial figures in modern Western philosophy, being called the \"father of modern ethics\", \"father of modern aesthetics\" and, by bringing together rationalism and empiricism, the \"father of modern philosophy\".In his doctrine of transcendental idealism, Kant argued that space and time are mere \"forms of intuition\" that structure all experience and that the objects of experience are mere \"appearances\".", "The nature of things as they are in themselves is unknowable to us.", "In an attempt to counter the philosophical doctrine of skepticism, he wrote the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' (1781/1787), his best-known work.", "Kant drew a parallel to the Copernican revolution in his proposal to think of the objects of experience as conforming to our spatial and temporal forms of intuition and the categories of our understanding, so that we have ''a priori'' cognition of those objects.", "These claims have proved especially influential in the social sciences, particularly sociology and anthropology, which regard human activities as pre-oriented by cultural norms.Kant believed that reason is the source of morality, and that aesthetics arises from a faculty of disinterested judgment.", "Kant's religious views were deeply connected to his moral theory.", "Their exact nature, however, remains in dispute.", "He hoped that perpetual peace could be secured through an international federation of republican states and international cooperation.", "His cosmopolitan reputation, however, is called into question by his promulgation of scientific racism for much of his career, although he altered his views on the subject in the last decade of his life." ], [ "Biography", "Immanuel Kant was born on 22 April 1724 into a Prussian German family of Lutheran faith in Königsberg, East Prussia (since 1946 the Russian city of Kaliningrad).", "His mother, Anna Regina Reuter (1697—1737), was born in Königsberg to a father from Nuremberg.", "Her surname is sometimes erroneously given as Porter.", "Kant's father, Johann Georg Kant (1682—1746), was a German harness-maker from Memel, at the time Prussia's most northeastern city (now Klaipėda, Lithuania).", "It is possible that the Kants got their name from the village of Kantvainiai (German: ''Kantwaggen'' – today part of Priekulė) and were of Kursenieki origin.Emanuel was baptized and later changed the spelling of his name to Immanuel after learning Hebrew.", "He was the fourth of nine children (six of whom reached adulthood).The Kant household stressed the pietist values of religious devotion, humility, and a literal interpretation of the Bible.", "The young Immanuel's education was strict, punitive and disciplinary, and focused on Latin and religious instruction over mathematics and science.In his later years, Kant lived a strictly ordered life.", "It was said that neighbors would set their clocks by his daily walks.", "He never married but seems to have had a rewarding social life; he was a popular teacher as well as a modestly successful author, even before starting on his major philosophical works.===Young scholar===Kant showed a great aptitude for study at an early age.", "He first attended the Collegium Fridericianum, from which he graduated at the end of the summer of 1740.In 1740, aged 16, he enrolled at the University of Königsberg, where he would later remain for the rest of his professional life.", "He studied the philosophy of Gottfried Leibniz and Christian Wolff under Martin Knutzen (Associate Professor of Logic and Metaphysics from 1734 until he died in 1751), a rationalist who was also familiar with developments in British philosophy and science and introduced Kant to the new mathematical physics of Isaac Newton.", "Knutzen dissuaded Kant from the theory of pre-established harmony, which he regarded as \"the pillow for the lazy mind\".", "He also dissuaded Kant from idealism, the idea that reality is purely mental, which most philosophers in the 18th century regarded negatively.", "The theory of transcendental idealism that Kant later included in the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' was developed partially in opposition to traditional idealism.Kant had contacts with students, colleagues, friends and diners who frequented the local Masonic lodge.His father's stroke and subsequent death in 1746 interrupted his studies.", "Kant left Königsberg shortly after August 1748; he would return there in August 1754.He became a private tutor in the towns surrounding Königsberg, but continued his scholarly research.", "In 1749, he published his first philosophical work, ''Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces'' (written in 1745–1747).===Early work===Kant is best known for his work in the philosophy of ethics and metaphysics, but he made significant contributions to other disciplines.", "In 1754, while contemplating on a prize question by the Berlin Academy about the problem of Earth's rotation, he argued that the Moon's gravity would slow down Earth's spin and he also put forth the argument that gravity would eventually cause the Moon's tidal locking to coincide with the Earth's rotation.", "The next year, he expanded this reasoning to the formation and evolution of the Solar System in his ''Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens''.", "In 1755, Kant received a license to lecture in the University of Königsberg and began lecturing on a variety of topics including mathematics, physics, logic, and metaphysics.", "In his 1756 essay on the theory of winds, Kant laid out an original insight into the Coriolis force.In 1756, Kant also published three papers on the 1755 Lisbon earthquake.", "Kant's theory, which involved shifts in huge caverns filled with hot gases, though inaccurate, was one of the first systematic attempts to explain earthquakes in natural rather than supernatural terms.", "In 1757, Kant began lecturing on geography making him one of the first lecturers to explicitly teach geography as its own subject.", "Geography was one of Kant's most popular lecturing topics and, in 1802, a compilation by Friedrich Theodor Rink of Kant's lecturing notes, ''Physical Geography'', was released.", "After Kant became a professor in 1770, he expanded the topics of his lectures to include lectures on natural law, ethics, and anthropology, along with other topics.Kant's house in Königsberg in an 1842 paintingIn the ''Universal Natural History'', Kant laid out the nebular hypothesis, in which he deduced that the Solar System had formed from a large cloud of gas, a nebula.", "Kant also correctly deduced that the Milky Way was a large disk of stars, which he theorized formed from a much larger spinning gas cloud.", "He further suggested that other distant \"nebulae\" might be other galaxies.", "These postulations opened new horizons for astronomy, for the first time extending it beyond the solar system to galactic and intergalactic realms.From then on, Kant turned increasingly to philosophical issues, although he continued to write on the sciences throughout his life.", "In the early 1760s, Kant produced a series of important works in philosophy.", "''The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures'', a work in logic, was published in 1762.Two more works appeared the following year: ''Attempt to Introduce the Concept of Negative Magnitudes into Philosophy'' and ''The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God''.", "By 1764, Kant had become a notable popular author, and wrote ''Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime''; he was second to Moses Mendelssohn in a Berlin Academy prize competition with his ''Inquiry Concerning the Distinctness of the Principles of Natural Theology and Morality'' (often referred to as \"The Prize Essay\").", "In 1766 Kant wrote a critical piece on Emanuel Swedenborg's ''Dreams of a Spirit-Seer''.In 1770, Kant was appointed Full Professor of Logic and Metaphysics at the University of Königsberg.", "In defense of this appointment, Kant wrote his inaugural dissertation ''On the Form and Principles of the Sensible and the Intelligible World'' This work saw the emergence of several central themes of his mature work, including the distinction between the faculties of intellectual thought and sensible receptivity.", "To miss this distinction would mean to commit the error of subreption, and, as he says in the last chapter of the dissertation, only in avoiding this error does metaphysics flourish.It is often claimed that Kant was a late developer, that he only became an important philosopher in his mid-50's after rejecting his earlier views.", "While it is true that Kant wrote his greatest works relatively late in life, there is a tendency to underestimate the value of his earlier works.", "Recent Kant scholarship has devoted more attention to these \"pre-critical\" writings and has recognized a degree of continuity with his mature work.===Publication of ''The Critique of Pure Reason''===At age 46, Kant was an established scholar and an increasingly influential philosopher, and much was expected of him.", "In correspondence with his ex-student and friend Markus Herz, Kant admitted that, in the inaugural dissertation, he had failed to account for the relation between our sensible and intellectual faculties.", "He needed to explain how we combine what is known as sensory knowledge with the other type of knowledge—that is, reasoned knowledge—these two being related, but having very different processes.Portrait of philosopher David HumeKant also credited David Hume with awakening him from a \"dogmatic slumber\" in which he had unquestioningly accepted the tenets of both religion and natural philosophy.", "Hume, in his 1739 ''Treatise on Human Nature'', had argued that we only know the mind through a subjective, essentially illusory series of perceptions.", "Ideas such as causality, morality, and objects are not evident in experience, so their reality may be questioned.", "Kant felt that reason could remove this skepticism, and he set himself to solving these problems.", "Although fond of company and conversation with others, Kant isolated himself, and resisted friends' attempts to bring him out of his isolation.", "When Kant emerged from his silence in 1781, the result was the ''Critique of Pure Reason''.", "Kant countered Hume's empiricism by claiming that some knowledge exists inherently in the mind, independent of experience.", "He drew a parallel to the Copernican revolution in his proposal that worldly objects can be intuited ''a priori'', and that intuition is consequently distinct from objective reality.", "He acquiesced to Hume somewhat by defining causality as a \"regular, constant sequence of events in time, and nothing more\".Although now recognized as one of the greatest works in the history of philosophy, the ''Critique'' disappointed Kant's readers upon its initial publication.", "The book was long, over 800 pages in the original German edition, and written in a convoluted style.", "Kant was quite upset with its reception.", "His former student, Johann Gottfried Herder criticized it for placing reason as an entity worthy of criticism instead of considering the process of reasoning within the context of language and one's entire personality.", "Similar to Christian Garve and Johann Georg Heinrich Feder, he rejected Kant's position that space and time possessed a form that could be analyzed.", "Additionally, Garve and Feder also faulted Kant's ''Critique'' for not explaining differences in perception of sensations.", "Its density made it, as Herder said in a letter to Johann Georg Hamann, a \"tough nut to crack\", obscured by \"all this heavy gossamer\".", "Its reception stood in stark contrast to the praise Kant had received for earlier works, such as his ''Prize Essay'' and shorter works that preceded the first ''Critique''.", "Recognizing the need to clarify the original treatise, Kant wrote the ''Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics'' in 1783 as a summary of its main views.", "Shortly thereafter, Kant's friend Johann Friedrich Schultz (1739–1805), a professor of mathematics, published ''Explanations of Professor Kant's Critique of Pure Reason'' (Königsberg, 1784), which was a brief but very accurate commentary on Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason''.Engraving of Immanuel KantKant's reputation gradually rose through the latter portion of the 1780s, sparked by a series of important works: the 1784 essay, \"Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?", "\"; 1785's ''Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals'' (his first work on moral philosophy); and, from 1786, ''Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science''.", "But Kant's fame ultimately arrived from an unexpected source.", "In 1786, Karl Leonhard Reinhold published a series of public letters on Kantian philosophy.", "In these letters, Reinhold framed Kant's philosophy as a response to the central intellectual controversy of the era: the pantheism controversy.", "Friedrich Jacobi had accused the recently deceased Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (a distinguished dramatist and philosophical essayist) of Spinozism.", "Such a charge, tantamount to atheism, was vigorously denied by Lessing's friend Moses Mendelssohn, leading to a bitter public dispute among partisans.", "The controversy gradually escalated into a debate about the values of the Enlightenment and the value of reason.Reinhold maintained in his letters that Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason'' could settle this dispute by defending the authority and bounds of reason.", "Reinhold's letters were widely read and made Kant the most famous philosopher of his era.===Later work===Kant published a second edition of the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' in 1787, heavily revising the first parts of the book.", "Most of his subsequent work focused on other areas of philosophy.", "He continued to develop his moral philosophy, notably in 1788's ''Critique of Practical Reason'' (known as the second ''Critique''), and 1797's ''Metaphysics of Morals''.", "The 1790 ''Critique of the Power of Judgment'' (the third ''Critique'') applied the Kantian system to aesthetics and teleology.In 1792, Kant's attempt to publish the Second of the four Pieces of ''Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason'', in the journal ''Berlinische Monatsschrift'', met with opposition from the King's censorship commission, which had been established that same year in the context of the French Revolution.", "Kant then arranged to have all four pieces published as a book, routing it through the philosophy department at the University of Jena to avoid the need for theological censorship.", "This insubordination earned him a now-famous reprimand from the King.", "When he nevertheless published a second edition in 1794, the censor was so irate that he arranged for a royal order that required Kant never to publish or even speak publicly about religion.", "Kant then published his response to the King's reprimand and explained himself in the preface of ''The Conflict of the Faculties''.Kant with friends, including Christian Jakob Kraus, Johann Georg Hamann, Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel and Karl Gottfried HagenHe also wrote a number of semi-popular essays on history, religion, politics, and other topics.", "These works were well received by Kant's contemporaries and confirmed his preeminent status in eighteenth-century philosophy.", "There were several journals devoted solely to defending and criticizing Kantian philosophy.", "Despite his success, philosophical trends were moving in another direction.", "Many of Kant's most important disciples and followers (including Reinhold, Beck, and Fichte) transformed the Kantian position.", "The progressive stages of revision of Kant's teachings marked the emergence of German idealism.", "Kant opposed these developments and publicly denounced Fichte in an open letter in 1799.It was one of his final acts expounding a stance on philosophical questions.In 1800, a student of Kant named Gottlob Benjamin Jäsche (1762–1842) published a manual of logic for teachers called ''Logik'', which he had prepared at Kant's request.", "Jäsche prepared the ''Logik'' using a copy of a textbook in logic by Georg Friedrich Meier entitled ''Excerpt from the Doctrine of Reason'', in which Kant had written copious notes and annotations.", "The ''Logik'' has been considered of fundamental importance to Kant's philosophy, and the understanding of it.", "The great 19th-century logician Charles Sanders Peirce remarked, in an incomplete review of Thomas Kingsmill Abbott's English translation of the introduction to ''Logik'', that \"Kant's whole philosophy turns upon his logic.\"", "Also, Robert Schirokauer Hartman and Wolfgang Schwarz wrote in the translators' introduction to their English translation of the ''Logik'', \"Its importance lies not only in its significance for the ''Critique of Pure Reason'', the second part of which is a restatement of fundamental tenets of the ''Logic'', but in its position within the whole of Kant's work.", "\"===Death and burial===Kant's health, long poor, worsened.", "He died at Königsberg on 12 February 1804, uttering \"''Es ist gut''\" (It is good) before expiring.", "This German sentence can be interpreted to \"I had lived a good life as a philosopher, now I can die freely\" according to a Korean scholar.", "His unfinished final work was published as ''Opus Postumum''.", "Kant always cut a curious figure in his lifetime for his modest, rigorously scheduled habits, which have been referred to as clocklike.", "However, Heinrich Heine noted the magnitude of \"his destructive, world-crushing thoughts\" and considered him a sort of philosophical \"executioner\", comparing him to Robespierre with the observation that both men \"represented in the highest the type of provincial bourgeois.", "Nature had destined them to weigh coffee and sugar, but Fate determined that they should weigh other things and placed on the scales of the one a king, on the scales of the other a god.", "\"When his body was transferred to a new burial spot, his skull was measured during the exhumation and found to be larger than the average German male's with a \"high and broad\" forehead.", "His forehead has been an object of interest ever since it became well known through his portraits: \"In Döbler's portrait and in Kiefer's faithful if expressionistic reproduction of it—as well as in many of the other late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century portraits of Kant—the forehead is remarkably large and decidedly retreating.", "\"Kant's tomb in Kaliningrad, RussiaKant's mausoleum adjoins the northeast corner of Königsberg Cathedral in Kaliningrad, Russia.", "The mausoleum was constructed by the architect Friedrich Lahrs and was finished in 1924, in time for the bicentenary of Kant's birth.", "Originally, Kant was buried inside the cathedral, but in 1880 his remains were moved to a neo-Gothic chapel adjoining the northeast corner of the cathedral.", "Over the years, the chapel became dilapidated and was demolished to make way for the mausoleum, which was built on the same location.The tomb and its mausoleum are among the few artifacts of German times preserved by the Soviets after they captured the city.", "Today, many newlyweds bring flowers to the mausoleum.", "Artifacts previously owned by Kant, known as ''Kantiana'', were included in the Königsberg City Museum.", "However, the museum was destroyed during World War II.", "A replica of the statue of Kant that in German times stood in front of the main University of Königsberg building was donated by a German entity in the early 1990s and placed in the same grounds.After the expulsion of Königsberg's German population at the end of World War II, the University of Königsberg where Kant taught was replaced by the Russian-language Kaliningrad State University, which appropriated the campus and surviving buildings.", "In 2005, the university was renamed ''Immanuel Kant State University of Russia''.", "The name change was announced at a ceremony attended by President Vladimir Putin of Russia and Chancellor Gerhard Schröder of Germany, and the university formed a Kant Society, dedicated to the study of Kantianism.", "The university was again renamed in the 2010s, to Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University." ], [ "Philosophy", "Like many of his contemporaries, Kant was greatly impressed with the scientific advances made by Newton and others.", "This new evidence of the power of human reason, however, called into question for many the traditional authority of politics and religion.", "In particular, the modern mechanistic view of the world called into question the very possibility of morality; for, if there is no agency, there cannot be any responsibility.The aim of Kant's critical project is to secure human autonomy, the basis of religion and morality, from this threat of mechanism—and to do so in a way that preserves the advances of modern science.In the ''Critique of Pure Reason'', Kant summarizes his philosophical concerns in the following three questions:Bust of Immanuel Kant by Emanuel Bardou, 1798# What can I know?# What should I do?# What may I hope?", "''The Critique of Pure Reason'' focuses upon the first question and opens a conceptual space for an answer to the second question.", "It argues that even though we cannot, strictly ''know'' that we are free, we can—and for practical purposes, must—''think'' of ourselves as free.", "In Kant's own words, \"I had to deny '''knowledge''' in order to make room for '''faith'''.\"", "Our rational faith in morality is further developed in ''The Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals'' and ''The Critique of Practical Reason''.", "''The Critique of the Power of Judgment'' argues we may ''rationally'' hope for the harmonious unity of the theoretical and practical domains treated in the first two ''Critiques'' on the basis, not only of its conceptual possibility, but also on the basis of our affective experience of natural beauty and, more generally, the organization of the natural world.", "In ''Religion within the Bounds of Mere Reason'', Kant endeavors to complete his answer to this third question.These works all place the active, rational human subject at the center of the cognitive and moral worlds.", "In brief, Kant argues that the mind itself necessarily makes a constitutive contribution to knowledge, that this contribution is transcendental rather than psychological, and that to act autonomously is to act according to rational moral principles.===Kant's critical project===Immanuel Kant by Carle Vernet (1758–1836)Kant's 1781 (revised 1787) book the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' has often been cited as the most significant volume of metaphysics and epistemology in modern philosophy.In the first ''Critique'', and later on in other works as well, Kant frames the \"general\" and \"real problem of pure reason\" in terms of the following question: \"'''How are synthetic judgments ''a priori'' possible'''?", "\"To parse this claim, it is necessary to define some terms.", "First, Kant makes a distinction in terms of the source of the ''content'' of knowledge:# '''Cognitions ''a priori''''': \"cognition independent of all experience and even of all the impressions of the senses\".# '''Cognitions ''a posteriori''''': cognitions that have their sources in experiencethat is, which are '''empirical'''.Second, he makes a distinction in terms of the ''form'' of knowledge:# '''Analytic proposition''': a proposition whose predicate concept is contained in its subject concept; e.g., \"All bachelors are unmarried\", or \"All bodies take up space\".", "These can also be called \"'''judgments of clarification'''\".# '''Synthetic proposition''': a proposition whose predicate concept is not contained in its subject concept; e.g., \"All bachelors are alone\", \"All swans are white,\" or \"All bodies have weight\".", "These can also be called \"'''judgments of amplification'''\".An analytic proposition is true by nature of strictly conceptual relations.", "All analytic propositions are ''a priori'' (it is analytically true that no analytic proposition could be ''a posteriori'').", "By contrast, a synthetic proposition is one the content of which includes something new.", "The truth or falsehood of a synthetic statement depends upon something more than what is contained in its concepts.", "The most obvious form of synthetic proposition is a simple empirical observation.Philosophers such as David Hume believed that these were the only possible kinds of human reason and investigation, which he called \"relations of ideas\" and \"matters of fact\".", "Establishing the synthetic ''a priori'' as a third mode of knowledge would allow Kant to push back against Hume's skepticism about such matters as causation and metaphysical knowledge more generally.", "This is because, unlike ''a posteriori'' cognition, ''a priori'' cognition has \"true or strict...'''universality'''\" and includes a claim of \"'''necessity'''\".Kant himself regards it as uncontroversial that we do have synthetic ''a priori'' knowledgemost obviously, that of mathematics.", "That 7 + 5 = 12, he claims, is a result not contained in the concepts of seven, five, and the addition operation.", "Yet, although he considers the possibility of such knowledge to be obvious, Kant nevertheless assumes the burden of providing a philosophical proof that we have ''a priori'' knowledge in mathematics, the natural sciences, and metaphysics.", "It is the twofold aim of the ''Critique'' both ''to prove'' and ''to explain'' the possibility of this knowledge.", "\"There are\", Kant says, \"two stems of human cognition, which may perhaps arise from a common but to us unknown root, namely '''sensibility''' and '''understanding''', through the first of which objects are ''given'' to us, but through the second of which they are ''thought''.", "\"Kant's term for the object of sensibility is '''intuition''', and his term for the object of the understanding is '''concept'''.", "In general terms, the former is a non-discursive representation of a ''particular'' object, and the latter is a discursive (or mediate) representation of a ''general type'' of object.", "The conditions of possible experience require both intuitions and concepts, that is, the affection of the receptive sensibility and the actively synthesizing power of the understanding.", "Thus the statement: \"Thoughts without content are empty, intuitions without concepts are blind.", "\"Kant's basic strategy in the first half of his book will be to argue that some intuitions and concepts are '''pure'''that is, are contributed entirely by the mind, independent of anything empirical.", "Knowledge generated on this basis, under certain conditions, can be synthetic ''a priori''.", "This insight is known as Kant's \"Copernican revolution\", because, just as Copernicus advanced astronomy by way of a radical shift in perspective, so Kant here claims do the same for metaphysics.The second half of the ''Critique'' is the explicitly ''critical'' part.", "In this \"transcendental dialectic\", Kant argues that many of the claims of traditional rationalist metaphysics violate the criteria he claims to establish in the first, \"constructive\" part of his book.", "As Kant observes, \"human reason, without being moved by the mere vanity of knowing it all, inexorably pushes on, driven by its own need to such questions that cannot be answered by any experiential use of reason\".", "It is the project of \"the critique of pure reason\" to establish the limits as to just how far reason may legitimately so proceed.=== The doctrine of transcendental idealism ===The section of the ''Critique'' entitled \"The transcendental aesthetic\" introduces Kant's famous metaphysics of transcendental idealism.", "Something is \"transcendental\" if it is a necessary condition for the possibility of experience, and \"idealism\" denotes some form of mind-dependence that must be further specified.", "(The correct interpretation of Kant's own specification remains controversial.", ")The metaphysical thesis, then, states that human beings only experience and know phenomenal appearances, not independent things-in-themselves, because space and time are nothing but the subjective forms of intuition that we ourselves contribute to experience.Nevertheless, although Kant says that space and time are \"transcendentally ideal\"—the ''pure forms'' of human sensibility, rather than part of nature or reality as it exists in-itself—he also claims that they are \"empirically real\", by which he means \"that 'everything that can come before us externally as an object' is in both space and time, and that our internal intuitions of ourselves are in time\".", "However we may interpret Kant's doctrine, he clearly wishes to distinguish his position from the subjective idealism of Berkeley.Paul Guyer, although critical of many of Kant's arguments in this section, nevertheless writes of the \"Transcendental Aesthetic\" that it \"not only lays the first stone in Kant's constructive theory of knowledge; it also lays the foundation for both his critique and his reconstruction of traditional metaphysics.", "It argues that all genuine knowledge requires a sensory component, and thus that metaphysical claims that transcend the possibility of sensory confirmation can never amount to knowledge.", "\"====Interpretive disagreements====One interpretation, known as the \"two-world\" interpretation, regards Kant's position as a statement of epistemological limitation, that we are not able to transcend the bounds of our own mind, meaning that we cannot access the \"thing-in-itself\".", "On this particular view, the thing-in-itself is not numerically identical the phenomenal empirical object.", "However, Kant also speaks of the thing in itself or ''transcendent object'' as a product of the (human) understanding as it attempts to conceive of objects in abstraction from the conditions of sensibility.", "Following this line of thought, some interpreters have argued that the thing in itself does not represent a separate ontological domain, but simply a way of considering objects by means of the understanding alone; this is known as the \"two-aspect\" view.", "On this alternative view, the same objects which we attribute empirical properties like color, size, and shape are also, as considered as they are in themselves, the things-in-themselves otherwise inaccessible to human knowledge.===Kant's theory of judgment===Kant statue in the School of Philosophy and Human Sciences (FAFICH) in the Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, BrazilFollowing the \"Transcendental Analytic\" is the \"Transcendental Logic\".", "Whereas the former was concerned with the contributions of the sensibility, the latter is concerned, first, with the contributions of the understanding (\"Transcendental Analytic\") and, second, with the faculty of ''reason'' as the source of both metaphysical errors and genuine regulatory principles (\"Transcendental Dialectic\").The \"Transcendental Analytic\" is further divided into two sections.", "The first, \"Analytic of Concepts\", is concerned with establishing the universality and necessity of the ''pure'' concepts of the understanding (i.e., the categories).", "This section contains Kant's famous \"transcendental deduction\".", "The second, \"Analytic of Principles\", is concerned with the application of those pure concepts in ''empirical'' judgments.", "This second section is longer than the first and is further divided into many sub-sections.====Transcendental deduction of the categories of the understanding====The \"Analytic of Concepts\" argues for the universal and necessary validity of the pure concepts of the understanding, or the categories, for instance, the concepts of substance and causation.", "These twelve basic categories define what it is to be a ''thing in general''that is, they articulate the necessary conditions according to which something is a possible object of experience.", "These, in conjunction with the ''a priori'' forms of intuition, are the basis of all synthetic ''a priori'' cognition.According to Guyer and Wood, \"Kant's idea is that just as there are certain essential features of all judgments, so there must be certain corresponding ways in which we form the concepts of objects so that judgments may be about objects.", "\"Kant provides two central lines of argumentation in support of his claims about the categories.", "The first, known as the \"metaphysical deduction\", proceeds analytically from a table of the Aristotelian logical functions of judgment.", "As Kant was aware, however, this assumes precisely what the skeptic rejects, namely, the existence of synthetic ''a priori'' cognition.", "For this reason, Kant also supplies a synthetic argument that does not depend upon the assumption in dispute.This argument, provided under the heading \"Transcendental Deduction of the Pure Concepts of the Understanding\", is widely considered to be both the most important and the most difficult of Kant's arguments in the ''Critique''.", "Kant himself said that it is the one that cost him the most labor.", "Frustrated by its confused reception in the first edition of his book, he rewrote it entirely for the second edition.The \"Transcendental Deduction\" gives Kant's argument that these pure concepts apply universally and necessarily to the objects that are given in experience.", "According to Guyer and Wood, \"He centers his argument on the premise that our experience can be ascribed to a single identical subject, via what he calls the 'transcendental unity of apperception,' only if the elements of experience given in intuition are synthetically combined so as to present us with objects that are thought through the categories.", "\"Kant's principle of apperception is that \"The '''I think''' must '''be able''' to accompany all my representations; for otherwise something would be represented in me that could not be thought at all, which is as much as to say that the representation would either be impossible or else at least would be nothing for me.\"", "The ''necessary'' possibility of the self-ascription of the representations of self-consciousness, identical to itself through time, is an ''a priori'' conceptual truth that cannot be based on experience.This, however, is only a bare sketch of one of the arguments that Kant presents.====Principles of pure understanding====Kant's deduction of the categories in the \"Analytic of Concepts\", if successful, demonstrates its claims about the categories only in an abstract way.", "The task of the \"Analytic of Principles\" is to show both ''that'' they must universally apply to objects given in actual experience (i.e., manifolds of intuition) and ''how'' it is they do so.In the first book of this section on the \"schematism\", Kant connects each of the purely logical categories of the understanding to the temporality of intuition to show that, although non-empirical, they do have purchase upon the objects of experience.", "The second book continues this line of argument in four chapters, each associated with one of the category groupings.", "In some cases, it adds a connection to the spatial dimension of intuition to the categories it analyzes.The fourth chapter of this section, \"The Analogies of Experience\", marks a shift from \"mathematical\" to \"dynamical\" principles, that is, to those that deal with relations among objects.", "Some commentators consider this the most significant section of the ''Critique''.", "The analogies are three in number:# ''Principle of persistence of substance'': Kant is here concerned with the general conditions of determining time-relations among the objects of experience.", "He argues that the unity of time implies that \"all change must consist in the alteration of states in an underlying substance, whose existence and quantity must be unchangeable or conserved.", "\"# ''Principle of temporal succession according to the law of causality'': Here Kant argues that \"we can make determinate judgments about the objective succession of events, as contrasted to merely subjective successions of representations, only if every objective alteration follows a necessary rule of succession, or a causal law.\"", "This is Kant's most direct rejoinder to Hume's skepticism about causality.# ''Principle of simultaneity according to the law of reciprocity or community'': The final analogy argues that \"determinate judgments that objects (or states of substance) in different regions of space exists simultaneously are possible only if such objects stand in mutual causal relation of community or reciprocal interaction.\"", "(This is Kant's rejoinder to Leibniz's thesis in the ''Monadology''.", ")The fourth section of this chapter, which is not an analogy, deals with the empirical use of the modal categories.", "That was the end of the chapter in the A edition of the ''Critique''.The B edition, however, includes one more short section, \"The Refutation of Idealism\".", "In this section, by analysis of the concept of self-consciousness, Kant argues that his transcendental idealism is a \"critical\" or \"formal\" idealism that does not deny the existence of reality apart from our subjective representations.The final chapter of \"The Analytic of Principles\" distinguishes ''phenomena'', of which we have can have genuine knowledge, from ''noumena'', a term which refers to objects of pure thought that we cannot know, but to which we may still refer \"in a negative sense\".An Appendix to the section further develops Kant's criticism of Leibnizian-Wolffian rationalism by arguing that its \"dogmatic\" metaphysics confuses the \"mere features of concepts through which we think things...with features of the objects themselves\".", "Against this, Kant reasserts his own insistence upon the necessity of a sensible component in all genuine knowledge.===Critique of metaphysics===The second of the two Divisions of \"The Transcendental Logic\", \"The Transcendental Dialectic\", contains the \"negative\" portion of Kant's ''Critique'', which builds upon the \"positive\" arguments of the preceding \"Transcendental Analytic\" to expose the limits of metaphysical speculation.", "In particular, it is concerned to demonstrate as spurious the efforts of reason to arrive at knowledge independent of sensibility.", "This endeavor, Kant argues, is doomed to failure, which he claims to demonstrate by showing that reason, unbounded by sense, is always capable of generating opposing or otherwise incompatible conclusions.Like \"the light dove, in free flight cutting through the air, the resistance of which it feels\", reason \"could get the idea that it could do even better in airless space\".", "Against this, Kant claims that, absent epistemic friction, there can be no knowledge.Nevertheless, Kant's critique is not entirely destructive.", "He presents the speculative excesses of traditional metaphysics as inherent in our very capacity of reason.", "Moreover, he argues that its products are not without some (carefully qualified) ''regulative'' value.====On the concepts of pure reason====Kant calls the basic concepts of metaphysics \"ideas\".", "They are different from the concepts of understanding in that they are not limited by the critical stricture limiting knowledge to the conditions of possible experience and its objects.", "\"Transcendental illusion\" is Kant's term for the tendency of reason to produce such ideas.Although reason has a \"logical use\" of simply drawing inferences from principles, in \"The Transcendental Dialectic\", Kant is concerned with its purportedly \"real use\" to arrive at conclusions by way of unchecked regressive syllogistic ratiocination.The three categories of ''relation'', pursued without regard to the limits of possible experience, yield the three central ideas of traditional metaphysics:# ''The soul'': the concept of substance as the ultimate subject;# ''The world in its entirety'': the concept of causation as a completed series; and# ''God'': the concept of community as the common ground of all possibilities.Although Kant denies that these ideas can be objects of genuine cognition, he argues that they are the result of reason's inherent drive to unify cognition into a systematic whole.Leibnizian-Wolffian metaphysics was divided into four parts: ontology, psychology, cosmology, and theology.", "Kant replaces the first with the positive results of the first part of the ''Critique''.", "He proposes to replace the following three with his later doctrines of anthropology, the metaphysical foundations of natural science, and the critical postulation of human freedom and morality.====The dialectical inferences of pure reason====In the second of the two Books of \"The Transcendental Dialectic\", Kant undertakes to demonstrate the contradictory nature of unbounded reason.", "He does this by developing contradictions in each of the three metaphysical disciplines that he contends are, in fact, pseudo-sciences.", "This section of the ''Critique'' is long and Kant's arguments are extremely detailed.", "In this context, it not possible to do much more than enumerate the topics of discussion.The first chapter addresses what Kant terms the ''paralogisms''i.e., false inferencesthat pure reason makes in the metaphysical discipline of rational psychology.", "He argues that one cannot take the mere thought of \"I\" in the proposition \"I think\" as the proper cognition of \"I\" as an object.", "In this way, he claims to debunk various metaphysical theses about the substantiality, unity, and self-identity of the soul.The second chapter, which is the longest, takes up the topic Kant calls the ''antinomies'' of pure reasonthat is, the contradictions of reason with itselfin the metaphysical discipline of rational cosmology.", "(Originally, Kant had thought that all transcendental illusion could be analyzed in antinomic terms.)", "He presents four cases in which he claims reason is able to prove opposing theses with equal plausibility:# That \"reason seems to be able to prove that the universe is both finite and infinite in space and time\";# that \"reason seems to be able to prove that matter both is and is not infinitely divisible into ever smaller parts\";# that \"reason seems to be able to prove that free will cannot be a causally efficacious part of the world (because all of nature is deterministic) and yet that it must be such a cause\"; and,# that \"reason seems to be able to prove that there is and there is not a necessary being (which some would identify with God)\".Kant further argues in each case that his doctrine of transcendental idealism is able to resolve the antinomy.The third chapter examines fallacious arguments about God in rational theology under the heading of the \"Ideal of Pure Reason\".", "(Whereas an ''idea'' is a pure concept generated by reason, an ''ideal'' is the concept of an idea as an ''individual thing''.)", "Here Kant addresses and claims to refute three traditional arguments for the existence of God: the ontological argument, the cosmological argument, and the physio-theological argument (i.e., the argument from design).The results of the transcendental dialectic so far appear to be entirely negative.", "In an Appendix to this section, however, Kant rejects such a conclusion.", "The ideas of pure reason, he argues, have an important ''regulatory'' function in directing and organizing our theoretical and practical inquiry.", "Kant's later works elaborate upon this function at length and in detail.===Moral thought===Kant developed his ethics, or moral philosophy, in three works: ''Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals'' (1785), ''Critique of Practical Reason'' (1788), and ''Metaphysics of Morals'' (1797).With regard to morality, Kant argued that the source of the good lies not in anything outside the human subject, either in nature or given by God, but rather is only the good will itself.", "A good will is one that acts from duty in accordance with the universal moral law that the autonomous human being freely gives itself.", "This law obliges one to treat humanityunderstood as rational agency, and represented through oneself as well as othersas an end in itself rather than (merely) as means to other ends the individual might hold.Kant is known for his theory that all moral obligation is grounded in what he calls the \"categorical imperative\", which is derived from the concept of duty.", "He argues that the moral law is a principle of reason itself, not based on contingent facts about the world, such as what would make us happy; to act on the moral law has no other motive than \"worthiness to be happy\".====The idea of freedom====In the ''Critique of Pure Reason'', Kant distinguishes between the transcendental idea of freedom, which as a psychological concept is \"mainly empirical\" and refers to \"whether a faculty of beginning a series of successive things or states from itself is to be assumed\", and the practical concept of freedom as the independence of our will from the \"coercion\" or \"necessitation through sensuous impulses\".", "Kant finds it a source of difficulty that the practical idea of freedom is founded on the transcendental idea of freedom, but for the sake of practical interests uses the practical meaning, taking \"no account of ... its transcendental meaning\", which he feels was properly \"disposed of\" in the Third Antinomy, and as an element in the question of the freedom of the will is for philosophy \"a real stumbling block\" that has embarrassed speculative reason.Kant calls ''practical'' \"everything that is possible through freedom\"; he calls the pure practical laws that are never given through sensuous conditions, but are held analogously with the universal law of causality, moral laws.", "Reason can give us only the \"pragmatic laws of free action through the senses\", but pure practical laws given by reason ''a priori'' dictate \"what is to be done\".Kant's categories of freedom function primarily as conditions for the possibility for actions (i) to be free, (ii) to be understood as free, and (iii) to be morally evaluated.", "For Kant, although actions as theoretical objects are constituted by means of the theoretical categories, actions as practical objects (objects of practical use of reason, and which can be good or bad) are constituted by means of the categories of freedom.", "Only in this way can actions, as phenomena, be a consequence of freedom, and be understood and evaluated as such.====The categorical imperative====In his ''Groundwork'', Immanuel Kant introduced the categorical imperative: \"Act only in accordance with that maxim through which you at the same time can will that it become a universal law.", "\"Kant makes a distinction between categorical and hypothetical imperatives.", "A ''hypothetical'' imperative is one that we must obey to satisfy contingent desires.", "A ''categorical'' imperative binds us regardless of our desires: for example, everyone has a duty to respect others as individual ends in themselves, regardless of circumstances, even though it is sometimes in our narrowly selfish interest to not do so.", "These imperatives are morally binding because of the categorical form of their maxims, rather than contingent facts about an agent.", "Unlike hypothetical imperatives, which bind us insofar as we are part of a group or society which we owe duties to, we cannot opt out of the categorical imperative, because we cannot opt out of being rational agents.", "We owe a duty to rationality by virtue of being rational agents; therefore, rational moral principles apply to all rational agents at all times.", "Stated in other terms, with all forms of instrumental rationality excluded from morality, \"the moral law itself, Kant holds, can only be the form of lawfulness itself, because nothing else is left once all content has been rejected\".Kant provides three formulations for the categorical imperative.", "He claims that these are necessarily equivalent, as all being expressions of the pure universality of the moral law as such.", "Many scholars, however, are not convinced.The formulas are as follows:* ''Formula of Universal Law'':\"Act only in accordance with that maxim through which you at the same time can will that it become a universal law\"; alternatively,''Formula of the Law of Nature'': \"So act, as if the maxim of your action were to become through your will a universal law of nature.", "\" ''Formula of Humanity as End in Itself'':*\"So act that you use humanity, as much in your own person as in the person of every other, always at the same time as an end and never merely as a means\".", " ''Formula of Autonomy'':\"the idea of the will of every rational being as a will giving universal law\", or \"Not to choose otherwise than so that the maxims of one's choice are at the same time comprehended with it in the same volition as universal law\"; alternatively,''Formula of the Realm of Ends'': \"Act in accordance with maxims of a universally legislative member for a merely possible realm of ends.", "\"Kant defines ''maxim'' as a \"subjective principle of volition\", which is distinguished from an \"objective principle or 'practical law.", "While \"the latter is valid for every rational being and is a 'principle according to which they ought to act,' a maxim 'contains the practical rule which reason determines in accordance with the conditions of the subject (often their ignorance or inclinations) and is thus the principle according to which the subject does act.Maxims fail to qualify as practical laws if they produce a contradiction in conception or a contradiction in the will when universalized.", "A contradiction in conception happens when, if a maxim were to be universalized, it ceases to make sense, because the \"maxim would necessarily destroy itself as soon as it was made a universal law\".", "For example, if the maxim 'It is permissible to break promises' was universalized, no one would trust any promises made, so the idea of a promise would become meaningless; the maxim would be self-contradictory because, when it is universalized, promises cease to be meaningful.", "The maxim is not moral because it is logically impossible to universalizethat is, we could not conceive of a world where this maxim was universalized.", "A maxim can also be immoral if it creates a contradiction in the will when universalized.", "This does not mean a logical contradiction, but that universalizing the maxim leads to a state of affairs that no ''rational'' being would desire.====\"The Doctrine of Virtue\"====As Kant explains in the 1785 ''Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals'' (and as its title directly indicates) that text is \"nothing more than the search for and establishment of the ''supreme principle of morality''\".", "His promised ''Metaphysics of Morals'', however, was much delayed and did not appear until its two parts, \"The Doctrine of Right\" and \"The Doctrine of Virtue\", were published separately in 1797 and 1798.The first deals with political philosophy, the second with ethics.", "\"The Doctrine of Virtue\" provides \"a very different account of ordinary moral reasoning\" than the one suggested by the ''Groundwork''.", "It is concerned with ''duties of virtue'' or \"ends that are at the same time duties\".", "It is here, in the domain of ethics, that the greatest innovation by ''The Metaphysics of Morals'' is to be found.", "According to Kant's account, \"ordinary moral reasoning is fundamentally teleologicalit is reasoning about what ends we are constrained by morality to pursue, and the priorities among these ends we are required to observe\".", "More specifically,There are two sorts of ends that it is our duty to have: our own perfection and the happiness of others (''MS'' 6:385).", "\"Perfection\" includes both our natural perfection (the development of our talents, skills, and capacities of understanding) and moral perfection (our virtuous disposition) (''MS'' 6:387).", "A person's \"happiness\" is the greatest rational whole of the ends the person set for the sake of her own satisfaction (''MS'' 6:387–388).Kant's elaboration of this teleological doctrine offers up a moral theory very different from the one typically attributed to him on the basis of his foundational works alone.===Political philosophy===In ''Towards Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Project'', Kant listed several conditions that he thought necessary for ending wars and creating a lasting peace.", "They included a world of constitutional republics.", "His classical republican theory was extended in the ''Doctrine of Right'', the first part of the ''Metaphysics of Morals'' (1797).", "Kant believed that universal history leads to the ultimate world of republican states at peace, but his theory was not pragmatic.", "The process was described in ''Perpetual Peace'' as natural rather than rational:Kant's political thought can be summarized as republican government and international organization: \"In more characteristically Kantian terms, it is doctrine of the state based upon the law (''Rechtsstaat'') and of eternal peace.", "Indeed, in each of these formulations, both terms express the same idea: that of legal constitution or of 'peace through law.", "\"Kant's political philosophy, being essentially a legal doctrine, rejects by definition the opposition between moral education and the play of passions as alternate foundations for social life.", "The state is defined as the union of men under law.", "The state rightly so called is constituted by laws which are necessary a priori because they flow from the very concept of law.", "A regime can be judged by no other criteria nor be assigned any other functions, than those proper to the lawful order as such.", "\"He opposed \"democracy\", which at his time meant direct democracy, believing that majority rule posed a threat to individual liberty.", "He stated, \"''democracy'' in the strict sense of the word is necessarily a ''despotism'' because it establishes an executive power in which all decide for and, if need be, against one (who thus does not agree), so that all, who are nevertheless not all, decide; and this is a contradiction of the general will with itself and with freedom.\"", "As with most writers at the time, he distinguished three forms of governmentnamely, democracy, aristocracy, and monarchywith mixed government as the most ideal form of it.He believed in republican ideals and forms of governance, and rule of law brought on by them.Although Kant published this as a \"popular piece\", Mary J. Gregor points out that two years later, in ''The Metaphysics of Morals'', Kant claims to demonstrate ''systematically'' that \"establishing universal and lasting peace constitutes not merely a part of the doctrine of right, but rather the entire final end of the doctrine of right within the limits of mere reason\".", "''The Doctrine of Right'', published in 1797, contains Kant's most mature and systematic contribution to political philosophy.", "It addresses duties according to law, which are \"concerned only with protecting the external freedom of individuals\" and indifferent to incentives.", "(Although we do have a moral duty \"to limit ourselves to actions that are right, that duty is not part of right itself\".)", "Its basic political idea is that \"each person's entitlement to be his or her own master is only consistent with the entitlements of others if public legal institutions are in place\".===Religious writings===Starting in the twentieth century, commentators have tended to see Kant as having a strained relationship with religion, although in the nineteenth century this had not been the prevalent view.", "Karl Leonhard Reinhold, whose letters helped make Kant famous, wrote: \"I believe that I may infer without reservation that the interest of religion, and of Christianity in particular, accords completely with the result of the Critique of Reason.\"", "According to Johann Schultz, who wrote one of the first commentaries on Kant: \"And does not this system itself cohere most splendidly with the Christian religion?", "Do not the divinity and beneficence of the latter become all the more evident?\"", "The reason for these views was Kant's moral theology and the widespread belief that his philosophy was the great antithesis to Spinozism, which was widely seen as a form of sophisticated pantheism or even atheism.", "As Kant's philosophy disregarded the possibility of arguing for God through pure reason alone, for the same reasons it also disregarded the possibility of arguing against God through pure reason alone.Kant articulates his strongest criticisms of the organization and practices of religious organizations to those that encourage what he sees as a religion of counterfeit service to God.", "Among the major targets of his criticism are external ritual, superstition, and a hierarchical church order.", "He sees these as efforts to make oneself pleasing to God in ways other than conscientious adherence to the principle of moral rightness in choosing and acting upon one's maxims.", "Kant's criticisms on these matters, along with his rejection of certain theoretical proofs for the existence of God that were grounded in pure reason (particularly the ontological argument) and his philosophical commentary on some Christian doctrines, have resulted in interpretations that see Kant as hostile to religion in general and to Christianity in particular.", "Other interpreters, nevertheless, consider that Kant was trying to mark off defensible from indefensible Christian belief.Regarding Kant's conception of religion, some critics have argued that he was sympathetic to deism.", "Other critics have argued that Kant's moral conception moves from deism to theism (as moral theism), for example, Allen W. Wood and Merold Westphal.", "As for Kant's book ''Religion within the Bounds of Mere Reason'', it was emphasized that Kant reduced religiosity to rationality, religion to morality, and Christianity to ethics.", "However, many interpreters, including Allen W. Wood and Lawrence Pasternack, now agree with Stephen Palmquist's claim that a better way of reading Kant's ''Religion'' is to see him as raising morality to the status of religion.=== Aesthetics ===Immanuel KantKant discusses the subjective nature of aesthetic qualities and experiences in ''Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime'' (1764).", "Kant's contribution to aesthetic theory is developed in the ''Critique of the Power of Judgment'' (1790), where he investigates the possibility and logical status of \"judgments of taste\".", "In the \"Critique of Aesthetic Judgment\", the first major division of the ''Critique of the Power of Judgment'', Kant used the term \"aesthetic\" in a manner that differs from its modern sense.", "In the ''Critique of Pure Reason'', to note essential differences between judgments of taste, moral judgments, and scientific judgments, Kant abandoned the term \"aesthetic\" as \"designating the critique of taste\", noting that judgments of taste could never be \"directed\" by \"laws ''a priori''\".After A. G. Baumgarten, who wrote ''Aesthetica'' (1750–58), Kant was one of the first philosophers to develop and integrate aesthetic theory into a unified and comprehensive philosophical system, utilizing ideas that played an integral role throughout his philosophy.In the chapter \"Analytic of the Beautiful\" in the ''Critique of the Power of Judgment'', Kant states that beauty is not a property of an artwork or natural phenomenon, but is instead consciousness of the pleasure that attends the 'free play' of the imagination and the understanding.", "Even though it appears that we are using reason to decide what is beautiful, the judgment is not a cognitive judgment, \"and is consequently not logical, but aesthetical\".A pure judgement of taste is subjective since it refers to the emotional response of the subject and is based upon nothing but esteem for an object itself: it is a disinterested pleasure, and we feel that pure judgements of taste (i.e., judgements of beauty), lay claim to universal validity.", "This universal validity is not derived from a determinate concept of beauty but from ''common sense''.", "Kant also believed that a judgement of taste shares characteristics engaged in a moral judgement: both are disinterested, and we hold them to be universal.In the chapter \"Analytic of the Sublime\" Kant identifies the sublime as an aesthetic quality that, like beauty, is subjective, but unlike beauty refers to an indeterminate relationship between the faculties of the imagination and of reason, and shares the character of moral judgments in the use of reason.", "The feeling of the sublime, divided into two distinct modes (the mathematical and the dynamical sublime), describes two subjective moments that concern the relationship of the faculty of the imagination to reason.Some commentators argue that Kant's critical philosophy contains a third kind of the sublime, the moral sublime, which is the aesthetic response to the moral law or a representation, and a development of the \"noble\" sublime in Kant's theory of 1764.The mathematical sublime results from the failure of the imagination to comprehend natural objects that appear boundless and formless, or appear \"absolutely great\".", "This imaginative failure is then recuperated through the pleasure taken in reason's assertion of the concept of infinity.", "In this move the faculty of reason proves itself superior to our fallible sensible self.", "In the dynamical sublime, there is the sense of annihilation of the sensible self as the imagination tries to comprehend a vast might.", "This power of nature threatens us but through the resistance of reason to such sensible annihilation, the subject feels a pleasure and a sense of the human moral vocation.", "This appreciation of moral feeling through exposure to the sublime helps to develop moral character.Kant developed a theory of humor that has been interpreted as an \"incongruity\" theory.", "He illustrated his theory of humor by telling three narrative jokes in the ''Critique of Judgment''.", "He thought that the physiological impact of humor is akin to that of music.Kant developed a distinction between an object of art as a material value subject to the conventions of society and the transcendental condition of the judgment of taste as a \"refined\" value in his ''Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Aim'' (1784).", "In the Fourth and Fifth Theses of that work he identified all art as the \"fruits of unsociableness\" due to men's \"antagonism in society\" and, in the Seventh Thesis, asserted that while such material property is indicative of a civilized state, only the ideal of morality and the universalization of refined value through the improvement of the mind \"belongs to culture\".===Anthropology===5 DM 1974 D silver coin commemorating the 250th birthday of Immanuel Kant in KönigsbergKant lectured on anthropology, the study of human nature, for twenty-three years.", "His ''Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View'' was published in 1798.Transcripts of Kant's lectures on anthropology were published for the first time in 1997 in German.Kant was among the first people of his time to introduce anthropology as an intellectual area of study, long before the field gained popularity, and his texts are considered to have advanced the field.", "His point of view was to influence the works of later philosophers such as Martin Heidegger and Paul Ricoeur.Kant was also the first to suggest using a dimensionality approach to human diversity.", "He analyzed the nature of the Hippocrates-Galen four temperaments and plotted in two dimensions \"what belongs to a human being's faculty of desire\":\"his natural aptitude or natural predisposition\" and \"his temperament or sensibility\".", "Cholerics were described as emotional and energetic, phlegmatics as balanced and weak, sanguines as balanced and energetic, and melancholics as emotional and weak.", "These two dimensions reappeared in all subsequent models of temperament and personality traits.Kant viewed anthropology in two broad categories: (1) the physiological approach, which he referred to as \"what nature makes of the human being\"; and (2) the pragmatic approach, which explores the things that a human \"can and should make of himself\".====Racism====''Kant Mixing Mustard'', drawn by , 1801Kant's theory of race and his prejudicial beliefs are among the most contentious areas of recent Kant scholarship.", "While few, if any, dispute the overt racism and chauvinism present in his work, a more contested question is the degree to which it degrades or invalidates his other contributions.", "His most severe critics assert that Kant intentionally manipulated science to support chattel slavery and discrimination.", "Others acknowledge that he lived in an era of immature science, with many erroneous beliefs, some racist, all appearing decades before evolution, molecular genetics, and other sciences that today are taken for granted.Kant was one of the most notable Enlightenment thinkers to defend racism.", "Philosopher Charles W. Mills is unequivocal: \"Kant is also seen as one of the central figures in the birth of modern 'scientific' racism.", "Whereas other contributors to early racial thought like Carolus Linnaeus and Johann Friedrich Blumenbach had offered only 'empirical' (scare-quotes necessary!)", "observation, Kant produced a full-blown ''theory'' of race.\"", "Using the four temperaments of ancient Greece, Kant proposed a hierarchy of racial categories including white Europeans, black Africans, and red Native Americans.", "Although he was a proponent of scientific racism for much of his career, Kant's views on race changed significantly in the last decade of his life, and he ultimately rejected racial hierarchies and European colonialism in ''Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch'' (1795).Kant was an opponent of miscegenation, believing that whites would be \"degraded\" and that \"fusing of races\" is undesirable, for \"not every race adopts the morals and customs of the Europeans\".", "He states that \"instead of assimilation, which was intended by the melting together of the various races, nature has here made a law of just the opposite\".Kant was also an anti-Semite, believing that Jews were incapable of transcending material forces, which a moral order required.", "In this way, Jews are presented as the opposite of autonomous, rational Christians, and therefore incapable of being incorporated into an ethical Christian society.", "In his \"Anthropology\", Kant called the Jews \"a nation of cheaters\" and portrayed them as \"a group that has followed not the path of transcendental freedom but that of enslavement to the material world\".Charles W. Mills wrote that Kant has been \"sanitized for public consumption\", his racist works conveniently ignored.", "Robert Bernasconi stated that Kant \"supplied the first scientific definition of race\".", "Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze is credited with bringing Kant's contributions to racism to light in the 1990s among Western philosophers, who he believed often glossed over this part of his life and works.Pauline Kleingeld argues that, while Kant \"did defend a racial hierarchy until at least the end of the 1780s\", his views on race changed significantly in works published in the last decade of his life.", "In particular, she argues that Kant rejected past views related to racial hierarchies and the diminished rights or moral status of non-whites in ''Perpetual Peace'' (1795).", "This work also saw him providing extended arguments against European colonialism, which he claimed was morally unjust and incompatible with the equal rights held by indigenous populations.", "Kleingeld argues that this shift in Kant's views later in life has often been forgotten or ignored in the literature on Kant's racist anthropology, and that the shift suggests a belated recognition of the fact that racial hierarchy was incompatible with a universalized moral framework.While Kant's racist rhetoric is indicative of the state of scholarship and science during the 18th century, German philosopher Daniel-Pascal Zorn explains the risk of taking period quotations out of context.", "Many of Kant's most outrageous quotations are from a series of articles from 1777–1788, a public exchange among Kant, Herder, natural scientist Georg Forster, and other scholars prominent in that period.", "Kant asserts that all races of humankind are of the same species, challenging the position of Forster and others that the races were distinct species.", "While his commentary is clearly biased at times, certain extreme statements were patterned specifically to paraphrase or counter Forster and other authors.", "By considering the full arc of Kant's scholarship, Zorn notes the progression in both his philosophical and his anthropological works, \"with which he argues, against the ''zeitgeist'', for the unity of humanity\"." ], [ "Influence and legacy", "Poster celebrating the 300 years of the University of Königsberg, 1844.Among others, Kant and Herbart are honored.Kant's influence on Western thought has been profound.", "Although the basic tenets of Kant's transcendental idealism (i.e., that space and time are ''a priori'' forms of human perception rather than real properties and the claim that formal logic and transcendental logic coincide) have been claimed to be falsified by modern science and logic, and no longer set the intellectual agenda of contemporary philosophers, Kant is credited with having innovated the way philosophical inquiry has been carried on at least up to the early nineteenth century.", "This shift consisted of several closely related innovations that, although highly contentious in themselves, have become important in subsequent philosophy and in the social sciences broadly construed: The human subject seen as the center of inquiry into human knowledge, such that it is impossible to philosophize about things as they exist independently of human perception or of how they are \"for us\";* the notion that is possible to discover and systematically explore the inherent limits of the human ability to know entirely ''a priori'';* the notion of the \"categorical imperative\", an assertion that people are naturally endowed with the ability and obligation toward right reason and acting.", "Perhaps his most famous quote is drawn from the ''Critique of Practical Reason'': \"Two things fill my mind with ever new and increasing admiration and reverence...: ''the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me''\";* the concept of \"conditions of possibility\", as in his notion of \"the conditions of possible experience\"; that is, that things, knowledge, and forms of consciousness rest on prior conditions that make them possible, so that, to understand or to know them, several conditions must be understood;:* the claim that objective experience is actively constituted or constructed by the functioning of the human mind;:* the concept of moral autonomy as central to humanity; and:* the assertion of the principle that human beings should be treated as ends rather than as mere means.Kant's ideas have been incorporated into a variety of schools of thought.", "These include German idealism, Marxism, positivism, phenomenology, existentialism, critical theory, linguistic philosophy, structuralism, post-structuralism, and deconstruction.===Historical influence===During his own life, much critical attention was paid to Kant's thought.", "He influenced Reinhold, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, and Novalis during the 1780s and 1790s.Statue of Immanuel Kant in Kaliningrad (Königsberg), Russia.", "Replica by of the original by Christian Daniel Rauch lost in 1945.Samuel Taylor Coleridge was greatly influenced by Kant and helped to spread awareness of him, and of German Idealism generally, in the UK and the US.", "In his ''Biographia Literaria'' (1817), he credits Kant's ideas in coming to believe that the mind is not a passive, but an active agent in the apprehension of reality.Hegel was one of Kant's first major critics.", "In Hegel's view the entire project of setting a \"transcendental subject\" (i.e., human consciousness) apart from the living individual as well as from nature, history, and society was fundamentally flawed, although parts of that very project could be put to good use in a new direction.", "Similar concerns motivated Hegel's criticisms of Kant's concept of moral autonomy, to which Hegel opposed an ethic focused on the \"ethical life\" of the community.", "In a sense, Hegel's notion of \"ethical life\" is meant to subsume, rather than replace, Kantian ethics.", "And Hegel can be seen as trying to defend Kant's idea of freedom as going beyond finite \"desires\", by means of reason.", "Thus, in contrast to later critics like Nietzsche or Russell, Hegel shares some of Kant's concerns.Kant's thinking on religion was used in Britain by philosophers such as Thomas Carlyle to challenge the nineteenth-century decline in religious faith.", "British Catholic writers, notably G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc, followed this approach.", "Criticisms of Kant were common in the realist views of the new positivism at that time.Arthur Schopenhauer was strongly influenced by Kant's transcendental idealism.", "He, like G. E. Schulze, Jacobi, and Fichte before him, was critical of Kant's theory of the thing-in-itself.", "Things-in-themselves, they argued, are neither the cause of what we observe, nor are they completely beyond our access.", "Ever since the ''Critique of Pure Reason'', philosophers have been critical of Kant's theory of the thing-in-itself.", "Many have argued that, if such a thing exists beyond experience, then one cannot posit that it affects us causally, since that would entail stretching the category \"causality\" beyond the realm of experience.With the success and wide influence of Hegel's writings, Kant's own influence began to wane, but a re-examination of his ideas began in Germany in 1865 with the publication of ''Kant und die Epigonen'' by Otto Liebmann, whose motto was \"Back to Kant\".", "There proceeded an important revival of Kant's theoretical philosophy, known as Neo-Kantianism.Weimar Republic stamp honoring Kant, 1926Kant's notion of \"critique\" has been more broadly influential.", "The early German Romantics, especially Friedrich Schlegel in his \"Athenaeum Fragments\", used Kant's reflexive conception of criticism in their Romantic theory of poetry.", "Also in aesthetics, Clement Greenberg, in his classic essay \"Modernist Painting\", uses Kantian criticism, what Greenberg refers to as \"immanent criticism\", to justify the aims of abstract painting, a movement Greenberg saw as aware of the key limitation—flatness—that makes up the medium of painting.French philosopher Michel Foucault was also greatly influenced by Kant's notion of \"critique\" and wrote several pieces on Kant for a re-thinking of the Enlightenment as a form of \"critical thought\".", "He went so far as to classify his own philosophy as a \"critical history of modernity, rooted in Kant\".Kant believed that mathematical truths were forms of synthetic ''a priori'' knowledge, which means they are necessary and universal, yet known through the ''a priori'' intuition of space and time, as transcendental preconditions of experience.", "Kant's often brief remarks about mathematics influenced the mathematical school known as intuitionism, a movement in philosophy of mathematics opposed to Hilbert's formalism, and Frege and Bertrand Russell's logicism.===Influence on modern thinkers===West German postage stamp, 1974, commemorating the 250th anniversary of Kant's birthWith his ''Perpetual Peace'', Kant is considered to have foreshadowed many of the ideas that have come to form the democratic peace theory, one of the main controversies in political science.", "More concretely, Constructivist theorist Alexander Wendt proposed that the anarchy of the international system could evolve from the 'brutish' Hobbesian anarchy understood by Realist theorists, through Lockean anarchy, and ultimately a Kantian anarchy in which states would see their self-interests as inextricably linked to the well being of other states, thus transforming international politics into a far more peaceful form.Prominent recent Kantians include the British philosophers P. F. Strawson, Onora O'Neill, and Quassim Cassam, and the American philosophers Wilfrid Sellars and Christine Korsgaard.", "Due to the influence of Strawson and Sellars, among others, there has been a renewed interest in Kant's view of the mind.", "Central to many debates in philosophy of psychology and cognitive science is Kant's conception of the unity of consciousness.Jürgen Habermas and John Rawls are two significant political and moral philosophers whose work is strongly influenced by Kant's moral philosophy.", "They have argued against relativism, supporting the Kantian view that universality is essential to any viable moral philosophy.Mou Zongsan's study of Kant has been cited as a highly crucial part in the development of Mou's personal philosophy, namely New Confucianism.", "Widely regarded as the most influential Kant scholar in China, Mou's rigorous critique of Kant's philosophyhaving translated all three of Kant's critiquesserved as an ardent attempt to reconcile Chinese and Western philosophy whilst increasing pressure to westernize in China.East German commemorative coin honoring Kant, 1974Kant's influence has also extended to the social, behavioral, and physical sciencesas in the sociology of Max Weber, the psychology of Jean Piaget and Carl Gustav Jung, and the linguistics of Noam Chomsky.", "Kant's work on mathematics and synthetic ''a priori'' knowledge is also cited by theoretical physicist Albert Einstein as an early influence on his intellectual development, though one which he later criticized and rejected.", "In recent years, there has also been renewed interest in Kant's theory of mind from the point of view of formal logic and computer science.Because of the thoroughness of Kant's paradigm shift, his influence extends well beyond this to thinkers who neither specifically refer to his work nor use his terminology." ], [ "Bibliography", "Unless otherwise noted, all citations are to ''The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant in English Translation'', 16 vols., ed.", "Guyer, Paul, and Wood, Allen W. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.Citations in the article are to individual works per abbreviations in ''List of Major'' works below.", "* ''Lectures on Logic''.", "Ed.", "and trans.", "J. Michael Young.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.", "* ''Opus postumum''.", "Ed.", "Eckart Förster, trans.", "Eckart Förster and Michael Rosen.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993* ''Practical Philosophy''.", "Ed.", "and trans.", "Mary J. Gregor.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.", "* ''Religion and Rational Theology''.", "Ed.", "and trans.Allen W. Wood and George di Giovanni.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996* ''Lectures on Metaphysics''.", "Ed.", "and trans.", "Karl Ameriks and Steve Naragon.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.", "* ''Lectures on Ethics''.", "Ed.", "Peter Heath and J.B. Schneewind, trans.", "Peter Heath.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.", "* ''Critique of Pure Reason''.", "Ed.", "and trans.", "Paul Guyer and Allen W. Wood.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.", "* ''Correspondence''.", "Ed.", "and trans.", "Arnulf Zweig.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.", "* ''Critique of the Power of Judgment''.", "Ed.", "Paul Guyer, trans.", "Paul Guyer and Eric Matthews.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.", "* ''Theoretical Philosophy after 1781''.", "Ed.", "Henry Allison and Peter Heath, trans.", "Gary Hatfield, Michael Friedman, Henry Allison, and Peter Heath.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.", "* ''Notes and Fragments''.", "Ed.", "Paul Guyer, trans.", "Curtis Bowman, Paul Guyer, and Frederick Rauscher.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.", "* ''Anthropology, History, and Education'', Ed.", "Günter Zöller and Robert B. Louden.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.", "* ''Lectures on Anthropology'', Ed.", "Allen W. Wood and Robert B. Louden Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.", "* ''Natural Science'', Ed.", "Eric Watkins.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.===List of major works===Abbreviations used in body of article are boldface in brackets.", "Unless otherwise noted, pagination is to the critical ''Akademie'' edition, which can be found in the margins of the Cambridge translations.", "* 1749: ''Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces'' (''Gedanken von der wahren Schätzung der lebendigen Kräfte'')* 1755: ''Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens'' '''UNH''' ()* 1755: ''Brief Outline of Certain Meditations on Fire'' (''Meditationum quarundam de igne succinta delineatio'' (master's thesis under Johann Gottfried Teske))* 1755: ''A New Elucidation of the First Principles of Metaphysical Cognition'' (''Principiorum primorum cognitionis metaphysicae nova dilucidatio'' (doctoral thesis))* 1756: ''The Use in Natural Philosophy of Metaphysics Combined with Geometry, Part I: Physical Monadology'' '''PM''' (''Metaphysicae cum geometrica iunctae usus in philosophia naturali, cuius specimen I. continet monadologiam physicam'', abbreviated as ''Monadologia Physica'' (thesis as a prerequisite of associate professorship))* 1762: ''The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures'' (''Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figuren'')* 1763: ''The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God'' (''Der einzig mögliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des Daseins Gottes'')* 1763: ''Attempt to Introduce the Concept of Negative Magnitudes into Philosophy'' '''NQ''' (''Versuch den Begriff der negativen Größen in die Weltweisheit einzuführen'')* 1764: ''Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime'' '''OFBS''' (''Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen'')* 1764: ''Essay on the Illness of the Head'' (''Über die Krankheit des Kopfes'')* 1764: ''Inquiry Concerning the Distinctness of the Principles of Natural Theology and Morality'' (the ''Prize Essay'') '''PNTM''' (''Untersuchungen über die Deutlichkeit der Grundsätze der natürlichen Theologie und der Moral'')* 1766: ''Dreams of a Spirit-Seer'' '''DSS''' (''Träume eines Geistersehers'')* 1768: ''On the Ultimate Ground of the Differentiation of Regions in Space'' 1768 (''Von dem ersten Grunde des Unterschiedes der Gegenden im Raume'')* 1770: ''Dissertation on the Form and Principles of the Sensible and the Intelligible World'' '''ID''' (''De mundi sensibilis atque intelligibilis forma et principiis'' doctoral thesis)* 1775: ''On the Different Races of Man'' (''Über die verschiedenen Rassen der Menschen'')* 1781: First edition of the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' '''CPuR A''' (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')* 1783: ''Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics'' '''PFM''' (''Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik'')* 1784: \"An Answer to the Question: What Is Enlightenment?\"", "'''WE?'''", "(\"''Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?", "''\")* 1784: \"Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose\" '''UH''' (\"''Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlicher Absicht''\")* 1785: \"Determination of the Concept of a Human Race\" '''DCHR''' (''Bestimmung des Begriffs einer Menschenrace'')* 1785: ''Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals'' '''G''' (''Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten'')* 1786: ''Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science'' '''MFNS''' (''Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft'')* 1786: \" What does it mean to orient oneself in thinking?\"", "'''OT'''(\"''Was heißt: sich im Denken orientieren?", "''\")* 1786: ''Conjectural Beginning of Human History'' '''CB''' (''Mutmaßlicher Anfang der Menschengeschichte'')* 1787: Second edition of the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' '''CPuR B''' (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'')* 1788: ''Critique of Practical Reason'' '''CPracR''' (''Kritik der praktischen Vernunft'')* 1790: ''Critique of Judgment'' '''CPJ''' (''Kritik der Urteilskraft'')* 1793: ''Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason'' '''RBMR''' (''Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft'')* 1793: ''On the Old Saw: That May be Right in Theory But It Won't Work in Practice'' '''TP''' ''(Über den Gemeinspruch: Das mag in der Theorie richtig sein, taugt aber nicht für die Praxis)''* 1795: ''Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch'' '''PP''' (\"''Zum ewigen Frieden''\")* 1797: ''Metaphysics of Morals'' '''MM''' (''Metaphysik der Sitten'').", "First part is The Doctrine of Right, which has often been published separately as The Science of Right.", "* 1798: ''Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View'' '''APPV''' (''Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht'')* 1798: ''Conflict of Faculties'' '''CF''' (''Der Streit der Fakultäten'')* 1800: ''Logic'' (''Logik'')* 1803: ''On Pedagogy'' (''Über Pädagogik'')* 1804: ''Opus Postumum'' '''OP'''* 1817: ''Lectures on Philosophical Theology'' (''Immanuel Kants Vorlesungen über die philosophische Religionslehre'' edited by K.H.L.", "Pölitz) The English edition of A.W.", "Wood & G.M.", "Clark (Cornell, 1978) is based on Pölitz' second edition, 1830, of these lectures.===Collected works in German===Wilhelm Dilthey inaugurated the Academy edition (the ''Akademie-Ausgabe'' abbreviated as ''AA'' or ''Ak'') of Kant's writings (''Gesammelte Schriften'', Königlich-Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin, 1902–38) in 1895, and served as its first editor.", "The volumes are grouped into four sections:* I. Kant's published writings (vols.", "1–9),* II.", "Kant's correspondence (vols.", "10–13),* III.", "Kant's literary remains, or ''Nachlass'' (vols.", "14–23), and* IV.", "Student notes from Kant's lectures (vols.", "24–29).An electronic version is also available: ''Elektronische Edition der Gesammelten Werke Immanuel Kants'' (vols.", "1–23)." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Works cited=== * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * * * KantPapers, authors and papers database powered by PhilPapers, focused on Kant, and located at Cornell University* Stephen Palmquist's Glossary of Kantian Terminology* At the ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'':** * At the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'':**" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Indonesia" ], [ "Introduction", "As early as the 1st century CE Indonesian vessels made trade voyages as far as Africa.", "Picture: a ship carved on Borobudur, CE.The '''history of Indonesia''' has been shaped by its geographic position, natural resources, a series of human migrations and contacts, wars and conquests, as well as by trade, economics and politics.", "Indonesia is an archipelagic country of 17,000 to 18,000 islands stretching along the equator in Southeast Asia.", "The country's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade; trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.", "The area of Indonesia is populated by peoples of various migrations, creating a diversity of cultures, ethnicities, and languages.", "The archipelago's landforms and climate significantly influenced agriculture and trade, and the formation of states.", "The boundaries of the state of Indonesia match the 20th-century borders of the Dutch East Indies.Fossilised remains of ''Homo erectus'', popularly known as \"Java Man\", and their tools suggest the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited at least 1.5 million years ago.", "Austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population, are thought to have originally been from Taiwan and arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE.", "From the 7th century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished, bringing Hindu and Buddhist influences with it.", "The agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties subsequently thrived in inland Java.", "The last significant non-Muslim kingdom, the Hindu Majapahit kingdom, flourished from the late 13th century, and its influence stretched over much of Indonesia.", "The earliest evidence of Islamised populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra; other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, which became the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century.", "For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences.Europeans such as the Portuguese arrived in Indonesia from the 16th century seeking to monopolise the sources of valuable nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in Maluku.", "In 1602, the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (''Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie'' or VOC) and became the dominant European power by 1610.Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies under government control.", "By the early 20th century, Dutch dominance extended to the current boundaries.", "The Japanese invasion and occupation in 1942–1945 during WWII ended Dutch rule, and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement.", "Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, nationalist leader Sukarno declared independence and became president.", "The Netherlands tried to reestablish its rule, but a bitter armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure the Dutch formally recognised Indonesian independence.An attempted coup in 1965 led to a violent army-led anti-communist purge in which over half a million people were killed.", "General Suharto politically outmanoeuvred President Sukarno, and became president in March 1968.His New Order administration garnered the favour of the West, whose investment in Indonesia was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth.", "In the late 1990s, however, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the East Asian financial crisis, which led to popular protests and Suharto's resignation on 21 May 1998.The ''Reformasi'' era following Suharto's resignation has led to a strengthening of democratic processes, including a regional autonomy program, the secession of East Timor, and the first direct presidential election in 2004.Political instability, social unrest, corruption, natural disasters, and terrorism remained problems in the 2000s, but the economy has performed strongly since 2007.Although relations between different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problems in some areas.Today, Indonesia is a diverse and multicultural nation with a population of over 270 million people.", "The country is known for its natural beauty, rich cultural heritage, and significant contributions to global art, music, and cuisine.", "It is also one of the world's fastest-growing economies and a major player in the Southeast Asian region." ], [ "Prehistory", "In 2007, an analysis of cut marks on two bovid bones found in Sangiran, showed them to have been made 1.5 to 1.6 million years ago by clamshell tools.", "This is the oldest evidence for the presence of early humans in Indonesia.", "Fossilised remains of ''Homo erectus'' in Indonesia, popularly known as the \"Java Man\" were first discovered by the Dutch anatomist Eugène Dubois at Trinil in 1891, and are at least 700,000 years old.", "Other ''H.", "erectus'' fossils of a similar age were found at Sangiran in the 1930s by the anthropologist Gustav Heinrich Ralph von Koenigswald, who in the same time period also uncovered fossils at Ngandong alongside more advanced tools, re-dated in 2011 to between 550,000 and 143,000 years old.", "In 1977 another ''H.", "erectus'' skull was discovered at Sambungmacan.", "In 2010, stone tools were discovered on Flores, dating from 1 million years ago.", "These are the earliest remains implying human seafaring technology.", "The earliest evidence of artistic activity ever found, in the form of diagonal etchings made with the use of a shark's tooth, was detected in 2014 on a 500,000-year-old fossil of a clam found in Java in the 1890s, associated with ''H.", "erectus''.In 2003, on the island of Flores, fossils of a 1.1 m (3 ft 7 in) tall hominid dated between 74,000 and 13,000 years old were discovered, much to the surprise of the scientific community.", "This newly discovered hominid was named the \"Flores Man\", or ''Homo floresiensis''.", "A phylogenetic analysis published in 2017 suggests that ''H.", "floresiensis'' was descended from the same ancestor as ''Homo habilis.''", "''H.", "floresiensis'' would thus represent a previously unknown and very early migration out of Africa.", "The ''Homo floresiensis'' skeletal material is dated from 60,000 to 100,000 years ago; stone tools recovered alongside the skeletal remains were from archaeological horizons ranging from 50,000 to 190,000 years ago.Megalithic statue found in Tegurwangi, Sumatra, Indonesia, 1500 CEThe Indonesian archipelago was formed during the thaw after the Last Glacial Maximum.", "Early humans travelled by sea and spread from mainland Asia eastward to New Guinea and Australia.", "''Homo sapiens'' reached the region by around 45,000 years ago.", "In 2011, evidence was uncovered in neighbouring East Timor, showing that 42,000 years ago, these early settlers had high-level maritime skills, and by implication the technology needed to make ocean crossings to reach Australia and other islands, as they were catching and consuming large numbers of big deep sea fish such as tuna.An elaborate 4.5 m long rock art panel in a limestone cave at Leang Bulu' in Sulawesi is currently considered the earliest figurative artwork in the world.", "It portrays several figures hunting wild pigs and dwarf bovids.", "This rock art was dated to at least 43,900 years ago on the basis of uranium-series analysis of overlying speleothems.", "A painted hand stencil from Leang Timpuseng, which has a minimum age of 39,900 years, is now the oldest known hand stencil in the world.Austronesian people form the majority of the modern population.", "They may have arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE and are thought to have originated in Taiwan.", "During this period, parts of Indonesia participated in the Maritime Jade Road, whith outlets in Kalimantan which existed for 3,000 years between 2000 BCE to 1000 CE.", "Dong Son culture spread to Indonesia bringing with it techniques of wet-field rice cultivation, ritual buffalo sacrifice, bronze casting, megalithic practises, and ikat weaving methods.", "Some of these practices remain in areas including the Batak areas of Sumatra, Toraja in Sulawesi, and several islands in Nusa Tenggara.", "Early Indonesians were animists who honoured the spirits of the dead believing their souls or life force could still help the living.Example of Rice Terraces in IndonesiaIdeal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the 8th century BCE, allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the 1st century CE.", "These kingdoms (little more than collections of villages subservient to petty chieftains) evolved with their own ethnic and tribal religions.", "Java's hot and even temperature, abundant rain and volcanic soil, was perfect for wet rice cultivation.", "Such agriculture required a well-organized society, in contrast to the society based on dry-field rice, which is a much simpler form of cultivation that does not require an elaborate social structure to support it.Buni culture clay pottery flourished in coastal northern West Java and Banten around 400 BCE to 100 CE.", "The Buni culture was probably the predecessor of the Tarumanagara kingdom, one of the earliest Hindu kingdoms in Indonesia, producing numerous inscriptions and marking the beginning of the historical period in Java.On 11 December 2019, a team of researchers led by Dr. Maxime Aubert announced the discovery of the oldest hunting scenes in prehistoric art in the world which is more than 44,000 years old from the limestone cave of Leang Bulu' Sipong 4.Archaeologists determined the age of the depiction of hunting a pig and buffalo thanks to the calcite 'popcorn', different isotope levels of radioactive uranium and thorium." ], [ "Hindu-Buddhist civilizations", "===Early kingdom===1600-year-old stone inscription from the era of Purnawarman, king of Tarumanagara, founded in Tugu sub-district of JakartaIndonesia like much of Southeast Asia was influenced by Indian culture.", "From the 2nd century, through the Indian dynasties like the Pallava, Gupta, Pala and Chola in the succeeding centuries up to the 12th century, Indian culture spread across all of Southeast Asia.References to the Dvipantara or Yawadvipa, a Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra appear in Sanskrit writings from 200 BCE.", "In India's earliest epic, the Ramayana, Sugriva, the chief of Rama's army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa, the island of Java, in search of Sita.", "According to the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram.", "The earliest archaeological relic discovered in Indonesia is from the Ujung Kulon National Park, West Java, where an early Hindu statue of Ganesha estimated from the 1st century CE was found on the summit of Mount Raksa in Panaitan island.", "There is also archaeological evidence of Sunda Kingdom in West Java dating from the 2nd-century, and Jiwa Temple in Batujaya, Karawang, West Java was probably built around this time.", "South Indian culture was spread to Southeast Asia by the south Indian Pallava dynasty in the 4th and 5th centuries.", "and by the 5th century, stone inscriptions written in Pallava scripts were found in Java and Borneo.A number of Hindu and Buddhist states flourished and then declined across Indonesia.", "Seven rough plinths dating from the beginning of the 4th century CE were found in Kutai, East Kalimantan, near the Mahakam River known as the Yupa inscription or \"Mulavarman Inscription\" believed to be one of the earliest Sanskrit inscriptions of Indonesia, the plinths were written by Brahmins in the Sanskrit language using the Pallava script of India recalling of a generous king by the name of Mulavarman who donated a huge amount of alms to Brahmin priests in his kingdom, the kingdom was known as the Kutai Martadipura Kingdom located in present East Kalimantan Province, believed to be the oldest and first Hindu kingdom of Indonesia.Unknown Indonesian Burial Mask, Javanese, 5th century CE or earlier.jpg\|Indonesian burial mask, earlier than 5th century CE.MET DP158751.jpg\|Standing warrior (spearman) bronze figure, Java, circa 500 BC–300 ADMET 2001 433 526 O2.jpg\|Standing warrior (swordsman) bronze figure, Java, circa 500 BC–300 AD.===Tarumanagara and Sunda===One such early kingdom was Tarumanagara, which flourished between 358 and 669 CE.", "Located in West Java close to modern-day Jakarta, its 5th-century king, Purnawarman, established the earliest known inscriptions in Java, the Ciaruteun inscription located near Bogor.", "And other inscriptions called the Pasir Awi inscription and the Muncul inscription.", "On this monument, King Purnawarman inscribed his name and made an imprint of his footprints, as well as his elephant's footprints.", "The accompanying inscription reads, \"Here are the footprints of King Purnavarman, the heroic conqueror of the world\".", "This inscription is written in Pallava script and in Sanskrit and is still clear after 1500 years.", "Purnawarman apparently built a canal that changed the course of the Cakung River, and drained a coastal area for agriculture and settlement purpose.", "In his stone inscriptions, Purnawarman associated himself with Vishnu, and Brahmins ritually secured the hydraulic project.8th century Borobudur Buddhist monument, Sailendra dynasty, is the largest Buddhist temple in the world.Around the same period, in the 6th to 7th centuries (501–700 CE), the Kalingga Kingdom was established in Central Java northern coast, mentioned in Chinese account.", "The name of this kingdom was derived from ancient Indian kingdom of Kalinga, which suggest the ancient link between India and Indonesia.The political history of Indonesian archipelago during the 7th to 11th (601–1100 CE) around centuries was dominated by Srivijaya based in Sumatra and Sailendra that dominated southeast Asia based in Java and constructed Borobudur, the largest Buddhist monument in the world.", "The history prior of the 14th and 15th centuries (1301–1500 CE) is not well known due to the scarcity of evidence.", "By the 15th century (1401–1500 CE), two major states dominated this period; Majapahit in East Java, the greatest of the pre-Islamic Indonesian states, and Malacca on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, arguably one of the greatest of the Muslim trading empires, this marked the rise of Muslim states in the Indonesian archipelago.===Mataram===Prambanan in Java was built during the Sanjaya dynasty of Mataram Kingdom; it is one of the largest Hindu temple complexes in Southeast Asia.Mataram Empire, sometimes referred to as Mataram Kingdom, was an Indianized kingdom based in Central Java around modern-day Yogyakarta between the 8th and 10th centuries.", "The kingdom was ruled by the Sailendra dynasty, and later by the Sanjaya dynasty.", "The centre of the kingdom was moved from central Java to East Java by Mpu Sindok.", "An eruption of the volcano Mount Merapi in 929, and political pressure from Sailendrans based in the Srivijaya Empire may have caused the move.The first king of Mataram, Sri Sanjaya, left inscriptions in stone.", "The monumental Hindu temple of Prambanan in the vicinity of Yogyakarta was built by Pikatan.", "Dharmawangsa ordered the translation of the Mahabharata into Old Javanese in 996.In the period 750 CE – 850 CE, the kingdom saw the blossoming of classical Javanese art and architecture.", "A rapid increase in temple construction occurred across the landscape of its heartland in Mataram (Kedu and Kewu Plain).", "The most notable temples constructed in Mataram are Kalasan, Sewu, Borobudur and Prambanan.", "The Empire had become the supreme power not only in Java but also over Srivijayan Empire, Bali, southern Thailand, some Philippine kingdoms, and Khmer in Cambodia.Sewu temple in Special Region of YogyakartaLater in its history, the dynasty divided into two dynasties based on their own religion, the Buddhist and Shivaist dynasties.", "Civil war was unavoidable and the outcome was Mataram Empire divided into two powerful kingdom based on region and religion.", "The Shivaist dynasty of Mataram kingdom in Java led by Rakai Pikatan and the Buddhist dynasty of Srivijaya kingdom in Sumatra led by Balaputradewa.", "The hostility between them didn't end until in 1006 when the Sailendran based in Srivijaya kingdom incited rebellion by Wurawari, vassal of Mataram kingdom and sacked Shivaist dynasty's capital in Watugaluh, Java.", "Srivijaya kingdom rose into undisputed hegemonic Empire in the era as the result.", "Yet the Shivaist dynasty survived and successfully reclaimed the east Java in 1019 then descended to Kahuripan kingdom led by Airlangga son of Udayana of Bali.===Sriwijaya===Sriwijaya was a kingdom on Sumatra which influenced much of the Maritime Southeast Asia.", "From the 7th century, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it.Srivijaya was centred in the coastal trading centre of present-day Palembang.", "Srivijaya was not a \"state\" in the modern sense with defined boundaries and a centralised government to which the citizens own allegiance.", "Rather Srivijaya was a confederacy form of society centred on a royal heartland.", "It was a thalassocracy and did not extend its influence far beyond the coastal areas of the islands of Southeast Asia.", "Trade was the driving force of Srivijaya just as it is for most societies throughout history.", "The Srivijayan navy controlled the trade that made its way through the Strait of Malacca.By the 7th century, the harbours of various vassal states of Srivijaya lined both coasts of the Straits of Melaka.", "Around this time, Srivijaya had established suzerainty over large areas of Sumatra, western Java, and much of the Malay Peninsula.", "Dominating the Malacca and Sunda straits, the empire controlled both the Spice Route traffic and local trade.", "It remained a formidable sea power until the 13th century.", "This spread the ethnic Malay culture throughout Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and western Borneo.", "A stronghold of Mahayana Buddhism, Srivijaya attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of Asia.The relation between Srivijaya and the Chola Empire of south India was friendly during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I but during the reign of Rajendra Chola I the Chola Empire attacked Srivijaya cities.", "A series of Chola raids in the 11th century weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms based, like Kediri, on intensive agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade.", "Srivijayan influence waned by the 11th century.", "The island was in frequent conflict with the Javanese kingdoms, first Singhasari and then Majapahit.", "Islam eventually made its way to the Aceh region of Sumatra, spreading its influence through contacts with Arabs and Indian traders.", "By the late 13th century, the kingdom of Pasai in northern Sumatra converted to Islam.", "The last inscription dates to 1374, where a crown prince, Ananggavarman, is mentioned.", "Srivijaya ceased to exist by 1414, when Parameswara, the kingdom's last prince, fled to Temasik, then to Malacca.", "Later his son converted to Islam and founded the Sultanate of Malacca on the Malay peninsula.===Singhasari and Majapahit===Majapahit was the most dominant of Indonesia's pre-Islamic states.", "The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada it experienced what is often referred to as a golden age in Indonesian history, when its influence extended to much of southern Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, and Bali from about 1293 to around 1500.The founder of the Majapahit Empire, Kertarajasa, was the son-in-law of the ruler of the Singhasari kingdom, also based in Java.", "After Singhasari drove Srivijaya out of Java in 1290, the rising power of Singhasari came to the attention of Kublai Khan in China and he sent emissaries demanding tribute.", "Kertanagara, ruler of the Singhasari kingdom, refused to pay tribute and the Khan sent a punitive expedition which arrived off the coast of Java in 1293.By that time, a rebel from Kediri, Jayakatwang, had killed Kertanagara.", "The Majapahit founder allied himself with the Mongols against Jayakatwang and, once the Singhasari kingdom was destroyed, turned and forced his Mongol allies to withdraw in confusion.Gajah Mada, a Majapahit prime minister and regent from 1331 to 1364, extended the empire's rule to the surrounding islands.", "A few years after Gajah Mada's death, the Majapahit navy captured Palembang, putting an end to the Sriwijaya kingdom.", "Although the Majapahit rulers extended their power over other islands and destroyed neighbouring kingdoms, their focus seems to have been on controlling and gaining a larger share of the commercial trade that passed through the archipelago.", "About the time Majapahit was founded, Muslim traders and proselytisers began entering the area.", "After its peak in the 14th century, Majapahit power began to decline and was unable to control the rising power of the Sultanate of Malacca.", "Dates for the end of the Majapahit Empire range from 1478 to 1520.A large number of courtiers, artisans, priests, and members of the royal family moved east to the island of Bali at the end of Majapahit power." ], [ "The age of Islamic states", "===The spread of Islam===Map of Indonesia; 1674–1745 by Khatib Çelebi, a geographer from the Ottoman Turks.The earliest accounts of the Indonesian archipelago date from the Abbasid Caliphate, according to those early accounts the Indonesian archipelago were famous among early Muslim sailors mainly due to its abundance of precious spice trade commodities such as nutmeg, cloves, galangal and many other spices.Although Muslim traders first travelled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the spread of Islam among the inhabitants of the Indonesian archipelago dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra.Although it is known that the spread of Islam began in the west of the archipelago, the fragmentary evidence does not suggest a rolling wave of conversion through adjacent areas; rather, it suggests the process was complicated and slow.", "The spread of Islam was driven by increasing trade links outside of the archipelago; in general, traders and the royalty of major kingdoms were the first to adopt the new religion.Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, making it the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 7th until 13th century.", "For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java.", "Only Bali retained a Hindu majority.", "In the eastern archipelago, both Christian and Islamic missionaries were active in the 16th and 17th centuries, and, currently, there are large communities of both religions on these islands.===Sultanate of Mataram===Masjid Agung Kotagede MosqueThe Sultanate of Mataram was the third Sultanate in Java, after the Sultanate of Demak Bintoro and the Sultanate of Pajang.According to Javanese records, Kyai Gedhe Pamanahan became the ruler of the Mataram area in the 1570s with the support of the kingdom of Pajang to the east, near the current site of Surakarta (Solo).", "Pamanahan was often referred to as Kyai Gedhe Mataram after his ascension.Pamanahan's son, Panembahan Senapati, replaced his father on the throne around 1584.Under Senapati the kingdom grew substantially through regular military campaigns against Mataram's neighbours.", "Shortly after his accession, for example, he conquered his father's patrons in Pajang.The reign of Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak (''c.''", "1601–1613), the son of Senapati, was dominated by further warfare, especially against powerful Surabaya, already a major centre in East Java.", "The first contact between Mataram and the Dutch East India Company (VOC) occurred under Krapyak.", "Dutch activities at the time were limited to trading from limited coastal settlements, so their interactions with the inland Mataram kingdom were limited, although they did form an alliance against Surabaya in 1613.Krapyak died that year.Ruins of the Sultanate of Banten Palace in 1859Krapyak was succeeded by his son, who is known simply as Sultan Agung (\"Great Sultan\") in Javanese records.", "Agung was responsible for the great expansion and lasting historical legacy of Mataram due to the extensive military conquests of his long reign from 1613 to 1646.===The Sultanate of Banten===In 1524–25, Sunan Gunung Jati from Cirebon, together with the armies of Demak Sultanate, seized the port of Banten from the Sunda kingdom, and established The Sultanate of Banten.", "This was accompanied by Muslim preachers and the adoption of Islam amongst the local population.", "At its peak in the first half of the 17th century, the Sultanate lasted from 1526 to 1813 AD.", "The Sultanate left many archaeological remains and historical records." ], [ "Colonial era", "Batavia (now Jakarta), Java, c. 1665 CE.Beginning in the 16th century, successive waves of Europeans—the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch and English—sought to dominate the spice trade at its sources in India and the 'Spice Islands' (Maluku) of Indonesia.", "This meant finding a way to Asia to cut out Muslim merchants who, with their Venetian outlet in the Mediterranean, monopolised spice imports to Europe.", "Astronomically priced at the time, spices were highly coveted not only to preserve and make poorly preserved meat palatable, but also as medicines and magic potions.The arrival of Europeans in South East Asia is often regarded as the watershed moment in its history.", "Other scholars consider this view untenable, arguing that European influence during the times of the early arrivals of the 16th and 17th centuries was limited in both area and depth.", "This is in part due to Europe not being the most advanced or dynamic area of the world in the early 15th century.", "Rather, the major expansionist force of this time was Islam; in 1453, for example, the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople, while Islam continued to spread through Indonesia and the Philippines.", "European influence, particularly that of the Dutch, would not have its greatest impact on Indonesia until the 18th and 19th centuries.===The Portuguese===The nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia's Banda Islands.", "Once one of the world's most valuable commodities, it drew the first European colonial powers to Indonesia.New found Portuguese expertise in navigation, shipbuilding and weaponry allowed them to make daring expeditions of exploration and expansion.", "Starting with the first exploratory expeditions sent from newly conquered Malacca in 1512, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in Indonesia, and sought to dominate the sources of valuable spices and to extend the Catholic Church's missionary efforts.", "The Portuguese turned east to Maluku and through both military conquest and alliance with local rulers, they established trading posts, forts, and missions on the islands of Ternate, Ambon, and Solor among others.", "The height of Portuguese missionary activities, however, came in the latter half of the 16th century.", "Ultimately, the Portuguese presence in Indonesia was reduced to Solor, Flores and Timor in modern-day Nusa Tenggara, following defeat at the hands of indigenous Ternateans and the Dutch in Maluku, and a general failure to maintain control of trade in the region.", "In comparison with the original Portuguese ambition to dominate Asian trade, their influence on Indonesian culture was small: the romantic ''keroncong'' guitar ballads; a number of Indonesian words which reflect Portuguese's role as the ''lingua franca'' of the archipelago alongside Malay; and many family names in eastern Indonesia such as da Costa, Dias, de Fretes, Gonsalves, etc.", "The most significant impacts of the Portuguese arrival were the disruption and disorganisation of the trade network mostly as a result of their conquest of Malacca, and the first significant plantings of Christianity in Indonesia.", "There have continued to be Christian communities in eastern Indonesia through to the present, which has contributed to a sense of shared interest with Europeans, particularly among the Ambonese.===Dutch East-India Company===An early 18th-century Dutch map from a time when only the north coastal ports of Java were well known to the DutchIn 1602, the Dutch parliament awarded the VOC a monopoly on trade and colonial activities in the region at a time before the company controlled any territory in Java.", "In 1619, the VOC conquered the West Javan city of Jayakarta, where they founded the city of Batavia (present-day Jakarta).", "The VOC became deeply involved in the internal politics of Java in this period, and fought in a number of wars involving the leaders of Mataram and Banten.The Dutch followed the Portuguese aspirations, courage, brutality, and strategies but brought better organisation, weapons, ships, and superior financial backing.", "Although they failed to gain complete control of the Indonesian spice trade, they had much more success than the previous Portuguese efforts.", "They exploited the factionalisation of the small kingdoms in Java that had replaced Majapahit, establishing a permanent foothold in Java, from which grew a land-based colonial empire which became one of the richest colonial possessions on earth.By the mid-17th century, Batavia, the headquarter of VOC in Asia, had become an important trade centre in the region.", "It had repelled attacks from the Javanese Mataram kingdom.", "In 1641, the Dutch captured Malacca from the Portuguese, thus weakened Portuguese position in Asia.", "The Dutch defeated the Sulawesi city of Makassar in 1667 thus bringing its trade under VOC control.", "Sumatran ports were also brought under VOC control and the last of the Portuguese were expelled in 1660.In return for monopoly control over the pepper trade and the expulsion of the English, the Dutch helped the son of the ruler of Banten overthrow his father in 1680.By the 18th century, the VOC has established themselves firmly in Indonesian archipelago, controlling inter-island trade as part of their Asian business which includes India, Ceylon, Formosa, and Japan.", "VOC has established their important bases in some ports in Java, Maluku, and parts of Sulawesi, Sumatra, and Malay Peninsula.===French and British interlude===The Java Great Post Road, commissioned by DaendelsAfter the fall of the Netherlands to the First French Empire and the dissolution of the Dutch East India Company in 1800, there were profound changes in the European colonial administration of the East Indies.", "The company's assets in East Indies were nationalised as the Dutch colony, the Dutch East Indies.", "Meanwhile, Europe was devastated by the Napoleonic Wars.", "In the Netherlands, Napoleon Bonaparte in 1806 oversaw the dissolution of the Batavian Republic, which was replaced by the Kingdom of Holland, a French puppet kingdom ruled by Napoleon's third brother Louis Bonaparte (Lodewijk Napoleon).", "The East Indies were treated as a proxy French colony, administered through a Dutch intermediary.In 1806, King Lodewijk of the Netherlands sent one of his generals, Herman Willem Daendels, to serve as governor-general of the East Indies, based in Java.", "Daendels was sent to strengthen Javanese defences against a predicted British invasion.", "Since 1685, the British had had a presence in Bencoolen on the western coast of Sumatra, as well as several posts north of the Malaccan straits.", "Daendels was responsible for the construction of the Great Post Road () across northern Java from Anjer to Panaroecan.", "The thousand-kilometre road was meant as to ease logistics across Java and was completed in only one year, during which thousands of Javanese forced labourers died.", "In 1811, Java was captured by the British, becoming a possession of the British Empire, and Thomas Stamford Raffles was appointed as the island's governor.", "Raffles launched several military expeditions against local Javanese princes; such as the assault on Yogyakarta kraton on 21 June 1812, and the military expedition against Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II of Palembang, along with giving orders to seize the nearby Bangka Island.", "During his administration, numbers of ancient monuments in Java were rediscovered, excavated and systematically catalogued for the first time, the most important one being the rediscovery of Borobudur Buddhist temple in Central Java.", "Raffles was an enthusiast of the island's history, as he wrote the book History of Java published later in 1817.In 1816, under the administration of British governor John Fendall, Java was returned to control of the Netherlands as per the terms of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814.===Dutch state rule===Batavian (Jakarta) tea factory in the 1860sAfter the VOC was dissolved in 1800 following bankruptcy, and after the end of British rule under Raffles' governorship, the Dutch state took over the VOC possessions in 1816.A Javanese uprising was crushed in the Java War of 1825–1830.After 1830, a system of forced cultivations and indentured labour was introduced on Java, the Cultivation System (in Dutch: ''cultuurstelsel'').", "This system brought the Dutch and their Indonesian allies enormous wealth.", "The cultivation system tied peasants to their land, forcing them to work in government-owned plantations for 60 days of the year.", "The system was abolished in a more liberal period after 1870.In 1901, the Dutch adopted what they called the Ethical Policy, which included somewhat increased investment in indigenous education, and modest political reforms.Dutch imperial painting depicting the Dutch East Indies as \"our most precious gem\" (1916)The Dutch colonials formed a privileged upper social class of soldiers, administrators, managers, teachers, and pioneers.", "They lived together with the \"natives\", but at the top of a rigid social and racial caste system.", "The Dutch East Indies had two legal classes of citizens; European and indigenous.", "A third class, Foreign Easterners, was added in 1920.Upgrading the infrastructure of ports and roads was a high priority for the Dutch, with the goal of modernising the economy, pumping wages into local areas, facilitating commerce, and speeding up military movements.", "By 1950, Dutch engineers had built and upgraded a road network with 12,000 km of asphalted surface, 41,000 km of metalled road area and 16,000 km of gravel surfaces.", "In addition the Dutch built of railways, bridges, irrigation systems covering 1.4 million hectares (5,400 sq mi) of rice fields, several harbours, and 140 public drinking water systems.", "These Dutch constructed public works became the economic base of the colonial state; after independence, they became the basis of the Indonesian infrastructure.For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over its territories in the Indonesian archipelago was tenuous.", "In some cases, Dutch police and military actions in parts of Indonesia were quite cruel.", "Recent discussions, for example, of Dutch cruelty in Aceh have encouraged renewed research on these aspects of Dutch rule.", "It was only in the early 20th century, three centuries after the first Dutch trading post, that the full extent of the colonial territory was established and direct colonial rule exerted across what would become the boundaries of the modern Indonesian state.", "Portuguese Timor, now East Timor, remained under Portuguese rule until 1975 when it was invaded by Indonesia.", "The Indonesian government declared the territory an Indonesian province but relinquished it in 1999." ], [ "The emergence of Indonesia", "===Indonesian National Awakening===Sukarno, Indonesian Nationalist leader, and later, first president of IndonesiaIn October 1908, the first nationalist movement was formed, Budi Utomo.", "On 10 September 1912, the first nationalist mass movement was formed: Sarekat Islam.", "By December 1912, Sarekat Islam had 93,000 members.", "The Dutch responded after the First World War with repressive measures.", "The nationalist leaders came from a small group of young professionals and students, some of whom had been educated in the Netherlands.", "In the post–World War I era, the Indonesian communists who were associated with the Third International started to usurp the nationalist movement.", "The repression of the nationalist movement led to many arrests, including Indonesia's first president, Sukarno (1901–70), who was imprisoned for political activities on 29 December 1929.Also arrested was Mohammad Hatta, first vice-president of Indonesia.", "Additionally, Sutan Sjahrir, who later became the first Prime Minister of Indonesia, was arrested on this date.In 1914 the exiled Dutch socialist Henk Sneevliet founded the Indies Social Democratic Association.", "Initially a small forum of Dutch socialists, it would later evolve into the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) in 1924.In the post–World War I era, the Dutch strongly repressed all attempts at change.", "This repression led to a growth of the PKI.", "By December 1924, the PKI had a membership of 1,140.One year later in 1925, the PKI had grown to 3,000 members.", "From 1926 to 1927, there was a PKI-led revolt against Dutch colonialism and the harsh repression of strikes of urban workers.", "However, the strikes and the revolt was put down by the Dutch with some 13,000 nationalists and communists leaders were arrested.", "Some 4,500 were given prison sentences.Sukarno was released from prison in December 1931 but was re-arrested on 1 August 1933.===Japanese occupation===Japanese bicycle infantry move through Java during their occupation of the Dutch East Indies.", "The Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation during World War II interrupted Dutch rule and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement.", "In May 1940, early in World War II, Nazi Germany occupied the Netherlands, but the Dutch government-in-exile initially continued to control the Dutch East Indies from its base in London.", "The Dutch East Indies declared a state of siege and in July 1940 redirected exports intended for Japan to the US and Britain.", "Negotiations with the Japanese aimed at securing supplies of aviation fuel collapsed in June 1941, and the Japanese started their conquest of Southeast Asia in December of that year.", "That same month, factions from Sumatra sought Japanese assistance for a revolt against the Dutch wartime government.", "The Japanese military defeated last Dutch forces in the East Indies in March 1942.Japanese commanders in the Dutch East Indies during the surrenderIn July 1942, Sukarno accepted Japan's offer to rally the public in support of the Japanese war effort.", "Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta were decorated by the Emperor of Japan in 1943.However, experience of the Japanese occupation of Dutch East Indies varied considerably, depending upon where one lived and one's social position.", "Many who lived in areas considered important to the war effort experienced torture, sex slavery, arbitrary arrest and execution, and other war crimes.", "Thousands taken away from Indonesia as war labourers (romusha) suffered or died as a result of ill-treatment and starvation.", "People of Dutch and mixed Dutch-Indonesian descent were particular targets of the Japanese occupation.In March 1945, the Japanese established the Investigating Committee for Preparatory Work for Independence (BPUPK) as the initial stage of the establishment of independence for the area under the control of the Japanese 16th Army.", "At its first meeting in May, Soepomo spoke of national integration and against personal individualism, while Muhammad Yamin suggested that the new nation should claim British Borneo, British Malaya, Portuguese Timor, and all the pre-war territories of the Dutch East Indies.", "The committee drafted the 1945 Constitution, which remains in force, though now much amended.", "On 9 August 1945 Sukarno, Hatta, and Radjiman Wediodiningrat were flown to meet Marshal Hisaichi Terauchi in Vietnam.", "They were told that Japan intended to announce Indonesian independence on 24 August.", "After the Japanese surrender, however, Sukarno unilaterally proclaimed Indonesian independence on 17 August.", "A later UN report stated that four million people died in Indonesia as a result of the Japanese occupation.===Indonesian National Revolution===Indonesian flag raising shortly after the declaration of independenceUnder pressure from radical and politicised ''pemuda'' ('youth') groups, Sukarno and Hatta on behalf of the Nation proclaimed Indonesian independence on 17 August 1945 from colonialism by foreign nations two days after the Japanese Emperor's surrender in the Pacific, and made this nation an independent state, which has the right to govern its people and nation in accordance with the philosophy, character and spirit of the Indonesia nation itself.", "The following day, the Central Indonesian National Committee (KNIP) declared Sukarno President and Hatta Vice-President.", "Word of the proclamation spread by shortwave and fliers while the Indonesian war-time military (PETA), youths, and others rallied in support of the new republic, often moving to take over government offices from the Japanese.", "In December 1946 the United Nations acknowledged that Netherlands had advised the United Nations that the \"Netherlands Indies\" was a non-self-governing territory (colony) for which the Netherlands had a legal duty to make yearly reports and to assist towards \"a full measure of self-government\" as required by the ''Charter of the United Nations article 73''.Sukarno speaking at the ''Rapat Akbar'' (grand meeting) on 19 September 1945The Dutch, initially backed by the British, tried to re-establish their rule, and a bitter armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognised Indonesian independence.", "Dutch efforts to re-establish complete control met resistance.", "At the end of World War II, a power vacuum arose, and the nationalists often succeeded in seizing the arms of the demoralised Japanese.", "A period of unrest with city guerrilla warfare called the Bersiap period ensued.", "Groups of Indonesian nationalists armed with improvised weapons (like bamboo spears) and firearms attacked returning Allied troops.", "3,500 Europeans were killed and 20,000 were missing, meaning there were more European deaths in Indonesia after the war than during the war.", "After returning to Java, Dutch forces quickly re-occupied the colonial capital of Batavia (now Jakarta), so the city of Yogyakarta in central Java became the capital of the nationalist forces.", "Negotiations with the nationalists led to two major truce agreements, but disputes about their implementation, and much mutual provocation, led each time to renewed conflict.", "Within four years the Dutch had recaptured almost the whole of Indonesia, but guerrilla resistance persisted, led on Java by commander Nasution.", "On 27 December 1949, after four years of sporadic warfare and fierce criticism of the Dutch by the UN, the Netherlands officially recognised Indonesian sovereignty under the federal structure of the United States of Indonesia (RUSI).", "With the unification of all the kingdoms in the archipelago On 17 August 1950, exactly five years after the proclamation of independence, the last of the federal states were dissolved and Sukarno proclaimed a single unitary Republic of Indonesia until now." ], [ "Sukarno's presidency", "===Democratic experiment===Campaign posters for the 1955 Indonesian electionWith the unifying struggle to secure Indonesia's independence over, divisions in Indonesian society began to appear.", "These included regional differences in customs, religion, the impact of Christianity and Marxism, and fears of Javanese political domination.", "Following colonial rule, Japanese occupation, and war against the Dutch, the new country suffered from severe poverty, a ruinous economy, low educational and skills levels, and authoritarian traditions.", "Challenges to the authority of the Republic included the militant ''Darul Islam'' who waged a guerrilla struggle against the Republic from 1948 to 1962; the declaration of an independent Republic of South Maluku by Ambonese formerly of the Royal Dutch Indies Army; and rebellions in Sumatra and Sulawesi between 1955 and 1961.In contrast to the 1945 Constitution, the 1950 constitution mandated a parliamentary system of government, an executive responsible to parliament, and stipulated at length constitutional guarantees for human rights, drawing heavily on the 1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights.", "A proliferation of political parties dealing for shares of cabinet seats resulted in a rapid turnover of coalition governments including 17 cabinets between 1945 and 1958.The long-postponed parliamentary elections were held in 1955; although the Indonesian National Party (PNI)—considered Sukarno's party—topped the poll, and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) received strong support, no party garnered more than a quarter of the votes, which resulted in short-lived coalitions.===Guided Democracy===National emblem of the Republic of Indonesia, adopted in 1950By 1956, Sukarno was openly criticising parliamentary democracy, stating that it was \"based upon inherent conflict\" which ran counter to Indonesian notions of harmony as being the natural state of human relationships.", "Instead, he sought a system based on the traditional village system of discussion and consensus, under the guidance of village elders.", "He proposed a threefold blend of ''nasionalisme'' ('nationalism'), ''agama'' ('religion'), and ''komunisme'' ('communism') into a co-operative 'Nas-A-Kom' government.", "This was intended to appease the three main factions in Indonesian politics — the army, Islamic groups, and the communists.", "With the support of the military, he proclaimed in February 1957 a system of 'Guided Democracy', and proposed a cabinet representing all the political parties of importance (including the PKI).", "The US tried and failed to secretly overthrow the president, even though Secretary of State Dulles declared before Congress that \"we are not interested in the internal affairs of this country.", "\"Sukarno abrogated the 1950 Constitution on 9 July 1959 by a decree dissolving the Constitutional Assembly and restoring the 1945 Constitution.", "The elected parliament was replaced by one appointed by, and subject to the will of, the president.", "This dissolution of the constitutional assembly caused Sukarno to banned Masyumi Party in August 1960, which Zakaria bin Muhammad Amin referred as Sukarno's way to eliminate and silence the Islamic party, and political views.", "Another non-elected body, the Supreme Advisory Council, was the main policy development body, while the National Front was set up in September 1960 and presided over by the president to \"mobilise the revolutionary forces of the people\".", "Western-style parliamentary democracy was thus finished in Indonesia until the 1999 elections of the ''Reformasi'' era.===Sukarno's revolution and nationalism===Charismatic Sukarno spoke as a romantic revolutionary, and under his increasingly authoritarian rule, Indonesia moved on a course of stormy nationalism.", "Sukarno was popularly referred to as ''bang'' (\"older brother\"), and he painted himself as a man of the people carrying the aspirations of Indonesia and one who dared take on the West.", "He instigated a number of large, ideologically driven infrastructure projects and monuments celebrating Indonesia's identity, which were criticised as substitutes for real development in a deteriorating economy.Western New Guinea had been part of the Dutch East Indies, and Indonesian nationalists had thus claimed it on this basis.", "Indonesia was able to instigate a diplomatic and military confrontation with the Dutch over the territory following an Indonesian-Soviet arms agreement in 1960.It was, however, United States pressure on the Netherlands that led to an Indonesian takeover in 1963.Also in 1963, Indonesia commenced ''Konfrontasi'' with the new state of Malaysia.", "The northern states of Borneo, formerly British Sarawak and Sabah, had wavered in joining Malaysia, whilst Indonesia saw itself as the rightful ruler of Austronesian peoples and supported an unsuccessful revolution attempt in Brunei.", "Reviving the glories of the Indonesian National Revolution, Sukarno increased the anti-British sentiment in his rhetoric and mounted military offensives along the Indonesia-Malaysia border in Borneo.", "As the PKI rallied in Jakarta streets in support, the West became increasingly alarmed at Indonesian foreign policy and the United States withdrew its aid to Indonesia.In social policy, Sukarno's time in office witnessed substantial reforms in health and education, together with the passage of various pro-labour measures.", "However, Indonesia's economic position deteriorated under Sukarno; by the mid-1960s, the cash-strapped government had to scrap critical public sector subsidies, inflation was at 1,000%, export revenues were shrinking, infrastructure crumbling, and factories were operating at minimal capacity with negligible investment.", "Severe poverty and hunger were widespread." ], [ "The New Order", "===Transition to the New Order===During the mid-20th century.", "It was the largest non-ruling communist party in the world before its eradication in 1965 and ban the following year.Described as the great ''dalang'' (\"puppet master\"), Sukarno's position depended on balancing the opposing and increasingly hostile forces of the army and the PKI.", "Sukarno's anti-imperialist ideology saw Indonesia increasingly dependent on Soviet and then communist China.", "By 1965, the PKI was the largest communist party in the world outside the Soviet Union or China.", "Penetrating all levels of government, the party increasingly gained influence at the expense of the army.On 30 September 1965, six of the most senior generals within the military and other officers were assassinated in an attempted coup.", "The insurgents, known later as the 30 September Movement, backed a rival faction of the army and took up positions in the capital, later seizing control of the national radio station.", "They claimed they were acting against a plot organised by the generals to overthrow Sukarno.", "Within a few hours, Major General Suharto, commander of the Army Strategic Reserve (Kostrad), mobilised counteraction, and by the evening of 1 October, it was clear that the coup, which had little co-ordination and was largely limited to Jakarta, had failed.", "Complicated and partisan theories continue to this day over the identity of the attempted coup's organisers and their aims.", "According to the Indonesian army, the PKI were behind the coup and used disgruntled army officers to carry it out, and this became the official account of Suharto's subsequent New Order administration.", "Although there is not broad agreement on who bears ultimate responsibility for the coup or even if there was really a single mastermind controlling all events, modern evidence has suggested at least a role played by Western intelligence agencies including the American Central Intelligence Agency and the United Kingdom's MI6.The PKI was blamed for the coup, and anti-communists, initially following the army's lead, went on a violent anti-communist purge across much of the country.", "The PKI was effectively destroyed, and the most widely accepted estimates are that between 500,000 and 1 million were killed.", "The violence was especially brutal in Java and Bali.", "The PKI was outlawed and possibly more than 1 million of its leaders and affiliates were imprisoned.", "The United States and other Western powers facilitated and supported the purge.Throughout the 1965–66 period, President Sukarno attempted to restore his political position and shift the country back to its pre-October 1965 position but his Guided Democracy balancing act was destroyed with the PKI's demise.", "Although he remained president, the weakened Sukarno was forced to transfer key political and military powers to General Suharto, who by that time had become head of the armed forces.", "In March 1967, the Provisional People's Consultative Assembly (MPRS) named General Suharto acting president.", "Suharto was formally appointed president in March 1968.Sukarno lived under virtual house arrest until his death in 1970.===Consolidation of the New Order===Suharto was the military president of Indonesia from 1967 to 1998.In the aftermath of Suharto's rise, hundreds of thousands of people were killed or imprisoned by the military and religious groups in a backlash against alleged communist supporters, with direct support from the United States.", "Suharto's administration is commonly called the ''New Order'' era.", "Suharto invited major foreign investment, which produced substantial, if uneven, economic growth.", "However, Suharto enriched himself and his family through business dealings and widespread corruption.===Annexation of West Irian===At the time of independence, the Dutch retained control over the western half of New Guinea (also known as West Irian), and permitted steps towards self-government and a declaration of independence on 1 December 1961.After negotiations with the Dutch on the incorporation of the territory into Indonesia failed, an Indonesian paratroop invasion 18 December preceded armed clashes between Indonesian and Dutch troops in 1961 and 1962.In 1962 the United States pressured the Netherlands into secret talks with Indonesia which in August 1962 produced the New York Agreement, and Indonesia assumed administrative responsibility for West Irian on 1 May 1963.Rejecting UN supervision, the Indonesian government under Suharto decided to settle the question of West Irian, the former Dutch New Guinea, in their favour.", "Rather than a referendum of all residents of West Irian as had been agreed under Sukarno, an 'Act of Free Choice' was conducted in 1969 in which 1,025 Papuan representatives of local councils were selected by the Indonesians.", "They were warned to vote in favour of Indonesian integration with the group unanimously voting for integration with Indonesia.", "A subsequent UN General Assembly resolution confirmed the transfer of sovereignty to Indonesia.West Irian was renamed Irian Jaya ('glorious Irian') in 1973.Opposition to Indonesian administration of Irian Jaya (later known as Papua) gave rise to guerrilla activity in the years following Jakarta's assumption of control.===Annexation of East Timor===Timorese women with the Indonesian national flagIn 1975, the Carnation Revolution in Portugal caused authorities there to announce plans for decolonisation of Portuguese Timor, the eastern half of the island of Timor whose western half was a part of the Indonesian province of East Nusa Tenggara.", "In the East Timorese elections held in 1975, Fretilin, a left-leaning party, and UDT, aligned with the local elite, emerged as the largest parties, having previously formed an alliance to campaign for independence from Portugal.", "Apodeti, a party advocating integration with Indonesia, enjoyed little popular support.Indonesia alleged that Fretilin was communist, and feared that an independent East Timor would influence separatism in the archipelago.", "Indonesian military intelligence influenced the break-up of the alliance between Fretilin and UDT, which led to a coup by the UDT on 11 August 1975 and the start of a month-long civil war.", "During this time, the Portuguese government effectively abandoned the territory and did not resume the decolonisation process.", "On 28 November, Fretilin unilaterally declared independence, and proclaimed the 'Democratic Republic of East Timor'.", "Nine days later, on 7 December, Indonesia invaded East Timor, eventually annexing the tiny country of (then) 680,000 people.", "Indonesia was supported materially and diplomatically by the United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom, who regarded Indonesia as an anti-communist ally.Following the 1998 resignation of Suharto, the people of East Timor voted overwhelmingly for independence in a UN-sponsored referendum held on 30 August 1999.About 99% of the eligible population participated; more than three quarters chose independence despite months of attacks by the Indonesian military and its militia.", "After the result was announced, elements of the Indonesian military and its militia retaliated by killing approximately 2,000 East Timorese, displacing two-thirds of the population, raping hundreds of women and girls, and destroying much of the country's infrastructure.", "In October 1999, the Indonesian parliament (MPR) revoked the decree that annexed East Timor, and the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) assumed responsibility for governing East Timor until it officially became an independent state in May 2002.===Transmigration===The Transmigration program (''Transmigrasi'') was a National Government initiative to move landless people from densely populated areas of Indonesia (such as Java and Bali) to less populous areas of the country including Papua, Kalimantan, Sumatra, and Sulawesi.", "The stated purpose of this program was to reduce the considerable poverty and overpopulation on Java, to provide opportunities for hard-working poor people, and to provide a workforce to better utilise the resources of the outer islands.", "The program, however, has been controversial, with critics accusing the Indonesian Government of trying to use these migrants to reduce the proportion of native populations in destination areas to weaken separatist movements.", "The program has often been cited as a major and ongoing factor in controversies and even conflict and violence between settlers and indigenous populations." ], [ "Reform Era", "===Pro-democracy movement===University students and police forces clash in May 1998In 1996, Suharto undertook efforts to pre-empt a challenge to the New Order government.", "The Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI), a legal party that had traditionally propped up the regime, had changed direction and began to assert its independence.", "Suharto fostered a split over the leadership of PDI, backing a co-opted faction loyal to deputy speaker of the People's Representative Council Suryadi against a faction loyal to Megawati Sukarnoputri, the daughter of Sukarno and the PDI's chairperson.After the Suryadi faction announced a party congress to sack Megawati would be held in Medan on 20–22 June, Megawati proclaimed that her supporters would hold demonstrations in protest.", "The Suryadi faction went through with its sacking of Megawati, and the demonstrations manifested themselves throughout Indonesia.", "This led to several confrontations on the streets between protesters and security forces, and recriminations over the violence.", "The protests culminated in the military allowing Megawati's supporters to take over PDI headquarters in Jakarta, with a pledge of no further demonstrations.Suharto allowed the occupation of PDI headquarters to go on for almost a month, as attentions were also on Jakarta due to a set of high-profile ASEAN meetings scheduled to take place there.", "Capitalizing on this, Megawati supporters organised \"democracy forums\" with several speakers at the site.", "On 26 July, officers of the military, Suryadi, and Suharto openly aired their disgust with the forums.On 27 July, police, soldiers, and persons claiming to be Suryadi supporters stormed the headquarters.", "Several Megawati supporters were killed, and over two hundred people were arrested and tried under the Anti-Subversion and Hate-Spreading laws.", "The day would become known as \"Black Saturday\" and mark the beginning of a renewed crackdown by the New Order government against supporters of democracy, now called the \"Reformasi\" or Reform movement.===Economic crisis and Suharto's resignation===In 1997 and 1998, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the 1997 Asian financial crisis, which had dire consequences for the Indonesian economy and society, as well as Suharto's presidency.", "At the same time, the country suffered a severe drought and some of the largest forest fires in history burned in Kalimantan and Sumatra.", "The rupiah, the Indonesian currency, took a sharp dive in value.", "Suharto came under scrutiny from international lending institutions, chiefly the World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the United States, over longtime embezzlement of funds and some protectionist policies.", "In December, Suharto's government signed a letter of intent to the IMF, pledging to enact austerity measures, including cuts to public services and removal of subsidies, in return for aid from the IMF and other donors.", "Prices for goods such as kerosene and rice, as well as fees for public services including education, rose dramatically.", "The effects were exacerbated by widespread corruption.", "The austerity measures approved by Suharto had started to erode domestic confidence with the New Order and led to popular protests.Suharto stood for re-election by parliament for the seventh time in March 1998, justifying it on the grounds of the necessity of his leadership during the crisis.", "The parliament approved a new term.", "This sparked protests and riots throughout the country, now termed the Indonesian 1998 Revolution.", "Dissent within the ranks of his own Golkar party and the military finally weakened Suharto, and on 21 May he stood down from power.", "He was replaced by his deputy, Vice President B.J.", "Habibie.President Habibie quickly assembled a cabinet.", "One of its main tasks was to re-establish International Monetary Fund and donor community support for an economic stabilisation program.", "He moved quickly to release political prisoners and lift some controls on freedom of speech and association.", "Elections for the national, provincial, and sub-provincial parliaments were held on 7 June 1999.In the elections for the national parliament, the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P, led by Sukarno's daughter Megawati Sukarnoputri) won 34% of the vote; Golkar (Suharto's party, formerly the only legal party of government) 22%; United Development Party (PPP, led by Hamzah Haz) 12%; and National Awakening Party (PKB, led by Abdurrahman Wahid) 10%.===May 1998 riots of Indonesia===The May 1998 riots of Indonesia also known as the 1998 tragedy or simply the 1998 event, were incidents of mass violence, demonstrations, and civil unrest of a racial nature that occurred throughout Indonesia.===Politics since 1999===Indonesian 2009 election ballot.", "Since 2004, Indonesians are able to vote their president directly.In October 1999, the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR), which consists of the 500-member Parliament plus 200 appointed members, elected Abdurrahman Wahid, commonly referred to as \"Gus Dur\", as President, and Megawati Sukarnoputri as Vice-President, both for five-year terms.", "Wahid named his first Cabinet in early November 1999 and a reshuffled, second Cabinet in August 2000.President Wahid's government continued to pursue democratisation and to encourage renewed economic growth under challenging conditions.", "In addition to continuing economic malaise, his government faced regional, interethnic, and interreligious conflict, particularly in Aceh, the Maluku Islands, and Irian Jaya.", "In West Timor, the problems of displaced East Timorese and violence by pro-Indonesian East Timorese militias caused considerable humanitarian and social problems.", "An increasingly assertive Parliament frequently challenged President Wahid's policies and prerogatives, contributing to a lively and sometimes rancorous national political debate.During the People's Consultative Assembly's first annual session in August 2000, President Wahid gave an account of his government's performance.", "On 29 January 2001, thousands of student protesters stormed parliament grounds and demanded that President Abdurrahman Wahid resign due to alleged involvement in corruption scandals.", "Under pressure from the Assembly to improve management and co-ordination within the government, he issued a presidential decree giving Vice-President Megawati control over the day-to-day administration of government.", "Soon after, Megawati Sukarnoputri assumed the presidency on 23 July.", "Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono won Indonesia's first direct presidential election in 2004, and was reelected in 2009.Joko Widodo, the PDI-P candidate, was elected president in 2014.Having previously served as the Governor of Jakarta, he is the first Indonesian president without a high-ranking political or military background.", "However, his opponent Prabowo Subianto disputed the outcome and withdrew from the race before the count was completed.", "Jokowi was reelected in 2019, again defeating Prabowo Subianto.===Terrorism===As a multi-ethnic and multicultural democratic country with a Muslim-majority population, Indonesia faces the challenge of dealing with terrorism linked to global militant Islamic movements.", "Jemaah Islamiyah (JI), a militant Islamic organisation that aspires for the establishment of a Daulah Islamiyah across Southeast Asia, is responsible for a series of terrorist attacks in Indonesia.", "This terrorist organisation, linked to Al-Qaeda, was responsible for the Bali bombings in 2002 and 2005, as well as Jakarta bombings in 2003, 2004, and 2009.The Indonesian government and authorities have tried to crack down on terrorist cells in Indonesia.On 14 January 2016, suicide bombers and gunmen initiated a terror attack in Jakarta, resulting in the death of eight people: three Indonesian civilians, a Canadian and four of the attackers.", "Twenty people were wounded during the attack.", "The Islamic state claimed responsibility for the incident.===Tsunami disaster and Aceh peace deal===On 26 December 2004, a massive earthquake and tsunami devastated parts of northern Sumatra, particularly Aceh.", "Partly as a result of the need for co-operation and peace during the recovery from the tsunami in Aceh, peace talks between the Indonesian government and the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) were restarted.", "Accords signed in Helsinki created a framework for military de-escalation in which the government has reduced its military presence, as members of GAM's armed wing decommission their weapons and apply for amnesty.", "The agreement also allows for local parties to be established, and other autonomy measures.===Forest and plantation fires===Since 1997 Indonesia has been struggling to contain forest fires, especially on the islands of Sumatra and Kalimantan.", "Haze occurs annually during the dry season and is largely caused by illegal agricultural fires due to slash-and-burn practices in Indonesia, especially in the provinces of South Sumatra and Riau on Indonesia's Sumatra island, and Kalimantan on Indonesian Borneo.", "The haze that occurred in 1997 was one of the most severe; dense hazes occurred again in 2005, 2006, 2009, 2013, and the worst was in 2015, killing dozens of Indonesians as a result of respiratory illnesses and road accidents due to poor visibility.", "Another 10 people were killed due to smog from forest and land fires.In September 2014, Indonesia ratified the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution, becoming the last ASEAN country to do so." ], [ "See also", "Foreign relations of IndonesiaHistory of Southeast AsiaList of presidents of IndonesiaPolitics of Indonesia;Museums:Jakarta History MuseumNational Museum of Indonesia" ], [ "Further reading", "* Burhanudin, Jajat, and Kees van Dijk, eds.", "''Islam in Indonesia: Contrasting Images and Interpretations'' (Amsterdam University Press, distributed by University of Chicago Press; 2013) 279 pages; scholarly articles* Dijk, Kees van.", "2001.", "''A country in despair.", "Indonesia between 1997 and 2000.''", "KITLV Press, Leiden, * Schwarz, Adam.", "1994.", "''A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia's Search for Stability''.", "2nd Edition.", "St Leonards, NSW : Allen & Unwin.", "* van Zanden J. L. ''An Economic History of Indonesia: 1800–2010'' (Routledge, 2012)* Tagliacozzo, Eric, ed.", "''Producing Indonesia: The State of the Field of Indonesian Studies'' (Cornell Modern Indonesia Project) (2014) Essays by 27 scholars." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "** Cribb, Robert.", "''Historical atlas of Indonesia'' (Routledge, 2013).", "* Crouch, Harold.", "''The army and politics in Indonesia'' (Cornell UP, 2019).", "* Drakeley, Steven.", "''The History Of Indonesia'' (2005) online* * Elson, Robert Edward.", "''The idea of Indonesia: A history.", "Vol.", "1'' (Cambridge UP, 2008).", "** Gouda, Frances.", "''American Visions of the Netherlands East Indies/Indonesia: US Foreign Policy and Indonesian Nationalism, 1920-1949'' (Amsterdam University Press, 2002) online ; another copy online * Hindley, Donald.", "''The Communist Party of Indonesia, 1951–1963'' (U of California Press, 1966).", "** ** * * Woodward, Mark R. ''Islam in Java: Normative Piety and Mysticism in the Sultanate of Yogyakarta'' (1989)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Indonesia" ], [ "Introduction", "Indonesia is an archipelagic country located in Southeast Asia and Oceania, lying between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean.", "It is located in a strategic location astride or along major sea lanes connecting East Asia, South Asia and Oceania.", "Indonesia is the largest archipelago in the world.", "Indonesia's various regional cultures have been shaped—although not specifically determined—by centuries of complex interactions with its physical environment." ], [ "Overview", "Indonesia is an archipelagic country extending about from east to west and from north to south.", "It is considered to be the largest archipelagic country in the world.", "According to a geospatial survey conducted between 2007 and 2010 by National Coordinating Agency for Survey and Mapping (Bakosurtanal), Indonesia has 17,500 islands.", "While earlier survey conducted in 2002 by National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN) stated Indonesia has 18,307 islands.", "According to the CIA World Factbook, there are 17,508 islands.", "The discrepancy between the surveys is likely caused by the earlier different survey method including tidal islands, sandy cays and rocky reefs that surface during low tide and submerge during high tide.", "There are 8,844 named islands according to estimates made by the government of Indonesia, with 922 of those being permanent.", "It comprises five main islands: Sumatra, Java, Borneo (known as ''Kalimantan'' in Indonesia), Sulawesi, and New Guinea; two major island groups (Nusa Tenggara and the Maluku Islands) and sixty smaller island groups.", "Four of the islands are shared with other countries: Borneo is shared with Malaysia and Brunei; Sebatik, located off the northeastern coast of Kalimantan, shared with Malaysia; Timor is shared with East Timor; and New Guinea is shared with Papua New Guinea.Indonesia has total land area of , including of inland seas (straits, bays, and other bodies of water).", "This makes it the largest island country in the world.", "The additional surrounding sea areas bring Indonesia's generally recognised territory (land and sea) to about 5 million km2.The government claims an exclusive economic zone of .", "This brings the total area to about 7.9 million km2.Indonesia is a transcontinental country, where its territory consisted of islands geologically considered as part of either Asia or Australia.", "During the Pleistocene, the Greater Sunda Islands were connected to the Asian mainland while New Guinea was connected to Australia.", "Karimata Strait, Java Sea and Arafura Sea were formed as the sea level rose at the end of the Pleistocene." ], [ "Geology", "leftThe main islands of Sumatra, Java, Madura, and Kalimantan lie on the Sunda Plate and geographers have conventionally grouped them, (along with Sulawesi), as the Greater Sunda Islands.", "At Indonesia's eastern extremity is western New Guinea, which lies on the Australian Plate.", "Sea depths in the Sunda and Sahul shelves average or less.", "Between these two shelves lie Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara (also known as the Lesser Sunda Islands), and the Maluku Islands (or the Moluccas), which form a second island group with deep, surrounding seas down to in depth.", "The term \"Outer Islands\" is used inconsistently by various writers but it is usually taken to mean those islands other than Java and Madura.Sulawesi is an island lies on three separate plates, the Banda Sea Plate, Molucca Sea Plate, and Sunda Plate.", "Seismic and volcanic activities are high on its northeastern part, evidenced by the formation of volcanoes in North Sulawesi and island arcs such as the Sangihe and Talaud Islands, southwest of the Philippine Trench.Nusa Tenggara or Lesser Sunda Islands consists of two strings of islands stretching eastward from Bali toward southern Maluku.", "The inner arc of Nusa Tenggara is a continuation of the Alpide belt chain of mountains and volcanoes extending from Sumatra through Java, Bali, and Flores, and trailing off in the volcanic Banda Islands, which along with the Kai Islands and the Tanimbar Islands and other small islands in the Banda Sea are typical examples of the Wallacea mixture of Asian and Australasian plant and animal life.", "The outer arc of Nusa Tenggara is a geological extension of the chain of islands west of Sumatra that includes Nias, Mentawai, and Enggano.", "This chain resurfaces in Nusa Tenggara in the ruggedly mountainous islands of Sumba and Timor.Sinabung in North Sumatra.", "Sinabung is one of the most active volcanoes in Indonesia.The Maluku Islands (or Moluccas) are geologically among the most complex of the Indonesian islands, consisted of four different tectonic plates.", "They are located in the northeast sector of the archipelago, bounded by the Philippine Sea to the north, Papua to the east, and Nusa Tenggara to the southwest.", "The largest of these islands include Halmahera, Seram and Buru, all of which rise steeply out of very deep seas and have unique Wallacea vegetation.", "This abrupt relief pattern from sea to high mountains means that there are very few level coastal plains.", "To the south lies the Banda Sea.", "The convergence between the Banda Sea Plate and Australian Plate created a chain of volcanic islands called the Banda Arc.", "The sea also contains the Weber Deep, one of the deepest point in Indonesia.Geomorphologists believe that the island of New Guinea is part of the Australian continent, both lies on Sahul Shelf and once joined via a land bridge during the Last glacial period.", "The tectonic movement of the Australian Plate created towering, snowcapped mountain peaks lining the island's central east–west spine and hot, humid alluvial plains along the coasts.", "The New Guinea Highlands range some east to west along the island, forming a mountainous spine between the northern and southern portion of the island.", "Due to its tectonic movement, New Guinea experienced many earthquakes and tsunamis, especially in its northern and western part.===Tectonism and volcanism===Most of the larger islands are mountainous, with peaks ranging between meters above sea level in Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sulawesi, and Seram.", "The country's tallest mountains are located in the Jayawijaya Mountains and the Sudirman Range in Papua.", "The highest peak, Puncak Jaya (), is located in the Sudirman Mountains.", "A string of volcanoes stretches from Sumatra to Nusa Tenggara, and then loops around through to the Banda Islands of Maluku to northeastern Sulawesi.", "Of the 400 volcanoes, approximately 150 are active.", "Two of the most violent volcanic eruptions in modern times occurred in Indonesia; in 1815 Mount Tambora in Sumbawa erupted killing 92,000 and in 1883, Krakatau, erupted killing 36,000.While volcanic ashes resulted from eruption has positive effects for the fertility of the surrounding soils, it also makes agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas.Indonesia's volcanoes.Indonesia has relatively high tectonic and volcanic activities.", "It lies on the convergence between the Eurasian, Indo-Australian, Pacific, and Philippine Sea Plate.", "The Sunda megathrust is a 5,500 km long fault located off southern coasts of Sumatra, Java and Lesser Sunda Islands, where the Indo-Australian Plate is thrusting northeastward towards the subducting Sunda Plate.", "Tectonic movement in this fault is responsible for the creation of the Sunda Trench, and mountain ranges across Sumatra, Java, and the Lesser Sunda Islands.", "Many great earthquakes occurred in the vicinity of the fault, such as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.", "Mount Merapi, located in the Java portion of the megathrust, is the most active volcano in Indonesia and is designated as one of world's Decade Volcanoes due to the hazard it poses to the surrounding populated areas.The northern part of Sulawesi and Maluku Islands lie on the convergence of Sunda Plate and Molucca Sea Plate, making it an active tectonic region with volcanic chains such as the Sangihe and Talaud Islands.", "Northern Maluku and western New Guinea is located on the convergence of Bird's Head, Philippine Sea and Caroline Plate.", "It is also a seismically active region, with the 7.6 Mw 2009 Papua earthquakes being the most recent great earthquake to date in the region." ], [ "Ecology", "Borneo is the third largest island in the world and the native vegetation was mostly Borneo lowland rain forests although much of this has been cleared with wildlife retreating to the Borneo montane rain forests inland.", "The islands of North Maluku are the original Spice Islands, a distinct rainforest ecoregion.", "A number of islands off the coast of New Guinea have their own distinctive biogeographic features, including the limestone islands of Biak, in the entrance to the large Cenderawasih Bay at the northwest end of the island.A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 14,416km² of tidal flats in Indonesia, ranking it 1st in the world in terms of how much tidal flat occurs there.", "Another global analysis also estimated that Indonesia experienced the greatest total tidal wetland change (36% of global net change including mangroves, tidal flats, and tidal marshes) between 1999-2019 with a net loss of ." ], [ "Time zones", "Indonesia is divided into three time zones:'''Western Indonesian Time/WIT''' (Indonesian: ''Waktu Indonesia Barat''/'''WIB''') (UTC+7)WIB is observed in islands of Sumatra, Java, provinces of West Kalimantan and Central Kalimantan.", "'''Central Indonesian Time/CIT''' (''Waktu Indonesia Tengah''/'''WITA''') (UTC+8)*WITA is observed in islands of Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands, provinces of East Kalimantan, South Kalimantan, and North Kalimantan.", "'''Eastern Indonesian Time/EIT''' (''Waktu Indonesia Timur''/'''WIT''') (UTC+9).", "*WIT is observed in provinces of Maluku, North Maluku, Papua, West Papua, Southwest Papua, Central Papua, South Papua, and Highland Papua." ], [ "Climate", "Köppen-Geiger climate classification map for IndonesiaLying along the equator, Indonesia's climate tends to be relatively even year-round.", "Indonesia has two seasons—a wet season and a dry season—with no extremes of summer or winter.", "For most of Indonesia, the dry season falls between May and October while the wet season between November and April.Some regions, such as Kalimantan and Sumatra, experience only slight differences in rainfall and temperature between the seasons, whereas others, such as Nusa Tenggara, experience far more pronounced differences with droughts in the dry season, and floods in the wet.", "Rainfall in Indonesia is plentiful, particularly in west Sumatra, northwest Kalimantan, west Java, and western New Guinea.Parts of Sulawesi and some islands closer to Australia, such as Sumba and Timor, are drier, however, these are exceptions.", "The almost uniformly warm waters that make up 81% of Indonesia's area ensure that temperatures on land remain fairly constant.", "The coastal plains averaging , the inland and mountain areas averaging , and the higher mountain regions, .", "The area's relative humidity ranges between 70 and 90%.Winds are moderate and generally predictable, with monsoons usually blowing in from the south and east in June through October and from the northwest in November through March.", "Typhoons and large scale storms pose little hazard to mariners in Indonesia waters; the major danger comes from swift currents in channels, such as the Lombok and Sape straits.Indonesia's climate is almost entirely tropical, dominated by the tropical rainforest climate found in every major island of Indonesia, followed by the tropical monsoon climate that predominantly lies along Java's coastal north, Sulawesi's coastal south and east, and Bali, and finally the tropical savanna climate, found in isolated locations of Central Java, lowland East Java, coastal southern Papua and smaller islands to the east of Lombok.However, cooler climate types do exist in mountainous regions of Indonesia 1,300–1,500 metres above sea level.", "The oceanic climate (Köppen ''Cfb'') prevail in highland areas with fairly uniform precipitation year-round, adjacent to rainforest climates, while the subtropical highland climate (Köppen ''Cwb'') exist in highland areas with a more pronounced dry season, adjacent to tropical monsoon and savanna climates.Above 3000 metres is where cold, subpolar climates dominate and where frost and occasional snow become more commonplace.", "The subpolar oceanic climate (Köppen ''Cfc''), existing between 3,000 and 3,500 metres, can be found on the mountain slopes of Indonesia's highest peaks, and serves as a transition between oceanic climates and tundra climates.", "Tundra climates (Köppen ''ET''), are found anywhere above 3500 metres on the highest peaks of Indonesia, including the permanently snow-capped peaks in Papua.", "In this climate regime, average monthly temperatures are all below 10 °C, and monthly precipitation is uniform." ], [ "Environmental issues", "Deforestation in Riau province, Sumatra, to make way for an oil palm plantation, 2007.Indonesia's high population and rapid industrialisation present serious environmental issues, which are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.", "Issues include large-scale deforestation (much of it illegal) and related wildfires causing heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine resources; and environmental problems associated with rapid urbanisation and economic development, including air pollution, traffic congestion, garbage management, and reliable water and waste water services.Deforestation and the destruction of peatlands make Indonesia the world's third largest emitter of greenhouse gases.", "Habitat destruction threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species, including 140 species of mammals identified by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as threatened, and 15 identified as critically endangered, including the Sumatran Orangutan.In 1970, 15% of Indonesians lived in cities compared to over 30% today, and this increases pressure on the urban environment.", "Industrial pollution is increasing, particularly in Java, and the increasing affluence of the growing middle class drives a rapid increase in the number of motor vehicles and associated emissions.", "Garbage and waste water services are being placed under increasing pressure.", "Reliance on septic systems or effluent disposal in open canals and river systems remains the norm, and is a major polluter of water resources.", "Very few Indonesians have access to safe drinking water and must boil water before use.The geographical resources of the Indonesian archipelago have been exploited in ways that fall into consistent social and historical patterns.", "One cultural pattern consists of the formerly Indianized, rice-growing peasants in the valleys and plains of Sumatra, Java, and Bali, another cultural complex is composed of the largely Islamic coastal commercial sector, a third, more marginal sector consists of the upland forest farming communities which exist by means of subsistence swidden agriculture.", "To some degree, these patterns can be linked to the geographical resources themselves, with abundant shoreline, generally calm seas, and steady winds favouring the use of sailing vessels, and fertile valleys and plains—at least in the Greater Sunda Islands—permitting irrigated rice farming.", "The heavily forested, mountainous interior hinders overland communication by road or river, but fosters slash-and-burn agriculture." ], [ "Statistics", "Java and eastern Indonesia photographed in 2015 by an astronaut on the International Space Station.", "Six active volcanos are visible.", "Haze is from wildfires.", "'''Area:'''''total land area:'' 1,904,569 km2 (''land:'' 1,811,569 km2 (699450 mi2),''inland water:'' 93,000 km2) (35,907 mi2)'''Area - comparative:''' Slightly smaller than Nunavut, Canada* Slightly larger than combined area of Alaska and New England* More than 27 times larger than Republic of Ireland* ''Territorial area:'' 5,193,250 km2* ''Total area (including exclusive economic zone):'' 8,063,601 km2'''Land boundaries:'''* ''Total:'' * ''Border countries:'' Malaysia , Papua New Guinea , East Timor * ''Other nearby countries:'' Australia, Brunei, Cambodia, India, Laos, Myanmar, Palau, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam'''Coastline:''' '''Maritime claims:''' measured from claimed archipelagic baselines''territorial sea:'' ''exclusive economic zone:'' with '''Elevation extremes:'''''lowest point:'' Sea level at 0 m (sea surface level); southern portion of the Philippine Trench, east of Miangas at ''highest point:'' Puncak Jaya (also known as ''Carstensz Pyramid'') 4,884 mPuncak Jaya, the highest mountain in Indonesia'''Land use:'''''arable land:'' 12.97%''permanent crops:'' 12.14%''other:'' 74.88% (2013)'''Irrigated land:''' 67,220 km2 (2005) (25,953 mi2)'''Total renewable water resources:''' 2,019 km3 (2011) (484 mi3)'''Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):'''''total:'' 113.3 km3/yr (11%/19%/71%)''per capita:'' 517.3 m3/yr (2005)'''Natural resources:''' coal, petroleum, natural gas, tin, nickel, timber, bauxite, copper, fertile soils, gold, silver" ], [ "See also", "* List of Indonesian provinces by highest point" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Digital Atlas of Indonesian History by Robert Cribb from 17th century and earlier* \"Map of a Part of China, the Philippine Islands, the Isles of Sunda, the Moluccas, the Papuans\" features a map of Indonesia from around 1760* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Indonesia" ], [ "Introduction", "Historical populationIndonesian students during a school excursion to a museum; Indonesia currently possesses a relatively young population.The population of Indonesia was 270.20 million according to the 2020 national census, an increase from 237.64 million in 2010.The official estimate as at mid 2022 was 275,773,800, increasing at a rate of 1.17% per year.", "Indonesia is the fourth most populous country in the world.", "Approximately 55% of Indonesia's population resides on Java, which is the most populous island in the world.Despite a fairly effective family planning program that has been in place since 1967, Indonesia's average population growth per year was over 1.1% for the decade ending in 2020, nearly having 13% population growth for that decade.", "At this rate, Indonesia's population is projected to surpass the population of the United States if the recent population growth continues.Indonesia has a relatively young population compared to Western nations, though it is aging as the country's birth rate has slowed and its life expectancy has increased.", "The median age was 30.2 years in 2017.Indonesia includes numerous ethnic, cultural and linguistic groups, some of which are related to each other.", "Since independence, Indonesian is the language of most written communication, education, government, and business.", "Many local ethnic languages are the first language of most Indonesians and are still important." ], [ "Population", "Provinces of Indonesia by population density per square kilometer in 2020 ===Population by province===ProvincePopulation (2010 census)Urban %in 2010TotalFertilityRatePopulation (2020 census) Aceh 4,494,410 23.6 2.79 5,274,900 North Sumatra 12,982,204 42.4 3.01 14,799,400 West Sumatra 4,846,909 29.02.91 5,534,500 Riau 5,538,367 43.72.82 6,394,100 Jambi 3,092,265 28.32.51 3,548,200 South Sumatra 7,450,394 34.4 2.56 8,467,400 Bengkulu 1,715,518 29.42.51 2,010,700 Lampung 7,608,405 21.02.45 9,007,800 Bangka Belitung Islands 1,223,296 43.0 2.54 1,455,700 Riau Islands 1,679,163 67.4 2.38 2,064,600 Banten 10,632,166 52.22.35 11,904,600 Jakarta 9,607,787 100.0 1.82 10,562,100 West Java 43,053,732 50.32.43 48,274,200 Central Java 32,382,657 40.42.20 36,516,000 Yogyakarta 3,457,491 57.7 1.94 3,668,700 East Java 37,476,757 40.92.00 40,665,700 Bali 3,890,757 49.82.13 4,317,400 West Nusa Tenggara 4,500,212 34.82.59 5,320,100 East Nusa Tenggara 4,683,827 15.93.82 5,325,600 West Kalimantan 4,395,983 25.12.64 5,414,400 Central Kalimantan 2,212,089 27.52.56 2,670,000 South Kalimantan 3,626,616 36.3 2.35 4,073,600 East Kalimantan 3,028,487 57.62.61 3,766,000 North Kalimantan 524,656 701,800 North Sulawesi 2,270,596 37.02.43 2,621,900 Gorontalo 1,040,164 25.52.76 1,171,700 Central Sulawesi 2,635,009 19.7 2.94 2,985,700 South Sulawesi 8,034,776 29.42.55 9,073,500 Southeast Sulawesi 2,232,586 20.8 3.20 2,624,900 West Sulawesi 1,158,651 -- 3.33 1,419,200 Maluku 1,533,506 25.9 3.56 1,848,900 North Maluku 1,038,087 29.53.35 1,282,900 Papua 2,833,381 22.2 2.87 4,303,700 West Papua 760,422 --3.18 1,134,100 '''Indonesia''' '''237,641,326''' '''2.41''' '''270,203,900'''Source: Population Census 2010, except for final column, taken from Population Census 2020.Note: (a) North Kalimantan province was created in 2012 (by separation from East Kalimantan province); the 2010 total figures given are those for the provinces as they were following that splitting (Urban % and Total Fertility Rate columns unadjusted).===Age structure===Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2020) (Data are based on the publication: \"Indonesia Population Projection 2015-2045\"):Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 135 337 011 134 266 419 269 603 430 100 0–4 11 101 528 10 850 465 21 951 993 8.14 5–9 11 205 657 10 739 503 21 945 160 8.14 10–14 11 284 333 10 884 509 22 168 842 8.22 15–19 11 189 861 10 949 531 22 139 392 8.21 20–24 11 070 774 10 887 555 21 958 329 8.14 25–29 10 963 605 10 736 361 21 699 966 8.05 30–34 10 777 337 10 524 673 21 302 010 7.90 35–39 10 477 475 10 305 704 20 783 179 7.71 40–44 9 830 929 9 693 109 19 524 038 7.24 45–49 9 140 315 9 023 924 18 164 239 6.74 50–54 7 975 551 7 947 477 15 923 028 5.91 55–59 6 632 329 6 691 467 13 323 796 4.94 60–64 5 234 762 5 287 052 10 521 814 3.90 65-69 3 758 966 3 921 263 7 680 229 2.85 70-74 2 485 308 2 757 062 5 242 370 1.94 75+ 2 208 281 3 066 764 5 275 045 1.96Age groupMaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 33 591 518 32 474 477 66 065 995 24.50 15–64 93 292 938 92 046 853 185 339 791 68.75 65+ 8 452 555 9 745 089 18 197 644 6.75" ], [ "Vital statistics", "}===United Nations estimates===PeriodPopulation(thousands)Live births (thousands)Deaths (thousands)Natural change(thousands)CBRCDRNCTFRIMRLife expectancy (years)195069 5682 8261 5051 32140.621.619.05.19189.139.40195171 0192 9261 5221 40441.221.419.85.23186.839.79195272 5713 0351 5171 51841.820.920.95.27182.040.69195374 2083 1461 5261 62042.420.621.85.31177.441.42195475 9253 2571 5331 72342.920.222.75.35172.942.19195577 7423 3591 5421 81743.219.823.45.37168.442.92195679 6623 4751 5441 93143.619.424.25.41164.043.80195781 6913 5891 5562 03343.919.024.95.45159.844.50195883 8193 7011 5752 12644.218.825.45.48155.845.05195986 0483 8111 5782 23344.318.326.05.51151.945.86196088 3833 9291 5932 33744.518.026.45.55148.346.45196190 8174 0311 6022 42944.417.626.75.57144.847.12196293 3454 1271 6032 52344.217.227.05.59141.447.87196395 9634 2171 6142 60343.916.827.15.60138.148.43196498 6754 3041 6092 69543.616.327.35.61134.849.231965101 1584 3802 1212 25943.321.022.35.62142.742.601966103 5614 4261 7402 68642.716.825.95.60129.548.201967106 2614 4681 5962 87142.015.027.05.58124.851.071968109 1394 5031 5942 90941.314.626.75.54121.451.631969112 1494 5551 5822 97340.614.126.55.51118.052.351970115 2284 5961 5763 02139.913.726.25.45114.652.991971118 3474 6271 5703 05639.113.325.85.36111.553.581972121 5044 6671 5603 10738.412.825.65.29108.454.241973124 7094 7201 5543 16637.912.525.45.22105.354.851974127 9454 7271 5473 18037.012.124.95.09102.355.431975131 2134 7831 5443 23936.511.824.75.0499.455.971976134 5214 8131 5403 27335.811.524.34.9296.856.511977137 8624 8491 5343 31535.211.124.04.8194.157.081978141 2514 9081 5353 37334.710.923.94.7291.657.571979144 6934 9521 5303 42234.210.623.74.6189.358.151980148 1774 9811 5213 46033.610.323.44.4986.958.751981151 6864 9971 5263 47233.010.122.94.3684.659.141982155 2295 0361 5143 52232.49.822.74.2582.359.761983158 7915 0161 5073 50831.69.522.14.1079.960.271984162 3324 9861 5023 48430.79.321.53.9477.660.731985165 7924 8361 4813 35529.28.920.23.7175.261.311986169 1354 7361 4723 26428.08.719.33.5372.861.721987172 4214 7321 4813 25127.48.618.93.4270.461.971988175 6954 7381 4953 24427.08.518.53.3368.062.211989178 9494 7071 4873 22026.38.318.03.2265.662.701990182 1604 6471 4773 17025.58.117.43.1063.163.181991185 3614 7021 4843 21825.48.017.43.0660.663.541992188 5584 6441 4683 17624.67.816.82.9458.164.131993191 7374 6521 4643 18824.37.616.62.8855.764.601994194 9294 6811 4813 20124.07.616.42.8453.364.861995198 1404 7141 4873 22723.87.516.32.8051.065.241996201 3744 7621 5193 24423.67.516.12.7748.965.361997204 6284 7971 5263 27123.47.516.02.7446.865.731998207 8554 7441 5443 20022.87.415.42.6644.865.961999210 9974 6831 5593 12322.27.414.82.5842.966.222000214 0724 6801 5813 09921.97.414.52.5441.166.432001217 1124 6791 5913 08821.57.314.22.5039.566.762002220 1154 6621 5963 06621.27.213.92.4637.867.132003223 0804 6581 6123 04620.97.213.72.4336.367.412004225 9394 6781 8072 87120.78.012.72.4236.965.752005228 8054 7461 6793 06720.77.313.42.4333.567.652006231 7974 8191 6983 12120.87.313.52.4532.267.912007234 8584 9231 7193 20521.07.313.62.4931.068.192008237 9374 9271 7633 16420.77.413.32.4829.868.232009240 9814 9131 7803 13320.47.413.02.4628.768.492010244 0164 9201 8073 11220.27.412.82.4527.668.682011247 1005 0291 8433 18620.37.512.92.5026.568.822012250 2235 0281 8753 15320.17.512.62.4925.668.972013253 2764 9171 8893 02919.47.512.02.4324.669.262014256 2304 8571 9042 95319.07.411.52.3923.769.532015259 0924 7801 9332 84718.47.511.02.3522.869.702016261 8504 7181 9722 74618.07.510.52.3122.069.802017264 4994 6342 0042 62917.57.69.92.2621.269.942018267 0674 5882 0022 58617.27.59.72.2320.570.342019269 5834 5592 0322 52616.97.59.42.2219.870.522020271 8584 526 2 4372 08916.69.07.72.1919.268.812021273 7534 4962 7551 74116.4 10.16.42.1818.667.57Source: UN DESA, World Population Prospects, 2022===Registered births and deaths===Data from Department of Statistics of Indonesia :Average populationLive birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1,000)Crude death rate (per 1,000)Natural change (per 1,000)Fertility rates 2003 213,600,000 4,439,176 13.4 2004 216,400,000approx.", "4,439,176 13.3 2005 219,800,000approx.", "4,439,176 13.2 2006 222,700,000approx.", "4,439,176 13.0 2007 225,600,000approx.", "4,439,176 12.8 2008 228,500,000approx.", "4,439,176 12.5 2009 231,400,000approx.", "4,418,871 12.2 2010 237,641,326 approx.", "4,418,871 1,236,154 18.6 5.2 2011 241,000,000approx.", "4,418,871 13.2 2012 244,200,000approx.", "4,418,871 13.1 2.6 2015 255,587,900approx.", "4,418,871 2016 258,496,500approx.", "4,414,499 2017 261,355,500approx.", "4,414,499 2.4 2018 264,161,600approx.", "4,414,499 2019 266,911,900approx.", "4,414,499 2020 269,603,400approx.", "4,414,499 2021 271,350,000 2.18===Fertility and Births (Demographic and Health Surveys)===Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Year CBR (Total) TFR (Total) CBR (Urban) TFR (Urban) CBR (Rural) TFR (Rural) 1981-1983 4.3 1987 3.4 (3.1) 2.9 (2.6) 3.7 (3.4) 1991 25.1 3.02 (2.50) 24.0 2.60 (2.03) 25.6 3.24 (2.73) 1994 2.9 (2.4) 2.3 (1.8) 3.2 (2.7) 1997 2.8 (2.4) 2.4 (2.0) 3.0 (2.6) 2002-2003 21.9 2.6 (2.2) 22.1 2.4 (2.1) 21.7 2.7 (2.3) 2007 20.9 2.6 (2.2) 20.2 2.3 (2.0) 21.5 2.8 (2.4) 2012 20.4 2.6 (2.0) 20.1 2.4 (1.9) 20.7 2.8 (2.2) 2017 18.1 2.4 (2.1) 17.7 2.3 (1.9) 18.5 2.6 (2.2)According to the CIA World Factbook, in 2020 Indonesia's average total fertility rate was 2.04 children/born per woman.===Fertility rate and aging population (by province)===Total fertility rate (TFR) and population over age 60 by region as of 2010: Province Total fertility rate (2010) Total fertility rate (2020) Population over age 60 (2010) North Sumatera 3.01 2.48 5.9 West Sumatera 2.91 2.46 8.1 Riau 2.82 2.28 4.0 Jambi 2.51 2.28 5.5 South Sumatera 2.56 2.23 6.2 Bengkulu 2.51 2.30 5.8 Lampung 2.45 2.28 7.2 Bangka Belitung 2.54 2.24 5.8 Kepulauan Riau 2.38 2.21 3.4 Jakarta 1.82 1.75 5.1 West Java 2.43 2.11 7.0 Central Java 2.20 2.09 10.3 Yogyakarta 1.94 1.89 12.9 East Java 2.00 1.98 10.4 Banten 2.35 2.01 4.6 Bali 2.13 2.04 9.7 East Nusa Tenggara 3.82 2.79 7.4 West Kalimantan 2.64 2.33 5.8 Central Kalimantan 2.56 2.31 4.6 South Kalimantan 2.35 2.31 5.8 East Kalimantan 2.61 2.18 4.0 North Sulawesi 2.43 2.10 8.4 Central Sulawesi 2.94 2.32 6.6 South Sulawesi 2.55 2.22 8.2 Southeast Sulawesi 3.20 2.57 5.8 Gorontalo 2.76 2.30 5.9 West Sulawesi 3.33 2.58 6.2 Maluku 3.56 2.52 6.2 North Maluku 3.35 2.47 4.8 West Papua 3.18 2.66 3.2 Papua 2.87 2.76 2.4" ], [ "Ethnic groups", "There are over 1,300 ethnic groups in Indonesia; 95% of those are of Native Indonesian ancestry.", "Javanese is the largest group with 100 million people (42%), followed by Sundanese, who number nearly 40 million (15%)." ], [ "Religions", "Indonesia is the world's most populous Muslim-majority nation; based on civil registration data in 2022 from Ministry of Home Affairs, 87.02% of Indonesians are Muslims, 10.49% Christians (7.43% Protestants, 3.06% Roman Catholic), 1.69% Hindu, 0.73% Buddhists, 0.03% Confucians and 0.04% other faiths.", "Most Indonesian Hindus are Balinese and most Buddhists in modern-day Indonesia are Chinese." ], [ "Languages", "Indonesian is the official language, but there are many different languages native to Indonesia.", "According to Ethnologue, there are currently 737 living languages spoken in Indonesia, the most widely spoken being Javanese and Sundanese.", "In Western New Guinea, there are more than 270 indigenous languages in spoken form.", "Some Chinese varieties, most prominently Min Nan, are also spoken.", "The public use of Chinese, especially usage of Chinese characters, was dissuaded officially between 1966 and 1998." ], [ "Literacy", "''definition:'' age 15 and over can read and write''total population:'' 92.81%''male:'' 95.5%''female:'' 90.4% (2011 est.", ")Education is free in state schools; it is compulsory for children through to grade 12.Although about 92% of eligible children are enrolled in primary school, a much smaller percentage attend full-time.", "About 44% of secondary school-age children attend junior high school, and some others of this age group attend vocational schools." ], [ "CIA World Factbook demographic statistics", "Population pyramid 2016The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.", "'''Age structure''':''0-14 years:'' 23.33%:''15-64 years:'' 70.72%:''65 years and over:'' 5.95% (2020 census)'''Median age''':''total:'' 31.1 years:''male:'' 30.5 years:''female:'' 31.8 years (2020 est.", ")'''Birth rate''':15.32 births/1,000 population (2022 est.", ")'''Death rate''':6.75 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.", ")'''Population growth rate''':1.097% (2010 est.", "):1.04% (2012 est.", "):0.86% (2017 est.", "):0.79% (2022 est.", ")'''Urbanization''':''urban population:'' 57.9% of total population (2022):''rate of urbanisation:'' 1.99% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.", ")'''Sex ratio''':''at birth:'' 1.05 male(s)/female:''0-14 years:'' 1.05 male(s)/female:''15-24 years:'' 1.05 male(s)/female:''25-54 years:'' 0.99 male(s)/female:''55-64 years:'' 0.98 male(s)/female:''65 years and over:'' 0.66 male(s)/female:''total population:'' 1 male(s)/female (2022 est.", ")'''Infant mortality rate''':''total:'' 19.73 deaths/1,000 live births:''male:'' 22.15 deaths/1,000 live births:''female:'' 17.18 deaths/1,000 live births (2022 est.", ")'''Life expectancy at birth'''Life expectancy in Indonesia since 1927Life expectancy in Indonesia since 1960 by gender:''total population:'' 73.08 years:''male:'' 70.86 years:''female:'' 75.4 years (2022 est.", ")'''Total fertility rate''':2.01 children born/woman (2022 est.", ")'''HIV/AIDS''': Adult prevalence rate: 0.4% (2017 est.", "): People living with HIV/AIDS: 630,000 (2017 est.", "): HIV/AIDS deaths: 39,000 (2017 est.", ")'''Obesity – adult prevalence rate''': 6.9% (2016)'''Children under the age of 5 years underweight''': 19.9% (2013)'''Nationality''':''noun:'' Indonesian(s):''adjective:'' Indonesian:''Ethnic groups:'' Javanese 40.1%, Sundanese 15.5%, Malay 3.7%, Batak 3.6%, Madurese 3%, Betawi 2.9%, Minangkabau 2.7%, Buginese 2.7%, Bantenese 2%, Banjarese 1.7%, Balinese 1.7%, Acehnese 1.4%, Dayak 1.4%, Sasak 1.3%, Chinese 1.2%, other 15% (2010 est.", ")'''Religions''':Muslim 86.7%, Christianity 10.72% (Protestant 7.6% and Roman Catholic 3.12%), Hinduism 1.74%, other 0.8% (includes Buddhist and Confucian), unspecified 0.04% (2018 est.", ")'''Languages''':Indonesian (official, a form of Malay influenced by other languages of Indonesia), local languages (the most widely spoken of which is Javanese).", "'''School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)''':''total:'' 11 years:''male:'' 12 years:''female:'' 11 years (2005)'''Education expenditures''':2.8% of GDP (2014)" ], [ "See also", "* Census in Indonesia* Culture of Indonesia* Native Indonesians* Overseas Indonesian* Transmigration program" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Indonesian Central Bureau of Statistics * CIA World Factbook article on Indonesia* On Indonesians of Arab descent* United Nations \"World Population Prospects\": Country Profile – Indonesia" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Politics of Indonesia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''politics of Indonesia''' take place in the framework of a presidential representative democratic republic whereby the President of Indonesia is both head of state and head of government and of a multi-party system.", "Executive power is exercised by the government.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and the bicameral People's Consultative Assembly.", "The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.The 1945 constitution provided for a limited separation of executive, legislative and judicial power.", "The governmental system has been described as \"presidential with parliamentary characteristics\".", "Following the Indonesian riots of May 1998 and the resignation of President Suharto, several political reforms were set in motion via amendments to the Constitution of Indonesia, which resulted in changes to all branches of government.", "According to the V-Dem Democracy indices Indonesia was 2023 the 11th most electoral democratic country in Asia.", "Indonesia's political parties have been characterized as cartel parties with extensive power-sharing among parties and limited accountability to voters.Currently, scholars are conflicted about the strength and durability of Indonesia’s democracy.", "Indonesia scores well on certain characteristics of democracy, such as political rights, classifying it as a democracy in the minimalist interpretation of the word.", "However, the country lacks other aspects of democracy that are usually required for a regime to reach democratic consolidation, such as adequate civil rights protections.A minimalist view of democracy classifies political regimes purely in terms of their institutions and procedures rather than the outcomes they produce.", "Specifically, a regime must implement free and fair elections.", "In Indonesia, the president is directly elected and can serve up to two five-year terms.", "There are limited voting irregularities, and international election monitors consider the elections free and fair.", "Additionally, in 2019, the Constitutional Court rejected claims of widespread voter fraud.", "The right to organize competing political parties is respected, and the system allows for the competition of several political parties.", "Thus, according to the minimalist definition, Indonesia is a democracy.However, a maximalist approach to democracy claims that free and fair elections are insufficient to consider a regime a democracy.", "Maximalists argue that these countries must also guarantee other social, political, and economic rights, often those found in consolidated democracies.", "These include human rights protections, civil rights, egalitarianism, judicial independence, and more.", "Individuals in Indonesia are generally not free to practice and express their religious faith.", "Atheists and those who practice one of the “unrecognized” faiths in Indonesia can be penalized and face discrimination.", "Additionally, the court system often has many instances of corruption, and there is no due process in civil and criminal matters.", "Thus, Indonesia fails to meet many of the civil requirements for a consolidated, or maximalist, democracy.The durability of democracies can be attributed to a few key characteristics, such as per capita income, the control of political parties, and the frequency of elections.", "Indonesia scores very well in each of these categories.", "Indonesia has a relatively high per capita income of $5,000 USD, has multiple competing political parties, and has new leadership elected every five years.", "So, although Indonesia may not yet be a consolidated democracy, the country has made tremendous progress in advancing its score in democratic processes and durability." ], [ "History", "===Old Order: Liberal Democracy and Guided Democracy=== The '''\"Old Order\"''' (1950-1965) in Indonesia has long been understood to be a period of turmoil and crisis, characterized by rebellions and political unrest.", "The weakness of Indonesia's democracy and its gradual transition to authoritarianism during the Old Order can be attributed to conventional modernization theory, which suggests that without strong socioeconomic structures, successful transitions to democracy are unlikely.", "Indeed, it was not until the late 1960s when urbanization took place that the Indonesian government began to build a stronger democracy.During the '''\"Liberal Democracy\"''' period (1950-1957), Indonesia aspired to renew its global status and achieve modernity as a newly-independent country.", "In line with this vision, it sought to establish a democratic parliamentary system, bringing forth a \"multi-party system, cabinet government under a prime minister, and a ceremonial president\".", "However, the economic instability inherited from colonial rule significantly hindered their democratic nation-building vision: the Indonesian economy struggled to recover from the hardships of colonial occupation, with economic growth being stagnant and inflation reaching over 600% between the 1950s-1960s.", "Indonesia's economy heavily relied on the agricultural sector, but without diversification and industrialization, the government became vulnerable to polarization and instability.Moreover, Indonesia's abundance of natural resources, such as coffee, rubber, and cocoa, made it susceptible to the political resource curse: Indonesia's resource wealth led to corruption, inequality, and political instability, hindering economic and social progress; the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a few elites with a monopoly over these resources worsened the country's economic and political problems.", "This ultimately led to rising political tensions and the government's loss of control.", "'''\"Guided Democracy\"''', which was in place from 1957 to 1966, aimed to bring about political stability, modernization, and development under the leadership of President Sukarno.", "Initially, Sukarno sought to build political institutions to bolster representation and resolve conflicts of regionalism, social class, and religion that plagued the Parliament during the Liberal Democracy era.", "However, power became increasingly centralized to the executive branch in the latter half of Guided Democracy, with Sukarno assuming a dictator-like role in the government.", "Indonesia's gradual transition to authoritarianism during the Guided Democracy period exemplifies the failure of the democratic project in the country due to weak socio-economic structures and the political resource curse that undermined its democratic development.===Transition to the New Order===The transition to the \"New Order\" in the mid-1960s, ousted Sukarno after 22 years in the position.", "One of the most tumultuous periods in the country's modern history, it was the commencement of Suharto's three-decade presidency.", "Described as the great ''dhalang'' (\"puppet master\"), Sukarno drew power from balancing the opposing and increasingly antagonistic forces of the army and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI).By 1965, the PKI extensively penetrated all levels of government and gained influence at the expense of the army.", "On 30 September 1965, six of the military's most senior officers were killed in an action (generally labelled an \"attempted coup\") by the so-called 30 September Movement, a group from within the armed forces.", "Within a few hours, Major General Suharto mobilised forces under his command and took control of Jakarta.", "Anti-communists, initially following the army's lead, went on a violent purge of communists throughout the country, killing an estimated half million people and destroying the PKI, which was officially blamed for the crisis.The politically weakened Sukarno was forced to transfer key political and military powers to General Suharto, who had become head of the armed forces.", "In March 1967, the Provisional People's Consultative Assembly (MPRS) named General Suharto acting president.", "He was formally appointed president one year later.", "Sukarno lived under virtual house arrest until his death in 1970.In contrast to the stormy nationalism, revolutionary rhetoric, and economic failure that characterised the early 1960s under the left-leaning Sukarno, Suharto's pro-Western \"New Order\" stabilised the economy but continued the official state philosophy of ''Pancasila''.===New Order===Sukarno-Indonesia's first national figure and president-dissolved the elected assembly, introduced a concept known as Guided Democracy, and reinstated the 1945 constitution in 1959.The period of Guided Democracy was marked by the creation of a plethora of ministries, by the rise of the Indonesia Communist Party (Partai Komunis Indonesia; PKI) to a position of political dominance, and by the emergence of the army as a major anticommunist political force.", "The structure collapsed with an attempted coup d'etat in 1965, which led to the downfall of Sukarno.", "Under Suharto, Sukarno's successor, Indonesia entered a new political era, officially called the New OrderThe '''New Order''' () is the term coined by President Suharto to characterise his regime as he came to power in 1966.He used this term to contrast his rule with that of his predecessor, Sukarno (dubbed the \"Old Order,\" or ''Orde Lama'').", "The term \"New Order\" in more recent times has become synonymous with the Suharto years (1966–1998).Immediately following the attempted coup in 1965, the political situation was uncertain, but the New Order found much popular support from groups wanting a separation from Indonesia's problems since its independence.", "The 'generation of 66' (''Angkatan 66'') epitomised talk of a new group of young leaders and new intellectual thought.", "Following communal and political conflicts, and economic collapse and social breakdown of the late 1950s through to the mid-1960s, the New Order was committed to achieving and maintaining political order, economic development, and the removal of mass participation in the political process.", "The features of the New Order established from the late 1960s were thus a strong political role for the military, the bureaucratisation and corporatisation of political and societal organisations, and selective but effective repression of opponents.", "Strident anti-communism remained a hallmark of the regime for its subsequent 32 years.Within a few years, however, many of its original allies had become indifferent or averse to the New Order, which comprised a military faction supported by a narrow civilian group.", "Among much of the pro-democracy movement which forced Suharto to resign in 1998 and then gained power, the term \"New Order\" has come to be used pejoratively.", "It is frequently employed to describe figures who were either tied to the New Order, or who upheld the practises of his authoritarian regime, such as corruption, collusion and nepotism (widely known by the acronym KKN: ''korupsi'', ''kolusi'', ''nepotisme'').===Reform era===Map showing the parties/organisations with the largest vote share per province in Indonesia's elections from 1971 to 2019The '''Post-Suharto era''' began with the fall of Suharto in 1998 during which Indonesia has been in a period of transition, an era known as ''Reformasi'' (English: ''Reform'').", "This period has seen a more open and liberal political-social environment.Indonesia’s transition to democracy was a key part of the broader reform era.", "Democratic transitions tend to be grouped into two categories: bottom-up transitions where people rise up and overthrow an existing regime, and top-down transitions where an authoritarian ruler introduces liberalizing reforms leading to democratic transition.", "Indonesia experienced a transition toward democratic rule that involved both bottom-up and top-down forces after the fall of the authoritarian regime in 1998, thus altering the political structure of the country.", "Differences in democratization across developing countries, including Indonesia, is common and may be explained by different theoretical models.", "While Indonesia has been considered a democracy since the fall of the authoritarian regime in 1998, democratic consolidation has not completely been achieved.A process of constitutional reform lasted from 1999 to 2002, with four amendments producing major changes.", "Among these were term limits of up to two five-year terms for the president and vice president and measures to institute checks and balances.", "The highest state institution is the People's Consultative Assembly (, MPR), whose functions previously included electing the president and vice-president (since 2004 the president has been elected directly by the people), establishing broad guidelines of state policy, and amending the constitution.", "The 695-member MPR includes all 550 members of the House of Representatives (, DPR) plus 130 members of Regional Representative Council (, DPD) elected by the 26 provincial parliaments and 65 appointed members from societal groups.The DPR, which is the premier legislative institution, originally included 462 members elected through a mixed proportional/district representational system and thirty-eight appointed members of the Indonesian Armed Forces (TNI) and police (POLRI).", "TNI/POLRI representation in the DPR and MPR ended in 2004.Societal group representation in the MPR was eliminated in 2004 through further constitutional change.", "Having served as rubberstamp bodies in the past, the DPR and MPR have gained considerable power and are increasingly assertive in oversight of the executive branch.", "Under constitutional changes in 2004, the MPR became a bicameral legislature, with the creation of the DPD, in which each province is represented by four members, although its legislative powers are more limited than those of the DPR.", "Through his/her appointed cabinet, the president retains the authority to conduct the administration of the government.A general election in June 1999 produced the first freely elected national, provincial and regional parliaments in over 40 years.", "In October 1999, the MPR elected a compromise candidate, Abdurrahman Wahid, as the country's fourth president, and Megawati Sukarnoputri—a daughter of Sukarno—as the vice-president.", "Megawati's PDI-P party had won the largest share of the vote (34%) in the general election, while Golkar, the dominant party during the New Order, came in second (22%).", "Several other, mostly Islamic parties won shares large enough to be seated in the DPR.", "Other nationwide democratic elections took place in 2004, 2009, 2014, and 2019.The Indonesian political system before and after the constitutional amendmentsIn Indonesia, while free and fair elections have been held and a constitution guaranteeing certain rights and freedoms exists, corruption and involvement of money in politics persists.", "Corruption in regional government is often revenue-related, involving bribery and theft of public goods for personal gain, and identifies political corruption, such as fraudulent behavior and deviant lobbying techniques, as the type committed by government officials.", "Additionally, one of the primary reasons Indonesia may not be considered a consolidated democracy is due to their lack of “civilian control over the military”.", "Indonesia has created democratic institutions, but there is still progress that must be made to address the challenges the country currently faces in order to consolidate democracy." ], [ "Civil society in Indonesia", "Civil society is a term that has been coined by both sides of the political spectrum for their respective interests.", "It is defined broadly by David Rieff as the wide range of organizations operating outside the governmental and business sectors.", "It has taken on ambiguous connotations as Robert Putnam has associated it with the strengthening of Democratic government while Sheri Berman has demonstrated how civil associations helped to collapse Weimar Germany.", "As with any other country, Indonesian civil society spans an array of organizations including professional, religious, intermediary, and mass-based.", "Under Suharto, civil society organizations (CSOs) often fought for democracy and human rights.Under Suharto, civil society in Indonesia was massively contained.", "The mass murders of the left limited CSOs to advocacy relating to human rights and democracy.", "After his fall, civil society established itself in the reformed era.", "CSOs in Indonesia are reflective of the unique politics of the country.", "They exist on a spectrum of opinion on Islam’s proper role in the government.", "For example, in 2017, the Indonesian government prohibited the Indonesian Chapter of Hizb ut-Tahrir.", "Using the Law on Mass-Based Organizations (ORMAS).", "Some CSOs condemned the action as a violation of human rights while others saw the move as a necessity in curbing extremist ideology.", "ORMAS represents new bureaucratic regulations and restrictions on CSOs.", "The passage of this law has been associated with the Indonesian government’s continued crackdown on free speech and expression.Humanprogress.org provides a Civil Society Participation Index which measures whether “major CSOs routinely consulted by policymakers; how large is the involvement of people in CSOs; are women prevented from participating;” among a variety of other factors.", "Indonesia’s Civil Society Index has fluctuated throughout the 20th century.", "During the period of liberal democracy before Sukarno, Indonesia reached a Civil Society Participation score of 0.74.During the presidencies of Sukarno and Suharto, the score plunged to 0.12.As Indonesia entered its Reform Era, the score climbed to 0.95; however in recent years Indonesia’s Civil Society Participation Index has declined to 0.82.Compared to its neighbors in Southeast Asia, Indonesia has been hailed as a champion for free expression in the region.", "Other tools to measure civil society are the CSO Sustainability Index Explorer by csosi.org and the Civil Society Index provided by the United Nations Development Programme." ], [ "Executive branch", "\|PresidentJoko WidodoIndonesian Democratic Party-Struggle20 October 2014Vice-PresidentMa'ruf AminIndependent20 October 2019The executive branch of Indonesia is headed by a president, who is head of government and head of state.", "The president is elected by general election and can serve up to two five-year terms if re-elected.", "The executive branch also includes a vice-president and a cabinet.", "All bills need joint approval between the executive and the legislature to become law, meaning the president has veto power over all legislation.", "The president also has the power to issue presidential decrees that have policy effects, and is also in charge of Indonesia's foreign relations, although treaties require legislative approval.", "Prior to 2004, the president was selected by the MPR, but following the third amendment to the constitution, enacted in 2001, the president is now directly elected.The last election was held in April 2019, and incumbent Joko Widodo was re-elected." ], [ "Legislative branch", "building complex.The House of Representatives.The MPR is the legislative branch of Indonesia's political system.", "The MPR is composed of two houses: the DPR, which is commonly called the House of Representatives, and the DPD, which is called the Regional Representative Council.", "The 575 DPR members are elected through multi-member electoral districts, whereas 4 DPD senators are elected in each of Indonesia's 34 provinces.", "The DPR holds most of the legislative power because it has the sole power to pass laws.", "The DPD acts as a supplementary body to the DPR; it can propose bills, offer its opinion and participate in discussions, but it has no legal power.", "The MPR itself has power outside of those given to the individual houses.", "It can amend the constitution, inaugurate the president and conduct impeachment procedures.", "When the MPR acts in this function, it does so by simply combining the members of the two houses." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "The General Elections Commission (, ''KPU'') is the body that is responsible for running both parliamentary and presidential elections.", "Article 22E(5) of the Constitution rules that the KPU is national, permanent, and independent.", "Prior to the 2004 elections, the KPU was made up of members who were also members of political parties.", "However, members of KPU must now be non-partisan.===Latest election=======President========People's Representative Council====" ], [ "Judicial branch", "Both the Supreme Court of Indonesia () and the Constitutional Court () are the highest level of the judicial branch.", "The Constitutional Court listens to disputes concerning legality of law, general elections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of authority of state institution.", "It has 9 judges appointed by the DPR, the President and the Supreme Court.", "The Supreme Court of Indonesia hears final cessation appeals and conducts case reviews.", "It has 51 judges divided into 8 chambers.", "Its judges are nominated by the Judicial Commission of Indonesia and appointed by the President.", "Most civil disputes appear before the State Court (); appeals are heard before the High Court ().", "Other courts include the Commercial Court, which handles bankruptcy and insolvency; the State Administrative Court () to hear administrative law cases against the government; and the Religious Court () to deal with codified Islamic personal law (''sharia'') cases.", "Additionally, the Judicial Commission () monitors the performance of judges." ], [ "Foreign relations", "During the regime of president Suharto, Indonesia built strong relations with the United States and had difficult relations with the People's Republic of China owing to Indonesia's anti-communist policies and domestic tensions with the Chinese community.", "It received international denunciation for its annexation of East Timor and the related genocide against the East Timorese in 1978.Indonesia is a founding member of the Association of South East Asian Nations, and thereby a member of both ASEAN+3 and the East Asia Summit.Since the 1980s, Indonesia has worked to develop close political and economic ties between Southeast Asian countries, and is also influential in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.", "Indonesia was heavily criticised between 1975 and 1999 for allegedly suppressing human rights in East Timor, and for supporting violence against the East Timorese following the latter's secession and independence in 1999.Since 2001, the government of Indonesia has co-operated with the US in cracking down on Islamic fundamentalism and terrorist groups." ], [ "See also", "* Constitution of Indonesia* Administrative divisions of Indonesia* List of presidents of Indonesia* List of vice presidents of Indonesia* Foreign relations of Indonesia* Corruption in Indonesia" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * " ], [ "External links", " Republic of Indonesia - National portal" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Economy of Indonesia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Indonesia''' is a mixed economy with dirigiste characteristics, and it is one of the emerging market economies in the world and the largest in Southeast Asia.", "As an upper-middle income country and member of the G20, Indonesia is classified as a newly industrialized country.", "Estimated at over 21 quadrillion rupiah in 2023, it is the 16th largest economy in the world by nominal GDP and the 7th largest in terms of GDP (PPP).", "Indonesia's internet economy reached US$77 billion in 2022, and is expected to cross the US$130 billion mark by 2025.Indonesia depends on the domestic market and government budget spending and its ownership of state-owned enterprises (the central government owns 141 enterprises).", "The administration of prices of a range of basic goods (including rice and electricity) also plays a significant role in Indonesia's market economy.", "However, since the 1990s, the majority of the economy has been controlled by individual Indonesians and foreign companies.In the aftermath of the 1997 Asian financial crisis, the government took custody of a significant portion of private sector assets through the acquisition of nonperforming bank loans and corporate assets through the debt restructuring process, and the companies in custody were sold for privatization several years later.", "Since 1999, the economy has recovered, and growth accelerated to over 4–6% in the early 2000s.", "In 2012, Indonesia was the second fastest-growing G-20 economy, behind China, and the annual growth rate fluctuated around 5% in the following years.", "Indonesia faced a recession in 2020 when the economic growth collapsed to −2.07% due to the COVID-19 pandemic, its worst economic performance since the 1997 crisis.In 2022, gross domestic product expanded by 5.31%, due to the removal of COVID-19 restrictions as well as record-high exports driven by stronger commodity prices.Indonesia is predicted to be the 4th largest economy in the world by 2045.Joko Widodo has stated that his cabinet's calculations showed that by 2045, Indonesia will have a population of 309 million people.", "By Widodo's estimate, there would be economic growth of 5−6% and GDP of US$9.1 trillion.", "Indonesia's income per capita is expected to reach US$29,000." ], [ "History", "===Sukarno era===In the years immediately following the proclamation of Indonesian independence, both the Japanese occupation and the conflict between Dutch and Republican forces had crippled the country's production, with exports of commodities such as rubber and oil being reduced to 12 and 5% of their pre-WW2 levels, respectively.", "The first Republican government-controlled bank, the Indonesian State Bank (''Bank Negara Indonesia'', BNI) was founded on 5 July 1946.It initially acted as the manufacturer and distributor of ORI (''Oeang Republik Indonesia''/Money of the Republic of Indonesia), a currency issued by the Republican Government which was the predecessor of Rupiah.", "Despite this, currency issued during the Japanese occupation and by Dutch authorities was still in circulation, and the simplicity of the ORI made its counterfeiting relatively easy, worsening matters.", "Between 1949 and 1960, Indonesia experienced several economic disruptions.", "The country's independence recognized by the Netherlands, the dissolution of the United States of Indonesia in 1950, the subsequent liberal democracy period, the nationalization of ''De Javasche Bank'' into the modern Bank Indonesia, and the takeover of Dutch corporate assets following the West New Guinea dispute, which all resulted in the devaluation of Dutch banknotes into half their value.During the guided democracy era in the 1960s, the economy deteriorated drastically as a result of political instability.", "The government was inexperienced in implementing macroeconomic policies, which resulted in severe poverty and hunger.", "By the time of Sukarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the economy was in chaos with 1,000% annual inflation, shrinking export revenues, crumbling infrastructure, factories operating at minimal capacity, and negligible investment.", "Nevertheless, Indonesia's post-1960 economic improvement was considered remarkable when taking into consideration how few indigenous Indonesians in the 1950s had received a formal education under Dutch colonial policies.===New Order===Following President Sukarno's downfall, the New Order administration brought a degree of discipline to economic policy that quickly brought inflation down, stabilized the currency, rescheduled foreign debt, and attracted foreign aid and investment.", "(See Inter-Governmental Group on Indonesia and Berkeley Mafia).", "Indonesia was until recently Southeast Asia's only member of OPEC, and the 1970s oil price rise provided an export revenue windfall that contributed to sustained high economic growth rates, averaging over 7% from 1968 to 1981.With high levels of regulation and dependence on declining oil prices, growth slowed to an average of 4.5% per annum between 1981 and 1988.A range of economic reforms was introduced in the late 1980s, including a managed devaluation of the rupiah to improve export competitiveness, and deregulation of the financial sector.", "Foreign investment flowed into Indonesia, particularly into the rapidly developing export-oriented manufacturing sector, and from 1989 to 1997, the Indonesian economy grew by an average of over 7%.", "GDP per capita grew 545% from 1970 to 1980 as a result of the sudden increase in oil export revenues from 1973 to 1979.High levels of economic growth masked several structural weaknesses in the economy.", "It came at a high cost in terms of weak and corrupt governmental institutions, severe public indebtedness through mismanagement of the financial sector, rapid depletion of natural resources, and culture of favors and corruption in the business elite.Corruption particularly gained momentum in the 1990s, reaching to the highest levels of the political hierarchy as Suharto became the most corrupt leader according to Transparency International.", "As a result, the legal system was weak, and there was no effective way to enforce contracts, collect debts, or sue for bankruptcy.", "Banking practices were very unsophisticated, with collateral-based lending the norm and widespread violation of prudential regulations, including limits on connected lending.", "Non-tariff barriers, rent-seeking by state-owned enterprises, domestic subsidies, barriers to domestic trade and export restrictions all created economic distortions.The 1997 Asian financial crisis that began to affect Indonesia became an economic and political crisis.", "The initial response was to float the rupiah, raise key domestic interest rates, and tighten fiscal policy.", "In October 1997, Indonesia and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) reached an agreement on an economic reform program aimed at macroeconomic stabilization and the elimination of some of the country's most damaging economic policies, such as the National Car Program and the clove monopoly, both involving family members of Suharto.", "The rupiah remained weak, however, and Suharto was forced to resign in May 1998 after massive riots erupted.", "In August 1998, Indonesia and the IMF agreed on an Extended Fund Facility (EFF) under President B. J. Habibie that included significant structural reform targets.", "President Abdurrahman Wahid took office in October 1999, and Indonesia and the IMF signed another EFF in January 2000.The new program also has a range of economic, structural reform, and governance targets.The effects of the crisis were severe.", "By November 1997, rapid currency depreciation had seen public debt reach US$60 billion, imposing severe strains on the government's budget.", "In 1998, real GDP contracted by 13.1%, and the economy reached its low point in mid-1999 with 0.8% real GDP growth.", "Inflation reached 72% in 1998 but slowed to 2% in 1999.The rupiah, which had been in the RP 2,600/USD1 range at the start of August 1997 fell to 11,000/USD1 by January 1998, with spot rates around 15,000 for brief periods during the first half of 1998.It returned to the 8,000/USD1 range at the end of 1998 and has generally traded in the Rp 8,000–10,000/USD1 range ever since, with fluctuations that are relatively predictable and gradual.", "However, the rupiah began devaluing past 11,000 in 2013, and as of November 2016 is around 13,000 Rp/USD1.===Reform era===Since an inflation target was introduced in 2000, the GDP deflator and the CPI have grown at an average annual pace of 10¾% and 9%, respectively, similar to the pace recorded in the two decades prior to the 1997 crisis, but well below the pace in the 1960s and 1970s.", "Inflation has also generally trended lower through the 2000s, with some of the fluctuations in inflation reflecting government policy initiatives such as the changes in fiscal subsidies in 2005 and 2008, which caused large temporary spikes in CPI growth.Historical GDP per capita development of IndonesiaShare of world GDP (PPP)YearShare19801.42%19901.93%20001.96%20102.29%20202.50%20212.44%In late 2004, Indonesia faced a 'mini-crisis' due to international oil prices rises and imports.", "The currency exchange rate reached Rp 12,000/USD1 before stabilizing.", "Under President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono (SBY), the government was forced to cut its massive fuel subsidies, which were planned to cost $14 billion in October 2005.This led to a more than doubling in the price of consumer fuels, resulting in double-digit inflation.", "The situation had stabilized but the economy continued to struggle with inflation at 17% in late 2005.Economic outlook became more positive as the 2000s progressed.", "Growth accelerated to 5.1% in 2004 and reached 5.6% in 2005.Real per capita income has reached fiscal levels in 1996–1997.Growth was driven primarily by domestic consumption, which accounts for roughly three-fourths of Indonesia's gross domestic product (GDP).", "The Jakarta Stock Exchange was the best performing market in Asia in 2004, up by 42%.", "Problems that continue to put a drag on growth include low foreign investment levels, bureaucratic red tape, and widespread corruption which costs RP.", "51.4 trillion (US$5.6 billion) or approximately 1.4% of GDP annually.", "However, there is a robust economic optimism due to the conclusion of the peaceful 2004 elections.As of February 2007, the unemployment rate was 9.75%.", "Despite a slowing global economy, Indonesia's economic growth accelerated to a ten-year high of 6.3% in 2007.This growth rate was sufficient to reduce poverty from 17.8% to 16.6% based on the government's poverty line and reversed the recent trend towards jobless growth, with unemployment falling to 8.46% in February 2008.Unlike many of its more export-dependent neighbors, Indonesia has managed to skirt the recession helped by strong domestic demand (which makes up about two-thirds of the economy) and a government fiscal stimulus package of about 1.4% of GDP.", "After India and China, Indonesia was the third-fastest growing economy in the G20.With the $512 billion economy expanded 4.4% in the first quarter from a year earlier and last month, the IMF revised its 2009 Indonesia forecast to 3–4% from 2.5%.", "Indonesia enjoyed stronger fundamentals with the authorities implemented wide-ranging economic and financial reforms, including a rapid reduction in public and external debt, strengthening of corporate and banking sector balance sheets and reducing bank vulnerabilities through higher capitalization and better supervision.In 2012, Indonesia's real GDP growth reached 6%, then it steadily decreased below 5% until 2015.After Joko Widodo succeeded SBY, the government took measures to ease regulations for foreign direct investments to stimulate the economy.", "Indonesia managed to increase their GDP growth slightly above 5% in 2016–2017.However, the government is currently still facing problems such as currency weakening, decreasing exports and stagnating consumer spending.", "The current unemployment rate for 2019 is at 5.3%.Reform happened in Indonesia around the 1980s, when the Indonesian government states it will be attempting to economically integrate with global economies.", "They stated in 2017 that \"Globalisation has made it difficult for the Indonesian economy to balance all other factors of the economy\"." ], [ "Data", "The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2022 (with IMF staff estimates in 2023–2028).", "Inflation under 5% is in green.YearGDP(in Bil.", "US$PPP)GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in Bil.", "US$nominal)GDP per capita(in US$ nominal)GDP growth(real)Inflation rate(in Percent)Unemployment(in Percent)Government debt(in % of GDP)1980189.71,286.399.3673.29.9%18.0%n/an/a1981223.41,485.6110.8737.07.6%12.2%n/an/a1982242.61,581.6113.8741.92.2%9.5%n/an/a1983262.71,679.3103.1659.54.2%11.8%n/an/a1984292.71,835.4107.2672.27.6%10.5%1.6%n/a1985313.81,929.2107.1658.23.9%4.7%2.2%n/a1986343.12,068.7101.2610.27.2%5.8%2.8%n/a1987374.72,215.495.2562.96.6%9.3%2.6%n/a1988415.02,406.0107.3621.97.0%8.1%2.9%n/a1989470.52,674.6122.6696.99.1%6.4%2.9%n/a1990532.02,965.9138.3770.89.0%7.8%2.6%n/a1991599.13,285.4154.6847.68.9%9.4%2.7%n/a1992652.73,521.1168.3907.86.5%7.5%2.8%n/a1993721.43,827.8190.91,013.18.0%9.7%2.8%n/a1994792.34,135.8213.71,115.67.5%8.5%4.5%n/a1995875.44,495.1244.21,254.08.2%9.4%7.4%n/a1996961.24,878.9274.71,394.57.8%8.0%5.0%n/a19971,023.75,136.9260.71,308.14.7%6.2%4.8%n/a1998899.34,461.3115.3572.1-13.1%58.4%5.5%n/a1999919.24,507.9169.2829.60.8%20.5%6.4%n/a2000986.84,784.3179.5870.25.0%3.7%6.1%87.4%20011,045.84,999.0174.5834.13.6%11.5%8.1%73.7%20021,109.95,230.8212.81,002.94.5%11.9%9.1%62.3%20031,185.95,510.4255.41,186.84.8%6.8%9.7%55.6%20041,279.05,859.4279.61,280.75.0%6.1%9.9%51.3%20051,394.26,297.4310.81,403.95.7%10.5%11.2%42.6%20061,516.36,752.5396.31,764.85.5%13.1%10.3%35.8%20071,656.17,271.3470.12,064.26.3%6.3%9.1%38.1%20081,813.57,850.3558.62,418.07.4%9.9%8.4%30.3%20091,910.98,155.8577.52,465.04.7%4.8%7.9%26.5%20102,057.28,656.8755.33,178.16.4%5.1%7.1%24.5%20112,229.59,213.2892.63,688.56.2%5.3%6.6%23.1%20122,413.49,833.7919.03,744.56.0%4.0%6.1%23.0%20132,535.010,188.3916.63,684.05.6%6.4%6.3%24.9%20142,622.310,399.0891.13,533.65.0%6.4%5.9%24.7%20152,647.710,359.3860.73,367.74.9%6.4%6.2%27.0%20162,744.910,618.7932.13,605.75.0%3.5%5.6%28.0%20172,894.111,073.51,015.53,885.55.1%3.8%5.5%29.4%20183,116.611,798.01,042.73,947.25.2%3.3%5.2%30.4%20193,331.612,481.91,119.54,194.15.0%2.8%5.2%30.6%20203,302.112,220.71,062.23,931.0-2.1%2.0%7.1%36.1%20213,582.413,158.61,187.74,362.73.7%1.6%6.5%37.9%20224,036.914,687.01,318.84,798.15.3%4.2%5.9%37.3% 20234,393.415,835.81,417.45,108.95.0%3.6%5.3%36.4% 20244,715.416,842.91,542.45,509.15.0%2.5%5.2%36.2% 20255,049.217,876.11,670.65,914.75.0%2.5%5.1%36.0% 20265,402.218,961.91,805.36,336.55.0%2.5%5.1%35.7% 20275,773.420,096.31,949.96,787.25.0%2.3%5.1%35.6% 20286,171.721,309.72,093.57,228.35.0%1.6%5.1%35.4%Grey colors are estimations" ], [ "Structure", "Indonesia’s economy in 2023, as measured by Gross Domestic Product (GDP) at current market prices, reached IDR 20,892.4 trillion.", "The highest growth on the production side was Transportation and Storage at 13.96%.", "During 2023, the Indonesian economy continued to grow spatially.", "The group of provinces according to the islands, the provinces with the highest growth were Maluku and Papua, Sulawesi, and Kalimantan with growth (c-to-c) of 6.94%, 6.37% and 5.43%.", "Meanwhile, the group of provinces on Jawa Island which contributed 57.05% to the national economy recorded a growth of 4.96% (c-to-c).===Composition===CompositionSector2022 output (in trillion rupiahs)2023 output (in trillion rupiahs)Constant GrowthContribution in 2023 output'''Agriculture''''''Agriculture'''2,428.9 2,617.71.30%12.53%12.53%'''Industrial''''''Mining and Quarrying'''2,393.42,198.06.12%10.52%40.18%'''Manufacturing'''3,591.83,900.14.64%18.67%'''Electricity and Gas'''204.7218.24.91%1.04%'''Water'''12.513.34.90%0.06%'''Construction'''1,913.02,072.44.85%9.92%'''Services''''''Wholesale and Retail Trade'''2,516.72,702.44.85%12.94%42.91%'''Transportation and Storage'''983.51,231.213.96%5.89%'''Accommodation and Food Services'''472.0526.310.01%2.52%'''Information and Communication'''812.7 883.67.59%4.23%'''Financial and Insurance Activities'''809.4869.24.77%4.16%'''Real Estate'''488.3505.51.43%2.42%'''Business Activities'''341.4383.18.24%1.83%'''Public Administration and Defense'''604.9616.41.50%2.95%'''Education'''566.5583.61.78%2.79%'''Human Health and Social Work'''236.2252.04.66%1.21%'''Other Services'''354.2405.210.52%1.94%'''Tax Less Subsidies''''''Tax Less Subsidies'''858.0914.24.94%4.38%4.38%'''''Indonesia''''''''''Total'''''''''' 19,588.1''''''''''20,892.4''''''''''5.05%''''''''''100.00%''''''''''100.00%'''''" ], [ "Sectors", "===Agriculture===Vast palm oil plantation.", "Currently, Indonesia is the world's largest producer of palm oil.Agriculture is a key sector which contributed to 14.43% of GDP.", "Currently, there are around 30% of the land area used for agriculture and employed about 49 million people (41% of the total workforce).", "Primary agriculture commodities include rice, cassava (tapioca), peanuts, natural rubber, cocoa, coffee, palm oil, copra; poultry, beef, pork, and eggs.", "Palm oil production is vital to the economy as Indonesia is the world's biggest producer and consumer of the commodity, providing about half of the world's supply.", "Plantations in the country stretch across 6 million hectares as of 2007, with a replanting plan set for an additional 4.7 million to boost productivity in 2017.There are a number of negative social and environmental impacts of palm oil production in Southeast Asia.====Seafood====In 2015, the total production of seafood reached about 22.31 million metric tons, valued at around 18.10 billion US dollars.", "For capture of wild fish (both inland and marine), the production trend was steady in 2011–2015, while there was a steep increase in the production from aquaculture during the same period.===Oil and mining===Ore trucks in the mining area in West Sumbawa, West Nusa Tenggara.The Grasberg mine has one of the largest reserves of gold and copper in the world.", "It is located in Mimika Regency, Papua, Indonesia near Puncak Jaya, the highest mountain in the country.Indonesia was the only South East Asian member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) until its suspension in 2009.The country currently remains a net oil importer despite its large petroleum production industry.", "In 1999, crude and condensate output averaged per day, and in 1998, the oil and gas sector including refining, contributed approximately 9% to GDP.", "As of 2005, crude oil and condensate output were per day.", "It indicates a substantial decline from the 1990s, due primarily to ageing oil fields and a lack of investment in oil production equipment.", "This decline in production has been accompanied by a substantial increase in domestic consumption, about 5.4% per year, leading to an estimated US$1.2 billion cost for importing oil in 2005.The state owns all petroleum and mineral rights.", "Foreign firms participate through production-sharing and work contracts.", "Oil and gas contractors are required to finance all exploration, production, and development costs in their contract areas and are entitled to recover operating, exploration, and development costs out of the oil and gas produced.", "Indonesia had previously subsidized fuel prices to keep prices low, costing US$7 billion in 2004.SBY has mandated a significant reduction of government subsidy of fuel prices in several stages.", "The government has stated that cuts in subsidies are aimed at reducing the budget deficit to 1% of GDP in 2005, down from around 1.6% last year.", "At the same time, the government has offered one-time subsidies for qualified citizens, to alleviate hardships.Indonesia is the world's largest tin market.", "Although mineral production traditionally centered on bauxite, silver, and tin, it is expanding its copper, nickel, gold, and coal output for export markets.", "In mid-1993, the Department of Mines and Energy reopened the coal sector to foreign investment, resulting in a joint venture between Indonesian coal producer and BP and Rio Tinto Group.", "Total coal production reached 74 million metric tons in 1999, including exports of 55 million tons, and in 2011, production was 353 million.", "As of 2014, Indonesia is the third-largest producer with a total output of 458 Mt and export of 382 Mt.", "At this rate, the reserves will be used up in 61 years until 2075.Not all of the productions can be exported due to Domestic Market Obligation (DMO) regulation, which should fulfill the domestic market.", "In 2012, the DMO was 24.72%.", "Starting from 2014, no low-grade coal exports are allowed, so the upgraded brown coal process that cranks up the calorie value of coal from 4,500 to 6,100 kcal/kg will be built in South Kalimantan and South Sumatra.", "Indonesia is also the world's largest producer of nickel, and the second-largest producer of cobalt in 2022.Two US firms operate three copper/gold mines in Indonesia, with a Canadian and British firm holding significant other investments in nickel and gold, respectively.", "India's fortune groups like Vedanta Resources and Tata Group also have substantial mining operations in Indonesia.", "In 1998, the value of Indonesian gold and copper production was $1 billion and $843 million respectively.", "Receipts from gold, copper, and coal accounted for 84% of the $3 billion earned in 1998 by the mineral mining sector.", "With the addition of Alumina project that produces 5% of the world's alumina production, Indonesia would be the world's second-largest Alumina producer.", "The project will not make the ores to become aluminum, as there are 100 types of Alumina derivatives that can be developed further by other companies in Indonesia.Joko Widodo's administration continued the resource nationalism policy of SBY, nationalizing some assets controlled by multinational companies such as Freeport McMoRan, TotalEnergies and Chevron.", "In 2018, in a move aimed to cut imports, oil companies operating in Indonesia were ordered to sell their crude oil to state-owned Pertamina.===Manufacturing===Indonesia's manufacturing sector has historically played a key role in the country's economic development and now contributes to 20 percent of GDP.The government has ambitious plans to propel the country into the top ten biggest economies in the world by 2030, with manufacturing at the heart of this goal.", "The main areas of production include textiles and garments, food and beverages (F&B), electronics, automotive, and chemicals, with the majority of manufacturers in this sector consisting of micro, small, or medium-sized enterprises.", "The sector has posted a consistent four percent growth year-on-year since 2016 and registered 147 trillion rupiah (US$8.9 billion) in investments from January to September 2019.Indonesia recently became the 10th-largest manufacturing nation in the world.", "Its large manufacturing sector accounts for almost a quarter of the nation's total GDP and employs over a fifth of Indonesia's working age population (around 25 million workers).", "Put into perspective, Indonesia's manufacturing sector is now larger than the manufacturing sectors of the United Kingdom, Russia and Mexico.", "Industry sector (including manufacturing) which accounts for 21% of local workers (having become more prominent in recent years).", "Indonesia's labour pool is estimated at 120 million people, and is growing annually by approximately 2.4 million.", "As the economy has progressed beyond its predominantly agricultural base to a mixed composition, more workers – particularly women – are now employed in manufacturing and service-related professional industries.With its rapidly growing middle class and competitive workforce, more foreign investors than ever before are taking advantage of Indonesia's strong manufacturing sector.", "However, the sector has significant challenges, including intense international competition, particularly from China, increasing labour costs, high transportation and logistics costs, difficulties getting credit, and varying levels of transparency and clarity in regulations.=== Renewable energy ===Indonesia has significant potential for developing renewable energy, however, the country continues to rely heavily on the use of fossil fuels in domestic electricity production.", "Continued investment in and reliance on fossil fuels, such as coal, may result in fossil fuels becoming stranded assets, leading to significant investments lost that the country could have received from renewable energy investors.===Automotive industry===In 2010, Indonesia sold 7.6 million motorcycles, which were mainly produced in the country with almost 100% local components.", "Honda led the market with a 50.95% market share, followed by Yamaha with 41.37%.", "In 2011, the retail car sales total was 888,335 units, a 19.26% increase from last year.", "Toyota dominated the domestic car market (35.34%), followed by Daihatsu and Mitsubishi with 15.44% and 14.56%, respectively.", "Since 2011, some local carmakers have introduced some Indonesian national cars which can be categorized as Low-Cost Green Car (LCGC).", "In 2012, sales increased significantly by 24%, making it the first time that there were more than one million units in automobile sales.Indonesian export destinations, 2006.In August 2014, Indonesia exported 126,935 Completely Build Up (CBU) vehicle units and 71,000 Completely Knock Down (CKD) vehicle units, while total production reached 878,000 vehicle units, constituting 22.5% of total output.", "Automotive export is more than double of its import.", "By 2020, it is predicted that the automotive exports will be the third after CPO and shoe export.", "In August 2015, Indonesia exported 123,790 motorcycles.", "In the same year, Yamaha Motor Company, which exported 82,641, announced to make Indonesia as a base of exporting of its products.In 2017, the country produced almost 1.2 million motor vehicles, ranking it as the 18th largest producer in the world.", "Nowadays, Indonesian automotive companies can produce cars with a high ratio of local content (80%–90%).In 2018, the country produced 1.34 million cars and exported 346,000 cars, mainly to the Philippines and Vietnam.===Finance, real estate and business===The Indonesian rupiah (IDR) banknotes denominations in circulation since 2016There are 50 million small businesses in Indonesia, with online usage growth of 48% in 2010.Google announced that it would open a local office in Indonesia before 2012.According to Deloitte in 2011, Internet-related activities have generated 1.6% of the GDP.", "It is bigger than electronic and electrical equipment exports and liquefied natural gas at 1.51% and 1.45% respectively.Up to the end of June 2011, the fixed state assets were Rp 1,265 trillion ($128 billion).", "The value of state stocks was Rp 50 trillion ($5 billion) while other state assets were Rp 24 trillion ($2.4 billion).In 2015, financial services covered Rp 7,2 trillion.", "Fifty domestic and foreign conglomerations held around 70.5%.", "Fourteen of it were vertical conglomerations, 28 were horizontal, and eight are mixed.", "Thirty-five entities are mainly in the bank industries, 13 were in non-bank industries and one each in special financial industries and capital market industries.===Others===The Indonesian Textile Association has reported that in 2013, the textile sector is likely to attract investment of around $175 million.", "In 2012, the investment in this sector was $247 million, of which only $51 million was for new textile machinery.", "Exports from the textile sector in 2012 were $13.7 billion.In 2011, Indonesia released 55,010 working visas for foreigners, an increase of 10% compared to 2010, while the number of foreign residents in Indonesia, excluding tourists and foreign emissaries was 111,752, rose by 6% compared to last year.", "Those who received visas for six months to one year were mostly Chinese, Japanese, South Koreans, Indians, Americans and Australians.", "A few of them were entrepreneurs who made new businesses.", "Malaysia is the most common destination of Indonesian migrant workers (including illegal workers).", "In 2010, according to a World Bank report, Indonesia was among the world's top ten remittance-receiving countries with a value totaling $7 billion.", "In May 2011, six million Indonesian citizens were working overseas, 2.2 million of whom reside in Malaysia and another 1.5 million in Saudi Arabia." ], [ "Regional economies", "===GDP by provinces===There are 34 provinces in Indonesia.", "Below are the top 15 provinces in Indonesia ranked by GDP in 2019: Rank Province Region GDP(in billion Rp)GDP nominalGDP PPP (in billion $)Comparable country (in billion $) -'''''''''South East Asia''' 16,073,257 1,136.72 3,329.17 1Java 2,840,828 200.91 588.42 2Java 2,352,425 166.37 487.27 3Java 2,125,158 150.30 440.19 4Java 1,362,457 96.35 282.18 5Sumatra 801,733 56.70 166.06 6Sumatra 765,198 54.12 158.51 7Java 664,963 47.03 137.74 8Kalimantan 653,677 46.23 135.40 9Sulawesi 504,747 35.70 104.56 10Sumatra 455,233 32.19 94.28 11Sumatra 360,664 25.51 74,71 12Sumatra 268,080 18.96 55.53 13Lesser Sunda Islands 252,598 17.86 52.31 14Sumatra 246,423 17.42 51.01 15Sumatra 217,712 15.40 45.10" ], [ "Foreign economic relations", "===ASEAN===Until the end of 2010, intra-ASEAN trade was still low as trade involved mainly exports to countries outside the region, with the exception of Laos and Myanmar, whose foreign trade was ASEAN-oriented.", "In 2009, realised foreign direct investment (FDI) was US$37.9 billion and increased two-fold in 2010 to US$75.8 billion.The ASEAN Framework Agreement on Trade in Services (AFAS) was adopted at the ASEAN Summit in Bangkok in December 1995.Under the agreement, member states enter into successive rounds of negotiations to liberalise trade in services with the aim of submitting increasingly higher levels of commitment.", "ASEAN has concluded seven packages of commitments under AFAS.Mutual Recognition Agreements (MRAs) have been agreed upon by ASEAN for eight professions: physicians, dentists, nurses, architects, engineers, accountants, surveyors, and tourism professionals.", "Individuals in these professions will be free to work in any ASEAN states effective 31 December 2015.In addition, six member states (Malaysia, Vietnam (2 exchanges), Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Singapore) have collaborated on integrating their stock exchanges, which includes 70% of its transaction values with the goal to compete with international exchanges.Single market will also include the ASEAN Single Aviation Market (ASEAN-SAM), the region's aviation policy geared towards the development of a unified and single aviation market in Southeast Asia.", "It was proposed by the ASEAN Air Transport Working Group, supported by the ASEAN Senior Transport Officials Meeting, and endorsed by the ASEAN Transport Ministers.", "It is expected to liberalise air travel between member states allowing ASEAN airlines to benefit directly from the growth in air travel, and also free up tourism, trade, investment, and service flows.", "This policy supersedes existing unilateral, bilateral, and multilateral air services agreements among member states which are inconsistent with its provisions.===Japan===Indonesia and Japan signed the Indonesia–Japan Economic Partnership Agreement (IJEPA), which had come into effect on 1 July 2008.The agreement was Indonesia's first bilateral free-trade agreement to ease the cross-border flow of goods and people as well as investment between both countries.", "In 2012, there were between 1,200 and 1,300 Japanese corporates operating in Indonesia, with some 12,000 Japanese nationals living in Indonesia.", "Japan has been investing in Indonesia for decades, particularly in the automotive, electronic goods, energy, and mining sectors.", "Prior to the formation of the Indonesian Republic, the Japanese had viewed Indonesia as an important source of natural resources.", "The Japanese need of natural resources was among the reasons that led the nation to advance further to the south in their military conquests during World War II.", "Today Indonesia is Japan's major supplier for natural rubber, liquefied natural gas, coal, minerals, paper pulp, seafood such as shrimp and tuna, and coffee.", "Traditionally Indonesia has been regarded as a major market of Japanese automotive and electronic goods.", "For Japanese businesses, Indonesia has been a location for low-cost manufacturing operations as well as being the source of various natural resources required by those operations.", "Approximately 1,000 Japanese companies operate in Indonesia which employ approximately 300,000 people.", "Major Japanese factories are concentrated east of Jakarta with high concentrations in Bekasi, Cikarang and Karawang, West Java.===China===Trade with China has increased since the 1990s, and in 2014, China became Indonesia's second-largest export destination after Japan.", "Trade between China and Indonesia is on the rise, especially after the implementation of ACFTA since early 2010.Indeed, while in 2003 trade between Indonesia and China reached only US$3.8 billion, in 2010 it multiplied almost 10 times and reached US$36.1 billion.", "China's transformation into Fastest growing country in the 21st century has led to an increase of foreign investments in the bamboo network, a network of overseas Chinese businesses operating in the markets of Southeast Asia that share common family and cultural ties.", "However the free trade with China has caused much anxiety in Indonesia, since inflows of cheap products from China could harm Indonesian industry.", "Indonesian private sector and civil society organizations vigorously lobbied the Indonesian government and members of parliament, insisting that Indonesia should either pull out of the agreement or renegotiate its terms with Beijing.China has remained on top of Indonesia's key major trading partners, serving as the country's largest export and import market.", "China serves as Indonesia's largest export destination after overtaking Japan and United States, reaching US$16.8 billion.", "China is also Indonesia's most important source of imports, reaching US$30.8 billion, or 22.7% of Indonesian imports in 2016.The balance however was in favour of China as Indonesia booked a trade deficit of US$14 billion in 2016.From China's perspective, since 2010 ASEAN as a whole has become its fourth-largest trading partner after the European Union, Japan and the United States.", "Among ASEAN member countries, Indonesia was China's fourth-largest trading partner, which, according to data as of May 2010 from the Ministry of Commerce of the People's Republic of China, amounted to US$12.4 billion, after Malaysia (US$22.2 billion), Singapore (US$17.9 billion) and Thailand (US$15.7 billion).", "With China's economic rise, Indonesia has been intensifying its trade relationship with China to counterbalance its ties with the West.", "By 2020, China had become Indonesia's largest export destination.===South Korea===In the past, the relations were only developed around trade and investments, such as the forestry and garment sectors.", "Today the cooperation has been expanded to a number of mega projects and advanced industries.", "With US$27 billion in bilateral trade, South Korea became the fourth biggest trading partner of Indonesia in 2012.It became the third-biggest foreign investor in Indonesia, with US$1.94 billion in investment.There are large numbers of South Korean companies that have been investing and operating in Indonesia, such as Miwon (Daesang Corporation), Lotte, Yong Ma, Hankook Tire, Samsung, LG, Kia Motors, and Hyundai.", "In 2011, Hankook announced a US$353 million investment into a production plant located in Bekasi, West Java, Indonesia.In 2019, trade between Indonesia and South Korea was worth $15.65 billion, and between 2015 and 2019 South Korean companies invested nearly $7 billion in Indonesia.", "In December 2020, Indonesia and South Korea signed a comprehensive economic partnership.", "It is equivalent to a free trade agreement, though focuses on a broader scope of economic cooperation.", "Under the deal, Indonesia will scrap 94.8% of tariffs on South Korean products while South Korea will scrap 95.8% of tariffs on Indonesian products.===United States===At the beginning of the post-Suharto era, US exports to Indonesia in 1999 totaled $2 billion, down significantly from $4.5 billion in 1997.The main exports were construction equipment, machinery, aviation parts, chemicals, and agricultural products.", "US imports from Indonesia in 1999 totaled $9.5 billion and consisted primarily of clothing, machinery and transportation equipment, petroleum, natural rubber, and footwear.", "Financial assistance to Indonesia is coordinated through the Consultative Group on Indonesia (CGI) formed in 1989.It includes 19 donor countries and 13 international organizations that meet annually to coordinate donor assistance.", "In 2019, as Indonesia's share of global trade exceeded 0.5 percent, the United States Trade Representatives decided not to classify Indonesia as a \"developing country.\"", "Despite a revocation of this status, the Indonesian government has assured that this would not change the current Generalized System of Preferences facilities that Indonesia had enjoyed from the United States.===European Union===The EU and Indonesia have built robust commercial relations, with bilateral trade amounting to approximately €25 billion in 2012 resulting in a sizeable €5.7 billion trade surplus for Indonesia with the EU.", "In the past few years trade between EU and Indonesia has been marked by an upward trend.", "Whereas total trade was worth almost €16 billion in 2009, by 2011 it had already reached €23.5 billion.", "For the EU, Indonesia is the 24th largest import source (share 0.9%) and the 30th largest export destination (share 0.6%).", "Inside the ASEAN-region, Indonesia ranks fourth in terms of total trade.", "The EU is Indonesia's 4th largest trading partner after Japan, China and Singapore, representing almost 10% of its total external trade.", "The EU is the second largest investor in the Indonesian economy.Indonesia mostly exports to the EU agricultural products and processed resources, mainly palm oil, fuels and mining products, textiles and furniture.", "EU exports to Indonesia consist mainly of high-tech machinery and transport equipment, chemicals and various manufactured goods.", "Essentially, trade flows between Indonesia and the EU complement each other.After negotiations on a free trade agreement with ASEAN got increasingly difficult, the EU began pursuing negotiations with individual ASEAN states.", "The EU and Indonesia are currently working towards an ambitious Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement covering trade, investment and services.===India===On 25 January 2011, after talks by Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and visiting President of Indonesia Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, India and Indonesia had signed business deals worth billions of dollars and set an ambitious target of doubling trade over the next five years.", "India also has further economic ties with Indonesia through its free trade agreement with ASEAN, of which Indonesia is a member.", "The two countries target to achieve bilateral trade of $25 billion by 2015, with cumulative Indian investments of $20 billion in Indonesia." ], [ "Free trade efforts", "=== International trade agreements ===+EconomyAgreementAbbreviationConcludedSignedEffectiveLegalTextIndonesia–Australia Comprehensive Economic Partnership AgreementIACEPANovember 2010March 2019February 2020Chile–Indonesia Comprehensive Economic Partnership AgreementCICEPAMay 2014December 2017August 2019Indonesia–EFTA Comprehensive Economic Partnership AgreementIECEPAIndonesia–Iran Preferential Trade AgreementIIPTAIndonesia–Japan Economic Partnership AgreementIJEPA20 August 200720 August 20071 July 2008 Indonesia–Korea Comprehensive Economic Partnership AgreementIKCEPAIndonesia–Mozambique Preferential Trade AgreementIMPTAApril 2018August 2019December 2021 Indonesia–Pakistan Preferential Trade AgreementIPPTANovember 20053 February 2012September 2013Indonesia–Palestine Trade Facilitation for Certain ProductsIndonesia–UAE Comprehensive Economic Partnership AgreementIUAECEPAASEAN–China Free Trade AreaACFTANovember 20021 January 2010ASEAN–Hong Kong, China Free Trade AreaAHKFTA12 November 201713 October 2019ASEAN–India Free Trade AreaAIFTA13 August 20091 January 2010ASEAN–Japan Comprehensive Economic PartnershipAJCEP14 April 20081 February 2009ASEAN–Korea Free Trade AreaAKFTA1 January 2010ASEAN–Australia–New Zealand Free Trade AreaAANZFTA27 February 20091 January 2010Regional Comprehensive Economic PartnershipRCEP20 November 20123 November 20223 November 2022" ], [ "Macro-economic trend", "This is a chart of trend of Indonesia's GDP at market prices by the IMF with figures in millions of rupiah.", "Year GDP USD exchange(rupiah) Inflation rate (%) Nominal GDP per capita(as % of US) GDP PPP per capita(as % of US) 1980 60,143.191 627 18.0 3.90 5.93 1985 112,969.792 1,111 4.7 2.82 5.98 1990 233,013.290 1,843 7.8 2.45 12.90 1995 502,249.558 2,249 9.4 3.57 15.76 2000 1,389,769,700 8,396 3.8 2.15 13.05 2005 2,678,664,096 9,705 10.5 2.86 14.17 2010 6,422,918,230 8,555 5.1 6.44 17.54 2015 11,531,700,000 13,824 6.4 5.86 18.02 2020 15,434,200,000 14,105 1.7 6.35 18.89 For purchasing power parity comparisons, the exchange rate for 1 US dollar is set at 3,094.57 rupiah.Average net wage in Indonesia varies by sector.", "In February 2017 the electricity, gas, and water sector has the highest average net wage, while the agriculture sector has the lowest." ], [ "Investment", "Indonesia Stock Exchange building in Jakarta.Since the late 1980s, Indonesia has made significant changes to its regulatory framework to encourage economic growth.", "This growth was financed mostly from private investment, both foreign and domestic.", "US investors dominated the oil and gas sector and undertook some of Indonesia's largest mining projects.", "In addition, the presence of US banks, manufacturers, and service providers expanded, especially after the industrial and financial sector reforms of the 1980s.", "Other major foreign investors included India, Japan, the UK, Singapore, the Netherlands, Qatar, Hong Kong, Taiwan and South Korea.The 1997 crisis made continued private financing imperative but problematic.", "New foreign investment approvals fell by almost two-thirds between 1997 and 1999.The crisis further highlighted areas where additional reform was needed.", "Frequently cited areas for improving the investment climate were the establishment of a functioning legal and judicial system, adherence to competitive processes, and adoption of internationally acceptable accounting and disclosure standards.", "Despite improvements of laws in recent years, Indonesia's intellectual property rights regime remains weak, and lack of effective enforcement is a significant concern.", "Under Suharto, Indonesia had moved towards the private provision of public infrastructure, including electric power, toll roads, and telecommunications.", "The 1997 crisis brought to light a severe weakness in the process of dispute resolution, however, particularly in the area of private infrastructure projects.", "Although Indonesia continued to have the advantages of a large labour force, abundant natural resources and modern infrastructure, private investment in new projects largely ceased during the crisis.As of 28 June 2010, the Indonesia Stock Exchange had 341 listed companies with a combined market capitalization of $269.9 billion.", "As of November 2010, two-thirds of the market capitalization was in the form of foreign funds, and only around 1% of the population have stock investments.", "Efforts are further being made to improve the business and investment environment.", "Within the World Bank's Doing Business Survey, Indonesia rose to 122 out of 178 countries in 2010, from 129 in the previous year.", "Despite these efforts, the rank is still below regional peers, and an unfavorable investment climate persists.", "For example, potential foreign investors and their executive staff cannot maintain their own bank accounts in Indonesia, unless they are tax-paying local residents (paying tax in Indonesia for their worldwide income).From 1990 to 2010, Indonesian companies have been involved in 3,757 mergers and acquisitions as either acquirer or target with a total known value of $137 billion.", "In 2010, 609 transactions were announced, which is a new record.", "Numbers had increased by 19% compared to 2009.The value of deals in 2010 was US$17 billion, which is the second-highest number ever.", "In 2012, Indonesia realized total investments of $32.5 billion, surpassing its annual target $25 billion, as reported by Investment Coordinating Board (BKPM) on 22 January.", "The primary investments were in the mining, transport and chemicals sectors.", "In 2011, the Indonesian government announced a new ''Masterplan'' (known as the ''MP3EI'', or ''Masterplan Percepatan dan Perluasan Pembangunan Ekonomi Indonesia'', the ''Masterplan to Accelerate and Expand Economic Development in Indonesia'').", "The aim was to encourage increased investment, particularly in infrastructure projects across Indonesia.Indonesia regained its investment grade rating from Fitch Rating in late 2011, and from Moody's Rating in early 2012, after losing it in the 1997 crisis, during which Indonesia spent more than Rp.", "450 trillion ($50 billion) to bail out lenders from banks.", "Fitch raised Indonesia's long-term and local currency debt rating to BBB− from BB+ with both ratings is stable.", "Fitch also predicted that the economy would grow at least 6% on average per year through 2013, despite a less conducive global economic climate.", "Moody's raised Indonesia's foreign and local currency bond ratings to Baa3 from Ba1 with a stable outlook.", "In May 2017, S&P Global raised Indonesia's investment grade from BB+ to BBB− with a stable outlook, due to the economy experiencing a rebound in exports and strong consumer spending during early 2017.===Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)===Indonesia's foreign direct investment surged 44.2% on a yearly basis in 2022, with the base metals sector drawing in the biggest inflows.", "Indonesia's received 654.4 trillion rupiah worth of FDI last year, or equivalent to $45.6 billion in the investment ministry's official calculation, which assumes an exchange rate of 14,350 to the dollar.", "The data excludes investment in the banking and oil and gas sectors.", "Foreign direct investment in base metals and mining reached $11 billion and $5.1 billion, respectively, last year, the biggest recipients of FDI.", "The biggest sources were Singapore, China and Hong Kong.", "Total investment, including from domestic sources, reached 1,207.2 trillion rupiah ($81.02 billion), roughly in line with the government's target.", "FDI in the final quarter of last year was up 43.3% on an annual basis, amounting to 175.2 trillion rupiah in rupiah terms, or $12.2 billion in the official U.S. dollar equivalent.List of the 10 largest foreign investment origin countries in Indonesia in 2022:1.Singapore: $10.54 billion2.China: $5.18 billion3.Hong Kong, PRC: $3.91 billion4.Japan: $2.76 billion5.Malaysia: $2.21 billion6.United States: $2.12 billion7.South Korea: $1.66 billion8.Netherlands: $1.09 billion9.Bermuda: $0.76 billion10.UK: $0.51 billionForeign direct investment into Indonesia (excluding investment in banking and the oil and gas sectors) increased 20.2 percent year-on-year to a new record peak of IDR 177 trillion (US$11.96 billion) in the Q1 of 2023, amid efforts by the government to ease business and licensing rules.", "Singapore (US$4.3 billion) was the biggest source of investment, followed by Hong Kong (US$1.5 billion), China (US$1.2 billion), and Japan (US$1 billion) while base metals were the biggest recipient amid efforts to boost investment in processed minerals.", "In total, Indonesia recorded IDR 328.9 trillion of foreign and domestic investment during the first quarter, up 16.5 percent from a year earlier, boosted by a rise in investment in base metals, transportation, and the mining sector.", "For 2023, the government has set a target to draw IDR 1,400 trillion (US$95.5 billion) of investment from domestic and foreign sources." ], [ "Largest public Indonesian companies", "=== Fortune Global 500 ===Indonesia has 1 company that rank in the Fortune Global 500 ranking for 2022.+World RankCompanyIndustrySales ($M)Profits ($M)Assets ($M)Employees223PertaminaOil and gas57,5082,04578,05034,183=== Forbes Global 2000 ===Indonesia has 7 companies that rank in the Forbes Global 2000 ranking for 2022.World Rank Company Industry Sales (billion $) Profits (billion $) Assets (billion $) Market Value (billion $)351 Bank Rakyat Indonesia Banking 12.77 2.17 117.74 50.14490 Bank Mandiri Banking 9.53 1.96 121.09 26.88518 Bank Central Asia Banking 6.10 2.26 87.69 67.62895 Telkom Indonesia Telecom 10.02 1.73 19.45 31.881153 Bank Negara Indonesia Banking 4.82 0.76 67.7 12.131749 Bayan Resources Mining 2.85 1.21 2.43 9.821866 Saratoga Investama Sedaya Conglomerate/Investment 0.12 1.74 4.29 3.38" ], [ "Public expenditure", "In 2015, total public spending was Rp 1,806 trillion (US$130.88 billion, 15.7% of GDP).", "Government revenues, including those from state-owned enterprises (BUMN), totaled Rp 1,508 trillion (US$109.28 billion, 13.1% of GDP) resulting in a deficit of 2.6%.", "Since the 1997 crisis that caused an increase in debt and public subsidies and a decrease in development spending, Indonesia's public finances have undergone a major transformation.", "As a result of a series macroeconomic policies, including a low budget deficit, Indonesia is considered to have moved into a situation of financial resources sufficiency to address development needs.", "Decentralization, enacted during the Habibie administration, has changed the manner of government spending, which has resulted in around 40% of public funds being transferred to regional governments by 2006.In 2005, rising international oil prices led to the government's decision of slashing fuel subsidies.", "It led to an extra US$10 billion for government spending on development, and by 2006, there were an additional 5 billion due to steady growth, and declining debt service payments.", "It was the country's first \"fiscal space\" since the revenue windfall during the 1970s oil boom.", "Due to decentralization and fiscal space, Indonesia has the potential to improve the quality of its public services.", "Such potential also enables the country to focus on further reforms, such as the provision of targeted infrastructure.", "Careful management of allocated funds has been described as Indonesia's main issue in public expenditure.In 2018, President Joko Widodo substantially increased the amount of debt by taking foreign loans.", "Indonesia has increased the debt by Rp 1,815 trillion compared to his predecessor, SBY.", "He has insisted that the loan is used for productive long-term projects such as building roads, bridges, and airports.", "Finance Minister Sri Mulyani also stated that despite an increase of foreign loans and debt, the government has also increased the budget for infrastructure development, healthcare, education, and budget given to regencies and villages.", "The government is insisting that foreign debt is still under control, and complying with relevant laws that limit debt to be under 60% of GDP." ], [ "Regional performance", "Based on the regional administration implementation performance evaluation of 2009, by order, the best performance were: 3 provinces: North Sulawesi, South Sulawesi , and Central Java;* 10 regencies: Jombang, Bojonegoro and Pacitan in East Java Province, Sragen in Central Java, Boalemo in Gorontalo, Enrekang in South Sulawesi, Buleleng in Bali, Luwu Utara in South Sulawesi, Karanganyar in Central Java, and Kulon Progo in Yogyakarta;* 10 cities: Surakarta and Semarang in Central Java, Banjar in West Java, Yogyakarta city in Yogyakarta, Cimahi in West Java, Sawahlunto in West Sumatra, Probolinggo and Mojokerto in East Java, and Sukabumi and Bogor in West Java.Based on JBIC Fiscal Year 2010 survey (22nd Annual Survey Report) found that in 2009, Indonesia has the highest satisfaction level in net sales and profits for Japanese companies." ], [ "Wealth", "Countries by total wealth (trillions of USD) (2020)===National net wealth==='''National net wealth''', also known as '''national net worth''', is the total sum of the value of a nation's assets minus its liabilities.", "It refers to the total value of net wealth possessed by the citizens of a nation at a set point in time.", "This figure is an important indicator of a nation's ability to take on debt and sustain spending and is influenced not only by real estate prices, equity market prices, exchange rates, liabilities and incidence in a country of the adult population but also by human resources, natural resources and capital and technological advancements, which may create new assets or render others worthless in the future.", "According to Credit Suisse, Indonesia has national net wealth of approximately $3.199 trillion, or about 0.765% of world net wealth, placing Indonesia at 17th, above Russia, Brazil, and Sweden.===High-net-worth individuals===According to Asia Wealth Report, Indonesia has the highest growth rate of high-net-worth individuals (HNWI) predicted among the 10 largest Asian economies.", "The 2015 Knight Frank Wealth Report reported that in 2014 there were 24 individuals with a net worth above US$1 billion.", "18 of them lived in Jakarta while the others were spread among other large cities in Indonesia.", "192 persons can be categorized as centamillionaires with over US$100 million of wealth and 650 persons as high-net-worth individuals whose wealth exceeded US$30 million." ], [ "Challenges", "===Embezzlement and corrupt bureaucracy===KPK) has been viewed more negatively by the public.Corruption is pervasive in the Indonesian government, affecting many fields that are central to barrier the country's economic development from local governments, the police, the private sector even various ministerial institutions which are close to the president.", "It is related to problems of human capacities and technical resources remains a major challenge in merging effectiveness and integrity in public administration, especially in regencies and cities.", "A 2018 World Economic Forum survey reports that corruption is the most problematic issue regarding doing business in Indonesia, as well as inefficient government bureaucracy policies.", "The survey also showed that 70% of entrepreneurs believe that corruption has grown in Indonesia, while low trust in the private sector is a major obstacle to foreign investment in the country.In 2019, a controversial bill regarding the anti-corruption body (Corruption Eradication Commission (KPK)) reduced the commission's effectiveness in tackling widespread corruption problems and stripped its independence was passed despite massive protests across the country.", "There were 26 points in the revised law that crippled the commission and might further undermine efforts to eradicate corruption in Indonesia.===Labour unrest===As of 2011, labour militancy was growing with a major strike at the Grasberg mine, the world's largest gold mine as well as the second-largest copper mine, and numerous strikes elsewhere.", "A common issue was the attempts by foreign-owned enterprises to evade Indonesia's strict labour laws by calling their employees' contract workers.", "''The New York Times'' expressed concern that Indonesia's cheap labor advantage might be lost.", "However, a large pool of the unemployed who will accept substandard wages and conditions remains available.", "One factor in the increase of militancy is increased awareness via the Internet of prevailing wages in other countries, and the generous profits foreign companies are making in Indonesia.On 1 September 2015, thousands of workers in Indonesia staged large demonstrations across the country in pursuit of higher wages and improved labour laws.", "Approximately 35,000 people rallied in total.", "They demanded a 22% to 25% increase in the minimum wage by 2016 and lower prices on essential goods, including fuel.", "The unions also want the government to ensure job security and ensure the fundamental rights of the workers.In 2020, thousands of workers across the country held a massive march to protest against the Omnibus Law on Job Creation that included several controversial rules, which revised minimum wages, lowered severance pay, relaxed firing rules, among other disadvantaging regulations for labors and factory workers.===Inequality===Economic disparity and the flow of natural resource profits to Jakarta has led to discontent and contributed to separatist movements in areas such as Aceh and Papua.", "Geographically, the poorest fifth regions account for just 8% of consumption, while the wealthiest fifth account for 45%.", "While there are new laws on decentralization that may address the problem of uneven growth and satisfaction partially, there are many hindrances in putting this new policy into practice.", "At a 2011 Makassar Indonesian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (Kadin) meeting, Disadvantaged Regions Minister said there are 184 regencies classified as disadvantaged areas, with around 120 in eastern Indonesia.", "1% of Indonesia's population has 49.3% of the country's $1.8 trillion wealth, down from 53.5%.", "However, it is ranked fourth after Russia (74.5%), India (58.4%) and Thailand (58%).===Inflation===Inflation has long been a problem in Indonesia.", "Because of political turmoil, the country once suffered hyperinflation, with 1,000% annual inflation between 1964 and 1967, resulting in severe poverty and hunger.", "Even though the economy recovered quickly during the first decade of the New Order administration (1970–1981), never once was the inflation less than 10% annually.", "The inflation slowed during the mid-1980s; however, the economy was also languid due to the decrease in oil price that reduced its export revenue dramatically.", "The economy was again experiencing rapid growth between 1989 and 1997 due to the improving export-oriented manufacturing sector.", "Still, the inflation rate was higher than economic growth, and this caused a widening gap among Indonesians.", "Inflation peaked in 1998 during the 1997 crisis at over 58%, causing poverty to rise to the levels of the 1960s.", "During the economic recovery and growth in recent years, the government has been trying to lower the inflation rate.", "However, it seems that inflation has been affected by global fluctuation and domestic market competition.", "As of 2010, the inflation rate was approximately 7%, when its economic growth was 6%.", "To date, inflation is affecting the Indonesian lower middle class, especially those who are not able to afford food after price hikes.", "At the end of 2017, Indonesia's inflation rate was 3.61%, or higher than the government-set forecast of 3.0–3.5%." ], [ "See also", "* Alcohol in Indonesia* Bamboo network* CIVETS countries* COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia* Indonesia Stock Exchange* Developing 8 Countries* European Union-Indonesia trade relations* G-20 major economies* G20 developing nations* Gas subsidies* List of main infrastructure projects in Indonesia* List of largest companies in Indonesia* Next Eleven* Science and technology in Indonesia* Taxation in Indonesia* Tourism in Indonesia" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", " Indonesia Economic Aftershock from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives* BKPM – Indonesia Investment Coordinating Board And Indonesia Investment News* Indonesian Investment coorporation * Comprehensive current and historical economic data* World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Indonesia* Indonesia Trading Instrument Quotex" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Communications in Indonesia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Communications in Indonesia''' has a complex history due to the need to reach an extended archipelago of over 17,500 islands.", "The once important non-electronic communication methods of the past have given way to a considerable telecommunications infrastructure in contemporary Indonesia." ], [ "History", "Indonesia has long been using traditional forms of communications between various islands and villages.", "It was not until the sixteenth century when the Dutch colonised Indonesia, constructing a more elaborate communication system, both within Indonesia and to other countries.", "The first connection to Australia was an undersea telegraph cable that was completed on 18 November 1871, connecting Java to Darwin, and eventually to the Australian Overland Telegraph Line across Australia.After gaining Independence, Indonesia started to develop its own communication systems, generally following the rest of the world.", "The construction of communication towers and launch of the Palapa series of communication satellites was done during the New Order period." ], [ "Infrastructure", "A number of lines connect Indonesia to international communication routes.", "For example, the SEA-ME-WE 3 optical submarine telecommunications cable lands at both Medan and Jakarta connecting Europe with South eastern Asia (several countries up to Japan) and Australia (Perth).Domestically, Indonesia has good coverage for media across most major islands, although smaller and less populated Islands do not always receive attention from media companies, and rely on satellite communication." ], [ "Media", "=== Print ===Indonesia has a long list of print media, in the form of newspapers and magazines.", "Some, such as Kompas, Media Indonesia, Koran Sindo and Koran Tempo are circulated daily and are relatively simple to obtain.", "Others are island- or city-specific, and are usually not distributed to other regions.=== Telephone ===Switchboard operators in Indonesia, c. 1953* Telephones - main lines in use: 9.99 million (2004)* Telephones - mobile cellular: At the end of 2010, the mobile cellular penetration rate was 67 percent (22 percent at end of 2006).", "CDMA use is declining in favour of GSM.", "* Telephone system: domestic service fair, international service gooddomestic: interisland microwave system and HF radio police net; domestic satellite communications systeminternational: satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean)=== Radio ===Jakartan youths being interviewed for radio, 1953* Radio broadcast stations: AM 678, FM 43, shortwave 82 (1998)* Radios: 31.5 million (1997)=== Television ===* Television broadcast stations: 11 national TV, 60 local TV (From AC Nielsen Report - first Semester 2005):* Televisions: 13.75 million (1997)=== Internet ===* Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 24 (1999)* Country code (Top-level domain): .idBy June 2011, all sub-districts in Indonesia will be connected to the Internet." ], [ "Regulatory environment in Indonesia", "The media in Indonesia is regulated by the Ministry of Communications and Informatics.LIRNEasia's Telecommunications Regulatory Environment (TRE) index, which summarises stakeholders' perception on certain TRE dimensions, provides insight into how conducive the environment is for further development and progress.", "The most recent survey was conducted in July 2008 in eight Asian countries, including Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Pakistan, Thailand, and the Philippines.", "The tool measured seven dimensions: i) market entry; ii) access to scarce resources; iii) interconnection; iv) tariff regulation; v) anti-competitive practices; and vi) universal services; vii) quality of service, for the fixed, mobile and broadband sectors.Below-average scores received in all sectors and across dimensions reflect general dissatisfaction of the TRE in Indonesia.", "However, this does not mean that respondents have ignored recent developments.", "The relatively healthy growth in mobile sector is reflected in the higher TRE scores received by the sector for most dimensions, when compared to the fixed sector.", "On average, the mobile sector scores best, with fixed and broadband following." ], [ "See also", "* National Press Monument* Tower Bersama Infrastructure" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Transport in Indonesia" ], [ "Introduction", "The Pelni shipping line connects several Indonesian islands.", "'''Indonesia's transport system''' has been shaped over time by the economic resource base of an archipelago with thousands of islands, and the distribution of its more than 200 million people concentrated mainly on a single island, Java.All modes of transport play a role in the country's transport system and are generally complementary rather than competitive.", "Road transport is predominant, with a total system length of in 2020.The railway system has five unconnected networks in Java and Sumatra primarily dedicated to transport bulk commodities and long-distance passenger traffic.Sea transport is extremely important for economic integration, as well as for domestic and foreign trade.", "It is well developed, with each of the major islands having at least one significant port city.", "The role of inland waterways is relatively minor and is limited to certain areas of Eastern Sumatra and Kalimantan.The function of air transport is significant, particularly where land or water transport is deficient or non-existent.", "It is based on an extensive domestic airline network in which all major cities can be reached by passenger plane." ], [ "Water transport", "===Merchant marine vessels===Traditional wooden Pinisi ships still used in inter-Indonesian islands freight service.Because Indonesia encompasses a sprawling archipelago, maritime shipping provides essential links between different parts of the country.", "Boats in common use include large container ships, a variety of ferries, passenger ships, sailing ships, and smaller motorised vessels.", "The traditional wooden pinisi vessel is still widely used as the inter-island freight service within Indonesian archipelago.", "Main pinisi traditional harbours are Sunda Kelapa in Jakarta and Paotere harbour in Makassar.Frequent ferry services cross the straits between nearby islands, especially in the chain of islands stretching from Sumatra through Java to the Lesser Sunda Islands.", "On the busy crossings between Sumatra, Java, and Bali, multiple car ferries run frequently twenty-four hours per day.", "There are also international ferry services between across the Straits of Malacca between Sumatra and Malaysia, and between Singapore and nearby Indonesian islands, such as Batam.", "Ferry services are operated by state-owned ASDP Indonesia Ferry and several private operators.Pelni's shipping routes, 2006A network of passenger ships makes longer connections to more remote islands, especially in the eastern part of the archipelago.", "The national shipping line, Pelni, provides passenger service to ports throughout the country on a two to four week schedule.", "These ships generally provide the least expensive way to cover long distances between islands.", "Smaller privately run boats provide service between islands.On some islands, major rivers provide a key transportation link in the absence of good roads.", "On Kalimantan, longboats running on the rivers are the only way to reach many inland areas.===Waterways===Indonesia has of navigable waterways (), of which about one half are on Kalimantan, and a quarter each on Sumatra and Papua.", "Waterways are highly needed because the rivers on these islands are not wide enough to hold medium-sized ships.", "In addition to this, roads and railways are not good options since Kalimantan and Papua are not like Java, which is a highly developed island.", "With the current length of waterways, Indonesia ranked seventh on the countries with longest waterways.=== Ports and harbours ===The Port of Tanjung Priok, the busiest port in IndonesiaMajor ports and harbours include Bitung, Cilacap, Cirebon, Jakarta, Kupang, Palembang, Semarang, Surabaya, and Makassar.", "Ports are managed by the various Indonesia Port Corporations, of which there are four, numbered I through IV.", "Each has jurisdiction over various regions of the country, with I in the west and IV in the east.", "Port of Tanjung Priok in Jakarta is the Indonesia's busiest port, handling over 5.20 million TEUs.A two-phase \"New Tanjung Priok\" extension project is currently underway, which will triple the existing annual capacity when fully operational in 2023.In 2015, ground breaking of the strategic North Sumatra's Kuala Tanjung Port has been completed.", "It is expected to accommodate 500,000 TEUs per year, overtaking Johor's Tanjung Pelepas Port and could even compete with the port of Singapore." ], [ "Roads and highways", "A wide variety of vehicles are used for transportation on Indonesia's roads.", "Bus services are available in most areas connected to the road network.", "Between major cities, especially on Sumatra, Java, and Bali, services are frequent and direct; many express services are available with no stops until the final destination.===Intercity bus===Scania K360IB bus travelling across Java, connecting Surabaya, Solo and JakartaThe intercity bus service has become the major provider of land transportation service connecting Indonesian cities, either within an island or inter-island connected through ferry crossings.", "The intercity bus operator companies are called P.O.", "( in Indonesian) with several major companies operating mainly in Java and Sumatra.", "The longest intercity bus service in Indonesia is a route operated by P.O.", "Antar Lintas Sumatera (ALS) connecting Medan in North Sumatra and Jember in East Java.", "It is a week long bus travel covering a distance of 2,920 kilometers.The surge of intercity bus travel in Indonesia took place after the completion of Trans-Java highway section connecting Jakarta and Surabaya in 2018.During this time, some intercity bus services began operating fleet of double decker busses.===City bus===Transjakarta bus rapid transitSome major cities has urban transit bus service, or a more sophisticated form of bus rapid transit (BRT).", "There are usually also bus services of various kinds such as the Kopaja in Jakarta.", "The largest one, Transjakarta system in Jakarta, is the longest bus rapid transit system in the world that boasts some in 13 corridors and 10 cross-corridor routes and carrying 430,000 passengers daily in 2016.Other cities such as Yogyakarta (Trans Jogja), Surabaya (Suroboyo Bus & Trans Semanggi Suroboyo), Palembang, Bandung (Trans Metro Pasundan), Surakarta (Batik Solo Trans), Denpasar, Pekanbaru, Semarang (Trans Semarang), Makassar, Bogor, and Padang also have BRT systems in place without segregated lanes.===Taxis and autorickshaws===A Bluebird taxi in JakartaMany cities and towns have some form of transportation for hire available as well such as taxis.", "Many cities also have motorised autorickshaws (''bajaj'') of various kinds.", "Cycle rickshaws, called ''becak'' in Indonesia, are a regular sight on city roads and provide inexpensive transportation.", "They have been blamed for causing traffic congestion and, consequently, banned from most parts of Jakarta in 1972.Horse-drawn carts are found in some cities and towns.Ridesharing companies have become serious competition to both taxicabs and motorcycle taxis (''ojek''), with the four providers being Gojek, Maxim, Anterin, Grab and others.===Minibus===In more remote areas, and between smaller towns, most services are provided with minibuses or minivans (''angkot'').", "Buses and vans are also the primary form of transportation within cities.", "Often, these are operated as share taxis, running semi-fixed routes.===Private cars===Due to the increasing purchasing power of Indonesians, private cars are becoming more common especially in major cities.", "However the growth of the number of cars increasingly outpaces the construction of new roads, resulting in frequently crippling traffic jams in large parts in major cities especially in Jakarta, which often also happen on highways.", "Jakarta also has one of the worst traffic jams in the world.Indonesia has been gradually introducing an Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) since 2012.ITS Indonesia was formed on 26 April 2011.===National routes===Indonesia has about of paved highways and of unpaved highways ( estimate).", "Four of Indonesia's main highways are classified as parts of Asian Highway Network: AH2 section in Java and Bali, AH25 and AH151 in Sumatra, AH152 in Java and AH150 section in Kalimantan.", "Some of them has been numbered, currently only in Java and (partially) Sumatera.National routes of Indonesia pass through the hearts of most main cities, and are designed to connect between city centres.", "They act as main inter-city route outside the tollways.", "A national route has to be passable by logistic trucks, while simultaneously handling the common traffic.", "National routes in Java are numbered, while those outside Java aren't.", "In some cities, even in crowded districts, national routes often form bypasses or ring roads (Indonesian: ''jalan lingkar'') around the city to prevent inter-city traffic entering the city center.Ministry of Public Works and People's Housing is responsible to these networks, except DKI Jakarta part from Jakarta Inner Ring Road to Jakarta Outer Ring Road.", "A national route can be revised if it serves unable to handle the traffic.", "It would usually be handled by the province/regional government.Below were lists of some national routes in Indonesia:* '''Sumatra:''' Trans-Sumatra Highway* '''Java:''' North Coast, South Coast* '''Kalimantan:''' Trans-Kalimantan Highway (Northern, Central, Southern)* '''Sulawesi:''' Trans-Sulawesi Highway* '''Papua:''' Trans-Papua Highway===Toll roads===All expressways in Indonesia are toll roads, known locally as (lit.", "toll road).", "The first expressway in Indonesia is the Jagorawi Toll Road, opened in 1978.2,386 kilometers of expressways are operating as of 2021.Over of expressways opened during the first term of President Joko Widodo, surpassing previous administrations.", "Since 2018, all expressways do not accept any cash tolls; all tolls must be paid with certain contactless money cards.The high cost of building and maintaining a national highway system means that Indonesia has to outsource the construction and maintenance to private and state-owned companies.", "Indonesia has an extensive system of highways consisting of:Java's transportation networksCipularang Toll Road, part of Trans-Java Toll Road==== Java ========Sumatra========Sulawesi====* Makassar-Sultan Hasanuddin International Airport Toll Road* Manado-Bitung Toll Road====Lesser Sunda Islands====Serangan-Tanjung Benoa Toll Road: The toll road between Tanjung Benoa to Airport and from Airport to Serangan, all in direct line (not curve) is 12.7 kilometres and is equipped also with motorcycle lanes.", "The toll road is formally opened on 23 September 2013, about a week before APEC Summit in Bali is opened.====Kalimantan====* Samarinda-Balikpapan Toll Road" ], [ "Railways", "An inter-city and a commuter train at Gambir railway station.An Indonesian inter-city high speed train at Bandung.Indonesia's main railways, operated by Kereta Api Indonesia and its subsidiaries, is used for both passenger and freight transport.The majority of railways is located on Java.", "There are four separate railway networks on Sumatra: one in Aceh, one in North Sumatra (Aceh connection proposed to be finished in 2020s), another in West Sumatra, and the final one in South Sumatra and Lampung.", "South Sulawesi has railway network in Barru Regency as the impact of Trans-Sulawesi Railway construction, the first phase includes 146 kilometers route from Makassar to Parepare, which was completed in November 2022 and has been operating ever since.", "There are no railways in other parts of Indonesia, although new networks are being developed on islands such as Kalimantan and Papua.The inter-city rail network is complemented by local commuter rail services, particularly in Jakarta metropolitan area and Surabaya.", "In Jakarta, the KRL Commuterline service carries more than a million passengers a day.", "Urban rail networks are also exists in few cities.", "Palembang LRT began operations in 2018, the first of such kind.", "The Jakarta MRT and Jakarta LRT began operations in 2019, with the Greater Jakarta LRT system being constructed and it commenced official commercial operations on 28 August 2023, after 11 days of Indonesian Independence Day.The government's plan to build a high-speed rail (HSR) was announced in 2015, the first in Indonesia and Southeast Asia.", "It is expected to connect the capital Jakarta with Bandung, covering a distance of around .", "Plans were also mentioned for its possible extension to Surabaya, the country's second largest city.", "In 2023, the Jakarta-Bandung High-Speed Rail construction partially finished and is set to start commercial operation starting October 2023.The Jakarta-Bandung HSR began trial operation with passengers on 7 September 2023 and commercial operations on 2 October 2023." ], [ "Pipelines", "As of 2013, Indonesia has pipelines for condensate , condensate/gas , gas , liquid petroleum gas , oil , oil/gas/water , refined products , and water ." ], [ "Air transport", "Garuda Indonesia and Lion Air aeroplanes at Ngurah Rai International Airport, Bali in 2014Air transport in Indonesia serves as a critical means of connecting the thousands of islands throughout the archipelago.", "Indonesia is the largest archipelagic country in the world, extending from east to west and from north to south, comprising 13,466 islands, with 922 of those permanently inhabited.", "With an estimated population of over 255 million people – making it the world's fourth-most-populous country – and also due to the growth of the middle-class, the boom of low-cost carriers in the recent decade, and overall economic growth, many domestic travellers shifted from land and sea transport to faster and more comfortable air travel.", "Indonesia is widely regarded as an emerging market for air travel in the region.", "Between 2009 and 2014, the number of Indonesian air passengers increased from 27,421,235 to 94,504,086, an increase of over threefold.However, safety issues continue to be a persistent problem in Indonesian aviation.", "Several accidents have given Indonesia's air transport system the reputation of the least safe in the world.", "Indonesian aviation faces numerous challenges, including poorly maintained, outdated, and often overwhelmed infrastructure, the factor of human error, bad weather, haze problems caused by plantation fires, and volcanic ash spewed by numerous volcanoes that disrupts air transportation.The Indonesian Air Force has 34,930 personnel equipped with 224 aircraft, among them 110 combat aircraft.", "The Indonesian Air Force possesses and operates numerous military air bases and military airstrips across the archipelago.The International Air Transport Association (IATA) has predicted that Indonesia will become the world's sixth largest air travel market by 2034.Around 270 million passengers are predicted to fly from and within Indonesia by 2034.===Airports===Soekarno–Hatta International Airport, the busiest in Indonesia and Southeast AsiaAs of 2013, there are 673 airports in Indonesia, 186 of those have paved runways, and 487 have unpaved runways.", "As of 2013, there are 76 heliports in Indonesia.", "Jakarta's Soekarno–Hatta International Airport serves as the country's main air transportation hub as well as the nation's busiest.", "Since 2010, it has become the busiest airport in Southeast Asia, surpassing Suvarnabhumi and Changi airports.", "In 2017, it became the 17th busiest airport in the world with 62.1 million passengers.===Airlines===In Indonesia, there are 22 commercial scheduled airlines that carry more than 30 passengers, and 32 commercial scheduled airlines that transport 30 or less passengers, as well as chartered airlines.", "Some notable Indonesian airlines, among others, include Garuda Indonesia, the government-owned flag carrier of Indonesia, Lion Air, currently the largest private low-cost carrier airline in Indonesia, Sriwijaya Air, currently the largest medium service regional carrier in Indonesia, also the country's third largest carrier, and Indonesia AirAsia, the Indonesian branch of Malaysian-based AirAsia." ], [ "Mudik", "Thousands of motorcyclist families waiting for the ferry at the Port of Merak during mudik''Mudik'', or ''Pulang Kampung'', is an Indonesian term for the activity where migrants or migrant workers return to their hometown or village during or before major holidays, especially Lebaran (Eid al-Fitr).", "Although the mudik homecoming travel before Lebaran takes place in most Indonesian urban centers, the highlight is on the nation's largest urban agglomeration; Greater Jakarta, as millions of Jakartans exit the city by various means of transportation, overwhelming train stations and airports and also clogging highways, especially the Trans-Java toll road and Java's Northern Coast Road.In 2023 it was estimated that the people that took annual ''mudik'' travel reached 123 million people.", "The demand for train and airplane tickets usually spikes a month or two prior to Lebaran, prompting an unusually higher cost for tickets for highly sought days of departure.", "Some airlines might add extra flights or operate larger airplanes to deal with the surge in demand.Indonesian train operator Kereta Api Indonesia usually offers additional train trips or introduces longer trains with more cars in order to meet the demand.", "The private operators of intercity and interprovince buses usually charge higher ticket costs during this period.", "The impact is indeed tremendous as millions of buses, cars and motorcycles jam the roads and highways, causing kilometres of traffic jams each year." ], [ "See also", "* Bus transport in Indonesia* Transport in Jakarta* Ministry of Transportation" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Indonesian National Armed Forces" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Indonesian National Armed Forces''' (; abbreviated as '''TNI''') are the military forces of the Republic of Indonesia.", "It consists of the Army (''TNI-AD''), Navy (''TNI-AL''), and Air Force (''TNI-AU'').", "The President of Indonesia is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces.", ", it comprises approximately 400,000 military personnel including the Indonesian Marine Corps (), which is a branch of the Navy.Initially formed with the name of the People's Security Army (TKR), then later changed to the Republic of Indonesia Army (TRI) before changing again its name to the Indonesian National Armed Forces (TNI) to the present.", "The Indonesian Armed Forces were formed during the Indonesian National Revolution, when it undertook a guerrilla war along with informal militia.", "As a result of this, and the need to maintain internal security, the Armed forces including the Army, Navy, and Air Force has been organised along territorial lines, aimed at defeating internal enemies of the state and potential external invaders.Under the 1945 Constitution, all citizens are legally entitled and obliged to defend the nation.", "Conscription is provided for by law, however the Forces have been able to maintain mandated strength levels without resorting to a draft.The Indonesian armed forces (military) personnel does not include members of law enforcement and paramilitary personnel such as the Indonesian National Police (Polri) consisting of approximately 440,000+ personnel, Mobile Brigade Corps (Brimob) of around 42,000+ armed personnel, and the Indonesian College Students' Regiment or (Menwa) which is a collegiate military service consisting 26,000 trained personnel." ], [ "History", "A road-side painting in Jakarta commemorating the anniversary of the Indonesian National Armed Forces in 1985Before the formation of the Indonesian Republic, the military authority in the Dutch East Indies was held by the Royal Dutch East Indies Army (KNIL) and naval forces of the Royal Netherlands Navy (KM).", "Although both the KNIL and KM were not directly responsible for the formation of the future Indonesian armed forces, and mainly took the role of foe during Indonesian National Revolution in 1945 to 1949, the KNIL had also provided military training and infrastructure for some of the future TNI officers and other ranks.", "There were military training centers, military schools and academies in the Dutch East Indies.", "Next to Dutch volunteers and European mercenaries, the KNIL also recruited indigenous, especially Ambonese, Kai Islanders, Timorese, and Minahasan people.", "In 1940, with the Netherlands under German occupation and the Japanese pressing for access to Dutch East Indies oil supplies, the Dutch had opened up the KNIL to large intakes of previously excluded Javanese.", "Some of the indigenous soldiers that had enjoyed Dutch KNIL military academy education would later become important TNI officers, for example Soeharto and Nasution.Indonesian soldiers in front of Borobudur, March 1947Indonesian nationalism and militarism started to gain momentum and support in World War II during the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies.", "To gain support from the Indonesian people in their war against the Western Allied force, Japan started to encourage and back Indonesian nationalistic movements by providing Indonesian youth with military training and weapons.", "On 3 October 1943, the Japanese military formed the Indonesian volunteer army called PETA ( – Defenders of the Homeland).", "The Japanese intended PETA to assist their forces oppose a possible invasion by the Allies.", "The Japanese military training for Indonesian youth originally was meant to rally the local's support for the Japanese Empire, but later it became the significant resource for the Republic of Indonesia during the Indonesian National Revolution from 1945 to 1949.Many of these men who served in PETA, both officers and NCOs alike like Soedirman, formed the majority of the personnel that would compose the future armed forces.General Sudirman, first commander of the Indonesian Armed ForcesThe Indonesian Armed Forces started out as the People's Security Agency ( – \"People's Security Agency\"; BKR), which was formed in the third PPKI meeting, on 29 August 1945.BKR united militias across the newly independent country to maintain civil order; it was more of a constabulary than an army.", "The decision to create a \"security agency\", and not an army, was taken to avoid the Allied forces seeing it as an armed revolution and invading in full force.", "One of the terms of surrender to Japan was to return the Asian colonies they had conquered to their previous rulers, certainly not to make them independent.When confrontations became sharp and hostile between Indonesia and the Allied forces, on 5 October 1945 the People's Security Forces ( – TKR ) was formed on the basis of existing BKR units; this was a move taken to formalize, unite, and organize the splintered pockets of independent troopers () across Indonesia, ensuing a more professional military approach, to contend with the Netherlands and the Allied force invaders.The Indonesian armed forces have seen significant action since their establishment in 1945.Their first conflict was the 1945–1949 Indonesian National Revolution, in which the 1945 Battle of Surabaya was especially important as the baptism of fire of the young armed forces.In January 1946, TKR renamed as the People's Safety Military Forces ( – TKR), then succeeded by Armed Forces of the Republic of Indonesia ( – TRI ), in a further step to professionalize the armed forces and increase its ability to engage systematically.In June 1947, the TRI, per a government decision, was renamed the Indonesian National Armed Forces ( – TNI ) which is a merger between the TRI and the independent paramilitary organizations () across Indonesia, becoming by 1950 the APRIS or ''War Forces of the Republic of the United States of Indonesia'' (), by mid year the APRI or ''War Forces of the Republic of Indonesia'' (), also absolving native personnel from within both the former KNIL and KM within the expanded republic.According to the official website of Indonesian veterans, there were 863,432 people who joined the struggle for Indonesian independence and this included those who were members of the militia, police, intelligence and auxiliary and as of July 2023, there are still 89,377 Indonesian National Revolution veterans alive.Emblem of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Indonesia (ABRI) (1962–1999)On 21 June 1962, the name \"\" (TNI) was changed to \"\" (Armed Forces of the Republic of Indonesia, ABRI).", "The POLRI (Indonesian National Police) was integrated under the Armed Forces and changed its name to \"\" (Police Force), and its commander maintained the concurrent status of Minister of Defense and Security, reporting to the President, who is commander in chief.", "The commanding generals (later chiefs of staff) and the Chief of the National Police then all held ministerial status as members of the cabinet of the republic, while a number of higher-ranking officers were appointed to other cabinet posts.", "On 1 July 1969, the Police Force's name was reverted to \"''POLRI''\".After the fall of Suharto in 1998, the democratic and civil movement grew against the acute military role and involvements in Indonesian politics.", "As a result, the post-Suharto Indonesian military has undergone certain reforms, such as the revocation of the Dwifungsi doctrine and the terminations of military controlled business.", "The reforms also involved law enforcement in common civil society, which questioned the position of Indonesian police under the military corps umbrella.", "These reforms led to the separation of the police force from the military.", "In April 1999, the Indonesian National Police officially regained its independence and now is a separate entity from the armed forces proper.", "The official name of the Indonesian armed forces also changed from \"\" (ABRI) back to \"\" (TNI).=== Future plans ===At the beginning of 2010, the Indonesian government sought to strengthen the TNI to achieve minimum standards of minimum strength called \"\" (Minimum Essential Force, or MEF).", "The MEF was divided into three strategic five-year plan stages, 2010–2014, 2015–2019, and 2020–2024.Initially the government budgeted Rp156 trillion (around US$16 billion at the time) for the provision of TNI's main weapon system equipment (known as , an abbreviation for or \"Main Weapons System\") in the MEF period 2010–2014.=== Naming history ===People's Security Agency (, 22 August – 5 October 1945; spelled \"''Ra'jat''\")People's Security Forces (, 5 October 1945 – 7 January 1946; spelled \"''Ra'jat''\")People's Safety Forces (, 7–26 January 1946; spelled \"''Ra'jat''\")Armed Forces of the Republic of Indonesia (, 26 January 1946 – 3 June 1947; spelled \"''Repoeblik''\" until 17 March 1947)Indonesian National Armed Forces (, 3 June 1947 – 27 December 1949)War Forces of the Republic of the United States of Indonesia (, 27 December 1949 – 17 August 1950)War Forces of the Republic of Indonesia (, 17 August 1950 – 21 June 1962)Armed Forces of the Republic of Indonesia (, 21 June 1962 – 1 April 1999; spelled \"''Bersendjata''\" until 1 January 1973)*Indonesian National Armed Forces (, since 1 April 1999)''the name TNI was still used during ABRI era when it came to the military itself and the branches excluding the Police (e.g.", "TNI-AD/AL/AU).", "But when it was Armed Forces as a whole including the Police the term ABRI was used instead.''" ], [ "Philosophy and doctrine", "Indonesian soldiers participate in a mass casualty training scenario as part of exercise Cooperation Afloat Readiness and Training (CARAT)The Indonesian military philosophy about the defense of the archipelago is summarily civilian-military defence, called \"Total People's Defense\", consisting of a three-stage war: a short initial period in which an invader would defeat a conventional Indonesian military, a long period of territorial guerrilla warfare followed by a final stage of expulsion, with the military acting as a rallying point for defense from grass-roots village level upwards.", "The doctrine relies on a close bond between villager and soldier to encourage the support of the entire population and enable the armed forces to manage all war-related resources.The civilian population would provide logistical support, intelligence, and upkeep with some of the population that is armed forces-trained to join the guerrilla struggle against the aggressor.", "The armed forces regularly engage in large-scale community and rural development.", "The \"Armed Forces Enters the Village\" (AMD/TMMD) program, begun in 1983, is held three times annually to organize and assist construction and development of civilian village projects.The current developments in Indonesia's defense policies are framed within the concept of achieving \"Minimum Essential Force\" or MEF by 2024.This concept of MEF was first articulated in Presidential Decree No.", "7/2008 on General Policy Guidelines on State Defense Policy which came into effect on 26 January 2008.MEF is defined as a capability based defense and force level that can guarantee the attainment of immediate strategic defense interests, where the procurement priority is given to the improvement of minimum defense strength and/or the replacement of outdated main weapon systems/equipment.", "To achieve this aim, MEF had been restructured into a series of 3 strategic programs with timeframes from 2010 to 2014, 2015 to 2019 and 2020 to 2024 as well as spending of up to1.5–2% of the GDP.The identity of the Indonesian National Armed forces is as defined by the Article 2 of the Law No 34/2004 on Indonesian National Armed forces is the TNI must aim to become the:# People's Military Forces, the armed forces whose serving personnel come from Indonesian citizens from all walks of life;# Military of Warriors, which are soldiers who fought to establish the Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia and do not recognize surrender in carrying out and completing its obligations;# National Armed Forces, the Indonesian national armed forces who serve in the interest of the country and her people over the interests of the regions/provinces, ethnic groups, races, and religions;# and Professional Armed Forces, an armed forces that is well-trained, well-educated, well-equipped, non-practicable, prohibited to do business and politics and guaranteed welfare, and following the country's political policies that embrace democratic principles, civil supremacy, human rights, and the provisions of national law and international laws in force, as ratified and approved in the 1999–2003 amendments to the Constitution." ], [ "Organization", "The Indonesian armed forces have long been organized around territorial commands.", "Following independence, seven were established by 1958.No central reserve formation was formed until 1961 (when the 1st Army Corps of the Army General Reserve, \"CADUAD\", the precursor of today's Kostrad was established).", "It was only after the attempted coup d'état of 1 October 1965 and General Suharto's rise to the presidency that it became possible to integrate the armed forces and begin to develop a joint operations structure.Following a decision in 1985, major reorganization separate the Ministry of Defense and Security from the ABRI (, the name of the armed forces used during the New Order) headquarters and staff.", "MoDS was made responsible for planning, acquisition, and management tasks but had no command or control of troop units.", "The ABRI Commander in chief retained command and control of all armed forces and continued by tradition to be the senior military officer in the country, while continuing to be a part of the cabinet.The administrative structure of Ministry of Defense and Security consisted of a minister, deputy minister, secretary general, inspector general, three directorates-general and a number of functional centers and institutes.", "The minister, deputy minister, inspector general, and three directors general were retired senior military officers; the secretary general (who acted as deputy minister) and most functional center chiefs were, as is the case today, active-duty military officers, while employees and staff were personnel of the armed forces and of the civil service.The 1985 reorganization also made significant changes in the armed forces chain of command.", "The four multi-service Regional Defense Commands (\"Kowilhans\") and the National Strategic Command (\"Kostranas\") were eliminated from the defense structure, establishing the Military Regional Command (\"Kodam\"), or area command, as the key organization for strategic, tactical, and territorial operations for all services.", "The chain of command flowed directly from the \"ABRI\" commander in chief to the ten \"Kodam\" commanders, and then to subordinate army territorial commands.", "The former territorial commands of the air force and navy were eliminated from the structure altogether, with each of those services represented on the \"Kodam\" staff by a senior liaison officer.", "The navy and air force territorial commands were replaced by operational commands.", "The air force formed two Operational Commands (\"Ko-Ops\") while the navy had its two Fleet Commands, the Western and Eastern Armadas.", "The air force's National Air Defense Command (\"Kohanudnas\") remained under the \"ABRI\" commander in chief.", "It had an essentially defensive function that included responsibility for the early warning system.After Suharto's presidential era collapsed in 1998, the Indonesian National Police was separated from the Armed Forces making the Indonesian Armed Forces under the direct auspices command of the Ministry of Defense and the Police Force under the direct auspices of the President of Indonesia.", "Before 1998, the Armed Forces of the Republic of Indonesia (the then name \"ABRI\") was composed of four service branches: Indonesian Army, Indonesian Navy, Indonesian Air Force, and the Indonesian National Police.", "Then after 1998 (After reformation from Soeharto), the Armed Forces' name, in 1999, was changed to '''TNI''' () literally meaning: \"The National Military of Indonesia\" and the independent Indonesian Police Force changed its name to '''POLRI''' () literally meaning: \"The National Police Force of Indonesia\".", "Now specifically, although the Armed Forces of Indonesia and the National Police of Indonesia has been separated, they still cooperate and conduct special duties and tasks together for the sake of the national security and integrity of Indonesia.On 13 May 2018, Commander Hadi Tjahjanto reorganized the armed forces once more by inaugurating 4 new military units: Kostrad's 3rd Infantry Division, Navy's 3rd Fleet Command, Air Force's 3rd Air Force Operations Command, and Marine Force III.", "The new military units are intended to reduce response time against any threats and problems in Eastern Indonesia.", "He also officially renamed the Western and Eastern Fleet Commands to 1st and 2nd Fleet Commands.The Indonesian National Armed Forces is structured into the following in accordance with Article 9 of Presidential Regulation No.", "66/2019.The organization of the Indonesian National Armed Forces consists of Indonesian National Armed Forces General Headquarters () based in the Joint Armed Forces Headquarters in Cilangkap, East Jakarta, of which it oversee the headquarters of the three branch of the military:* Indonesian Army Headquarters (), based in Gambir, Central Jakarta;* Indonesian Navy Headquarters (), based in Cilangkap, East Jakarta; and* Indonesian Air Force Headquarters (), also based in Cilangkap, East Jakarta=== Armed Forces Headquarters Organization ======= Leadership elements ====The current ''Panglima'' (Commander) of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, General Agus Subiyanto of the ArmyThe leadership elements of the Indonesian armed forces consist of the Commander of the Indonesian National Armed Forces () and the Deputy Commander of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, both position are held by four-star Generals/Admirals/Air Marshals appointed by and reporting directly to the President of Indonesia, who is the overall commander-in-chief of the armed forces.", "As of Nov 2019, the position of deputy commander remains vacant.", "* '''Commander of the Indonesian National Armed Forces''' (); and* '''Deputy Commander of the Indonesian National Armed Forces''' ().==== Leadership support elements ====# Armed Forces General Staff ()# Armed Forces Inspectorate General ()# Armed Forces Commander Advisory Staff ()# Armed Forces Strategic Policy and General Planning Staff ()# Armed Forces Intelligence Staff ()# Armed Forces Operations Staff ()# Armed Forces Personnel Staff ()# Armed Forces Logistics Staff ()# Armed Forces Territorial Staff ()# Armed Forces Communication and Electronics Staff ()==== Service Elements ====# Armed Forces Psychology Center ()# Armed Forces Electronics and Communication Unit ()# Armed Forces Operations Control Center ()# Armed Forces Bureaucratic Reform Center ()# Armed Forces General Secretariat ()# Armed Forces General Headquarters and Services Detachment ()==== Central Executive Agencies ====Military Academy of IndonesiaIndonesian Military Academy cadets# '''Armed Forces Command and Staff Colleges''' () based in Bandung, which consist of:#* Army Command and Staff College, based in Bandung;#* Naval Command and Staff College, based in Cipulir, South Jakarta; and#* Air Force Command and Staff College, based in Lembang, West Bandung.# '''Armed Forces Education, Training and Doctrine Development Command''' ();#* Army Training, Education and Doctrine Development Command, based in Bandung;#Naval Training, Education and Doctrine Development Command, based in Surabaya; and#Air Force Training, Education and Doctrine Development Command, based in East Jakarta.# '''Armed Forces Academy''' (), based in Cilangkap, which consist of:#Military Academy, based in Magelang;#Naval Academy, based in Surabaya; and#Air Force Academy, based in Yogyakarta.# '''Armed Forces Strategic Intelligence Agency''' ();# '''Armed Forces Special Operations Command''' ();# '''Indonesian Presidential Security Forces''' ();# '''Armed Forces Legal Agency''' ();# '''Armed Forces Information Center''' ();# '''Armed Forces Medical Center''' ();# '''Armed Forces Military Police Center''' ();# '''Armed Forces Finance Center''' ();# '''Armed Forces Peacekeeping Missions Center''' ()# '''Armed Forces Strategic Assessment, Research, and Development Center''' ();# '''Armed Forces Logistics Agency''' ();# '''Armed Forces Mental Guidance and Chaplaincy Center''' ();# '''Armed Forces Historical Heritage Center''' ();# '''Armed Forces Information and Data Processing Center''' ();# '''Armed Forces International Cooperation Center''' ();# '''Armed Forces Physical Fitness and Basic Military Regulation Center''' ();# '''Armed Forces Procurement Center''' ();# '''Armed Forces Maritime Information Center''' ();# '''Armed Forces Permanent Garrison Commands''' (), which consist of:# 1st Permanent Garrison Command/Jakarta#* 2nd Permanent Garrison Command/Bandung#* 3rd Permanent Garrison Command/Surabaya# '''Armed Forces Cyber Operations Unit''' ()==== Principal Operational Commands ====Indonesian Army Infantry soldiers is one of the main combatant forces of the Indonesian armed forcesThe '''Principal Operational Commands''' () are the centralized TNI forces which are under the command of the Armed Forces General Headquarters.", "Some of these commands are actually part of the three military branches (such as Kostrad and Koarmada RI, armed and trained by the Army and Navy, respectively), but these are operationally controlled by the Armed Forces General Headquarters.#'''Joint Defense Territorial Command''' (), tasked with coordinating and integrating operational readiness of all military bases throughout Indonesia.", "Command held by three-star General/Admiral/Air Marshall.", "It consists of:#Kogabwilhan I, based in Tanjung Pinang, covering western territories of Indonesia;#Kogabwilhan II, based Penajam Paser, covering central territories of Indonesia; and#Kogabwilhan III, based in Timika, covering eastern territories of Indonesia.#'''Army Strategic Reserve Command''' ().", "Command held by three-star General.", "It consists of:#1st Infantry Division, based in Depok operationally Army expeditionary unit from Banten and West Java;#2nd Infantry Division, based in Malang operationally Army expeditionary unit from Central Java and Eastern Java;#3rd Infantry Division, based in Gowa operationally Army expeditionary unit from South Sulawesi and Central Papua.#'''Indonesian Fleet Command''' ().", "Command held by three-star Admiral.", "It consists of:#Koarmada I, based in Tanjung Uban, operationally western fleet of Indonesia;#Koarmada II, based in Surabaya operationally central fleet of Indonesia; and#Koarmada III, based in Sorong, operationally eastern fleet of Indonesia.#'''National Air Operations Command''' ().", "Command held by three-star Air Marshall.", "It consists of:#Koopsud I, based in Jakarta, operationally western air forces of Indonesia;#Koopsud II, based in Makassar operationally central air forces of Indonesia; and#Koopsud III, based in Biak, operationally eastern air forces of Indonesia.# '''Naval Hydro-Oceanographic Center''' (), based in North Jakarta.", "Command held by three-star Admiral.#'''Army Military Regional Commands''' ().", "Command held by two-star General.", "It consists of fifteen Military Regions (Kodams) territorially covering all 38 Provinces of Indonesia.#'''Army Special Forces Command''' ().", "Command held by two-star General.", "It conducts mainly special operations of Army.#'''Military Sealift Command''' ().", "Command held by two-star Admiral.", "It conduct maritime transportation and logistic transferring.#'''Indonesian Marine Corps''' ().", "Command held by two-star Marine General.", "It consists of:#1st Marine Force, based in South Jakarta;#2nd Marine Force, based in Sidoarjo;#3rd Marine Force, based in Sorong; and#4th Marine Infantry Brigade, based in Lampung.=== Branches ===Kodam XII/''Tanjungpura''TNI has three service branches, the Army (TNI-AD), the Navy (TNI-AL), and the Air Force (TNI-AU).", "Each service branch is led by a Chief of Staff (Chief of Staff of the Army, Chief of Staff of the Navy, and Chief of Staff of the Air Force respectively) who is responsible for the administration and capability development for his/her own branch.", "These positions were previously called Commander or Panglima (for some period in 60s, it is a Minister-equivalent post) which was equipped with commanding authority until it was changed as Chief of Staffs (until now).", "In the present day, the Commander of The Indonesian National Armed Forces is the only military officer holding commanding authority for all the service branches under the overall authority of the President as Commander in Chief of the Forces.", "The '''TNI-AD (Indonesian Army)''' was first formed in 1945 following the end of World War II, to protect the newly independent country.", "It initially consisted of local militia and grew to become the regular army of today.", "The force now has up to 306,506 personnel, and comprises major strong territorial army commands known as ''Kodam'' and several independent regiments, brigades and battalions.", "The Army is also built up of operational commands and special forces such as the: Kopassus and the Kostrad units also with other types of formation within the Army itself.", "The Army also operates aircraft under the Army Aviation Command (''Pusat Penerbangan Angkatan Darat'').", "The Army operates 123 helicopters including combat, transport, and trainer models, and eight fixed-wing aircraft.", "The Army also guards and patrols the land borders with Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, and East Timor.Indonesian Navy Frigate KRI ''I Gusti Ngurah Rai'' 332 and Corvettes KRI ''Sultan Hasanuddin 366'''', KRI Sultan Iskandar Muda 367''The '''TNI-AL (Indonesian Navy)''' was first formed on 22 August 1945.The current strength of the Navy is around up-to 74,000.In contrast to many other nations and military traditions, the Navy uses Army style ranks (''See: Indonesian military ranks'').", "The Navy has one centralized fleet command (Indonesian Fleet Command at Jakarta) which consists of three navy fleets which are the 1st Fleet Command (''Koarmada I'') based in Tanjungpinang, the 2nd Fleet Command (''Koarmada II'') based in Surabaya, and the 3rd Fleet Command (''Koarmada III'') based in Sorong, all three fleet forces commands holding responsibility for the defense of the three maritime and naval territorial commands.", "The Navy also has a management of aircraft and aviation systems which are operated by the Naval Aviation Center ().", "The Navy operates 63 fixed wing aircraft and 29 combat and transport helicopters.", "The Navy also includes the Indonesian Marine Corps (, or ''KorMar'').", "It was created on 15 November 1945 and has the duties of being the main naval infantry and amphibious warfare force with quick reaction capabilities and special operations abilities.Indonesian Air Force Sukhoi Su-30 fighter at Sultan Hasanuddin Air Force BaseThe '''TNI-AU (Indonesian Air Force)''' is headquartered in Jakarta, Indonesia.", "Its Order of Battle is under the Air Operations Commands (''Koopsud'') which consists of three operational commands (Koopsud I, Koopsud II, and Koopsud III).", "Most of its airbases are located on the island of Java.", "Presently, the Air Force has up-to 34,930 personnel equipped with 202 aircraft including Sukhoi Su-27s, Su-30s, F-16 Fighting Falcons, Hawk 100/200s, KAI T-50 Golden Eagles, and EMB 314 Super Tucanos.", "The Air Force also has air force infantry corps which is known as ''Kopasgat'' that are tasked for airbase defense, airborne troops and special forces unit.", "While no longer a part of the Armed Forces since 1 April 1999, the '''Indonesian National Police''' (''POLRI'') often operate in paramilitary roles independently or in co-operation with the other services on internal security missions, usually in cooperation with the Indonesian National Armed Forces (''TNI'').", "The National Police Mobile Brigade Corps are the main paramilitary forces which are usually put on to these roles and tasks with the service branches of the armed forces.", "Until today, both the ''TNI'' and the ''POLRI'' still holds strong ties and cooperation for the sake of the nation's national security and integrity purposes.=== Special Forces Unit ===Indonesian Military Special Forces'''TNI AD''' (Indonesian Army): Kopassus, Tontaipur'''TNI AL''' (Indonesian Navy): Kopaska, Taifib, Denjaka'''TNI AU''' (Indonesian Air Force): Kopasgat, Bravo Detachment 90In the immediate aftermath of 2018 Surabaya bombings, President Widodo has agreed to revive the TNI Joint Special Operations Command (''Koopsusgab'') to assist the National Police in antiterrorism operations under certain conditions.", "This joint force is composed of special forces of the National Armed Forces as mentioned above, and is under the direct control of the Commander of the National Armed Forces.", "In July 2019, President Widodo officially formed the '''Armed Forces Special Operations Command''' (''Koopsus TNI'') which comprised 400 personnel each from Sat-81 Gultor of Kopassus, Denjaka, and Den Bravo of Kopasgat to conduct special operations to protect national interests within or outside Indonesian territory.Armed Force Anniversary Day in 2017=== Equipment ==='''TNI AD''' List of Equipment of the Indonesian Army'''TNI AL''' List of Equipment of the Indonesian Navy'''TNI AU''' List of Equipment of the Indonesian Air ForcePresident Jokowi and Defense Minister Prabowo Subianto inaugurates reserve component (''Komcad'') in ILSV vehicleTNI Reserve Component with Kostrad camo pattern=== Reserves ===The Indonesian National Armed Forces Reserve Component (''Komponen Cadangan TNI'', abbreviated into KOMCAD) is the military reserve force element of the Indonesian National Armed Forces.On January 12, 2021, President Joko Widodo, as Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces, issued ''Government Regulation Number 3 of 2021 implementing Law 23 on the Management of National Resources for Defense of the Nation'' which established the Reserve as a directly reporting unit under the General Headquarters, in order to supplement the ''Principal Component'', i.e.", "the Armed Forces and the National Police.Under the regulation, the Reserve officially consists of army, naval, and air reserve forces.", "Membership in the reserve is voluntary for all citizens, even for members of the civil service." ], [ "Budget", " Fiscal Year Budget (IDR) Budget (USD) 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 201920202020 (Budget cuts)202120222023 (Originally)2023 (Proposed)2023 (Planned)2024 (Proposed)2024''the 2020 budget was changed due to COVID-19 outbreak, while the budget for the Ministry of Health, and Ministry of Education and Culture has been increased.''" ], [ "Commander" ], [ "Uniforms", "Indonesian navy officer dressed (Colonel from sailor corps) in service uniform (PDH).The Indonesian National Armed Forces have three types of uniforms worn by its personnel, which are general service uniforms, specialized service uniforms and branch-specific uniforms.General service uniforms have three subtypes of uniform, which are dress uniform (/PDU), service uniform (/PDH) and field Uniform (/PDL).", "Each uniform subtypes also consists of several categories, which are: Dress Uniform (PDU) Service Uniform (PDH) Field Uniform (PDL) PDU I – (Service medals and brevets attached) PDH I – (with military beret or side cap) PDL I PDU IA – (Order decorations attached and honorary sash worn over for those who are entitled to wear it) PDH II – (with cap) PDL II PDU II – (Mess dress uniform) PDH III – (with blue beret) PDL IIA PDU IIA – (Mess dress uniform with order decorations attached) PDL III PDU III – (Service ribbons attached) PDL IV PDU IV – (Short sleeved, with no necktie worn) Each branches of the national armed forces have different color in their general service uniforms.", "* Dress uniform (/PDU) Army: Dark green coat, Dark green trousers Navy: White suit.", "** Air Force: Dark blue coat, Dark blue trousers.", "* Service uniform (/PDH) Army: green shirt, with dark green trousers Navy: greyish blue shirt, with dark greyish trousers.", "For international event/duty, the navy personnel will wear white shirt with white trousers.", "** Air Force: light blue shirt, dark blue trousers* Field uniform (/PDL)** All branches: DPM camouflage, sometimes called as \"\".Specialized service uniform consists of:# Pregnant-women service uniform (''PDSH'')# Standard-bearer service uniform (''Gampokbang'')# Military parade service uniform (''PDP'')# State visit service uniform (''Gamprot'')# Provost service uniform (''Gamprov'')# Military police service uniform (''Gam Pom'')# Military band service uniform (Gamsik)# Presidential security force service uniform (''Gam Paspampres'')# Desert field uniformBranch-specific uniforms consists of: Army Navy Air Force NKRI field uniform \"Sailing\" field uniform Swa Bhuwana Paksa field uniform Kostrad field uniform Marines field uniform Air crew uniform (includes flight suit, pilot uniform and flight attendant uniform) Raider field uniform Kopaska field uniform Kopasgat field uniform Kopassus field uniform Service dress white uniform Service dress black uniform On 2 March 2022, the Army unveiled their field uniform with new camo pattern, called as \"\" (Army camo pattern), that is specific only to the Army.", "This camo is a variant of Multicam based on US Army OCP with local DPM color palette.", "A Desert/Arid variant intended to replace the older local Desert DPM Variant are also Present." ], [ "Personnel", "The Indonesian armed forces are voluntary.", "The active military strength is 395,500 with 400,000 reserves with available manpower fit for military service of males aged between 16 and 49 is 75,000,000, with a further 4,500,000 new suitable for service annually.The Indonesian soldier marching with goose step on a parade.=== Rank structures ===In the Indonesian Army, Navy (including Marine Corps), Air Force, and the Police Force, the rank consists of officer (), NCO () and enlisted ().", "The rank titles of the Marine Corps are the same as those of the Army, but it still uses the Navy's style insignia (for junior ratings and Marine Corps enlisted personnel, blue replaces the red colour stripe in all orders of uniform dress).=== Sevenfold Way or Seven Fundamental Commitments (''Sapta Marga'') ===The Sevenfold Way is a pledge of loyalty and fidelity of the military personnel to the government and people of Indonesia and to the principles of nationhood.", "Original Indonesian English1.We, solemn citizens of the Republic of Indonesia, truthfully believe in Pancasila.2..We, patriots of Indonesia, are the forthright supporter and defender of the nation's ideology and shall admit to refuse surrender.3..We, humble guardians of Indonesia, who believe in the One True God, are ever-committed to uphold honesty, truth and justice.4.We, (the servicemen and women) of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, hereby (swear the oath to forever) serve as the champion of the Indonesian nation and its people.5.We, (the servicemen and women) of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, strive to uphold military discipline, loyalty to the chain of command and promote the honor and conduct of becoming (military) service personnel.6.We, (the servicemen and women) of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, will ever exemplify the values of honor in carrying out our duties, and readily answer to the call of the nation at any time of need.7.And we, (the servicemen and women) of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, will be faithful, loyal and true to our Oath of Duty (Enlistment/Commissioning).=== Soldier's Oath (''Sumpah Prajurit'') ===The Soldier's Oath is a statement of determination expressed since the inception of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, and has become a value system for Indonesian National Armed Forces soldiers that is still upheld and preserved.", "The Soldier's Oath as an oath, is uttered during the inauguration ceremony for each student soldier to become a soldier of the Indonesian National Armed Forces.", "Original IndonesianEnglishIn the Name of God, I swear/promise :1.That I will be loyal to the Unitary Republic of Indonesia, guided by Pancasila and the 1945 Constitution.2.That I will abide by the Law and uphold Military discipline.3.That I will adhere to my superiors by not contradicting orders or decisions.4.That I will carry out all obligations with full sense of responsibility to the armed forces and the Republic of Indonesia.5.And that I will hold all military secrets to the fullest of my ability, and defend them." ], [ "See also", "* Foreign relations of Indonesia* March of the Indonesian National Armed Forces* List of aircraft of the Indonesian National Armed Forces* Indonesian Maritime Security Agency* Indonesian Sea and Coast Guard" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "Bresnan, John.", "(1993).", "''Managing Indonesia: the modern political economy''.", "New York: Columbia University Press.", "Many topics, including the political role of the military at the height of Suharto's New Order.", "Chandra, Siddharth and Douglas Kammen.", "(2002).", "\"Generating Reforms and Reforming Generations: Military Politics in Indonesia's Transition to Democracy.\"", "''World Politics'', Vol.", "55, No.", "1.", "Crouch, Harold.", "(1988).", "''The army and politics in Indonesia''.", "Ithaca:Cornell University Press.", "First published 1978.Now somewhat dated, but provides an influential overview of the role of the military in consolidating Suharto's power \"Guerilla Warfare and the Indonesian Strategic Psyche\" Small Wars Journal article by Emmet McElhatton Israel, Fauzi.", "(2009) – Advanced Weapon's Infantry Firepower & AccuracyKammen, Douglas and Siddharth Chandra.", "(1999).", "''A Tour of Duty: Changing Patterns of Military Politics in Indonesia in the 1990s.''", "Ithaca, New York: Cornell Modern Indonesia Project No.", "75.", "* Kingsbury, Damen.", "''Power Politics and the Indonesian Military'', Routledge: 2003 Power Politics and the Indonesian Military" ], [ "External links", "* Official Website of TNI* Official Website of the Department of Defence* Civil-Military Relations in Post-Suharto Indonesia and the Implications for Democracy Today: A Preliminary Analysis* Indonesia's Army (TNI-AD)* Indonesia's Navy (TNI-AL)* Indonesia's Air Force (TNI-AU)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Foreign relations of Indonesia" ], [ "Introduction", "President of Indonesia Joko Widodo and Prime Minister of Malaysia Mahathir Mohamad in Putrajaya, 9 August 2019Since independence, Indonesian foreign relations have adhered to a \"free and active\" foreign policy, seeking to play a role in regional affairs commensurate with its size and location but avoiding involvement in conflicts among major powers.", "During the presidency of Sukarno, Indonesia's foreign relations were marked by engagement with other newly independent nations in Asia and Africa, as exemplified by the Bandung Conference, the subsequent foundation of the Non-Aligned Movement and a confrontational attitude towards Western powers, justified by a belief in the CONEFO and opposition to what Sukarno termed as NEKOLIM (Neocolonialism and Imperialism).After a US-backed ouster of Sukarno and left-wing elements in 1965, Indonesian foreign policy underwent a major shift under the \"New Order\" government, as President Suharto moved away from the stridently anti-Western, anti-American posturing that characterised the latter part of the Sukarno era.", "Following Suharto's ouster in 1998, Indonesia's government has preserved the broad outlines of Suharto's independent, moderate foreign policy.", "Preoccupation with domestic problems has not prevented successive presidents from travelling abroad.Indonesia's relations with the international community were strained as a result of its invasion of neighbouring East Timor in December 1975, the subsequent annexation and occupation, the independence referendum in 1999, and the resulting violence afterwards.", "As one of the founding members of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), established in 1967, and also as the largest country in Southeast Asia, Indonesia has put ASEAN as the cornerstone of its foreign policy and outlook.", "After the transformation from Suharto's regime to a relatively open and democratic country in the 21st century, Indonesia today exercises its influence to promote co-operation, development, democracy, security, peace and stability in the region through its leadership in ASEAN.", "Currently, Israel is the only UN member state that does not have formal diplomatic relations with Indonesia, although they maintain informal relations.Indonesia managed to play a role as a peacemaker in the Cambodia–Thailand conflict over the Preah Vihear temple.", "Indonesia and other ASEAN member countries collectively have also played a role in encouraging the government of Myanmar to open up its political system and introduce other reforms more quickly.Given its geographic and demographic size, rising capabilities and diplomatic initiatives, scholars have classified Indonesia as one of Asia-Pacific's middle powers." ], [ "Historical issues", "The foreign policy of Indonesia has evolved over time and has been shaped by various factors such as its historical context, geographic location, national interests, and leadership.", "Here is an overview of the historical context of Indonesia's foreign policy:* Founding Principles: Indonesia's foreign policy is rooted in the country's founding principles of Pancasila, which emphasizes peaceful coexistence, mutual respect, and non-interference in the domestic affairs of other countries.", "* Western New Guinea.", "The western part of New Guinea was under Dutch colonial rule and known as \"West Irian.\"", "When Indonesia gained independence from the Netherlands in 1945, the Dutch retained control over West Irian, but Indonesia claimed it.", "The United Nations supervised the transfer of West Irian to Indonesia in 1963.The region officially became a part of Indonesia in 1969 through a UN-sanctioned referendum known as the Act of Free Choice.", "* Non-Aligned Movement: After gaining independence from Dutch colonial rule in 1945, Indonesia played a prominent role in the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).", "The NAM was a group of countries that chose not to align with any major power bloc during the Cold War, advocating for a neutral stance and promoting cooperation among developing nations.", "* Regional Leadership: Indonesia has sought to establish itself as a leader in the Southeast Asian region.", "It was one of the founding members of the ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) in 1967 and has been actively involved in regional initiatives to promote peace, stability, and economic integration in Southeast Asia.", "* \"Free and Active\" Foreign Policy: In the 1950s and 1960s, under the leadership of President Sukarno, Indonesia pursued a \"free and active\" foreign policy.", "This policy aimed at asserting Indonesia's independence and taking an active role in global affairs by participating in international organizations, supporting decolonization movements, and advocating for the rights of developing nations.", "* Post-Suharto Era: Following the resignation of President Suharto in 1998, Indonesia experienced political and economic reforms.", "This period saw a shift in foreign policy priorities, focusing more on economic development, regional cooperation, and democracy promotion.", "Indonesia also embraced a more pragmatic approach in its foreign relations.", "* East Timor: In 1975, shortly after East Timor declared independence from Portuguese colonial rule, Indonesia invaded and occupied the territory.", "The occupation lasted for 24 years and was marked by widespread human rights abuses, violence, and resistance from the East Timorese people.", "The international community largely condemned the occupation.", "Various human rights organizations and activists put pressure on Indonesia to leave.", "In 1999, Indonesia agreed to hold a UN-sponsored referendum to determine its political status.", "The majority of the East Timorese people voted for independence, leading to widespread violence and destruction orchestrated by pro-Indonesia militias.", "International peacekeeping forces, led by Australia, restored order.", "East Timor finally achieved independence in 2002.", "* Territorial Integrity: Indonesia places great importance on its territorial integrity and has been firm in its stance against any threats to its sovereignty.", "It has been involved in various territorial disputes, including those in the South China Sea, and has sought to resolve them through peaceful means, including diplomatic negotiations.", "* Counterterrorism and Maritime Security: Indonesia has actively cooperated with regional and international partners in combating terrorism and ensuring maritime security.", "It has been affected by terrorist attacks in the past and has taken steps to enhance intelligence-sharing, border control, and counterterrorism efforts.", "* Economic Diplomacy: With the world's fourth-largest population and a growing economy, Indonesia has focused on economic diplomacy to attract foreign investment, promote trade relations, and strengthen economic ties with other countries.", "It has pursued partnerships with both developed and developing nations to foster economic growth and development.", "* Climate Change and Environmental Issues: As a country highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, Indonesia has been actively engaged in international efforts to address environmental issues.", "It has been a vocal advocate for sustainable development, forest conservation, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.", "* Global and Regional Multilateralism: Indonesia actively participates in various multilateral organizations, including the United Nations (UN), the World Trade Organization (WTO), and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC).", "It has sought to contribute to global peace, security, and development by engaging in multilateral dialogues and fostering regional cooperation." ], [ "Significant international memberships", "=== Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) ===A cornerstone of Indonesia's contemporary foreign policy is its participation in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), of which it was a founding member in 1967 with Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines.", "Since then, Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia also have joined ASEAN.", "While organised to promote shared economic, social, and cultural goals, ASEAN acquired a security dimension after Vietnam's liberation of Cambodia in 1979; this aspect of ASEAN expanded with the establishment of the ASEAN Regional Forum in 1994, which comprises 22 countries, including the US.Indonesian national capital Jakarta is also the seat of ASEAN Secretariat, located at Jalan Sisingamangaraja No.", "70A, Kebayoran Baru, South Jakarta.", "Other than serving their diplomatic missions for Indonesia, numbers of foreign embassies and diplomatic mission in Jakarta are also accredited to ASEAN.", "ASEAN Headquarter has led to the prominence of Jakarta as a diplomatic hub in Southeast Asia.In the late 1990s to early 2000s, Indonesia's continued domestic troubles have distracted it from ASEAN matters and consequently lessened its influence within the organisation.", "However, after the political and economic transformation, from the turmoil of 1998 ''Reformasi'' to the relatively open and democratic civil society with rapid economic growth in the 2010s, Indonesia returned to the region's diplomatic stage by assuming its leadership role in ASEAN in 2011.Indonesia is viewed to have weight, international legitimacy and global appeal to draw support and attention from around the world to ASEAN.", "Indonesia believes that ASEAN can contribute positively to the international community, by promoting economic development and co-operation, improving security, peace, the stability of ASEAN, and making the Southeast Asia region far from conflicts.Indonesia's bilateral relations with three neighbouring ASEAN members—Malaysia, Singapore, and Vietnam—are not without challenges.", "If not appropriately managed, it would result in mutual mistrust and suspicion, thus hindering bilateral and regional co-operation.", "In the era of rising Indonesia, which might assert its leadership role within ASEAN, the problem could become more significant.", "Nevertheless, the rise of Indonesia should be regarded in the sense of optimism.", "First, although Indonesia is likely to become assertive, the general tone of its foreign policy is mainly liberal and accommodating.", "The consolidation of the Indonesian democratic government played a key role and influence in ASEAN.", "The second, institutional web of ASEAN will sustain engagements and regular meetings between regional elites, thus deepening their mutual understanding and personal connections.=== Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) ===Indonesia also was one of the founders of NAM and has taken moderate positions in its councils.", "As NAM Chairman in 1992–95, it led NAM positions away from the rhetoric of North-South confrontation, advocating the broadening of North-South co-operation instead in the area of development.", "Indonesia continues to be a prominent, and generally helpful, leader of the Non-Aligned Movement.=== Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) ===Indonesia has the world's largest Muslim population and is a member of OIC.", "It carefully considers the interests of Islamic solidarity in its foreign policy decisions but generally has been an influence for moderation in the OIC.=== Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) ===Indonesia has been a strong supporter of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum.", "Mainly through the efforts of President Suharto at the 1994 meeting in Indonesia, APEC members agreed to implement free trade in the region by 2010 for industrialised economies and 2020 for developing economies.", "As the largest economy in Southeast Asia, Indonesia also belongs to other economic groupings such as G20 and Developing 8 Countries (D-8).=== G20 major economies ===In 2008, Indonesia was admitted as a member of the G20, as the only ASEAN member state in the group.", "Through its membership in the global economic powerhouse that accounted of 85% of the global economy, Indonesia is keen to position itself as a mouthpiece for ASEAN countries, and as a representative of the developing world within the G20.Bali, Indonesia had played host to the 2022 G20 Summit.=== IGGI and CGI ===After 1966, Indonesia welcomed and maintained close relations with the international donor community, particularly the United States, western Europe, Australia, and Japan, through the meetings of the '''Inter-Governmental Group on Indonesia (IGGI)''' and its successor, the '''Consultative Group on Indonesia''' (CGI), which coordinated substantial foreign economic assistance.", "Problems in Timor and Indonesia's reluctance to implement economic reform at times complicated Indonesia's relationship with donors.", "In 1992 the IGGI aid coordination group ceased to meet and the coordination activities were transferred to meetings arranged by the World Bank through the CGI.", "The CGI, in turn, ceased activities in 2007 when the Indonesian government suggested that an internationally organised aid coordination program was no longer needed." ], [ "International disputes", "Indonesia has numerous outlying and remote islands, some of which are inhabited by numerous pirate groups that regularly attack ships in the Strait of Malacca in the north, and illegal fishing crews known for penetrating Australian and Filipino waters.", "While Indonesian waters itself is the target of many illegal fishing activities by numerous foreign vessels.Indonesia has some present and historic territorial disputes with neighboring nations, such as:* Ambalat Block in dispute with Malaysia (ongoing, overlapping EEZ line drawn by both countries)* Ashmore and Cartier Islands in dispute with Australia (ongoing, the islands known by Indonesians as ''Pulau Pasir'')* Fatu Sinai Island (Pulau Batek) formerly disputed with East Timor (settled, East Timor ceded the island to Indonesia in August 2004)* Miangas (Las Palmas) formerly disputed with Philippine Islands (settled, part of Indonesia's territory as of ''Island of Palmas Case'')* Northern waters off Natuna Islands in dispute with China and Taiwan (ongoing; overlapping with Chinese nine-dash line claim)* Sipadan and Ligitan Islands formerly disputed with Malaysia (settled, part of Malaysia's territory per International Court of Justice's decision in 2002)" ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Indonesia maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate1234567891011121314151617181920—21222324252627282930313233343536373839404142434445464748495051525354555657585960616263646566676869707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118—119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156157158159160161162163164165166167168169170171172173174175176177178179180181182183184185186187188189——190191" ], [ "Bilateral relations", "===ASEAN=== Country Formal relations beganNotes1 January 1984See Brunei–Indonesia relationsThe Republic of Indonesia established diplomatic relations with Brunei Darussalam on 1 January 1984.Brunei Darussalam was recognised by Indonesia in 1984.", "Although they do not share a direct land border, Indonesia and Brunei share the island of Borneo.", "Overall relations between the two countries were progressing well and that both sides continued to enjoy strong ties in a wide spectrum of co-operations; including trade and investment, tourism, agriculture, marine and fisheries, health, defence, transnational crimes, education, youth, culture and people-to-people contacts.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Bandar Seri Begawan, while Brunei has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Both countries also members of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, Non-Aligned Movement, Group of 77, Asia Cooperation Dialogue and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.13 February 1959See Cambodia–Indonesia relationsThe relationship between ancient Indonesia and Cambodia dated back from the kingdom of Chenla and Javan Sailendra also Srivijaya; it was mentioned that king Jayavarman II had resided for some times in Java during the reign of Sailendras, and in 802 declare sovereignty of Cambodia from Java and proclaimed himself as universal monarch thus started the Angkor period.", "During the Sukarno reign in the 1960s, the president of Indonesia has visited Cambodia and vice versa prince Norodom Sihanouk also visited Indonesia.", "In 1992, Indonesia is among the countries that provides troops for United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia.", "Indonesia also supported Cambodia membership to ASEAN in 1999.Indonesia also among the countries that provide aid to Angkor restoration project, especially the three main gates of Angkor Royal Palace archaeological site near Phimeanakas site.", "Indonesia is also appointed as observer in Cambodian–Thai border dispute.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Phnom Penh, while Cambodia has an embassy in Jakarta.30 August 1957See Indonesia–Laos relationsSince established diplomatic relations in 1957, both countries enjoy cordial relations.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Vientiane, while Laos has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Indonesia supported and welcomed Laotian membership to ASEAN in 1997.Laos and Indonesia agreed to enhance relations to focus on exploring the potential of both countries to co-operate on trade and investment.", "The two countries expressed a desire to reach further agreements relating to security, tourism, sport, air transport and education.", "Indonesia through bilateral co-operation assist Laos on capacity building and development in various sectors, through scholarships and trainings for Laotian students.31 August 1957, severed diplomatic relations 15 September 1963, restored 31 August 1967See Indonesia–Malaysia relationsDespite fighting each other during the Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation, Indonesia and Malaysia enjoy friendly relations.", "The populations of both countries have cordial relations and trade between the two countries has greatly increased over the years.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur and consulates general in Johor Bahru, George Town, Kota Kinabalu and Kuching.", "Malaysia has an embassy in Jakarta, a consulate general in Medan and consulates in Pekanbaru and Pontianak.", "Indonesia and Malaysia has the same ethnic population that belongs to the Austronesian group and sharing the same language although minor differences in vocabulary.", "Both countries also members of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, Non-Aligned Movement, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, Cairns Group and Indian-Ocean Rim Association.", "Relations were deteriorated under President Sukarno, whose opposition to the formation of Malaysia led to a confrontation between the two countries.", "However, relations were restored following a government transition in Indonesia.", "Currently, both countries are in a territorial dispute over the oil rich islands of Ambalat.", "Previously, they were over territorial disputes over the islands of Ligitan and Sipadan, which were won by Malaysia.", "The Indonesian migrant workers (Indonesian: TKI/Tenaga Kerja Indonesia) have become the important issue between both countries.", "The problems concerning migrant workers such as illegal immigration, crime, human trafficking, abuse, poor treatment and extortion upon migrant workers.", "Since 2009 Indonesia has temporarily stop sending domestic workers to Malaysia until both countries agree on ways to protect them.", "Indonesia resumed sending migrant workers to Malaysia in May 2011 as both countries signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) about worker protection by the end of April 2011.27 December 1949See Indonesia–Myanmar relationsBoth Indonesia and Myanmar are promoting the two countries' trade volume.", "The trade volume is estimated to reach up to $1 billion in 2016.", "Indonesia has offered to purchase 300,000 tons of rice from Myanmar, with prospects of buying more in the future.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Yangon, while Myanmar has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Indonesia supports Myanmar's democratisation process.24 November 1949See Indonesia–Philippines relationsIndonesia and the Philippines are both archipelagic countries dominated by an ethnic population that belongs to the Austronesian group.", "Both countries established their bilateral and diplomatic relations in 1949.The Indonesian Government has opened its consular office in Manila but it was not until the mid-1950s that an embassy was established headed by an ambassador.", "Indonesia also has a consulate general in Davao City.", "The Philippines has an embassy in Jakarta and a consulate general in Manado.", "A treaty of friendship was signed in 1951.This Treaty constituted the basic relationship of both countries, covering several aspects such as maintenance of peace and friendship, settlement of disputes by diplomatic and peaceful means, traffic arrangements for citizens of both countries and activities to promote co-operation in the area of trade and cultural, which include the political, social-economic and security matters of both countries.", "Both countries are also members of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, Non-Aligned Movement, Cairns Group, G20 developing nations and the East ASEAN Growth Triangle together with Brunei and Malaysia.", "Both countries peacefully settled their maritime borders after 20 years of diplomatic talks.", "Both countries have high cooperation in fields of economy, tourism, culture, and defense.7 September 1967See Indonesia–Singapore relationsIn August 2005, Singapore and Indonesia signed a memorandum of understanding to expand aviation rights between the two countries.", "On 3 October 2005, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong met Indonesian President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono in Bali, just two days after the Bali bombings.", "They agreed to strengthen the fight against terrorism and also discussed co-operation in the fields of economy, trade and investment.", "Relations with Indonesia are generally good, though current outstanding issues include the bans on the export of sand, and granite; both of which Singapore's construction industry is reliant on.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Singapore.", "Singapore has an embassy in Jakarta and consulates general in Batam and Medan.", "Both countries are also members of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, Non-Aligned Movement, Indian-Ocean Rim Association, Group of 77 and Asia Cooperation Dialogue.7 March 1950See Indonesia–Thailand relationsIndonesia and Thailand are viewed as natural allies.", "Indonesia is Thailand's third most important trade partner within ASEAN, with bilateral trade worth $8.7 billion in 2007.Trade between the two countries is set to grow over the years.", "Following the military takeover of the government in Thailand in May 2014, Indonesia supports the restoration of democracy in Thailand.", "Indonesia urged the military and civilian elements in Thailand to work together to quickly restore the political situation in Thailand.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Bangkok and a consulate in Songkhla.", "Thailand has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Both countries are also members of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, Non-Aligned Movement, Cairns Group, Indian-Ocean Rim Association and G20 developing nations.30 December 1955See Indonesia–Vietnam relationsFormal relations started in 1955 for the consulate general level.", "Soedibjo Wirjowerdojo (former chargé d'affaires of Indonesian Embassy in Peking, China from year of 1953–1955) was appointed to be The First Indonesian Consul General to Vietnam, and located in Hanoi.", "Both countries are also members of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, Non-Aligned Movement, Cairns Group, Group of 77 and CIVETS.", "President Megawati Sukarnoputri of Indonesia visited Vietnam in June 2003.At this time the two countries signed a \"Declaration on the Framework of Friendly and Comprehensive Cooperation Entering the 21st Century\".", "In May 2005 President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono of Indonesia visited Vietnam.", "In the December of the same year festivities were organized in the respective capital cities to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic ties.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Hanoi and a consulate general in Ho Chi Minh City.", "Vietnam has an embassy in Jakarta.=== Africa === Country Formal Relations BeganNotes1963See Algeria–Indonesia relations The relationship between two countries is mostly founded on common religious and anti-colonialism solidarity, as Indonesia and Algeria are Muslim-majority countries that also once fell under colonialism.", "* Algeria recognised Indonesia's role on supporting their country on gaining independence in 1962.", "* Both countries agreed on expanding co-operations and strengthening relations.", "* Algeria has an embassy in Jakarta that also accredited to Singapore and Brunei Darussalam, while Indonesia has an embassy in Algiers.", "* Both countries are members of the NAM, Group of 77 and OIC.7 August 2001See Angola–Indonesia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 7 August 2001.", "Indonesia supported Angola's fight against apartheid South Africa and its territorial integrity against separatist movements.", "Angola supported Indonesia's sovereignty over East Timor and its territorial claims in the South China Sea.", "Indonesia is accredited to Angola from its embassy in Windhoek, Namibia.", "Angola established an embassy in Jakarta on August 2023.28 March 2012Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 March 2012Botswana is represented in Indonesia by its embassy in Canberra, Australia.", "Indonesia is represented in Botswana by its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa.16 June 1992Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 June 1992Indonesia has an embassy in Yaoundé.", "Both nations are members of the Group of 77 and the Non-Aligned Movement.1947See Egypt–Indonesia relations* The Egyptian Ministry of Foreign Affairs officially acknowledged the Jam'iyya Istiqlâl Indonesia on March 22, 1946, as the representative of the self-claimed Indonesian Republican government.", "* The Prime Minister of Egypt and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Indonesia signed the Treaty of Friendship and Cordiality between the two countries on 10 June 1947, beginning both diplomatic relationships.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Cairo and Egypt has an embassy in Jakarta since February 25, 1950.", "* Gamel Abdel Nasser of Egypt and Sukarno of Indonesia were two of the five founding members of the Non-Aligned Movement.", "* Both countries are members of the OIC, the Non-Aligned Movement, and the G20 developing nations.1961See Ethiopia–Indonesia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations in 1961, followed by the opening of Indonesian embassy in Addis Ababa in 1964.", "Ethiopia has an embassy in Jakarta.1979See Indonesia–Kenya relations* Indonesia has an embassy in Nairobi, also accredited to Mauritius, Seychelles, and Uganda, while Kenya established an embassy in Jakarta in 2022.", "* Both countries are partners in multilateral organisations, such as the WTO, IORA and NAM.1965See Indonesia–Liberia relationsThe diplomatic relations was officially established in 1965, however it was not until 2013 that both leaders of each countries visited each other's to further the co-operations.17 October 1991See Indonesia–Libya relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 17 October 1991Indonesia has an embassy in Tripoli and Libya has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Both countries are members of the OIC and the Non-Aligned Movement.13 December 1974See Indonesia–Madagascar relations The ancestors of Madagascar people came from Indonesia, sailed across Indian Ocean, back in early 8th to 9th century CE.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Antananarivo, while Madagascar has not established an embassy in Jakarta yet.", "* Malagasy language and Indonesian language shared similar words, such as hand: ''ˈtananə'' (Malagasy), ''tangan'' (Indonesian); skin: ''ˈhulitse'' (Malagasy), ''kulit'' (Indonesian); white: ''ˈfuti'' (Malagasy), ''putih'' (Indonesian).27 September 2011Mauritania has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Indonesia is represented in Mauritania by its embassy in Rabat, Morocco.", "Both countries are full members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.1960See Indonesia–Morocco relations Indonesia and Morocco shared similarity as Muslim-majority countries.", "* Morocco praised Indonesia as a strong democratic nation, and pointed that both countries facing the same challenges of separatism and terrorism.", "* Diplomatic relations were established in 1960.Indonesia has an embassy in Rabat and a consulate in Casablanca, while Morocco has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* both countries are members of the WTO, NAM and OIC.4 October 1991See Indonesia–Mozambique relations* Indonesia has an embassy in Maputo, also accredited to Malawi.", "Mozambique maintains an embassy in Jakarta, which also serves Malaysia, East Timor, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand.", "* The two countries have signed a preferential trade agreement in 2019.1991See Indonesia–Namibia relations* Indonesia has an embassy in Windhoek.", "* Namibia is accredited to Indonesia from its high commission in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.5 March 1965See Indonesia–Nigeria relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 5 March 1965* Indonesia has an embassy in Abuja and Nigeria has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Both countries are members of the OIC, the Non-Aligned Movement, the G20 developing nations, and the Next Eleven.16 January 1984Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 January 1984Rwanda has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Indonesia has a non-resident embassy in Dar es Salaam.3 October 1980See Indonesia–Senegal relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 3 October 1980.", "Indonesia recognizes Senegal's potential as its entrance to penetrate the West African market.", "Indonesia has opened an embassy in Dakar since 1982.", "Senegalese embassy in Kuala Lumpur is accredited to Indonesia.", "Both countries are members of the OIC and the Non-Aligned Movement.12 August 1994See Indonesia–South Africa relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 12 August 1994Indonesia has an embassy in Pretoria and South Africa has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Both countries are members of the G-20 major economies, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Indian Ocean Rim Association and the G20 developing nations.1960See Indonesia-Sudan relationsDuring a visit by Sudanese Foreign Minister Ali Karti to Jakarta in February 2012, both countries have agreed to foster bilateral relations in politics, science, education and economic sectors.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Khartoum.", "Sudan has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Both countries have Muslim-majority population and both are members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Non-Aligned Movement.20 September 2022See Indonesia-South Sudan relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 20 September 2022* Indonesia recognized South Sudan on 12 July 2011.25 January 1964See Indonesia–Tanzania relations* The relations between Indonesia and Tanzania are mostly in agriculture sector, where Indonesia provides training for Tanzanian farmers.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Dar es Salaam, while Tanzania has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Both countries are members of multilateral organisations such as World Trade Organization (WTO), the Group of 77 and Non-Aligned Movement.1960See Indonesia–Tunisia relations* Tunisia and Indonesia are partners in capacity building and partnership for democracy.", "* Indonesia hails Tunisia as a shining example of democratic transition in Arab world.", "* The diplomatic relations dated back to the 1950s when Indonesia supports Tunisian independence from France.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Tunis, while Tunisia has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Both countries are the member of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Non-Aligned Movement.14 August 1986See Indonesia–Zimbabwe relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 14 August 1986The two nations signed a memorandum of understanding on the establishment of a joint commission on trade and investment in May 2011.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Harare.", "Zimbabwe has an embassy in Jakarta.=== Americas === Country Formal Relations BeganNotes30 July 1956See Argentina–Indonesia relations* Since the diplomatic relations established in 1956, the bilateral relations between Argentina and Indonesia were becoming increasingly more strategic.", "* Indonesia supports Argentina on the Malvinas issue.", "* Argentina has an embassy in Jakarta, while Indonesia has an embassy in Buenos Aires.", "* Both countries are members of Group of 77, the G-20 major economies, the G20 developing nations, and Forum of East Asia-Latin America Cooperation.", "* Indonesia is the second-largest destination for Argentine exports to Asia after China, and the largest one in Southeast Asia.", "While Argentina is South America's second-largest importer of Indonesian products after Brazil.March 1950See Brazil–Indonesia relations* Brazil and Indonesia possess the largest tropical rainforest of the world that contains the world's richest biodiversity, which gave them a vital role in global environment issues, such as ensuring tropical forests protection.", "* Both countries leading the list of megadiverse countries with Indonesia second only to Brazil.", "* Brazil expects to expand its co-operation with Indonesia in many areas, including agriculture and high-technology industry.", "* Both countries are members of World Trade Organization (WTO), Forum of East Asia-Latin America Cooperation and the G-20 major economies.", "* By the first quarter of the 21st century, both countries are expected to emerge as the rising global power.3 March 1953See Canada–Indonesia relations* Canada has an embassy in Jakarta (World Trade Centre I).", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Ottawa (55 Parkdale Avenue) and consulates-general in Toronto (129 Jarvis Street) and Vancouver (1630 Alberni Street).", "* Both countries are full members of the G-20 major economies, of the Cairns Group and of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation.29 September 1965See Chile–Indonesia relations* Chile has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Santiago.15 September 1980See Colombia–Indonesia relations* Colombia has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Bogotá.", "* Both countries are members of CIVETS, the Cairns Group and the Forum of East Asia-Latin America Cooperation.1960See Cuba–Indonesia relations* During the administration Sukarno in the 1960s, Indonesia and Cuba enjoyed exceptionally close relationship.", "* The relations between two countries mostly focused on sports and health.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Jakarta, while Indonesia has an embassy in Havana that also accredited to the Commonwealth of the Bahamas, the Dominican Republic, Haiti and Jamaica.", "* Indonesia supports Cuba in the Guantanamo Bay issue.", "* both countries are full members of Group of 77, NAM and FEALAC.29 April 1980See Ecuador-Indonesia relationsEcuador has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Indonesia opened an embassy in Quito on November 11, 2010.", "Both countries are members of the Forum of East Asia-Latin America Cooperation and the Non-Aligned Movement.1953See Indonesia–Mexico relationsDiplomatic relations between both nations were officially established in 1953.", " Indonesia has an embassy in Mexico City.", "* Mexico has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Both countries sees their counterpart as their strategic partners in each regions.", "* Both countries are partners in multilateral organizations such as the WTO, FEALAC, APEC and G-20.27 March 1979See Indonesia-Panama relationsIndonesia sees strategic and geographic importance of Panama as their gate to Central America as well as to reach the Caribbean region, while Panama has also recognized the strategic importance of Indonesia in ASEAN.", "Panama has an embassy in JakartaIndonesia has an embassy in Panama City.", "Both countries are members of the Forum of East Asia-Latin America Cooperation.12 August 1975See Indonesia–Peru relationsBoth nations see each other as attractive markets with good prospects and potentials, and seek to boost trade relations.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Lima.", "Peru has an embassy in Jakarta.24 January 1976See Indonesia–Suriname relations Indonesia and Suriname have a special relationship, based upon shared common history as former colonies of the Dutch Empire.", "* Large numbers of Javanese migrated to Suriname to work on plantations during the late 19th and early 20th-centuries.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Paramaribo.", "* Suriname has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Both countries committed to expand and improve their relations covering trade, agriculture and cultural sectors.", "* Indonesia and Suriname are partners in multilateral organisations such as the WTO and FEALAC.1949See Indonesia–United States relationsThe United States has important economic, commercial, and security interests in Indonesia.", "It remains a lynchpin of regional security due to its strategic location astride a number of key international maritime straits, particularly the Malacca Strait.", "Relations between Indonesia and the US are positive and have advanced since the election of President Yudhoyono in October 2004.The US played a role in Indonesian independence in the late 1940s and appreciated Indonesia's role as an anti-communist bulwark during the Cold War.", "Cooperative relations are maintained today, although no formal security treaties bind the two countries.", "The United States and Indonesia share the common goal of maintaining peace, security, and stability in the region and engaging in a dialogue on threats to regional security.", "Cooperation between the US and Indonesia on counter-terrorism has increased steadily since 2002, as terrorist attacks in Bali (October 2002 and October 2005), Jakarta (August 2003 and September 2004) and other regional locations demonstrated the presence of terrorist organisations, principally Jemaah Islamiyah, in Indonesia.", "The United States has welcomed Indonesia's contributions to regional security, especially its leading role in helping restore democracy in Cambodia and in mediating territorial disputes in the South China Sea.9 October 1959See Indonesia–Venezuela relations* Since the diplomatic relations established in 1959, Indonesia and Venezuela enjoy friendly ties.", "* Indonesia supports Venezuela on the Guayana Esequiba issue.", "* both countries agreed to expand the trade and investment relations, especially in tourism, technology, chemicals and natural gas sectors.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Caracas, while Venezuela has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Indonesia and Venezuela are partners in multilateral organisations such as the WTO, NAM and FEALAC.=== Asia === Country Formal Relations BeganNotes20 May 1950See Afghanistan–Indonesia relationsAfghanistan has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Indonesia reopened its embassy in Kabul on 14 February 2022.Despite the embassy reopening, the Indonesian government remained not acknowledging the Taliban government.", "In January 2018, Indonesian president Joko Widodo visited Afghanistan.23 June 1984See Bahrain–Indonesia relationsBahrain sees Indonesia as an important market in ASEAN, while Indonesia sees Bahrain as one of the gates to enter Gulf Cooperation Council nations.", "Bahrain has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Manama.1 May 1972See Bangladesh–Indonesia relations* Indonesia is a country with the world largest Muslim population, whereas Bangladesh is the fourth largest Muslim country.", "Indonesia and Bangladesh are partners in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, Indian-Ocean Rim Association and the Developing 8 Countries.", "Bangladesh has an embassy in Jakarta, whereas Indonesia has an embassy in Dhaka.", "Since the official bilateral relations were established in 1972, both countries enjoy cordial and friendly relations.13 April 1950See China–Indonesia relationsCountries which signed cooperation documents related to the Belt and Road InitiativeChina and Indonesia established diplomatic relations on 13 April 1950, which was suspended on 30 October 1967 due to the occurrence of the 30 September event of 1965.Indonesia also supports China on the Diaoyu (Senkaku) issue.", "The bilateral relations began to ease since the 1980s.", "Foreign Minister Qian Qichen of China met with President Suharto and State Minister Moerdiono of Indonesia in 1989 to discuss the resumption of diplomatic relations of the two countries.", "In December 1989, the two sides held talks on the technical issues regarding the normalisation of bilateral relations and signed the Minutes.", "Foreign Minister Ali Alatas of Indonesia visited China on invitation in July 1990 and the two sides issued the Agreement on the Settlement of Indonesia's Debt Obligation to China and the Communique on the Resumption of Diplomatic Relations between the two countries.", "The two countries issued the \"Communiqué on the Restoration of Diplomatic Relations between the Two Countries\".", "Premier Li Peng visited Indonesia on 6 August 1990.In his talks with President Suharto, the two sides expressed their willingness to improve relations on the basis of the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-Existence and the Ten Principles of the Bandung Conference.", "On 8 August 1990, the Foreign Ministers of China and Indonesia signed a Memorandum of Understanding on the Resumption of Diplomatic Relations.", "The resumption of formal diplomatic relations between China and Indonesia was announced the same day.", "Both countries are members of the G-20 major economies and APEC.", "(Special Administrative Region of China)\|See Hong Kong–Indonesia relationsIndonesia has a consulate general in Hong Kong located at Causeway Bay.", "The Hong Kong Economic & Trade Office in Jakarta represents Hong Kong in Indonesia.", "A memorandum of understanding on cultural co-operation and a joint statement on labour co-operation were signed between the two governments.2 July 2002See East Timor–Indonesia relations East Timor (officially named the '''Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste''') and Indonesia share the island of Timor.", "Indonesia invaded the former Portuguese colony in 1975 and annexed East Timor in 1976, maintaining East Timor as its 27th province until a United Nations-sponsored referendum in 1999, in which the people of East Timor chose independence.", "Following a United Nations interim administration, East Timor gained independence in 2002.", "* Despite the traumatic past, relations with Indonesia are very good.", "Indonesia is by far the largest trading partner of East Timor (Approximately 50% of imports, 2005) and is steadily increasing its share.", "* Problems to be solved include, East Timor-Indonesia Boundary Committee meetings to survey and delimit land boundary; and Indonesia is seeking resolution of East Timorese refugees in Indonesia.1 April 1949See India–Indonesia relations* India and Indonesia are founding members of Non-Aligned Movement.", "* India had supported Indonesian independence and Nehru had raised the Indonesian question in the United Nations Security Council.", "* Indonesia views India as a \"distant-cousin\" and fellow fighter against colonialism.", "Indonesia's President Sukarno called for both nations to \"intensify the cordial relations\" that had existed \"for more than 1,000 years\" as crystallized in the Treaty of Friendship of March 1951.", "* India and Indonesia had signed three security agreements in 1956, 1958 and 1960.", "* India provided military assistance to Indonesia's counterinsurgency campaign in the 1950s.", "* As part of India's Look East Policy both countries signed ''2005 India-Indonesia Strategic Partnership Agreement'' which was a milestone in the bilateral relationship of both countries.", "* India provides support and training for the Indonesian Air Force's Sukhoi fighter jet and pilots.", "* India has an embassy in Jakarta and Indonesia operates an embassy in Delhi.1950See Indonesia–Iran relations* Indonesia and Iran are Muslim-majority countries, despite the differences in its religious orientation.", "Indonesia has the largest Muslim Sunni population in the world, while Iran is a predominantly Shiite nation.", "* As Islamic countries that have among the largest Muslim populations in the world, Iran and Indonesia hold themselves responsible for promoting Islam as a peaceful religion.", "Diplomatic relations has been established since 1950.Indonesia has an embassy in Tehran, and Iran has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Both countries are full members of the World Trade Organization (WTO), The Non-Aligned Movement, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), and Developing 8 Countries.", "* Jakarta had offered to help mediate the Iranian nuclear dispute, Jakarta is on good terms with Iran and other Middle East countries, as well as with the West.1950See Indonesia–Iraq relations* Indonesia and Iraq share similarity as Muslim-majority countries.", "Both countries share their experiences in rebuilding and development.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Baghdad, while Iraq has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Both countries are partners in multilateral organisations, such as World Trade Organization (WTO), The Non-Aligned Movement and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC).", "* The two countries established diplomatic relations in 1950 and have signed around 15 agreements to boost bilateral ties.", "Indonesia has maintained its embassy in Baghdad during various crises, such as the Iraq-Iran War in the 1980s.", "However, at the height of the Iraq War, Indonesia was forced to temporarily closed its embassy in Baghdad in 2003, and reopen it in June 2011.", "* In 2003, the Indonesian government and people protested against a US-led military campaign against Baghdad.", "Over 50,000 Indonesian people crowded the streets of the Indonesian capital, Jakarta, on Sunday, 9 February 2003, to protest the United States' threat of military action against Iraq.", "After the war ended and Indonesia reopened its embassy in 2011, relations between the two countries have developed at a fast pace.", "Iraq invited Indonesia's companies to participate in the reconstruction of Iraq.", "* Traditionally, Indonesia views Iraq as a source of energy resources, such as oil and gas.", "Iraqi people are familiar with Indonesian exported products such as: tires, soaps, spices, furniture, coal, clothing, palm oil, shoes, paper, automobiles, rubber, and electronic goods.", "'''Informal relations'''See Indonesia–Israel relations* The two countries maintain no formal diplomatic ties, although they maintain limited trade, tourism and security relations.", "In 2005, Indonesia said that establishing full diplomatic ties with Israel will only be possible after peace with Palestine has been reached.", "In 2008, Indonesia signed a medical cooperation agreement with Israel's national emergency medical service worth US$200,000.20 January 1958See Indonesia–Japan relationsDespite being invaded by Japan in World War Two, Indonesia enjoys friendly relations with Japan.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Tokyo and a consulate in Osaka.", "Japan has an embassy in Jakarta and consulates in Medan, Denpasar, Surabaya, and Makassar.", "Japan is Indonesia's largest export partner.", "Both countries are members of the G-20 major economies and APEC.1950See Indonesia–Jordan relations* Jordan and Indonesia often share similar stances upon issues in the Middle East, such as the Syrian conflict and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.", "* Indonesia is currently Jordan's largest trade partner in ASEAN.", "* Jordan has an embassy in Jakarta, while Indonesia has an embassy in Amman that also accredited to Palestine.", "* Both nations are members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Non-Aligned Movement.", "* Jordan serves as the gate for Indonesian Muslim and Christian pilgrims wishing to visit the holy sites in Israel and Palestine.2 June 1993 See Indonesia–Kazakhstan relationsThe relations started with Indonesia's recognition of the proclamation of independence of the Republic of Kazakhstan, on December 16, 1991.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Astana.", "Kazakhstan has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Both countries are members of the Asia Cooperation Dialogue and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.16 April 1964See Indonesia–North Korea relationsIndonesia is one of the very few countries that still maintain cordial relations with North Korea, despite international sanctions and isolation applied upon North Korea concerning its human rights abuses and nuclear missile program.", "Indonesia has adopted what it calls a \"free-and-active\" foreign policy, which allows it to be consistent in counting on both Koreas as friends.Both countries share a relationship that dates back to the Sukarno and Kim Il Sung era in the 60s.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Pyongyang, while North Korea has an embassy in Jakarta.", "both countries are members of the Non-Aligned Movement.According to a 2014 BBC World Service Poll, 28% of Indonesians view North Korea's influence positively, with 44% expressing a negative view.", "This shows a deterioration from previous year's poll where 42% of Indonesians view North Korea's influence positively, with 29% expressing a negative view.17 September 1973See Indonesia–South Korea relationsIndonesia has an embassy in Seoul.", "South Korea has an embassy in Jakarta and a consulate in Denpasar.", "Scale of bilateral trade between two nation is US$14.88 billion.", "Both countries have invested in multiple joint military development projects including the KFX/IFX fighter jet.", "South Korea firm Daewoo Shipbuilding and Marine Engineering (DSME) is in final contract negotiations to supply Indonesia with three Type-209 submarines.", "This will be the largest ever bilateral defence deal valued at US$1.1 billion.", "Numerous K-pop performances, such as SMTown Live World Tour III and Music Bank World Tour, have been performed in Indonesia.", "Trade in National currencies and moving away from the US dollar.", "Both countries are members of the G-20 major economies and APEC.28 February 1968 See Indonesia–Kuwait relationsKuwait has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Kuwait City.", "The relations focused on economy and trade sectors, especially on energy (oil) and human resources (migrant workers).1950See Indonesia–Lebanon relationsLebanon has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Beirut.", "Both nations are members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Non-Aligned Movement.22 December 1956See Indonesia–Mongolia relationsIndonesia and Mongolia established diplomatic relations in 1956.", "Mongolia is planning to have a Center of Indonesian Studies, located in Mongolian National University.", "This institution will serve as a learning center for Mongolian students, professors and common people wishing to learn various aspects of Indonesian studies, includes language, culture, history, politics and economy.", "Mongolian embassy in Bangkok is accredited to Indonesia.", "Indonesia is accredited to Mongolia from its embassy in Beijing, China.25 December 1960See Indonesia–Nepal relationsSince diplomatic relations were established in 1960, both countries enjoy friendly and cordial relations, although both parties have not established embassies in each counterparts' capitals.", "Indonesia only established an honorary consulate in Kathmandu, while its embassy in Dhaka, Bangladesh, is also accredited to Nepal.", "Nepal on the other hand accredited its embassy in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, also to Indonesia.", "Both the countries have many cultural proximities and similar view on international issues.", "Both countries are also partners and founding members of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).1978See Indonesia–Oman relationsOman has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Muscat that is also accredited to Yemen.", "Indonesia and Oman are Muslim majority countries and share same commitments in pursuing global peace and prosperity.1949See Indonesia–Pakistan relations Indonesia has its embassy in Islamabad and a consulate in Karachi* Pakistan has its embassy in Jakarta and a consulate in Medan.", "* Both countries are members of the Developing 8 (D-8) countries and the Next Eleven (N-11) Countries.", "They are also members of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC).", "* Bilateral trade between the two countries currently stand at $800 million but both countries are looking at increase this to $2 billion.", "** There is a preferential trade agreement between the two countries, in effect since 2013.19 October 1989See Indonesia–Palestine relations* Indonesia has a non-resident embassy in Amman.", "* Palestine has an embassy in Jakarta.1976See Indonesia–Qatar relationsQatar has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Doha.", "Indonesia and Qatar have both signed a number of memorandums of understanding in fields like air transport, tourism, and agricultural cooperation.1950See Indonesia–Saudi Arabia relationsSaudi Arabia has an embassy in Jakarta, while Indonesia has an embassy in Riyadh and a consulate general in Jeddah.", "Both countries are the member of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and G-20 major economies.", "Indonesia sent the largest hajj pilgrims among Muslim-majority countries.", "The balance of trade is heavily in favour of Saudi Arabia, because of its oil and gas exports to Indonesia.", "Migrant worker abuse and death sentences faced by Indonesian workers in Saudi Arabia are the main problems that strained diplomatic relations between two countries.6 August 1952See Indonesia–Sri Lanka relationsIndonesia and Sri Lanka are founders of the Non-Aligned Movement.", "Since the diplomatic relations were established in 1952, both countries enjoys cordial and friendly relationshipIndonesia has an embassy in Colombo, while Sri Lanka has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Both countries are also members of the Group of 77 and the Indian-Ocean Rim Association.1949See Indonesia–Syria relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations in 1949.", "Syria has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Damascus.", "In 2019, around 12,904 Indonesians reside in Syria.", "Both nations are members of Non-Aligned Movement and the Group of 77.", "'''Informal relations'''See Indonesia–Taiwan relationsIndonesia and Taiwan (ROC) do not have diplomatic relations, both have only an unofficial relationship.", "Despite geopolitical constraints, the relations between two countries remain flourished over times, the opportunities for widening and deepening the relations have grown.", "In 2020, around 300,000 Indonesians reside in Taiwan.", "Indonesia has an Economic and Trade Office in Taipei.", "Taiwan has an Economic and Trade Office in Jakarta.1950See Indonesia–Turkey relations* Indonesia has an embassy in Ankara and a consulate general in Istanbul.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Both countries are members of D-8, G20, MIKTA, OIC and WTO.", "Trade volume between the two countries was 1.85 billion USD in 2019 (Indonesian exports/imports: 1.64/0.21 billion USD.", "2,400 Indonesian citizens reside in Turkey.1976See Indonesia–United Arab Emirates relations The diplomatic relations between Indonesia and the United Arab Emirates are important because both share the solidarity as Muslim-majority countries, and both countries recognize the important role of each counterparts in the region.", "Since the diplomatic relations established in 1976, both country enjoy friendly and cordial relationship.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Abu Dhabi, while the United Arab Emirates has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Both countries are partners in multilateral organisations, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), Non-Aligned Movement and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC).", "Indonesia uses the UAE as the main gate to enter the Gulf and Middle East market, Indonesia's export to UAE is the largest in the Middle East.", "The Indonesian government has established the trade and investment representative office to promote its products in the United Arab Emirates and the entire Middle East region.23 June 1992See Indonesia–Uzbekistan relations On December 28, 1991, Indonesia has recognized the independence of the Republic of Uzbekistan from the dissolved Soviet Union.", "* Uzbekistan realized the strategic importance of Indonesia, home to the world's biggest Muslim population and Southeast Asia's biggest economy.", "* Indonesia recognizes Uzbekistan's strategic importance as the gate to Central Asia, a growing economy and a potential market.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Tashkent.", "* Uzbekistan has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Both nations are members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Non-Aligned Movement.21 April 1962See Indonesia–Yemen relationsBoth countries share similarities as Muslim majority countries.", "They have many cultural proximities and similar view on international issues and these nations are members of the Non-Aligned Movement and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.", "Islam came to Indonesia through Yemeni merchants, the indigenous ruled by Hindu kings converted by seeing the modest of Yemenis, Islam spread through trade in the Nusantara archipelago.", "Indonesia is represented in Yemen through its embassy in Muscat, Oman.", "Yemen has an embassy in Jakarta.=== Europe === Country Formal Relations BeganNotes22 September 1992See Armenia–Indonesia relations Both countries established diplomatic relations on September 22, 1992.", "* Armenia has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Indonesia has a non-resident ambassador in Kyiv, Ukraine also accredited to Armenia, and an honorary consulate in Yerevan.1954See Austria–Indonesia relations* Bilateral relations between Austria and Indonesia were officially established in 1954.", "* Austria recognises Indonesia as a stable and reliable partner, and both countries enjoy excellent relations.", "* The two countries have agreed to expand relations in business, trade and investment, tourism, culture, environment and green technology.", "* Austria has an embassy in Jakarta, while Indonesia has an embassy in Vienna that is also accredited to Slovenia as well as the following multilateral organisations: IAEA, PrepCom CTBTO, UNODC and UNOOSA.24 September 1992See Azerbaijan–Indonesia relations* On September 28, 1991, the Republic of Indonesia recognized the independence of the Republic of Azerbaijan.", "* On September 24, 1992, diplomatic relations were established between the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Republic of Indonesia.", "* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Baku.1949See Belgium-Indonesia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations in 1949 as Belgium was among the first European nations that recognized Indonesia.", "Belgium has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Brussels, also accredited to Luxembourg and the EU.11 April 1994See Bosnia and Herzegovina–Indonesia relationsIndonesian support for Bosnia and Herzegovina ranged from collecting donations, sending peacekeeping forces under United Nations, to building the Istiqlal Mosque in Sarajevo.", "Bosnia and Herzegovina has an embassy in JakartaIndonesia has an embassy in Sarajevo21 September 1956See Bulgaria–Indonesia relations* Diplomatic relations started on 21 September 1956.", "* Bulgaria has had an embassy in Jakarta since October 1958* Indonesia has had an embassy in Sofia Since 1960.3 September 1992See Croatia-Indonesia relationsCroatia sees Indonesia as one of the largest and the most influential nation in ASEAN, and recognized its potential as the gate to enter ASEAN markets.", "Vice versa, Indonesia also recognizes Croatian potential as a strategic gate to penetrate Balkans and European Union market.", " Croatia has embassy in Jakarta.", "* Indonesia has embassy in Zagreb.", "* Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with Indonesia4 December 1987See Cyprus–Indonesia relations* Diplomatic relations were established on 4 December 1987* Cyprus reopened its embassy in Jakarta in October 2023.", "* Indonesia is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Rome, Italy.1950See Czechia–Indonesia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations in 1950.", "Czechia has an embassy in Jakarta that is also accredited to Brunei, East Timor, Singapore and ASEAN, and honorary consulates in Denpasar, Makassar and Surabaya.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Prague.15 February 1950See Denmark–Indonesia relations Denmark has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "6 September 1954See Finland-Indonesia relations* Indonesia and Finland enjoy friendly relations.", "* Finland played a key role in the peace talks to solve the insurgency in Aceh.2 August 1950See France–Indonesia relationsIndonesia has an embassy in Paris.", " France has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Relations between France and Indonesia have been improving of late, while Indonesia has become increasingly strategic to the government and people of France.", "There are 110 French multinational companies operating in Indonesia.", " The relations between two countries are important as both are democratic republics and both have significant geopolitical influence in their regions.", "* The diplomatic relationship between France and Indonesia is also a key element for developing relations between Indonesia and the European Union and between France and ASEAN.", "Both countries are the member of G-20 major economies.25 January 1993See Georgia–Indonesia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 25 January 1993.", "Georgia has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Indonesia has a non-resident ambassador in Kyiv, Ukraine also accredited to Georgia.25 June 1952See Germany–Indonesia relationsIndonesia and Germany have traditionally enjoyed good, intensive and wide-ranging relations.", "Germany and Indonesia, as the largest members of the European Union and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), respectively, take similar positions on many issues relating to the development of the two regional organisations.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Berlin.", "Germany has an embassy in Jakarta.23 February 1958See Greece–Indonesia relations* Diplomatic relations started on 23 February 1958* Indonesia has an embassy in Athens which was opened in 1994.", "* Greece has an embassy in Jakarta which was opened in 1997.", "* Greek Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Indonesia .", "(Vatican City)13 March 1950See Holy See–Indonesia relations* Indonesia, the world's largest Muslim-majority country in terms of population, recognises Catholicism as one of its six approved religions.", "* The Holy See has an Apostolic Nunciature in Jakarta, while Indonesia has an embassy in Rome.", "* The Holy See recognised the Republic of Indonesia on 16 March 1950* Official relations were established in 1950 with the status of ''Apostolic Internunciatur''.", "In December 1965, the status changed to ''Nunciatur Apostolic''.", "* There have been two papal visits to Indonesia: those of Pope Paul VI in December 1970, and of Pope John Paul II in October 1989.1955See Hungary–Indonesia relations* Diplomatic relations started in 1955.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Budapest which was opened in 1960.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Jakarta which was opened in 1957, as well as honorary consuls in Bandung and Denpasar.13 June 1983See Iceland–Indonesia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations in 1983.", "Iceland has a non-resident embassy in Tokyo.", "Indonesia is represented in Iceland by its embassy in Oslo and an honorary consulate in Reykjavík.4 September 1984See Indonesia–Ireland relations Ireland has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Indonesia is represented in Ireland through its embassy in London and an honorary consulate in Dublin.29 December 1949See Indonesia–Italy relations* Both countries have shown a strong desire to improve their relations, especially in intercultural understanding and trade.", "* Indonesia recognises Italy's strategic location and important role in the Mediterranean region, while Italy has favoured relations with Indonesia, and sees Indonesia as the leader in Southeast Asia.", "* The relations between two countries not only important to bridge the two regional communities; European Union and ASEAN, but also vital as intercultural and interfaith dialogue,* Indonesia has an embassy in Rome.", "* Italy has an embassy in Jakarta.", "'''No formal diplomatic relations'''See Indonesia's reaction to the 2008 Kosovo declaration of independenceIndonesia's reaction to Kosovo's independence has been mixed.", "Indonesia does not recognize Kosovo's membership in some international organizations, including the World Bank.17 December 2010See Indonesia–Monaco relationsDue to the resemblance of the colors red and white on their flags, the Monégasque government asked Indonesia to modify its flag during the International Hydrographic Congress on 29 April 1952.", "Indonesia has a non-resident embassy in Paris.October 1949See Indonesia–Netherlands relationsThe Netherlands is the former colonial power, and handed over sovereignty in 1949.", "Indonesia has an embassy in The Hague.", "The Netherlands has an embassy in Jakarta.25 January 1950See Indonesia-Norway relationsBoth countries have agreed to establish a strategic partnership against poverty and climate change, and also in promoting democracy and tolerance.", "Norway has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Oslo.19 September 1955See Indonesia-Poland relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 19 September 1955.", " Poland has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Warsaw.4 January 1965See Indonesia–Portugal relationsIn 1999, Indonesia and Portugal restored diplomatic relations, which were broken off following the Indonesian invasion of East Timor in 1975.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Lisbon.", "* Portugal has an embassy in Jakarta.20 February 1950See Indonesia-Romania relations* Indonesia has an embassy in Bucharest.", "* Romania has an embassy in Jakarta.February 1950See Indonesia–Russia relations* Russia has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Moscow along with a consulate general in Saint Petersburg.", "* Both countries are also members of the G20 and APEC.", "* Early in the Cold War, both countries had very strong relations with Indonesian president Sukarno visiting Moscow and Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev visiting Jakarta.", "When Sukarno was overthrown by General Suharto, relations between the two states were not as close as they were during Sukarno's times.", "* In late 2007, Indonesia purchased military weapons from Russia with long term payment.1954See Indonesia–Serbia relationsSerbia has very close relations with Indonesia, especially within the fields of trade, culture and tourism.", "Indonesia has also voiced support for Serbia's territorial integrity over the Kosovo issue.1 January 1993see Indonesia-Slovakia relationsSlovakia has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Bratislava.February 1958See Indonesia–Spain relations* Spain identifies Indonesia as a natural ally and has named Indonesia as one of their priority countries in their foreign relations with the Asian region.", "* Indonesia supports Spain in the Gibraltar issue.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Madrid and consulates in Barcelona and Las Palmas, while Spain has an embassy in Jakarta and a consulate in Denpasar, Bali.", "* Cooperation has expanded to various fields, from trade and culture to education and the defence technology sector.", "* Since the 1980s, Spain and Indonesia have embarked on a strategic partnership in aeronautics technology.", "Spain's CASA and Indonesia's IPTN (formerly known as Nurtanio) co-designed and co-produced the CASA/IPTN CN-235 medium transport aircraft.1960See Indonesia–Sweden relationsSweden has actively contributed in Aceh peace process and gave assistance to the tsunami reconstruction.", "Sweden has an embassy in Jakarta.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Stockholm.2 November 1951See Indonesia–Switzerland relations In 2010, the heads of state of the two countries agreed to launch negotiations on a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement.", "* Switzerland has named Indonesia as one of seven priority countries for economic development co-operation.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Bern, while Switzerland has an embassy in Jakarta, also accredited for East Timor and ASEAN.", "* On 6 December 1973, the Indonesian and Swiss governments signed an agreement to establish Polytechnic for Mechanics within the Bandung Institute of Technology at Bandung.", "Today, the Swiss Mechanics Polytechnic has transformed into Bandung State Polytechnic for Manufacture.11 June 1992See Indonesia-Ukraine relationsIndonesia recognised Ukraine's independence on 28 December 1991 and established diplomatic relations on 11 June 1992.", "In 2011, the total trade volume between two nations has reached US$1.27 billion, and increased to US$1.32 billion in 2012.The trade balances between two nations is in favour to Ukraine; the Indonesian export value to Ukraine in 2012 was US$548.9 million, while Indonesia's import value from Ukraine for the same year was US$774.1 million.", "During the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the Indonesian government provided additional aid to Ukraine through the Ukrainian Red Cross and expressed its commitment to assisting in reconstructing war-damaged hospitals.", "Indonesia has an embassy in Kyiv.", "Ukraine has an embassy in Jakarta.1949See Indonesia–United Kingdom relationsThe United Kingdom and Indonesia have maintained strong links since formal relations were established in 1949.Indonesia has an embassy in London, the UK has an embassy in Jakarta and a consulate in Denpasar.The Culture and Tourism Ministry of Indonesia launched a campaign to boost the number of tourists from the UK entering Indonesia.", "In 2009, 160,000 British tourists visited Indonesia, the aim of the campaign was to boost this number to 200,000.In 2006 former British prime-minister Tony Blair met with Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono where they agreed upon \"the establishment of a regular Indonesia-UK Partnership Forum to be chaired by the Foreign Ministers, to promote strategic dialogue on bilateral, multilateral and global issues\".", "The first Indonesia-UK forum was held in 2007 and was chaired by British foreign minister Margaret Beckett and Indonesian foreign minister Hassan Wirajuda.In March 2010 members of the House of Lords praised Indonesia for its progress in democratising society, media freedom and environmental protection.", "In a meeting with Indonesian MP Hayono Isman, the Lords stated that they wanted to improve the relationship between the two countries.=== Oceania === Country Formal Relations BeganNotes27 December 1949See Australia–Indonesia relationsSince Indonesian independence, the two countries have maintained mutual diplomatic relations, formalised co-operation (especially in the fields of fisheries conservation, law enforcement, and justice co-operation), a measure of security co-operation, broadening treaty relationships, co-membership of regional forums, and co-participation in several multilateral Treaties of significance.", "Trade between the two countries has grown over the years.Recent years have seen a deepening of Australia's aid commitment to Indonesia, and Australia has become a popular venue for Indonesian students.In 2008–09, Indonesia is the largest recipient of Australian aid at a value of AUD462 million.Indonesia has an embassy in Canberra and consulates general in Melbourne, Perth and Sydney, While Australia has an embassy in Jakarta and consulates in Medan, Makassar, Surabaya and Denpasar.1974See Indonesia–Fiji relations Fiji has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Suva.28 June 1958See Indonesia–New Zealand relationsHaving common interests as democracies and neighbours in the Asia-Pacific region, New Zealand and Indonesia are viewed as natural partners.", "Both countries are members of APEC.", "Indonesia and New Zealand officially established diplomatic relations in 1958, the diplomatic and economic ties have grown stronger ever since.", "New Zealand has an embassy in Jakarta and Indonesia has an embassy in Wellington.", "Indonesia's commodity exports to New Zealand consist mainly of energy products and minerals as well as lumber and agriculture, while New Zealand's commodity exports to Indonesia mainly consist of dairy products and meats, such as beef, milk, and cheese.", "and (States in free association within New Zealand)13 July 2019See Political status of the Cook Islands and NiueIndonesia established diplomatic relations with both the Cook Islands and Niue on 13 July 2019 as a move to strengthen its ties with the Pacific Islands region.6 July 2007Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 July 2007.", "Indonesia shares a maritime border with Palau.", "Both countries represent each other through their respective embassies in Manila, Philippines.16 September 1975See Indonesia–Papua New Guinea relationsIndonesia shares a border with Papua New Guinea through its Papua, Highland Papua and South Papua provinces.", "The common border has raised tensions and ongoing diplomatic issues over many decades.", " Indonesia has an embassy Port Moresby and a consulate in Vanimo.", "* Papua New Guinea has an embassy in Jakarta and a consulate general in Jayapura.28 July 1983See Indonesia–Solomon Islands relations* Bilateral relations severed in 2016 as during the United Nations General Assembly of said year, Solomon Islands Prime Minister Manasseh Sogavare alleged the human rights violations in the Indonesian provinces of Papua and West Papua, and also push for the independence of the said provinces.", "* Indonesia has a non-resident embassy in Port Moresby.", "* The Solomon Islands has an embassy in Jakarta.3 July 1995Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 July 1995.", "Bilateral relations are strained as Vanuatu is one of the key allies of the Free Papua Movement.", "Indonesia is represented in Vanuatu through its embassy in Canberra, Australia.", "Vanuatu is planning to open an embassy in Jakarta." ], [ "International organisation participation" ], [ "See also", "Indonesia–United States relationsAustralia–Indonesia relationsIndonesia–Russia relationsChina–Indonesia relationsIndonesia–Serbia relationsIndonesia–Turkey relationsIndia-Indonesia relationsindonesia-Pakistan relationsIndonesia–Saudi Arabia relationsIndonesia–Iran relationsIndonesia-Israel relationsEuropean Union-Indonesia relationsList of diplomatic missions in IndonesiaList of diplomatic missions of IndonesiaList of diplomatic missions in JakartaList of Indonesian Ambassadors to AustraliaList of Indonesian Ambassadors to the United Kingdom" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", " Anwar, Dewi Fortuna.", "''Indonesia in ASEAN : foreign policy and regionalism'' (1994) online* Anwar, Dewi Fortuna.", "\"Reinvention in Indonesia's foreign policy strategy.\"", "''East Asia Forum Quarterly'' 5#4 (2013) online.", "* Aslan, Hugh R. Me.", "\"Contemporary United States Foreign Policy towards Indonesia\" (U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, 2004) online* Cotton, James.", "''East Timor, Australia and regional order: intervention and its aftermath in Southeast Asia'' (2004) online.", "* Galamas, Francisco.", "\"Terrorism in Indonesia: an overview.\"", "''Research Papers'' 4.10 (2015) online.", "* Gardner, Paul F., ''Shared Hopes, Separate Fears: Fifty Years of U.S.-Indonesia Relations'', Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press (1997).", "* Glasius, Marlies.", "''Foreign policy on human rights : its influence on Indonesia under Soeharto'' (1999) online* * He, Kai.", "\"Indonesia's foreign policy after Soeharto: international pressure, democratization, and policy change.\"", "''International Relations of the Asia-Pacific'' 8.1 (2007): 47–72.online* Huijgh, Ellen.", "\"The Public Diplomacy of Emerging Powers Part 2: The Case of Indonesia.\"", "in ''CPD Perspectives on Public Diplomacy'' (2016).", "online* Lee, Terence.", "\"The armed forces and transitions from authoritarian rule: Explaining the role of the military in 1986 Philippines and 1998 Indonesia.\"", "''Comparative Political Studies'' 42.5 (2009): 640–669.online* Leifer, Michael.", "''Indonesia's Foreign Policy'' (1983)* McRae, Fave.", "\"Indonesia's South China Sea diplomacy: A foreign policy illiberal turn?\"", "''Journal of Contemporary Asia'' 49.5 (2019): 759–779 online.", "* * Ricklefs, M. C. ''A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1200'' (2001) online* Saltford, John.", "\"United Nations involvement with the act of self-determination in West Irian (Indonesian West New Guinea) 1968 to 1969.\"", "''Indonesia'' 69 (2000): 71–92.online* Scott, David.", "\"Indonesia grapples with the Indo-Pacific: Outreach, strategic discourse, and diplomacy.\"", "''Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs'' 38.2 (2019): 194–217.online* Shekhar, Vibhanshu.", "''Indonesia's Foreign Policy and Grand Strategy in the 21st Century: Rise of an Indo-Pacific Power'' (2018)* Sukma, Rizal.", "\"The evolution of Indonesia's foreign policy: an Indonesian view.\"", "''Asian Survey'' 35.3 (1995): 304–315.online* Sukma, Rizal.", "\"Soft power and public diplomacy: The case of Indonesia.\"", "in ''Public diplomacy and soft power in East Asia'' (2011): 91–115.", "* Weinstein, Franklin B. ''", "Indonesia Abandons Confrontation: An Inquiry Into the Functions of Indonesian Foreign Policy'' (2009)" ], [ "External links", "* Politics, Public Opinion, and the U.S.-Indonesian Comprehensive Partnership (NBR Special Report, December 2010)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "List of islands of Indonesia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''islands of Indonesia''', also known as the '''Indonesian Archipelago''' () or '''Nusantara''', may refer either to the islands composing the country of Indonesia or to the geographical groups which include its islands.", "Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagic state, stretching from Sumatra in Asia to the western part of New Guinea in Oceania." ], [ "History", "The exact number of islands composing Indonesia varies among definitions and sources.", "According to the Law No 9/1996 on Maritime Territory of Indonesia, of 17,508 officially listed islands within the territory of the Republic of Indonesia.", "According to a geospatial survey conducted between 2007 and 2010 by the National Coordinating Agency for Survey and Mapping (Bakorsurtanal), Indonesia has 13,466 islands.", "However, according to earlier survey in 2002 by National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN), the Indonesian archipelago has 18,307 islands, and according to the CIA ''World Factbook'', there are 17,508 islands.", "The discrepancy of the numbers of Indonesian islands is due to the earlier surveys including \"tidal islands\"; sandy cays and rocky reefs that appear during low tide and are submerged during high tide.", "As of 2023, 17.024 island have been named by Geospatial Information Agency and published in Indonesian Gazetteer.UNCLOS" ], [ "Major islands", "* Sunda Islands Greater Sunda Islands* Java, formerly Jawa Dwipa.", "* Sumatra, formerly Swarna Dwipa.", "* Borneo: divided between the Indonesian region Kalimantan, the country of Brunei and the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak.", "* Sulawesi, formerly Celebes.", " Lesser Sunda Islands* Bali* Lombok* Sumbawa* Flores* Sumba* Timor: divided between Indonesian West Timor and the country of East Timor.", "* Maluku Islands (Moluccas)* New Guinea: divided between the Indonesian provinces of Highland Papua, Papua, South Papua, Southwest Papua, Central Papua and West Papua and the country of Papua New Guinea." ], [ "List of islands", "The following islands are listed by province:=== Java =======Banten====* Panaitan* Sangiang* Tinjil* Umang====Central Java====* Karimunjawa* Nusa KambanganDungeon's Island====Special Capital Region of Jakarta==== Thousand Islands (Kepulauan Seribu)====East Java====* Bawean* Gili Iyang Island* Kangean Islands* Madura* Raas* Nusa Barong* Raja Island* Sempu Island====West Java====* Monitor Lizard Island (Pulau Biawak), Indramayu=== Sumatra =======Aceh====* Banyak Islands** Tuangku* Lasia Island* Simeulue* Weh====North Sumatra====* Batu Islands* Berhala on the Strait of Malacca* Hinako Islands* Makole Island* Masa Island* Nias Islands* Samosir, Lake Toba====West Sumatra====* Mentawai Islands North Pagai Siberut Sipura South Pagai* Pasumpahan* Sikuai====Bengkulu====* Enggano Island* potta kulam====Lampung====* Child of Krakatoa (Anak Krakatau)* Legundi* Sebesi* Sebuku====Riau====* Basu Island* Bengkalis* Padang* Rangsang* Rupat* Tebing Tinggi Island====Riau Islands====* Natuna Islands (Kepulauan Natuna) Anambas Islands Natuna Besar Islands South Natuna Islands Tambelan Islands*** Badas Islands* Riau Archipelago Batam Bintan Bulan Galang Karimun islands Great Natuna Penyengat* Great Karimun* Little Karimun Kundur** Rempang* Lingga Islands Lingga with nearby islands Singkep with nearby islands====Bangka-Belitung Islands====* Bangka* Belitung=== Kalimantan =======Central Kalimantan====* Damar* Baning Island* Buaya Island* Burung Island====East Kalimantan====* Balabalagan Islands* Derawan Islands** Kakaban====North Kalimantan====* Bunyu* Sebatik: divided between Indonesia and Sabah, East Malaysia* Tarakan====South Kalimantan====* Laut* Laut Kecil Islands* Sebuku====West Kalimantan====* Bawal* Galam* Karimata Islands** Karimata* Maya=== Sulawesi =======Central Sulawesi====* Banggai Islands Banggai Bowokan Islands (Kepulauan Treko) Buka Buka Peleng* Masoni Island* Simatang Island* Togian Islands Togian Tolitoli====North Sulawesi====* Bangka* Bunaken* Lembeh* Manado Tua* Nain* Sangihe Islands Nanipa Bukide Sangir Besar Siau** Tagulandang* Talaud Islands Kabaruan Karakelang** Salibabu* Talise====South Sulawesi====* Pabbiring Islands* Sabalana Islands* Selayar Islands** Selayar Island* Takabonerate Islands* Tengah Islands====Southeast Sulawesi====* Buton* Kabaena* Muna* Tukangbesi Islands Wakatobi* Wangiwangi* Wowoni=== Lesser Sunda Islands =======Bali====* Bali* Menjangan Island* Nusa Lembongan* Nusa Penida* Serangan Island* Nusa Ceningan====East Nusa Tenggara====* Alor Islands Alor Kepa** Pantar* Flores Babi Island Mules Island* Komodo Gili Lawadarat Gili Lawalaut Mangiatan Island Makasar Island* Taka Makasar Mauwang Island Pararambah Island Siaba Besar Island* Siaba Kecil Island* Mangiatan Island* Tatawa Island Tukoh Pemaroh* Pararambah Island* Padar Island Batubilah Island Padar Kecil Island* Palu Island* Pemana Islands* Rinca Gili Motang Golo Mori Muang Island Rohbong Island* Tukoh Gagak * Tukoh Rohbongkoe Papagaran Besar Island* Papagaran Kecil Island* Batu Island* Mole Island Pengah Besar Island* Pengah Kecil Island*** Batupengah Island* Rote Island* Savu* Solor Islands Adonara Lembata** Solor* Sumba* Timor, divided between Indonesia West Timor and the independent nation of East Timor====West Nusa Tenggara====* Gili Islands Gili Air Gili Trawangan** Gili Meno* Banta Island* Gili Biaha* Gili Mimpang* Gili Selang* Gili Tepekong* Lombok* Medang Island* Moyo Island* Menjangan Island* Sangeang* Satonda* Sumbawa=== Maluku Islands =======Maluku====* Aru Islands Enu Kobroor Maikoor Trangan** Wokam* Babar* Banda* Barat Daya Islands Damer Liran Romang Wetar* Boano* Buru* Gorong archipelago* Kai Islands* Kelang* Leti Islands Lakor Leti** Moa* Manipa* Nusa Laut* Seram Ambon Osi** Saparua* Tanimbar Islands Selaru Yamdena* Small volcanic islands in Banda Sea* Tayandu Islands (Kepulauan Tayando)* Watubela archipelago====North Maluku====* Bacan, with nearby islands: Kasiruta Mandioli** Muari* Erà Islands* Halmahera, with nearby islands: Makian Ternate Tidore Hiri Mare Maitara Kayoa Laluin Moti Rau Kakara Meti Medi Tagalaya Cumo Widi Islands* Morotai, with nearby islands:** Rau* Obi Islands, which include: Bisa Gomumu Obi Obilatu** Tobalai* Sula Islands=== Western New Guinea ===''Islands near the Indonesian half of New Guinea island.", "''====West Papua====* Asia Island* Karas* Semai====Southwest Papua====* Ayu Islands Palau Ayu Palau Reni* Raja Ampat Islands Batanta Boo Islands Fam Islands Misool Waigeo* Gam*** Kawe====Papua====* Biak Islands Biak Mios Num Numfor Supiori** Yapen* Komoran* Yos Sudarso" ], [ "See also", "* List of Indonesian islands by area* List of Indonesian islands by population" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Iran" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Iran''', also known as '''Persia''' and officially the '''Islamic Republic of Iran''', is a country in West Asia.", "It is bordered by Iraq to the west and Turkey to the northwest, Azerbaijan, Armenia, the Caspian Sea and Turkmenistan to the north, Afghanistan to the east, Pakistan to the southeast, the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf to the south.", "It covers an area of , making it the world's 17th-largest country.", "Iran has around 90 million people, making it the world's 17th most populous country.", "Its capital and largest city is Tehran with around 16 million people in its metropolitan area.Iran is home to one of the world's oldest civilizations, beginning with the formation of the Elamite kingdoms in the fourth millennium BC.", "It was first unified by the Medes in the seventh century BC and reached its territorial height in the sixth century BC, when Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Empire.", "Alexander the Great conquered the empire in the fourth century BC, and it was subsequently divided into several Hellenistic states.", "An Iranian rebellion established the Parthian Empire in the third century BC, which was succeeded in the third century AD by the Sasanian Empire.", "Arab Muslims conquered the empire in the seventh century AD, leading to its Islamization; Iran thereafter became a major center of Islamic culture and learning.", "Over the next two centuries, a series of native Iranian Muslim dynasties emerged before the Seljuk and the Mongols conquered the region.", "In the 16th century, the native Safavids re-established a unified Iranian state.", "Under the reign of Nader Shah in the 18th century, Iran presided over the most powerful military in the world, though by the 19th century, a series of conflicts with the Russian Empire led to significant territorial losses.", "The early 20th century saw the Persian Constitutional Revolution.", "Efforts to nationalise its fossil fuel supply led to an Anglo-American coup in 1953.After the Iranian Revolution, the current Islamic republic was established in 1979 by Ruhollah Khomeini, who became the country's first supreme leader.The Iranian government is an Islamic republic with a presidential system, though ultimate authority is vested in a theocratic supreme leader (''rahbar''); the position has been held by Ali Khamenei since Khomeini's death in 1989.The Iranian government is authoritarian, and has attracted widespread criticism for its significant constraints and violations of human rights and civil liberties.", "It is also a focal point for Shia Islam within the Middle East.", "Since the Iranian Revolution, the country is considered to be the most determined adversary of Israel and Saudi Arabia.", "On March 10, 2023, Iran and Saudi Arabia normalized relations after years of hostility.", "The Iranian government has been criticised for various policies such as its alleged sponsorship of terrorism, funding of proxy militias and its involvement in the majority of modern Middle Eastern conflicts.Iran is a regional and middle power and occupies a strategic location in the Asian continent.", "It is a founding member of the United Nations, the ECO, the OIC, the OPEC, the SCO, and a member of BRICS.", "It has large reserves of fossil fuels—including the second largest natural gas supply and the third-largest proven oil reserves.", "The country's rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 27 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, which ranks 10th worldwide.", "Iran places 5th globally in terms of Intangible Cultural Heritage." ], [ "Etymology", "Ardashir Babakan (r. 224–242 AD) in Naqsh-e Rostam: \"This is the figure of Mazdaworshipper, the lord Ardashir, King of Iran...\"The term ''Iran'' derives from Middle Persian , first attested in a third-century inscription at Naqsh-e Rostam, with the accompanying Parthian inscription using the term , in reference to the Iranians.", "The terms and are oblique plural forms of gentilic nouns ''ēr-'' (Middle Persian) and ''ary-'' (Parthian), both deriving from Proto-Iranian language ''arya-'' (meaning \"Aryan\", i.e.", "\"of the Iranians\"), recognised as a derivative of Proto-Indo-European language '''', meaning \"one who assembles (skilfully)\".", "According to the Iranian mythology, the country's name comes from the name of Iraj, a legendary prince and king.Historically, Iran has been referred to as ''Persia'' by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who referred to all of Iran as (Ancient Greek: Περσίς; from Old Persian ), meaning \"land of the Persians\", while Persis was one of the provinces of ancient Iran.In 1935, Reza Pahlavi requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, ''Iran''.", "Opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision in 1959, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of ''Encyclopædia Iranica'', propagated a move to use ''Persia'' and ''Iran'' interchangeably.", "Today, both ''Iran'' and ''Persia'' are used in cultural contexts, while ''Iran'' remains mandatory in official state contexts.The Persian pronunciation of ''Iran'' is .", "Common Commonwealth English pronunciations of ''Iran'' are listed in the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' as and , while American English dictionaries such as Merriam-Webster's provide pronunciations which map to , or likewise in ''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary'' as .", "The ''Cambridge Dictionary'' lists as the British pronunciation and as the American pronunciation.", "The pronunciation guide from Voice of America also provides .", "The American English pronunciation may be heard in U.S. media." ], [ "History", " === Prehistory ===Chogha Zanbil (14th-13th century BC), an ancient Elamite complex in Khuzestan, built by Untash-Napirisha.", "UNESCO World Heritage Site.The earliest attested archaeological artifacts in Iran confirm a human presence in Iran since the Lower Paleolithic.", "Iran's Neanderthal artifacts have been found mainly in the Zagros region, at sites such as Warwasi and Yafteh.", "From the tenth to the seventh millennium BC, early agricultural communities began to flourish in and around the Zagros region in western Iran, including Chogha Golan, Chogha Bonut, and Chogha Mish.The occupation of grouped hamlets in the area of Susa, as determined by radiocarbon dating, ranges from 4395 to 3955 to 3680–3490 BC.", "There are dozens of prehistoric sites across the Iranian Plateau, pointing to the existence of ancient cultures and urban settlements in the fourth millennium BC.", "During the Bronze Age, the territory of present-day Iran was home to several civilizations, including Elam, Jiroft, and Zayanderud.", "Elam, the most prominent of these civilizations, developed in the southwest alongside those in Mesopotamia, and continued its existence until the emergence of the Iranian empires.", "The advent of writing in Elam was paralleled to Sumer, and the Elamite cuneiform was developed since the third millennium BC.Some 8,000 years old artifacts have been unearthed in Iran's Piranshahr city.", "Diverse artifacts from The Bronze Age, huge structures from The Iron Age and various sites dating back to the Sassanid, Parthian and Islamic eras indicated suitable climate conditions for human civilization over the past 8,000 years in Piranshahr area.From the 34th to the 20th century BC, northwestern Iran was part of the Kura-Araxes culture, which stretched into the neighboring Caucasus and Anatolia.", "Since the earliest second millennium BC, Assyrians settled in swaths of western Iran and incorporated the region into their territories.=== Ancient Iran ===Ecbatana (present-day Hamadan) was chosen as the capital of the Medes Empire by Deioces, in 678 BC.By the second millennium BC, the ancient Iranian peoples arrived in what is now Iran from the Eurasian Steppe, rivaling the native settlers of the region.", "As the Iranians dispersed into the wider area of Greater Iran and beyond, the boundaries of modern-day Iran were dominated by Median, Persian, and Parthian tribes.From the late tenth to the late seventh century BC, the Iranian peoples, together with the \"pre-Iranian\" kingdoms, fell under the domination of the Assyrian Empire, based in northern Mesopotamia.", "Under king Cyaxares, the Medes and Persians entered into an alliance with Babylonian ruler Nabopolassar, as well as the fellow Iranian Scythians and Cimmerians, and together they attacked the Assyrian Empire.", "The civil war ravaged the Assyrian Empire between 616 and 605 BC, thus freeing their respective peoples from three centuries of Assyrian rule.", "The unification of the Median tribes under king Deioces in 728 BC led to the foundation of the Median Empire and their capital Ecbatana, which by 612 BC, controlled almost the entire territory of present-day Iran and eastern Anatolia.", "This marked the end of the Kingdom of Urartu as well, which was subsequently conquered and dissolveIn 550 BC, Cyrus the Great, the son of Mandane and Cambyses I, took over the Median Empire, and founded the Achaemenid Empire by unifying other city-states.", "Pasargadae was the capital of the Achaemenid Empire during the time of Cyrus the Great.", "The conquest of Media was a result of what is called the ''Persian Revolt''.", "Later conquests under Cyrus and his successors expanded the empire to include Lydia, Babylon, Egypt, parts of the Balkans and Eastern Europe proper, as well as the lands to the west of the Indus and Oxus rivers.", "In 539 BC Persian forces defeated the Babylonian army at Opis, and marked the end of around four centuries of Mesopotamian domination of the region by conquering the Neo-Babylonian Empire.At around 518 BC, Persepolis was founded by Darius the Great as the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire.", "Susa and Ecbatana were the winter and summer capital of the empire, respectively.", "its greatest extent, the Achaemenid Empire included territories of modern-day Iran, Republic of Azerbaijan (Arran and Shirvan), Armenia, Georgia, Turkey (Anatolia), much of the Black Sea coastal regions, northeastern Greece and southern Bulgaria (Thrace), northern Greece and North Macedonia (Paeonia and Macedon), Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel and the Palestinian territories, all significant population centers of ancient Egypt as far west as Libya, Kuwait, northern Saudi Arabia, parts of the United Arab Emirates and Oman, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and much of Central Asia, making it the largest empire the world had yet seen.", "It is estimated that in 480 BC, 50 million people lived in the Achaemenid Empire.", "The empire at its peak ruled over 44% of the world's population, the highest for any empire in history.The Achaemenid Empire is noted for the release of the Jewish exiles in Babylon, building infrastructures such as the Royal Road and the Chapar (postal service), and the use of an official language, Imperial Aramaic.", "The empire had a centralised, bureaucratic administration under the emperor, a large professional army, and civil services, inspiring similar developments in later empires.", "Eventual conflict on the western borders began with the Ionian Revolt, which erupted into the Greco-Persian Wars and continued through the first half of the fifth century BC and ended with the withdrawal of the Achaemenids from all of the territories in the Balkans and Eastern Europe proper.In 334 BC, Alexander the Great defeated the last Achaemenid emperor, Darius III, at the Battle of Issus.", "Following the premature death of Alexander, Iran came under the control of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire.The Parthian Empire (247 BC - 224 AD) in 94 BC at its greatest extent, during the reign of Mithridates II.In the middle of the second century BC, the Parthian Empire rose to become the main power in Iran, and the century-long geopolitical arch-rivalry between the Romans and the Parthians began, culminating in the Roman–Parthian Wars.", "The Parthian Empire continued as a feudal monarchy for nearly five centuries, until 224 CE, when it was succeeded by the Sasanian Empire.", "Together with their neighboring arch-rival, the Roman-Byzantines, they made up the world's two most dominant powers at the time, for over four centuries.The Sasanians established an empire within the frontiers achieved by the Achaemenids, with their capital at Ctesiphon.", "Late antiquity is considered one of Iran's most influential periods, as under the Sasanians, their influence reached the culture of ancient Rome (and through that as far as Western Europe), Africa, China, and India, and played a prominent role in the formation of the medieval art of both Europe and Asia.=== Medieval period ===The prolonged Byzantine–Sasanian wars, most importantly the climactic war of 602–628, as well as the social conflict within the Sasanian Empire, opened the way for an Arab invasion of Iran in the seventh century.", "The empire was initially defeated by the Rashidun Caliphate, which was succeeded by the Umayyad Caliphate, followed by the Abbasid Caliphate.", "A prolonged and gradual process of state-imposed Islamization followed, which targeted Iran's then Zoroastrian majority and included religious persecution, demolition of libraries and fire temples, a special tax penalty (\"jizya\"), and language shift.In 750, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads.", "Arabs Muslims and Persians of all strata made up the rebel army, which was united by the converted Persian Muslim, Abu Muslim.", "In their struggle for power, the society in their times gradually became cosmopolitan.", "Persians and Turks began to replace the Arabs in most fields.", "The fusion of the Arab nobility with the subject races, the practice of polygamy and concubinage, made for a social amalgam wherein loyalties became uncertain, and a hierarchy of officials emerged, a bureaucracy at first Persian and later Turkish which decreased Abbasid prestige and power for good.After two centuries of Arab rule, semi-independent and independent Iranian kingdoms—including the Tahirids, Saffarids, Sajids, Samanids, Ziyarids, Buyids, Sallarids, Rawadids, Marwanids, Shaddadids, Kakuyids, Annazids and Hasanwayhids—began to appear on the fringes of the declining Abbasid Caliphate.", "The period, known as the Iranian Intermezzo, is noteworthy since it was an interlude between the decline of Abbasid rule and power by Arabs and the \"Sunni Revival\" with the 11th-century emergence of the Seljuqs.", "The Iranian revival consisted of Iranian support based on Iranian territory and most significantly a revived Iranian national spirit and culture in an Islamic form.", "They also focused on reviving the Persian language, the most significant one was Shahnameh written by Ferdowsi.", "Shahnameh is the national epic of Iran, and the world's longest epic poem created by a single poet.The blossoming literature, philosophy, mathematics, medicine, astronomy and art of Iran became major elements in the formation of a new age for the Iranian civilization, during a period known as the ''Islamic Golden Age''.", "The Islamic Golden Age reached its peak by the 10th and 11th centuries, during which Iran was the main theater of scientific activities.", "The tenth century saw a mass migration of Turkic tribes from Central Asia into the Iranian Plateau.", "Turkic tribesmen were first used in the Abbasid army as mamluks (slave-warriors).", "As a result, the Mamluks gained significant political power.", "In 999, large portions of Iran came briefly under the rule of the Ghaznavids, whose rulers were of mamluk Turkic origin, and longer subsequently under the Seljuk and Khwarezmian empires.", "The Seljuks subsequently gave rise to the Sultanate of Rum in Anatolia.", "The result of the adoption and patronage of Persian culture by Turkish rulers was the development of a distinct Turco-Persian tradition.From 1219 to 1221, under the Khwarazmian Empire, Iran suffered a devastating invasion by the Mongol Empire.", "According to Steven R. Ward, \"Mongol violence and depredations killed up to three-fourths of the population of the Iranian Plateau, possibly 10 to 15 million people.", "Some historians have estimated that Iran's population did not again reach its pre-Mongol levels until the mid-20th century.\"", "Most modern historians either outright dismiss or are highly skeptical of such statistics and deem them to be exaggerations by Muslim chroniclers of that era.", "Indeed, as far as the Iranian plateau was concerned, the bulk of the Mongol onslaught and battles were in the northeast of what is modern-day Iran, such as in the cities of Nishapur and Tus.Following the fracture of the Mongol Empire in 1256, Hulagu Khan established the Ilkhanate Empire in Iran.", "In 1357, the capital Tabriz was occupied by the Golden Horde khan Jani Beg and the centralised power collapsed, resulting in the emergence of rivaling dynasties.", "In 1370, yet another conqueror, Timur, took control over Persia, establishing the Timurid Empire.", "In 1387, Timur ordered the complete massacre of Isfahan, reportedly killing 70,000 citizens.=== Early modern period ======= Safavids ====Ismail I, the founder of the Safavid EmpirePortuguese presence in the Persian Gulf - 1507-1750 .By the 1500s, Ismail I established the Safavid Empire, with his capital at Tabriz.", "Beginning with Azerbaijan, he subsequently extended his authority over all of the Iranian territories, and established an intermittent Iranian hegemony over the vast relative regions, reasserting the Iranian identity within large parts of Greater Iran.", "Iran was predominantly Sunni, but Ismail instigated a forced conversion to the Shia branch, spreading throughout the Safavid territories in the Caucasus, Iran, Anatolia, and Mesopotamia.", "As a result, modern-day Iran is the only official Shia nation of the world, with it holding an absolute majority in Iran and the Republic of Azerbaijan.", "The relationship between the Safavid dynasty and the West begins with the presence of the Portuguese in the Persian Gulf from the 16th century, oscillating between alliances and open war between the 17th and 18th century.", "The Safavid era saw the start of mass integration from Caucasian populations into new layers of the society of Iran, as well as mass resettlement of them within the heartlands of Iran.", "Following a gradual decline in the late 1600s and the early 1700s, which was caused by internal conflicts, the continuous wars with the Ottomans, and the foreign interference (most notably Russian), the Safavid rule was ended by the Pashtun rebels who besieged Isfahan and defeated Soltan Hoseyn in 1722.==== Afsharids ====Nader Shah Afshar, the founder of the Afsharid Empire.In 1729, Nader Shah successfully drove out and conquered the Pashtun invaders.", "He subsequently took back the annexed Caucasian territories which were divided among the Ottoman and Russian authorities by the ongoing chaos in Iran.", "During the reign of Nader Shah, Iran reached its greatest extent since the Sasanian Empire, reestablishing the Iranian hegemony all over the Caucasus, as well as other major parts of the west and central Asia, and briefly possessing what was arguably the most powerful empire at the time.Nader Shah invaded India and sacked Delhi by the late 1730s.", "His territorial expansion, as well as his military successes, went into a decline following the final campaigns in the Northern Caucasus against then revolting Lezgins.", "The assassination of Nader Shah sparked a brief period of civil war and turmoil, after which Karim Khan of the Zand dynasty came to power in 1750, bringing a period of relative peace and prosperity.==== Zands ====Karim Khan Zand, the founder of Zand Empire\|uprightCompared to its preceding dynasties, the geopolitical reach of the Zand dynasty was limited.", "Many of the Iranian territories in the Caucasus gained ''de facto'' autonomy and were locally ruled through various Caucasian khanates.", "However, despite the self-ruling, they all remained subjects and vassals to the Zand king.", "It later quickly came to expand to include much of the rest of contemporary Iran (except for the provinces of Balochistan and Khorasan) as well as parts of Iraq.", "The lands of present-day Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia were controlled by khanates which were de jure part of the Zand realm, but the region was de facto autonomous.", "The island of Bahrain was also held for the Zands by the autonomous Al-Mazkur sheikhdom of Bushire.", "The reign of its most important ruler, Karim Khan, was marked by prosperity and peace.", "With its capital at Shiraz, arts and architecture flourished under Karim Khan's reign, with some themes in architecture being revived from the nearby sites of the Achaemenid and Sasanian era's of pre-Islamic Iran.", "Another civil war ensued after the death of Karim Khan in 1779, out of which Agha Mohammad Khan emerged, founding the Qajar dynasty in 1794.==== Qajars ====Agha Mohammad Khan's reign is noted for the return of a centralized and unified Iran and for relocating the capital to Tehran.", "In 1795, following the disobedience of the Georgian subjects and their alliance with the Russians, the Qajars captured Tbilisi by the Battle of Krtsanisi, and drove the Russians out of the entire Caucasus, reestablishing the Iranian suzerainty over the region.", "The Russo-Iranian wars of 1804–1813 and 1826–1828 resulted in large irrevocable territorial losses for Iran in the Caucasus, comprising all of the South Caucasus and Dagestan, which made part of the very concept of Iran for centuries, and thus substantial gains for the neighboring Russian Empire.As a result of the 19th-century Russo-Iranian wars, the Russians took over the Caucasus, and Iran irrevocably lost control over its integral territories in the region (comprising modern-day Dagestan, Georgia, Armenia, and Republic of Azerbaijan), which got confirmed per the treaties of Gulistan and Turkmenchay.", "Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar, the founder of Qajar Empire\|uprightThe area to the north of Aras River, among which the contemporary Republic of Azerbaijan, eastern Georgia, Dagestan, and Armenia are located, were Iranian territory until they were occupied by Russia in the 19th century.", "The weakening of Persia made it into a victim of the colonial struggle between Russia and Britain known as the Great Game.", "Especially after the treaty of Turkmenchay, Russia was the dominant force in Iran, while the Qajars would also play a role in several 'Great Game' battles such as the sieges of Herat in 1837 and 1856.As Iran shrank, many South Caucasian and North Caucasian Muslims moved towards Iran, especially until the aftermath of the Circassian genocide, and the decades afterwards, while Iran's Armenians were encouraged to settle in the newly incorporated Russian territories, causing significant demographic shifts.", "Around 1.5 million people—20 to 25% of the population of Iran—died as a result of the Great Famine of 1870–1872.==== Constitutional Revolution ====Between 1872 and 1905, a series of protests took place in response to the sale of concessions to foreigners by Qajar monarchs Naser-ed-Din and Mozaffar-ed-Din, and led to the Constitutional Revolution in 1905.The first Iranian constitution and the first national parliament of Iran were founded in 1906, through the ongoing revolution.", "The Constitution included the official recognition of Iran's three religious minorities, namely Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians.", "The struggle related to the constitutional movement was followed by the Triumph of Tehran in 1909, when Mohammad Ali Shah was forced to abdicate.", "In 1907, the Anglo-Russian Convention divided Qajar Iran into influence zones, formalising many of the concessions.", "On the pretext of restoring order, the Russians occupied northern Iran and the city of Tabriz and maintained a military presence in the region for years to come.", "But this did not put an end to the civil uprisings and was soon followed by Mirza Kuchik Khan's Jungle Movement against both the Qajar monarchy and foreign invaders.first national Iranian Parliament was established in 1906 during the Persian Constitutional Revolution.Despite Iran's neutrality during World War I, the Ottoman, Russian, and British Empires occupied the territory of western Iran and fought the Persian campaign before fully withdrawing their forces in 1921.At least 2 million Persian civilians died either directly in the fighting, the Ottoman perpetrated anti-Christian genocides or the war-induced famine of 1917–1919.A large number of Iranian Assyrian and Iranian Armenian Christians, as well as those Muslims who tried to protect them, were victims of mass murders committed by the invading Ottoman troops.Apart from the rule of Agha Mohammad Khan, the Qajar rule is characterised as a century of misrule.", "The inability of Qajar Iran's government to maintain the country's sovereignty during and immediately after World War I led to the British directed 1921 Persian coup d'état and Reza Shah's establishment of the Pahlavi dynasty.", "Reza Shah became the new Prime Minister of Iran and was declared the new monarch in 1925.==== Pahlavis ====In the midst of World War II, in July and August 1941 the British demanded that the Iranian government expel all Germans from Iran.", "Reza Shah refused to expel the Germans and on 25 August 1941, the British and Soviets launched a surprise invasion and Reza Shah's government quickly surrendered.", "The invasion's strategic purpose was to secure a supply line to the USSR (later named the Persian Corridor), secure the oil fields and Abadan Refinery (of the UK-owned Anglo-Iranian Oil Company), prevent a German advance on Baku's oil fields, and limit German influence in Iran.", "Following the invasion, on 16 September 1941 Reza Shah abdicated and was replaced by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.During the rest of World War II, Iran became a major conduit for British and American aid to the Soviet Union and an avenue through which over 120,000 Polish refugees and Polish Armed Forces fled the Axis advance.", "At the 1943 Tehran Conference, the Allied \"Big Three\"—Joseph Stalin, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill—issued the Tehran Declaration to guarantee the post-war independence and boundaries of Iran.", "However, at the end of the war, Soviet troops remained in Iran and established two puppet states in north-western Iran, namely the People's Government of Azerbaijan and the Republic of Mahabad.", "This led to the Iran crisis of 1946, one of the first confrontations of the Cold War, which ended after oil concessions were promised to the USSR and Soviet forces withdrew from Iran proper in May 1946.The two puppet states were soon overthrown, and the oil concessions were later revoked.=== 1951–1978: Mosaddegh, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi ===Mohammad Mosaddegh, who nationalized the oil industry of Iran In 1951, Mohammad Mosaddegh was elected Prime Minister of Iran, voted in by the legislature and confirmed by the Shah.", "Mosaddegh became enormously popular after he nationalized the oil industry of Iran, which had been largely controlled by foreign interests.", "He worked to weaken the monarchy of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi until Mosaddegh was removed in the 1953 Iranian coup d'état—initially an Anglo-American covert operation that marked the first time the United States had participated in an overthrow of a foreign government during the Cold War.After the coup, the Shah became increasingly autocratic and sultanistic, and Iran entered a decades-long phase of controversially close relations with the United States and other foreign governments.", "While the Shah increasingly modernised Iran and claimed to retain it as a fully secular state, arbitrary arrests and torture by his secret police, the SAVAK, were used for crushing political opposition.Ruhollah Khomeini, a radical Muslim cleric, became an active critic of the Shah's reforms known as the ''White Revolution''.", "Khomeini publicly denounced the government and was arrested and imprisoned for 18 months.", "After his release in 1964, he was eventually sent into exile.Due to the 1973 spike in oil prices, the economy of Iran was flooded with foreign currency, which caused inflation.", "By 1974, the economy of Iran was experiencing a double-digit inflation rate, and despite the many large projects to modernise the country, corruption was rampant and caused large amounts of waste.", "By 1975 and 1976, an economic recession led to an increased unemployment rate, especially among millions of youths who had migrated to the cities of Iran looking for construction jobs during the boom years of the early 1970s.", "By the late 1970s, many of these people opposed the Shah's regime and began organizing and joining the protests against it.=== Iranian Revolution ===Ruhollah Khomeini, the first supreme leader of Iran\|uprightThe 1979 Iranian Revolution, later known as the ''Islamic Revolution'', began in January 1978 with the first major demonstrations against the Mohammad-Reza Pahlavi.", "After a year of strikes and demonstrations paralyzing the country and its economy, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi fled to the United States, and Ruhollah Khomeini returned from exile to Tehran in February 1979, forming a new government.", "After holding a referendum, Iran officially became an Islamic republic in April 1979.A second referendum in December 1979 approved a theocratic constitution.Immediate nationwide uprisings against the new government began with the 1979 Kurdish rebellion and the Khuzestan uprisings, along with uprisings in Sistan and Baluchestan and other areas.", "Over the next several years, these uprisings were subdued violently by the new government.", "The new government began purging itself of the non-Islamist political opposition, as well as Islamists who were not considered radical enough.", "Although both nationalists and Marxists had initially joined with Islamists to overthrow the Shah, tens of thousands were executed by the new regime.", "Following Khomeini's order to purge the new government of any remaining officials still loyal to the exiled Shah, many former ministers and officials in the Shah's government, including former prime minister Amir-Abbas Hoveyda, were executed.On 4 November 1979, after the United States refused the extradition of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, a group of Muslim students seized the United States Embassy and took the embassy with 52 personnel and citizens hostage.", "Attempts by the Jimmy Carter administration to negotiate for the release of the hostages, and a failed rescue attempt, helped with the falling popularity of Carter among US citizens and brought Ronald Reagan to power.", "On Jimmy Carter's final day in office, the last hostages were set free due to the Algiers Accords.The Cultural Revolution began in 1980, with threats to close universities which did not conform to Islamization demands from the new government.", "All universities in the country were closed down in 1980, and reopened in 1983.On 22 September 1980, the Iraqi army invaded the western Iranian province of Khuzestan, initiating the Iran–Iraq War.", "Although the forces of Saddam Hussein made several early advances, by mid-1982, the Iranian forces successfully managed to drive the Iraqi army back into Iraq.", "In July 1982, Iran decided to invade Iraq and conducted offensives to conquer Iraqi territory and capture cities, such as Basra.", "The war continued until 1988, when the Iraqi army defeated the Iranian forces inside Iraq and pushed the remaining Iranian troops back across the border.", "Subsequently, Khomeini accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations.", "The total Iranian casualties in the war were estimated to be 123,220–160,000 KIA, 60,711 MIA, and 11,000–16,000 civilians killed.An Iranian soldier wearing a gas mask on the front line during the Iran–Iraq WarFollowing the Iran–Iraq War, in 1989, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani concentrated on a pragmatic pro-business policy of rebuilding and strengthening the economy without making any dramatic break with the ideology of the revolution.", "In 1997, Rafsanjani was succeeded by moderate reformist Mohammad Khatami, whose government attempted, unsuccessfully, to make the country freer and more democratic.The 2005 presidential election brought conservative populist candidate, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, to power.", "By the time of the 2009 Iranian presidential election, the Interior Ministry announced incumbent President Ahmadinejad had won 62.63% of the vote.", "The election results were widely disputed, and resulted in widespread protests and the creation of the Iranian Green Movement.Hassan Rouhani was elected as the president on 15 June 2013.The electoral victory of Rouhani relatively improved the relations of Iran with other countries.", "The 2017–18 Iranian protests swept across the country in response to the economic and political situation.", "The scale of protests throughout the country and the number of people participating were significant, and it was formally confirmed that thousands of protesters were arrested.", "The 2019–20 Iranian protests started on 15 November in Ahvaz, spreading across the country within hours, after the government announced increases in the fuel price of up to 300%.", "A week-long total Internet shutdown throughout the country marked one of the most severe Internet blackouts in any country, and in the bloodiest governmental crackdown of the protestors in the history of Islamic Republic; tens of thousands were arrested and hundreds were killed within a few days according to multiple international observers, including Amnesty International.On 3 January 2020, the revolutionary guard's general, Qasem Soleimani, was assassinated by the United States in Iraq, which considerably heightened the existing tensions between the two countries.", "His assassination lead to Operation Martyr Soleimani, the largest ballistic missile attack ever on Americans.", "The BBC reported that millions of mourners gathered in Soleimani's funeral ceremony on 6 January.", "Three days after, Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps launched a retaliatory attack on US forces in Iraq and shot down Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752, killing all members on board the plane and leading to nation-wide protests.", "An international investigation led to the government admitting to the shootdown, calling it a \"human error\".Protests against the government began on 16 September 2022 after a woman named Mahsa Amini died in police custody after being arrested by the country's Guidance Patrol, known commonly as the \"morality police\".On January 15, 2024, Iran launched ballistic missile and drone attacks against alleged Mossad headquarters in Iraqi Kurdistan, and ISIS bases in northern Syria, in response to the killing of Razi Mousavi and 2024 Kerman bombings.", "As one of Iran's most extensive operations, the attack caused significant collateral damage in Erbil.", "A day after the attack in Iraq and Syria, Iran carried out a similar series of strikes in Panjgur District of Pakistan, targeting the Sunni terror group Jaish ul-Adl." ], [ "Geography", "Mount Damavand, the highest volcano in Asia.", "It as has a special place in Persian mythology.Iran has an area of .", "It is the fourth-largest country entirely in Asia and the second-largest country in West Asia behind Saudi Arabia.", "It lies between latitudes 24° and 40° N, and longitudes 44° and 64° E. It is bordered to the northwest by Armenia (), the Azeri exclave of Nakhchivan (), and the Republic of Azerbaijan (); to the north by the Caspian Sea; to the northeast by Turkmenistan (); to the east by Afghanistan () and Pakistan (); to the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman; and to the west by Iraq () and Turkey ().Iran is in a seismically active area.", "On average, an earthquake of magnitude seven on the Richter scale occurs once every ten years.", "Most earthquakes are shallow-focus and can be very devastating, such as the 2003 Bam earthquake.", "Hyrcanian forests, a zone of lush lowland and montane forest in the very north of IranIran consists of the Iranian Plateau, with the exception of the coasts of the Caspian Sea and Khuzestan.", "It is one of the world's most mountainous countries, its landscape dominated by rugged mountain ranges that separate various basins or plateaus from one another.", "The populous western part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the Caucasus, Zagros, and Alborz, the last containing Mount Damavand, Iran's highest point at , which is also the highest mountain in Asia west of the Hindu Kush.The northern part of Iran is covered by the lush lowland Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests, near the southern shores of the Caspian Sea.", "The eastern part consists mostly of desert basins, such as the Kavir Desert, which is the country's largest desert, and the Lut Desert, as well as some salt lakes.", "The Lut Desert is the hottest recorded spot on the Earth's surface according to NASA, with 70.7 °C recorded in 2005.The only large plains are found along the coast of the Caspian Sea and at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, where the country borders the mouth of the Arvand river.", "Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz, and the Gulf of Oman.=== Islands ===Iranian islands are mainly located in the Persian Gulf.", "Iran has 102 islands in Urmia Lake, 427 islands in Aras River, several islands in Anzali Lagoon, Ashurade Island in the Caspian Sea, Sheytan Island in the Oman Sea and several other inland islands.", "More than 40 Iranian islands in the Persian Gulf are located in the political sphere of the three provinces of Bushehr, Khuzestan and Hormozgan, more than half of which are uninhabited.", "Iran also has an uninhabited island at the far end of the Gulf of Oman, near the Pakistani border.", "A small number of Iranian islands can be visited by tourists, as most of them are in the possession of the military or wildlife protection, and entry to them is generally prohibited or requires a permit.Iran took control of Bumusa, and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs in 1971, all located in the Strait of Hormuz between the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman.", "Despite the islands being small and having little natural resources or population, they are highly valuable for their key strategic location in the Strait of Hormuz, the most vital waterway in the world.", "Although the United Arab Emirates claims sovereignty over them, it has constantly been met with strong response from the Iranian government, based on their historical and cultural background dating to Achaemenid, Parthian and Sasanian Empires.", "Iran has the full-control over the islands, and are administered as part of the Hormozgan Province.Kish island, as a free trade zone, is touted as a consumer's paradise, with numerous malls, shopping centers, tourist attractions, and luxury hotels.", "Qeshm is the largest island in Iran, and a UNESCO Global Geopark since 2016.Its salt cave, \"Namakdan\", is the largest salt cave in the world and one of the world's longest caves.=== Climate ===Iran's climate is diverse, ranging from arid and semi-arid, to subtropical along the Caspian coast and the northern forests.", "On the northern edge of the country (the Caspian coastal plain), temperatures rarely fall below freezing and the area remains humid for the rest of the year.", "Summer temperatures rarely exceed .", "Annual precipitation is in the eastern part of the plain and more than in the western part.", "Gary Lewis, the United Nations Resident Coordinator for Iran, has said that \"Water scarcity poses the most severe human security challenge in Iran today\".To the west, settlements in the Zagros basin experience lower temperatures, severe winters with below zero average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall.", "The eastern and central basins are arid, with less than of rain and have occasional deserts.", "Average summer temperatures rarely exceed .", "The coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in southern Iran have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers.", "The annual precipitation ranges from .Iran is the largest of the few countries in the world which have not ratified the Paris Agreement.=== Wildlife ===Persian leopard, listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red ListThe wildlife of Iran includes bears, the Eurasian lynx, foxes, gazelles, gray wolves, jackals, panthers, and wild pigs.", "Eagles, falcons, partridges, pheasants, and storks are also native to Iran.One of the most famous species of animal is the critically endangered Asiatic cheetah, also known as the ''Iranian cheetah'', whose numbers were greatly reduced after the 1979 Revolution.", "The Persian leopard, which is the world's largest leopard subspecies and lives primarily in northern Iran, is also endangered.", "Iran lost all its Asiatic lions and the now extinct Caspian tigers by the earlier part of the 20th century.At least 74 species of Iranian wildlife are on the red list of the International Union for Conservation of Nature.", "The Iranian Parliament has been showing disregard for wildlife by passing laws and regulations such as the act that lets the Ministry of Industries and Mines exploit mines without the involvement of the Department of Environment, and by approving large national development projects without demanding comprehensive study of their impact on wildlife habitats.=== Administrative divisions ===The 31 provinces of IranIran is divided into five regions with 31 provinces (, ), each governed by an appointed governor (, ).", "The provinces are divided into counties (, ), and subdivided into districts (, ) and sub-districts (, ).The country has one of the highest urban growth rates in the world.", "From 1950 to 2002, the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to 60%.", "Iran's population is concentrated in its western half, especially in the north, north-west and west of the country.Tehran, with a population of around 8.8 million (2016 census), is Iran's capital and largest city.", "It is an economical and cultural center and is the hub of the country's communication and transport network.It is also home to the world's largest shopping mall, Iran Mall.The country's second most populous city, Mashhad, has a population of around 3.3 million (2016 census), and is capital of the province of Razavi Khorasan.", "Being the site of the Imam Reza shrine, it is a holy city in Shia Islam.", "About 15 to 20 million pilgrims visit the shrine every year.Isfahan has a population of around 2.2 million (2016 census) and is Iran's third most populous city.", "It is the capital of Isfahan province and was also the third capital of the Safavid Empire.", "It is home to a wide variety of historical sites, including the famous Naqsh-e Jahan Square, Siosepol, and the churches at the Armenian district of New Julfa.", "It is also home to one of the world's largest shopping malls, Isfahan City Center." ], [ "Government and politics", "Iran's syncretic political system combines elements of an Islamic theocracy with vetted democracy.The political system of the Islamic Republic is based on the 1979 Constitution.", "Juan José Linz wrote in 2000 that \"it is difficult to fit the Iranian regime into the existing typology, as it combines the ideological bent of totalitarianism with the limited pluralism of authoritarianism and holds regular elections in which candidates advocating differing policies and incumbents are often defeated\".", "Iran ranked 154th in the 2022 ''The Economist Democracy Index''.=== Supreme Leader ===Ali Khamenei, the supreme leader of Iran, meeting with his counterpart, China's Xi JinpingThe Supreme Leader (\"Rahbar\"), or Leader of the Revolution is the head of state of Iran and is responsible for delineation and supervision of policy.", "The Iranian president has limited power compared to the Rahbar Khamenei.", "The current longtime Rahbar is Ali Khamenei.", "Key ministers are selected with the Rahbar Ali Khamenei's agreement and he has the ultimate say on Iran's foreign policy.", "The Rahbar is directly involved in ministerial appointments for Defense, Intelligence and Foreign Affairs, as well as other top ministries after submission of candidates from the president.", "Iran's regional policy is directly controlled by the office of the Rahbar with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs' task limited to protocol and ceremonial occasions.", "All of Iran's ambassadors to Arab countries, for example, are chosen by the Quds Corps, which directly reports to the Rahbar.", "The Rahbar can also order laws to be amended.", "Setad is estimated at $95 billion in 2013 by Reuters, accounts of which are secret even to the Iranian parliament.The Rahbar is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, controls the military intelligence and security operations, and has sole power to declare war or peace.", "The heads of the judiciary, the state radio and television networks, the commanders of the police and military forces, and six of the twelve members of the Guardian Council are directly appointed by the Rahbar.The Assembly of Experts is responsible for electing the Rahbar, and has the power to dismiss him on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem.", "To date, the Assembly of Experts has not challenged any of the Rahbar's decisions nor attempted to dismiss him.", "The previous head of the judicial system, Sadeq Larijani, appointed by the Rahbar, said that it is illegal for the Assembly of Experts to supervise the Rahbar.", "Many believe the Assembly of Experts has become a ceremonial body without any real power.", "There have been instances when the current Rahbar publicly criticised members of the Assembly of Experts, resulting in their arrest and dismissal.=== Guardian Council ===Presidential candidates and parliamentary candidates must be approved by the Guardian Council (all members of which are directly or indirectly appointed by the Leader) or the Leader before running to ensure their allegiance.", "The Leader very rarely does the vetting himself directly but has the power to do so, in which case additional approval of the Guardian Council would not be needed.", "The Leader can also revert the decisions of the Guardian Council.", "The Guardian Council can and has dismissed elected members of the Iranian parliament in the past.=== President ===Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi, meeting with Russian President Vladimir PutinAfter the Rahbar, the Constitution defines the president of Iran as the highest state authority.", "The President is elected by universal suffrage for a term of four years, but is required to gain the Leader's official approval before being sworn in before the Parliament (Majlis).", "The Leader also has the power to dismiss the elected president.", "The President can only be re-elected for one term.The President is responsible for the implementation of the constitution, and for the exercise of executive powers in implementing the decrees and general policies as outlined by the Rahbar, except for matters directly related to the Rahbar, who has the final say in all matters.", "Chapter IX of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran sets forth the qualifications for presidential candidates.", "The procedures for presidential election and all other elections in Iran are outlined by the Rahbar.", "The President functions as the executive of affairs such as signing treaties and other international agreements, and administering national planning, budget, and state employment affairs, all as approved by the Rahbar.The President appoints the ministers, subject to the approval of the Parliament, as well as the approval of the Rahbar, who can dismiss or reinstate any of the ministers at any time, regardless of the decisions made by the President or the Parliament.", "The President supervises the Council of Ministers, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature.", "The current Rahbar, Ali Khamenei, has fired as well as reinstated Council of Ministers members.", "Eight Vice Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of twenty-two ministers, who must all be approved by the legislature.=== Legislature ===The Islamic Consultative Assembly, also known as the Iranian ParliamentThe legislature of Iran, known as the Islamic Consultative Assembly, is a unicameral body comprising 290 members elected for four-year terms.", "It drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the national budget.", "All parliamentary candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Guardian Council.The Guardian Council comprises twelve jurists, including six appointed by the Rahbar.", "Others are elected by the Parliament, from among the jurists nominated by the Head of the Judiciary.", "The Council interprets the constitution and may veto the Parliament.", "If a law is deemed incompatible with the constitution or Sharia (Islamic law), it is referred back to the Parliament for revision.", "The Expediency Council has the authority to mediate disputes between the Parliament and the Guardian Council, and serves as an advisory body to the Rahbar, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in the country.", "Local city councils are elected by public vote to four-year terms in all cities and villages of Iran.=== Law ===Anushiruwan at the Courthouse of TehranThe Rahbar appoints the head of the country's judiciary, appointing the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor.", "There are several types of courts, including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and revolutionary courts which deal with certain categories of offenses, such as crimes against national security.", "The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed.The Chief Justice of Iran is the head of the Judicial system of the Islamic Republic of Iran and is responsible for its administration and supervision.", "He is also the highest judge of the Supreme Court of Iran.", "The Rahbar of Iran appoints and can dismiss the Chief Justice.", "The Chief Justice nominates some candidates for serving as minister of justice, and then the President select one of them.", "The Chief Justice can serve for two five-year terms.The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by clerics, although it has also taken on cases involving laypeople.", "The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Rahbar.", "The Court's rulings are final and cannot be appealed.", "The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 \"virtuous and learned\" clerics elected by adult suffrage for eight-year terms.=== Foreign relations ===Nations with which Iran has diplomatic relationsSince the time of the 1979 Revolution, Iran's foreign relations have often been portrayed as being based on two strategic principles: eliminating outside influences in its region and pursuing extensive diplomatic contacts with developing and non-aligned countries.Since 2005, Iran's nuclear program has become the subject of contention with the international community, mainly the United States.", "Many countries have expressed concern that Iran's nuclear program could divert civilian nuclear technology into a weapons program.", "This has led the United Nations Security Council to impose sanctions against Iran which had further isolated Iran politically and economically from the rest of the global community.", "In 2009, the U.S. Director of National Intelligence said that Iran, if choosing to, would not be able to develop a nuclear weapon until 2013.Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which extensively uses pre-Islamic Persian architecture in its facade, the government of Iran maintains diplomatic relations with 99 members of the United Nations, but not with the United States, and not with Israel—a state which Iran's government has derecognised since the 1979 Revolution.", "Among Muslim nations, Iran has an adversarial relationship with Saudi Arabia due to different political and Islamic ideologies.", "Regarding the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, the government of Iran has recognised Jerusalem as the capital of the State of Palestine, after Trump recognised Jerusalem as the capital of Israel.Since the 2000s, Iran's controversial nuclear program has raised concerns, which is part of the basis of the international sanctions against the country.", "On 14 July 2015, Iran and the P5+1 agreed to the Joint Comprehensive Plan on Action (JCPOA), aiming to end economic sanctions in exchange for Iran's restriction in producing enriched uranium after demonstrating a peaceful nuclear research project that would meet the International Atomic Energy Agency standards.Iran is a member of dozens of international organizations, including the G-15, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, IDA, IDB, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, OIC, OPEC, WHO, and the United Nations, and currently has observer status at the World Trade Organization.=== Military ===The Sejjil.", "Iran is the 5th country in the world with hypersonic missile technologyIran is fast approaching to become a nuclear-power state, and has uranium enriched to up to 60% fissile content as of November 2023, close to weapon grade.", "Iran has been seeking nuclear weapons for decades, a program which the US and other Western nations have vowed to stop, imposing economic sanctions in an attempt to do so.", "In January 2024, the chief of the IAEA said that Iran has sufficient quantities of highly enriched uranium to build several nuclear warheads, with some analysts already regard the country as a de facto nuclear power.", "The country's ballistic missile, space, and nuclear programs are internationally hot political topics.", "Iran is one of the five countries in the world that has cyber-army capabilities, making the country a major player in terms of cyber-warfare operations.Iran possesses the world's 17th strongest military.", "The Islamic Republic of Iran Armed Forces, or Artesh in Persian language, ranks 13th globally in terms of military strength.", "It is the 9th largest ground force in the world, the 9th largest armoured force globally and possesses the biggest Army Aviation fleet in the Middle East.", "It is also the largest Armed forces in West Asia.", "Iran ranks 7th globally in terms of active military personnel.The Islamic Republic of Iran Armed Forces has several components: the regular forces of the Army, which includes the Ground Forces, the Air Defense Force, the Air Force, and the Navy, and the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), totaling about 610,000 active troops.", "Iran also has around 350,000 Reserve Force, totaling around 960,000 trained troops.", "These numbers do not include Law Enforcement Command or Basij.", "While the regular army protects the country's sovereignty in a traditional capacity, the IRGC's mandate is to ensure the integrity of the Islamic Republic.All young men who reach the age of 18 must spend about two years of compulsory military service in the Iranian army, or the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps.", "As of October 2023, Iran has reduced the compulsory military service for all conscripts by 3 months.Iran has a paramilitary, volunteer militia force within the IRGC, called the ''Basij'', which includes about 90,000 full-time, active-duty uniformed members.", "Up to 25 million men and women are members of the Basij, with over 600,000 available for immediate call-up, 300,000 reservists, and some 1 million that could be mobilized when necessary.", "In 2021, Iran's military spending increased for the first time in four years, to $24.6 billion, 2.30% of country's GDP.", "Funding for the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps accounted for %34 of Iran's total military spending in 2021.Iran is among the world's top 15 countries in terms of military budget.HESA Shahed 136.Iran is considered as a global leader and superpower in terms of drone warfare.Iran has significant influence and foothold in countries such as Iraq, Syria, Yemen and Lebanon.", "The government of Iran supports the military activities of its allies in Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon (Hezbollah) with military and financial aid.", "Iran and Syria are close strategic allies, and Iran has provided significant support for the Syrian Government in the Syrian civil war.", "According to some estimates, Iran controlled over 80,000 pro-Assad Shi'ite fighters in Syria.Since the 1979 Revolution, to overcome foreign embargoes, the government of Iran has developed its own military industry, produced its own tanks, armored personnel carriers, missiles, submarines, military vessels, missile destroyer, radar systems, helicopters, navies and fighter planes.", "The Iranian Navy has considerable presence in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Ocean, and is expanding to Antarctica, namely South Pole.", "It also has had several joint exercises with Russia and China, which aims to do annually.In recent years, official announcements have highlighted the development of weapons such as the Hoot, Kowsar, Zelzal, Fateh-110, Shahab-3, Sejjil, Fattah, Khorramahahr, Kheibar Shekan, Emad, Ghadr-110, Hormuz-1, Dezful, Qiam 1, Ashoura, Fajr-3, Haj Qasem, Persian Gulf, Raad-500, Zolfaghar, Hoveyzeh, Soumar, Fakour-90, Paveh, Rezvan, Samen, Tondar-69 and a variety of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).", "Iran has the largest and most diverse ballistic missile arsenal in the Middle East.", "Iran is considered as a global leader and superpower in terms of drone warfare.", "Iran is the 5th country in the world with hypersonic missile technology, alongside Russia, China, United States and North Korea.Following the Russian purchase of Iranian drones during the invasion in Ukraine, the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force (IRIAF) has finalized arrangements for the acquisition of Russian made Sukhoi Su-35 fighter jets, Mil Mi-28 attack helicopters, air defense and missile systems, on November 28, 2023.=== Regional influence ===Map showing parts of Iran's significant influence and foothold, often mentioned as the \"Dawn of A New Persian Empire.\"", "Since the 1979 Revolution, Iran has grew its influence across and beyond the region.", "It has built military forces with a wide network of state and none-state actors, starting with Hezbollah in Lebanon in 1982.Since its establishment as a primary branch to the Iranian Army, the IRGC has been key to grow the Iranian influence, by providing money, tech, and training to its Quds Force.", "The instability in Lebanon (from the 1980s), Iraq (from 2003) and Yemen (from 2014) have allowed Iran to build strong alliances and foothold beyond its borders.", "Hezbollah maintains a separate military force in Lebanon and provides numerous services to the Lebanese population, including infrastructure, health care, schools, and youth programs, while also simultaneously being part of the government's political system, with representatives in the parliament and having tremendous influence over the direction and stability of Lebanon.", "Hezbollah has often been regarded as a state within a state, its political position and services such as education, shows its integration into the Lebanese political system and society.", "Its participation in the Syrian Civil War have also strengthened its military capabilities.", "Iranian influence in Lebanon dates back to the 16th century in the Safavid Empire, and has grown considerably during the 20th century, first minimally during the Pahlavi period, and significantly after the Iranian Revolution.", "Iran has a prominent influence in the social services, education, economy and the politics of Lebanon, and analysts have argued that Lebanon provides Iran access to the Mediterranean Sea.", "Hezbollah's strategic successes against Israel, such as its symbolic victory during the 2006 Israel–Hezbollah War, elevated Iran's influence in Levant and strengthened its appeal across the Arab World.Since the US invasion of Iraq in 2003 and the arrival of ISIS in the mid-2010s, Iran has financed and trained militia groups in Iraq, now standing as a separate force to the Iraqi military.", "Since the Iran-Iraq war in 1980s, Iran has shaped Iraq's politics.", "Iranian influence in Iraq has been advanced through the support of Shia militias since 2003.With the loss of territory in Iraq, the militia groups were able to significantly expand in the mid-2010s.", "Following Iraq's struggle against the ISIS in 2014, companies linked to the IRGC such as Khatam al-Anbiya, started to build roads, power plants, hotels and businesses in Basra, Nasiriyah, Najaf, Karbala and Baghdad, creating an economic corridor worth around $9 billion before the COVID-19.This number is expected to grow to $20 billion in the coming years.During Yemen's civil war, Iran provided military support to the Houthis, a Zaydi Shiite movement that has been fighting Yemen's Sunni government since 2004.Over the years, they have gained significant power and influence amid the ongoing civil war in Yemen.In Syria, Iran has supported President Bashar al-Assad, with the two countries being long-standing allies and backing Hezbollah in Lebanon.", "Iran has provided significant military and economic support to Assad's government, and as a result, it has a considerable foothold in Syria, with Assad as a dominant position remaining in power.", "Iran also has substantial economic, political, cultural, and religious leverage on Afghanistan.", "Iran have long supported the anti-Israel fronts in North Africa in countries like Algeria and Tunisia, embracing Hamas in part to help undermine the popularity of the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) in North Africa.", "Iran's support of Hamas emerged more clearly in later years.Iran's influence is not only in their civilian bodies, but also in their security and intelligence.", "This has led the capitals of these countries, Beirut, Baghdad, Sana'a and Damascus, to be portrayed in the regional media as “Iran’s four Arab capitals”.", "While Iran may work closely with these state and none-state groups and have significant influence on their soil, they are autonomous, and it does not translate into outright control by Iran.=== Human rights ===Iran's human rights record is exceptionally poor.", "The regime in Iran is undemocratic, has frequently persecuted and arrested critics of the government and its Rahbar, and severely restricts the participation of candidates in popular elections as well as other forms of political activity.", "Women's rights in Iran are described as seriously inadequate, and children's rights have been severely violated, with more child offenders being executed in Iran than in any other country in the world.", "Sexual activity between members of the same sex is illegal and is punishable by up to death.UN Special Rapporteur Javaid Rehman has reported of several ethnic minorities in Iran facing discrimination.", "A group of UN experts in August 2022 urged Iran to stop \"systematic persecution\" of religious minorities, adding that members of the Baháʼí Faith were arrested, barred from university enrolment, or had their homes demolished.", "USCIRF Chair Nury Turkel in January 2023 noted that there was repression of Sunni Muslims, Gonabadi Sufi Muslims, Christians and Yarsanis in the country.Over the past decade, numbers of anti-government protests have broken out throughout Iran (such as the 2019–20 Iranian protests), demanding reforms or the end to the Islamic Republic.", "However, the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) and police often suppressed mass protests violently, resulting in thousands of protesters being killed.==== Censorship ====Censorship in Iran under the government of the Islamic Republic was ranked among the most extreme worldwide.", "Iran also has strict regulations when it comes to internet censorship, with the government and the IRGC persistently blocking social media and other websites.", "In January 2021, Iranian authorities added Signal to the list of blocked social media platforms, which included Facebook, Telegram, Twitter and YouTube.", "They carried out arbitrary arrests for social media postings deemed \"counter-revolutionary\" or \"un-Islamic\"." ], [ "Economy", "Iran's provinces by their contribution to national GDP (2020)Historical GDP per capita developmentIran's economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures.", "In 2022, Iran's nominal GDP was $352.2 billion, while its nominal GDP per capita was $4,110.Iran is ranked as a lower-middle income economy by the World Bank.", "In the early 21st century, the service sector contributed the largest percentage of the GDP, followed by industry (mining and manufacturing) and agriculture.The Central Bank of Iran is responsible for developing and maintaining the Iranian rial, the country's currency.", "The government does not recognise trade unions other than the Islamic labour councils, which are subject to the approval of employers and the security services.", "The minimum wage in June 2013 was 487 million rials a month ($134).", "Unemployment has remained above 10% since 1997, and the unemployment rate for women is almost double that of the men.In 2006, about 45% of the government's budget came from oil and natural gas revenues, and 31% came from taxes and fees.", ", Iran had earned $70 billion in foreign-exchange reserves, mostly (80%) from crude oil exports.", "Iranian budget deficits have been a chronic problem, mostly due to large-scale state subsidies, that include foodstuffs and especially gasoline, totaling more than $84 billion in 2008 for the energy sector alone.", "In 2010, the economic reform plan was approved by parliament to cut subsidies gradually and replace them with targeted social assistance.", "The objective is to move towards free market prices in a five-year period and increase productivity and social justice.The administration continues to follow the market reform plans of the previous one, and indicates that it will diversify Iran's oil-reliant economy.", "Iran has also developed a biotechnology, nanotechnology, and pharmaceutical industry.", "However, nationalised industries such as the bonyads have often been managed badly, making them ineffective and uncompetitive.", "Currently, the government is trying to privatise these industries, and, despite successes, there are still several problems to overcome, such as the lagging corruption in the public sector and lack of competitiveness.Iran has leading manufacturing industries in the fields of automobile manufacture, transportation, construction materials, home appliances, food and agricultural goods, armaments, pharmaceuticals, information technology, and petrochemicals in the Middle East.", "According to 2012 data from the Food and Agriculture Organization, Iran has been among the world's top five producers of apricots, cherries, sour cherries, cucumbers and gherkins, dates, eggplants, figs, pistachios, quinces, walnuts, and watermelons.Economic sanctions against Iran have damaged the economy.", "In 2015, Iran and the P5+1 reached a deal on the nuclear program that removed the main sanctions pertaining to Iran's nuclear program by 2016.According to the BBC, renewed U.S. sanctions against Iran \"have led to a sharp downturn in Iran's economy, pushing the value of its currency to record lows, quadrupling its annual inflation rate, driving away foreign investors, and triggering protests\".=== Tourism ===Around 12 million tourists visit Kish Island annually.", "It ranks among the top-10 most beautiful islands in the world.Although tourism declined significantly during the war with Iraq, it has been subsequently recovered.", "About 2.3 million foreign tourists visited Iran in 2009, mostly from Asian countries, including the republics of Central Asia, while about 10% came from the European Union and North America.", "Since the removal of some sanctions against Iran in 2015, tourism has re-surged in the country.", "Over 5 million tourists visited Iran in the fiscal year of 2014–2015, four percent more than the previous year.Alongside the capital, the most popular tourist destinations are Isfahan, Shiraz and Mashhad.", "Iran has millions of medical tourists every year, fast emerging as a preferred destination for medical tourism.", "Iran's tourism had constantly been growing before the COVID-19 pandemic, reaching nearly 9 million visitors in 2019, the world's third fastest-growing tourism destination before the pandemic.", "Iran's tourism experienced a growth of 48.5% in 2023, attracting over 5.2 million visitors, but 37% lower compared to the pre-COVID statistics in 2019.Over 400,000 visitors motivated by trade, medical treatment and pilgrimage.", "In September and October 2023, Iran achieved a positive balance compared to the same statistics and period in 2019.1.8 million visitors from West Asia traveled to Iran in the first seven months of 2023, a 31% growth compared to the same period in 2022.This growth surpassed that of Bahrain, Kuwait, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia.Domestic tourism in Iran is one of the largest in the world, with the Iranian tourists spent $33.3 billion in 2021.Iran projects investment of over $32 billion in the country's tourism sector and targets 20 million tourists by 2025.=== Agriculture ===Paddy field in Bandpey, North IranRoughly one-third of Iran's total surface area is suited for farmland, but because of poor soil and lack of adequate water distribution in many areas, most of it is not under cultivation.", "Only 12% of the total land area is under cultivation (arable land, orchards and vineyards) but less than one-third of the cultivated area is irrigated; the rest is devoted to dryland farming.", "Some 92 percent of agricultural products depend on water.", "The western and northwestern portions of the country have the most fertile soils.", "Iran's food security index stands at around 96 percent.", "At the end of the 20th century, agricultural activities accounted for about one-fifth of Iran's GDP and employed a comparable proportion of the workforce.", "Most farms are small, less than 25 acres (10 hectares), and are not economically viable, which has contributed to the wide-scale migration to cities.", "In addition to water scarcity and areas of poor soil, seed is of low quality and farming techniques are antiquated.=== Industry and services ===Iran Khodro is the largest car manufacturer in the Middle East.From 2008 to 2009, Iran has leaped to 28th place from 69th place in annual industrial production growth rate.", "Iranian contractors have been awarded several foreign tender contracts in different fields of construction of dams, bridges, roads, buildings, railroads, power generation, and gas, oil and petrochemical industries.", "As of 2011, some 66 Iranian industrial companies are carrying out projects in 27 countries.", "Iran has exported over $20 billion worth of technical and engineering services over 2001–2011.The availability of local raw materials, rich mineral reserves, experienced manpower have all collectively played crucial role in winning the international bids.", "45% of large industrial firms are located in Tehran, and almost half of these workers work for the government.", "The Iranian retail industry is largely in the hands of cooperatives, many of them government-sponsored, and of independent retailers in the bazaars.", "The bulk of food sales occur at street markets, where the Chief Statistics Bureau sets the prices.", "Iran's main exports are to Iraq, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and other Central Asian countries, Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Oman, Syria, Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, France, Canada, Venezuela, Japan, South Korea and Turkey.", "Iran's automotive industry is the second most active industry of the country, after its oil and gas industry.", "Iran Khodro is the largest car manufacturer in the Middle East, and ITMCO is biggest tractor manufacturer.", "Iran is the 12th largest automaker in the world.", "Construction is one of the most important sectors in Iran accounting for 20–50% of the total private investment.Iran is one of the most important mineral producers in the world, ranked among 15 major mineral-rich countries.", "Iran's oil and gas industry is the most active industry of the country.", "Iran has the fourth largest reserves of oil and second largest reserves of gas in the world.Iran manufactures 60–70% of its industrial equipment domestically, including various turbines, pumps, catalysts, refineries, oil tankers, drilling rigs, offshore platforms and exploration instruments.", "Iran has become self-sufficient in designing, building and operating dams and power plants.", "Iran is one of the six countries in the world that manufacture gas- and steam-powered turbines.Iran's domestic consumer electronic market was estimated at $7.3 billion in 2008 ($8.2 billion in 2010), with 47% market share for computer hardware, 28% Audio/Video and 25% mobile phone.=== Transportation ===The National Airline of Iran, branded as Iran Air, is the flag carrier of Iran.", "Domestically, Iran Air is known as Huma, which is the name of a mythical Persian bird, and the symbol of the airways.Iran has a long paved road system linking most of its towns and all of its cities.", "In 2011 the country had of roads, of which 73% were paved.", "In 2008 there were nearly 100 passenger cars for every 1,000 inhabitants.The Tehran Metro is the largest metro system in the Middle East.", "It carries more than 3 million passengers a day.", "In 2018, 820 million trips were made on Tehran Metro.", "Trains operate on 11,106 km (6,942 mi) of railroad track.", "The country's major port of entry is Bandar-Abbas on the Strait of Hormuz.", "After arriving in Iran, imported goods are distributed throughout the country by trucks and freight trains.", "The Tehran–Bandar-Abbas railroad, opened in 1995, connects Bandar-Abbas to the railroad system of Central Asia via Tehran and Mashhad.", "Other major ports include Bandar e-Anzali and Bandar e-Torkeman on the Caspian Sea and Khorramshahr and Bandar-e Emam Khomeyni on the Persian Gulf.Dozens of cities have airports that serve passenger and cargo planes.", "Iran Air, the national airline, was founded in 1962 and operated domestic and international flights.", "Iran Air is the flag carrier of Iran, and its domestically known as Huma, which is the name of a mythical Persian phoenix, and the symbol of the airways.", "All large cities have mass transit systems using buses, and several private companies provide bus services between cities.Transport in Iran is inexpensive because of the government's subsidization of the price of gasoline.", "The downside is a huge draw on government coffers, economic inefficiency because of highly wasteful consumption patterns, smuggling to neighboring countries and air pollution.", "In 2008, more than one million people worked in the transportation sector, accounting for 9% of GDP.=== Energy ===Iran holds 10% of the world's proven oil reserves and 15% of its gas.", "It is OPEC's second-largest exporter and the world's seventh largest oil producer.Iran has the world's second largest proved gas reserves after Russia, with 33.6 trillion cubic meters, and the third largest natural gas production after Indonesia and Russia.", "It also ranks fourth in oil reserves with an estimated 153,600,000,000 barrels.", "It is OPEC's second largest oil exporter.", "Despite this, Iran spent US$4 billion on fuel imports as of 2005 due to a lack of domestic refining capacity.", "Oil industry output averaged in 2005, compared with the peak of six million barrels per day reached in 1974.In 2004, a large share of Iran's natural gas reserves were untapped.", "The addition of new hydroelectric stations and the streamlining of conventional coal and oil-fired stations increased installed capacity to 33,000 megawatts.", "Of that amount, about 75% was based on natural gas, 18% on oil, and 7% on hydroelectric power.", "In 2004, Iran opened its first wind-powered and geothermal plants, and the first solar thermal plant was to come online in 2009.Iran is the world's third country to have developed GTL technology.Demographic trends and intensified industrialization have caused electric power demand to grow by 8% per year.", "The government's goal of 53,000 megawatts of installed capacity by 2010 is to be reached by bringing on line new gas-fired plants, and adding hydropower and nuclear power generation capacity.", "Iran's first nuclear power plant at Bushire went online in 2011.It is the second nuclear power plant ever built in the Middle East after the Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant in Armenia." ], [ "Education, science, technology and telecommunications", "=== Science and technology ===Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, a Persian polymath, architect, philosopher, physician, scientist, and theologian.\|270x270pxIran has made considerable advances in science and technology through education and training, despite international sanctions in almost all aspects of research during the past 30 years.", "In recent years, the growth in Iran's scientific output is reported to be the fastest in the world.", "In the biomedical sciences, Iran's Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics has a UNESCO chair in biology.", "In late 2006, Iranian scientists successfully cloned a sheep by somatic cell nuclear transfer, at the Royan Research Center in Tehran.", "Stem cell research in Iran is among the top 10 in the world.", "Iran ranks 15th in the world in nanotechnologies.", "Iranian scientists outside Iran have also made some major contributions to science.", "In 1960, Ali Javan co-invented the first gas laser, and fuzzy set theory was introduced by Lotfi A. Zadeh.", "Iranian cardiologist Tofigh Mussivand invented and developed the first artificial cardiac pump, the precursor of the artificial heart.", "Furthering research and treatment of diabetes, the HbA1c was discovered by Samuel Rahbar.", "A substantial number of papers in string theory are published in Iran.", "In August 2014, Iranian mathematician Maryam Mirzakhani became the first woman, as well as the first Iranian, to receive the Fields Medal, the highest prize in mathematics.=== Education ===Sharif University of Technology, in TehranEducation in Iran is highly centralised.", "K–12 is supervised by the Ministry of Education, and higher education is under the supervision of the Ministry of Science and Technology.The rate of adult literacy (among Iranians of ages 10 to 49) has reached 96% on March 19, 2020; while according to UNESCO it had rated 85.0% in 2008 (up from 36.5% in 1976).According to the data provided by UNESCO, Iran's literacy rate among people aged 15 years and older was 85.54% as of 2016, with men (90.35%) being significantly more educated than women (80.79%), with the number of illiterate people of the same age amounting to around 8,700,000 of the country's 85 million population.", "According to this report, Iranian government's expenditure on education amounts to around 4% of the GDP.The requirement to enter into higher education is to have a high school diploma and pass the Iranian University Entrance Exam (officially known as ''konkur'' (کنکور)), which is the equivalent of the SAT and ACT exams of the United States.", "Many students do a 1–2-year course of pre-university (''piš-dānešgāh''), which is the equivalent of the GCE A-levels and the International Baccalaureate.", "The completion of the pre-university course earns students the Pre-University Certificate.Iran's higher education is sanctioned by different levels of diplomas, including an associate degree (''kārdāni''; also known as ''fowq e diplom'') delivered in two years, a bachelor's degree (''kāršenāsi''; also known as ''lisāns'') delivered in four years, and a master's degree (''kāršenāsi e aršad'') delivered in two years, after which another exam allows the candidate to pursue a doctoral program (PhD; known as ''doktorā'').According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities (), Iran's top five universities include Tehran University of Medical Sciences (478th worldwide), the University of Tehran (514th worldwide), Sharif University of Technology (605th worldwide), Amirkabir University of Technology (726th worldwide), and the Tarbiat Modares University (789th worldwide).", "Iran was ranked 62nd in the Global Innovation Index in 2023, up from 67th in 2020.It is widely considered as the nation's most prestigious and leading institution for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields.Iran has increased its publication output nearly tenfold from 1996 through 2004, and has been ranked first in terms of output growth rate, followed by China.", "According to a study by SCImago in 2012, Iran would rank fourth in the world in terms of research output by 2018, if the current trend persists.In 2009, a SUSE Linux-based HPC system made by the Aerospace Research Institute of Iran (ARI) was launched with 32 cores, and now runs 96 cores.", "Its performance was pegged at 192 GFLOPS.", "The Iranian humanoid robot Sorena 2, which was designed by engineers at the University of Tehran, was unveiled in 2010.The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has placed the name of Surena among the five prominent robots of the world after analyzing its performance.=== Iranian Space Agency ===SafirThe Iranian Space Agency (ISA) was established on 28 February 2004.Iran became an orbital-launch-capable nation in 2009, and is a founding member of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space.", "Iran placed its domestically built satellite Omid into orbit on the 30th anniversary of the 1979 Revolution, on 2February 2009, through its first expendable launch vehicle Safir, becoming the ninth country in the world capable of both producing a satellite and sending it into space from a domestically made launcher.", "Simorgh's launch in 2016, is the successor of Safir.On January 20, 2024, Iran launched the Soraya satellite into its highest orbit yet (750 km), a new space launch milestone for the country.", "It was launched by Qaem 100 rocket.On January 28, 2024, Iran successfully launched three indigenous satellites, The Mahda, Kayan and Hatef, into orbit using the Simorgh carrier rocket.", "It was the first time in country's history that it simultaneously sent three satellites into space.", "The three satellites are designed for testing advanced satellite subsystems, space-based positioning technology, and narrowband communication.The Iranian nuclear program was launched in the 1950s.", "Iran is the seventh country to produce uranium hexafluoride, and controls the entire nuclear fuel cycle.=== Telecommunication ===Iran's telecommunications industry is almost entirely state-owned, dominated by the Telecommunication Company of Iran (TCI).", "Fixed-line penetration in 2004 was relatively well-developed by regional standards, at 22 lines per 100 people, compared with Egypt with 14.Iran had more than one mobile phone per inhabitant by 2012.As of 2020, 70 million Iranians use high-speed mobile internet.", "Iran is among the first five countries which have had a growth rate of over 20 percent and the highest level of development in telecommunication.", "Iran has been awarded the UNESCO special certificate for providing telecommunication services to rural areas.", "By the end of 2009, Iran's telecom market was the fourth-largest market in the region at $9.2 billion." ], [ "Demographics", "Iran's population grew rapidly from about 19 million in 1956 to about 85 million by February 2023.However, Iran's fertility rate has dropped significantly, coming down from a fertility rate of 6.5 per woman to just a little more than 1.7 two decades later, leading to a population growth rate of about 1.39% as of 2018.Due to its young population, studies project that the growth will continue to slow until it stabilises around 105 million by 2050.Iran hosts one of the largest refugee populations, with almost one million, mostly from Afghanistan and Iraq.", "According to estimates, about five million Iranian citizens have emigrated to other countries, mostly since the 1979 Revolution.According to the Iranian Constitution, the government is required to provide every citizen with access to social security, covering retirement, unemployment, old age, disability, accidents, calamities, health and medical treatment and care services.", "This is covered by tax revenues and income derived from public contributions.=== Languages ===Cyrus the king, an Achaemenid.\"", "in Old Persian, Elamite and Akkadian languages, PasargadaeThe majority of the population speaks Persian, the official language of the country.", "Others include speakers of several other Iranian languages within the greater Indo-European family and languages belonging to some other ethnicities living in Iran.The Gilaki and Mazenderani languages are widely spoken in Gilan and Mazenderan, in northern Iran.", "The Talysh language is also spoken in parts of Gilan.", "Varieties of Kurdish are concentrated in the province of Kurdistan and nearby areas.", "In Khuzestan, several distinct varieties of Persian are spoken.", "Southern Iran also houses the Luri and Lari languages.Azerbaijani, the most-spoken minority language in the country, and other Turkic languages and dialects are found in various regions, especially Azerbaijan.Notable minority languages in Iran include Armenian, Georgian, Neo-Aramaic, and Arabic.", "Khuzi Arabic is spoken by the Arabs in Khuzestan, and the wider group of Iranian Arabs.", "Circassian was also once widely spoken by the large Circassian minority, but, due to assimilation, no sizable number of Circassians speak the language anymore.Percentages of spoken language continue to be a point of debate, most notably regarding the largest and second largest ethnicities in Iran, the Persians and Azerbaijanis.", "Percentages given by the CIA's World Factbook include 53% Persian, 16% Azerbaijani, 10% Kurdish, 7% Mazenderani and Gilaki, 7% Luri, 2% Turkmen, 2% Balochi, 2% Arabic, and 2% the remainder Armenian, Georgian, Neo-Aramaic, and Circassian.=== Ethnic groups ===Ethnic group composition remains a point of debate, mainly regarding the largest and second largest ethnic groups, the Persians and Azerbaijanis, due to the lack of Iranian state censuses based on ethnicity.", "The World Factbook has estimated that around 79% of the population of Iran is a diverse Indo-European ethno-linguistic group, with Persians (including Mazenderanis and Gilaks) constituting 61% of the population, Kurds 10%, Lurs 6%, and Balochs 2%.", "Peoples of other ethnolinguistic groups make up the remaining 21%, with Azerbaijanis constituting 16%, Arabs 2%, Turkmens and other Turkic tribes 2%, and others (such as Armenians, Talysh, Georgians, Circassians, Assyrians) 1%.The Library of Congress issued slightly different estimates: 65% Persians (including Mazenderanis, Gilaks, and the Talysh), 16% Azerbaijanis, 7% Kurds, 6% Lurs, 2% Baloch, 1% Turkic tribal groups (including Qashqai and Turkmens), and non-Iranian, non-Turkic groups (including Armenians, Georgians, Assyrians, Circassians, and Arabs) less than 3%.=== Health ===Razavi Hospital, accredited by ACI for its quality Health Services Healthcare is provided by the public-governmental system, the private sector, and NGOs.", "The healthcare sector's market value in Iran was almost US$24 billion in 2002.The country faces the common problem of other young demographic nations in the region, which is keeping pace with growth of an already huge demand for various public services.", "An anticipated increase in the population growth rate will increase the need for public health infrastructures and services.", "Total health spending was equivalent to 6% of GDP in Iran in 2017.About 90% of Iranians have some form of health insurance.", "Iran is also the only country with a legal organ trade.", "Iran has been able to extend public health preventive services through the establishment of an extensive Primary Health Care Network.", "As a result, child and maternal mortality rates have fallen significantly, and life expectancy at birth has risen.", "Iran's medical knowledge rank is 17th globally, and 1st in the Middle East and North Africa.", "In terms of medical science production index, Iran ranks 16th in the world.=== Religion ===+ Iranian people by religion, 2011 General Census Results '''Religion''' '''Percent''' '''Number''' Muslim 99.3989% 74,682,938 ''Bahá'í Faith''''(Estimated)'' ''0.4%'' ''300,000'' Christian 0.1566% 117,704 Zoroastrian 0.0336% 25,271 Jewish 0.0117% 8,756 Other 0.0653% 49,101 Undeclared 0.3538% 205,317Twelver Shia Islam is the official state religion, to which about 90% to 95% of the population adhere.", "The official motto of the country is \"Allahu Akbar\", the Islamic ''takbir''.", "About 4% to 8% of the population are Sunni Muslims, mainly Kurds and Baloches.", "The remaining 2% are non-Muslim religious minorities, including Christians, Zoroastrians, Jews, Baháʼís, Mandaeans, and Yarsanis.A 2020 survey by the World Values Survey found that 96.6% of Iranians believe in Islam.", "On the other hand, another 2020 survey conducted online by an organization based outside of Iran found a much smaller percentage of Iranians identifying as Muslim (32.2% as Shia, 5.0% as Sunni, and 3.2% as Sufi), and a significant fraction not identifying with any organised religion (22.2% identifying as \"None,\" and some others identifying as atheists, spiritual, agnostics, and secular humanists).", "Despite the ban on proselytizing in the country, there is a noticeable surge in interest in non-Muslim faiths like Zoroastrianism, Christianity and the Baha'i Faith.Imam Reza shrine in Mashhad, the largest mosque in the world by areaThere are a large population of adherents of Yarsanism, a Kurdish indigenous religion, making it the largest (unrecognised) minority religion in Iran.", "Its followers are mainly Gorani Kurds and certain groups of Lurs.", "Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, and the Sunni branch of Islam are officially recognised by the government and have reserved seats in the Iranian Parliament.", "Judaism has a long history in Iran; although many left in the wake of the establishment of the State of Israel and the 1979 Revolution, about 8,756 to 25,000 Jewish people live in Iran.", "Iran has the largest Jewish population in the Middle East outside of Israel.", "Around 250,000 to 370,000 Christians reside in Iran, and Christianity is the country's largest recognised minority religion.", "Most are of Armenian background, as well as a sizable minority of Assyrians.The Baháʼí Faith is not officially recognized and has been subject to official persecution.", "According to the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Human Rights in Iran, Baháʼís are the largest non-Muslim religious minority in Iran, with an estimated 350,000 adherents.", "Since the 1979 Revolution, the persecution of Baháʼís has increased.Iranian officials have continued to support the rebuilding and renovation of Armenian churches in Iran.", "The Armenian Monastic Ensembles of Iran has also received continued support.", "In 2019, the Iranian government registered the Holy Savior Cathedral, commonly referred to as Vank Cathedral, in the New Julfa district of Isfahan, as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, with significant expenditures for its congregation.", "Currently three Armenian churches in Iran have been included in the UNESCO World Heritage List." ], [ "Culture", "=== Art ===The art of Iran encompasses many disciplines, including stonemasonry, metalworking, pottery, painting, and calligraphy.", "Iranian works of art show a great variety in style, in different regions and periods.", "The art of the Medes has been theoretically attributed to the Scythian style.", "The Achaemenids borrowed heavily from the art of their neighboring civilizations, but produced a synthesis of a unique style.", "Greek iconography was imported by the Seleucids, followed by the recombination of Hellenistic and earlier Near Eastern elements in the art of the Parthians.By the time of the Sasanians, Iranian art came across a general renaissance.", "During the Middle Ages, Sasanian art played a prominent role in the formation of both European and Asian medieval art.The Safavid era is known as the ''Golden Age'' of Iranian art.", "Safavid art exerted noticeable influences upon the neighboring Ottomans, the Mughals, and the Deccans, and was also influential through its fashion and garden architecture on 11th–17th-century Europe.Kamal-ol-molk's ''Mirror Hall of Golestan Palace,'' often considered a starting point in Iranian modern artIran's contemporary art traces its origins to the time of Kamal-ol-molk, a prominent realist painter at the court of the Qajar dynasty who affected the norms of painting and adopted a naturalistic style that would compete with photographic works.", "A new Iranian school of fine art was established by Kamal-ol-Molk in 1928, and was followed by the so-called \"coffeehouse\" style of painting.Iran's avant-garde modernists emerged by the arrival of new western influences during World War II.", "The vibrant contemporary art scene originates in the late 1940s, and Tehran's first modern art gallery, Apadana, was opened in September 1949 by painters Mahmud Javadipur, Hosein Kazemi, and Hushang Ajudani.", "The new movements received official encouragement by the mid-1950s, which led to the emergence of artists such as Marcos Grigorian.=== Architecture ===Naqsh-e Jahan Square in Isfahan, UNESCO World Heritage Site.The history of architecture in Iran goes back to the seventh millennium BC, with an eclectic architecture remaining at sites such as Persepolis and Pasargadae.", "The Iranians made early use of mathematics, geometry and astronomy in their architecture, yielding a tradition with both great structural and aesthetic variety.", "The guiding motif of Iranian architecture is its cosmic symbolism.", "Iran ranks seventh among UNESCO's list of countries with the most archaeological ruins and attractions from antiquity.=== Weaving ===Iran's carpet-weaving has its origins in the Bronze Age and is one of the most distinguished manifestations of Iranian art.", "Iran is the world's largest producer and exporter of handmade carpets, producing three-quarters of the world's output and having a share of 30% of export markets.", "In 2010, the \"traditional skills of carpet weaving\" in Fars Province and Kashan were inscribed to the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List.=== Literature ===Tomb of Hafez, a medieval Persian poetIran's oldest literary tradition is that of Avestan, the Old Iranian sacred language of the Avesta, which consists of the legendary and religious texts of Zoroastrianism and the ancient Iranian religion.Persian is considered one of the four main bodies of world literature.", "The Persian language was used and developed further through Persianate societies in Asia Minor, Central Asia, and South Asia, leaving massive influences on Ottoman and Mughal literatures, among others.", "Iran has a number of famous medieval poets, most notably Rumi, Ferdowsi, Hafez, Sa'adi, Omar Khayyam, and Nezami Ganjavi.=== World Heritage Sites ===Iran ranks 10th globally in terms of UNESCO-listed monuments, with 27.These include Persepolis, Naghsh-e Jahan Square, Chogha Zanbil, Pasargadae, Golestan Palace, Arg-e Bam, Behistun Inscription, Shahr-e Sukhteh, Susa, Takht-e Soleyman, Hyrcanian forests, the city of Yazd and more.", "Iran also has 24 Intangible Cultural Heritage, or \"Human treasures\", which ranks 5th worldwide.=== Dance ===Cheshmeh-Ali (Shahr-e-Rey), Iran, 5000 BC.\|leftIran has known dance in the forms of music, play, drama or religious rituals since at least the 6th millennium BC.", "Artifacts with pictures of dancers were found in many archaeological prehistoric sites.", "Genres of dance in Iran vary depending on the area, culture, and language of the local people, and can range from sophisticated reconstructions of refined court dances to energetic folk dances.", "Each group, region, and historical epoch has specific dance styles associated with it.", "The earliest researched dance from historic Iran is a dance worshiping Mithra.", "Ancient Persian dance was significantly researched by Greek historian from Herodotus.", "Iran was occupied by foreign powers, causing a slow disappearance of heritage dance traditions.", "The Qajar dynasty had an important influence on Persian dance.", "In this period, a style of dance began to be called \"classical Persian dance\".", "Dancers performed artistic dances in the court of the king for entertainment purposes such as coronations, marriage celebrations, and Norouz celebrations.", "In the 20th century, the music came to be orchestrated and dance movement and costuming gained a modernistic orientation to the West.", "In 1928, ballet came to Iran and impacted dance performance.=== Philosophy ===The Cyrus Cylinder, which is known as \"the first charter of human rights\", is often seen as a reflection of the questions and thoughts expressed by Zoroaster and developed in Zoroastrian schools of the Achaemenid era.", "The earliest tenets of Zoroastrian schools are part of the extant scriptures of the Zoroastrian religion in Avestan.", "Among them are treatises such as the Zatspram, Shkand-gumanik Vizar, and Denkard, as well as older passages of the Avesta and the Gathas.", "Contemporary Iranian philosophy has been limited in its scope by intellectual repression.", "Scholars Pavilion is a monument donated by Iran to the United Nations Office at Vienna.", "The monument architecture is Persian Achaemenid architecture, with the statues of Iranian medieval scholars, Omar Khayyam, Al-Biruni, Rhazes and Avicenna inside the pavilion.=== Folklore ===Statue of Rostam and Sohrab tragedy, two of the greatest Persian heroes, in Sabzevar.Storytelling has an significant presence in Iranian folklore and culture.", "In classical Iran, minstrels performed for their audiences at royal courts and in public theaters.", "A minstrel was referred to by the Parthians as gōsān, and by the Sasanians as huniyāgar.", "Since the Safavid Empire, storytellers and poetry readers appeared at coffeehouses.", "After the Iranian Revolution, it took until 1985 to found the MCHTH (Ministry of Cultural Heritage, Tourism and Handicrafts), a now heavily centralized organization, supervising all kinds of cultural activities.", "It held the first scientific meeting on anthropology and folklore in 1990.=== Mythology ===The Huma, a mythical bird of Persian legends and fables.Iranian mythology consists of ancient Iranian folklore and stories of extraordinary beings reflecting on good and evil (Ahura Mazda and Ahriman), actions of the gods, and the exploits of heroes and creatures.", "The tenth-century Persian poet, Ferdowsi, is the author of the national epic known as the ''Šāhnāme'' (\"Book of Kings\"), which is for the most part based on ''Xwadāynāmag'', a Middle Persian compilation of the history of Iranian kings and heroes, as well as the stories and characters of the Zoroastrian tradition, from the texts of the Avesta, the Denkard, the Vendidad and the Bundahishn.=== Music ===Karna, an ancient Iranian musical instrument from the sixth century BC, kept at the Persepolis Museum.Iran is the apparent birthplace of the earliest complex instruments, dating to the third millennium BC.", "The use of angular harps have been documented at the sites Madaktu and Kul-e Farah, with the largest collection of Elamite instruments documented at Kul-e Farah.", "Xenophon's ''Cyropaedia'' mentions singing women at the court of the Achaemenid Empire.", "Under the Parthian Empire, the ''gōsān'' (Parthian for \"minstrel\") had a prominent role in society.The history of Sasanian music is better documented than the earlier periods and is especially more evident in Avestan texts.", "By the time of Chosroes II, the Sasanian royal court hosted a number of prominent musicians, namely Azad, Bamshad, Barbad, Nagisa, Ramtin, and Sarkash.", "Iranian traditional musical instruments include string instruments such as chang (harp), qanun, santur, rud (oud, barbat), tar, dotar, setar, tanbur, and kamanche, wind instruments such as sorna (zurna, karna) and ney, and percussion instruments such as tompak, kus, daf (dayere), and naqare.Iran's first symphony orchestra, the Tehran Symphony Orchestra, was founded by Qolam-Hoseyn Minbashian in 1933.By the late 1940s, Ruhollah Khaleqi founded the country's first national music society and established the School of National Music in 1949.Iranian pop music has its origins in the Qajar era.", "It was significantly developed since the 1950s, using indigenous instruments and forms accompanied by electric guitar and other imported characteristics.", "Iranian rock emerged in the 1960s and hip hop in the 2000s.=== Theater ===The oldest Iranian initiation of theater can be traced to ancient epic ceremonial theaters such as ''Sug-e Siāvuš'' (\"mourning of Siāvaš\"), as well as dances and theater narrations of Iranian mythological tales reported by Herodotus and Xenophon.Iran's traditional theatrical genres include Baqqāl-bāzi (\"grocer play\", a form of slapstick comedy), Ruhowzi (or ''Taxt-howzi'', comedy performed over a courtyard pool covered with boards), Siāh-bāzi (in which the central comedian appears in blackface), Sāye-bāzi (shadow play), Xeyme-šab-bāzi (marionette), and Arusak-bāzi (puppetry), and Ta'zie (religious tragedy plays).Before the 1979 Revolution, the Iranian national stage had become a famous performing scene for known international artists and troupes, with the Roudaki Hall of Tehran constructed to function as the national stage for opera and ballet.", "The hall is home to the Tehran Symphony Orchestra, the Tehran Opera Orchestra, and the Iranian National Ballet Company, and was officially renamed ''Vahdat Hall'' after the Revolution.=== Cinema and animation ===Reproduction of the third-millennium BC goblet from Shahr-e Sukhteh, Iran, possibly the world's oldest example of animation, kept at the National Museum of IranA third-millennium BC earthen goblet discovered at the Burnt City in southeastern Iran depicts what could be the world's oldest example of animation.", "The earliest attested Iranian examples of visual representations, however, are traced back to the bas-reliefs of Persepolis, the ritual center of the Achaemenid Empire.The first Iranian filmmaker was probably Mirza Ebrahim (Akkas Bashi), the court photographer of Mozaffar-ed-Din Shah of the Qajar dynasty.", "Mirza Ebrahim obtained a camera and filmed the Qajar ruler's visit to Europe.", "Later in 1904, Mirza Ebrahim (Sahhaf Bashi) opened the first public movie theater in Tehran.", "The first Iranian feature film, ''Abi and Rabi'', was a silent comedy directed by Ovanes Ohanian in 1930.The first sounded one, ''Lor Girl'', was produced by Ardeshir Irani and Abd-ol-Hosein Sepanta in 1932.Iran's animation industry began by the 1950s and was followed by the establishment of the influential Institute for the Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults in January 1965.With the screening of the films ''Qeysar'' and ''The Cow'', directed by Masoud Kimiai and Dariush Mehrjui respectively in 1969, alternative films set out to establish their status in the film industry and Bahram Beyzai's ''Downpour'' and Nasser Taghvai's ''Tranquility in the Presence of Others'' followed soon.", "Attempts to organise a film festival, which had begun in 1954 within the framework of the Golrizan Festival, resulted in the festival of Sepas in 1969.The endeavors also resulted in the formation of Tehran's World Film Festival in 1973.After the Revolution of 1979, and following the Cultural Revolution, a new age emerged in Iranian cinema, starting with ''Long Live!''", "by Khosrow Sinai and followed by many other directors, such as Abbas Kiarostami and Jafar Panahi.", "Kiarostami, an acclaimed Iranian director, planted Iran firmly on the map of world cinema when he won the for ''Taste of Cherry'' in 1997.The continuous presence of Iranian films in prestigious international festivals, such as the Cannes Film Festival, the Venice Film Festival, and the Berlin International Film Festival, attracted world attention to Iranian masterpieces.", "In 2006, six Iranian films represented Iranian cinema at the Berlin International Film Festival.", "Critics considered this a remarkable event in the history of Iranian cinema.Asghar Farhadi, a well-known Iranian director, has received a Golden Globe Award and two Academy Awards, representing Iran for Best Foreign Language Film in 2012 and 2017, with ''A Separation'' and ''The Salesman''.In 2020, Ashkan Rahgozar's \"The Last Fiction\" became the first representative of Iranian animated cinema in the competition section in both Best Animated Feature and Best Picture categories at the Academy Awards.=== Observances ===Haft-Seen, a custom of Nowruz, the Iranian New Year.Iran's official New Year begins with Nowruz, an ancient Iranian tradition celebrated annually on the vernal equinox and described as the ''Persian New Year''.", "It was registered on the UNESCO's list of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 2009.On the eve of the last Wednesday of the preceding year, as a prelude to Nowruz, the ancient festival of Čāršanbe Suri celebrates Ātar (\"fire\") by performing rituals such as jumping over bonfires and lighting fireworks.Yaldā, another ancient tradition, commemorates the ancient goddess Mithra and marks the longest night of the year on the eve of the winter solstice (usually falling on 20 or 21 December), during which families gather to recite poetry and eat fruits.", "In some regions of Mazanderan and Markazi, there is a midsummer festival, Tirgān, which is observed on Tir 13 (2 or 3July) as a celebration of water.Islamic annual events such as Ramezān, Eid e Fetr, and Ruz e Āšurā are marked by the country's large Muslim population, Christian traditions such as Noel, Čelle ye Ruze, and Eid e Pāk are observed by the Christian communities, Jewish traditions such as Purim, Hanukā, and Eid e Fatir (Pesah) are observed by the Jewish communities, and Zoroastrian traditions such as Sade and Mehrgān are observed by the Zoroastrians.==== Public holidays ====Iran's official calendar is the Solar Hejri calendar, beginning at the vernal equinox in the Northern Hemisphere.", "Each of the 12 months of the Solar Hejri calendar correspond with a zodiac sign, and the length of each year is solar.", "Alternatively, the Lunar Hejri calendar is used to indicate Islamic events, and the Gregorian calendar marks international events.Legal public holidays based on the Iranian solar calendar include the cultural celebrations of Nowruz (Farvardin 1–4; 21–24 March) and Sizdebedar (Farvardin 13; 2April), and the political events of Islamic Republic Day (Farvardin 12; 1April), the death of Ruhollah Khomeini (Khordad 14; 4June), the Khordad 15 event (Khordad 15; 5June), the anniversary of the 1979 Revolution (Bahman 22; 10 February), and Oil Nationalization Day (Esfand 29; 19 March).Lunar Islamic public holidays include Tasua (Muharram 9), Ashura (Muharram 10), Arba'een (Safar 20), the death of Muhammad (Safar 28), the death of Ali al-Ridha (Safar 29 or 30), the birthday of Muhammad (Rabi-al-Awwal 17), the death of Fatimah (Jumada-al-Thani 3), the birthday of Ali (Rajab 13), Muhammad's first revelation (Rajab 27), the birthday of Muhammad al-Mahdi (Sha'ban 15), the death of Ali (Ramadan 21), Eid al-Fitr (Shawwal 1–2), the death of Ja'far al-Sadiq (Shawwal 25), Eid al-Qurban (Zulhijja 10), and Eid al-Qadir (Zulhijja 18).=== Cuisine ===Chelow kabab (rice and kebab), one of Iran's national dishesIranian main dishes include varieties of kebab, pilaf, stew (khoresh), soup and āsh, and omelette.", "Lunch and dinner meals are commonly accompanied by side dishes such as plain yogurt or mast-o-khiar, sabzi, salad Shirazi, and torshi, and might follow dishes such as borani, Mirza Qasemi, or kashk e bademjan.In Iranian culture, tea is widely consumed.", "Iran is the world's seventh major tea producer.", "One of Iran's most popular desserts is the falude.", "There is also the popular saffron ice cream, known as ''Bastani Sonnati'' (\"traditional ice cream\"), which is sometimes accompanied with carrot juice.", "Iran is also famous for its caviar.=== Sports ===Iran is most likely the birthplace of polo, locally known as ''čowgān'', with its earliest records attributed to the ancient Medes.", "Freestyle wrestling is traditionally considered the national sport of Iran, and the national wrestlers have been world champions on many occasions.", "Iran's traditional wrestling, called ''košti e pahlevāni'' (\"heroic wrestling\"), is registered on UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage list.Being a mountainous country, Iran is a venue for skiing, snowboarding, hiking, rock climbing, and mountain climbing.", "It is home to several ski resorts, the most famous being Tochal, Dizin, and Shemshak.", "The resort of Tochal, located in the Alborz mountain rage, is the world's fifth-highest ski resort ( at its highest station).", "Dizin is the largest Iranian ski resort, and its officially granted the title by FIS to administer official and international competitions.Iran's National Olympic Committee was founded in 1947.Wrestlers and weightlifters have achieved the country's highest records at the Olympics.", "In September 1974, Iran became the first country in West Asia to host the Asian Games.Football is the most popular sport in Iran, with the men's national team having won the Asian Cup on three occasions.", "The men's national team ranks first in Asia and 22nd in the world according to the FIFA World Rankings ().", "The Azadi Stadium in Tehran is the largest association football stadium in Western Asia and on the list of top-20 best stadiums in the world.Volleyball is the second most popular sport.", "Having won the 2011 and 2013 Asian Men's Volleyball Championships, the men's national team is the strongest team in Asia, and ranks eighth in the FIVB World Rankings ().Basketball is also popular, with the men's national team having won three Asian Championships since 2007.In 2016, Iran made global headlines for international female champions boycotting tournaments in Iran in chess (U.S. Woman Grandmaster Nazí Paikidze) and in shooting (Indian world champion Heena Sidhu), as they refused to enter a country where they would be forced to wear a hijab.=== Museums ===National Museum of Iran, in TehranThe National Museum of Iran in Tehran is the country's most important cultural institution.", "As the first and biggest museum in Iran, the institution includes the Museum of Ancient Iran and the Museum of the Islamic Era.", "The National Museum is the world's most important museum in terms of preservation, display and research of archaeological collections of Iran, and ranks as one of the few most prestigious museums globally in terms of volume, diversity and quality of its monuments.There are many other popular museums across the country such as the Golestan Palace (UNESCO World Heritage Site), The Treasury of National Jewels, Reza Abbasi Museum, Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art, Sa'dabad Complex, The Carpet Museum, Abgineh Museum, Pars Museum, Azerbaijan Museum, Hegmataneh Museum, Susa Museum and more.", "In 2019, around 25 million people visited the museums.=== Media ===IRIB, the Iranian state-controlled media corporationAccording to the Press Freedom Index, Iran ranks 174th out of 180 countries as of 2021.The Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance is responsible for the cultural policy, including activities regarding communications and information.Most of the newspapers published in Iran are in Persian, the country's official language.", "The country's most widely circulated periodicals are based in Tehran, among which are ''Etemad'', ''Ettela'at'', ''Kayhan'', ''Hamshahri'', ''Resalat'', and ''Shargh''.", "''Tehran Times'', ''Iran Daily'', and ''Financial Tribune'' are among English-language newspapers based in Iran.Since the 1979 Revolution, Iran's largest media corporation is the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB).", "Despite the restrictions on non-domestic television, about 65% of the residents of Tehran and about 30 to 40% of residents outside the capital access worldwide television channels through satellite dishes, although observers state that the figures are likely to be higher.According to Internet World Stats, , around 69.1% of the population are Internet users.", "Iran ranks 17th among countries by number of Internet users.", "Google Search is Iran's most widely used search engine and Instagram is the most popular online social networking service.", "Direct access to many worldwide mainstream websites has been blocked in Iran, including Facebook, which has been blocked since 2009 due to the organization of anti-governmental protests on the website.", "However, , Facebook has around 40 million subscribers based in Iran (48.8% of the population) who use virtual private networks and proxy servers to access the website.", "About 90% of Iran's e-commerce takes place on the Iranian online store Digikala, which has around 750,000 visitors per day and is the most visited online store in the Middle East.=== Fashion and clothing ===An Iranian model in Tehran, 2019The exact date of the emergence of weaving in Iran is not yet known, but it is likely to coincide with the emergence of civilization.", "Ferdowsi and many historians have considered Keyumars to be first to use animals' skin and hair as clothing, while others propose Hushang.", "Ferdowsi considers Tahmuras to be a kind of textile initiator in Iran.", "The clothing of ancient Iran took an advanced form, and the fabric and color of clothing became very important.", "Depending on the social status, eminence, climate of the region and the season, Persian clothing during the Achaemenian period took various forms.", "This clothing, in addition to being functional, had an aesthetic role." ], [ "See also", " Outline of Iran" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * '' Iran: A Country Study''.", "2008, Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 354 pp.", "* * ** * * *" ], [ "External links", " The e-office of the Supreme Leader of Iran* The President of Iran* Iran.ir * Iran.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "History of Iraq" ], [ "Introduction", "Iraq is a country in West Asia that largely corresponds with the territory of ancient Mesopotamia.", "The history of Mesopotamia extends from the Lower Paleolithic period until the establishment of the Caliphate in the late 7th century AD, after which the region came to be known as '''Iraq'''.", "Encompassed within Iraqi territory is the ancient land of Sumer, which came into being between 6000 and 5000 BC during the Neolithic Ubaid period of Mesopotamian history, and is widely considered the oldest civilization in recorded history.", "It is also the historic center of the Akkadian, Neo-Sumerian, Babylonian, Neo-Assyrian, and Neo-Babylonian empires, a succession of local ruling dynasties that reigned over Mesopotamia and various other regions of the Ancient Near East during the Bronze and Iron Ages.Iraq during antiquity witnessed some of the world's earliest writing, literature, sciences, mathematics, laws and philosophies; hence its common epithet, the Cradle of Civilization.This era of self-rule lasted until 539 BC, when the Neo-Babylonian Empire was conquered by the neighbouring Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great, who proclaimed himself \"King of Babylon\".", "The ancient city of the same name, which had been the titular center of both Babylonian civilizations, became the most important of the four Achaemenid capitals.Over the next 700 years, the regions forming modern Iraq came under Greek, Parthian, and Roman rule, with the Greeks and Parthians establishing new imperial capitals in the area with the cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, respectively.", "By the 3rd century AD, when the area once again fell under Persian (Sasanian) control, nomadic Arab tribesmen originating from South Arabia (consisting mostly of modern-day Yemen) began to migrate and settle within Lower Mesopotamia, culminating in the creation of the Sassanid-aligned Lakhmid Kingdom in around 300 AD; the Arabic name ''al-ʿIrāq'' dates to roughly this time.", "The Sassanid Empire was eventually conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century, with Iraq specifically falling under Islamic rule following the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah in 636.The city of Kufa was founded shortly thereafter, in close proximity to the previous Lakhmid capital of Al-Hirah, and it became the home of the Rashidun dynasty from 656 until their overthrow by the Umayyads in 661.With the rise of the Abbasids in 750, Iraq once again became the center of Caliphate rule—first in Kufa from 750–752, then in Anbar for the following decade, and finally in the city of Baghdad after its founding in 762.Baghdad would remain the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate for the majority of its existence, during which time it became the cultural and intellectual center of the world in what is known today as the Islamic Golden Age.", "Baghdad's rapid growth and prosperity in the 9th century would be followed by a period of stagnation in the 10th century due to the Buwayhid and Seljuq invasions, but it remained of central importance until the Mongol invasion of 1258.After this, Iraq became a province of the Turco-Mongol Ilkhanate and declined in importance.", "After the disintegration of the Ilkhanate, Iraq was ruled by the Jalairids and Kara Koyunlu until its eventual absorption into the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century, intermittently falling under Iranian Safavid and Mamluk control.Ottoman rule ended with World War I, after which the British Empire administered Mandatory Iraq alongside a nominally self-governing Hashemite monarchy headed by King Faisal I.", "The Kingdom of Iraq was eventually granted full independence in 1932 under the terms of the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty, signed by High Commissioner Francis Humphrys and Iraqi Prime Minister Nuri al-Said two years prior.", "A republic formed in 1958 following a coup d'état.", "Saddam Hussein governed from 1968 to 2003, into which period fall the Iran–Iraq War and the Gulf War.", "Saddam Hussein was deposed following the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq." ], [ "Prehistory", "Inside the Shanidar Cave where the remains of eight adults and two infant Neanderthals, dating from around 65,000–35,000 years ago were found.During 1957–1961 Shanidar Cave was excavated by Ralph Solecki and his team from Columbia University, and nine skeletons of Neanderthal man of varying ages and states of preservation and completeness (labelled Shanidar I–IX) were discovered dating from 60,000–80,000 years BP.", "A tenth individual was recently discovered by M. Zeder during examination of a faunal assemblage from the site at the Smithsonian Institution.", "The remains seemed to Zeder to suggest that Neanderthals had funeral ceremonies, burying their dead with flowers (although the flowers are now thought to be a modern contaminant), and that they took care of injured and elderly individuals.Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC.", "It has been identified as having \"inspired some of the most important developments in human history including the invention of the wheel, the planting of the first cereal crops and the development of cursive script, Mathematics, Astronomy and Agriculture.\"" ], [ "Ancient Mesopotamia", "=== Bronze Age ===Akkadian ruler from Nineveh, presumably depicting either Sargon of Akkad, or Sargon's grandson Naram-Sin.", "The Akkadian Empire was the first ancient empire of Mesopotamia after the long-lived civilization of Sumer.Sumer emerged as the civilization of Lower Mesopotamia out of the prehistoric Ubaid period (mid-6th millennium BC) in the Early Bronze Age (Uruk period).", "Classical Sumer ends with the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 24th century BC.", "Following the Gutian period, the Ur III kingdom was once again able to unite large parts of southern and central Mesopotamia under a single ruler in the 21st century.", "It may have eventually disintegrated due to Amorite incursions.", "The Amorite dynasty of Isin persisted until c. 1600 BC, when southern Mesopotamia was united under Kassite Babylonian rule.The north of Mesopotamia had become the Akkadian-speaking state of Assyria by the late 25th century BC.", "Along with the rest of Mesopotamia it was ruled by Akkadian kings from the late 24th to mid 22nd centuries BC, after which it once again became independent.Babylonia was a state in Lower Mesopotamia with Babylon as its capital.", "It was founded as an independent state by an Amorite king named Sumuabum in 1894 BC.Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as the spoken language of Mesopotamia somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC, but Sumerian continued to be used as a written or ceremonial language in Mesopotamia well into the period of classical antiquity.Babylonia emerged from the Amorite dynasties (c. 1900 BC) when Hammurabi (c. 1792–1750 BC), unified the territories of the former kingdoms of Sumer and Akkad.During the early centuries of what is called the \"Amorite period\", the most powerful city-states were Isin and Larsa, although Shamshi-Adad I came close to uniting the more northern regions around Assur and Mari.", "One of these Amorite dynasties was established in the city-state of Babylon, which would ultimately take over the others and form the first Babylonian empire, during what is also called the Old Babylonian Period.Assyria was an Akkadian (East Semitic) kingdom in Upper Mesopotamia, that came to rule regional empires a number of times through history.", "It was named for its original capital, the ancient city of Assur (Akkadian '''').Of the early history of the kingdom of Assyria, little is positively known.", "In the Assyrian King List, the earliest king recorded was Tudiya.", "He was a contemporary of Ibrium of Ebla who appears to have lived in the late 25th or early 24th century BC, according to the king list.", "The foundation of the first true urbanised Assyrian monarchy was traditionally ascribed to Ushpia a contemporary of Ishbi-Erra of Isin and Naplanum of Larsa.", "c. 2030 BC.Assyria had a period of empire from the 19th to 18th centuries BC.", "From the 14th to 11th centuries BC Assyria once more became a major power with the rise of the Middle Assyrian Empire.=== Iron Age ===7th-century BC relief depicting Ashurbanipal (669–631 BC) and three royal attendants in a chariot.", "Ashurbanipal was the king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire which was the largest empire in history up to that point.The Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC) was the dominant political force in the Ancient Near East during the Iron Age, eclipsing Babylonia, Egypt, Urartu and Elam.", "During this period, Aramaic was also made an official language of the empire, alongside the Akkadian language.The Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BC) marks the final period of the history of the Ancient Near East preceding Persian conquest.", "A year after the death of the last strong Assyrian ruler, Assurbanipal, in 627 BC, the Assyrian empire spiralled into a series of brutal civil wars.", "Babylonia rebelled under Nabopolassar, a member of the Chaldean tribe which had migrated from the Levant to south eastern Babylonia in the early 9th century BC.", "In alliance with the Medes, Persians, Scythians and Cimmerians, they sacked the city of Nineveh in 612 BC, and the seat of empire was transferred to Babylonia for the first time since the death of Hammurabi in the mid 18th century BC.", "This period witnessed a general improvement in economic life and agricultural production, and a great flourishing of architectural projects, the arts and science.The Neo-Babylonian period ended with the reign of Nabonidus in 539 BC.", "To the east, the Persians had been growing in strength, and eventually Cyrus the Great established his dominion over Babylon.File:Map of Assyria.png\|The Assyrian Empire at its greatest extentFile:Neo-Babylonian Empire under Nabonidus map.png\|The Neo-Babylonian Empire at its greatest extent" ], [ "Classical Antiquity", "=== Achaemenid and Seleucid rule ===Mesopotamia was conquered by the Achaemenid Persians under Cyrus the Great in 539 BC, and remained under Persian rule for two centuries.The Persian Empire fell to Alexander of Macedon in 331 BC and came under Greek rule as part of the Seleucid Empire.", "Babylon declined after the founding of Seleucia on the Tigris, the new Seleucid Empire capital.", "The Seleucid Empire at the height of its power stretched from the Aegean in the west to India in the east.", "It was a major center of Hellenistic culture that maintained the preeminence of Greek customs where a Greek political elite dominated, mostly in the urban areas.", "The Greek population of the cities who formed the dominant elite were reinforced by immigration from Greece.Much of the eastern part of the empire was conquered by the Parthians under Mithridates I of Parthia in the mid-2nd century BC.=== Parthian and Roman rule ===\"Entry of Alexander into Babylon\", a 1665 painting by Charles LeBrun, depicts Alexander the Great's uncontested entry into the city of Babylon, envisioned with pre-existing Hellenistic architecture.At the beginning of the 2nd century AD, the Romans, led by emperor Trajan, invaded Parthia and conquered Mesopotamia, making it an imperial province.", "It was returned to the Parthians shortly after by Trajan's successor, Hadrian.Christianity reached Mesopotamia in the 1st century AD, and Roman Syria in particular became the center of Eastern Rite Christianity and the Syriac literary tradition.", "Mandeism is also believed to have either originated there around this time or entered as Mandaeans sought refuge from Palestine.Sumerian-Akkadian religious tradition disappeared during this period, as did the last remnants of cuneiform literacy, although temples were still being dedicated to the Assyrian national god Ashur in his home city as late as the 4th century.=== Sassanid Empire ===In the 3rd century AD, the Parthians were in turn succeeded by the Sassanid dynasty, which ruled Mesopotamia until the 7th-century Islamic invasion.", "The Sassanids conquered the independent states of Adiabene, Osroene, Hatra and finally Assur during the 3rd century.", "In the mid-6th century the Persian Empire under the Sassanid dynasty was divided by Khosrow I into four quarters, of which the western one, called ''Khvārvarān'', included most of modern Iraq, and subdivided to provinces of ''Mishān'', Asuristān (Assyria), Adiabene and Lower Media.", "The term Iraq is widely used in the medieval Arabic sources for the area in the center and south of the modern republic as a geographic rather than a political term, implying no greater precision of boundaries than the term \"Mesopotamia\" or, indeed, many of the names of modern states before the 20th century.There was a substantial influx of Arabs in the Sassanid period.", "Upper Mesopotamia came to be known as ''Al-Jazirah'' in Arabic (meaning \"The Island\" in reference to the \"island\" between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers), and Lower Mesopotamia came to be known as ''ʿIrāq-i ʿArab'', meaning \"the escarpment of the Arabs\" (viz.", "to the south and east of \"the island\".Until 602, the desert frontier of the Persian Empire had been guarded by the Arab Lakhmid kings of Al-Hirah.", "In that year, Shahanshah Khosrow II Aparviz (Persian خسرو پرويز) abolished the Lakhmid kingdom and laid the frontier open to nomad incursions.", "Farther north, the western quarter was bounded by the Byzantine Empire.", "The frontier more or less followed the modern Syria-Iraq border and continued northward, passing between Nisibis (modern Nusaybin) as the Sassanian frontier fortress and Dara and Amida (modern Diyarbakır) held by the Byzantines." ], [ "Middle Ages", "=== Islamic conquest ===The Age of the Caliphs This earthenware dish was made in 9th-century Iraq.", "It is housed in the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C.The first organized conflict between invading Arab tribes and occupying Persian forces in Mesopotamia seems to have been in 634, when the Arabs were defeated at the Battle of the Bridge.", "There was a force of some 5,000 Muslims under Abū `Ubayd ath-Thaqafī, which was routed by the Persians.", "This was followed by Khalid ibn al-Walid's successful campaign which saw all of Iraq come under Arab rule within a year, with the exception of the Persian Empire's capital, Ctesiphon.", "Around 636, a larger Arab Muslim force under Sa`d ibn Abī Waqqās defeated the main Persian army at the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah and moved on to capture the Persian capital of Ctesiphon.", "By the end of 638, the Muslims had conquered all of the Western Sassanid provinces (including modern Iraq), and the last Sassanid Emperor, Yazdegerd III, had fled to central and then northern Persia, where he was killed in 651.The Islamic expansions constituted the largest of the Semitic expansions in history.", "These new arrivals did not disperse and settle throughout the country; instead they established two new garrison cities, at al-Kūfah, near ancient Babylon, and at Basrah in the south, while the north remained largely Assyrian and Arab Christian in character.=== Abbasid Caliphate ===Abbasid Caliphate at its greatest extentThe city of Baghdad was built in the 8th century and became the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate.", "Baghdad soon became the primary cultural center of the Muslim world during the centuries of the incipient \"Islamic Golden Age\" of the 8th to 9th centuries.In the 9th century, the Abbasid Caliphate entered a period of decline.", "During the late 9th to early 11th centuries, a period known as the \"Iranian Intermezzo\", parts of (the modern territory of) Iraq were governed by a number of minor Iranian emirates, including the Tahirids, Saffarids, Samanids, Buyids and Sallarids.", "Tughril, the founder of the Seljuk Empire, captured Baghdad in 1055.In spite of having lost all governance, the Abbasid caliphs nevertheless maintained a highly ritualized court in Baghdad and remained influential in religious matters, maintaining the orthodoxy of their Sunni sect in opposition to the Ismaili and Shia sects of Islam.=== Mongol invasion ===The Mongol Empire's expansionIn the later 11th century, Iraq fell under the rule of the Khwarazmian dynasty.", "Both Turkic secular rule and Abbasid caliphate came to an end with the Mongol invasions of the 13th century.The Mongols under Genghis Khan had conquered Khwarezmia by 1221, but Iraq proper gained a respite due to the death of Genghis Khan in 1227 and the subsequent power struggles.Möngke Khan from 1251 began a renewed expansion of the Mongol Empire, and when caliph al-Mustasim refused to submit to the Mongols, Baghdad was besieged and captured by Hulagu Khan in 1258.With the destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate, Hulagu had an open route to Syria and moved against the other Muslim powers in the region.=== Turco-Mongol rule ===Iraq now became a province on the southwestern fringes of the Ilkhanate and Baghdad would never regain its former importance.The Jalayirids were a Mongol Jalayir dynasty which ruled over Iraq and western Persia after the breakup of the Ilkhanate in the 1330s.", "The Jalayirid sultanate lasted about fifty years, until disrupted by Tamerlane's conquests and the revolts of the \"Black Sheep Turks\" or Qara Qoyunlu Turkmen.", "After Tamerlane's death in 1405, there was a brief attempt to re-establish the sultanate in southern Iraq and Khuzistan.", "The Jalayirids were finally eliminated by Kara Koyunlu in 1432." ], [ "Ottoman and Mamluk rule", "During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, the Qara Qoyunlu or Black Sheep Turkmens ruled the area now known as Iraq.", "In 1466, the Aq Qoyunlu or White Sheep defeated the Qara Qoyunlu and took control.", "Later, the Aq Qoyunlu were defeated by the Safavid dynasty, who took control over Mesopotamia for some time and asserted their hegemony over Iraq in the periods 1508–1533, ending with the Ottoman–Safavid War (1532–1555), and 1622–1638, ending with the Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–1639).In the 16th century, most of the territory of present-day Iraq came under the control of Ottoman Empire as the pashalik of Baghdad.", "Throughout most of the period of Ottoman rule (1533–1918) the territory of present-day Iraq was a battle zone between the rival regional empires and tribal alliances.Iraq was divided into three vilayets:* Mosul Province* Baghdad Province* Basra ProvinceDuring the years 1747–1831, Iraq was ruled by Mamluk dynasty of Georgian origin who succeeded in obtaining autonomy from the Ottoman Empire, suppressed tribal revolts, curbed the power of the Janissaries, restored order, and introduced a program of modernization of the economy and the military.", "In 1831, the Ottomans managed to overthrow the Mamluk regime and again imposed their direct control over Iraq." ], [ "20th century", "=== British mandate of Mesopotamia ===Nuri Said (1888 – 1958) contributed to the establishment of the Kingdom of Iraq and the armed forces while also served as the Prime minister of the state.Ottoman rule over Iraq lasted until World War I, when the Ottomans sided with Germany and the Central Powers.", "In the Mesopotamian campaign against the Central Powers, British forces invaded the country and suffered a defeat at the hands of the Turkish army during the Siege of Kut (1915–16).", "However the British finally won in the Mesopotamian Campaign with the capture of Baghdad in March 1917.During the war the British employed the help of a number of Assyrian, Armenian and Arab tribes against the Ottomans, who in turn employed the Kurds as allies.", "After the war the Ottoman Empire was divided up, and the British Mandate of Mesopotamia was established by League of Nations mandate.Britain imposed a Hāshimite monarchy on Iraq and defined the territorial limits of Iraq without taking into account the politics of the different ethnic and religious groups in the country, in particular those of the Kurds and the Christian Assyrians to the north.", "During the British occupation, the Kurds fought for independence, and the British employed Assyrian Levies to help quell these insurrections.", "Iraq also became an oligarchy government at this time.Although the monarch Faisal I of Iraq was legitimized and proclaimed King by a plebiscite on 23 August 1921, simultaneously changing the official name of the country from Mesopotamia to Iraq, independence was achieved in 1932, when the British Mandate officially ended.=== Independent Kingdom of Iraq ===Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Iraq 1932–1959Establishment of Arab Sunni domination in Iraq was followed by Assyrian, Yazidi and Shi'a unrests, which were all brutally suppressed.", "In 1936, the first military coup took place in the Kingdom of Iraq, as Bakr Sidqi succeeded in replacing the acting Prime Minister with his associate.", "Multiple coups followed in a period of political instability, peaking in 1941.During World War II, Iraqi regime of Regent 'Abd al-Ilah was overthrown in 1941 by the Golden Square officers, headed by Rashid Ali.", "The short lived pro-Nazi government of Iraq was defeated in May 1941 by the allied forces (with local Assyrian and Kurdish help) in the Anglo-Iraqi War.", "Iraq was later used as a base for allied attacks on Vichy-French held Mandate of Syria and support for the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran.In 1945, Iraq joined the United Nations and became a founding member of the Arab League.", "At the same time, the Kurdish leader Mustafa Barzani led a rebellion against the central government in Baghdad.", "After the failure of the uprising, Barzani and his followers fled to the Soviet Union.In 1948, massive violent protests known as the Al-Wathbah uprising broke out across Baghdad with partial communist support, having demands against the government's treaty with Britain.", "Protests continued into spring and were interrupted in May when martial law was enforced as Iraq entered the failed 1948 Arab–Israeli War along with other Arab League members.In February 1958, King Hussein of Jordan and `Abd al-Ilāh proposed a union of Hāshimite monarchies to counter the recently formed Egyptian-Syrian union.", "The prime minister Nuri as-Said wanted Kuwait to be part of the proposed Arab-Hāshimite Union.", "Shaykh `Abd-Allāh as-Salīm, the ruler of Kuwait, was invited to Baghdad to discuss Kuwait's future.", "This policy brought the government of Iraq into direct conflict with Britain, which did not want to grant independence to Kuwait.", "At that point, the monarchy found itself completely isolated.", "Nuri as-Said was able to contain the rising discontent only by resorting to even greater political oppression.=== Republic of Iraq ===nationalist Qasim was mostly based on Mesopotamian symbol of Shamash, and avoided pan-Arab symbolism by incorporating elements of Socialist heraldry.Inspired by Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, officers from the Nineteenth Brigade, 3rd Division known as \"The Four Colonials\", under the leadership of Brigadier Abd al-Karīm Qāsim (known as ''\"az-Za`īm\"'', 'the leader') and Colonel Abdul Salam Arif overthrew the Hashemite monarchy on July 14, 1958.The new government proclaimed Iraq to be a republic and rejected the idea of a union with Jordan.", "Iraq's activity in the Baghdad Pact ceased.Abd al-Karim Qasim promoted a civic nationalism in Iraq which asserts the belief that Iraqis are a nation and promotes the cultural unity of Iraqis of different ethnoreligious groups such as Mesopotamian Arabs, Kurds, Turkmens, Assyrians, Chaldeans, Yazidis, Mandeans, Yarsans, and others.Qasim's vision of nationalism involved the recognition of an Iraqi identity stemming from ancient Mesopotamia including its civilizations of Sumer, Akkad, Babylonia and Assyria.In 1961, Kuwait gained independence from Britain and Iraq claimed sovereignty over Kuwait.", "A period of considerable instability followed.The same year, Mustafa Barzani, who had been invited to return to Iraq by Qasim three years earlier, began engaging Iraqi government forces and establishing Kurdish control in the north in what was the beginning of the First Kurdish Iraqi War.====Ba'athist Iraq====Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, served as the fifth president of Iraq from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003.Qāsim was assassinated in February 1963, when the Ba'ath Party took power under the leadership of General Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr (prime minister) and Colonel Abdul Salam Arif (president).", "In June 1963, Syria, which by then had also fallen under Ba'athist rule, took part in the Iraqi military campaign against the Kurds by providing aircraft, armoured vehicles and a force of 6,000 soldiers.", "Several months later, `Abd as-Salam Muhammad `Arif led a successful coup against the Ba'ath government.", "Arif declared a ceasefire in February 1964 which provoked a split among Kurdish urban radicals on one hand and Peshmerga (Freedom fighters) forces led by Barzani on the other.On April 13, 1966, President Abdul Salam Arif died in a helicopter crash and was succeeded by his brother, General Abdul Rahman Arif.", "Following this unexpected death, the Iraqi government launched a last-ditch effort to defeat the Kurds.", "This campaign failed in May 1966, when Barzani forces thoroughly defeated the Iraqi Army at the Battle of Mount Handrin, near Rawanduz.", "Following the Six-Day War of 1967, the Ba'ath Party felt strong enough to retake power in 1968.Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr became president and chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC).", "The Ba'ath government started a campaign to end the Kurdish insurrection, which stalled in 1969.This can be partly attributed to the internal power struggle in Baghdad and also tensions with Iran.", "Moreover, the Soviet Union pressured the Iraqis to come to terms with Barzani.", "The war ended with more than 100,000 mortal casualties, with little achievements to both Kurdish rebels and the Iraqi government.In the aftermath of the First Kurdish Iraqi War, a peace plan was announced in March 1970 and provided for broader Kurdish autonomy.", "The plan also gave Kurds representation in government bodies, to be implemented in four years.", "Despite this, the Iraqi government embarked on an Arabization program in the oil rich regions of Kirkuk and Khanaqin in the same period.", "In the following years, Baghdad government overcame its internal divisions and concluded a treaty of friendship with the Soviet Union in April 1972 and ended its isolation within the Arab world.", "On the other hand, Kurds remained dependent on the Iranian military support and could do little to strengthen their forces.", "By 1974 the situation in the north escalated again into the Second Kurdish Iraqi War, to last until 1975.====Under Saddam Hussein====Saddam Hussein promoting women's education in the 1970sIn July 1979, President Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr was forced to resign by Saddam Hussein, who assumed the offices of both President and Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council.", "Saddam then purged his opponents including those from within the Baath party.", ";Iraq's Territorial Claims to Neighboring Countries \tIraq's territorial claims to neighboring countries were largely due to the plans and promises of the Entente countries in 1919–1920, when the Ottoman Empire was divided, to create a more extensive Arab state in Iraq and Jazeera, which would also include significant territories of eastern Syria, southeastern Turkey, all of Kuwait and Iran’s border areas, which are shown on this English map of 1920.British ruled Mesopotamia in pinkTerritorial disputes with Iran led to an inconclusive and costly eight-year war, the ''Iran–Iraq War'' (1980–1988, termed ''Qādisiyyat-Saddām'' – 'Saddam's Qādisiyyah'), which devastated the economy.", "Iraq falsely declared victory in 1988 but actually only achieved a weary return to the ''status quo ante bellum'', meaning both sides retained their original borders.The war began when Iraq invaded Iran, launching a simultaneous invasion by air and land into Iranian territory on 22 September 1980, following a long history of border disputes, and fears of Shia insurgency among Iraq's long-suppressed Shia majority influenced by the Iranian Revolution.", "Iraq was also aiming to replace Iran as the dominant Persian Gulf state.", "The United States supported Saddam Hussein in the war against Iran.", "Although Iraq hoped to take advantage of the revolutionary chaos in Iran and attacked without formal warning, they made only limited progress into Iran and within several months were repelled by the Iranians who regained virtually all lost territory by June 1982.For the next six years, Iran was on the offensive.", "Despite calls for a ceasefire by the United Nations Security Council, hostilities continued until 20 August 1988.The war finally ended with a United Nations-brokered ceasefire in the form of United Nations Security Council Resolution 598, which was accepted by both sides.", "It took several weeks for the Iranian armed forces to evacuate Iraqi territory to honor pre-war international borders between the two nations (see 1975 Algiers Agreement).", "The last prisoners of war were exchanged in 2003.The war came at a great cost in lives and economic damage—half a million Iraqi and Iranian soldiers, as well as civilians, are believed to have died in the war with many more injured—but it brought neither reparations nor change in borders.", "The conflict is often compared to World War I, in that the tactics used closely mirrored those of that conflict, including large scale trench warfare, manned machine-gun posts, bayonet charges, use of barbed wire across trenches, human wave attacks across no-man's land, and extensive use of chemical weapons such as mustard gas by the Iraqi government against Iranian troops and civilians as well as Iraqi Kurds.", "At the time, the UN Security Council issued statements that \"chemical weapons had been used in the war.\"", "However, in these UN statements, it was never made clear that it was only Iraq that was using chemical weapons, so it has been said that \"the international community remained silent as Iraq used weapons of mass destruction against Iranian as well as Iraqi Kurds\" and it is believed.A long-standing territorial dispute was the ostensible reason for Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990.In November 1990, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 678, permitting member states to use all necessary means, authorizing military action against the Iraqi forces occupying Kuwait and demanded a complete withdrawal by January 15, 1991.When Saddam Hussein failed to comply with this demand, the Gulf War (Operation \"Desert Storm\") ensued on January 17, 1991.Estimates range from 1,500 to as many as 30,000 Iraqi soldiers killed, as well as less than a thousand civilians.In March 1991 revolts in the Shia-dominated southern Iraq started involving demoralized Iraqi Army troops and the anti-government Shia parties.", "Another wave of insurgency broke out shortly afterwards in the Kurdish populated northern Iraq (see 1991 Iraqi uprisings).", "Although they presented a serious threat to the Iraqi Ba'ath Party regime, Saddam Hussein managed to suppress the rebellions with massive and indiscriminate force and maintained power.", "They were ruthlessly crushed by the loyalist forces spearheaded by the Iraqi Republican Guard and the population was successfully terrorized.", "During the few weeks of unrest tens of thousands of people were killed.", "Many more died during the following months, while nearly two million Iraqis fled for their lives.", "In the aftermath, the government intensified the forced relocating of Marsh Arabs and the draining of the Iraqi marshlands, while the Coalition established the Iraqi no-fly zones.Kuwait became a Governorate of Iraq.On 6 August 1990, after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, the U.N. Security Council adopted Resolution 661 which imposed economic sanctions on Iraq, providing for a full trade embargo, excluding medical supplies, food and other items of humanitarian necessity, these to be determined by the Security Council sanctions committee.", "After the end of the Gulf War and after the Iraqi withdrawal from Kuwait, the sanctions were linked to removal of weapons of mass destruction by Resolution 687.To varying degrees, the effects of government policy, the aftermath of Gulf War and the sanctions regime have been blamed for these conditions.The effects of the sanctions on the civilian population of Iraq have been disputed.", "Whereas it was widely believed that the sanctions caused a major rise in child mortality, recent research has shown that commonly cited data were fabricated by the Iraqi government and that \"there was no major rise in child mortality in Iraq after 1990 and during the period of the sanctions.\"", "An oil for food program was established in 1996 to ease the effects of sanctions.Iraqi cooperation with UN weapons inspection teams was questioned on several occasions during the 1990s.", "UNSCOM chief weapons inspector Richard Butler withdrew his team from Iraq in November 1998 because of Iraq's lack of cooperation.", "The team returned in December.", "Butler prepared a report for the UN Security Council afterwards in which he expressed dissatisfaction with the level of compliance .", "The same month, US President Bill Clinton authorized air strikes on government targets and military facilities.", "Air strikes against military facilities and alleged WMD sites continued into 2002." ], [ "U.S. invasion and the aftermath (2003–present)", "=== 2003 U.S. invasion ===After the terrorist attacks on New York and Washington in the United States in 2001 were linked to the group formed by the multi-millionaire Saudi Osama bin Laden, American foreign policy began to call for the removal of the Ba'ath government in Iraq.", "Neoconservative think-tanks in Washington had for years been urging regime change in Baghdad.", "On August 14, 1998, President Clinton signed Public Law 105–235, which declared that ‘‘the Government of Iraq is in material and unacceptable breach of its international obligations.’’ It urged the President ‘‘to take appropriate action, in accordance with the Constitution and relevant laws of the United States, to bring Iraq into compliance with its international obligations.’’ Several months later, Congress enacted the Iraq Liberation Act of 1998 on October 31, 1998.This law stated that it \"should be the policy of the United States to support efforts to remove the regime headed by Saddam Hussein from power in Iraq and to promote the emergence of a democratic government to replace that regime.\"", "It was passed 360 - 38 by the United States House of Representatives and 99–0 by the United States Senate in 1998.The US urged the United Nations to take military action against Iraq.", "American president George W. Bush stated that Saddām had repeatedly violated 16 UN Security Council resolutions.", "The Iraqi government rejected Bush's assertions.", "A team of U.N. inspectors, led by Swedish diplomat Hans Blix was admitted, into the country; their final report stated that Iraqis capability in producing \"weapons of mass destruction\" was not significantly different from 1992 when the country dismantled the bulk of their remaining arsenals under terms of the ceasefire agreement with U.N. forces, but did not completely rule out the possibility that Saddam still had weapons of mass destruction.", "The United States and the United Kingdom charged that Iraq was hiding WMD and opposed the team's requests for more time to further investigate the matter.", "Resolution 1441 was passed unanimously by the UN Security Council on November 8, 2002, offering Iraq \"a final opportunity to comply with its disarmament obligations\" that had been set out in several previous UN resolutions, threatening \"serious consequences\" if the obligations were not fulfilled.", "The UN Security Council did not issue a resolution authorizing the use of force against Iraq.In March 2003, the United States and the United Kingdom, with military aid from other nations, invaded Iraq.Over the following years in the U.S. occupation of Iraq, Iraq disintegrated into a civil war from 2006 to 2008, and the situation deteriorated in 2011 which later escalated into a renewed war following ISIL gains in the country in 2014.By 2015, Iraq was effectively divided, the central and southern part being controlled by the government, the northwest by the Kurdistan Regional Government and the western part by the Islamic State.", "IS was expelled from Iraq in 2017, but a low-intensity ISIL insurgency continues mostly in the rural parts of northern western parts of the country, due to Iraq's long border with Syria.=== Occupation (2003–11) ===Occupation zones in Iraq in September 2003U.S.", "Army soldier searches an Iraqi boy, March 2011.In 2003, after the American and British invasion, Iraq was occupied by U.S.-led Coalition forces.", "On May 23, 2003, the UN Security Council unanimously approved a resolution lifting all economic sanctions against Iraq.", "As the country struggled to rebuild after three wars and a decade of sanctions, it was plagued by violence between a growing Iraqi insurgency and occupation forces.", "Saddam Hussein, who vanished in April, was captured on December 13, 2003 in ad-Dawr, Saladin Governorate.Jay Garner was appointed Interim Civil Administrator with three deputies, including Tim Cross.", "Garner was replaced in May 2003 by Paul Bremer, who was himself replaced by John Negroponte on April 19, 2004.Negroponte was the last US interim administrator and left Iraq in 2005.A parliamentary election was held in January 2005, followed by the drafting and ratification of a constitution and a further parliamentary election in December 2005.Terrorism emerged as a threat to Iraq's people not long after the invasion of 2003.Al Qaeda now had a presence in the country, in the form of several terrorist groups formerly led by Abu Musab Al Zarqawi.", "Al Zarqawi was a Jordanian militant Islamist who ran a militant training camp in Afghanistan.", "He became known after going to Iraq and being responsible for a series of bombings, beheadings and attacks during the Iraq war.", "Al Zarqawi was killed on June 7, 2006.Many foreign fighters and former Ba'ath Party officials also joined the insurgency, which was mainly aimed at attacking American forces and Iraqis who worked with them.", "The most dangerous insurgent area was the Sunni Triangle, a mostly Sunni-Muslim area just north of Baghdad.Reported acts of violence conducted by an uneasy tapestry of insurgents steadily increased by the end of 2006.Sunni jihadist forces including Al Qaeda in Iraq continued to target Shia civilians, notably in the 23 February 2006 attack on the Al Askari Mosque in Samarra, one of Shi'ite Islam's holiest sites leading to a civil war between Sunni and Shia militants in Iraq.", "Analysis of the attack suggested that the Mujahideen Shura Council and Al-Qaeda in Iraq were responsible, and that the motivation was to provoke further violence by outraging the Shia population.", "In mid-October 2006, a statement was released stating that the Mujahideen Shura Council had been disbanded and was replaced by the \"Islamic State of Iraq\".", "It was formed to resist efforts by the U.S. and Iraqi authorities to win over Sunni supporters of the insurgency.", "Shia militias, some of whom were associated with elements in the Iraq government, reacted with reprisal acts against the Sunni minority.", "A cycle of violence thus ensued whereby Sunni insurgent attacks were followed reprisals by Shiite militias, often in the form of Shi'ite death squads that sought out and killed Sunnis.", "Following a surge in U.S. troops in 2007 and 2008, violence in Iraq began to decrease.", "The U.S. ended their main military presence in 2011, however, resulting in renewed escalation into war.=== Insurgency and war (2011–2017) ===The departure of US troops from Iraq in 2011 triggered a renewed insurgency and by a spillover of the Syrian civil war into Iraq.", "By 2013, the insurgency escalated into a state renewed war, the central government of Iraq being opposed by various factions, primarily radical Sunni forces.The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant invaded Iraq in 2013–14 and seized the majority of Al Anbar Governorate, including the cities of Fallujah, Al Qaim, Abu Ghraib and (in May 2015) Ramadi, leaving them in control of 90% of Anbar.", "Tikrit, Mosul and most of the Nineveh province, along with parts of Salahuddin, Kirkuk and Diyala provinces, were seized by insurgent forces in the June 2014 offensive.", "ISIL also captured Sinjar and a number of other towns in the August 2014 offensive, but were halted by the Sinjar offensive launched in December 2014 by Kurdish Peshmerga and YPG forces.", "The war ended with a government victory in December 2017.On 30 April 2016, thousands of protesters entered the Green Zone in Baghdad and occupied the Iraqi parliament building.", "This happened after the Iraqi parliament did not approve new government ministers.", "The protesters included supporters of Shia cleric Muqtada Al Sadr.", "Although Iraqi security forces were present, they did not attempt to stop the protesters from entering the parliament building.=== Continued ISIL insurgency and protests (2017–present) ===By 2018, violence in Iraq was at its lowest level in ten years.Protests over deteriorating economic conditions and state corruption started in July 2018 in Baghdad and other major Iraqi cities, mainly in the central and southern provinces.", "The latest nationwide protests, erupting in October 2019, had a death toll of at least 93 people, including police.In November 2021, Iraqi Prime Minister Mustafa al-Kadhimi survived a failed assassination attempt.Cleric Muqtada al-Sadr's Sadrist Movement was the biggest winner in the 2021 parliamentary elections.", "Governmental stalemate lead to the 2022 Iraqi political crisis.In October 2022, Abdul Latif Rashid was elected as the new President of Iraq after winning the parliamentary election against incumbent Barham Salih, who was running for a second term.", "The presidency is largely ceremonial and is traditionally held by a Kurd.", "On 27 October 2022, Mohammed Shia al-Sudani, close ally of former Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki, took the office to succeed Mustafa al-Kadhimi as new Prime Minister of Iraq." ], [ "See also", "* Abbasid Caliphate* Akkadian Empire* Assyria* Babylonia* History of Asia* History of Baghdad* History of the Middle East* List of kings of Iraq* List of presidents of Iraq* List of prime ministers of Iraq* Mesopotamia* Politics of Iraq* Sumer* Timeline of Baghdad* Timeline of Basra" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* " ], [ "Further reading", " Broich, John.", "''Blood, Oil and the Axis: The Allied Resistance Against a Fascist State in Iraq and the Levant, 1941'' (Abrams, 2019).", "* de Gaury, Gerald.", "''Three Kings in Baghdad: The Tragedy of Iraq's Monarchy'', (IB Taurus, 2008).", "* Elliot, Matthew.", "''Independent Iraq: British Influence from 1941 to 1958'' (IB Tauris, 1996).", "* Fattah, Hala Mundhir, and Frank Caso.", "''A brief history of Iraq'' (Infobase Publishing, 2009).", "* Franzén, Johan.", "\"Development vs. Reform: Attempts at Modernisation during the Twilight of British Influence in Iraq, 1946–1958,\" ''Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History'' 37#1 (2009), pp.", "77–98* Kriwaczek, Paul.", "''Babylon: Mesopotamia and the Birth of Civilization''.", "Atlantic Books (2010).", "* Murray, Williamson, and Kevin M. Woods.", "''The Iran-Iraq War: A military and strategic history'' (Cambridge UP, 2014).", "* Roux, Georges.", "''Ancient Iraq''.", "Penguin Books (1992).", "* Silverfarb, Daniel.", "''Britain's informal empire in the Middle East: a case study of Iraq, 1929-1941'' ( Oxford University Press, 1986).", "* Silverfarb, Daniel.", "''The twilight of British ascendancy in the Middle East: a case study of Iraq, 1941-1950'' (1994)* Silverfarb, Daniel.", "\"The revision of Iraq's oil concession, 1949–52.\"", "''Middle Eastern Studies'' 32.1 (1996): 69-95.", "* Simons, Geoff.", "''Iraq: From Sumer to Saddam'' (Springer, 2016).", "* Tarbush, Mohammad A.", "''The role of the military in politics: A case study of Iraq to 1941'' (Routledge, 2015).", "=== Historiography ===" ], [ "External links", "* Iraq: The Cradle of Civilization* Iraq History and Culture from the cradle of civilization and Noah to the present age and time* Historical Context of the Iran – Iraq War from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Geography of Iraq" ], [ "Introduction", "Overview map of Iraq.Topography of Iraq.The '''geography of Iraq''' is diverse and falls into five main regions: the desert (west of the Euphrates), Upper Mesopotamia (between the upper Tigris and Euphrates rivers), the northern highlands of Iraq, Lower Mesopotamia, and the alluvial plain extending from around Tikrit to the Persian Gulf.The mountains in the northeast are an extension of the alpine system that runs eastward from the Balkans through southern Turkey, northern Iraq, Iran, and Afghanistan, eventually reaching the Himalayas in Pakistan.", "The desert lies in the southwest provinces along the borders with Saudi Arabia and Jordan and geographically belongs in the Arabian Peninsula." ], [ "Major geographical features", "Most geographers, including those of the Iraqi government, discuss the country's geography in terms of four main zones or regions: the desert in the west and southwest; the rolling upland between the upper Tigris and Euphrates rivers (in Arabic the ''Dijla'' and ''Furat'', respectively); the highlands in the north and northeast; and the alluvial plain through which the Tigris and Euphrates flow.Iraq's official statistical reports give the total land area as , whereas a United States Department of State publication gives the area as .===Upper Mesopotamia===Agriculture is the main occupation of the people.The uplands region, between the Tigris north of Hamrin Mountains and the Euphrates north of Hit, is known as Al Jazira (the island) and is part of a larger area that extends westward into Syria between the two rivers and into Turkey.", "Water in the area flows in deeply cut valleys, and irrigation is much more difficult than it is in the lower plain.", "The southwest areas of this zone are classified as desert or semi-desert.", "The northern parts, which include such places like the Nineveh Plains, Duhok, Zakho and Amedi, mainly consist of Mediterranean vegetation.", "The vegetation cyclically dries out and appear brown in the virtually arid summer and flourish in the wet winter.===Lower Mesopotamia===An alluvial plain begins north of Baghdad and extends to the Persian Gulf.", "Here the Tigris and Euphrates rivers lie above the level of the plain in many places, and the whole area is a river delta interlaced by the channels of the two rivers and by irrigation canals.", "Intermittent lakes, fed by the rivers in flood, also characterize southeastern Iraq.", "A fairly large area () just above the confluence of the two rivers at Al Qurnah and extending east of the Tigris beyond the Iranian border is marshland, known as Hawr al Hammar, the result of centuries of flooding and inadequate drainage.", "Much of it is permanent marsh, but some parts dry out in early winter, and other parts become marshland only in years of great flood.Because the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates above their confluence are heavily silt- laden, irrigation and fairly frequent flooding deposit large quantities of silty loam in much of the delta area.", "Windborne silt contributes to the total deposit of sediments.", "It has been estimated that the delta plains are built up at the rate of nearly twenty centimeters in a century.", "In some areas, major floods lead to the deposit in temporary lakes of as much as thirty centimeters of mud.The Tigris and Euphrates also carry large quantities of salts.", "These, too, are spread on the land by sometimes excessive irrigation and flooding.", "A high water table and poor surface and subsurface drainage tend to concentrate the salts near the surface of the soil.", "In general, the salinity of the soil increases from Baghdad south to the Persian Gulf and severely limits productivity in the region south of Al Amarah.", "The salinity is reflected in the large lake in central Iraq, southwest of Baghdad, known as Bahr al Milh (Sea of Salt).", "There are two other major lakes in the country to the north of Bahr al Milh: Buhayrat ath Tharthar and Buhayrat al Habbaniyah.===Baghdad area===Panoramic view of the Tigris as it flows through BaghdadBetween Upper and Lower Mesopotamia is the urban area surrounding Baghdad.", "These \"Baghdad Belts\" can be described as the provinces adjacent to the Iraqi capital and can be divided into four quadrants: northeast, southeast, southwest, and northwest.", "Beginning in the north, the belts include the province of Saladin, clockwise to Baghdad province, Diyala in the northeast, Babil and Wasit in the southeast and around to Al Anbar in the west.===Highlands===A road through the Zagros MountainsThe northeastern highlands begin just south of a line drawn from Mosul to Kirkuk and extend to the borders with Turkey and Iran.", "High ground, separated by broad, undulating steppes, gives way to mountains ranging from near the Iranian and Turkish borders.", "Except for a few valleys, the mountain area proper is suitable only for grazing in the foothills and steppes; adequate soil and rainfall, however, make cultivation possible.", "Here, too, are the great oil fields near Mosul and Kirkuk.", "The northeast is the homeland of most Iraqi Kurds.===Desert===A reservoir in the Samawah desert Southern IraqThe desert zone, an area lying west and southwest of the Euphrates River, is a part of the Syrian Desert and Arabian Desert, which covers sections of Syria, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia and most of the Arabian Peninsula.The region, sparsely inhabited by pastoral Bedouins, consists of a wide stony plain interspersed with rare sandy stretches.", "A widely ramified pattern of wadis–watercourses that are dry most of the year–runs from the border to the Euphrates.", "Some wadis are over long and carry brief but torrential floods during the winter rains.Western and southern Iraq is a vast desert region covering some , almost two-fifths of the country.", "The western desert, an extension of the Syrian Desert, rises to elevations above .", "The southern desert is known as Al-Hajarah in the western part and as Al-Dibdibah in the east.", "Both deserts are part of the Arabian Desert.", "Al Hajarah has a complex topography of rocky desert, wadis, ridges, and depressions.", "Al-Dibdibah is a more sandy region with a covering of scrub vegetation.", "Elevation in the southern desert averages between .", "A height of is reached at Mount 'Unayzah at the intersection of the borders of Jordan, Iraq and Saudi Arabia.", "The deep Wadi Al-Batin runs in a northeast–southwest direction through Al-Dibdibah.", "It has been recognized since 1913 as the boundary between western Kuwait and Iraq." ], [ "Tigris–Euphrates river system", "Mosul DamThe Euphrates originates in Turkey, is augmented by the Balikh and Khabur rivers in Syria, and enters Iraq in the northwest.", "Here it is fed only by the wadis of the western desert during the winter rains.", "It then winds through a gorge, which varies from two to 16 kilometers in width, until it flows out on the plain at Ar Ramadi.", "Beyond there the Euphrates continues to the Hindiya Barrage, which was constructed in 1914 to divert the river into the Hindiyah Channel; the present day Shatt al Hillah had been the main channel of the Euphrates before 1914.Below Al Kifl, the river follows two channels to As-Samawah, where it reappears as a single channel to join the Tigris at Al Qurnah.The Tigris also rises in Turkey but is significantly augmented by several rivers in Iraq, the most important of which are the Khabur, the Great Zab, the Little Zab, and the Adhaim, all of which join the Tigris above Baghdad, and the Diyala, which joins it about thirty-six kilometers below the city.", "At the Kut Barrage much of the water is diverted into the Shatt al-Hayy, which was once the main channel of the Tigris.", "Water from the Tigris thus enters the Euphrates through the Shatt al-Hayy well above the confluence of the two main channels at Al Qurnah.Both the Tigris and the Euphrates break into a number of channels in the marshland area, and the flow of the rivers is substantially reduced by the time they come together at Al Qurnah.", "Moreover.", "the swamps act as silt traps, and the Shatt al Arab is relatively silt free as it flows south.", "Below Basra, however, the Karun River enters the Shatt al Arab from Iran, carrying large quantities of silt that present a continuous dredging problem in maintaining a channel for ocean-going vessels to reach the port at Basra.", "This problem has been superseded by a greater obstacle to river traffic, however, namely the presence of several sunken hulls that have been rusting in the Shatt al Arab since early in the Iran-Iraq war.The waters of the Tigris and Euphrates are essential to the life of the country, but they sometimes threaten it.", "The rivers are at their lowest level in September and October and at flood in March, April, and May when they may carry forty times as much water as at low mark.", "Moreover, one season's flood may be ten or more times as great as that in another year.", "In 1954, for example, Baghdad was seriously threatened, and dikes protecting it were nearly topped by the flooding Tigris.", "Since Syria built a dam on the Euphrates, the flow of water has been considerably diminished and flooding was no longer a problem in the mid-1980s.", "In 1988 Turkey was also constructing a dam on the Euphrates that would further restrict the water flow.Until the mid-twentieth century, most efforts to control the waters were primarily concerned with irrigation.", "Some attention was given to problems of flood control and drainage before the revolution of July 14, 1958, but development plans in the 1960s and 1970s were increasingly devoted to these matters, as well as to irrigation projects on the upper reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates and the tributaries of the Tigris in the northeast.", "During the war, government officials stressed to foreign visitors that, with the conclusion of a peace settlement, problems of irrigation and flooding would receive top priority from the government.Iraqi coastal waters boast a living coral reef, covering an area of 28 km2 in the Persian Gulf, at the mouth of the Shatt al-Arab river ().", "The coral reef was discovered by joint Iraqi–German expeditions of scientific scuba divers carried out in September 2012 and in May 2013.Prior to its discovery, it was believed that Iraq lacks coral reefs as the local turbid waters prevented the detection of the potential presence of local coral reefs.", "Iraqi corals were found to be adapted to one of the most extreme coral-bearing environments in the world, as the seawater temperature in this area ranges between 14 and 34 °C.", "The reef harbors several living stone corals, octocorals, ophiuroids and bivalves.", "There are also silica-containing demo-sponges." ], [ "Settlement patterns", "Alvand Bridge, one of the monuments in the city of Khanaqin, as it mediates the city and connects the eastern and western banks of the Helwan River.In the rural areas of the alluvial plain and in the lower Diyala region, settlement almost invariably clusters near the rivers, streams, and irrigation canals.", "The bases of the relationship between watercourse and settlement have been summarized by Robert McCormick Adams, director of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.", "He notes that the levees laid down by streams and canals provide advantages for both settlement and agriculture.", "Surface water drains more easily on the levees' back-slope, and the coarse soils of the levees are easier to cultivate and permit better subsurface drainage.", "The height of the levees gives some protection against floods and the frost that often affect low-lying areas and may kill and/or damage winter crops.", "Above all, those living or cultivating on the crest of a levee have easy access to water for irrigation and household use in a dry, hot country.Although there are some isolated homesteads, most rural communities are nucleated settlements rather than dispersed farmsteads; that is, the farmer leaves his village to cultivate the fields outside it.", "The pattern holds for farming communities in the Kurdish highlands of the northeast as well as for those in the alluvial plain.", "The size of the settlement varies, generally with the volume of water available for household use and with the amount of land accessible to village dwellers.", "Sometimes, particularly in the lower Tigris and Euphrates valleys, soil salinity restricts the area of arable land and limits the size of the community dependent on it, and it also usually results in large unsettled and uncultivated stretches between the villages.Fragmentary information suggests that most farmers in the alluvial plain tend to live in villages of over 100 persons.", "For example, in the mid-1970s a substantial number of the residents of Baqubah, the administrative center and major city of Diyala Governorate, were employed in agriculture.The Marsh Arabs of the south usually live in small clusters of two or three houses kept above water by rushes that are constantly being replenished.", "Such clusters often are close together, but access from one to another is possible only by small boat.", "Here and there a few natural islands permit slightly larger clusters.", "Some of these people are primarily water buffalo herders and lead a semi-nomadic life.", "In the winter, when the waters are at a low point, they build fairly large temporary villages.", "In the summer they move their herds out of the marshes to the river banks.The war has had its effect on the lives of these denizens of the marshes.", "With much of the fighting concentrated in their areas, they have either migrated to settled communities away from the marshes or have been forced by government decree to relocate within the marshes.", "Also, in early 1988, the marshes had become the refuge of deserters from the Iraqi army who attempted to maintain life in the fastness of the overgrown, desolate areas while hiding out from the authorities.", "These deserters in many instances have formed into large gangs that raid the marsh communities; this also has induced many of the marsh dwellers to abandon their villages.The war has also affected settlement patterns in the northern Kurdish areas.", "There, the struggle for a Kurdish state by guerrillas was rejected by the government as it steadily escalated violence against the local communities.", "Starting in 1984, the government launched a scorched-earth campaign to drive a wedge between the villagers and the guerrillas in the remote areas of two provinces of Kurdistan in which Kurdish guerrillas were active.", "In the process whole villages were torched and subsequently bulldozed, which resulted in the Kurds flocking into the regional centers of Irbil and As Sulaymaniyah.", "Also as a \"military precaution\", the government has cleared a broad strip of territory in the Kurdish region along the Iranian border of all its inhabitants, hoping in this way to interdict the movement of Kurdish guerrillas back and forth between Iran and Iraq.", "The majority of Kurdish villages, however, remained intact in early 1988.In the arid areas of Iraq to the west and south, cities and large towns are almost invariably situated on watercourses, usually on the major rivers or their larger tributaries.", "In the south this dependence has had its disadvantages.", "Until the recent development of flood control, Baghdad and other cities were subject to the threat of inundation.", "Moreover, the dikes needed for protection have effectively prevented the expansion of the urban areas in some directions.", "The growth of Baghdad, for example, was restricted by dikes on its eastern edge.", "The diversion of water to the Milhat ath Tharthar and the construction of a canal transferring water from the Tigris north of Baghdad to the Diyala River have permitted the irrigation of land outside the limits of the dikes and the expansion of settlement." ], [ "Climate", "Iraq map of Köppen climate classification zonesSnow-capped mountains in IraqDust storms in Iraq, on July 30, 2009.The climate of Iraq is mainly a hot desert climate or a hot semi-arid climate to the northernmost part.", "Averages high temperatures are generally above at low elevations during summer months (June, July and August) while averages low temperatures can drop to below during the coldest month of the year during winter The all-time record high temperature in Iraq of was recorded near An Nasiriyah on 2 August 2011.Most of the rainfall occurs from December through April and averages between annually.", "The mountainous region of northern Iraq receives appreciably more precipitation than the central or southern desert region, where they tend to have a Mediterranean climate.Roughly 90% of the annual rainfall occurs between November and April, most of it in the winter months from December through March.", "The remaining six months, particularly the hottest ones of June, July, and August, are extremely dry.Except in the north and northeast, mean annual rainfall ranges between .", "Data available from stations in the foothills and steppes south and southwest of the mountains suggest mean annual rainfall between for that area.", "Rainfall in the mountains is more abundant and may reach a year in some places, but the terrain precludes extensive cultivation.", "Cultivation on nonirrigated land is limited essentially to the mountain valleys, foothills, and steppes, which have or more of rainfall annually.", "Even in this zone, however, only one crop a year can be grown, and shortages of rain have often led to crop failures.Mean minimum temperatures in the winter range from near freezing (just before dawn) in the northern and northeastern foothills and the western desert to in the alluvial plains of southern Iraq.", "They rise to a mean maximum of about in the western desert and the northeast, and in the south.", "In the summer mean minimum temperatures range from about and rise to maxima between roughly .", "Temperatures sometimes fall below freezing and have fallen as low as at Ar Rutbah in the western desert.", "Such summer heat, even in a hot desert, is high and this can be easily explained by the very low elevations of deserts regions which experience these exceptionally searing high temperatures.", "In fact, the elevations of cities such as Baghdad or Basra are near the sea level (0 m) because deserts are located predominantly along the Persian Gulf.", "That is why some Gulf's countries like Iraq, Iran and Kuwait experience extreme heat during summer, even more extreme than the normal level.", "The searing summer heat only exists in low elevations in these countries while mountains and higher elevations know much more moderated summer temperatures.The summer months are marked by two kinds of wind phenomena.", "The southern and southeasterly ''sharqi'', a dry, dusty wind with occasional gusts of , occurs from April to early June and again from late September through November.", "It may last for a day at the beginning and end of the season but for several days at other times.", "This wind is often accompanied by violent duststorms that may rise to heights of several thousand meters and close airports for brief periods.", "From mid-June to mid-September the prevailing wind, called the shamal, is from the north and northwest.", "It is a steady wind, absent only occasionally during this period.", "The very dry air brought by this shamal permits intensive sun heating of the land surface, but the breeze has some cooling effect.The combination of rain shortage and extreme heat makes much of Iraq a desert.", "Because of very high rates of evaporation, soil and plants rapidly lose the little moisture obtained from the rain, and vegetation could not survive without extensive irrigation.", "Some areas, however, although arid, do have natural vegetation in contrast to the desert.", "For example, in the Zagros Mountains in northeastern Iraq there is permanent vegetation, such as oak trees, and date palms are found in the south." ], [ "Area and boundaries", "In 1922 British officials concluded the Treaty of Mohammara with Abd al Aziz ibn Abd ar Rahman Al Saud, who in 1932 formed the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.", "The treaty provided the basic agreement for the boundary between the eventually independent nations.", "Also in 1922 the two parties agreed to the creation of the diamond-shaped Neutral Zone of approximately adjacent to the western tip of Kuwait in which neither Iraq nor Saudi Arabia would build dwellings or installations.", "Bedouins from either country could utilize the limited water and seasonal grazing resources of the zone.", "In April 1975, an agreement signed in Baghdad fixed the borders of the countries.Through Algerian mediation, Iran and Iraq agreed in March 1975 to normalize their relations, and three months later they signed a treaty known as the Algiers Accord.", "The document defined the common border all along the Khawr Abd Allah (Shatt) River estuary as the thalweg.", "To compensate Iraq for the loss of what formerly had been regarded as its territory, pockets of territory along the mountain border in the central sector of its common boundary with Iran were assigned to it.", "Nonetheless, in September 1980 Iraq went to war with Iran, citing among other complaints the fact that Iran had not turned over to it the land specified in the Algiers Accord.", "This problem has subsequently proved to be a stumbling block to a negotiated settlement of the ongoing conflict.In 1988 the boundary with Kuwait was another outstanding problem.", "It was fixed in a 1913 treaty between the Ottoman Empire and British officials acting on behalf of Kuwait's ruling family, which in 1899 had ceded control over foreign affairs to Britain.", "The boundary was accepted by Iraq when it became independent in 1932, but in the 1960s and again in the mid-1970s, the Iraqi government advanced a claim to parts of Kuwait.", "Kuwait made several representations to the Iraqis during the war to fix the border once and for all but Baghdad repeatedly demurred, claiming that the issue is a potentially divisive one that could inflame nationalist sentiment inside Iraq.", "Hence in 1988 it was likely that a solution would have to wait until the war ended.", "'''Area:'''''total:'' ''land:'' ''water:'' '''Land boundaries:'''''total:'' ''border countries:'' Iran , Saudi Arabia , Syria , Turkey , Kuwait , Jordan '''Coastline:''' '''Maritime claims:'''''territorial sea:'' ''continental shelf:'' not specified'''Terrain:''' mostly broad plains; reedy marshes along Iranian border in south with large flooded areas; mountains along borders with Iran and Turkey'''Elevation extremes:'''''lowest point:'' Persian Gulf 0 m''highest point:'' Cheekah Dar" ], [ "Resources and land use", "'''Natural resources:''' petroleum, natural gas, phosphates, sulfur'''Land use:'''''arable land:'' 7.89%''permanent crops:'' 0.53%''other:'' 91.58% (2012)'''Irrigated land:''' (2003)'''Total renewable water resources:''' (2011)'''Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):'''''total:'' 66 km3/yr (7%/15%/79%)''per capita:'' 2,616 m3/yr (2000)While its proven oil reserves of ranks Iraq fifth in the world behind Iran, the United States Department of Energy estimates that up to 90 percent of the country remains unexplored.", "Unexplored regions of Iraq could yield an additional .", "Iraq's oil production costs are among the lowest in the world.", "However, only about 2,000 oil wells have been drilled in Iraq, compared to about 1 million wells in Texas alone." ], [ "Environmental concerns", "'''Natural hazards:''' dust storms, sandstorms, floods'''Environment - current issues:''' government water control projects have drained most of the inhabited marsh areas east of An Kshatriya by drying up or diverting the feeder streams and rivers; a once sizable population of Shi'a Muslims, who have inhabited these areas for thousands of years, has been displaced; furthermore, the destruction of the natural habitat poses serious threats to the area's wildlife populations; inadequate supplies of potable water; development of Tigris-Euphrates Rivers system contingent upon agreements with upstream riparian Turkey; air and water pollution; soil degradation (desalination) and erosion; and desertification.", "'''Environment - international agreements:'''''party to:'' Biodiversity, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection''signed, but not ratified:'' Environmental Modification:Major regressions::Arabian Desert and East Sahero-Arabian xeric shrublands (PA1303):Mesopotamian shrub desert (PA1320):Minor ecoregions::Zagros Mountains forest steppe (PA0446):Middle East steppe (PA0812):Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous broadleaf forests (PA1207):South Iran Nubo-Sindian desert and semi-desert (PA1328):Tigris-Euphrates alluvial salt marsh (PA0906):Red Sea Nubo-Sindian tropical desert and semi-desert (PA1325):Persian Gulf desert and semi-desert (PA1323)" ], [ "See also", " Babylonian Map of the World* Saudi Arabian–Iraqi neutral zone" ], [ "References", "* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographics of Iraq" ], [ "Introduction", "Historical population of IraqThe '''Iraqi people''' (; ; Syriac: ܥܡܐ ܥܝܪܩܝܐ; Turkish: ''Iraklılar'') are people originating from the country of Iraq.Iraqi Arabs are the largest ethnic group in Iraq, followed by Iraqi Kurds, then Iraqi Turkmen as the third largest ethnic group in the country.", "Studies indicate that Mesopotamian Arabs, who make up the overwhelming majority of Iraq's population, are genetically distinct from other Arab populations in the Arabs of the Arabian peninsula.The population was estimated to be 43,533,592 in 2021 Turkmen (4.5-6 million), Assyrians (0.5 million), Yazidis (500,000), Armenians, Marsh Arabs, and Shabaks (250,000).", "Other minorities include Mandaeans (3,000), Roma (50,000) and Circassians (2,000).", "The most spoken languages are Mesopotamian Arabic, Kurdish, Assyrian Syriac and Iraqi Turkmen dialects.", "The percentages of different ethno-religious groups residing in Iraq vary from source to source due to the last Iraqi census having taken place over 30 years ago.", "A new census of Iraq was planned to take place in 2020, but this was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "It was rescheduled to November 2022 but was postponed again with an \"electronic national population census\" planned in the last quarter of 2023." ], [ "Population", "39,650,145 (2021 estimate), ( estimate), up from 31,234,000 (April 2009 IMF estimate)fertility rate by region (2006)" ], [ "Vital statistics", "===UN estimates===YearLive births per yearDeaths per yearNatural change CBR1CDR1NC1IMR1Total fertility rateLife expectancy (years)1950 259,000 142,000 117,00045.725.120.6222.06.2038.981951 270,000 137,000 133,00046.723.823.0210.26.4040.651952 293,000 136,000 157,00049.423.026.4199.16.8442.201953 297,000 134,000 163,00048.822.026.8188.56.8443.711954 297,000 130,000 167,00047.620.826.7178.56.7645.211955 267,000 123,000 144,00041.719.222.5169.06.0046.581956 271,000 117,000 154,00041.417.823.6160.16.0047.881957 220,000 107,000 113,00032.916.016.9151.64.8049.211958 224,000 101,000 123,00032.914.818.1143.74.8050.411959 252,000 101,000 151,00036.414.621.8136.35.3051.031960 257,00098,000 159,00036.313.922.4129.45.3052.621961 289,000 100,000 189,00039.713.826.0123.15.8053.411962 352,000 105,000 247,00047.114.033.0117.26.8754.331963 363,000 109,000 254,00046.914.032.8111.86.9054.951964 373,000 110,000 263,00046.713.832.9107.46.9355.631965 384,000 109,000 275,00046.413.233.2102.16.9556.621966 395,000 109,000 286,00046.212.833.497.76.9757.351967 408,000 108,000 299,00046.112.233.893.57.0058.371968 422,000 110,000 312,00046.112.034.189.97.0558.781969 438,000 110,000 328,00046.211.634.686.07.1059.321970 450,000 110,000 340,00045.811.234.682.67.0860.191971 461,000 109,000 352,00045.410.734.779.07.0660.911972 471,000 110,000 362,00044.810.434.476.07.0161.391973 481,000 109,000 372,00044.310.034.273.06.9662.031974 492,000 117,000 375,00043.710.433.470.46.9360.901975 500,000 116,000 384,00043.010.033.067.76.8861.461976 508,000 108,000 400,00042.39.033.364.66.8163.721977 516,000 108,000 408,00041.68.732.962.16.7564.231978 525,000 110,000 416,00041.08.532.459.86.6964.401979 536,000 110,000 426,00040.48.332.157.76.6364.791980 546,000 128,000 418,00040.09.430.655.76.5761.501981 560,000 143,000 417,00039.810.129.653.86.5159.331982 573,000 143,000 429,00039.59.929.652.16.4559.731983 586,000 144,000 442,00039.49.729.750.56.3960.061984 607,000 147,000 460,00039.59.629.949.16.3360.221985 620,000 148,000 472,00039.19.329.747.76.2560.681986 626,000 149,000 477,00038.89.229.646.46.1860.871987 642,000 151,000 491,00038.59.029.545.36.1061.181988 662,000 184,000 477,00038.810.828.049.26.0257.471989 683,000 187,000 495,00039.110.728.453.35.9458.241990 708,000 190,000 518,00039.410.628.852.25.8858.441991 707,000 153,000 554,00039.58.531.046.25.8162.521992 722,000 123,000 599,00039.36.732.641.15.7266.711993 744,000 125,000 619,00039.16.632.640.35.6466.901994 782,000 133,000 649,00038.76.632.139.75.5366.741995 796,000 138,000 658,00038.06.631.439.15.4066.461996 810,000 142,000 668,00037.46.630.938.45.2966.391997 835,000 150,000 685,00037.46.730.737.95.2465.841998 853,000 156,000 697,00037.06.830.336.95.1565.491999 873,000 154,000 719,00036.76.530.236.35.0666.182000 891,000 152,000 740,00036.36.230.135.64.9566.822001 905,000 154,000 752,00035.66.029.634.94.8467.032002 916,000 156,000 759,00035.06.029.034.24.7167.082003 937,000 175,000 761,00034.66.528.133.64.6265.642004 963,000 186,000 776,00034.66.727.932.94.5865.032005 975,000 193,000 782,00034.06.727.332.34.4864.842006 998,000 213,000 785,00033.87.226.631.64.4463.592007 976,000 210,000 766,00033.67.226.430.84.3763.552008 972,000 193,000 779,00033.56.726.830.14.3464.942009 1,019,000 184,000 836,00033.76.127.629.34.3666.452010 1,071,000 183,000 888,00034.35.928.428.64.4367.062011 1,132,000 182,000 950,00035.15.629.427.74.5467.662012 1,159,000 184,000 974,00034.65.529.126.94.4868.022013 1,192,000 191,000 1,001,00033.85.428.426.24.3868.2520141,216,000 190,0001,026,00033.15.227.925.24.2868.912015 1,193,000 187,000 1,006,00031.65.026.624.54.0969.442016 1,168,000 199,000 970,00030.25.125.023.73.9068.992017 1,146,000 184,000 962,00028.94.624.323.03.7370.412018 1,154,000 174,000 980,00028.44.324.122.43.6671.512019 1,168,000 179,000 989,00028.14.323.821.83.6071.582020 1,179,000223,000 957,00027.75.222.521.03.5569.122021 1,192,000 207,000 985,00027.44.822.620.33.5070.38 1 CBR = crude birth rate (per 1,000); CDR = crude death rate (per 1,000); NC = natural change (per 1,000); IMR = infant mortality rate per 1,000 births===Fertility ages average in 1997–2006===Age groups19972006 15–19 56.2 68 20–24 210 187 25–29 276.2 221 30–34 257.9 188 35–39 196.5 136 40–44 101.4 56 45–49 31 9 Total 1,128.2 865 TFR 4.3===Life expectancy at birth===Average life expectancy at age 0 of the total population.Life expectancy at birth in IraqPeriodLife expectancy inYearsPeriodLife expectancy inYears1950–195537.91985–199064.31955–196044.91990–199567.41960–196550.91995–200069.11965–197056.42000–200568.91970–197559.52005–201068.01975–198061.72010–201569.21980–198559.0===Structure of the population===Structure of the population (1 July 2013) (Estimates):Age groupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 17,710,750 17,083,444 34,794,194 100 0–4 2,495,131 2,405,862 4,900,993 14.09 5–9 2,374,908 2,191,807 4,566,714 13.12 10–14 2,232,712 2,048,891 4,281,603 12.31 15–19 1,937,714 1,825,963 3,763,677 10.82 20–24 1,701,884 1,593,679 3,295,563 9.47 25–29 1,424,739 1,316,462 2,741,201 7.88 30–34 1,176,433 1,134,882 2,311,316 6.64 35–39 983,570 1,044,325 2,027,895 5.83 40–44 933,785 897,936 1,831,722 5.26 45–49 746,884 763,311 1,510,195 4.34 50–54 508,498 562,274 1,070,772 3.08 55–59 356,581 393,511 750,093 2.16 60–64 345,830 378,456 724,285 2.08 65–69 187,626 218,991 406,617 1.17 70–74 133,277 138,375 271,651 0.78 75–79 81,742 90,630 172,373 0.50 80+ 89,436 78,087 167,523 0.48Age groupMaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 8,005,327 7,674,802 15,680,129 39.0115–243,976,0853,829,0867,805,17119.2425–546,900,9846,752,79713,653,78133.97 55–64 788,602 839,291 1,627,893 4.05 65+ 632,753 794,489 1,427,242 3.55Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2020):Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 20 135 407 19 719 025 39 854 432 100 0–4 3 001 938 2 845 630 5 847 568 14.67 5–9 2 801 593 2 637 323 5 438 915 13.65 10–14 2 503 802 2 337 380 4 841 183 12.15 15–19 2 196 837 2 075 647 4 272 484 10.72 20–24 1 918 965 1 770 996 3 689 961 9.26 25–29 1 505 098 1 463 422 2 968 520 7.45 30–34 1 317 918 1 356 230 2 674 148 6.71 35–39 1 123 350 1 184 338 2 307 688 5.79 40–44 1 059 298 1 073 442 2 132 741 5.35 45–49 782 854 806 097 1 588 951 3.99 50–54 461 586 574 816 1 036 401 2.60 55–59 524 741 549 131 1 073 872 2.69 60–64 361 381 394 984 756 365 1.90 65-69 237 890 247 820 485 710 1.22 70-74 155 203 156 175 311 378 0.78 75-79 81 749 98 501 180 250 0.45 80+ 101 202 147 093 248 296 0.62Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 8 307 333 7 820 333 16 127 666 40.47 15–64 11 252 030 11 249 103 22 501 133 56.46 65+ 576 044 649 589 1 225 633 3.08" ], [ "Ethnicity", "Iraq's dominant ethnic group are Arabs, who account for more than three-quarters of the population.According to the CIA World Factbook, citing a 1987 Iraqi government estimate, the population of Iraq is formed of 70-80% Arabs followed by 15-20% Kurds.", "and also Marsh Arabs.in addition, the estimate claims that other minorities form 5% of the country's population, including the Turkmen, Kaka'i, Bedouins, Roma, Assyrians/Chaldeans/Syriacs, Circassians, Mandaeans, and Persians.", "However, the International Crisis Group points out that figures from the 1987 census, as well as the 1967, 1977, and 1997 censuses, \"are all considered highly problematic, due to suspicions of regime manipulation\" because Iraqi citizens were only allowed to indicate belonging to either the Arab or Kurdish ethnic groups; consequently, this skewed the number of other ethnic minorities, such as Iraq's third largest ethnic group – the Turkmen." ], [ "Languages", "Arabic and Kurdish are the two official languages of Iraq.", "Arabic is taught across all schools in Iraq, however in the north the Kurdish language is the most spoken.", "Eastern Aramaic languages, such as Syriac and Mandaic are spoken, as well as the Iraqi Turkmen language, and various other indigenous languages.Kurdish, including several dialects, is the second largest language and has regional language status in the north of the country.", "Aramaic, in antiquity spoken throughout the whole country, is now only spoken by the Assyrian Chaldean minority.", "The Iraqi Turkmen dialect is spoken in parts of northern iraq, numerous languages of the Caucasus are also spoken by minorities, notably the Chechen community." ], [ "Religions", "98% of Iraqis follow Islam, with 55% being Shia and 40% being Sunni.", "Christianity accounts for 1–2%, and the rest practice Yazidis, Mandaeism, and other religions.While there has been voluntary relocation of many Christian families to northern Iraq, recent reporting indicates that the overall Christian population may have dropped by as much as 50 percent since the fall of Saddam Hussein in 2003, with many fleeing to Syria, Jordan, and Lebanon (2010 estimate).", "The percentage of Christians has fallen from 6% in 1991 or 1.5 million to about one third of this.", "Estimates say there are 500,000 Christians in Iraq.Nearly all Iraqi Kurds identify as Sunni Muslims.", "A survey in Iraq concluded that \"98% of Kurds in Iraq identified themselves as Sunnis and only 2% identified as Shias\".", "The religious differences between Sunni Arabs and Sunni Kurds are small.", "While 98 percent of Shia Arabs believe that visiting the shrines of saints is acceptable, 71 percent of Sunni Arabs did and 59 percent of Sunni Kurds support this practice.", "About 94 percent of the population in Iraqi Kurdistan is Muslim." ], [ "Demographic statistics", "The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.===Age structure===: '''0–14 years:''' 39.01% (male 8,005,327/female 7,674,802):'''15-24 years:''' 19.42% (male 3,976,085/female 3,829,086):'''25-54 years:''' 33.97% (male 6,900,984/female 6,752,797):'''55-64 years:''' 4.05% (male 788,602/female 839,291):'''65 years and over:''' 3.55% (male 632,753/female 794,489) (2018 est.", ")===Ethnic groups===:Arab: 70-80%:Kurd: 15-25%:Turkoman: 9-13%:Assyrian/Chaldean and Other: 2%===Languages===:Arabic (official): Kurdish (official): Iraqi Turkmen dialect (official only in majority speaking area): Assyrian dialect (Neo-Aramaic) (official only in majority speaking area)===Median age===: '''total:''' 20.2 years: '''male:''' 20 years: '''female:''' 20.5 years (2019 est.", ")===Population growth rate===: 2.5% (2018 est.", ")===Crude birth rate===: 30 births/1,000 population (2018 est.", ")===Crude death rate===: 3.8 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.", ")===Total fertility rate===: 3.94 children born/woman (2018 est.", ")===Net migration rate===: −1.1 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2018 est.", ")===Urbanization===: '''urban population:''' 70.5% of total population (2018): '''rate of urbanization:''' 3.06% annual rate of change (2015–20 est.", ")===Sex ratio===: '''at birth:''' 1.04 male(s)/female: '''0–14 years:''' 1.04 male(s)/female:'''15-24 years:''' 1.04 male(s)/female:'''25-54 years:''' 1.02 male(s)/female: '''55–64 years:''' 0.91 male(s)/female:'''65 years and over:''' 0.8 male(s)/female:'''total population:''' 1.02 male(s)/female (2017 est.", ")===Maternal mortality rate===: 50 deaths/100,000 live births (2015 est.", ")===Infant mortality rate===:'''total population:''' 37.5 deaths/1,000 live births:'''male:''' 40.6 deaths/1,000 live births :'''female:''' 34.2 deaths/1,000 live births (2018 est.", ")===Life expectancy at birth===: '''total population:''' 74.9 years: '''male:''' 72.6 years: '''female:''' 77.2 years (2018 est.", ")===Contraceptive prevalence rate===: 51.5% (2011)===Health expenditures===: 5.5% of GDP (2011)===Physicians density===: 0.85 physicians/1,000 population (2014)===Hospital bed density===: 1.4 beds/1,000 population (2014)===Obesity – adult prevalence rate===: 30.4% (2016)===Children under the age of 5 years underweight===: 8.5% (2011)===Nationality===: '''noun:''' Iraqi(s): '''adjective:''' Iraqi===Literacy===: '''definition:''' age 15 and over can read and write: '''total population:''' 79.7%: '''male:''' 85.7%: '''female:''' 73.7% (2015 est.)" ], [ "See also", "Armenians in IraqHomelessness in IraqIraqi diasporaYouth in Iraq" ], [ "References", "" ], [ "Further reading", "Zubaida, Sami. \"", "Jews & Others in Iraq .\"", "ISIM review 22 (2008): 6–7." ], [ "External links", "* populationpyramid** The World Factbook – Iraq* Linguist List partial inventory of languages and dialects of Iraq" ] ]	wikipedia

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