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[ [ "Isotropy" ], [ "Introduction", "A sphere is isotropicIn physics and geometry, '''isotropy''' () is uniformity in all orientations.", "Precise definitions depend on the subject area.", "Exceptions, or inequalities, are frequently indicated by the prefix '''' or '''', hence ''anisotropy''.", "''Anisotropy'' is also used to describe situations where properties vary systematically, dependent on direction.", "Isotropic radiation has the same intensity regardless of the direction of measurement, and an isotropic field exerts the same action regardless of how the test particle is oriented." ], [ "Mathematics", "Within mathematics, ''isotropy'' has a few different meanings:; Isotropic manifolds: A manifold is isotropic if the geometry on the manifold is the same regardless of direction.", "A similar concept is homogeneity.", "; Isotropic quadratic form: A quadratic form ''q'' is said to be isotropic if there is a non-zero vector ''v'' such that ; such a ''v'' is an isotropic vector or null vector.", "In complex geometry, a line through the origin in the direction of an isotropic vector is an isotropic line.", "; Isotropic coordinates: Isotropic coordinates are coordinates on an isotropic chart for Lorentzian manifolds.", "; Isotropy group:An isotropy group is the group of isomorphisms from any object to itself in a groupoid.", "An isotropy representation is a representation of an isotropy group.", "; Isotropic position: A probability distribution over a vector space is in isotropic position if its covariance matrix is the identity.", "; Isotropic vector field: The vector field generated by a point source is said to be ''isotropic'' if, for any spherical neighborhood centered at the point source, the magnitude of the vector determined by any point on the sphere is invariant under a change in direction.", "For an example, starlight appears to be isotropic." ], [ "Physics", "; Quantum mechanics or particle physics: When a spinless particle (or even an unpolarized particle with spin) decays, the resulting decay distribution ''must'' be isotropic in the rest frame of the decaying particle regardless of the detailed physics of the decay.", "This follows from rotational invariance of the Hamiltonian, which in turn is guaranteed for a spherically symmetric potential.", ":Kinetic theory of gases is also an example of isotropy.", "It is assumed that the molecules move in random directions and as a consequence, there is an equal probability of a molecule moving in any direction.", "Thus when there are many molecules in the gas, with high probability there will be very similar numbers moving in one direction as any other, demonstrating approximate isotropy.", "; Fluid dynamics: Fluid flow is isotropic if there is no directional preference (e.g.", "in fully developed 3D turbulence).", "An example of anisotropy is in flows with a background density as gravity works in only one direction.", "The apparent surface separating two differing isotropic fluids would be referred to as an isotrope.", "; Thermal expansion: A solid is said to be isotropic if the expansion of solid is equal in all directions when thermal energy is provided to the solid.", "; Electromagnetics: An isotropic medium is one such that the permittivity, ε, and permeability, μ, of the medium are uniform in all directions of the medium, the simplest instance being free space.", "; Optics: Optical isotropy means having the same optical properties in all directions.", "The individual reflectance or transmittance of the domains is averaged for micro-heterogeneous samples if the macroscopic reflectance or transmittance is to be calculated.", "This can be verified simply by investigating, e.g., a polycrystalline material under a polarizing microscope having the polarizers crossed: If the crystallites are larger than the resolution limit, they will be visible.", "; Cosmology: The cosmological principle, which underpins much of modern cosmology including the Big Bang theory of the evolution of the observable universe, assumes that the Universe is both isotropic and homogeneous, meaning that the universe has no preferred location (is the same everywhere) and has no preferred direction.", "Observations made in 2006 suggest that, on distance scales much larger than galaxies, galaxy clusters are \"Great\" features, but small compared to so-called multiverse scenarios.===Materials science===This sand grain made of volcanic glass is isotropic, and thus, stays extinct when rotated between polarization filters on a petrographic microscopeIn the study of mechanical properties of materials, \"isotropic\" means having identical values of a property in all directions.", "This definition is also used in geology and mineralogy.", "Glass and metals are examples of isotropic materials.", "Common anisotropic materials include wood, because its material properties are different parallel and perpendicular to the grain, and layered rocks such as slate.Isotropic materials are useful since they are easier to shape, and their behavior is easier to predict.", "Anisotropic materials can be tailored to the forces an object is expected to experience.", "For example, the fibers in carbon fiber materials and rebars in reinforced concrete are oriented to withstand tension.===Microfabrication===In industrial processes, such as etching steps, isotropic means that the process proceeds at the same rate, regardless of direction.", "Simple chemical reaction and removal of a substrate by an acid, a solvent or a reactive gas is often very close to isotropic.", "Conversely, anisotropic means that the attack rate of the substrate is higher in a certain direction.", "Anisotropic etch processes, where vertical etch-rate is high, but lateral etch-rate is very small are essential processes in microfabrication of integrated circuits and MEMS devices.===Antenna (radio)===An isotropic antenna is an idealized \"radiating element\" used as a reference; an antenna that broadcasts power equally (calculated by the Poynting vector) in all directions.", "The gain of an arbitrary antenna is usually reported in decibels relative to an isotropic antenna, and is expressed as dBi or dB(i).In cells (a.k.a.", "muscle fibers), the term \"isotropic\" refers to the light bands (I bands) that contribute to the striated pattern of the cells.", "; Pharmacology: While it is well established that the skin provides an ideal site for the administration of local and systemic drugs, it presents a formidable barrier to the permeation of most substances.", "Most recently, isotropic formulations have been used extensively in dermatology for drug delivery." ], [ "Computer science", "; Imaging:We say a volume such as a computed tomography has isotropic voxel spacing when the space between any two adjacent voxels is the same along each axis ''x, y, z''.", "E.g., voxel spacing is isotropic if the center of voxel ''(i, j, k)'' is 1.38 mm from that of ''(i+1, j, k)'', 1.38 mm from that of ''(i, j+1, k)'' and 1.38 mm from that of ''(i, j, k+1)'' for all indices ''i, j, k''." ], [ "Other sciences", "; Economics and geography: An isotropic region is a region that has the same properties everywhere.", "Such a region is a construction needed in many types of models." ], [ "See also", "* Rotational invariance* Isotropic bands* Isotropic coordinates* Transverse isotropy* Anisotropic* Bi isotropic* Symmetry" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "International Mathematical Union" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''International Mathematical Union''' ('''IMU''') is an international non-governmental organization devoted to international cooperation in the field of mathematics across the world.", "It is a member of the International Science Council (ISC) and supports the International Congress of Mathematicians (ICM).", "Its members are national mathematics organizations from more than 80 countries.The objectives of the International Mathematical Union are: promoting international cooperation in mathematics, supporting and assisting the International Congress of Mathematicians and other international scientific meetings/conferences, acknowledging outstanding research contributions to mathematics through the awarding of scientific prizes, and encouraging and supporting other international mathematical activities, considered likely to contribute to the development of mathematical science in any of its aspects, whether pure, applied, or educational.#" ], [ "History", "The IMU was established in 1920, but dissolved in September 1932 and then re-established in 1950 de facto at the Constitutive Convention in New York, de jure on September 10, 1951, when ten countries had become members.", "The last milestone was the General Assembly in March 1952, in Rome, Italy where the activities of the new IMU were inaugurated and the first Executive Committee, President and various commissions were elected.", "In 1952 the IMU was also readmitted to the ICSU.", "The past president of the Union is Carlos Kenig (2019–2022).", "The current president is Hiraku Nakajima.At the 16th meeting of the IMU General Assembly in Bangalore, India, in August 2010, Berlin was chosen as the location of the permanent office of the IMU, which was opened on January 1, 2011, and is hosted by the Weierstrass Institute for Applied Analysis and Stochastics (WIAS), an institute of the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Scientific Community, with about 120 scientists engaging in mathematical research applied to complex problems in industry and commerce." ], [ "Commissions and committees", "IMU has a close relationship to mathematics education through its International Commission on Mathematical Instruction (ICMI).", "This commission is organized similarly to IMU with its own Executive Committee and General Assembly.Developing countries are a high priority for the IMU and a significant percentage of its budget, including grants received from individuals, mathematical societies, foundations, and funding agencies, is spent on activities for developing countries.", "Since 2011 this has been coordinated by the Commission for Developing Countries (CDC).The Committee for Women in Mathematics (CWM) is concerned with issues related to women in mathematics worldwide.", "It organizes the World Meeting for Women in Mathematics as a satellite event of ICM.The International Commission on the History of Mathematics (ICHM) is operated jointly by the IMU and the Division of the History of Science (DHS) of the International Union of History and Philosophy of Science (IUHPS).The Committee on Electronic Information and Communication (CEIC) advises IMU on matters concerning mathematical information, communication, and publishing." ], [ "Prizes", "The scientific prizes awarded by the IMU, in the quadrennial International Congress of Mathematicians (ICM), are deemed to be some of the highest distinctions in the mathematical world.", "These are:* the Fields Medals (two to four awarded per Congress, since 1936);* the IMU Abacus Medal (previously known as the Rolf Nevanlinna Prize; awarded since 1986);* the Carl Friedrich Gauss Prize (since 2006); * the Chern Medal (since 2010); and* the Leelavati Award (since 2010)." ], [ "Membership and General Assembly", "The IMU's members are Member Countries and each Member country is represented through an Adhering Organization, which may be its principal academy, a mathematical society, its research council or some other institution or association of institutions, or an appropriate agency of its government.", "A country starting to develop its mathematical culture and interested in building links with mathematicians all over the world is invited to join IMU as an Associate Member.", "For the purpose of facilitating jointly sponsored activities and jointly pursuing the objectives of the IMU, multinational mathematical societies and professional societies can join IMU as an Affiliate Member.", "Every four years, the IMU membership gathers in a General Assembly (GA), which consists of delegates appointed by the Adhering Organizations, together with the members of the executive committee.", "All important decisions are made at the GA, including the election of the officers, establishment of commissions, the approval of the budget, and any changes to the statutes and by-laws.===Members and Associate Members===The IMU has 83 (full) Member countries and two Associate Members (Bangladesh and Paraguay, marked below by light grey background).+ Country Adhering Society National mathematics societies Algeria Société Mathématique d’Algérie Argentina Unión Matemática Argentina Armenia Institute of Mathematics, National Academy of Sciences of RA Armenian Mathematical Union  Australia Australian Academy of Science * Australian Mathematical Society* Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers Austria Austrian Academy of Sciences Austrian Mathematical Society Bangladesh Bangladesh Mathematical Society Belarus Institute of Mathematics, National Academy of Sciences of Belarus Belgium The Royal Academies for Science and the Arts of Belgium Belgian Mathematical Society Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnian Mathematical Society Brazil Sociedade Brasileira de Matemática *Associação Brasileira de Estatística*Associação Nacional dos Professores de Matemática na Educação Básica *Sociedade Brasileira de Educação Matemática*Sociedade Brasileira de História da Matemática*Sociedade Brasileira de Matemática Aplicada e Computacional Bulgaria Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Union of Bulgarian Mathematicians  Cameroon Cameroon Mathematical Union Canada National Research Council of Canada* Canadian Mathematical Society* Canadian Society for the History and Philosophy of Mathematics * Statistical Society of Canada * Canadian Applied and Industrial Mathematics Society Chile Sociedad de Matemática de Chile China *Chinese Mathematical Society*Mathematical Society of the Republic of China Colombia Sociedad Colombiana de Matemáticas Croatia Croatian Mathematical Society Cuba Universidad de la Habana Cyprus Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Cyprus Czech Republic Union of Czech Mathematicians and Physicists Czech Mathematical Society Denmark Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab Danish Mathematical Society Ecuador Sociedad Ecuatoriana de Matemática Egypt Academy of Scientific Research and Technology Egyptian Mathematical Society Estonia Estonian Academy of Sciences Estonian Mathematical Society Finland Council of Finnish Academies Finnish Mathematical Society France Comité National Français des Mathématiciens  *Société Française de Statistique*Société de Mathématiques Appliquées et Industrielles*Société Mathématique de France Georgia Georgian Mathematical Union Germany Deutsche Mathematiker-Vereinigung *Gesellschaft für Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik*Gesellschaft für Didaktik der Mathematik Greece Academy of Athens Greek Mathematical Society Hong Kong The Hong Kong Mathematical Society Hungary János Bolyai Mathematical Society Iceland Icelandic Mathematical Society India Indian National Science Academy Indonesia The Indonesian Mathematical Society Iran Iranian Mathematical Society Ireland Irish Mathematical Society Israel Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities Israel Mathematical Union Italy Istituto Nazionale di Alta Matematica Francesco Severi Unione Matematica Italiana Ivory Coast Société Mathématique de Côte d'Ivoire Japan Science Council of Japan Kazakhstan Institute of Mathematics and Mathematical Modeling Kenya Mathematics Association of Kenya South Korea Korean Mathematical Society Kyrgyzstan Mathematical Society of Kyrgyzstan Latvia Latvian Mathematical Society Lithuania Lithuanian Mathematical Society Luxembourg Luxembourg Mathematical Society Malaysia The Malaysian Academy of Mathematical Scientists  Mexico Mexican Mathematical Society Mongolia The Mongolian Mathematical Society Montenegro Society of Mathematicians and Physicists of Montenegro Montenegro Mathematical Society Morocco Le Centre de Recherches Mathématiques de Rabat Netherlands Het Koninklijk Wiskundig Genootschap New Zealand Royal Society Te Apārangi New Zealand Mathematical Society Nigeria Nigerian Mathematical Society Norway The Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters Norwegian Mathematical Society Oman Sultan Qaboos University Pakistan National Mathematical Society of Pakistan *All Pakistan Mathematical Association*Pakistan Mathematical Society*Punjab Mathematical Society Paraguay Sociedad Matemática Paraguaya Peru Sociedad Matematica Peruana Philippines Mathematical Society of the Philippines Poland Polish Academy of Sciences Polish Mathematical Society Portugal Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia *Sociedade Portuguesa de Matemática*Sociedade Portuguesa de Estatística Romania Romanian Academy Romanian Mathematical Society Russia Russian Academy of Sciences *Moscow Mathematical Society*St. Petersburg Mathematical Society*Siberian Mathematical Society Saudi Arabia King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology Saudi Association for Mathematical Sciences Senegal Senegalese Mathematical Society Serbia Mathematical Society of Serbia Singapore Singapore Mathematical Society Slovakia Union of Slovak Mathematicians and Physicists Slovak Mathematical Society Slovenia Society of Mathematicians, Physicists and Astronomers of Slovenia Slovenian Discrete and Applied Mathematics Society South Africa National Research Foundation *South African Mathematical Society*Association for Mathematics Education of South Africa Spain Comité Español de Matemáticas *Royal Spanish Mathematical Society*Catalan Mathematical Society*Spanish Statistics and Operations Research Society*Spanish Society of Applied Mathematics*Spanish Society of Research on Mathematics Education*Spanish Federation of Mathematics Teachers Associations Sweden The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Swedish Mathematical Society Switzerland Swiss Mathematical Society Thailand The Center for Promotion of Mathematical Research of Thailand Tunisia Société Mathématique de Tunisie Turkey Turkish Mathematical Society Ukraine Ukrainian Mathematical Society *Kyiv Mathematical Society*Kharkiv Mathematical Society*Donetsk Mathematical Society*Lviv Mathematical Society*Ivano-Frankivsk Mathematical Society United Kingdom London Mathematical Society *Edinburgh Mathematical Society*Institute of Mathematics and its Applications*Royal Statistical Society United States U.S. National Academy of Sciences Board on International Scientific Organizations *American Mathematical Association of Two-Year Colleges*American Mathematical Society*Association of Mathematics Teacher Educators*American Statistical Association*Association for Symbolic Logic*Association for Women in Mathematics*Association of State Supervisors of Mathematics*Benjamin Banneker Association*Institute of Mathematical Statistics*Mathematical Association of America*National Council of Supervisors of Mathematics*National Council of Teachers of Mathematics*Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics*Society of Actuaries Uruguay Área Matemática - Programa de Desarrollo de las Ciencias Básicas Uzbekistan Uzbek Mathematical Society Venezuela Asociación Matemática Venezolana Vietnam Vietnam Mathematical Society ===Affiliate members===The IMU has five affiliate members:* African Mathematical Union (AMU)* European Mathematical Society (EMS)* Mathematical Council of the Americas (MCofA)* Southeast Asian Mathematical Society (SEAMS)* Unión Matemática de América Latina y el Caribe (UMALCA)" ], [ "Organization and Executive Committee", "The International Mathematical Union is administered by an executive committee (EC) which conducts the business of the Union.", "The EC consists of the President, two vice-presidents, the Secretary, six Members-at-Large, all elected for a term of four years, and the Past President.", "The EC is responsible for all policy matters and for tasks, such as choosing the members of the ICM Program Committee and various prize committees." ], [ "Publications", "Every two months IMU publishes an electronic newsletter, ''IMU-Net'', that aims to improve communication between IMU and the worldwide mathematical community by reporting on decisions and recommendations of the Union, major international mathematical events and developments, and on other topics of general mathematical interest.", "IMU Bulletins are published annually with the aim to inform IMU's members about the Union's current activities.", "In 2009 IMU published the document ''Best Current Practices for Journals''." ], [ "IMU’s Involvement in developing countries", "The IMU took its first organized steps towards the promotion of mathematics in developing countries in the early 1970s and has, since then supported various activities.", "In 2010 IMU formed the Commission for Developing Countries (CDC) which brings together all of the past and current initiatives in support of mathematics and mathematicians in the developing world.Some IMU Supported Initiatives:*''Grants Program for Mathematicians:'' The Commission for Developing Countries supports research travel of mathematicians based in developing countries as well as mathematics research conferences in the developing world through its Grants Program which is open to mathematicians throughout the developing world, including countries that are not (yet) members of the IMU.", "*''African Mathematics Millennium Science Initiative'' (AMMSI) is a network of mathematics centers in sub-Saharan Africa that organizes conferences and workshops, visiting lectureships and an extensive scholarship program for mathematics graduate students doing PhD work on the African continent.", "*''Mentoring African Research in Mathematics (MARM):'' IMU supported the London Mathematical Society (LMS) in founding the MARM programme, which supports mathematics and its teaching in the countries of sub-Saharan Africa via a mentoring partnership between mathematicians in the United Kingdom and African colleagues, together with their students.", "It focuses on cultivating long-term mentoring relations between individual mathematicians and students.", "*''Volunteer Lecturer Program'' (VLP) of IMU identifies mathematicians interested in contributing to the formation of young mathematicians in the developing world.", "The Volunteer Lecturer Program maintains a database of mathematic volunteers willing to offer month-long intensive courses at the advanced undergraduate or graduate level in degree programmes at universities in the developing world.", "IMU also seeks applications from universities and mathematics degree programmes in the developing world that are in need of volunteer lecturers, and that can provide the necessary conditions for productive collaboration in the teaching of advanced mathematics.IMU also supports the ''International Commission on Mathematical Instruction'' (ICMI) with its programmes, exhibits and workshops in emerging countries, especially in Asia and Africa.IMU released a report in 2008, ''Mathematics in Africa: Challenges and Opportunities'', on the current state of mathematics in Africa and on opportunities for new initiatives to support mathematical development.", "In 2014, the IMU's Commission for Developing Countries CDC released an update of the report.Additionally, reports about ''Mathematics in Latin America and the Caribbean and South East Asia''.", "were published.In July 2014 IMU released the report: The International Mathematical Union in the Developing World: Past, Present and Future (July 2014)." ], [ "MENAO Symposium at the ICM", "In 2014, the IMU held a day-long symposium prior to the opening of the International Congress of Mathematicians (ICM), entitled ''Mathematics in Emerging Nations: Achievements and Opportunities'' (MENAO).", "Approximately 260 participants from around the world, including representatives of embassies, scientific institutions, private business and foundations attended this session.", "Attendees heard inspiring stories of individual mathematicians and specific developing nations." ], [ "Presidents", "List of presidents of the International Mathematical Union from 1952 to the present:1952–1954: Marshall Harvey Stone (vice: Émile Borel, Erich Kamke)1955–1958: Heinz Hopf (vice: Arnaud Denjoy, W. V. D. Hodge)1959–1962: Rolf Nevanlinna (vice: Pavel Alexandrov, Marston Morse)1963–1966: Georges de Rham (vice: Henri Cartan, Kazimierz Kuratowski)1967–1970: Henri Cartan (vice: Mikhail Lavrentyev, Deane Montgomery)1971–1974: K. S. Chandrasekharan (vice: Abraham Adrian Albert, Lev Pontryagin)1975–1978: Deane Montgomery (vice: J. W. S. Cassels, Miron Nicolescu, Gheorghe Vrânceanu)1979–1982: Lennart Carleson (vice: Masayoshi Nagata, Yuri Vasilyevich Prokhorov)1983–1986: Jürgen Moser (vice: Ludvig Faddeev, Jean-Pierre Serre)1987–1990: Ludvig Faddeev (vice: Walter Feit, Lars Hörmander)1991–1994: Jacques-Louis Lions (vice: John H. Coates, David Mumford)1995–1998: David Mumford (vice: Vladimir Arnold, Albrecht Dold)1999–2002: Jacob Palis (vice: Simon Donaldson, Shigefumi Mori)2003–2006: John M. Ball (vice: Jean-Michel Bismut, Masaki Kashiwara)2007–2010: László Lovász (vice: Zhi-Ming Ma, Claudio Procesi)2011–2014: Ingrid Daubechies (vice: Christiane Rousseau, Marcelo Viana)2015–2018: Shigefumi Mori (vice: Alicia Dickenstein, Vaughan Jones)2019–2022: Carlos Kenig (vice: Nalini Joshi, Loyiso Nongxa)2023–2026: Hiraku Nakajima (vice: Ulrike Tillmann, Tatiana Toro)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * IMU Newsletter* * *" ], [ "External links", "* – International Mathematical Union* First Woman President of the International Mathematical Union , August 2010, AlphaGalileo* Fields Medal 2010 * African Mathematics Millennium Science Initiative (AMMSI)* Mentoring African Research in Mathematics (MARM) (archived 16 December 2011)* IMU, International Mathematical Union (archived 2 December 2013)* International Mathematical Union Fields Medal (archived 1 January 2013)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "International Council for Science" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''International Council for Science''' ('''ICSU''', after its former name, '''International Council of Scientific Unions''') was an international non-governmental organization devoted to international cooperation in the advancement of science.", "Its members were national scientific bodies and international scientific unions.In 2017, the ICSU comprised 122 multi-disciplinary National Scientific Members, Associates and Observers representing 142 countries and 31 international, disciplinary Scientific Unions.", "ICSU also had 22 Scientific Associates.", "In July 2018, ICSU merged with the International Social Science Council (ISSC) to form the International Science Council (ISC) at a constituent general assembly in Paris." ], [ "Mission and principles", "The ICSU's mission was to strengthen international science for the benefit of society.", "To do this, the ICSU mobilized the knowledge and resources of the international scientific community to:* Identify and address major issues of importance to science and society.", "* Facilitate interaction amongst scientists across all disciplines and from all countries.", "* Promote the participation of all scientists – regardless of race, citizenship, language, political stance, or gender – in the international scientific endeavour.", "* Provide independent, authoritative advice to stimulate constructive dialogue between the scientific community and governments, civil society, and the private sector.", "\"Activities focused on three areas: International Research Collaboration, Science for Policy, and Universality of Science." ], [ "History", "In July 2018, the ICSU became the International Science Council (ISC).The ICSU itself was one of the oldest non-governmental organizations in the world, representing the evolution and expansion of two earlier bodies known as the International Association of Academies (IAA; 1899–1914) and the International Research Council (IRC; 1919–1931).", "In 1998, Members agreed that the Council's current composition and activities would be better reflected by modifying the name from the International Council of Scientific Unions to the International Council for Science, while its rich history and strong identity would be well served by retaining the existing acronym, ICSU." ], [ "Universality of science", "The '''Principle of Freedom and Responsibility in Science''': the free and responsible practice of science is fundamental to scientific advancement and human and environmental well-being.", "Such practice, in all its aspects, requires freedom of movement, association, expression and communication for scientists, as well as equitable access to data, information, and other resources for research.", "It requires responsibility at all levels to carry out and communicate scientific work with integrity, respect, fairness, trustworthiness, and transparency, recognizing its benefits and possible harms.", "In advocating the free and responsible practice of science, the council promotes equitable opportunities for access to science and its benefits, and opposes discrimination based on such factors as ethnic origin, religion, citizenship, language, political or other opinion, sex, gender identity, sexual orientation, disability, or age.The International Science Council's Committee on Freedom and Responsibility in Science (CFRS) \"oversees this commitment and is the guardian of this work.\"" ], [ "Structure", "The ICSU Secretariat (20 staff in 2012) in Paris ensured the day-to-day planning and operations under the guidance of an elected executive board.", "Three Policy Committees − Committee on Scientific Planning and Review (CSPR), Committee on Freedom and Responsibility in the conduct of Science (CFRS) and Committee on Finance − assisted the executive board in its work and a General Assembly of all Members was convened every three years.", "ICSU has three Regional Offices − Africa, Asia and the Pacific as well as Latin America and the Caribbean." ], [ "Finances", "The principal source of ICSU's finances was the contributions it receives from its members.", "Other sources of income are the framework contracts from UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) and grants and contracts from United Nations bodies, foundations and agencies, which are used to support the scientific activities of the ICSU Unions and interdisciplinary bodies." ], [ "Member organizations", " Abbreviation Union Member Since Field IAU International Astronomical Union 1922 Astronomy IBRO International Brain Research Organization 1993 Neuroscience ICA International Cartographic Association 1990 Cartography IGU International Geographical Union 1923 Geography IMU International Mathematical Union 1922 Mathematics INQUA International Union for Quaternary Research 2005 Quaternary Period ISA International Sociological Association 2011 Sociology and Social Sciences ISPRS International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing 2002 Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing IUAES International Union of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences 1993 Anthropology and Ethnology IUBMB International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 1955 Biochemistry and Molecular Biology IUBS International Union of Biological Sciences 1925 Biology IUCr International Union of Crystallography 1947 Crystallography IUFRO International Union of Forest Research Organizations 2005 Forestry IUFoST International Union of Food Science and Technology 1996 Food science and Food technology IUGG International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics 1919 Geodesy and Geophysics IUGS International Union of Geological Sciences 1922 Geology IUHPS International Union of History and Philosophy of Science 1922 History of science and Philosophy of science IUIS International Union of Immunological Societies 1976 Immunology IUMRS International Union of Materials Research Societies 2005 Materials science IUMS International Union of Microbiological Societies 1982 Microbiology IUNS International Union of Nutritional Sciences 1968 Nutrition IUPAB International Union for Pure and Applied Biophysics 1966 Biophysics IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry 1922 Chemistry IUPAP International Union of Pure and Applied Physics 1922 Physics IUPESM International Union for Physical and Engineering Sciences in Medicine 1999 Medical physics IUPHAR International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology 1972 Pharmacology IUPS International Union of Physiological Sciences 1955 Physiology IUPsyS International Union of Psychological Science 1982 Psychology IUSS International Union of Soil Sciences 1993 Soil science IUTAM International Union of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics 1947 Mechanics IUTOX International Union of Toxicology 1996 Toxicology URSI International Union of Radio Science 1922 Radio science=== Associate member organizations === Abbr.", "Associate 4S Society for Social Studies of Science AAS African Academy of Sciences AASSA Association of Academies and Societies of Sciences in Asia ACAL Academia de Ciencias de América Latina CIE Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage FIG IAHR International Association for Hydro-Environment Engineering and Research IASC International Arctic Science Committee ICA (acoustics) International Commission for Acoustics ICIAM International Council for Industrial and Applied Mathematics ICLAS International Council for Laboratory Animal Science ICO International Commission for Optics ICSTI International Council for Scientific and Technical Information IFIP International Federation for Information Processing IFLA International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions IFS International Foundation for Science IFSM International Federation of Societies for Microscopy IIASA International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis IUVSTA International Union for Vacuum Science, Technique and Applications IWA International Water Association PSA Pacific Science Association SCOPE Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment TWAS The World Academy of Sciences UIS Union Internationale de Spéléologie" ], [ "See also", "* Diversitas project, closed Dec 2014 transferred Jan 2015 to ICS as Future Earth* InterAcademy Partnership Abbr.", "OrganisationCIAAW Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic WeightsCODATA Committee on Data for Science and TechnologyCOSPAR Committee on Space ResearchGCOS Global Climate Observing SystemIGBP International Geosphere-Biosphere ProgrammeIHDP International Human Dimensions ProgrammeSCAR Scientific Committee on Antarctic ResearchSCOPE Scientific Committee on Problems of the EnvironmentSCOR Scientific Committee on Oceanic ResearchINASP International Network for the Availability of Scientific PublicationsWCRP World Climate Research ProgrammeWDS World Data System" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Greenaway, Frank (2006) ''Science International: A History of the International Council of Scientific Unions'' Cambridge University Press * Frängsmyr, Tore (1990) ''Solomon's house revisited: the organization and institutionalization of science''.", "Science History Publications, U.S.A. * Crawford, Elisabeth (2002) ''Nationalism and Internationalism in Science, 1880-1939''.", "Cambridge University Press" ], [ "External links", "** ICSU at University of Waterloo Scholarly Societies directory* ICSU at United Nations" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry''' ('''IUPAC''' ) is an international federation of National Adhering Organizations working for the advancement of the chemical sciences, especially by developing nomenclature and terminology.", "It is a member of the International Science Council (ISC).", "IUPAC is registered in Zürich, Switzerland, and the administrative office, known as the \"IUPAC Secretariat\", is in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States.", "This administrative office is headed by IUPAC's executive director, currently Greta Heydenrych.IUPAC was established in 1919 as the successor of the International Congress of Applied Chemistry for the advancement of chemistry.", "Its members, the National Adhering Organizations, can be national chemistry societies, national academies of sciences, or other bodies representing chemists.", "There are fifty-four National Adhering Organizations and three Associate National Adhering Organizations.", "IUPAC's Inter-divisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols (IUPAC nomenclature) is the recognized world authority in developing standards for the naming of the chemical elements and compounds.", "Since its creation, IUPAC has been run by many different committees with different responsibilities.", "These committees run different projects which include standardizing nomenclature, finding ways to bring chemistry to the world, and publishing works.IUPAC is best known for its works standardizing nomenclature in chemistry, but IUPAC has publications in many science fields including chemistry, biology, and physics.", "Some important work IUPAC has done in these fields includes standardizing nucleotide base sequence code names; publishing books for environmental scientists, chemists, and physicists; and improving education in science.", "IUPAC is also known for standardizing the atomic weights of the elements through one of its oldest standing committees, the Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights (CIAAW)." ], [ "Creation and history", "Friedrich August Kekulé von StradonitzThe need for an international standard for chemistry was first addressed in 1860 by a committee headed by German scientist Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz.", "This committee was the first international conference to create an international naming system for organic compounds.", "The ideas that were formulated at that conference evolved into the official IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry.", "IUPAC stands as a legacy of this meeting, making it one of the most important historical international collaborations of chemistry societies.", "Since this time, IUPAC has been the official organization held with the responsibility of updating and maintaining official organic nomenclature.", "IUPAC as such was established in 1919.One notable country excluded from this early IUPAC is Germany.", "Germany's exclusion was a result of prejudice towards Germans by the Allied powers after World War I. Germany was finally admitted into IUPAC in 1929.However, Nazi Germany was removed from IUPAC during World War II.During World War II, IUPAC was affiliated with the Allied powers, but had little involvement during the war effort itself.", "After the war, East and West Germany were readmitted to IUPAC in 1973.Since World War II, IUPAC has been focused on standardizing nomenclature and methods in science without interruption.In 2016, IUPAC denounced the use of chlorine as a chemical weapon.", "The organization pointed out their concerns in a letter to Ahmet Üzümcü, the director of the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), in regards to the practice of utilizing chlorine for weapon usage in Syria among other locations.", "The letter stated, \"Our organizations deplore the use of chlorine in this manner.", "The indiscriminate attacks, possibly carried out by a member state of the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), are of concern to chemical scientists and engineers around the globe and we stand ready to support your mission of implementing the CWC.\"", "According to the CWC, \"the use, stockpiling, distribution, development or storage of any chemical weapons is forbidden by any of the 192 state party signatories.\"" ], [ "Committees and governance", "IUPAC is governed by several committees that all have different responsibilities.", "The committees are as follows: Bureau, CHEMRAWN (Chem Research Applied to World Needs) Committee, Committee on Chemistry Education, Committee on Chemistry and Industry, Committee on Printed and Electronic Publications, Evaluation Committee, Executive Committee, Finance Committee, Interdivisional Committee on Terminology, Nomenclature and Symbols, Project Committee, and Pure and Applied Chemistry Editorial Advisory Board.", "Each committee is made up of members of different National Adhering Organizations from different countries.The steering committee hierarchy for IUPAC is as follows:* All committees have an allotted budget to which they must adhere.", "* Any committee may start a project.", "* If a project's spending becomes too much for a committee to continue funding, it must take the issue to the Project Committee.", "* The project committee either increases the budget or decides on an external funding plan.", "* The Bureau and Executive Committee oversee operations of the other committees.+Committees table Committee name (abbreviation) Responsibilities '''Bureau'''* Discussing and making changes to which committee has authority over a specific project* Controlling finances for all other committees and IUPAC as a whole* Discussing general governance of IUPAC '''Physical and Biophysical Chemistry Division''' (Division I)* Organizing and promoting the international collaboration between scientists in physical and biophysical chemistry and related fields '''Inorganic Chemistry Division '''(Division II)* Inorganic and inorganic materials chemistry, isotopes, and atomic weights, periodic table '''Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry Division '''(Division III)* Promoting the goals of IUPAC in the field of organic and biomolecular chemistry in the broadest sense '''Polymer Division '''(Division IV)* The science and technology of macromolecules and polymers '''Analytical Chemistry Division '''(Division V)* The general aspects of analytical chemistry, separation methods, spectrochemical methods, electrochemical methods, nuclear chemistry methods, and applications to human health and the environment.", "'''Chemistry and the Environment Division '''(Division VI)* Providing unbiased and timely authoritative reviews on the behavior of chemical compounds in food and the environment.", "'''Chemistry and Human Health Division '''(Division VII)* Medicinal and clinical chemistry'''Chemical Nomenclature and Structure Representation Division''' (Division VIII)* Maintaining and developing standard systems for designating chemical structures, including both conventional nomenclature and computer-based systems.", "'''CHEMRAWN Committee''' (Chem Research Applied to World Needs)* Discussing different ways chemistry can and should be used to help the world '''Committee on Chemistry Education''' (CCE)* Coordinating IUPAC chemistry research with the educational systems of the world '''Committee on Chemistry and Industry''' (COCI)* Coordinating IUPAC chemistry research with industrial chemistry needs'''Committee on Ethics, Diversity, Equity and Inclusion''' (CEDEI)* Promoting and developing the core values stated in the IUPAC strategic plan '''Committee on Publications and Cheminformatics Data Standards''' (CPCDS)* Designing and implementing IUPAC publications* Heading the Subcommittee on Spectroscopic Data Standards '''Evaluation Committee''' (EvC)* Evaluating every project* Reporting back to the Executive Committee on every project '''Executive Committee''' (EC)* Planning and discussing IUPAC events* Discussing IUPAC fundraising* Reviewing other committees' work'''Current officers of the Executive Committee''':* President: García Martínez, Javier* Vice president: Keinan, Ehud* Past President: Brett, Christopher M.", "A.", "* Treasurer: Koch, Wolfram* Secretary General: Hartshorn, Richard M. '''Finance Committee''' (FC)* Helping other committees properly manage their budgets* Advising union officers on investments ''' Interdivisional Committee on Green Chemistry for Sustainable Development''' (ICGCSD)* Advancing IUPAC Strategic Plan for green and sustainable chemistry* Coordinating all the work of IUPAC in this area to develop a coherent program of action* Initiating and coordinating projects in green and sustainable chemistry* Encouraging activities in these areas from across the Divisions and Standing Committees* Harmonization, regulation, and standardization in green and sustainable chemistry* Organizing the series of IUPAC International Conferences on Green Chemistry* Managing IUPAC participation in the PhosAgro/UNESCO/IUPAC Green Chemistry for Life awards program* Managing the Green Chemistry Postgraduate Summer School series* Managing IUPAC CHEMRAWN Prize for Green Chemistry* Working and collaborating with other international organizations and industries* Seeking additional sponsorship and support from industrial sources '''Interdivisional Committee on Terminology''' (ICTNS)* Managing IUPAC nomenclature* Working through many projects to standardize nomenclature* Standardizing measurements* Discussing atomic weight standardization '''Project Committee''' (PC)* Managing funds that are under the jurisdiction of multiple projects* Judging if a project is too large for its funding* Recommending sources of external funding for projects* Deciding how to fund meetings in developing countries and countries in crisis '''Pure and Applied Chemistry Editorial Advisory Board''' (PAC-EAB)* Helping to plan, implement, and publish Pure and Applied Chemistry" ], [ "Nomenclature", "Scientists framed a systematic method for naming the organic compounds based on the structures.", "Hence as it of rules was formulated by '''IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry)''' === Basic spellings ===IUPAC establishes rules for harmonized spelling of some chemicals to reduce variation among different local English-language variants.", "For example, they recommend \"aluminium\" rather than \"aluminum\", \"sulfur\" rather than \"sulphur\", and \"caesium\" rather than \"cesium\".=== Organic nomenclature ===IUPAC organic nomenclature has three basic parts: the substituents, carbon chain length, and chemical affix.", "The substituents are any functional groups attached to the main carbon chain.", "The main carbon chain is the longest possible continuous chain.", "The chemical affix denotes what type of molecule it is.", "For example, the ending ''ane'' denotes a single bonded carbon chain, as in \"hexane\" ().Another example of IUPAC organic nomenclature is cyclohexanol:Cyclohexanol* The substituent name for a ring compound is ''cyclo''.", "* The indication (substituent name) for a six carbon chain is ''hex''.", "* The chemical ending for a single bonded carbon chain is ''ane''.", "* The chemical ending for an alcohol is ''ol''.", "* The two chemical endings are combined for an ending of ''anol'' indicating a single bonded carbon chain with an alcohol attached to it.=== Inorganic nomenclature ===Basic IUPAC inorganic nomenclature has two main parts: the cation and the anion.", "The cation is the name for the positively charged ion and the anion is the name for the negatively charged ion.An example of IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry is potassium chlorate (KClO3):Potassium chlorate* \"Potassium\" is the cation name.", "* \"Chlorate\" is the anion name." ], [ "Amino acid and nucleotide base codes", "IUPAC also has a system for giving codes to identify amino acids and nucleotide bases.", "IUPAC needed a coding system that represented long sequences of amino acids.", "This would allow for these sequences to be compared to try to find homologies.", "These codes can consist of either a one-letter code or a three-letter code.These codes make it easier and shorter to write down the amino acid sequences that make up proteins.", "The nucleotide bases are made up of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (cytosine and thymine or uracil).", "These nucleotide bases make up DNA and RNA.", "These nucleotide base codes make the genome of an organism much smaller and easier to read.", "Nucleic acid code Meaning Reasoning A A ''A''denine C C ''C''ytosine G G ''G''uanine T T ''T''hymine U U ''U''racil R A or G Pu''r''ine Y C, T or U P''y''rimidines K G, T or U Bases that are ''k''etones M A or C Bases with a''m''ino groups S C or G ''S''trong interaction W A, T, or U ''W''eak interaction B Not A (i.e.", "C, G, T, or U) ''B'' comes after A D Not C (i.e.", "A, G, T, or U) ''D'' comes after C H Not G (i.e., A, C, T, or U) ''H'' comes after G V Neither T nor U (i.e.", "A, C, or G) ''V'' comes after U N A C G T U ''N''ucleic acid X Masked - Gap of indeterminate lengthThe codes for amino acids (24 amino acids and three special codes) are: Amino acid code Meaning A Alanine B Aspartic acid or asparagine C Cysteine D Aspartic acid E Glutamic acid F Phenylalanine G Glycine H Histidine I Isoleucine K Lysine L Leucine M Methionine N Asparagine O Pyrrolysine P Proline Q Glutamine R Arginine S Serine T Threonine U Selenocysteine V Valine W Tryptophan Y Tyrosine Z Glutamic acid or glutamine J Leucine or isoleucine X Any * Translation stop - Gap of indeterminate length" ], [ "Publications", "=== Non-series books === Book name Description '''''Principles and Practices of Method Validation'''''''Principles and Practices of Method Validation'' is a book entailing methods of validating and analyzing many analytes taken from a single aliquot.", "Also, this book goes over techniques for analyzing many samples at once.", "Some methods discussed include chromatographic methods, estimation of effects, matrix-induced effects, and the effect of an equipment setup on an experiment.", "'''''Fundamental Toxicology'''''''Fundamental Toxicology'' is a textbook that proposes a curriculum for toxicology courses.", "''Fundamental Toxicology'' is based on the book ''Fundamental Toxicology for Chemists''.", "''Fundamental Toxicology'' is enhanced through many revisions and updates.", "New information added in the revisions includes: risk assessment and management; reproductive toxicology; behavioral toxicology; and ecotoxicology.", "This book is relatively well received as being useful for reviewing chemical toxicology.", "'''''Macromolecular Symposia'''''''Macromolecular Symposia'' is a journal that publishes fourteen issues a year.", "This journal includes contributions to the macromolecular chemistry and physics field.", "The meetings of IUPAC are included in this journal along with the European Polymer Federation, the American Chemical Society, and the Society of Polymer Science in Japan.=== ''Experimental Thermodynamics'' book series ===The ''Experimental Thermodynamics'' books series covers many topics in the fields of thermodynamics.", "Book Description '''''Measurement of the Transport Properties of Fluids'''''''Measurement of the Transport Properties of Fluids'' is a book that is published by Blackwell Science.", "The topics that are included in this book are low and high-temperature measurements, secondary coefficients, diffusion coefficients, light scattering, transient methods for thermal conductivity, methods for thermal conductivity, falling-body viscometers, and vibrating viscometers.", "'''''Solution Calorimetry'''''''Solution Calorimetry'' is a book that gives background information on thermal analysis and calorimetry.", "Thermoanalytical and calorimetric techniques along with thermodynamic and kinetic properties are also discussed.", "Later volumes of this book discuss the applications and principles of these thermodynamic and kinetic methods.", "'''''Equations of State for Fluids and Fluid Mixtures Part I'''''''Equations of State for Fluids and Fluid Mixtures Part I'' is a book that gives up to date equations of state for fluids and fluid mixtures.", "This book covers all ways to develop equations of state.", "It gives the strengths and weaknesses of each equation.", "Some equations discussed include: virial equation of state cubic equations; generalized Van der Waals equations; integral equations; perturbation theory; and stating and mixing rules.", "Other things that ''Equations of State for Fluids and Fluid Mixtures Part I'' goes over are: associating fluids, polymer systems, polydisperse fluids, self-assembled systems, ionic fluids, and fluids near their critical points.", "'''''Measurement of the Thermodynamic Properties of Single Phases'''''''Measurement of the Thermodynamic Properties of Single Phases'' is a book that gives an overview of techniques for measuring the thermodynamic quantities of single phases.", "It also goes into experimental techniques to test many different thermodynamic states precisely and accurately.", "''Measurement of the Thermodynamic Properties of Single Phases'' was written for people interested in measuring thermodynamic properties.", "'''''Measurement of the Thermodynamic Properties of Multiple Phases'''''''Measurement of the Thermodynamic Properties of Multiple Phases'' is a book that includes multiple techniques that are used to study multiple phases of pure component systems.", "Also included in this book are the measurement techniques to obtain activity coefficients, interfacial tension, and critical parameters.", "This book was written for researchers and graduate students as a reference source.=== Series of books on analytical and physical chemistry of environmental systems === Book name Description '''''Atmospheric Particles'''''''Atmospheric Particles'' is a book that delves into aerosol science.", "This book is aimed as a reference for graduate students and atmospheric researchers.", "''Atmospheric Particles'' goes into depth on the properties of aerosols in the atmosphere and their effect.", "Topics covered in this book are: acid rain; heavy metal pollution; global warming; and photochemical smog.", "''Atmospheric Particles'' also covers techniques to analyze the atmosphere and ways to take atmospheric samples.", "'''''Environmental Colloids and Particles: Behaviour, Separation and Characterisation'''''''Environmental Colloids and Particles: Behaviour, Separation and Characterisation'' is a book that discusses environmental colloids and current information available on them.", "This book focuses on environmental colloids and particles in aquatic systems and soils.", "It also goes over techniques such as techniques for sampling environmental colloids, size fractionation, and how to characterize colloids and particles.", "''Environmental Colloids and Particles: Behaviour, Separation and Characterisation'' also delves into how these colloids and particles interact.", "'''''Biophysical Chemistry of Fractal Structures and Processes in Environmental Systems'''''''Biophysical Chemistry of Fractal Structures and Processes in Environmental Systems'' is meant to give an overview of a technique based on fractal geometry and the processes of environmental systems.", "This book gives ideas on how to use fractal geometry to compare and contrast different ecosystems.", "It also gives an overview of the knowledge needed to solve environmental problems.", "Finally, ''Biophysical Chemistry of Fractal Structures and Processes in Environmental Systems'' shows how to use the fractal approach to understand the reactivity of flocs, sediments, soils, microorganisms, and humic substances.", "'''''Interactions Between Soil Particles and Microorganisms: Impact on the Terrestrial Ecosystem'''''''Interactions Between Soil Particles and Microorganisms: Impact on the Terrestrial Ecosystem'' is meant to be read by chemists and biologists that study environmental systems.", "Also, this book should be used as a reference for earth scientists, environmental geologists, environmental engineers, and professionals in microbiology and ecology.", "''Interactions Between Soil Particles and Microorganisms: Impact on the Terrestrial Ecosystem'' is about how minerals, microorganisms, and organic components work together to affect terrestrial systems.", "This book identifies that there are many different techniques and theories about minerals, microorganisms, and organic components individually, but they are not often associated with each other.", "It further goes on to discuss how these components of soil work together to affect terrestrial life.", "''Interactions Between Soil Particles and Microorganisms: Impact on the Terrestrial Ecosystem'' gives techniques to analyze minerals, microorganisms, and organic components together.", "This book also has a large section positing why environmental scientists working in the specific fields of minerals, microorganisms, and organic components of soil should work together and how they should do so.", "'''''The Biogeochemistry of Iron in Seawater'''''''The Biogeochemistry of Iron in Seawater'' is a book that describes how low concentrations of iron in Antarctica and the Pacific Ocean are a result of reduced chlorophyll for phytoplankton production.", "It does this by reviewing information from research in the 1990s.", "This book goes into depth about: chemical speciation; analytical techniques; transformation of iron; how iron limits the development of high nutrient low chlorophyll areas in the Pacific Ocean.", "'''''In Situ Monitoring of Aquatic Systems: Chemical Analysis and Speciation'''''''In Situ Monitoring of Aquatic Systems: Chemical Analysis and Speciation'' is a book that discusses techniques and devices to monitor aquatic systems and how new devices and techniques can be developed.", "This book emphasizes the future use of micro-analytical monitoring techniques and microtechnology.", "''In Situ Monitoring of Aquatic Systems: Chemical Analysis and Speciation'' is aimed at researchers and laboratories that analyze aquatic systems such as rivers, lakes, and oceans.", "'''''Structure and Surface Reactions of Soil Particles'''''''Structure and Surface Reactions of Soil Particles'' is a book about soil structures and the molecular processes that occur in soil.", "''Structure and Surface Reactions of Soil Particles'' is aimed at any researcher researching soil or in the field of anthropology.", "It goes into depth on topics such as: fractal analysis of particle dimensions; computer modeling of the structure; reactivity of humics; applications of atomic force microscopy; and advanced instrumentation for analysis of soil particles.", "'''''Metal Speciation and Bioavailability in Aquatic Systems, Series on Analytical and Physical Chemistry of Environmental Systems Vol.", "3'''''''Metal Speciation and Bioavailability in Aquatic Systems, Series on Analytical and Physical Chemistry of Environmental Systems Vol.", "3'' is a book about the effect of trace metals on aquatic life.", "This book is considered a specialty book for researchers interested in observing the effect of trace metals in the water supply.", "This book includes techniques to assess how bioassays can be used to evaluate how an organism is affected by trace metals.", "Also, ''Metal Speciation and Bioavailability in Aquatic Systems, Series on Analytical and Physical Chemistry of Environmental Systems Vol.", "3'' looks at the limitations of the use of bioassays to observe the effects of trace metals on organisms.", "'''''Physicochemical Kinetics and Transport at Biointerfaces'''''''Physicochemical Kinetics and Transport at Biointerfaces'' is a book created to aid environmental scientists in fieldwork.", "The book gives an overview of chemical mechanisms, transport, kinetics, and interactions that occur in environmental systems.", "''Physicochemical Kinetics and Transport at Biointerfaces'' continues from where ''Metal Speciation and Bioavailability in Aquatic Systems'' leaves off.=== Colored cover book and website series (nomenclature) ===IUPAC color code their books in order to make each publication distinguishable.", "Title Description '''''Compendium of Analytical Nomenclature'''''One extensive book on almost all nomenclature written (IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry and IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry) by IUPAC committee is the ''Compendium of Analytical Nomenclature'' (the \"Orange Book\"; 1st edition 1978).", "This book was revised in 1987.The second edition has many revisions that come from reports on nomenclature between 1976 and 1984.In 1992, the second edition went through many different revisions, which led to the third edition.", "'''''Pure and Applied Chemistry'' (journal)'''''Pure and Applied Chemistry'' is the official monthly journal of IUPAC.", "This journal debuted in 1960.The goal statement for ''Pure and Applied Chemistry'' is to \"publish highly topical and credible works at the forefront of all aspects of pure and applied chemistry.\"", "The journal itself is available by subscription, but older issues are available in the archive on IUPAC's website.", "''Pure and Applied Chemistry'' was created as a central way to publish IUPAC endorsed articles.", "Before its creation, IUPAC did not have a quick, official way to distribute new chemistry information.Its creation was first suggested at the Paris IUPAC Meeting of 1957.During this meeting the commercial publisher of the journal was discussed and decided on.", "In 1959, the IUPAC Pure and Applied Chemistry Editorial Advisory Board was created and put in charge of the journal.", "The idea of one journal being a definitive place for a vast amount of chemistry was difficult for the committee to grasp at first.", "However, it was decided that the journal would reprint old journal editions to keep all chemistry knowledge available.", "'''''Compendium of Chemical Terminology'''''The ''Compendium of Chemical Terminology'', also known as the \"Gold Book\", was originally worked on by Victor Gold.", "This book is a collection of names and terms already discussed in ''Pure and Applied Chemistry''.", "The ''Compendium of Chemical Terminology'' was first published in 1987.The first edition of this book contains no original material, but is meant to be a compilation of other IUPAC works.The second edition of this book was published in 1997.This book made large changes to the first edition of the ''Compendium of Chemical Terminology''.", "These changes included updated material and an expansion of the book to include over seven thousand terms.", "The second edition was the topic of an IUPAC XML project.", "This project made an XML version of the book that includes over seven thousand terms.", "The XML version of the book includes an open editing policy, which allows users to add excerpts of the written version.", "'''''IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry'' (online publication)''' ''IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry'', also known as the \"Blue Book\", is a website published by the Advanced Chemistry Department Incorporated with the permission of IUPAC.", "This site is a compilation of the books ''A Guide to IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Compounds'' and ''Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry''." ], [ "International Year of Chemistry", "International Year of Chemistry logoIUPAC and UNESCO were the lead organizations coordinating events for the International Year of Chemistry, which took place in 2011.The International Year of Chemistry was originally proposed by IUPAC at the general assembly in Turin, Italy.", "This motion was adopted by UNESCO at a meeting in 2008.The main objectives of the International Year of Chemistry were to increase public appreciation of chemistry and gain more interest in the world of chemistry.", "This event is also being held to encourage young people to get involved and contribute to chemistry.", "A further reason for this event being held is to honour how chemistry has made improvements to everyone's way of life." ], [ "IUPAC Presidents", "IUPAC Presidents are elected by the IUPAC Council during the General Assembly.", "Below is the list of IUPAC Presidents since its inception in 1919.TermPresidentNationality1920–1922Charles Moureu1923–1925William Jackson Pope1926–1928Ernst Julius Cohen1928–1934Einar Biilman1934–1938N.", "Paravano1938–1947Marston Taylor Bogert1947–1951Hugo Rudolph Kruyt1951–1955Arne Tiselius1955–1959Arthur Stoll1959–1963William Albert Noyes Jr.1963–1965Lord Todd1965–1967Wilhelm Klemm1967–1969V.N.", "Kondratiev1969–1971Albert Lloyd George Rees1971–1973Jacques Bénard1973–1975Sir Harold Thompson1975–1977Robert W. Cairns1977–1979Georges Smets1979–1981Heinrich Zollinger1981–1983Saburo Nagakura1983–1985William G. Schneider1987–1989Valentin A. Koptyug1989–1991Yves P. Jeannin1991–1993Allen J. Bard1993–1995Kiril I. Zamaraev1996–1997Albert E. Fischli1998–1999Joshua Jortner2000–2001Alan Hayes2002–2003Pieter Streicher Steyn2004–2005Leiv Kristen Sydnes2006–2007Bryan Henry2008–2009Jung-Il Jin2010–2011Nicole J. Moreau2012–2013Kazuyuki Tatsumi2014–2015Mark Cesa2016–2017Natalia Tarasova2018–2019Zhou Qifeng2020–2021Christopher M.A.", "Brett2022–2023Javier García-Martínez" ], [ "See also", "* CAS registry number* Chemical nomenclature* Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights* European Association for Chemical and Molecular Sciences* Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (IRMM)* International Chemical Identifier (InChI)* International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (IUBMB)* International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP)* List of chemical elements naming controversies* National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)* Simplified molecular-input line-entry system (SMILES)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "International Hydrographic Organization" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''International Hydrographic Organization''' ('''IHO''') (French: ''Organisation hydrographique internationale'') is an intergovernmental organisation representing hydrography.", ", the IHO comprised 99 Member States.A principal aim of the IHO is to ensure that the world's seas, oceans and navigable waters are properly surveyed and charted.", "It does this through the setting of international standards, the co-ordination of the endeavours of the world's national hydrographic offices, and through its capacity building program.", "The IHO enjoys observer status at the United Nations, where it is the recognised competent authority on hydrographic surveying and nautical charting.", "When referring to hydrography and nautical charting in Conventions and similar Instruments, it is the IHO standards and specifications that are normally used." ], [ "History", "The IHO was established in 1921 as the International Hydrographic Bureau (IHB).", "The present name was adopted in 1970, as part of a new international Convention on the IHO adopted by the then member nations.", "The former name '''International Hydrographic Bureau''' was retained to describe the IHO secretariat until 8 November 2016, when a significant revision to the Convention on the IHO entered into force.", "Thereafter the IHB became known as the \"IHO Secretariat\", comprising an elected Secretary-General and two supporting Directors, together with a small permanent staff (18 in 2020), at the Organization's headquarters in Monaco.During the 19th century, many maritime nations established hydrographic offices to provide means for improving the navigation of naval and merchant vessels by providing nautical publications, nautical charts, and other navigational services.", "There were substantial differences in hydrographic procedures charts, and publications.", "In 1889, an International Maritime Conference was held at Washington, D.C., and it was proposed to establish a \"permanent international commission.\"", "Similar proposals were made at the sessions of the International Congress of Navigation held at Saint Petersburg in 1908 and the International Maritime Conference held at Saint Petersburg in 1912.In 1919, the national Hydrographers of Great Britain and France cooperated in taking the necessary steps to convene an international conference of Hydrographers.", "London was selected as the most suitable place for this conference, and on 24 July 1919, the First International Conference opened, attended by the Hydrographers of 24 nations.", "The object of the conference was \"To consider the advisability of all maritime nations adopting similar methods in preparation, construction, and production of their charts and all hydrographic publications; of rendering the results in the most convenient form to enable them to be readily used; of instituting a prompt system of mutual exchange of hydrographic information between all countries; and of providing an opportunity to consultations and discussions to be carried out on hydrographic subjects generally by the hydrographic experts of the world.\"", "This is still the major purpose of the IHO.As a result of the 1919 Conference, a permanent organization was formed and statutes for its operations were prepared.", "The IHB, now the IHO, began its activities in 1921 with 18 nations as members.", "The Principality of Monaco was selected as the seat of the Organization as a result of the offer of Albert I of Monaco to provide suitable accommodation for the Bureau in the Principality." ], [ "Functions", "The IHO develops hydrographic and nautical charting standards.", "These standards are subsequently adopted and used by its member countries and others in their surveys, nautical charts, and publications.", "The almost universal use of the IHO standards means that the products and services provided by the world's national hydrographic and oceanographic offices are consistent and recognizable by all seafarers and for other users.", "Much has been done in the field of standardization since the IHO was founded.The IHO has encouraged the formation of Regional Hydrographic Commissions (RHCs).", "Each RHC coordinates the national surveying and charting activities of countries within each region and acts as a forum to address other matters of common hydrographic interest.", "The 15 RHCs plus the IHO Hydrographic Commission on Antarctica effectively cover the world.", "The IHO, in partnership with the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, directs the General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans program.=== Achievements ===Establishment of the Chart Specifications Committee and International Charts:# The exploration of the seabed and movements of the sea# Standardization of maritime measurements, hydrographic terminology, marine cartographic products, and geographical information systems for navigation# High efficiency of the rapid dissemination of information on safety at sea# Training of hydrographers and nautical cartographers" ], [ "Publications", "Most IHO publications, including the standards, guidelines and associated documents such as the ''International Hydrographic Review'', ''International Hydrographic Bulletin'', the ''Hydrographic Dictionary'' and the ''Year Book'' are available to the general public free of charge from the IHO website.", "The IHO publishes the international standards related to charting and hydrography, including S-57, ''IHO Transfer Standard for Digital Hydrographic Data'', the encoding standard that is used primarily for electronic navigational charts.In 2010, the IHO introduced a new, contemporary hydrographic geospatial standard for modelling marine data and information, known as S-100.S-100 and any dependent product specifications are underpinned by an on-line registry accessible via the IHO website.", "S-100 is aligned with the ISO 19100 series of geographic standards, thereby making it fully compatible with contemporary geospatial data standards.Because S-100 is based on ISO 19100, it can be used by other data providers for their maritime-related (non-hydrographic) data and information.", "Various data and information providers from both the government and private sector are now using S-100 as part of the implementation of the e-Navigation concept that has been endorsed by the UN International Maritime Organization (IMO).Another in the series of publications of interest is S-23, ''Limits of Oceans and Seas''.", "The 3rd edition dates back to 1953 while the potential 4th edition, started in 1986, has remained a draft since 2002.It was distributed to IHO members, but its official publication has been suspended pending agreement between South Korea and Japan regarding the international standard name of the sea called \"Japan Sea\" in the 1953 edition." ], [ "See also", "* World Hydrography Day" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "IBM mainframe" ], [ "Introduction", "'''IBM mainframes''' are large computer systems produced by IBM since 1952.During the 1960s and 1970s, IBM dominated the computer market with the 7000 series and the later System/360, followed by the System/370.Current mainframe computers in IBM's line of business computers are developments of the basic design of the System/360." ], [ "First and second generation", "NACA in 1957From 1952 into the late 1960s, IBM manufactured and marketed several large computer models, known as the IBM 700/7000 series.", "The first-generation 700s were based on vacuum tubes, while the later, second-generation 7000s used transistors.", "These machines established IBM's dominance in electronic data processing (\"EDP\").", "IBM had two model categories: one (701, 704, 709, 7030, 7090, 7094, 7040, 7044) for engineering and scientific use, and one (702, 705, 705-II, 705-III, 7080, 7070, 7072, 7074, 7010) for commercial or data processing use.", "The two categories, scientific and commercial, generally used common peripherals but had completely different instruction sets, and there were incompatibilities even within each category.IBM initially sold its computers without any software, expecting customers to write their own; programs were manually initiated, one at a time.", "Later, IBM provided compilers for the newly developed higher-level programming languages Fortran, COMTRAN and later COBOL.", "The first operating systems for IBM computers were written by IBM customers who did not wish to have their very expensive machines ($2M USD in the mid-1950s) sitting idle while operators set up jobs manually.", "These first operating systems were essentially scheduled work queues.", "It is generally thought the first operating system used for real work was GM-NAA I/O, produced by General Motors' Research division in 1956.IBM enhanced one of GM-NAA I/O's successors, the SHARE Operating System, and provided it to customers under the name IBSYS.", "As software became more complex and important, the cost of supporting it on so many different designs became burdensome, and this was one of the factors which led IBM to develop System/360 and its operating systems.The second generation (transistor-based) products were a mainstay of IBM's business and IBM continued to make them for several years after the introduction of the System/360.", "(Some IBM 7094s remained in service into the 1980s.)" ], [ "Smaller machines", "IBM 1401 undergoing restoration at the Computer History MuseumPrior to System/360, IBM also sold computers smaller in scale that were not considered mainframes, though they were still bulky and expensive by modern standards.", "These included:* IBM 650 (vacuum tube logic, decimal architecture, drum memory, business and scientific)* IBM 305 RAMAC (vacuum tube logic, first computer with disk storage; ''see:'' Early IBM disk storage)* IBM 1400 series (business data processing; very successful and many 1400 peripherals were used with the 360s)* IBM 1620 (decimal architecture, engineering, scientific, and education)IBM had difficulty getting customers to upgrade from the smaller machines to the mainframes because so much software had to be rewritten.", "The 7010 was introduced in 1962 as a mainframe-sized 1410.The later Systems 360 and 370 could emulate the 1400 machines.", "A desk-size machine with a different instruction set, the IBM 1130, was released concurrently with the System/360 to address the niche occupied by the 1620.It used the same EBCDIC character encoding as the 360 and was mostly programmed in Fortran, which was relatively easy to adapt to larger machines when necessary.IBM also introduced smaller machines after S/360.These included:* IBM System/7 (semiconductor memory, process control, incompatible replacement for IBM 1800* IBM Series/1* IBM 3790* IBM 8100* IBM System/3 (Introduced 96 column card)''Midrange computer'' is a designation used by IBM for a class of computer systems which fall in between mainframes and microcomputers." ], [ "IBM System/360", "IBM System/360 Model 50IBM announced the System/360 (S/360) line of mainframes in April 1964.The System/360 was a single series of compatible models for both commercial and scientific use.", "The number \"360\" suggested a \"360 degree,\" or \"all-around\" computer system.", "System/360 incorporated features which had previously been present on only either the commercial line (such as decimal arithmetic and byte addressing) or the engineering and scientific line (such as floating-point arithmetic).", "Some of the arithmetic units and addressing features were optional on some models of the System/360.However, models were upward compatible and most were also downward compatible.", "The System/360 was also the first computer in wide use to include dedicated hardware provisions for the use of operating systems.", "Among these were supervisor and application mode programs and instructions, as well as built-in memory protection facilities.", "Hardware memory protection was provided to protect the operating system from the user programs (tasks) and user tasks from each other.", "The new machine also had a larger address space than the older mainframes, 24 bits addressing 8-bit bytes vs. a typical 18 bits addressing 36-bit words.", "The smaller models in the System/360 line (e.g.", "the 360/30) were intended to replace the 1400 series while providing an easier upgrade path to the larger 360s.", "To smooth the transition from the second generation to the new line, IBM used the 360's microprogramming capability to emulate the more popular older models.", "Thus 360/30s with this added cost feature could run 1401 programs and the larger 360/65s could run 7094 programs.", "To run old programs, the 360 had to be halted and restarted in emulation mode.", "Many customers kept using their old software and one of the features of the later System/370 was the ability to switch to emulation mode and back under operating system control.Operating systems for the System/360 family included OS/360 (with PCP, MFT, and MVT), BOS/360, TOS/360, and DOS/360.The System/360 later evolved into the System/370, the System/390, and the 64-bit zSeries, System z, and zEnterprise machines.", "System/370 introduced virtual memory capabilities in all models other than the very first System/370 models; the OS/VS1 variant of OS/360 MFT, the OS/VS2 (SVS) variant of OS/360 MVT, and the DOS/VS variant of DOS/360 were introduced to use the virtual memory capabilities, followed by MVS, which, unlike the earlier virtual-memory operating systems, ran separate programs in separate address spaces, rather than running all programs in a single virtual address space.", "The virtual memory capabilities also allowed the system to support virtual machines; the VM/370 hypervisor would run one or more virtual machines running either standard System/360 or System/370 operating systems or the single-user Conversational Monitor System (CMS).", "A time-sharing VM system could run multiple virtual machines, one per user, with each virtual machine running an instance of CMS." ], [ "Today's systems", "IBM System z800The IBM Z family, introduced in 2000 with the z900, supports z/Architecture, which extends the architecture used by the System/390 mainframes to 64 bits.===Processor units===The different processors on current IBM mainframes are:* CP, Central Processor: general-purpose processor* IFL, Integrated Facility for Linux: dedicated to Linux OSes (optionally under z/VM)* ICF, Integrated Coupling Facility: designed to support Parallel Sysplex operations* SAP, System Assist Processor: designed to handle various system accounting, management, and I/O channel operations* zAAP, System z Application Assist Processor: currently limited to run only Java and XML processing* zIIP, System z Integrated Information Processor: dedicated to run specific workloads including IBM Db2, XML, and IPSecThese are essentially identical, but distinguished for software cost control: all but CP are slightly restricted such they cannot be used to run arbitrary operating systems, and thus do not count in software licensing costs (which are typically based on the number of CPs).There are other supporting processors typically installed inside mainframes such as cryptographic accelerators (CryptoExpress), the OSA-Express networking processor, and FICON Express disk I/O processors.Software to allow users to run \"traditional\" workloads on zIIPs and zAAPs was briefly marketed by Neon Enterprise Software as \"zPrime\" but was withdrawn from the market in 2011 after a lawsuit by IBM.===Operating systems===The primary operating systems in use on current IBM mainframes include z/OS (which followed MVS/ESA and OS/390 in the OS/360 lineage), z/VM (which followed VM/ESA and VM/XA SP in the CP-40 lineage), z/VSE (which is in the DOS/360 lineage), z/TPF (a successor of Transaction Processing Facility in the Airlines Control Program lineage), and Linux on IBM Z (e.g., Debian, Red Hat Enterprise Linux, SUSE Linux Enterprise Server).", "Some systems run MUSIC/SP, as well as UTS (Mainframe UNIX).", "In October 2008, Sine Nomine Associates introduced OpenSolaris on System z; it has since been discontinued.===Middleware===Current IBM mainframes run all the major enterprise transaction processing environments and databases, including CICS, IMS, WebSphere Application Server, IBM Db2, and Oracle.", "In many cases these software subsystems can run on more than one mainframe operating system.===Emulators===There are software-based emulators for the System/370, System/390, and System z hardware, including FLEX-ES, which runs under UnixWare or Linux, and the freely available Hercules, which runs under Linux, FreeBSD, Solaris, macOS and Microsoft Windows.IBM offers an emulator called zPDT (System z Personal Development Tool) which runs on Linux on x86-64 machines." ], [ "See also", "* List of IBM products* Amdahl Corporation* IBM midrange computer* IBM LinuxONE* IBM Secure Service Container* Input/Output Configuration Program" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Prasad, Nallur and Savit, Jeffrey (1994).", "''IBM Mainframes: Architecture and Design'', 2nd ed.", "McGraw-Hill Osborne Media.", ".", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Official IBM mainframe page (IBM Z)* IBM Mainframe Resources & Forum* IBM Archives: IBM Mainframes * IBM Archives: IBM Mainframe Family tree & chronology * IBM Archives: IBM Mainframe album" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Iowa State University" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Iowa State University of Science and Technology''' ('''Iowa State University''', '''Iowa State''', or '''ISU''') is a public land-grant research university in Ames, Iowa.", "Founded in 1858 as the '''Iowa Agricultural College and Model Farm''', Iowa State became one of the nation's first designated land-grant institutions when the Iowa Legislature accepted the provisions of the 1862 Morrill Act on September 11, 1862, making Iowa the first state in the nation to do so.", "On July 4, 1959, the college was officially renamed Iowa State University of Science and Technology.Iowa State is the largest university in the State of Iowa by total enrollment.", "The university's academic offerings are administered through eight colleges, including the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, the College of Veterinary Medicine, the College of Engineering, the Graduate College, the College of Liberal Arts & Sciences, the College of Design, Debbie and Jerry Ivy College of Business, and the College of Human Sciences.", "They offer over 100 bachelor's degree programs, 120 master's degree programs, and 80 doctoral degree programs, plus a professional degree program in Veterinary Medicine.Iowa State is classified among \"R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity\".", "The university is home to the Ames Laboratory, one of ten national U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science research laboratories, the Biorenewables Research Laboratory, the Plant Sciences Institute, and various other research institutes.", "Iowa State University's athletic teams, the Cyclones, compete in Division I of the NCAA and are a founding member of the Big 12." ], [ "History", "The Campanile and lawnIn 1856, the Iowa General Assembly enacted legislation to establish the Iowa Agricultural College and Model Farm.", "This institution (now Iowa State University) was officially established on March 22, 1858, by the General Assembly.", "Story County was chosen as the location on June 21, 1859, beating proposals from Johnson, Kossuth, Marshall and Polk counties.", "The original farm of was purchased for a cost of $5,379.Iowa was the first state in the nation to accept the provisions of the Morrill Act of 1862.The state subsequently designated Iowa State as the land-grant college on March 29, 1864.Iowa State University is one of four universities that claims to be the first land-grant institution in the United States, the others being Kansas State University, Michigan State University, and the Pennsylvania State University.", "From the start, Iowa Agricultural College focused on the ideals that higher education should be accessible to all and that the university should teach liberal and practical subjects.", "These ideals are integral to the land-grant university.The institution has been coeducational since the first class admitted in 1868.Formal admissions began the following year, and the first graduating class of 1872 consisted of 24 men and two women.The Farm House, the first building on the Iowa State campus, was completed in 1861 before the campus was occupied by students or classrooms.", "It became the home of the superintendent of the Model Farm and in later years, the deans of Agriculture, including Seaman Knapp and \"Tama Jim\" Wilson.", "Iowa State's first president, Adonijah Welch, briefly stayed at the Farm House and penned his inaugural speech in a second floor bedroom.The Iowa Experiment Station was one of the university's prominent features.", "Practical courses of instruction were taught, including one designed to give a general training for the career of a farmer.", "Courses in mechanical, civil, electrical, and mining engineering were also part of the curriculum.In 1870, President Welch and I. P. Roberts, professor of agriculture, held three-day farmers' institutes at Cedar Falls, Council Bluffs, Washington, and Muscatine.", "These became the earliest institutes held off-campus by a land grant institution and were the forerunners of 20th century extension.In 1872, the first courses were given in domestic economy (home economics, family and consumer sciences) and were taught by Mary B. Welch, the president's wife.", "Iowa State became the first land grant university to offer training in domestic economy for college credit.In 1879, the School of Veterinary Science was organized, becoming the first state veterinary college in the United States.", "This was originally a two-year course leading to a diploma.", "The veterinary course of study contained classes in zoology, botany, anatomy of domestic animals, veterinary obstetrics, and sanitary science.Beardshear HallCurtiss HallMarston HallWilliam M. Beardshear was appointed President of Iowa State in 1891.During his tenure, Iowa Agricultural College truly came of age.", "Beardshear developed new agricultural programs and was instrumental in hiring premier faculty members such as Anson Marston, Louis B. Spinney, J.B. Weems, Perry G. Holden, and Maria Roberts.", "He also expanded the university administration, and added Morrill Hall (1891), the Campanile (1899), Old Botany (now Carrie Chapman Catt Hall) (1892), and Margaret Hall (1895) to the campus, all of which stand today except for Margaret Hall, which was destroyed by a fire in 1938.In his honor, Iowa State named its central administrative building (Central Building) after Beardshear in 1925.In 1898, reflecting the school's growth during his tenure, it was renamed Iowa State College of Agricultural and Mechanic Arts, or Iowa State for short.Today, Beardshear Hall holds the offices of the President, Vice-President, Treasurer, Secretary, Registrar, Provost, and student financial aid.", "Catt Hall is named after alumna and famed suffragette Carrie Chapman Catt, and is the home of the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences.In 1912, Iowa State had its first Homecoming celebration.", "The idea was first proposed by Professor Samuel Beyer, the college's \"patron saint of athletics\", who suggested that Iowa State inaugurate a celebration for alumni during the annual football game against rival University of Iowa.", "Iowa State's new president, Raymond A. Pearson, liked the idea and issued a special invitation to alumni two weeks prior to the event: \"We need you, we must have you.", "Come and see what a school you have made in Iowa State College.", "Find a way.\"", "In October 2012 Iowa State marked its 100th Homecoming with a \"CYtennial\" Celebration.Iowa State celebrated its first VEISHEA on May 11–13, 1922.Wallace McKee (class of 1922) served as the first chairman of the Central Committee and Frank D. Paine (professor of electrical engineering) chose the name, based on the first letters of Iowa State's colleges: Veterinary Medicine, Engineering, Industrial Science, Home Economics, and Agriculture.", "VEISHEA grew to become the largest student-run festival in the nation.The Statistical Laboratory was established in 1933, with George W. Snedecor, professor of mathematics, as the first director.", "It was and is the first research and consulting institute of its kind in the country.While attempting to develop a faster method of computation, mathematics and physics professor John Vincent Atanasoff conceptualized the basic tenets of what would become the world's first electronic digital computer, the Atanasoff–Berry Computer (ABC), during a drive to Illinois in 1937.These included the use of a binary system of arithmetic, the separation of computer and memory functions, and regenerative drum memory, among others.", "The 1939 prototype was constructed with graduate student Clifford Berry in the basement of the Physics Building.During World War II, Iowa State was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission.On July 4, 1959, the college was officially renamed Iowa State University of Science and Technology.", "However, the short-form name \"Iowa State University\" is used even in official documents, such as diplomas.", "Official names given to the university's divisions were the College of Agriculture, College of Engineering, College of Home Economics, College of Sciences and Humanities, and College of Veterinary Medicine.Iowa State's eight colleges today offer more than 100 undergraduate majors and 200 fields of study leading to graduate and professional degrees.", "The academic program at ISU includes a liberal arts education and research in the biological and physical sciences.", "The focus on technology has led directly to many research patents and inventions including the first binary computer, the ABC, Maytag blue cheese, and the round hay baler.Located on a campus, the university has grown considerably from its roots as an agricultural college and model farm and is recognized internationally today for its comprehensive research programs.", "It continues to grow and set a new record for enrollment in the fall of 2015 with 36,001 students." ], [ "Academics", " '''College/school founding''' '''College/school''' ---- College of Agriculture and Life Sciences College of Veterinary Medicine College of Engineering Graduate College College of Liberal Arts & Sciences College of Design Ivy College of Business College of Human Sciences === Colleges and schools ===Iowa State University is organized into eight colleges and two schools that offer 100 Bachelor's degree programs, 112 Masters programs, and 83 Ph.D programs, including one professional degree program in Veterinary Medicine.ISU is home to the following schools:* Greenlee School of Journalism and Mass Communication (within the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences)* School of Education (within the College of Human Sciences)=== Rankings ===Classified as one of Carnegie's \"R1: Doctoral Universities - Very High Research Activity,\" Iowa State receives nearly $500 million in research grants annually.In 2022, Iowa State ranks 401-500 in the Times Higher Education World University Rankings, and 501-600 in the Academic Ranking of World Universities.", "In 2017, the two same organizations ranked Iowa State 351-400 and 201-300, respectively.", "In 2012, these rankings were 184 and 151-200, respectively.In 2016-17 Iowa State university became part of only fifty-four institutions in the U.S. to earn the \"Innovation and Economic Prosperity University\" designation by the Association of Public and Land-grant Universities.The agriculture and forestry programs were ranked 16th in the world by QS for 2020.The statistics program was tied for 20th in the U.S. according to ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' for 2018.ISU's chemistry and physics programs are ranked in the Top 100 globally and in Top 50 nationally.", "ISU's Greenlee School of Journalism and Mass Communication is among the first group of accredited journalism and mass communication programs.The National Science Foundation ranks ISU 71st in the nation in total research and development expenditures and 94th in research and development expenditures for science and engineering.In 2016, ISU's landscape architecture program was ranked as the 10th best undergraduate program in the nation, and architecture as the 18th best.=== Parks Library ===W.", "Robert and Ellen Sorge Parks LibraryThe W. Robert and Ellen Sorge Parks Library contains over 2.6 million books and subscribes to more than 98,600 journal titles.", "Named for W. Robert Parks (1915–2003), the 11th president of Iowa State University, and his wife, Ellen Sorge Parks, the original library was built in 1925 with three subsequent additions made in 1961, 1969, and 1983.The library was dedicated and named after W. Robert and Ellen Sorge Parks in 1984.Surrounding the first floor lobby staircase in Parks Library are eight mural panels designed by Iowa artist Grant Wood.", "As with ''Breaking the Prairie Sod'', Wood's other Iowa State University mural painted two years later, Wood borrowed his theme for ''When Tillage Begins Other Arts Follow'' from a speech on agriculture delivered by Daniel Webster in 1840 at the State House in Boston, in which farmers were portrayed as the founders of human civilization.=== Intensive English and Orientation Program ===The university has an IEOP for foreign students.", "Students whose native language is not English can take IEOP courses to improve their English proficiency to help them succeed at University-level study.", "IEOP course content also helps students prepare for English proficiency exams, like the TOEFL and IELTS.", "Classes included in the IEOP include Grammar, Reading, Writing, Oral Communication and Business and various bridge classes." ], [ "Distinctions", "=== Birthplace of first electronic digital computer ===Atanasoff–Berry Computer replica on 1st floor of Durham Center, Iowa State UniversityIowa State is the birthplace of the first electronic digital computer, starting the world's computer technology revolution.", "Invented by mathematics and physics professor John Atanasoff and engineering graduate student Clifford Berry during 1937–42, the Atanasoff–Berry Computer pioneered important elements of modern computing.On October 19, 1973, U.S. Federal Judge Earl R. Larson signed his decision following a lengthy court trial which declared the ENIAC patent of Mauchly and Eckert invalid and named Atanasoff the inventor of the electronic digital computer—the Atanasoff–Berry Computer or the ABC.An ABC Team consisting of Ames Laboratory and Iowa State engineers, technicians, researchers and students unveiled a working replica of the Atanasoff–Berry Computer in 1997 which can be seen on display on campus in the Durham Computation Center.=== Birth of cooperative extension ===The Extension Service traces its roots to farmers' institutes developed at Iowa State in the late 19th century.", "Committed to community, Iowa State pioneered the outreach mission of being a land-grant college through creation of the first Extension Service in 1902.In 1906, the Iowa Legislature enacted the Agricultural Extension Act making funds available for demonstration projects.", "It is believed this was the first specific legislation establishing state extension work, for which Iowa State assumed responsibility.", "The national extension program was created in 1914 based heavily on the Iowa State model.=== VEISHEA celebration ===The VEISHEA 2006 Battle of the BandsIowa State is widely known for VEISHEA, an annual education and entertainment festival that was held on campus each spring.", "The name VEISHEA was derived from the initials of ISU's five original colleges, forming an acronym as the university existed when the festival was founded in 1922:* '''V'''eterinary Medicine* '''E'''ngineering* '''I'''ndustrial '''S'''cience* '''H'''ome '''E'''conomics* '''A'''gricultureVEISHEA was the largest student run festival in the nation, bringing in tens of thousands of visitors to the campus each year.The celebration featured an annual parade and many open-house demonstrations of the university facilities and departments.", "Campus organizations exhibited products, technologies, and held fund raisers for various charity groups.", "In addition, VEISHEA brought speakers, lecturers, and entertainers to Iowa State, and throughout its over eight decade history, it has hosted such distinguished guests as Bob Hope, John Wayne, Presidents Harry Truman, Ronald Reagan, and Lyndon Johnson, and performers Diana Ross, Billy Joel, Sonny and Cher, The Who, The Goo Goo Dolls, Bobby V, and The Black Eyed Peas.The 2007 VEISHEA festivities marked the start of Iowa State's year-long sesquicentennial celebration.On August 8, 2014, President Steven Leath announced that VEISHEA would no longer be an annual event at Iowa State and the name VEISHEA would be retired.=== Manhattan Project ===Iowa State played a role in the development of the atomic bomb during World War II as part of the Manhattan Project, a research and development program begun in 1942 under the Army Corps of Engineers.The process to produce large quantities of high-purity uranium metal became known as the Ames process.", "One-third of the uranium metal used in the world's first controlled nuclear chain reaction was produced at Iowa State under the direction of Frank Spedding and Harley Wilhelm.", "The Ames Project received the Army/Navy E Award for Excellence in Production on October 12, 1945, for its work with metallic uranium as a vital war material.", "Today, ISU is the only university in the United States that has a U.S. Department of Energy research laboratory physically located on its campus." ], [ "Research", "Iowa State University is a member of the Universities Research Association, University Corporation for Atmospheric Research and the Association of Public and Land-grant Universities.", "In 2020, Iowa State spent $363.1 million in R&D.Iowa State was a member of the Association of American Universities from 1958 until April 2022.It departed claiming that AAU's internal ranking indicators unfairly favor institutions with high levels of NIH funding and noted that its strength is not in biomedical research because the school does not have a medical school.=== Ames National Laboratory ===thumbIowa State is the only university in the United States that has a U.S. Department of Energy research laboratory physically located on its campus.", "Operated by Iowa State, Ames National Laboratory is one of ten national DOE Office of Science research laboratories.ISU research for the government provided Ames National Laboratory its start in the 1940s with the development of a highly efficient process for producing high-purity uranium for atomic energy.", "Today, Ames National Laboratory continues its leading status in current materials research and focuses diverse fundamental and applied research strengths upon issues of national concern, cultivates research talent, and develops and transfers technologies to improve industrial competitiveness and enhance U.S. economic security.", "Ames National Laboratory employs more than 500 full- and part-time employees.", "Students make up more than 45 percent of the paid workforce.Ames National Laboratory is the U.S. home to 2011 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Dan Shechtman and is intensely engaged with the international scientific community, including hosting a large number of international visitors each year.=== ISU Research Park ===The ISU Research Park Corporation was established in 1987 as a not-for-profit, independent, corporation operating under a board of directors appointed by Iowa State University and the ISU Foundation.", "The corporation manages both the Research Park and incubator programs.=== Other research institutes ===In 2010, the '''Biorenewables Research Laboratory''' opened in a LEED-Gold certified building that complements and helps replace labs and offices across Iowa State and promotes interdisciplinary, systems-level research and collaboration.", "The Lab houses the Bioeconomy Institute, the Biobased Industry Center, and the National Science Foundation Engineering Research Center for Biorenewable Chemicals, a partnership of six universities as well as the Max Planck Society in Germany and the Technical University of Denmark.The '''Engineering Teaching and Research Complex''' was built in 1999 and is home to Stanley and Helen Howe Hall and Gary and Donna Hoover Hall.", "The complex is occupied by the Virtual Reality Applications Center (VRAC), Center for Industrial Research and Service (CIRAS), Department of Aerospace Engineering and Engineering Mechanics, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Engineering Computer Support Services, Engineering Distance Education, and Iowa Space Grant Consortium.", "And the complex contains one of the world's only six-sided immersive virtual reality labs (C6), as well as the 240 seat 3D-capable Alliant Energy Lee Liu Auditorium, the Multimodal Experience Testbed and Laboratory (METaL), and the User Experience Lab (UX Lab).", "All of which supports the research of more than 50 faculty and 200 graduate, undergraduate, and postdoctoral students.The '''Plant Sciences Institute''' was founded in 1999.PSI's research focus is to understand the effects of genotype (genetic makeup) and environment on phenotypes (traits) sufficiently well that it will be able to predict the phenotype of a given genotype in a given environment.", "The institute is housed in the Roy J.", "Carver Co-Laboratory and is home to the Plant Sciences Institute Faculty Scholars program.There is also the Iowa State University Northeast Research Farm in Nashua." ], [ "Campus", "=== Recognition ===The medallion located in Central Campus, immediately to the west of Curtiss HallIowa State's campus contains over 160 buildings.", "Several buildings, as well as the Marston Water Tower, are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.", "The central campus includes of trees, plants, and classically designed buildings.", "The landscape's most dominant feature is the central lawn, which was listed as a \"medallion site\" by the American Society of Landscape Architects in 1999.Thomas Gaines, in ''The Campus As a Work of Art'', claimed that the Iowa State campus was one of the twenty-five most beautiful campuses in the country.=== Campanile ===The campanile as seen from the northThe campanile was constructed during 1897-1898 as a memorial to Margaret MacDonald Stanton, Iowa State's first dean of women, who died on July 25, 1895.The tower is located on ISU's central campus, just north of the Memorial Union.", "The site was selected by Margaret's husband, Edgar W. Stanton, with the help of then-university president William M. Beardshear.", "The campanile stands tall on a 16 by 16 foot (5 by 5 m) base, and cost $6,510.20 to construct.The campanile is widely seen as one of the major symbols of Iowa State University.", "It is featured prominently on the university's official ring and the university's mace, and is also the subject of the university's alma mater, ''The Bells of Iowa State''.=== Lake LaVerne ===Named for Dr. LaVerne W. Noyes, who also donated the funds to see that Alumni Hall could be completed after sitting unfinished and unused from 1905 to 1907.Dr.", "Noyes is an 1872 alumnus.", "Lake LaVerne is located west of the Memorial Union and south of Alumni Hall, Carver Hall, and Music Hall.", "The lake was a gift from Dr. Noyes in 1916.Lake LaVerne is the home of two mute swans named Sir Lancelot and Elaine, donated to Iowa State by VEISHEA 1935.In 1944, 1970, and 1971 cygnets (baby swans) made their home on Lake LaVerne.", "Previously Sir Lancelot and Elaine were trumpeter swans but were too aggressive and in 1999 were replaced with two mute swans.In early spring 2003, Lake LaVerne welcomed its newest and most current mute swan duo.", "In support of Iowa Department of Natural Resources efforts to re-establish the trumpeter swans in Iowa, university officials avoided bringing breeding pairs of male and female mute swans to Iowa State which means the current Sir Lancelot and Elaine are both female.=== Reiman Gardens ===Tropical conservatory, Reiman GardensIowa State has maintained a horticulture garden since 1914.Reiman Gardens is the third location for these gardens.", "Today's gardens began in 1993 with a gift from Bobbi and Roy Reiman.", "Construction began in 1994 and the Gardens' initial were officially dedicated on September 16, 1995.Reiman Gardens has since grown to become a site consisting of a dozen distinct garden areas, an indoor conservatory and an indoor butterfly \"wing\", butterfly emergence cases, a gift shop, and several supporting greenhouses.", "Located immediately south of Jack Trice Stadium on the ISU campus, Reiman Gardens is a year-round facility that has become one of the most visited attractions in central Iowa.The Gardens has received a number of national, state, and local awards since its opening, and its rose gardens are particularly noteworthy.", "It was honored with the President's Award in 2000 by All American Rose Selections, Inc., which is presented to one public garden in the United States each year for superior rose maintenance and display: \"For contributing to the public interest in rose growing through its efforts in maintaining an outstanding public rose garden.", "\"=== University museums ===The university museums consist of the Brunnier Art Museum, Farm House Museum, the Art on Campus Program, the Christian Petersen Art Museum, and the Elizabeth and Byron Anderson Sculpture Garden.", "==== Brunnier Art Museum ====The Brunnier Art Museum, Iowa's only accredited museum emphasizing a decorative arts collection, is one of the nation's few museums located within a performing arts and conference complex, the Iowa State Center.", "Founded in 1975, the museum is named after its benefactors, Iowa State alumnus Henry J. Brunnier and his wife Ann.", "The decorative arts collection they donated, called the Brunnier Collection, is extensive, consisting of ceramics, glass, dolls, ivory, jade, and enameled metals.Other fine and decorative art objects from the University Art Collection include prints, paintings, sculptures, textiles, carpets, wood objects, lacquered pieces, silver, and furniture.", "About eight to 12 annual changing exhibitions and permanent collection exhibitions provide educational opportunities.", "Lectures, receptions, conferences, university classes, panel discussions, gallery walks, and gallery talks are presented to assist with further interpretation of objects.==== Farm House Museum ====The Farm House MuseumLocated near the center of the Iowa State campus, the Farm House Museum sits as a monument to early Iowa State history and culture as well as a National Historic Landmark.", "As the first building on campus, the Farm House was built in 1860 before campus was occupied by students or even classrooms.", "The college's first farm tenants primed the land for agricultural experimentation.", "This early practice lead to Iowa State Agricultural College and Model Farm opening its doors to Iowa students for free in 1869 under the Morrill Act (or Land-grant Act) of 1862.Many prominent figures have made the Farm House their home throughout its 150 years of use.", "The first president of the college, Adonijah Welch, briefly stayed at the Farm House and even wrote his inaugural speech in a bedroom on the second floor.", "James \"Tama Jim\" Wilson resided for much of the 1890s with his family at the Farm House until he joined President William McKinley's cabinet as U.S. Secretary of Agriculture.", "Agriculture Dean Charles Curtiss and his young family replaced Wilson and became the longest resident of Farm House.In 1976, over 110 years after the initial construction, the Farm House became a museum after much time and effort was put into restoring the early beauty of the modest farm home.", "Today, faculty, students, and community members can enjoy the museum while honoring its significance in shaping a nationally recognized land-grant university.", "Its collection boasts a large collection of 19th and early 20th century decorative arts, furnishings and material culture reflecting Iowa State and Iowa heritage.", "Objects include furnishings from Carrie Chapman Catt and Charles Curtiss, a wide variety of quilts, a modest collection of textiles and apparel, and various china and glassware items.The Farm House Museum is an on-campus educational resource providing a changing environment of exhibitions among the historical permanent collection objects that are on display.==== Art on Campus Collection ====Iowa State is home to one of the largest campus public art programs in the United States.", "Over 2,000 works of public art, including 600 by significant national and international artists, are located across campus in buildings, courtyards, open spaces and offices.The traditional public art program began during the Depression in the 1930s when Iowa State College's President Raymond Hughes envisioned that \"the arts would enrich and provide substantial intellectual exploration into our college curricula.\"", "Hughes invited Grant Wood to create the Library's agricultural murals that speak to the founding of Iowa and Iowa State College and Model Farm.", "He also offered Christian Petersen a one-semester sculptor residency to design and build the fountain and bas relief at the Dairy Industry Building.", "In 1955, 21 years later, Petersen retired having created 12 major sculptures for the campus and hundreds of small studio sculptures.The Art on Campus Collection is a campus-wide resource of over 2000 public works of art.", "Programs, receptions, dedications, university classes, Wednesday Walks, and educational tours are presented on a regular basis.==== Christian Petersen Art Museum ====Justin Smith Morrill, namesake of Morrill HallThe Christian Petersen Art Museum in Morrill Hall is named for the nation's first permanent campus artist-in-residence, Christian Petersen, who sculpted and taught at Iowa State from 1934 through 1955, and is considered the founding artist of the Art on Campus Collection.Named for Justin Smith Morrill who created the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act, Morrill Hall was completed in 1891.Originally constructed to fill the capacity of a library, museum, and chapel, its original uses are engraved in the exterior stonework on the east side.", "The building was vacated in 1996 when it was determined unsafe and was also listed in the National Register of Historic Places the same year.", "In 2005, $9 million was raised to renovate the building and convert it into a museum.", "Completed and reopened in March 2007, Morrill Hall is home to the Christian Petersen Art Museum.As part of University Museums, the Christian Petersen Art Museum at Morrill Hall is the home of the Christian Petersen Art Collection, the Art on Campus Program, the University Museums's Visual Literacy and Learning Program, and Contemporary Changing Art Exhibitions Program.Located within the Christian Petersen Art Museum are the Lyle and Nancy Campbell Art Gallery, the Roy and Bobbi Reiman Public Art Studio Gallery, the Margaret Davidson Center for the Study of the Art on Campus Collection, the Edith D. and Torsten E. Lagerstrom Loaned Collections Center, and the Neva M. Petersen Visual Learning Gallery.", "University Museums shares the James R. and Barbara R. Palmer Small Objects Classroom in Morrill Hall.==== Anderson Sculpture Garden ====The Elizabeth and Byron Anderson Sculpture Garden is located by the Christian Petersen Art Museum at historic Morrill Hall.", "The sculpture garden design incorporates sculptures, a gathering arena, and sidewalks and pathways.", "Planted with perennials, ground cover, shrubs, and flowering trees, the landscape design provides a setting for works of 20th and 21st century sculpture, primarily American.", "Ranging from forty-four inches to nearly nine feet high and from bronze to other metals, these works of art represent both modern and contemporary sculpture.The sculpture garden is adjacent to Iowa State's central campus.=== Sustainability ===Iowa State's composting facility is capable of processing over 10,000 tons of organic waste every year.", "The school's $3 million revolving loan fund loans money for energy efficiency and conservation projects on campus.", "In the 2011 College Sustainability Report Card issued by the Sustainable Endowments Institute, the university received a B grade." ], [ "Student life", "Student body composition as of May 2, 2022 Race and ethnicityTotal White Hispanic Other Foreign national Asian Black Economic diversity Low-income Affluent === Residence halls ===View looking east towards Roberts HallIowa State operates 20 on-campus residence halls.", "The residence halls are divided into geographical areas.The Union Drive Association(UDA) consists of four residence halls located on the west side of campus, including Friley Hall, which has been declared one of the largest residence halls in the country.The Richardson Court Association (RCA) consists of 12 residence halls on the east side of campus.The Towers Residence Association (TRA) are located south of the main campus.", "Two of the four towers, Knapp and Storms Halls, were imploded in 2005; however, Wallace and Wilson Halls still stand.Buchanan Hall and Geoffroy Hall are nominally considered part of the RCA, despite their distance from the other buildings.ISU operates two apartment complexes for upperclassmen, Frederiksen Court and SUV Apartments.=== Student government ===The governing body for ISU students is ISU Student Government.", "The ISU Student Government is composed of a president, vice president, finance director, cabinet appointed by the president, a clerk appointed by the vice president, senators representing each college and residence area at the university, a nine-member judicial branch and an election commission.=== Student organizations ===Memorial UnionISU has over 900 student organizations on campus that represent a variety of interests.", "Organizations are supported by Iowa State's Student Engagement Office.", "Many student organization offices are housed in the Memorial Union.The Memorial Union at Iowa State University opened in September 1928 and is currently home to a number of University departments and student organizations, The M-Shop, CyBowl & Billiards, the University Book Store, and the Workspace.The original building was designed by architect, William T. Proudfoot.", "The building employs a classical style of architecture reflecting Greek and Roman influences.", "The building's design specifically complements the designs of the major buildings surrounding the University's Central Campus area, Beardshear Hall to the west, Curtiss Hall to the east, and MacKay Hall to the north.", "The style utilizes columns with Corinthian capitals, Palladian windows, triangular pediments, and formally balanced facades.Designed to be a living memorial for ISU students lost in World War I, the building includes a solemn memorial hall, named the Gold Star Room, which honors the names of the dead World War I, World War II, Korean, Vietnam, and War on Terrorism veterans engraved in marble.", "Symbolically, the hall was built directly over a library (the Browsing Library) and a small chapel, the symbol being that no country would ever send its young men to die in a war for a noble cause without a solid foundation on both education (the library) and religion (the chapel).", "On Veterans Day in 2014, ISU's \"Gold Star Hall\" publicly honored Petty Officer Jerry Leroy Converse, a U.S. Navy sailor that was killed by Israel during the 1967 USS ''Liberty'' incident.", "Converse is buried at Oak Hill Cemetery in Cherokee, Iowa.", "This ceremony came 47 years after the attack.Renovations and additions have continued through the years to include: elevators, bowling lanes, a parking ramp, a book store, food court, and additional wings.=== Music ===The Choral Division of the Department of Music and Theater at Iowa State University consists of over 400 choristers in four main ensembles – the ''Iowa State Singers'', ''Cantamus,'' the ''Iowa Statesmen'', and ''Lyrica'' – and multiple small ensembles including three a cappella groups, ''Count Me In'' (female), ''Shy of a Dozen'' (male), and \"Hymn and Her\" (co-ed).=== Greek community ===ISU is home to an active Greek community.", "There are 50 chapters that involve 14.6 percent of undergraduate students.", "Collectively, fraternity and sorority members have raised over $82,000 for philanthropies and committed 31,416 hours to community service.", "In 2006, the ISU Greek community was named the best large Greek community in the Midwest.The first fraternity, Delta Tau Delta, was established at Iowa State in 1875, six years after the first graduating class entered Iowa State.", "The first sorority, I.C.", "Sorocis, was established only two years later, in 1877.I.C.", "Sorocis later became a chapter of the first national sorority at Iowa State, Pi Beta Phi.", "Anti-Greek rioting occurred in 1888.As reported in ''The Des Moines Register'', \"The anti-secret society men of the college met in a mob last night about 11 o'clock in front of the society rooms in chemical and physical hall, determined to break up a joint meeting of three secret societies.\"", "In 1891, President William Beardshear banned students from joining secret college fraternities, resulting in the eventual closing of all formerly established fraternities.", "President Storms lifted the ban in 1904.Following the lifting of the fraternity ban, the first thirteen national fraternities (IFC) installed on the Iowa State campus between 1904 and 1913 were, in order, Sigma Nu, Sigma Alpha Epsilon, Beta Theta Pi, Phi Gamma Delta, Alpha Tau Omega, Kappa Sigma, Theta Xi, Acacia, Phi Sigma Kappa, Delta Tau Delta, Pi Kappa Alpha, and Phi Delta Theta.", "Though some have suspended their chapters at various times, many are still active.", "Many of these chapters existed on campus as local fraternities before being reorganized as national fraternities, prior to 1904.=== School newspaper ===The ''Iowa State Daily'' is the university's student newspaper.", "The ''Daily'' has its roots from a news sheet titled the ''Clipper'', which was started in the spring of 1890 by a group of students at Iowa Agricultural College led by F.E.", "Davidson.", "The ''Clipper'' soon led to the creation of the ''Iowa Agricultural College Student'', and the beginnings of what would one day become the ''Iowa State Daily''.", "It was awarded the 2016 Best All-Around Daily Student Newspaper by the Society of Professional Journalists.=== Campus radio ===88.5 KURE is the university's student-run radio station.", "Programming for KURE includes ISU sports coverage, talk shows, the annual quiz contest Kaleidoquiz, and various music genres.=== Student television ===ISUtv is the university's student-run television station.", "It is housed in the former WOI-TV station that was established in 1950.The student organization of ISUtv has many programs including Newswatch, a twice weekly news spot, Cyclone InCyders, the campus sports show, Fortnightly News, a satirical/comedy program, and Cy's Eyes on the Skies, a twice weekly weather show." ], [ "Athletics", "Big 12 Conference logoThe \"Cyclones\" name dates back to 1895.That year, Iowa suffered an unusually high number of devastating cyclones (as tornadoes were called at the time).", "In September, Iowa Agricultural College's football team traveled to Northwestern University and defeated that team by a score of 36–0.The next day, the ''Chicago Tribune'''s headline read \"Struck by a Cyclone: It Comes from Iowa and Devastates Evanston Town.\"", "The article began, \"Northwestern might as well have tried to play football with an Iowa cyclone as with the Iowa team it met yesterday.\"", "The nickname stuck.The school colors are cardinal and gold.", "The mascot is Cy the Cardinal, introduced in 1954.Since a cyclone was determined to be difficult to depict in costume, the cardinal was chosen in reference to the school colors.", "A contest was held to select a name for the mascot, with the name Cy being chosen as the winner.The Iowa State Cyclones are a member of the Big 12 Conference and compete in NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS), fielding 16 varsity teams in 12 sports.", "The Cyclones also compete in and are a founding member of the Central States Collegiate Hockey League of the American Collegiate Hockey Association.Iowa State's intrastate archrival is the University of Iowa with whom it competes annually for the Iowa Corn Cy-Hawk Series trophy, an annual athletic competition between the two schools.", "Sponsored by the Iowa Corn Growers Association, the competition includes all head-to-head regular season competitions between the two rival universities in all sports.=== Football ===Jack Trice StadiumFootball first made its way onto the Iowa State campus in 1878 as a recreational sport, but it was not until 1892 that Iowa State organized its first team to represent the school in football.", "In 1894, college president William M. Beardshear spearheaded the foundation of an athletic association to officially sanction Iowa State football teams.", "The 1894 team finished with a 6–1 mark.", "The Cyclones compete each year for traveling trophies.", "Since 1977, Iowa State and Iowa compete annually for the Cy-Hawk Trophy.", "Iowa State competes in an annual rivalry game against Kansas State known as Farmageddon and against former conference foe Missouri for the Telephone Trophy.", "The Cyclones also compete against the Iowa Hawkeyes, their in-state rival.Matt CampbellThe Cyclones play their home games at Jack Trice Stadium, named after Jack Trice, ISU's first African-American athlete and also the first and only Iowa State athlete to die from injuries sustained during athletic competition.", "Trice died three days after his first game playing for Iowa State against Minnesota in Minneapolis on October 6, 1923.Suffering from a broken collarbone early in the game, he continued to play until he was trampled by a group of Minnesota players.", "It is disputed whether he was trampled purposely or if it was by accident.", "The stadium was named in his honor in 1997 and is the only NCAA Division I-A stadium named after an African-American.", "Jack Trice Stadium, formerly known as Cyclone Stadium, opened on September 20, 1975, with a win against the United States Air Force Academy.=== Men's basketball ===Hilton ColiseumHopes of \"Hilton Magic\" returning took a boost with the hiring of ISU alum, Ames native, and fan favorite Fred Hoiberg as coach of the men's basketball team in April 2010.Hoiberg (\"The Mayor\") played three seasons under legendary coach Johnny Orr and one season under future Chicago Bulls coach Tim Floyd during his standout collegiate career as a Cyclone (1991–95).", "Orr laid the foundation of success in men's basketball upon his arrival from Michigan in 1980 and is credited with building Hilton Magic.", "Besides Hoiberg, other Cyclone greats played for Orr and brought winning seasons, including Jeff Grayer, Barry Stevens, and walk-on Jeff Hornacek.", "The 1985-86 Cyclones were one of the most memorable.", "Orr coached the team to second place in the Big Eight and produced one of his greatest career wins, a victory over his former team and No.", "2 seed Michigan in the second round of the NCAA tournament.Under coaches Floyd (1995–98) and Larry Eustachy (1998–2003), Iowa State achieved even greater success.", "Floyd took the Cyclones to the Sweet Sixteen in 1997 and Eustachy led ISU to two consecutive Big 12 regular season conference titles in 1999-2000 and 2000–01, plus the conference tournament title in 2000.Seeded No.", "2 in the 2000 NCAA tournament, Eustachy and the Cyclones defeated UCLA in the Sweet Sixteen before falling to Michigan State, the eventual NCAA Champion, in the regional finals by a score of 75–64 (the differential representing the Spartans' narrowest margin of victory in the tournament).", "Standout Marcus Fizer and Jamaal Tinsley were scoring leaders for the Cyclones who finished the season 32–5.Tinsley returned to lead the Cyclones the following year with another conference title and No.", "2 seed, but ISU finished the season with a 25–6 overall record after a stunning loss to No.", "15 seed Hampton in the first round.In 2011–12, Hoiberg's Cyclones finished third in the Big 12 and returned to the NCAA tournament, dethroning defending national champion Connecticut, 77–64, in the second round before losing in the Round of 32 to top-seeded Kentucky.", "All-Big 12 First Team selection Royce White led the Cyclones with 38 points and 22 rebounds in the two contests, ending the season at 23–11.The 2013-14 campaign turned out to be another highly successful season.", "Iowa State went 28–8, won the Big 12 Tournament, and advanced to the Sweet Sixteen by beating North Carolina in the second round of the NCAA tournament.", "The Cyclones finished 11–7 in Big 12 play, finishing in a tie for third in the league standings, and beat a school-record nine teams (9–3) that were ranked in the Associated Press top 25.The Cyclones opened the season 14–0, breaking the school record for consecutive wins.", "Melvin Ejim was named the Big 12 Player of the Year and an All-American by five organizations.", "Deandre Kane was named the Big 12 Tournament's most valuable player.On June 8, 2015, Steve Prohm took over as head basketball coach replacing Hoiberg who left to take the head coaching position with the Chicago Bulls.", "In his first season with the Cyclones, Prohm secured a #4 seed in the Midwest region where the Cyclones advanced to the Sweet Sixteen before falling to top-seeded Virginia, 84–71.In 2017, Iowa State stunned 3rd ranked Kansas, 92–89, in overtime, snapping KU's 54-game home winning streak, before winning the 2017 Big 12 men's basketball tournament, its third conference championship in four years, defeating West Virginia in the final.Of Iowa State's 19 NCAA tournament appearances, the Cyclones have reached the Sweet Sixteen seven times (1944, 1986, 1997, 2000, 2014, 2016, 2022), made two appearances in the Elite Eight (1944, 2000), and reached the Final Four once in 1944.=== Women's basketball ===Iowa State is known for having one of the most successful women's basketball programs in the nation.", "Since the founding of the Big 12, Coach Bill Fennelly and the Cyclones have won three conference titles (one regular season, two tournament), and have advanced to the Sweet Sixteen five times (1999–2001, 2009, 2010) and the Elite Eight twice (1999, 2009) in the NCAA tournament.", "The team has one of the largest fan bases in the nation with attendance figures ranked third in the nation in 2009, 2010, 2012, 2016, 2017, and 2020 and second in the nation in 2013, 2014, 2018 and 2022.=== Volleyball ===Coach Christy Johnson-Lynch led the 2012 Cyclones team to a fifth straight 20-win season and fifth NCAA regional semifinal appearance in six seasons, and leading Iowa State to a 22–8 (13–3 Big 12) overall record and second-place finish in the conference.", "The Cyclones finished the season with seven wins over top-25 teams, including a victory over No.", "1 Nebraska Cornhuskers in Iowa State's first-ever win over a top-ranked opponent in addition to providing the only Big 12 Conference loss to the 2012 conference and NCAA champion Texas Longhorns.In 2011, Iowa State finished the season 25–6 (13–3 Big 12), placing second in the league, as well as a final national ranking of eighth.", "2011 is only the second season in which an Iowa State volleyball team has ever recorded 25 wins.", "The Cyclones beat No.", "9 Florida during the season in Gainesville, its sixth win over a top-10 team in Cyclone history.", "In 2009, Iowa State finished the season second in the Big 12 behind Texas with a 27–5 record and ranked No.", "6, its highest ever national finish.Johnson-Lynch is the fastest Iowa State coach to clinch 100 victories.", "In 2011, she became the school's winningest volleyball coach when her team defeated the Texas Tech Red Raiders, her 136th coaching victory, in straight sets.=== Wrestling ===The ISU wrestling program has captured the NCAA wrestling tournament title eight times between 1928 and 1987, and won the Big 12 Conference Tournament three consecutive years, 2007–2009.On February 7, 2010, the Cyclones became the first collegiate wrestling program to record its 1,000th dual win in program history by defeating the Arizona State Sun Devils, 30–10, in Tempe, Arizona.In 2002, under former NCAA champion & Olympian Coach Bobby Douglas, Iowa State became the first school to produce a four-time, '''undefeated''' NCAA Division I champion, Cael Sanderson (considered by the majority of the wrestling community to be the best college wrestler ever), who also took the gold medal at the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens, Greece.", "Dan Gable, another legendary ISU wrestler, is famous for having lost only one match in his entire Iowa State collegiate career - his last - and winning gold at the 1972 Olympics in Munich, Germany, while not giving up a single point.In 2013, Iowa State hosted its eighth NCAA Wrestling Championships.", "The Cyclones hosted the first NCAA championships in 1928.In February 2017, former Virginia Tech coach and 2016 NWCA Coach of the Year Kevin Dresser was introduced as the new Cyclone wrestling coach, replacing Kevin Jackson." ], [ "Notable alumni and faculty" ], [ "See also", "* Iowa Board of Regents* CyRide* List of land-grant universities" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "External links", "* * Iowa State Athletics website* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Induction" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Induction''' or '''inductive''' may refer to:" ], [ "Biology and medicine", "* Labor induction (of birth)* Induction chemotherapy, in medicine* Induced stem cells, derived from other cell types* Enzyme induction and inhibition" ], [ "Chemistry", "* Induction period, slow stage of a reaction* Inductive cleavage, in organic chemistry* Inductive effect, change in electron density* Asymmetric induction, preferring one stereoisomer over another" ], [ "Computing", "* Grammar induction* Inductive bias* Inductive probability* Inductive programming* Rule induction* Word-sense induction" ], [ "Mathematics", "* Backward induction in game theory and economics* Induced representation, in representation theory* Mathematical induction, a method of proof** Strong induction** Structural induction** Transfinite induction*** Epsilon-induction* Parabolic induction" ], [ "Philosophy", "* Inductive reasoning, in logic" ], [ "Physics", "* Electromagnetic induction* Electrostatic induction* Forced induction, or turbocharging, of an engine" ], [ "Other uses", "* Induction (play), an opening scene* Induction (teachers), support of novice teachers* Inductive reasoning aptitude* Collective Induction, in psychology* Hypnotic induction, causing hypnosis* \"Induction\", a song by Broken Spindles from ''Fulfilled/complete''" ], [ "See also", "* Inducement (disambiguation)* Induce (disambiguation)* Inductive data type (disambiguation)* Deduction (disambiguation)*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "International Astronomical Union" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''International Astronomical Union''' ('''IAU'''; , '''UAI''') is a non-governmental organisation with the objective of advancing astronomy in all aspects, including promoting astronomical research, outreach, education, and development through global cooperation.", "It was founded in 1919 and is based in Paris, France.The IAU is composed of individual members, who include both professional astronomers and junior scientists, and national members, such as professional associations, national societies, or academic institutions.", "Individual members are organised into divisions, committees, and working groups centered on particular subdisciplines, subjects, or initiatives.", "the Union had over 13,700 individual members, spanning 90 countries, and 82 national members.Among the key activities of the IAU is serving as a forum for scientific conferences.", "It sponsors nine annual symposia and holds a triannual General Assembly that sets policy and includes various scientific meetings.", "The Union is best known for being the leading authority in assigning official names and designations to astronomical objects, and for setting uniform definitions for astronomical principles.", "It also coordinates with national and international partners, such as UNESCO, to fulfill its mission.The IAU is a member of the International Science Council (ISC), which is composed of international scholarly and scientific institutions and national academies of sciences." ], [ "Function", "The International Astronomical Union is an international association of professional astronomers, at the PhD level and beyond, active in professional research and education in astronomy.", "Among other activities, it acts as the recognized authority for assigning designations and names to celestial bodies (stars, planets, asteroids, etc.)", "and any surface features on them.The IAU is a member of the International Science Council (ISC).", "Its main objective is to promote and safeguard the science of astronomy in all its aspects through international cooperation.", "The IAU maintains friendly relations with organizations that include amateur astronomers in their membership.", "The IAU has its head office on the second floor of the in the 14th arrondissement of Paris.This organisation has many working groups.", "For example, the Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN), which maintains the astronomical naming conventions and planetary nomenclature for planetary bodies, and the Working Group on Star Names (WGSN), which catalogues and standardizes proper names for stars.", "The IAU is also responsible for the system of astronomical telegrams which are produced and distributed on its behalf by the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams.", "The Minor Planet Center also operates under the IAU, and is a \"clearinghouse\" for all non-planetary or non-moon bodies in the Solar System." ], [ "History", "The IAU was founded on 28 July 1919, at the Constitutive Assembly of the International Research Council (now the International Science Council) held in Brussels, Belgium.", "Two subsidiaries of the IAU were also created at this assembly: the ''International Time Commission'' seated at the International Time Bureau in Paris, France, and the ''International Central Bureau of Astronomical Telegrams'' initially seated in Copenhagen, Denmark.The seven initial member states were Belgium, Canada, France, Great Britain, Greece, Japan, and the United States, soon to be followed by Italy and Mexico.", "The first executive committee consisted of Benjamin Baillaud (President, France), Alfred Fowler (General Secretary, UK), and four vice presidents: William Campbell (US), Frank Dyson (UK), Georges Lecointe (Belgium), and Annibale Riccò (Italy).", "Thirty-two Commissions (referred to initially as Standing Committees) were appointed at the Brussels meeting and focused on topics ranging from relativity to minor planets.", "The reports of these 32 Commissions formed the main substance of the first General Assembly, which took place in Rome, Italy, 2–10 May 1922.By the end of the first General Assembly, ten additional nations (Australia, Brazil, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, South Africa, and Spain) had joined the Union, bringing the total membership to 19 countries.", "Although the Union was officially formed eight months after the end of World War I, international collaboration in astronomy had been strong in the pre-war era (e.g., the ''Astronomische Gesellschaft Katalog'' projects since 1868, the Astrographic Catalogue since 1887, and the International Union for Solar research since 1904).The first 50 years of the Union's history are well documented.", "Subsequent history is recorded in the form of reminiscences of past IAU Presidents and General Secretaries.", "Twelve of the fourteen past General Secretaries in the period 1964–2006 contributed their recollections of the Union's history in IAU Information Bulletin No.", "100.Six past IAU Presidents in the period 1976–2003 also contributed their recollections in IAU Information Bulletin No.", "104.In 2015 and 2019, the Union held the NameExoWorlds contests.Starting in 2024, the Union, in partnership with the United Nations, is poised to play a critical role in developing the legislation and framework for lunar industrialization." ], [ "Composition", "The IAU includes member organizations from 82 countries (designated as national members).As of 1 August 2019, the IAU has a total of 13,701 ''individual members'', who are professional astronomers from 102 countries worldwide; 81.7% of individual members are male, while 18.3% are female.Membership also includes 82 ''national members'', professional astronomical communities representing their country's affiliation with the IAU.", "National members include the Australian Academy of Science, the Chinese Astronomical Society, the French Academy of Sciences, the Indian National Science Academy, the National Academies (United States), the National Research Foundation of South Africa, the National Scientific and Technical Research Council (Argentina), the Council of German Observatories, the Royal Astronomical Society (United Kingdom), the Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Russian Academy of Sciences, and the Science Council of Japan, among many others.The sovereign body of the IAU is its ''General Assembly'', which comprises all members.", "The Assembly determines IAU policy, approves the Statutes and By-Laws of the Union (and amendments proposed thereto) and elects various committees.The right to vote on matters brought before the Assembly varies according to the type of business under discussion.", "The Statutes consider such business to be divided into two categories:* '''issues of a \"primarily scientific nature\"''' (as determined by the Executive Committee), upon which voting is restricted to individual members, and* '''all other matters''' (such as Statute revision and procedural questions), upon which voting is restricted to the representatives of national members.On budget matters (which fall into the second category), votes are weighted according to the relative subscription levels of the national members.", "A second category vote requires a turnout of at least two-thirds of national members to be valid.", "An absolute majority is sufficient for approval in any vote, except for Statute revision which requires a two-thirds majority.", "An equality of votes is resolved by the vote of the President of the Union.=== List of national members ======= Africa ====* * * * * * * * * ==== Asia ====* * * * (suspended)* * * (suspended)* * * * * (suspended)* * * (suspended)* * (suspended)* * * * * * * * (suspended)==== Europe ====* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ==== North America ====* * (interim)* (interim)* * (interim)* ==== Oceania ====* * ==== South America ====* * * * * * (suspended)* (observer)* (suspended)=== Terminated national members ===* * * *" ], [ "General Assemblies", "Since 1922, the IAU General Assembly meets every three years, except for the period between 1938 and 1948, due to World War II.After a Polish request in 1967, and by a controversial decision of the then President of the IAU, an ''Extraordinary IAU General Assembly'' was held in September 1973 in Warsaw, Poland, to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the birth of Nicolaus Copernicus, soon after the regular 1973 GA had been held in Sydney.", "Meeting Year VenueIst IAU General Assembly (1st) 1922Rome, ItalyIInd IAU General Assembly (2nd) 1925Cambridge, England, United KingdomIIIrd IAU General Assembly (3rd) 1928Leiden, NetherlandsIVth IAU General Assembly (4th) 1932Cambridge, Massachusetts, United StatesVth IAU General Assembly (5th) 1935Paris, FranceVIth IAU General Assembly (6th) 1938Stockholm, SwedenVIIth IAU General Assembly (7th) 1948Zürich, SwitzerlandVIIIth IAU General Assembly (8th) 1952Rome, ItalyIXth IAU General Assembly (9th) 1955Dublin, IrelandXth IAU General Assembly (10th) 1958Moscow, Soviet UnionXIth IAU General Assembly (11th) 1961Berkeley, California, United StatesXIIth IAU General Assembly (12th) 1964Hamburg, West GermanyXIIIth IAU General Assembly (13th) 1967Prague, CzechoslovakiaXIVth IAU General Assembly (14th) 1970Brighton, England, United KingdomXVth IAU General Assembly (15th) 1973Sydney, AustraliaXVIth IAU General Assembly (16th) 1976Grenoble, FranceXVIIth IAU General Assembly (17th) 1979Montreal, Quebec, CanadaXVIIIth IAU General Assembly (18th) 1982Patras, GreeceXIXth IAU General Assembly (19th) 1985New Delhi, IndiaXXth IAU General Assembly (20th) 1988Baltimore, Maryland, United StatesXXIst IAU General Assembly (21st) 1991Buenos Aires, ArgentinaXXIInd IAU General Assembly (22nd) 1994The Hague, NetherlandsXXIIIrd IAU General Assembly (23rd) 1997Kyoto, JapanXXIVth IAU General Assembly (24th) 2000Manchester, England, United KingdomXXVth IAU General Assembly (25th) 2003Sydney, AustraliaXXVIth IAU General Assembly (26th) 2006Prague, Czech RepublicXXVIIth IAU General Assembly (27th) 2009Rio de Janeiro, BrazilXXVIIIth IAU General Assembly (28th) 2012Beijing, ChinaXXIXth IAU General Assembly (29th) 2015Honolulu, Hawaii, United StatesXXXth IAU General Assembly (30th) 2018Vienna, AustriaXXXIst IAU General Assembly (31st) 2022Busan, South KoreaXXXIInd IAU General Assembly (32nd) 2024Cape Town, South Africa" ], [ "List of the presidents of the IAU", "Sources.", "* (1919–1922) Benjamin Baillaud* (1922–1925) William Wallace Campbell* (1925–1928) Willem de Sitter* (1928–1932) Frank Watson Dyson* (1932–1935) Frank Schlesinger* (1935–1938) Ernest Esclangon* (1938–1944) Arthur Eddington* (1944–1948) Harold Spencer Jones* (1948–1952) Bertil Lindblad* (1952–1955) Otto Struve* (1955–1958) André-Louis Danjon * (1958–1961) Jan Oort* (1961–1964) Victor Ambartsumian* (1964–1967) Pol Swings* (1967–1970) Otto Heckmann* (1970–1973) Bengt Strömgren* (1973–1976) Leo Goldberg* (1976–1979) Adriaan Blaauw* (1979–1982) Vainu Bappu* (1982–1985) Robert Hanbury Brown* (1985–1988) Jorge Sahade* (1988–1991) Yoshihide Kozai * (1991–1994) Alexandr Boyarchuk* (1994–1997) Lodewijk Woltjer* (1997–2000) Robert Kraft* (2000–2003) Franco Pacini* (2003–2006) Ronald Ekers* (2006–2009) Catherine Cesarsky* (2009–2012) Robert Williams* (2012–2015) Norio Kaifu* (2015–2018) Silvia Torres-Peimbert* (2018–2021) Ewine van Dishoeck*(2021–present) Debra Elmegreen" ], [ "Commission 46: Education in astronomy", "Commission 46 is a Committee of the Executive Committee of the IAU, playing a special role in the discussion of astronomy development with governments and scientific academies.", "The IAU is affiliated with the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), a non-governmental organization representing a global membership that includes both national scientific bodies and international scientific unions.", "They often encourage countries to become members of the IAU.", "The Commission further seeks to development, information or improvement of astronomical education.", "Part of Commission 46, is Teaching Astronomy for Development (TAD) program in countries where there is currently very little astronomical education.", "Another program is named the Galileo Teacher Training Program (GTTP), is a project of the International Year of Astronomy 2009, among which Hands-On Universe that will concentrate more resources on education activities for children and schools designed to advance sustainable global development.", "GTTP is also concerned with the effective use and transfer of astronomy education tools and resources into classroom science curricula.", "A strategic plan for the period 2010–2020 has been published." ], [ "Publications", "Cover picture of ''CAP Journal'' issue 19, March 2016In 2004 the IAU contracted with the Cambridge University Press to publish the ''Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union''.In 2007, the Communicating Astronomy with the Public Journal Working Group prepared a study assessing the feasibility of the ''Communicating Astronomy with the Public Journal'' (''CAP Journal'')." ], [ "See also", "* Astronomical acronyms* Astronomical naming conventions* List of proper names of stars* Planetary nomenclature" ], [ "References", " * Statutes of the IAU, VII General Assembly (1948), pp.", "13–15" ], [ "External links", "* * XXVIth General Assembly 2006* XXVIIth General Assembly 2009* XXVIIIth General Assembly 2012 * XXIXth General Assembly 2015* XXXth General Assembly 2018* XXXIst General Assembly 2022* XXXIIst General Assembly 2024" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Interval" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Interval''' may refer to:" ], [ "Mathematics and physics", "* Interval (mathematics), a range of numbers**Partially ordered set#Intervals, its generalization from numbers to arbitrary partially ordered sets* A statistical level of measurement* Interval estimate* Interval (graph theory)* Space-time interval, the distance between two points in 4-space" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "===Dramatic arts===* Intermission, (British English: interval), a break in a theatrical performance** ''Entr'acte'', a French term for the same, but used in English often to mean a musical performance played during the break* ''Interval'' (play), a 1939 play by Sumner Locke Elliott* ''Interval'' (film), a 1973 film starring Merle Oberon===Music===* Interval (music), the relationship in pitch between two notes* Intervals (band), a Canadian progressive metal band* ''Intervals'' (See You Next Tuesday album), 2008* ''Intervals'' (Ahmad Jamal album), 1980" ], [ "Sport", "* Playing time (cricket)#Intervals, the breaks between play in cricket* Interval training, a training technique used by runners and cyclists" ], [ "Other uses", "* Interval Research Corporation, a technology think tank founded by Paul Allen* Recess (break), a break between classes, also called \"interval\" in New Zealand* Jerry Interval (1923–2006), American portrait photographer and educator" ], [ "See also", "* Intermission (disambiguation)* InterVol, a UK volunteering charity* Interval scheduling, a class of problems in computer science*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "International Criminal Court" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''International Criminal Court''' ('''ICC''' or '''ICCt''') is an intergovernmental organization and international tribunal seated in The Hague, Netherlands.", "It is the first and only permanent international court with jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for the international crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes and the crime of aggression.", "The ICC is distinct from the International Court of Justice, an organ of the United Nations that hears disputes between states.Established in 2002 pursuant to the multilateral Rome Statute, the ICC is considered by its proponents to be a major step toward justice, and an innovation in international law and human rights.", "However, it has faced a number of criticisms from governments and civil society groups, including objections to its jurisdiction, accusations of bias, Eurocentrism and racism, questioning of the fairness of its case selection and trial procedures, and doubts about its effectiveness." ], [ "History", "The premises of the International Criminal Court in The Hague, Netherlands.", "The ICC moved into this building in December 2015.=== Background ===The establishment of an international tribunal to judge political leaders accused of international crimes was first proposed during the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 following the First World War by the Commission of Responsibilities.", "The issue was addressed again at a conference held in Geneva under the auspices of the League of Nations in 1937, which resulted in the conclusion of the first convention stipulating the establishment of a permanent international court to try acts of international terrorism.", "The convention was signed by 13 states, but none ratified it and the convention never entered into force.Following the Second World War, the allied powers established two ''ad hoc'' tribunals to prosecute Axis leaders accused of war crimes.", "The International Military Tribunal, which sat in Nuremberg, prosecuted German leaders while the International Military Tribunal for the Far East in Tokyo prosecuted Japanese leaders.", "In 1948 the United Nations General Assembly first recognised the need for a permanent international court to deal with atrocities of the kind prosecuted after World War II.", "At the request of the General Assembly, the International Law Commission (ILC) drafted two statutes by the early 1950s but these were shelved during the Cold War, which made the establishment of an international criminal court politically unrealistic.Benjamin B. Ferencz, an investigator of Nazi war crimes after World War II and the Chief Prosecutor for the United States Army at the Einsatzgruppen trial, became a vocal advocate of the establishment of international rule of law and of an international criminal court.", "In his book ''Defining International Aggression: The Search for World Peace'' (1975), he advocated for the establishment of such a court.", "Another leading proponent was Robert Kurt Woetzel, a German-born professor of international law, who co-edited ''Toward a Feasible International Criminal Court'' in 1970 and created the Foundation for the Establishment of an International Criminal Court in 1971.=== Formal proposal and establishment ===In June 1989, the Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago, A. N. R. Robinson, revived the idea of a permanent international criminal court by proposing the creation of tribunal to address the illegal drug trade.", "In response, the General Assembly tasked the ILC with once again drafting a statute for a permanent court.While work began on the draft, the UN Security Council established two ''ad hoc'' tribunals in the early 1990s: The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, created in 1993 in response to large-scale atrocities committed by armed forces during the Yugoslav Wars, and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, created in 1994 following the Rwandan genocide.", "The creation of these tribunals further highlighted to many the need for a permanent international criminal court.In 1994, the ILC presented its final draft statute for the International Criminal Court to the General Assembly and recommended that a conference be convened to negotiate a treaty that would serve as the Court's statute.To consider major substantive issues in the draft statute, the General Assembly established the Ad Hoc Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, which met twice in 1995.After considering the Committee's report, the General Assembly created the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of the ICC to prepare a consolidated draft text.From 1996 to 1998, six sessions of the Preparatory Committee were held at the United Nations headquarters in New York City, during which NGOs provided input and attended meetings under the umbrella organisation of the Coalition for the International Criminal Court (CICC).", "In January 1998, the Bureau and coordinators of the Preparatory Committee convened for an Inter-Sessional meeting in Zutphen in the Netherlands to technically consolidate and restructure the draft articles into a draft.Finally, the General Assembly convened a conference in Rome in June 1998, with the aim of finalizing the treaty to serve as the Court's statute.", "On 17 July 1998, the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court was adopted by a vote of 120 to seven, with 21 countries abstaining.", "The seven countries that voted against the treaty were China, Iraq, Israel, Libya, Qatar, the U.S., and Yemen.Israel's opposition to the treaty stemmed from the inclusion in the list of war crimes \"the action of transferring population into occupied territory\".The UN General Assembly voted on 9 December 1999 and again on 12 December 2000 to endorse the ICC.Following 60 ratifications, the Rome Statute entered into force on 1 July 2002 and the International Criminal Court was formally established.The first bench of 18 judges was elected by the Assembly of States Parties in February 2003.They were sworn in at the inaugural session of the Court on 11 March 2003.The Court issued its first arrest warrants on 8 July 2005, and the first pre-trial hearings were held in 2006.The Court issued its first judgment in 2012 when it found Congolese rebel leader Thomas Lubanga Dyilo guilty of war crimes related to using child soldiers.", "Lubanga was sentenced to 14 years in prison.In 2010, the states parties of the Rome Statute held the first Review Conference of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court in Kampala, Uganda.", "The Review Conference led to the adoption of two resolutions that amended the crimes under the jurisdiction of the Court.", "Resolution 5 amended Article 8 on war crimes, criminalizing the use of certain kinds of weapons in non-international conflicts whose use was already forbidden in international conflicts.", "Resolution 6, pursuant to Article 5(2) of the Statute, provided the definition and a procedure for jurisdiction over the crime of aggression." ], [ "Organization", "The ICC has four principal organs: the Presidency, the Judicial Divisions, the Office of the Prosecutor and the Registry.", "*The President is the most senior judge chosen by the eighteen judges in the Judicial Division.", "*The Judicial Division is composed of eighteen judges and hears cases before the Court.", "*The Office of the Prosecutor is headed by the Prosecutor, who investigates crimes and initiates criminal proceedings before the Judicial Division.", "*The Registry is headed by the Registrar and is charged with managing all the administrative functions of the ICC, including the headquarters, detention unit, and public defense office.The ICC employs over 900 personnel from roughly 100 countries and conducts proceedings in English and French." ], [ "Operation", "The ICC began operations on 1 July 2002, upon the entry into force of the Rome Statute, a multilateral treaty that serves as the court's charter and governing document.", "States which become party to the Rome Statute become members of the ICC, serving on the Assembly of States Parties, which administers the court.", "As of November 2023, there are 124 ICC member states; 41 states have neither signed nor become parties to the Rome Statute.Intended to serve as the \"court of last resort\", the ICC complements existing national judicial systems and may exercise its jurisdiction only when national courts are unwilling or unable to prosecute criminals.", "It lacks universal territorial jurisdiction and may only investigate and prosecute crimes committed within member states, crimes committed by nationals of member states, or crimes in situations referred to the Court by the United Nations Security Council.Sudanese president Omar al-Bashir and Russian president Vladimir Putin in November 2017The ICC held its first hearing in 2006, concerning war crimes charges against Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, a Congolese warlord accused of recruiting child soldiers; his subsequent conviction in 2012 was the first in the court's history.", "The Office of the Prosecutor has opened twelve official investigations and is conducting an additional nine preliminary examinations.Dozens of individuals have been indicted in the ICC, including Ugandan rebel leader Joseph Kony, former President Omar al-Bashir of Sudan, President Uhuru Kenyatta of Kenya, Libyan head of state Muammar Gaddafi, President Laurent Gbagbo of Ivory Coast and former Vice President Jean-Pierre Bemba of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.On 17 March 2023, ICC judges issued arrest warrants for Russian leader Vladimir Putin and the Presidential Commissioner for Children's Rights in Russia Maria Lvova-Belova for child abductions in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.", "Putin became the first head of state of a U.N. Security Council Permanent Member to be the subject of an ICC arrest warrant.", "Although Russia withdrew its signature from the Rome Statute in 2016, and is thus not a participant in the ICC nor under its jurisdiction, Putin can be charged for actions against Ukraine, which is not a party but has accepted jurisdiction of the court since 2014.Should Putin travel to a state party, he can be arrested by local authorities.", "Later in 2023 Russia's ministry of internal affairs retaliated by placing several ICC officials on its wanted list." ], [ "Structure", "The ICC is governed by the Assembly of States Parties, which is made up of the states that are party to the Rome Statute.", "The Assembly elects officials of the Court, approves its budget, and adopts amendments to the Rome Statute.", "The Court itself has four organs: the Presidency, the Judicial Divisions, the Office of the Prosecutor, and the Registry.===State parties=======Assembly====The Court's management oversight and legislative body, the Assembly of States Parties, consists of one representative from each state party.", "Each state party has one vote and \"every effort\" has to be made to reach decisions by consensus.", "If consensus cannot be reached, decisions are made by vote.", "The Assembly is presided over by a president and two vice-presidents, who are elected by the members to three-year terms.The Assembly meets in full session once a year, alternating between New York and The Hague, and may also hold special sessions where circumstances require.", "Sessions are open to observer states and non-governmental organizations.The Assembly elects the judges and prosecutors, decides the Court's budget, adopts important texts (such as the Rules of Procedure and Evidence), and provides management oversight to the other organs of the Court.< Article 46 of the Rome Statute allows the Assembly to remove from office a judge or prosecutor who \"is found to have committed serious misconduct or a serious breach of his or her duties\" or \"is unable to exercise the functions required by this Statute\".The states parties cannot interfere with the judicial functions of the Court.", "Disputes concerning individual cases are settled by the Judicial Divisions.In 2010, Kampala, Uganda hosted the Assembly's Rome Statute Review Conference.=== Organs ===The Court has four organs: the Presidency, the Judicial Division, the Office of the Prosecutor, and the Registry.====Presidency====Song Sang-hyun was President of the Court from 2009 to 2015.The Presidency is responsible for the proper administration of the Court (apart from the Office of the Prosecutor).", "It comprises the President and the First and Second Vice-Presidents—three judges of the Court who are elected to the Presidency by their fellow judges for a maximum of two three-year terms.As of March 2021, the President is Piotr Hofmański from Poland, who took office on 11 March 2021, succeeding Chile Eboe-Osuji.", "His first term will expire in 2024.====Judicial Division====The Judicial Divisions consist of the 18 judges of the Court, organized into three chambers—the Pre-Trial Chamber, Trial Chamber and Appeals Chamber—which carry out the judicial functions of the Court.", "Judges are elected to the Court by the Assembly of States Parties.", "They serve nine-year terms and are not generally eligible for re-election.", "All judges must be nationals of states parties to the Rome Statute, and no two judges may be nationals of the same state.", "They must be \"persons of high moral character, impartiality and integrity who possess the qualifications required in their respective States for appointment to the highest judicial offices\".The Prosecutor or any person being investigated or prosecuted may request the disqualification of a judge from \"any case in which his or her impartiality might reasonably be doubted on any ground\".", "Any request for the disqualification of a judge from a particular case is decided by an absolute majority of the other judges.", "Judges may be removed from office if \"found to have committed serious misconduct or a serious breach of his or her duties\" or is unable to exercise his or her functions.", "The removal of a judge requires both a two-thirds majority of the other judges and a two-thirds majority of the states parties.====Office of the Prosecutor====ICC prosecutors Fatou Bensouda and Luis Moreno Ocampo, with Estonia's Minister of Foreign Affairs, Urmas Paet, in 2012The Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) is responsible for conducting investigations and prosecutions.", "It is headed by the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, who is assisted by one or more Deputy Prosecutors.", "The Rome Statute provides that the Office of the Prosecutor shall act independently; as such, no member of the Office may seek or act on instructions from any external source, such as states, international organisations, non-governmental organisations or individuals.The Prosecutor may open an investigation under three circumstances:*when a situation is referred by a state party;*when a situation is referred by the United Nations Security Council, acting to address a threat to international peace and security; or*when the Pre-Trial Chamber authorises the prosecutor to open an investigation on the basis of information received from other sources, such as individuals or non-governmental organisations.Any person being investigated or prosecuted may request the disqualification of a prosecutor from any case \"in which their impartiality might reasonably be doubted on any ground\".< Requests for the disqualification of prosecutors are decided by the Appeals Chamber.", "A prosecutor may be removed from office by an absolute majority of the states parties through a finding \"to have committed serious misconduct or a serious breach of his or her duties\" or is unable to exercise his or her functions.", "One critic said there are \"insufficient checks and balances on the authority of the ICC prosecutor and judges\" and \"insufficient protection against politicized prosecutions or other abuses\".", "Luis Moreno-Ocampo, chief ICC prosecutor, stressed in 2011 the importance of politics in prosecutions: \"You cannot say al-Bashir is in London, arrest him.", "You need a political agreement.\"", "Henry Kissinger says the checks and balances are so weak that the prosecutor \"has virtually unlimited discretion in practice\".Lead prosecutor Luis Moreno Ocampo of Argentina, in office from 2003 to 2012, was succeeded in the role by Fatou Bensouda of Gambia, who served from 16 June 2012 to 16 June 2021 (she was elected to the nine-year term on 12 December 2011).On 12 February 2021, British barrister Karim Khan was selected in a secret ballot against three other candidates to serve as lead prosecutor as of 16 June 2021.As British barrister, Khan had headed the United Nations' special investigative team when it looked into Islamic State crimes in Iraq.", "At the ICC, he had been lead defense counsel on cases from Kenya, Sudan and Libya.=====Policy Paper=====A Policy Paper is a document occasionally published by the Office of the Prosecutor which puts forth the considerations given to the topics the office focuses on, and often the criteria for case selection.", "While a policy paper does not give the Court jurisdiction over a new category of crimes, it promises what the Office of Prosecutor will consider when selecting cases in the upcoming term of service.", "OTP's policy papers are subject to revision.The five following Policy Papers have been published since the start of the ICC:*1 September 2007: Policy Paper on the Interest of Justice*12 April 2010: Policy Paper on Victims' Participation*1 November 2013: Policy Paper on Preliminary Examinations*20 June 2014: Policy Paper on Sexual and Gender-Based Crimes*15 September 2016: Policy paper on case selection and prioritisation*15 November 2016: Policy on Children======Environmental crimes======The Policy Paper published in September 2016 announced that the ICC will focus on environmental crimes when selecting the cases.", "According to this document, the Office will give particular consideration to prosecuting Rome Statute crimes that are committed by means of, or that result in, \"inter alia, the destruction of the environment, the illegal exploitation of natural resources or the illegal dispossession of land\".This has been interpreted as a major shift in environmental law and a move with significant effects.====Registry====The Registry is responsible for the non-judicial aspects of the administration and servicing of the Court.", "This includes, among other things, \"the administration of legal aid matters, court management, victims and witnesses matters, defence counsel, detention unit, and the traditional services provided by administrations in international organisations, such as finance, translation, building management, procurement and personnel\".", "The Registry is headed by the Registrar, who is elected by the judges to a five-year term.", "As of April 2023 the Registrar is Osvaldo Zavala Giler.+ List of Registrars of the International Criminal Court Registrar Term Reference Bruno Cathala 2003–2008 Silvana Arbia 2008–2013 Herman von Hebel 2013–2018 Peter Lewis 2018–2023 Osvaldo Zavala Giler 2023–present" ], [ "Process", "The process to establish the Court's jurisdiction may be \"triggered\" by any one of three possible sources: (1) a State party, (2) the Security Council or (3) a Prosecutor.", "It is then up to the Prosecutor acting ''ex proprio motu'' (\"of his own motion\" so to speak) to initiate an investigation under the requirements of Article 15 of the Rome Statute.", "The procedure is slightly different when referred by a State Party or the Security Council, in which cases the Prosecutor does not need authorization of the Pre-Trial Chamber to initiate the investigation.", "Where there is a reasonable basis to proceed, it is mandatory for the Prosecutor to initiate an investigation.", "The factors listed in Article 53 considered for reasonable basis include whether the case would be admissible, and whether there are substantial reasons to believe that an investigation would not serve the interests of justice (the latter stipulates balancing against the gravity of the crime and the interests of the victims)." ], [ "{{Anchor|Subject-matter jurisdiction}}Crimes for which individuals can be prosecuted", "The Court's subject-matter jurisdiction means the crimes for which individuals can be prosecuted.", "Individuals can only be prosecuted for crimes that are listed in the Statute.", "The primary crimes are listed in article 5 of the Statute and defined in later articles: genocide (defined in article 6), crimes against humanity (defined in article 7), war crimes (defined in article 8), and crimes of aggression (defined in article 8 ''bis'') (since 2018).", "In addition, article 70 defines ''offences against the administration of justice'', which is a fifth category of crime for which individuals can be prosecuted.=== Genocide ===Article 6 defines the crime of genocide as \"acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group.\"", "There are five such acts which constitute crimes of genocide under article 6: # Killing members of a group# Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group# Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction# Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group# Forcibly transferring children of the group to another groupThe definition of these crimes is identical to those contained within the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide of 1948.=== Crimes against humanity ===Article 7 defines crimes against humanity as acts \"committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population, with knowledge of the attack\".", "The article lists 16 such as individual crimes:# Murder# Extermination# Enslavement# Deportation or forcible transfer of population# Imprisonment or other severe deprivation of physical liberty# Torture# Rape# Sexual slavery# Enforced prostitution# Forced pregnancy# Enforced sterilization# Sexual violence# Persecution# Enforced disappearance of persons# Apartheid# Other inhumane acts=== War crimes ===Article 8 defines war crimes depending on whether an armed conflict is either international (which generally means it is fought between states) or non-international (which generally means that it is fought between non-state actors, such as rebel groups, or between a state and such non-state actors).", "In total there are 74 war crimes listed in article 8.The most serious crimes constitute either grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions of 1949, which only apply to international conflicts, and serious violations of article 3 common to the Geneva Conventions of 1949, which apply to non-international conflicts.Eleven crimes constitute grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions and apply only to international armed conflicts:# Willful killing# Torture# Inhumane treatment# Biological experiments# Willfully causing great suffering# Destruction and appropriation of property# Compelling service in hostile forces# Denying a fair trial# Unlawful deportation and transfer# Unlawful confinement# Taking hostagesSeven crimes constitute serious violations of article 3 common to the Geneva Conventions and apply only to non-international armed conflicts:# Murder# Mutilation# Cruel treatment# Torture# Outrages upon personal dignity# Taking hostages# Sentencing or execution without due processAnother 56 crimes defined by article 8: 35 apply to international armed conflicts and 21 to non-international armed conflicts.", "Such crimes include attacking civilians or civilian objects, attacking peacekeepers, causing excessive incidental death or damage, transferring populations into occupied territories, treacherously killing or wounding, denying quarter, pillaging, employing poison, using expanding bullets, rape and other forms of sexual violence, and conscripting or using child soldiers.=== Crimes of aggression ===Article 8 ''bis'' defines crimes of aggression.", "The Statute originally provided that the Court could not exercise its jurisdiction over the crime of aggression until such time as the states parties agreed on a definition of the crime and set out the conditions under which it could be prosecuted.", "Such an amendment was adopted at the first review conference of the ICC in Kampala, Uganda, in June 2010.This amendment specified that the ICC would not be allowed to exercise jurisdiction of the crime of aggression until two further conditions had been satisfied: (1) the amendment has entered into force for 30 states parties and (2) on or after 1 January 2017, the Assembly of States Parties has voted in favor of allowing the Court to exercise jurisdiction.", "On 26 June 2016 the first condition was satisfied and the state parties voted in favor of allowing the Court to exercise jurisdiction on 14 December 2017.The Court's jurisdiction to prosecute crimes of aggression was accordingly activated on 17 July 2018.The Statute, as amended, defines the crime of aggression as \"the planning, preparation, initiation or execution, by a person in a position effectively to exercise control over or to direct the political or military action of a State, of an act of aggression which, by its character, gravity and scale, constitutes a manifest violation of the Charter of the United Nations.\"", "The Statute defines an \"act of aggression\" as \"the use of armed force by a State against the sovereignty, territorial integrity or political independence of another State, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Charter of the United Nations.\"", "The article also contains a list of seven acts of aggression, which are identical to those in United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3314 of 1974 and include the following acts when committed by one state against another state:# Invasion or attack by armed forces against territory# Military occupation of territory# Annexation of territory# Bombardment against territory# Use of any weapons against territory# Blockade of ports or coasts# Attack on the land, sea, or air forces or marine and air fleets# The use of armed forces which are within the territory of another state by agreement, but in contravention of the conditions of the agreement# Allowing territory to be used by another state to perpetrate an act of aggression against a third state# Sending armed bands, groups, irregulars, or mercenaries to carry out acts of armed force=== Offences against the administration of justice ===Article 70 criminalizes certain intentional acts which interfere with investigations and proceedings before the Court, including giving false testimony, presenting false evidence, corruptly influencing a witness or official of the Court, retaliating against an official of the Court, and soliciting or accepting bribes as an official of the Court.== Jurisdiction and admissibility ==The Rome Statute requires that several criteria exist in a particular case before an individual can be prosecuted by the Court.", "The Statute contains three jurisdictional requirements and three admissibility requirements.", "All criteria must be met for a case to proceed.", "The three jurisdictional requirements are (1) subject-matter jurisdiction (what acts constitute crimes), (2) territorial or personal jurisdiction (where the crimes were committed or who committed them), and (3) temporal jurisdiction (when the crimes were committed).For an individual to be prosecuted by the Court either territorial jurisdiction or personal jurisdiction must exist.", "Therefore, an individual can only be prosecuted if he or she has either (1) committed a crime within the territorial jurisdiction of the Court or (2) committed a crime while being a national of a state that is within the territorial jurisdiction of the Court.=== Territorial jurisdiction ===The territorial jurisdiction of the Court includes the territory, registered vessels, and registered aircraft of states which have either (1) become party to the Rome Statute or (2) accepted the Court's jurisdiction by filing a declaration with the Court.In situations that are referred to the Court by the United Nations Security Council, the territorial jurisdiction is defined by the Security Council, which may be more expansive than the Court's normal territorial jurisdiction.", "For example, if the Security Council refers a situation that took place in the territory of a state that has both not become party to the Rome Statute and not lodged a declaration with the Court, the Court will still be able to prosecute crimes that occurred within that state.=== Personal jurisdiction ===The personal jurisdiction of the Court extends to all natural persons who commit crimes, regardless of where they are located or where the crimes were committed, as long as those individuals are nationals of either (1) states that are party to the Rome Statute or (2) states that have accepted the Court's jurisdiction by filing a declaration with the Court.", "As with territorial jurisdiction, the personal jurisdiction can be expanded by the Security Council if it refers a situation to the Court.=== Temporal jurisdiction requirements ===Temporal jurisdiction is the time period over which the Court can exercise its powers.", "No statute of limitations applies to any of the crimes defined in the Statute.", "This is not completely retroactive.", "Individuals can only be prosecuted for crimes that took place on or after 1 July 2002, which is the date that the Rome Statute entered into force.", "If a state became party to the Statute, and therefore a member of the Court, after 1 July 2002, then the Court cannot exercise jurisdiction prior to the membership date for certain cases.", "For example, if the Statute entered into force for a state on 1 January 2003, the Court could only exercise temporal jurisdiction over crimes that took place in that state or were committed by a national of that state on or after 1 January 2003.=== Admissibility requirements ===To initiate an investigation, the Prosecutor must (1) have a \"reasonable basis to believe that a crime within the jurisdiction of the Court has been or is being committed\", (2) the investigation would be consistent with the principle of complementarity, and (3) the investigation serves the interests of justice.==== Complementarity ====The principle of complementarity means the Court will only prosecute an individual if states are unwilling or unable to prosecute.", "Therefore, if legitimate national investigations or proceedings into crimes have taken place or are ongoing, the Court will not initiate proceedings.", "This principle applies regardless of the outcome of national proceedings.", "Even if an investigation is closed without any criminal charges being filed or if an accused person is acquitted by a national court, the Court will not prosecute an individual for the crime in question so long as it is satisfied that the national proceedings were legitimate.", "The application of the complementarity principle has recently come under theoretical scrutiny.==== Gravity ====The Court will only initiate proceedings if a crime is of \"sufficient gravity to justify further action by the Court\".==== Interests of justice ====The Prosecutor will initiate an investigation unless there are \"substantial reasons to believe that an investigation would not serve the interests of justice\" when \"taking into account the gravity of the crime and the interests of victims\".", "Furthermore, even if an investigation has been initiated and there are substantial facts to warrant a prosecution and no other admissibility issues, the Prosecutor must determine whether a prosecution would serve the interests of justice \"taking into account all the circumstances, including the gravity of the crime, the interests of victims and the age or infirmity of the alleged perpetrator, and his or her role in the alleged crime\"." ], [ "Individual criminal responsibility", "The Court has jurisdiction over natural persons.", "A person who commits a crime within the jurisdiction of the Court is individually responsible and liable for punishment in accordance with the Rome Statute.", "In accordance with the Rome Statute, a person shall be criminally responsible and liable for punishment for a crime within the jurisdiction of the Court if that person: Commits such a crime, whether as an individual, jointly with another or through another person, regardless of whether that other person is criminally responsible; Orders, solicits or induces the commission of such a crime which in fact occurs or is attempted; For the purpose of facilitating the commission of such a crime, aids, abets or otherwise assists in its commission or its attempted commission, including providing the means for its commission; In any other way contributes to the commission or attempted commission of such a crime by a group of persons acting with a common purpose.", "In respect of the crime of genocide, directly and publicly incites others to commit genocide; Attempts to commit such a crime by taking action that commences its execution by means of a substantial step, but the crime does not occur because of circumstances independent of the person's intentions" ], [ "Procedure", "===Trial===Trials are conducted under a hybrid common law and civil law judicial system, but it has been argued the procedural orientation and character of the court is still evolving.", "A majority of the three judges present, as triers of fact in a bench trial, may reach a decision, which must include a full and reasoned statement.", "Trials are supposed to be public, but proceedings are often closed, and such exceptions to a public trial have not been enumerated in detail.", "''In camera'' proceedings are allowed for protection of witnesses or defendants as well as for confidential or sensitive evidence.", "Hearsay and other indirect evidence is not generally prohibited, but it has been argued the court is guided by hearsay exceptions which are prominent in common law systems.", "There is no subpoena or other means to compel witnesses to come before the court, although the court has some power to compel testimony of those who chose to come before it, such as fines.===Rights of the accused===The Rome Statute provides that all persons are presumed innocent until proven guilty beyond reasonable doubt, and establishes certain rights of the accused and persons during investigations.", "These include the right to be fully informed of the charges against them; the right to have a lawyer appointed, free of charge; the right to a speedy trial; and the right to examine the witnesses against them.To ensure \"equality of arms\" between defence and prosecution teams, the ICC has established an independent Office of Public Counsel for the Defence (OPCD) to provide logistical support, advice and information to defendants and their counsel.", "The OPCD also helps to safeguard the rights of the accused during the initial stages of an investigation.", "Thomas Lubanga's defence team said they were given a smaller budget than the Prosecutor and that evidence and witness statements were slow to arrive.===Victim participation===One of the great innovations of the Statute of the International Criminal Court and its Rules of Procedure and Evidence is the series of rights granted to victims.", "For the first time in the history of international criminal justice, victims have the possibility under the Statute to present their views and observations before the Court.Participation before the Court may occur at various stages of proceedings and may take different forms, although it will be up to the judges to give directions as to the timing and manner of participation.Participation in the Court's proceedings will in most cases take place through a legal representative and will be conducted \"in a manner which is not prejudicial or inconsistent with the rights of the accused and a fair and impartial trial\".The victim-based provisions within the Rome Statute provide victims with the opportunity to have their voices heard and to obtain, where appropriate, some form of reparation for their suffering.", "It is the aim of this attempted balance between retributive and restorative justice that, it is hoped, will enable the ICC to not only bring criminals to justice but also help the victims themselves obtain some form of justice.", "Justice for victims before the ICC comprises both procedural and substantive justice, by allowing them to participate and present their views and interests, so that they can help to shape truth, justice and reparations outcomes of the Court.Article 43(6) establishes a Victims and Witnesses Unit to provide \"protective measures and security arrangements, counseling and other appropriate assistance for witnesses, victims who appear before the Court, and others who are at risk on account of testimony given by such witnesses.\"", "Article 68 sets out procedures for the \"Protection of the victims and witnesses and their participation in the proceedings.\"", "The Court has also established an Office of Public Counsel for Victims, to provide support and assistance to victims and their legal representatives.=== Reparations ===Victims before the International Criminal Court can also claim reparations under Article 75 of the Rome Statute.", "Reparations can only be claimed when a defendant is convicted and at the discretion of the Court's judges.", "So far the Court has ordered reparations against Thomas Lubanga.", "Reparations can include compensation, restitution and rehabilitation, but other forms of reparations may be appropriate for individual, collective or community victims.", "Article 79 of the Rome Statute establishes a Trust Fund to provide assistance before a reparation order to victims in a situation or to support reparations to victims and their families if the convicted person has no money.===Cooperation by states not party to Rome Statute===One of the principles of international law is that a treaty does not create either obligations or rights for third states without their consent, and this is also enshrined in the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.", "The cooperation of the non-party states with the ICC is envisioned by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court to be of voluntary nature.", "States not acceded to the Rome Statute might still be subject to an obligation to cooperate with ICC in certain cases.", "When a case is referred to the ICC by the UN Security Council all UN member states are obliged to cooperate, since its decisions are binding for all of them.", "Also, there is an obligation to respect and ensure respect for international humanitarian law, which stems from the Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocol I, which reflects the absolute nature of international humanitarian law.In relation to cooperation in investigation and evidence gathering, it is implied from the Rome Statute that the consent of a non-party state is a prerequisite for ICC Prosecutor to conduct an investigation within its territory, and it seems that it is even more necessary for him to observe any reasonable conditions raised by that state, since such restrictions exist for states party to the Statute.", "Taking into account the experience of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (which worked with the principle of the primacy, instead of complementarity) in relation to cooperation, some scholars have expressed their pessimism as to the possibility of ICC to obtain cooperation of non-party states.", "As for the actions that ICC can take toward non-party states that do not cooperate, the Rome Statute stipulates that the Court may inform the Assembly of States Parties or Security Council, when the matter was referred by it, when non-party state refuses to cooperate after it has entered into an ''ad hoc'' arrangement or an agreement with the Court.===Amnesty and national reconciliation processes===It is unclear to what extent the ICC is compatible with reconciliation processes that grant amnesty to human rights abusers as part of agreements to end conflict.", "Article 16 of the Rome Statute allows the Security Council to prevent the Court from investigating or prosecuting a case, and Article 53 allows the Prosecutor the discretion not to initiate an investigation if he or she believes that \"an investigation would not serve the interests of justice\".", "Former ICC president Philippe Kirsch has said that \"some limited amnesties may be compatible\" with a country's obligations genuinely to investigate or prosecute under the Statute.It is sometimes argued that amnesties are necessary to allow the peaceful transfer of power from abusive regimes.", "By denying states the right to offer amnesty to human rights abusers, the International Criminal Court may make it more difficult to negotiate an end to conflict and a transition to democracy.", "For example, the outstanding arrest warrants for four leaders of the Lord's Resistance Army are regarded by some as an obstacle to ending the insurgency in Uganda.", "Czech politician Marek Benda argues that \"the ICC as a deterrent will in our view only mean the worst dictators will try to retain power at all costs\".", "The United Nations and the International Committee of the Red Cross maintain that granting amnesty to those accused of war crimes and other serious crimes is a violation of international law." ], [ "Facilities", "=== Headquarters ===The official seat of the Court is in The Hague, Netherlands, but its proceedings may take place anywhere.The Court moved into its first permanent premises in The Hague, located at Oude Waalsdorperweg 10, on 14 December 2015.Part of The Hague's International Zone, which also contains the Peace Palace, Europol, Eurojust, ICTY, OPCW and The Hague World Forum, the court facilities are situated on the site of the ''Alexanderkazerne'', a former military barracks, adjacent to the dune landscape on the northern edge of the city.", "The ICC's detention centre is a short distance away.==== Development ====The land and financing for the new construction were provided by the Netherlands.", "In addition, the host state organised and financed the architectural design competition which started at the end of 2008.Three architects were chosen by an international jury from a total of 171 applicants to enter into further negotiations.", "The Danish firm Schmidt Hammer Lassen were ultimately selected to design the new premises since its design met all the ICC criteria, such as design quality, sustainability, functionality and costs.Demolition of the barracks started in November 2011 and was completed in August 2012.In October 2012 the tendering procedure for the General Contractor was completed and the combination Visser & Smit Bouw and Boele & van Eesteren (\"Courtys\") was selected.==== Architecture ====The building has a compact footprint and consists of six connected building volumes with a garden motif.", "The tallest volume with a green façade, placed in the middle of the design, is the Court Tower that accommodates three courtrooms.", "The rest of the building's volumes accommodate the offices of the different organs of the ICC.", "Exterior Lobby (rendering) Typical courtroom (rendering)==== Provisional headquarters, 2002–2015 ====The former (provisional) headquarters of the ICC in The Hague, in use until December 2015Until late 2015, the ICC was housed in interim premises in The Hague provided by the Netherlands.", "Formerly belonging to KPN, the provisional headquarters were located at Maanweg 174 in the east-central portion of the city.=== Detention centre ===The ICC's detention centre accommodates both those convicted by the court and serving sentences as well as those suspects detained pending the outcome of their trial.", "It comprises twelve cells on the premises of the Scheveningen branch of the Haaglanden Penal Institution, The Hague, close to the ICC's headquarters in the Alexanderkazerne.Suspects held by the former International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia were held in the same prison and shared some facilities, like the fitness room, but had no contact with suspects held by the ICC.=== Other offices ===The ICC maintains a liaison office in New York and field offices in places where it conducts its activities.", "As of 18 October 2007, the Court had field offices in Kampala, Kinshasa, Bunia, Abéché and Bangui." ], [ "Finance", "+Top 10 contributions as of 31 December 2020 No.", "Country Contributions € Percent % 1 Japan 24,311,100 16.3 2 Germany 16,193,649 10.9 3 France 12,566,339 8.4 4 United Kingdom 12,143,931 8.2 5 Italy 8,793,501 5.9 6 Brazil 8,255,791 5.6 7 Canada 7,269,812 4.9 8 Republic of Korea 6,258,761 4.2 9 Australia 5,876,461 4.0 10 Spain 5,706,356 3.8 Others 41,350,083 27.8 Total 148,725,784 100.0The ICC is financed by contributions from the states parties.", "The amount payable by each state party is determined using the same method as the United Nations: each state's contribution is based on the country's capacity to pay, which reflects factors such as a national income and population.", "The maximum amount a single country can pay in any year is limited to 22% of the Court's budget; Japan paid this amount in 2008.The Court spent €80.5 million in 2007.The Assembly of States Parties approved a budget of €90.4 million for 2008, €101.2 million for 2009, and €141.6 million for 2017., the ICC's staff consisted of 800 persons from approximately 100 states." ], [ "Trial history to date", "The ICC issued an arrest warrant for Omar al-Bashir of Sudan over alleged war crimes in Darfur.To date, the Prosecutor has opened investigations in fourteen situations: Afghanistan; Burundi; two in the Central African Republic; Côte d'Ivoire; Darfur, Sudan; the Democratic Republic of the Congo; Georgia; Kenya; Libya; Mali; Uganda; Bangladesh/Myanmar, Palestine and Venezuela.", "Additionally, the Office of the Prosecutor is conducting preliminary examinations in six situations: Colombia; Guinea; Nigeria; the Philippines; Ukraine and Bolivia.The Court's Pre-Trial Chambers have Thomas Lubanga, Germain Katanga and Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui were tried by the ICC.", "Lubanga and Katanga were convicted and sentenced to 14 and 12 years imprisonment, respectively, whereas Chui was acquitted.The judgment of Jean-Pierre Bemba was rendered in March 2016.Bemba was convicted on two counts of crimes against humanity and three counts of war crimes.", "This marked the first time the ICC convicted someone of sexual violence as they added rape to his conviction.", "Bemba's convictions were overturned by the Court's Appeal Chamber in June 2018.The Court refused to compensate Bemba for losses suffered by him during his 10 years of imprisonment.", "It has been argued that this decision raises important questions about the court's present powers.Trials in the ''Ntaganda'' case (DR Congo), the ''Bemba et al.''", "case and the ''Laurent Gbagbo-Blé Goudé'' trial in the Côte d'Ivoire situation are ongoing.", "The ''Banda'' trial in the situation of Darfur, Sudan, was scheduled to begin in 2014 but the start date was vacated.Charges against Ugandan Dominic Ongwen and Malian Ahmad al-Faqi al-Mahdi have been confirmed; as of March 2020 both were awaiting their trials.On 6 July 2020, two Uyghur activist groups filed a complaint with the ICC calling for it to investigate PRC officials for crimes against Uyghurs, including allegations of genocide.On 31 October 2023, the Israeli families of over 34 victims of Hamas attacks of 7 October 2023, filed an Article 15 communication with the ICC prosecutor's office urging an investigation into the killings and abductions, and the ICC confirmed the receipt of the filing.", "Reporters Without Borders also lodged a complaint regarding the deaths of eight Palestinian journalists in the Gaza Strip during Israel's bombardment, as well as an Israeli journalist killed during a surprise attack by Hamas in southern Israel." ], [ "Investigations and preliminary examinations", "ICC investigations and examinations, as of March 2022'''Green:''' Official investigations (Uganda, DR Congo, Central African Republic I + II, Darfur (Sudan), Kenya, Libya, Côte d'Ivoire, Mali, Georgia, Burundi, Afghanistan, Palestine, Venezuela I, Bangladesh/Myanmar, Philippines, Ukraine)'''Orange:''' Authorization to open investigation requested (none at present)'''Light red:''' Ongoing preliminary examinations (Nigeria, Guinea, Venezuela II)'''Dark red:''' Closed preliminary examinations that have not resulted in an investigation (Colombia, Iraq, Honduras, South Korea, Comoros (registered vessels), Gabon, Bolivia)Currently, the Office of the Prosecutor has '''Key:''' Situation Referred by Referred on Preliminary examination on Investigation on Current status Investigation (phase 1) — — Investigation (phase 1) Uganda Uganda Investigation (phase 2) Colombia — — — Preliminary examination closed on Central African Republic I Central African Republic Investigation (phase 2) Darfur, Sudan United Nations Security Council Investigation (phase 1) Iraq / United Kingdom — — — Preliminary examination closed on Venezuela — — — Preliminary examination closed on Afghanistan — — Investigation (phase 1) Kenya — — Investigation (phase 2) Georgia — — Investigation (phase 2) Palestine — — — Preliminary examination closed on Guinea — — — Preliminary examination closed on Honduras — — — Preliminary examination closed on Nigeria — — — Investigation pending authorization — — — Preliminary examination closed on Libya United Nations Security Council Investigation (phase 1) Mali Mali Investigation (phase 1) Registered vessels Comoros — Preliminary examination closed on Central African Republic II Central African Republic Investigation (phase 2) Ukraine Albania ''et al.''", "Investigation (phase 1) Palestine Palestine Investigation (phase 1) Burundi — — Investigation (phase 1) Gabon Gabon — Preliminary examination closed on Philippines — — Investigation (phase 1) Venezuela I Argentina ''et al.''", "Investigation (phase 1) Bangladesh / Myanmar — — Investigation (phase 1) Venezuela II Venezuela — Preliminary examination (phase 2) Bolivia Bolivia — Preliminary examination closed on — Preliminary examination (phase 1) '''Notes'''+Summary of investigations and prosecutions by the International Criminal Court (not including reparations proceedings)SituationPublicly indictedOngoing proceduresProcedures finished, due to ...PTCTCs Not before court Pre-Trial Trial Appeal Death Inadmissibility Acquittal etc.", "Conviction Democratic Republic of the Congo 6 1Mudacumura00000 2Chui, Mbarushimana 3Katanga, Lubanga, Ntaganda I Uganda 5 2Kony, Otti000 2Lukwiya, Odhiambo00 1Ongwen II Central African Republic I 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 1Bemba (main case) 5Kilolo, Babala, Mangenda, Arido, Bemba (OAJ) II Darfur, Sudan 7 3Haroun, al-Bashir, Hussein 1Banda 1Kushayb0 1Jerbo0 1Abu Garda0 II IKushaybIVBanda Kenya 9 2Barasa, Bett 0 0 0 1 Gicheru 0 6Kosgey, Ali, Muthaura, Kenyatta, Ruto, Sang 0 II Libya 5 1S.", "Gaddafi 0 0 0 3M.", "Gaddafi, Khaled, Werfalli1Senussi 0 0 I Côte d'Ivoire3 0 0 0 0 03L.", "Gbagbo, Blé Goudé, S. Gbagbo 0 II Mali2 0 0 1al-Hassan 0 0 0 0 1al-Mahdi I Xal-Hassan Central African Republic II51Adam1Mokom3Yekatom, Ngaïssona, Said 0 0 0 0 0 II VYekatom, NgaïssonaVISaid Georgia33Guchmazov, Mindzaev, Sanakoev 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I Burundi 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 II Bangladesh / Myanmar 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I Afghanistan 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 II Palestine 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I Philippines 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I Venezuela I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I Ukraine22Putin, Lvova-Belova 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 II Total 52 15 2 5 0 7 1 13 10'''Notes'''+ Overview on cases currently active before the ICC (excludes cases against fugitives and reparations proceedings)Between initial appearance and beginning of confirmation of charges hearingBetween beginning of confirmation of charges hearing and beginning of trialBetween beginning of trial and judgmentBetween trial judgment and appeals judgment al-Hassan Yekatom, Ngaïssona Kushayb Said Banda Mokom" ], [ "Relationships", "===United Nations===UN Security Council referred the situation in Darfur to the ICC in 2005.Unlike the International Court of Justice, the ICC is legally independent from the United Nations.", "The Rome Statute grants certain powers to the United Nations Security Council, which limit its functional independence.", "Article 13 allows the Security Council to refer to the Court situations that would not otherwise fall under the Court's jurisdiction (as it did in relation to the situations in Darfur and Libya, which the Court could not otherwise have prosecuted as neither Sudan nor Libya are state parties).", "Article 16 allows the Security Council to require the Court to defer from investigating a case for a period of twelve months.", "Such a deferral may be renewed indefinitely by the Security Council.", "This sort of an arrangement gives the ICC some of the advantages inhering in the organs of the United Nations such as using the enforcement powers of the Security Council, but it also creates a risk of being tainted with the political controversies of the Security Council.The Court cooperates with the UN in many different areas, including the exchange of information and logistical support.", "The Court reports to the UN each year on its activities, and some meetings of the Assembly of States Parties are held at UN facilities.", "The relationship between the Court and the UN is governed by a \"Relationship Agreement between the International Criminal Court and the United Nations\".===Nongovernmental organizations===During the 1970s and 1980s, international human rights and humanitarian Nongovernmental Organizations (or NGOs) began to proliferate at exponential rates.", "Concurrently, the quest to find a way to punish international crimes shifted from being the exclusive responsibility of legal experts to being shared with international human rights activism.NGOs helped birth the ICC through advocacy and championing for the prosecution of perpetrators of crimes against humanity.", "NGOs closely monitor the organization's declarations and actions, ensuring that the work that is being executed on behalf of the ICC is fulfilling its objectives and responsibilities to civil society.", "According to Benjamin Schiff, \"From the Statute Conference onward, the relationship between the ICC and the NGOs has probably been closer, more consistent, and more vital to the Court than have analogous relations between NGOs and any other international organization.", "\"There are a number of NGOs working on a variety of issues related to the ICC.", "The NGO Coalition for the International Criminal Court has served as a sort of umbrella for NGOs to coordinate with each other on similar objectives related to the ICC.", "The CICC has 2,500 member organizations in 150 countries.", "The original steering committee included representatives from the World Federalist Movement, the International Commission of Jurists, Amnesty International, the Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, Human Rights Watch, Parliamentarians for Global Action, and No Peace Without Justice.", "Today, many of the NGOs with which the ICC cooperates are members of the CICC.", "These organizations come from a range of backgrounds, spanning from major international NGOs such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International, to smaller, more local organizations focused on peace and justice missions.", "Many work closely with states, such as the International Criminal Law Network, founded and predominantly funded by the Hague municipality and the Dutch Ministries of Defense and Foreign Affairs.", "The CICC also claims organizations that are themselves federations, such as the International Federation of Human Rights Leagues (FIDH).CICC members subscribe to three principles that permit them to work under the umbrella of the CICC, so long as their objectives match them:*Promoting worldwide ratification and implementation of the Rome Statute of the ICC*Maintaining the integrity of the Rome Statute of the ICC, and*Ensuring the ICC will be as fair, effective and independent as possibleThe NGOs that work under the CICC do not normally pursue agendas exclusive to the work of the Court, rather they may work for broader causes, such as general human rights issues, victims' rights, gender rights, rule of law, conflict mediation, and peace.", "The CICC coordinates their efforts to improve the efficiency of NGOs' contributions to the Court and to pool their influence on major common issues.", "From the ICC side, it has been useful to have the CICC channel NGO contacts with the Court so that its officials do not have to interact individually with thousands of separate organizations.NGOs have been crucial to the evolution of the ICC, as they assisted in the creation of the normative climate that urged states to seriously consider the Court's formation.", "Their legal experts helped shape the Statute, while their lobbying efforts built support for it.", "They advocate Statute ratification globally and work at expert and political levels within member states for passage of necessary domestic legislation.", "NGOs are greatly represented at meetings for the Assembly of States Parties, and they use the ASP meetings to press for decisions promoting their priorities.", "Many of these NGOs have reasonable access to important officials at the ICC because of their involvement during the Statute process.", "They are engaged in monitoring, commenting upon, and assisting in the ICC's activities.The ICC often depends on NGOs to interact with local populations.", "The Registry Public Information Office personnel and Victims Participation and Reparations Section officials hold seminars for local leaders, professionals and the media to spread the word about the Court.", "These are the kinds of events that are often hosted or organized by local NGOs.", "Because there can be challenges with determining which of these NGOs are legitimate, CICC regional representatives often have the ability to help screen and identify trustworthy organizations.NGOs are also \"sources of criticism, exhortation and pressure upon\" the ICC.", "The ICC heavily depends on NGOs for its operations.", "Although NGOs and states cannot directly impact the judicial nucleus of the organization, they can impart information on crimes, can help locate victims and witnesses, and can promote and organize victim participation.", "NGOs outwardly comment on the Court's operations, \"push for expansion of its activities especially in the new justice areas of outreach in conflict areas, in victims' participation and reparations, and in upholding due-process standards and defense 'equality of arms' and so implicitly set an agenda for the future evolution of the ICC.\"", "The relatively uninterrupted progression of NGO involvement with the ICC may mean that NGOs have become repositories of more institutional historical knowledge about the ICC than its national representatives, and have greater expertise than some of the organization's employees themselves.", "While NGOs look to mold the ICC to satisfy the interests and priorities that they have worked for since the early 1990s, they unavoidably press against the limits imposed upon the ICC by the states that are members of the organization.", "NGOs can pursue their own mandates, irrespective of whether they are compatible with those of other NGOs, while the ICC must respond to the complexities of its own mandate as well as those of the states and NGOs.Another issue has been that NGOs possess \"exaggerated senses of their ownership over the organization and, having been vital to and successful in promoting the Court, were not managing to redefine their roles to permit the Court its necessary independence.\"", "Additionally, because there does exist such a gap between the large human rights organizations and the smaller peace-oriented organizations, it is difficult for ICC officials to manage and gratify all of their NGOs.", "\"ICC officials recognize that the NGOs pursue their own agendas, and that they will seek to pressure the ICC in the direction of their own priorities rather than necessarily understanding or being fully sympathetic to the myriad constraints and pressures under which the Court operates.\"", "Both the ICC and the NGO community avoid criticizing each other publicly or vehemently, although NGOs have released advisory and cautionary messages regarding the ICC.", "They avoid taking stances that could potentially give the Court's adversaries, particularly the U.S., more motive to berate the organization." ], [ "Criticisms & opposition", "===African states===In October 2016, after repeated claims that the court was biased against African states, Burundi, South Africa and the Gambia announced their withdrawals from the Rome Statute.", "Following Gambia's presidential election later that year, which ended the long rule of Yahya Jammeh, Gambia rescinded its withdrawal notification.", "A decision by the High Court of South Africa in early 2017 ruled that the attempted withdrawal was unconstitutional, as it had not been agreed by Parliament, prompting the South African government to inform the UN that it was revoking its decision to withdraw.===African accusations of Western imperialism===Kenyan politician William Ruto in February 2013The ICC has been accused of bias and as being a tool of Western imperialism, only punishing leaders from small, weak states while ignoring crimes committed by richer and more powerful states.", "This sentiment has been expressed particularly by African leaders due to an alleged disproportionate focus of the Court on Africa, while it claims to have a global mandate.", "Until January 2016, all nine situations which the ICC had been investigating were in African countries.African critics have suggested the ICC is acting as a neo-colonial force seeking to further empower Western political and extractive interests in Africa.\".", "Scholar Awol Allo has described the court's underlying problem that has led to these challenges with Africa as not overt racism, but Eurocentrism.", "Another analysis suggests that African states are motivated by concerns over Africa's place in world order: the problem is the sovereign inequality displayed by the ICC prosecutor's focus.The prosecution of Kenyan Deputy President William Ruto and President Uhuru Kenyatta (both charged before coming into office) led to the Kenyan parliament passing a motion calling for Kenya's withdrawal from the ICC, and the country called on the other 33 African states party to the ICC to withdraw their support, an issue which was discussed at a special African Union (AU) summit in October 2013.Though the ICC has denied the charge of disproportionately targeting African leaders, and claims to stand up for victims wherever they may be, Kenya was not alone in criticising the ICC.", "Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir visited Kenya, South Africa, China, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Egypt, Ethiopia, Qatar and several other countries despite an outstanding ICC warrant for his arrest but was not arrested; he said that the charges against him are \"exaggerated\" and that the ICC was a part of a \"Western plot\" against him.", "Ivory Coast's government opted not to transfer former first lady Simone Gbagbo to the court but to instead try her at home.", "Rwanda's ambassador to the African Union, Joseph Nsengimana, argued that \"It is not only the case of Kenya.", "We have seen international justice become more and more a political matter.\"", "Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni accused the ICC of \"mishandling complex African issues\".", "Ethiopian Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn, at the time AU chairman, told the UN General Assembly at the General debate of the sixty-eighth session of the United Nations General Assembly: \"The manner in which the ICC has been operating has left a very bad impression in Africa.", "It is totally unacceptable.", "\"===African Union (AU) withdrawal proposal===South African President Jacob Zuma said the perceptions of the ICC as \"unreasonable\" led to the calling of the special AU summit on 13 October 2015.Botswana is a notable supporter of the ICC in Africa.", "At the summit, the AU did not endorse the proposal for a collective withdrawal from the ICC due to lack of support for the idea.", "The summit concluded that serving heads of state should not be put on trial and that the Kenyan cases should be deferred.", "Ethiopian formerly Foreign Minister Tedros Adhanom said: \"We have rejected the double standard that the ICC is applying in dispensing international justice.\"", "Despite these calls, the ICC went ahead with requiring William Ruto to attend his trial.", "The UNSC was then asked to consider deferring the trials of Kenyatta and Ruto for a year, but this was rejected.", "In November, the ICC's Assembly of State Parties responded to Kenya's calls for an exemption for sitting heads of state by agreeing to consider amendments to the Rome Statute to address the concerns.On 7 October 2016, Burundi announced that it would leave the ICC, after the court began investigating political violence in that nation.", "In the subsequent two weeks, South Africa and Gambia also announced their intention to leave the court, with Kenya and Namibia reportedly also considering departure.", "All three nations cited the fact that all 39 people indicted by the court over its history have been African and that the court has made no effort to investigate war crimes tied to the 2003 invasion of Iraq.", "Following Gambia's presidential election later that year, which ended the long rule of Yahya Jammeh, Gambia rescinded its withdrawal notification.", "The High Court of South Africa ruled on 2 February 2017 that the South African government's notice to withdraw was unconstitutional and invalid.", "On 7 March 2017 the South African government formally revoked its intention to withdraw.", "The ruling ANC revealed on 5 July 2017 that its intention to withdraw stands.===Philippines===Following the announcement that the ICC would open a preliminary investigation on the Philippines in connection to its escalating drug war, President Rodrigo Duterte announced on 14 March 2018 that the Philippines would start to submit plans to withdraw, completing the process on 17 March 2019.The ICC pointed out that it retained jurisdiction over the Philippines during the period when it was a state party to the Rome Statute, from November 2011 to March 2019.===Russia===To avoid arrest, Russian president Vladimir Putin did not attend the 15th BRICS summit in Johannesburg.", "Russia was represented by Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov (right).In March 2023, Dmitry Peskov announced that Russia did not recognize the Court's decision to issue an arrest warrant for President Vladimir Putin on account of war crimes in Ukraine and noted that Russia, like many other countries, did not recognise the jurisdiction of the ICC saying \"And accordingly, any decisions of this kind are null and void for the Russian Federation from the point of view of law.", "\"The Russian parliament speaker Vyacheslav Volodin replied on Telegram \"Yankees, hands off Putin!\"", "calling the move evidence of Western \"hysteria\", \"We regard any attacks on the President of the Russian Federation as aggression against our country\", he said.South African Foreign Minister Naledi Pandor criticized the ICC for not having what she called an \"evenhanded approach\" to all leaders responsible for violations of international law.", "South Africa, which failed in its obligation to arrest visiting Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir in June 2015, invited Vladimir Putin to the 15th BRICS Summit in Durban.", "On July 19, 2023, South Africa announced that \"by mutual agreement\" Putin would not attend the summit.", "Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov attended in Putin's place.In the months following the arrest warrant for Putin being issued, Russia issued warrants for the arrest of multiple ICC officials, including the court's president Piotr Hofmański and its vice-president Luz del Carmen Ibáñez Carranza.=== United States government ===U.S.", "President George W. Bush (left)President George W. Bush signed the American Service-Members' Protection Act, (informally referred to as ''The Hague Invasion Act''), to signify the United States' opposition to any possible future jurisdiction of the court or its tribunals.", "The act gives the President the power to use \"all means necessary and appropriate to bring about the release of any U.S. or allied personnel being detained or imprisoned by, on behalf of, or at the request of the International Criminal Court\".", "During the administration of Barack Obama, U.S. opposition to the ICC evolved to \"positive engagement\", although no effort was made to ratify the Rome Statute.The subsequent Donald Trump administration was considerably more hostile to the Court, similar to the Bush administration threatening prosecution and financial sanctions on ICC judges and staff in U.S. courts as well as imposing visa bans in response to any investigation against American nationals in connection to alleged crimes and atrocities perpetrated by the U.S. in Afghanistan.", "The threat included sanctions against any of over 120 countries which have ratified the Court for cooperating in the process.", "In November 2017, Fatou Bensouda advised the court to consider seeking charges for human rights abuses committed during the War in Afghanistan such as alleged rapes and tortures by the U.S. Armed Forces and the Central Intelligence Agency, crime against humanity committed by the Taliban, and war crimes committed by the Afghan National Security Forces.", "John Bolton, National Security Advisor of the United States, stated that ICC Court had no jurisdiction over the U.S., which did not ratify the Rome Statute.", "In 2020, overturning the previous decision not to proceed, senior judges at the ICC authorized an investigation into the alleged war crimes in Afghanistan.In June 2020, the decision to proceed led the Trump administration to empower an economic and legal attack on the court.", "\"The US government has reason to doubt the honesty of the ICC.", "The Department of Justice has received substantial credible information that raises serious concerns about a long history of financial corruption and malfeasance at the highest levels of the office of the prosecutor\", Attorney General William Barr stated.", "The ICC responded with a statement expressing \"profound regret at the announcement of further threats and coercive actions.\"", "\"These attacks constitute an escalation and an unacceptable attempt to interfere with the rule of law and the Court's judicial proceedings\", the statement said.", "\"They are announced with the declared aim of influencing the actions of ICC officials in the context of the court's independent and objective investigations and impartial judicial proceedings.", "\"On 30 September 2020, prominent United States human rights lawyers announced that they would sue Trump and his Administration—including Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, Treasury secretary Steven Mnuchin, attorney general William Barr, and OFAC director Andrea Gacki, and the departments they head—on the grounds that Trump's Executive Order 13928 order had gagged them, violating their right to free speech and impeding their work in trying to obtain justice on behalf of victims of war crimes.", "One of the plaintiffs, Diane Marie Amann, stated that, as a result of sanctions against the chief prosecutor at the ICC, she herself risked having her family assets seized if she continued to work for children who are bought and sold by traffickers, killed, tortured, sexually abused and forced to become child soldiers.On 4 January 2021, U.S. District Judge Katherine Polk Failla in New York City issued a preliminary injunction against the Trump administration from imposing criminal or civil penalties against ICC personnel and those who support the court's work, including the plaintiffs.==== U.S. criticisms ====The United States Department of State argues that there are \"insufficient checks and balances on the authority of the ICC prosecutor and judges\" and \"insufficient protection against politicized prosecutions or other abuses\".", "The current law in the United States on the ICC is the American Service-Members' Protection Act (ASPA), 116 Stat.", "820.The ASPA authorizes the President of the United States to use \"all means necessary and appropriate to bring about the release of any U.S. or allied personnel being detained or imprisoned by, on behalf of, or at the request of the International Criminal Court\".", "This authorization has led the act to be nicknamed the \"Hague Invasion Act\", because the freeing of U.S. citizens by force might be possible only through military action.On 10 September 2018, John R. Bolton, in his first major address as U.S. National Security Advisor, reiterated that the ICC lacks checks and balances, exercises \"jurisdiction over crimes that have disputed and ambiguous definitions\", and has failed to \"deter and punish atrocity crimes\".", "The ICC, Bolton said, was \"superfluous\", given that \"domestic judicial systems already hold American citizens to the highest legal and ethical standards\".", "He added that the U.S. would do everything \"to protect our citizens\" should the ICC attempt to prosecute U.S. servicemen over alleged detainee abuse in Afghanistan.", "In that event, ICC judges and prosecutors would be barred from entering the U.S., their funds in the U.S. would be sanctioned and the U.S. \"will prosecute them in the U.S. criminal system.", "We will do the same for any company or state that assists an ICC investigation of Americans\", Bolton said.", "He also criticized Palestinian efforts to bring Israel before the ICC over allegations of human rights abuses in the West Bank and Gaza.The ICC responded that it will continue to investigate war crimes undeterred.On 11 June 2020, Mike Pompeo and U.S. President Donald Trump announced sanctions on officials and employees, as well as their families, involved in investigating alleged crimes against humanity committed by U.S. armed forces in Afghanistan.", "This move was widely criticized by human rights groups.", "The U.S. ordered sanctions against the ICC prosecutor Fatou Bensouda, and the ICC's head of Jurisdiction, Complementary, and Cooperation Division, Phakiso Mochochok, for an investigation into alleged war crimes by U.S. forces and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in Afghanistan since 2003.The sanctions were subsequently lifted by Antony Blinken in April 2021.=== OPCD ===Concerning the independent Office of Public Counsel for the Defence (OPCD), Thomas Lubanga's defence team say they were given a smaller budget than the Prosecutor and that evidence and witness statements were slow to arrive.===Impartiality===Human Rights Watch (HRW) reported that the ICC's prosecutor team takes no account of the roles played by the government in the conflict of Uganda, Rwanda or Congo.", "This led to a flawed investigation, because the ICC did not reach the conclusion of its verdict after considering the governments' position and actions in the conflict.=== Unintentional consequences ===Research indicates that prosecutions of leaders who are culpable of international crimes in the ICC makes them less likely to peacefully step down, which can prolong conflicts and incentivize them to make continued use of mass violence.", "It is also argued that justice is a means to peace: \"As a result, the ICC has been used as a meansof intervention in ongoing conflicts with the expectation that the indictments, arrests, andtrials of elite perpetrators have deterrence and preventive effects for atrocity crimes.Despite these legitimate intentions and great expectations, there is little evidence of theefficacy of justice as a means to peace\".=== State cooperation ===That the ICC cannot mount successful cases without state cooperation is problematic for several reasons.", "It means that the ICC acts inconsistently in its selection of cases, is prevented from taking on hard cases and loses legitimacy.", "It also gives the ICC less deterrent value, as potential perpetrators of war crimes know that they can avoid ICC judgment by taking over government and refusing to cooperate.=== Principle of complementarity ===The fundamental principle of complementarity of the ICC Rome Statute is often taken for granted in the legal analysis of international criminal law and its jurisprudence.", "Initially the thorny issue of the actual application of the complementarity principle arose in 2008, when William Schabas published his influential paper.", "No substantive research was made by other scholars on this issue for quite some time.", "In June 2017, Victor Tsilonis advanced the same criticism which is reinforced by events, practices of the Office of the Prosecutor and ICC cases in the Essays in Honour of Nestor Courakis.", "His paper essentially argues that the Αl‐Senussi case arguably is the first instance of the complementarity principle's actual implementation eleven whole years after the ratification of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.On the other hand, in 2017, Chief Prosecutor Fatou Bensouda invoked the principle of complementarity in the situation between Russia and Georgia in the Ossetia region.", "Moreover, following the threats of certain African states (initially Burundi, Gambia and South Africa) to withdraw their ratifications, Bensouda again referred to the principle of complementarity as a core principle of ICC's jurisdiction and has more extensively focused on the principle's application on the latest Office of The Prosecutor's Report on Preliminary Examination Activities 2016.Some advocates have suggested that the ICC go \"beyond complementarity\" and systematically support national capacity for prosecutions.", "They argue that national prosecutions, where possible, are more cost-effective, preferable to victims and more sustainable.===Jurisdiction over corporations===There is a debate on whether the ICC should have jurisdiction over corporations that violate international law.", "Supporters argue that corporations can and do commit human rights violations, such as war crimes linked to raw materials in conflict zones.", "Critics argue that prosecuting corporations would compromise the principle of complementarity, that it would give corporations excessive power under international law, or that it would compromise voluntary initiatives by companies.", "John Ruggie has argued that jurisdiction of corporations under international law should be limited to international crimes, while Nicolás Carrillo-Santarelli of La Sabana University argues that it should cover all human rights violations.Despite its lack of jurisdiction, the ICC announced in 2016 that it would prioritize criminal cases linked to land grabbing, illegal resource extraction, or environmental degradation caused by corporate activity.", "The proposed crime of ecocide would have jurisdiction over corporations as well as governments.", "Supporters of criminalizing ecocide argue that it would shift the ICC's priorities away from Africa, since most environmental degradation is caused by states and corporations in the Global North." ], [ "See also", "*Agreement on the Privileges and Immunities of the International Criminal Court*American Service-Members' Protection Act*Crimes against humanity*International Court of Justice*Legal Tools (database on International Criminal Law)*List of people indicted in the International Criminal Court*Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court*Rule of law*War crimes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * The States Parties to the Rome Statute* United Nations website on the Rome Statute" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "ICC" ], [ "Introduction", "'''ICC''' may refer to:" ], [ "Buildings", "* International Commerce Centre, a skyscraper in Hong Kong* International Commercial Center, a skyscraper in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia* International Convention Centre (disambiguation), any of several convention centers* Internationales Congress Centrum Berlin, Germany* Edward B. Bunn S.J.", "Intercultural Center, a building on the campus of Georgetown University, US* International Convention Centre, Birmingham, a conference centre in Birmingham, England" ], [ "Games", "* Interstellar Confederation of Corporations, in the MMORPG ''Anarchy Online''* International Cricket Captain (series), a video game series about cricket management* Internet Chess Club, a website for playing chess* Icecrown Citadel, in the MMORPG ''World of Warcraft: Wrath of the Lich King''" ], [ "Judicial courts", "* International Criminal Court, an intergovernmental organization and international tribunal headquartered in The Hague, the Netherlands* Illinois Commerce Commission, a quasi-judicial tribunal which regulates public utility services in the U.S. state of Illinois" ], [ "Organizations", "===Government===* Interstate Commerce Commission, a now-defunct U.S. government regulatory body* International Control Commission, which oversaw the 1954 Geneva Accords ending the First Indochina War* International Computing Centre, based in Geneva, Switzerland, established by the UN in 1971* International Computation Centre, in Rome, Italy, created by UNESCO in 1951, now the Intergovernmental Bureau for Informatics* International Certificate of Competence for Operators of Pleasure Craft, a European boating license* Isthmian Canal Commission, a body set up to administer the Panama Canal Zone===Politics===* International Communist Current, a communist organization* Inuit Circumpolar Council, a non-governmental organization representing several peoples in the far north* International Coordinating Committee of National Human Rights Institutions* Israel on Campus Coalition===Religion===* International Christian Concern, a human rights organization* International Christian Church, a group of Stone-Campbell Restoration churches led by Kip McKean and split off from the ICOC* International Churches of Christ, a group of Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement Christian churches* International Critical Commentary, an academic level biblical commentary series* Irish Council of Churches, an ecumenical Christian body===Sports===* International Cricket Council, the governing body of cricket* International Champions Cup, friendly association football tournament of mostly European clubs* International Co-ordination Committee of World Sports Organizations for the Disabled, 1982–1989 predecessor of the International Paralympic Committee* Illinois College Conference, a defunct American collegiate athletic conference* Indiana Collegiate Conference, a defunct American collegiate athletic conference===Business===* Industrial Credit Company, (later Industrial Credit Corporation) purchased by the Halifax* Information Control Company, an information technology consulting firm headquartered in Columbus, Ohio* Innovation Collaboration Centre, a startup incubator in Adelaide, South Australia* Innovative Communications Corporation, a telecommunications company in the United States Virgin Islands* International Chamber of Commerce, supporting global trade and globalisation* International Code Council, US-based building codes organisation* International Controls Corporation, an American holding company founded by Robert Vesco* International Culinary Center, a cooking school with several locations===Other organizations===* Imperial Camel Corps, an historic British Commonwealth military unit* Incarnation Children's Center, a New York orphanage, specializing in care of children with HIV/AIDS* Indian Cinematograph Committee, an Indian government committee overseeing censorship and cinema* Inter-Cooperative Council at the University of Michigan, a student housing cooperative in Ann Arbor, Michigan* International Association for Cereal Science and Technology, formerly International Association for Cereal Chemistry* International Camp on Communication and Computers, European organisation for blind and partially sighted students* International Centre for Choreography, based at the Australian Dance Theatre in Adelaide, South Australia* International Code Council, a US-based organization that publishes the International Building Code* International Color Consortium, a standards body for computer color management* Institute for Computational Cosmology, an academic research institute at Durham University* NTT InterCommunication Center, a media art gallery in Tokyo, Japan" ], [ "Science and technology", "* ICC, the transistor collector current in an NPN bipolar junction transistor* ICC profile, for characterising a color space or device* Immunocytochemistry, interaction of chemicals with immune responses of cells* Infinite conjugacy class property, or ICC group in mathematics* Information Coding Classification, a system for classification of literature or other information by knowledge domains* Intel C++ Compiler, a group of C and C++ compilers from Intel* Intercellular communication, in cell biology* International calling code, a prefix to call to a phone number from abroad* International consensus criteria, proposed diagnostic criteria for chronic fatigue syndrome (myalgic encephalomyelitis)* Interstitial cell of Cajal, a type of interstitial cell found in the gastrointestinal tract* Intraclass correlation or intraclass correlation coefficient* Item characteristic curve, curves used in item response theory * Smart card, or integrated circuit card or integrated chip card** Integrated circuit card identifier (ICCID), the identifier of SIM card" ], [ "Schools", "===United Kingdom===* Icknield Community College, a comprehensive school in Watlington, Oxfordshire* Ifield Community College, a school in Crawley, West Sussex* International Christian College, Glasgow, Scotland* Ivybridge Community College, a secondary school in Ivybridge, Devon===United States===* Illinois Central College, main campus in East Peoria; two campuses in Peoria, one in Pekin, Illinois* Independence Community College, a community college in Independence, Kansas* Isothermal Community College, a community college in Spindale, North Carolina* Itasca Community College, a community college in Grand Rapids, Minnesota* Itawamba Community College, campuses located in Fulton and Tupelo, Mississippi* Izard County Consolidated High School, a high school and school district in Brockwell, Arkansas* Dr. William M. Scholl College of Podiatric Medicine, formerly known as the Illinois College of Chiropody" ], [ "Events", "* International Cartographic Conference, an academic conference of the International Cartographic Association* International Conference on Communications, an academic conference for engineers* International Conference on Creationism, a conference in support of young earth creationism* International Coastal Cleanup, a worldwide day of trash cleanup activities founded by Ocean Conservancy staff member Linda Maraniss in 1986" ], [ "Other uses", "* Commerce Clause, also known as the Interstate Commerce Clause and Indian Commerce Clause, an enumerated power of the US Constitution* Integration competency center, a shared service function within an organization for performing methodical data integration, system integration or enterprise application integration* Maryland Route 200 or Intercounty Connector, a highway between the two Maryland suburban counties bordering Washington, DC, US* International Certificate of Competence, a boating certificate* Independent component city, a legal class of cities in the Philippines" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Incubus (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''incubus''' is a male demon that has sexual intercourse with sleeping women.", "'''Incubus''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Film", "* ''Incubus'' (1966 film), a film in Esperanto starring William Shatner* ''Incubus'' (2006 film), a horror film starring Tara Reid* ''The Incubus'' (1982 film), a horror film starring John Cassavetes* ''François Sagat's Incubus'', a 2011/2012 gay pornographic film, and directorial debut for François Sagat" ], [ "Music", "* Incubus (band), an American alternative rock band from California* Opprobrium (band), American death metal band from Louisiana originally known as Incubus* \"Incubus\", a song by British neo-progressive rock band Marillion from 1984's ''Fugazi'' (album)" ], [ "Other", "* The Incubus, a nickname given to radio executive John Hayes by Howard Stern when the two were together at WNBC" ], [ "See also", "* Succubus (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Iberian Peninsula" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Iberian Peninsula''' (), also known as '''Iberia''', is a peninsula in Southwestern Europe, defining the westernmost edge of Eurasia.", "It is divided between Peninsular Spain and Continental Portugal, comprising most of the region, as well as Andorra, Gibraltar and a small part of Southern France.", "With an area of approximately , and a population of roughly 53 million, it is the second-largest European peninsula by area, after the Scandinavian Peninsula." ], [ "Name", "The Iberian Peninsula and Southern France, satellite photo on a cloudless day in March 2014===Greek name===The word ''Iberia'' is a noun adapted from the Latin word \"Hiberia\" originating in the Ancient Greek word Ἰβηρία (''''), used by Greek geographers under the rule of the Roman Empire to refer to what is known today in English as the Iberian Peninsula.", "At that time, the name did not describe a single geographical entity or a distinct population; the same name was used for the Kingdom of Iberia, natively known as Kartli in the Caucasus, the core region of what would later become the Kingdom of Georgia.", "It was Strabo who first reported the delineation of \"Iberia\" from Gaul (''Keltikē'') by the Pyrenees and included the entire land mass southwest (he says \"west\") from there.", "With the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the consolidation of romanic languages, the word \"Iberia\" continued the Roman word \"Hiberia\" and the Greek word \"Ἰβηρία\".The ancient Greeks reached the Iberian Peninsula, of which they had heard from the Phoenicians, by voyaging westward on the Mediterranean.", "Hecataeus of Miletus was the first known to use the term ''Iberia'', which he wrote about .", "Herodotus of Halicarnassus says of the Phocaeans that \"it was they who made the Greeks acquainted with ...", "Iberia.\"", "According to Strabo, prior historians used ''Iberia'' to mean the country \"this side of the Ἶβηρος\" ('''', the Ebro) as far north as the Rhône, but in his day they set the Pyrenees as the limit.", "Polybius respects that limit, but identifies Iberia as the Mediterranean side as far south as Gibraltar, with the Atlantic side having no name.", "Elsewhere he says that Saguntum is \"on the seaward foot of the range of hills connecting Iberia and Celtiberia.", "\"===Roman names===According to Charles Ebel, the ancient sources in both Latin and Greek use ''Hispania'' and ''Hiberia'' (Greek: ''Iberia'') as synonyms.", "The confusion of the words was because of an overlapping in political and geographic perspectives.", "The Latin word ''Hiberia'', similar to the Greek ''Iberia'', literally translates to \"land of the Hiberians\".", "This word was derived from the river ''Hiberus'' (now called Ebro or Ebre).", "''Hiber'' (Iberian) was thus used as a term for peoples living near the river Ebro.", "The first mention in Roman literature was by the annalist poet Ennius in 200 BCE.", "Virgil wrote ''impacatos (H)iberos'' (\"restless Iberi\") in his Georgics.", "The Roman geographers and other prose writers from the time of the late Roman Republic called the entire peninsula ''Hispania''.In Greek and Roman antiquity, the name ''Hesperia'' was used for both the Italian and Iberian Peninsula; in the latter case ''Hesperia Ultima'' (referring to its position in the far west) appears as form of disambiguation from the former among Roman writers.Also since Roman antiquity, Jews gave the name ''Sepharad'' to the peninsula.As they became politically interested in the former Carthaginian territories, the Romans began to use the names ''Hispania Citerior'' and ''Hispania Ulterior'' for 'near' and 'far' Hispania.", "At the time Hispania was made up of three Roman provinces: Hispania Baetica, Hispania Tarraconensis, and Hispania Lusitania.", "Strabo says that the Romans use ''Hispania'' and ''Iberia'' synonymously, distinguishing between the ''near'' northern and the ''far'' southern provinces.", "(The name ''Iberia'' was ambiguous, being also the name of the Kingdom of Iberia in the Caucasus.", ")Whatever languages may generally have been spoken on the peninsula soon gave way to Latin, except for that of the Vascones, which was preserved as a language isolate by the barrier of the Pyrenees.=== Modern name ===The modern phrase \"Iberian Peninsula\" was coined by the French geographer Jean-Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent on his 1823 work ''\"Guide du Voyageur en Espagne\"''.", "Prior to that date, geographers had used the terms 'Spanish Peninsula' or 'Pyrenaean Peninsula'." ], [ "Etymology", "HuescaThe Iberian Peninsula has always been associated with the River Ebro (Ibēros in ancient Greek and Ibērus or Hibērus in Latin).", "The association was so well known it was hardly necessary to state; for example, Ibēria was the country \"this side of the Ibērus\" in Strabo.", "Pliny goes so far as to assert that the Greeks had called \"the whole of Spain\" Hiberia because of the Hiberus River.", "The river appears in the Ebro Treaty of 226 BCE between Rome and Carthage, setting the limit of Carthaginian interest at the Ebro.", "The fullest description of the treaty, stated in Appian, uses Ibērus.", "With reference to this border, Polybius states that the \"native name\" is ''Ibēr'', apparently the original word, stripped of its Greek or Latin ''-os'' or ''-us'' termination.The early range of these natives, which geographers and historians place from the present southern Spain to the present southern France along the Mediterranean coast, is marked by instances of a readable script expressing a yet unknown language, dubbed \"Iberian\".", "Whether this was the native name or was given to them by the Greeks for their residence near the Ebro remains unknown.", "Credence in Polybius imposes certain limitations on etymologizing: if the language remains unknown, the meanings of the words, including Iber, must also remain unknown.", "In modern Basque, the word ''ibar'' means \"valley\" or \"watered meadow\", while ''ibai'' means \"river\", but there is no proof relating the etymology of the Ebro River with these Basque names." ], [ "Prehistory", "===Palaeolithic===The Iberian Peninsula has been inhabited by members of the ''Homo'' genus for at least 1.2 million years as remains found in the sites in the Atapuerca Mountains demonstrate.", "Among these sites is the cave of Gran Dolina, where six hominin skeletons, dated between 780,000 and one million years ago, were found in 1994.Experts have debated whether these skeletons belong to the species ''Homo erectus'', ''Homo heidelbergensis'', or a new species called ''Homo antecessor''.Around 200,000 BP, during the Lower Paleolithic period, Neanderthals first entered the Iberian Peninsula.", "Around 70,000 BP, during the Middle Paleolithic period, the last glacial event began and the Neanderthal Mousterian culture was established.", "Around 37,000 BP, during the Upper Paleolithic, the Neanderthal Châtelperronian cultural period began.", "Emanating from Southern France, this culture extended into the north of the peninsula.", "It continued to exist until around 30,000 BP, when Neanderthal man faced extinction.About 40,000 years ago, anatomically modern humans entered the Iberian Peninsula from across the Pyrenees.", "Haplogroup R1b is common in modern Portuguese and Spanish males.", "On the Iberian Peninsula, modern humans developed a series of different cultures, such as the Aurignacian, Gravettian, Solutrean and Magdalenian cultures, some of them characterized by the complex forms of the art of the Upper Paleolithic.===Neolithic===During the Neolithic expansion, various megalithic cultures developed in the Iberian Peninsula.", "An open seas navigation culture from the east Mediterranean, called the Cardium culture, also extended its influence to the eastern coasts of the peninsula, possibly as early as the 5th millennium BCE.", "These people may have had some relation to the subsequent development of the Iberian civilization.As is the case for most of the rest of Southern Europe, the principal ancestral origin of modern Iberians are Early European Farmers who arrived during the Neolithic.", "The large predominance of Y-Chromosome Haplogroup R1b, common throughout Western Europe, is testimony to a considerable input from various waves of (predominantly male) Western Steppe Herders from the Pontic–Caspian steppe during the Bronze Age.", "Iberia experienced a significant genetic turnover, with 100% of the paternal ancestry and 40% of the overall ancestry being replaced by peoples with steppe-related ancestry.===Chalcolithic===A model recreating the Chalcolithic settlement of Los MillaresIn the Chalcolithic ( 3000 BCE), a series of complex cultures developed that would give rise to the peninsula's first civilizations and to extensive exchange networks reaching to the Baltic, Middle East and North Africa.", "Around 2800 – 2700 BCE, the Beaker culture, which produced the ''Maritime Bell Beaker'', probably originated in the vibrant copper-using communities of the Tagus estuary and spread from there to many parts of western Europe.===Bronze Age===Bronze Age cultures developed beginning  1800 BCE, when the culture of Los Millares was followed by that of El Argar.", "During the Early Bronze Age, southeastern Iberia saw the emergence of important settlements, a development that has compelled some archeologists to propose that these settlements indicate the advent of state-level social structures.", "From this centre, bronze metalworking technology spread to other cultures like the Bronze of Levante, South-Western Iberian Bronze and Las Cogotas.Preceded by the Chalcolithic sites of Los Millares, the Argaric culture flourished in southeastern Iberia in from 2200 BC to 1550 BC, when depopulation of the area ensued along with disappearing of copper–bronze–arsenic metallurgy.", "The most accepted model for El Argar has been that of an early state society, most particularly in terms of class division, exploitation, and coercion, with agricultural production, maybe also human labour, controlled by the larger hilltop settlements, and the elite using violence in practical and ideological terms to clamp down on the population.", "Ecological degradation, landscape opening, fires, pastoralism, and maybe tree cutting for mining have been suggested as reasons for the collapse.The culture of the ''motillas'' developed an early system of groundwater supply plants (the so-called ''motillas'') in the upper Guadiana basin (in the southern ''meseta'') in a context of extreme aridification in the area in the wake of the 4.2-kiloyear climatic event, which roughly coincided with the transition from the Copper Age to the Bronze Age.", "Increased precipitation and recovery of the water table from about 1800 BC onward should have led to the forsaking of the ''motillas'' (which may have flooded) and the redefinition of the relation of the inhabitants of the territory with the environment." ], [ "Proto-history", "Iberia before the Carthaginian conquests .An instance of the Southwest Paleohispanic script inscribed in the Abóbada I stele.By the Iron Age, starting in the 7th century BCE, the Iberian Peninsula consisted of complex agrarian and urban civilizations, either Pre-Celtic or Celtic (such as the Celtiberians, Gallaeci, Astures, Celtici, Lusitanians and others), the cultures of the Iberians in the eastern and southern zones and the cultures of the Aquitanian in the western portion of the Pyrenees.As early as the 12th century BCE, the Phoenicians, a thalassocratic civilization originally from the Eastern Mediterranean, began to explore the coastline of the peninsula, interacting with the metal-rich communities in the southwest of the peninsula (contemporarily known as the semi-mythical Tartessos).", "Around 1100 BCE, Phoenician merchants founded the trading colony of Gadir or Gades (modern day Cádiz).", "Phoenicians established a permanent trading port in the Gadir colony in response to the increasing demand of silver from the Assyrian Empire.The seafaring Phoenicians, Greeks and Carthaginians successively settled along the Mediterranean coast and founded trading colonies there over several centuries.", "In the 8th century BCE, the first Greek colonies, such as Emporion (modern Empúries), were founded along the Mediterranean coast on the east, leaving the south coast to the Phoenicians.Together with the presence of Phoenician and Greek epigraphy, several paleohispanic scripts developed in the Iberian Peninsula along the 1st millennium BCE.", "The development of a primordial paleohispanic script antecessor to the rest of paleohispanic scripts (originally supposed to be a non-redundant semi-syllabary) derived from the Phoenician alphabet and originated in Southwestern Iberia by the 7th century BCE has been tentatively proposed.In the sixth century BCE, the Carthaginians arrived in the peninsula while struggling with the Greeks for control of the Western Mediterranean.", "Their most important colony was Carthago Nova (modern-day Cartagena, Spain)." ], [ "History", "===Roman rule===Roman conquest: 220 BCE – 19 BCEIn 218 BCE, during the Second Punic War against the Carthaginians, the first Roman troops occupied the Iberian Peninsula, known to them as Hispania.", "After 197, the territories of the peninsula most accustomed to external contact and with the most urban tradition (the Mediterranean Coast and the Guadalquivir Valley) were divided by Romans into Hispania Ulterior and Hispania Citerior.", "Local rebellions were quelled, with a 195 Roman campaign under Cato the Elder ravaging hospots of resistance in the northeastern Ebro Valley and beyond.", "The threat to Roman interests posed by Celtiberians and Lusitanians in uncontrolled territories lingered in.", "Further wars of indigenous resistance, such as the Celtiberian Wars and the Lusitanian War, were fought in the 2nd century.", "Urban growth took place, and population progressively moved from hillforts to the plains.An example of the interaction of slaving and ecocide, the aftermath of the conquest increased mining extractive processes in the southwest of the peninsula (which required a massive number of forced laborers, initially from Hispania and latter also from the Gallic borderlands and other locations of the Mediterranean), bringing in a far-reaching environmental outcome vis-à-vis long-term global pollution records, with levels of atmospheric pollution from mining across the Mediterranean during Classical Antiquity having no match until the Industrial Revolution.In addition to mineral extraction (of which the region was the leading supplier in the early Roman world, with production of the likes of gold, silver, copper, lead, and cinnabar), Hispania also produced manufactured goods (sigillata pottery, colourless glass, linen garments) fish and fish sauce (garum), dry crops (such as wheat and, more importantly, esparto), olive oil, and wine.The process of Romanization spurred on throughout the first century BC.", "The peninsula was also the battleground of civil wars between rulers of the Roman republic, such as the Sertorian War or the conflict between Caesar and Pompey later in the century.During their 600-year occupation of the Iberian Peninsula, the Romans introduced the Latin language that influenced many of the languages that exist today in the Iberian peninsula.=== Pre-modern Iberia ===Germanic and Byzantine rule  560In the early fifth century, Germanic peoples occupied the peninsula, namely the Suebi, the Vandals (Silingi and Hasdingi) and their allies, the Alans.", "Only the kingdom of the Suebi (Quadi and Marcomanni) would endure after the arrival of another wave of Germanic invaders, the Visigoths, who occupied all of the Iberian Peninsula and expelled or partially integrated the Vandals and the Alans.", "The Visigoths eventually occupied the Suebi kingdom and its capital city, Bracara (modern day Braga), in 584–585.They would also occupy the province of the Byzantine Empire (552–624) of Spania in the south of the peninsula.", "However, Balearic Islands remained in Byzantine hands until Umayyad conquest, which began in 703 CE and was completed in 902 CE.In 711, a Muslim army conquered the Visigothic Kingdom in Hispania.", "Under Tariq ibn Ziyad, the Islamic army landed at Gibraltar and, in an eight-year campaign, occupied all except the northern kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula in the Umayyad conquest of Hispania.", "Al-Andalus (, tr.", "''al-ʾAndalūs'', possibly \"Land of the Vandals\"), is the Arabic name given to Muslim Iberia.", "The Muslim conquerors were Arabs and Berbers; following the conquest, conversion and arabization of the Hispano-Roman population took place, (''muwalladum'' or ''Muladí'').", "After a long process, spurred on in the 9th and 10th centuries, the majority of the population in Al-Andalus eventually converted to Islam.", "The Muslims were referred to by the generic name ''Moors''.", "The Muslim population was divided per ethnicity (Arabs, Berbers, Muladí), and the supremacy of Arabs over the rest of group was a recurrent causal for strife, rivalry and hatred, particularly between Arabs and Berbers.", "Arab elites could be further divided in the Yemenites (first wave) and the Syrians (second wave).", "Christians and Jews were allowed to live as part of a stratified society under the ''dhimmah'' system, although Jews became very important in certain fields.", "Some Christians migrated to the Northern Christian kingdoms, while those who stayed in Al-Andalus progressively arabised and became known as ''musta'arab'' (mozarabs).", "The slave population comprised the ''Ṣaqāliba'' (literally meaning \"slavs\", although they were slaves of generic European origin) as well as Sudanese slaves.The Umayyad rulers faced a major Berber Revolt in the early 740s; the uprising originally broke out in North Africa (Tangier) and later spread across the peninsula.", "Following the Abbasid takeover from the Umayyads and the shift of the economic centre of the Islamic Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad, the western province of al-Andalus was marginalised and ultimately became politically autonomous as independent emirate in 756, ruled by one of the last surviving Umayyad royals, Abd al-Rahman I.Islamic rule: al-Andalus  1000Al-Andalus became a center of culture and learning, especially during the Caliphate of Córdoba.", "The Caliphate reached the height of its power under the rule of Abd-ar-Rahman III and his successor al-Hakam II, becoming then, in the view of Jaime Vicens Vives, \"the most powerful state in Europe\".", "Abd-ar-Rahman III also managed to expand the clout of Al-Andalus across the Strait of Gibraltar, waging war, as well as his successor, against the Fatimid Empire.Between the 8th and 12th centuries, Al-Andalus enjoyed a notable urban vitality, both in terms of the growth of the preexisting cities as well as in terms of founding of new ones: Córdoba reached a population of 100,000 by the 10th century, Toledo 30,000 by the 11th century and Seville 80,000 by the 12th century.During the Middle Ages, the North of the peninsula housed many small Christian polities including the Kingdom of Castile, the Kingdom of Aragon, the Kingdom of Navarre, the Kingdom of León or the Kingdom of Portugal, as well as a number of counties that spawned from the Carolingian Marca Hispanica.", "Christian and Muslim polities fought and allied among themselves in variable alliances.", "The Christian kingdoms progressively expanded south taking over Muslim territory in what is historiographically known as the \"Reconquista\" (the latter concept has been however noted as product of the claim to a pre-existing Spanish Catholic nation and it would not necessarily convey adequately \"the complexity of centuries of warring and other more peaceable interactions between Muslim and Christian kingdoms in medieval Iberia between 711 and 1492\").Two warriors embrace before the siege of Chincoya Castle (''Cantigas de Santa Maria'').The Caliphate of Córdoba was subsumed in a period of upheaval and civil war (the Fitna of al-Andalus) and collapsed in the early 11th century, spawning a series of ephemeral statelets, the ''taifas''.", "Until the mid 11th century, most of the territorial expansion southwards of the Kingdom of Asturias/León was carried out through a policy of agricultural colonization rather than through military operations; then, profiting from the feebleness of the taifa principalities, Ferdinand I of León seized Lamego and Viseu (1057–1058) and Coimbra (1064) away from the Taifa of Badajoz (at times at war with the Taifa of Seville); Meanwhile, in the same year Coimbra was conquered, in the Northeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula, the Kingdom of Aragon took Barbastro from the Hudid Taifa of Lérida as part of an international expedition sanctioned by Pope Alexander II.", "Most critically, Alfonso VI of León-Castile conquered Toledo and its wider taifa in 1085, in what it was seen as a critical event at the time, entailing also a huge territorial expansion, advancing from the Sistema Central to La Mancha.", "In 1086, following the siege of Zaragoza by Alfonso VI of León-Castile, the Almoravids, religious zealots originally from the deserts of the Maghreb, landed in the Iberian Peninsula, and, having inflicted a serious defeat to Alfonso VI at the battle of Zalaca, began to seize control of the remaining taifas.The Almoravids in the Iberian peninsula progressively relaxed strict observance of their faith, and treated both Jews and Mozarabs harshly, facing uprisings across the peninsula, initially in the Western part.", "The Almohads, another North-African Muslim sect of Masmuda Berber origin who had previously undermined the Almoravid rule south of the Strait of Gibraltar, first entered the peninsula in 1146.Somewhat straying from the trend taking place in other locations of the Latin West since the 10th century, the period comprising the 11th and 13th centuries was not one of weakening monarchical power in the Christian kingdoms.", "The relatively novel concept of \"frontier\" (Sp: ''frontera''), already reported in Aragon by the second half of the 11th century become widespread in the Christian Iberian kingdoms by the beginning of the 13th century, in relation to the more or less conflictual border with Muslim lands.By the beginning of the 13th century, a power reorientation took place in the Iberian Peninsula (parallel to the Christian expansion in Southern Iberia and the increasing commercial impetus of Christian powers across the Mediterranean) and to a large extent, trade-wise, the Iberian Peninsula reorientated towards the North away from the Muslim World.During the Middle Ages, the monarchs of Castile and León, from Alfonso V and Alfonso VI (crowned ''Hispaniae Imperator'') to Alfonso X and Alfonso XI tended to embrace an imperial ideal based on a dual Christian and Jewish ideology.", "Despite the hegemonic ambitions of its rulers and the consolidation of the union of Castile and León after 1230, it should be pointed that, except for a brief period in the 1330s and 1340s, Castile tended to be nonetheless \"essentially unstable\" from a political standpoint until the late 15th century.Merchants from Genoa and Pisa were conducting an intense trading activity in Catalonia already by the 12th century, and later in Portugal.", "Since the 13th century, the Crown of Aragon expanded overseas; led by Catalans, it attained an overseas empire in the Western Mediterranean, with a presence in Mediterranean islands such as the Balearics, Sicily and Sardinia, and even conquering Naples in the mid-15th century.", "Genoese merchants invested heavily in the Iberian commercial enterprise with Lisbon becoming, according to Virgínia Rau, the \"great centre of Genoese trade\" in the early 14th century.", "The Portuguese would later detach their trade to some extent from Genoese influence.", "The Nasrid Kingdom of Granada, neighbouring the Strait of Gibraltar and founded upon a vassalage relationship with the Crown of Castile, also insinuated itself into the European mercantile network, with its ports fostering intense trading relations with the Genoese as well, but also with the Catalans, and to a lesser extent, with the Venetians, the Florentines, and the Portuguese.Between 1275 and 1340, Granada became involved in the \"crisis of the Strait\", and was caught in a complex geopolitical struggle (\"a kaleidoscope of alliances\") with multiple powers vying for dominance of the Western Mediterranean, complicated by the unstable relations of Muslim Granada with the Marinid Sultanate.", "The conflict reached a climax in the 1340 Battle of Río Salado, when, this time in alliance with Granada, the Marinid Sultan (and Caliph pretender) Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Othman made the last Marinid attempt to set up a power base in the Iberian Peninsula.", "The lasting consequences of the resounding Muslim defeat to an alliance of Castile and Portugal with naval support from Aragon and Genoa ensured Christian supremacy over the Iberian Peninsula and the preeminence of Christian fleets in the Western Mediterranean.Map of the Iberian Peninsula and Northern Africa (inverted) by Fra Mauro (ca.", "1450)The 1348–1350 bubonic plague devastated large parts of the Iberian Peninsula, leading to a sudden economic cessation.", "Many settlements in northern Castile and Catalonia were left forsaken.", "The plague marked the start of the hostility and downright violence towards religious minorities (particularly the Jews) as an additional consequence in the Iberian realms.The 14th century was a period of great upheaval in the Iberian realms.", "After the death of Peter the Cruel of Castile (reigned 1350–69), the House of Trastámara succeeded to the throne in the person of Peter's half brother, Henry II (reigned 1369–79).", "In the kingdom of Aragón, following the death without heirs of John I (reigned 1387–96) and Martin I (reigned 1396–1410), a prince of the House of Trastámara, Ferdinand I (reigned 1412–16), succeeded to the Aragonese throne.", "The Hundred Years' War also spilled over into the Iberian peninsula, with Castile particularly taking a role in the conflict by providing key naval support to France that helped lead to that nation's eventual victory.", "After the accession of Henry III to the throne of Castile, the populace, exasperated by the preponderance of Jewish influence, perpetrated a massacre of Jews at Toledo.", "In 1391, mobs went from town to town throughout Castile and Aragon, killing an estimated 50,000 Jews, or even as many as 100,000, according to Jane Gerber.", "Women and children were sold as slaves to Muslims, and many synagogues were converted into churches.", "According to Hasdai Crescas, about 70 Jewish communities were destroyed.During the 15th century, Portugal, which had ended its southwards territorial expansion across the Iberian Peninsula in 1249 with the conquest of the Algarve, initiated an overseas expansion in parallel to the rise of the House of Aviz, conquering Ceuta (1415) arriving at Porto Santo (1418), Madeira and the Azores, as well as establishing additional outposts along the North-African Atlantic coast.", "In addition, already in the Early Modern Period, between the completion of the Granada War in 1492 and the death of Ferdinand of Aragon in 1516, the Hispanic Monarchy would make strides in the imperial expansion along the Mediterranean coast of the Maghreb.During the Late Middle Ages, the Jews acquired considerable power and influence in Castile and Aragon.Throughout the late Middle Ages, the Crown of Aragon took part in the mediterranean slave trade, with Barcelona (already in the 14th century), Valencia (particularly in the 15th century) and, to a lesser extent, Palma de Mallorca (since the 13th century), becoming dynamic centres in this regard, involving chiefly eastern and Muslim peoples.", "Castile engaged later in this economic activity, rather by adhering to the incipient atlantic slave trade involving sub-saharan people thrusted by Portugal (Lisbon being the largest slave centre in Western Europe) since the mid 15th century, with Seville becoming another key hub for the slave trade.", "Following the advance in the conquest of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada, the seizure of Málaga entailed the addition of another notable slave centre for the Crown of Castile.By the end of the 15th century (1490) the Iberian kingdoms (including here the Balearic Islands) had an estimated population of 6.525 million (Crown of Castile, 4.3 million; Portugal, 1.0 million; Principality of Catalonia, 0.3 million; Kingdom of Valencia, 0.255 million; Kingdom of Granada, 0.25 million; Kingdom of Aragon, 0.25 million; Kingdom of Navarre, 0.12 million and the Kingdom of Mallorca, 0.05 million).For three decades in the 15th century, the ''Hermandad de las Marismas'', the trading association formed by the ports of Castile along the Cantabrian coast, resembling in some ways the Hanseatic League, fought against the latter, an ally of England, a rival of Castile in political and economic terms.", "Castile sought to claim the Gulf of Biscay as its own.", "In 1419, the powerful Castilian navy thoroughly defeated a Hanseatic fleet in La Rochelle.In the late 15th century, the imperial ambition of the Iberian powers was pushed to new heights by the Catholic Monarchs in Castile and Aragon, and by Manuel I in Portugal.Iberian Kingdoms in 1400The last Muslim stronghold, Granada, was conquered by a combined Castilian and Aragonese force in 1492.As many as 100,000 Moors died or were enslaved in the military campaign, while 200,000 fled to North Africa.", "Muslims and Jews throughout the period were variously tolerated or shown intolerance in different Christian kingdoms.", "After the fall of Granada, all Muslims and Jews were ordered to convert to Christianity or face expulsion—as many as 200,000 Jews were expelled from Spain.", "Approximately 3,000,000 Muslims fled or were driven out of Spain between 1492 and 1610.Historian Henry Kamen estimates that some 25,000 Jews died en route from Spain.", "The Jews were also expelled from Sicily and Sardinia, which were under Aragonese rule, and an estimated 37,000 to 100,000 Jews left.In 1497, King Manuel I of Portugal forced all Jews in his kingdom to convert or leave.", "That same year he expelled all Muslims that were not slaves, and in 1502 the Catholic Monarchs followed suit, imposing the choice of conversion to Christianity or exile and loss of property.", "Many Jews and Muslims fled to North Africa and the Ottoman Empire, while others publicly converted to Christianity and became known respectively as Marranos and Moriscos (after the old term ''Moors'').", "However, many of these continued to practice their religion in secret.", "The Moriscos revolted several times and were ultimately forcibly expelled from Spain in the early 17th century.", "From 1609 to 1614, over 300,000 Moriscos were sent on ships to North Africa and other locations, and, of this figure, around 50,000 died resisting the expulsion, and 60,000 died on the journey.A series of case studies by the Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs at Harvard University demonstrated that the change of relative supremacy from Portugal to the Hispanic Monarchy in the late 15th century was one of the few cases of avoidance of the Thucydides Trap.===Modern Iberia===Expelling of the moriscos in the Port of DeniaChallenging the conventions about the advent of modernity, Immanuel Wallerstein pushed back the origins of the capitalist modernity to the Iberian expansion of the 15th century.", "During the 16th century Spain created a vast empire in the Americas, with a state monopoly in Seville becoming the center of the ensuing transatlantic trade, based on bullion.", "Iberian imperialism, starting by the Portuguese establishment of routes to Asia and the posterior transatlantic trade with the New World by Spaniards and Portuguese (along Dutch, English and French), precipitated the economic decline of the Italian Peninsula.", "The 16th century was one of population growth with increased pressure over resources; in the case of the Iberian Peninsula a part of the population moved to the Americas meanwhile Jews and Moriscos were banished, relocating to other places in the Mediterranean Basin.", "Most of the Moriscos remained in Spain after the Morisco revolt in Las Alpujarras during the mid-16th century, but roughly 300,000 of them were expelled from the country in 1609–1614, and emigrated ''en masse'' to North Africa.An anonymous picture depicting Lisbon, the centre of the slave trade, by the late 16th century.In 1580, after the political crisis that followed the 1578 death of King Sebastian, Portugal became a dynastic composite entity of the Hapsburg Monarchy; thus, the whole peninsula was united politically during the period known as the Iberian Union (1580–1640).", "During the reign of Philip II of Spain (I of Portugal), the Councils of Portugal, Italy, Flanders and Burgundy were added to the group of counselling institutions of the Hispanic Monarchy, to which the Councils of Castile, Aragon, Indies, Chamber of Castile, Inquisition, Orders, and Crusade already belonged, defining the organization of the Royal court that underpinned the Polysynodial System through which the empire operated.", "During the Iberian union, the \"first great wave\" of the transatlantic slave trade happened, according to Enriqueta Vila Villar, as new markets opened because of the unification gave thrust to the slave trade.By 1600, the percentage of urban population for Spain was roughly 11.4%, while for Portugal the urban population was estimated as 14.1%, which were both above the 7.6% European average of the time (edged only by the Low Countries and the Italian Peninsula).", "Some striking differences appeared among the different Iberian realms.", "Castile, extending across a 60% of the territory of the peninsula and having 80% of the population was a rather urbanised country, yet with a widespread distribution of cities.", "Meanwhile, the urban population in the Crown of Aragon was highly concentrated in a handful of cities: Zaragoza (Kingdom of Aragon), Barcelona (Principality of Catalonia), and, to a lesser extent in the Kingdom of Valencia, in Valencia, Alicante and Orihuela.", "The case of Portugal presented an hypertrophied capital, Lisbon (which greatly increased its population during the 16th century, from 56,000 to 60,000 inhabitants by 1527, to roughly 120,000 by the third quarter of the century) with its demographic dynamism stimulated by the Asian trade, followed at great distance by Porto and Évora (both roughly accounting for 12,500 inhabitants).", "Throughout most of the 16th century, both Lisbon and Seville were among the Western Europe's largest and most dynamic cities.The 17th century has been largely considered as a very negative period for the Iberian economies, seen as a time of recession, crisis or even decline, the urban dynamism chiefly moving to Northern Europe.", "A dismantling of the inner city network in the Castilian plateau took place during this period (with a parallel accumulation of economic activity in the capital, Madrid), with only New Castile resisting recession in the interior.", "Regarding the Atlantic façade of Castile, aside from the severing of trade with Northern Europe, inter-regional trade with other regions in the Iberian Peninsula also suffered to some extent.", "In Aragon, suffering from similar problems than Castile, the expelling of the Moriscos in 1609 in the Kingdom of Valencia aggravated the recession.", "Silk turned from a domestic industry into a raw commodity to be exported.", "However, the crisis was uneven (affecting longer the centre of the peninsula), as both Portugal and the Mediterranean coastline recovered in the later part of the century by fuelling a sustained growth.The aftermath of the intermittent 1640–1668 Portuguese Restoration War brought the House of Braganza as the new ruling dynasty in the Portuguese territories across the world (bar Ceuta), putting an end to the Iberian Union.Despite both Portugal and Spain starting their path towards modernization with the liberal revolutions of the first half of the 19th century, this process was, concerning structural changes in the geographical distribution of the population, relatively tame compared to what took place after World War II in the Iberian Peninsula, when strong urban development ran in parallel to substantial rural flight patterns." ], [ "Geography and geology", "Physical map of the Iberian PeninsulaThe Iberian Peninsula is the westernmost of the three major southern European peninsulas—the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan.", "It is bordered on the southeast and east by the Mediterranean Sea, and on the north, west, and southwest by the Atlantic Ocean.", "The Pyrenees mountains are situated along the northeast edge of the peninsula, where it adjoins the rest of Europe.", "Its southern tip, located in Tarifa is the southernmost point of the European continent and is very close to the northwest coast of Africa, separated from it by the Strait of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean Sea.The Iberian Peninsula encompasses 583,254 km2 and has very contrasting and uneven relief.", "The mountain ranges of the Iberian Peninsula are mainly distributed from west to east, and in some cases reach altitudes of approximately 3000 mamsl, resulting in the region having the second highest mean altitude (637 mamsl) in Western Europe.The Iberian Peninsula extends from the southernmost extremity at Punta de Tarifa to the northernmost extremity at Punta de Estaca de Bares over a distance between lines of latitude of about based on a degree length of per degree, and from the westernmost extremity at Cabo da Roca to the easternmost extremity at Cap de Creus over a distance between lines of longitude at 40° N latitude of about based on an estimated degree length of about for that latitude.", "The irregular, roughly octagonal shape of the peninsula contained within this spherical quadrangle was compared to an ox-hide by the geographer Strabo.", "Punta de Estaca de Bares Cabo da Roca 75px Cap de Creus Punta de TarifaAbout three quarters of that rough octagon is the Meseta Central, a vast plateau ranging from 610 to 760 m in altitude.", "It is located approximately in the centre, staggered slightly to the east and tilted slightly toward the west (the conventional centre of the Iberian Peninsula has long been considered Getafe just south of Madrid).", "It is ringed by mountains and contains the sources of most of the rivers, which find their way through gaps in the mountain barriers on all sides.===Coastline===The coastline of the Iberian Peninsula is , on the Mediterranean side and on the Atlantic side.", "The coast has been inundated over time, with sea levels having risen from a minimum of lower than today at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) to its current level at 4,000 years BP.", "The coastal shelf created by sedimentation during that time remains below the surface; however, it was never very extensive on the Atlantic side, as the continental shelf drops rather steeply into the depths.", "An estimated length of Atlantic shelf is only wide.", "At the isobath, on the edge, the shelf drops off to .The submarine topography of the coastal waters of the Iberian Peninsula has been studied extensively in the process of drilling for oil.", "Ultimately, the shelf drops into the Bay of Biscay on the north (an abyss), the Iberian abyssal plain at on the west, and Tagus abyssal plain to the south.", "In the north, between the continental shelf and the abyss, is an extension called the Galicia Bank, a plateau that also contains the Porto, Vigo, and Vasco da Gama seamounts, which form the Galicia interior basin.", "The southern border of these features is marked by Nazaré Canyon, which splits the continental shelf and leads directly into the abyss.===Rivers===Discharge of the Douro into the Atlantic Ocean near PortoThe major rivers flow through the wide valleys between the mountain systems.", "These are the Ebro, Douro, Tagus, Guadiana and Guadalquivir.", "All rivers in the Iberian Peninsula are subject to seasonal variations in flow.The Tagus is the longest river on the peninsula and, like the Douro, flows westwards with its lower course in Portugal.", "The Guadiana river bends southwards and forms the border between Spain and Portugal in the last stretch of its course.===Mountains===The terrain of the Iberian Peninsula is largely mountainous.", "The major mountain systems are:* The Pyrenees and their foothills, the Pre-Pyrenees, crossing the isthmus of the peninsula so completely as to allow no passage except by mountain road, trail, coastal road or tunnel.", "Aneto in the Maladeta massif, at 3,404 m, is the highest pointThe Mulhacén, the highest peak in the Iberian Peninsula* The Cantabrian Mountains along the northern coast with the massive Picos de Europa.", "Torre de Cerredo, at 2,648 m, is the highest point* The Galicia/Trás-os-Montes Massif in the Northwest is made up of very old heavily eroded rocks.", "Pena Trevinca, at 2,127 m, is the highest point* The Sistema Ibérico, a complex system at the heart of the peninsula, in its central/eastern region.", "It contains a great number of ranges and divides the watershed of the Tagus, Douro and Ebro rivers.", "Moncayo, at 2,313 m, is the highest point* The Sistema Central, dividing the Iberian Plateau into a northern and a southern half and stretching into Portugal (where the highest point of Continental Portugal (1,993 m) is located in the Serra da Estrela).", "Pico Almanzor in the Sierra de Gredos is the highest point, at 2,592 m* The Montes de Toledo, which also stretches into Portugal from the La Mancha natural region at the eastern end.", "Its highest point, at 1,603 m, is La Villuerca in the Sierra de Villuercas, Extremadura* The Sierra Morena, which divides the watershed of the Guadiana and Guadalquivir rivers.", "At 1,332 m, Bañuela is the highest point* The Baetic System, which stretches between Cádiz and Gibraltar and northeast towards Alicante Province.", "It is divided into three subsystems:** Prebaetic System, which begins west of the Sierra Sur de Jaén, reaching the Mediterranean Sea shores in Alicante Province.", "La Sagra is the highest point at 2,382 m.** Subbaetic System, which is in a central position within the Baetic Systems, stretching from Cape Trafalgar in Cádiz Province across Andalusia to the Region of Murcia.", "The highest point, at , is Peña de la Cruz in Sierra Arana.", "** Penibaetic System, located in the far southeastern area stretching between Gibraltar across the Mediterranean coastal Andalusian provinces.", "It includes the highest point in the peninsula, the 3,478 m high Mulhacén in the Sierra Nevada.===Geology===Major Geologic Units of the Iberian PeninsulaThe Iberian Peninsula contains rocks of every geological period from the Ediacaran to the Recent, and almost every kind of rock is represented.", "World-class mineral deposits can also be found there.", "The core of the Iberian Peninsula consists of a Hercynian cratonic block known as the Iberian Massif.", "On the northeast, this is bounded by the Pyrenean fold belt, and on the southeast it is bounded by the Baetic System.", "These twofold chains are part of the Alpine belt.", "To the west, the peninsula is delimited by the continental boundary formed by the magma-poor opening of the Atlantic Ocean.", "The Hercynian Foldbelt is mostly buried by Mesozoic and Tertiary cover rocks to the east, but nevertheless outcrops through the Sistema Ibérico and the Catalan Mediterranean System.The Iberian Peninsula features one of the largest lithium deposits belts in Europe (an otherwise relatively scarce resource in the continent), scattered along the Iberian Massif's and .", "Also in the Iberian Massif, and similarly to other Hercynian blocks in Europe, the peninsula hosts some uranium deposits, largely located in the Central Iberian Zone unit.The Iberian Pyrite Belt, located in the SW quadrant of the Peninsula, ranks among the most important volcanogenic massive sulphide districts on Earth, and it has been exploited for millennia.===Climate===The Iberian Peninsula's location and topography, as well as the effects of large atmospheric circulation patterns induce a NW to SE gradient of yearly precipitation (roughly from 2,000 mm to 300 mm).The Iberian peninsula has three dominant climate types.", "One of these is the oceanic climate seen in the northeast in which precipitation has barely any difference between winter and summer.", "However, most of Portugal and Spain have a Mediterranean climate; the Warm-summer Mediterranean climate and the Hot-summer Mediterranean climate, with various differences in precipitation and temperature depending on latitude and position versus the sea, this applies greatly to the Portuguese and Galician Atlantic coasts where, due to upwelling/downwelling phenomena average temperatures in summer can vary through as much as 10 °C (18 °F) in only a few kilometers (e.g.", "Peniche vs Santarém) There are also more localized semi-arid climates in central Spain, with temperatures resembling a more continental Mediterranean climate.", "In other extreme cases highland alpine climates such as in Sierra Nevada and areas with extremely low precipitation and desert climates or semi-arid climates such as the Almería area, Murcia area and southern Alicante area.", "In the southwestern interior of the Iberian Peninsula the hottest temperatures in Europe are found, with Córdoba averaging around in July.", "The Spanish Mediterranean coast usually averages around in summer.", "In sharp contrast A Coruña at the northern tip of Galicia has a summer daytime high average at just below .", "This cool and wet summer climate is replicated throughout most of the northern coastline.", "Winters in the Peninsula are for the most part, mild, although frosts are common in higher altitude areas of central Spain.", "The warmest winter nights are usually found in downwelling favourable areas of the west coast, such as on capes.", "Precipitation varies greatly between regions on the Peninsula, in December for example the northern west coast averages above whereas the southeast can average below .", "Insolation can vary from just 1,600 hours in the Bilbao area, to above 3,000 hours in the Algarve and Gulf of Cádiz." ], [ "Political divisions", "Satellite image of Iberia at nightThe current political configuration of the Iberian Peninsula comprises the bulk of Portugal and Spain, the whole landlocked microstate of Andorra, a small part of the French department of Pyrénées-Orientales (French Cerdagne), and the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar.French Cerdagne is on the south side of the Pyrenees mountain range, which runs along the border between France and Spain.", "For example, the Segre river, which runs west and then south to meet the Ebro, has its source on the French side.", "The Pyrenees range is often considered the northeastern boundary of Iberian Peninsula, although the French coastline curves away from the rest of Europe north of the range, which is the reason why Perpignan, which is also known as the capital of Northern Catalonia, is often considered as the entrance to the Iberian Peninsula.Regarding Portugal and Spain, this chiefly excludes the Macaronesian archipelagos (the Azores and Madeira of Portugal, and the Canary Islands of Spain), the Balearic Islands (Spain), and the Spanish overseas territories in North Africa (most conspicuously the cities of Ceuta and Melilla, as well as unpopulated islets and rocks).The countries and territories on the Iberian Peninsula: Arms Flag Country / Territory Capital Area(mainland) Population(mainland) % of area Andorra Andorra la Vella 0.1 French Cerdagne(France) Font-Romeu-Odeillo-Via 0.1 Gibraltar(United Kingdom) Gibraltar 0.0 Portugal(mainland) Lisbon 15.3 Spain(mainland) Madrid ca.", "84.5 Total ca.", "100" ], [ "Cities", "The Iberian city network is dominated by three international metropolises (Barcelona, Lisbon, and Madrid) and four regional metropolises (Bilbao, Porto, Seville, and Valencia).", "The relatively weak integration of the network favours a competitive approach vis-à-vis the inter-relation between the different centres.", "Among these metropolises, Madrid stands out within the global urban hierarchy in terms of its status as a major service centre and enjoys the greatest degree of connectivity.===Major metropolitan regions===According to Eurostat (2019), the metropolitan regions with a population over one million are listed as follows:Metropolitan regionStatePopulation (2019) Madrid Spain Barcelona Spain Lisbon Portugal Valencia Spain Seville Spain Alicante-Elche-Elda Spain Porto Portugal Málaga-Marbella Spain Murcia-Cartagena Spain Cádiz Spain Bilbao Spain Oviedo-Gijón Spain" ], [ "Ecology", "===Forests===An Iberian lynxThe woodlands of the Iberian Peninsula are distinct ecosystems.", "Although the various regions are each characterized by distinct vegetation, there are some similarities across the peninsula.While the borders between these regions are not clearly defined, there is a mutual influence that makes it very hard to establish boundaries and some species find their optimal habitat in the intermediate areas.The endangered Iberian lynx (''Lynx pardinus'') is a symbol of the Iberian mediterranean forest and of the fauna of the Iberian Peninsula altogether.A new ''Podarcis'' lizard species, ''Podarcis virescens'', was accepted as a species by the Taxonomic Committee of the ''Societas Europaea Herpetologica'' in 2020.This lizard is native to the Iberian Peninsula and found near rivers in the region.===East Atlantic flyway===The Iberian Peninsula is an important stopover on the East Atlantic flyway for birds migrating from northern Europe to Africa.", "For example, curlew sandpipers rest in the region of the Bay of Cádiz.In addition to the birds migrating through, some seven million wading birds from the north spend the winter in the estuaries and wetlands of the Iberian Peninsula, mainly at locations on the Atlantic coast.", "In Galicia are Ría de Arousa (a home of grey plover), Ria de Ortigueira, Ria de Corme and Ria de Laxe.", "In Portugal, the Aveiro Lagoon hosts ''Recurvirostra avosetta'', the common ringed plover, grey plover and little stint.", "Ribatejo Province on the Tagus supports ''Recurvirostra arosetta'', grey plover, dunlin, bar-tailed godwit and common redshank.", "In the Sado Estuary are dunlin, Eurasian curlew, grey plover and common redshank.", "The Algarve hosts red knot, common greenshank and turnstone.", "The Guadalquivir Marshes region of Andalusia and the Salinas de Cádiz are especially rich in wintering wading birds: Kentish plover, common ringed plover, sanderling, and black-tailed godwit in addition to the others.", "And finally, the Ebro delta is home to all the species mentioned above." ], [ "Languages", "With the sole exception of Basque, which is of unknown origin, all modern Iberian languages descend from Vulgar Latin and belong to the Western Romance languages.", "Throughout history (and pre-history), many different languages have been spoken in the Iberian Peninsula, contributing to the formation and differentiation of the contemporaneous languages of Iberia; however, most of them have become extinct or fallen into disuse.", "Basque is the only non-Indo-European surviving language in Iberia and Western Europe.In modern times, Spanish (the official language of Spain, spoken by the entire 45 million population in the country, the native language of about 36 million in Europe), Portuguese (the official language of Portugal, with a population over 10 million), Catalan (over 7 million speakers in Europe, 3.4 million with Catalan as first language), Galician (understood by the 93% of the 2.8 million Galician population) and Basque (cf.", "around 1 million speakers) are the most widely spoken languages in the Iberian Peninsula.", "Spanish and Portuguese have expanded beyond Iberia to the rest of world, becoming global languages.Other minority romance languages with some degree of recognition include the several varieties of Astur-leonese, collectively amounting to about 0.6 million speakers, and the Aragonese (barely spoken by the 8% of the 130,000 people inhabiting the Alto Aragón).English is the official language of Gibraltar.", "Llanito is a unique language in the territory, an amalgamation of mostly English and Spanish.", "In Spain, only 54.3% could speak a foreign language, below that of the EU-28 average.", "Portugal meanwhile achieved 69%, above the EU average, but still below the EU median.", "Spain ranks 25th out of 33 European countries in the English Proficiency Index." ], [ "Transportation", "Both Spain and Portugal have traditionally used a non-standard rail gauge (the 1,668 mm Iberian gauge) since the construction of the first railroads in the 19th century.", "Spain has progressively introduced the 1,435 mm standard gauge in its new high-speed rail network (one of the most extensive in the world), inaugurated in 1992 with the Madrid–Seville line, followed to name a few by the Madrid–Barcelona (2008), Madrid–Valencia (2010), an Alicante branch of the latter (2013) and the connection to France of the Barcelona line.", "Portugal however suspended all the high-speed rail projects in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis, putting an end for the time being to the possibility of a high-speed rail connection between Lisbon, Porto and Madrid.Handicapped by a mountainous range (the Pyrenees) hindering the connection to the rest of Europe, Spain (and subsidiarily Portugal) only has two meaningful rail connections to France able for freight transport, located at both ends of the mountain range.", "An international rail line across the Central Pyrenees linking Zaragoza and the French city of Pau through a tunnel existed in the past; however, an accident in the French part destroyed a stretch of the railroad in 1970 and the Canfranc Station has been a cul-de-sac since then.There are four points connecting the Portuguese and Spanish rail networks: Valença do Minho–Tui, Vilar Formoso–Fuentes de Oñoro, Marvão-Beirã–Valencia de Alcántara and Elvas–Badajoz.The prospect of the development (as part of a European-wide effort) of the Central, Mediterranean and Atlantic rail corridors is expected to be a way to improve the competitiveness of the ports of Tarragona, Valencia, Sagunto, Bilbao, Santander, Sines and Algeciras vis-à-vis the rest of Europe and the World.In 1980, Morocco and Spain started a joint study on the feasibility of a fixed link (tunnel or bridge) across the Strait of Gibraltar, possibly through a connection of with Cape Malabata.", "Years of studies have, however, made no real progress thus far.A transit point for many submarine cables, the Fibre-optic Link Around the Globe, Europe India Gateway, and the SEA-ME-WE 3 feature landing stations in the Iberian Peninsula.", "The West Africa Cable System, Main One, SAT-3/WASC, Africa Coast to Europe also land in Portugal.", "MAREA, a high capacity communication transatlantic cable, connects the north of the Iberian Peninsula (Bilbao) to North America (Virginia), whereas Grace Hopper is an upcoming cable connecting the Iberian Peninsula (Bilbao) to the UK and the US intended to be operative by 2022 and EllaLink is an upcoming high-capacity communication cable expected to connect the Peninsula (Sines) to South America and the mammoth 2Africa project intends to connect the peninsula to the United Kingdom, Europe and Africa (via Portugal and Barcelona) by 2023–24.Two gas pipelines: the Pedro Duran Farell pipeline and (more recently) the Medgaz (from, respectively, Morocco and Algeria) link the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula, providing Spain with Algerian natural gas.", "However the contract for the first pipeline expires on 31 October 2021 and—amidst a tense climate of Algerian–Moroccan relations—there are no plans to renew it." ], [ "Economy", "The official currency across Iberia is the Euro, with the exception of Gibraltar, which uses the Gibraltar Pound (at parity with Sterling).Major industries include mining, tourism, small farms, and fishing.", "Because the coast is so long, fishing is popular, especially sardines, tuna and anchovies.", "Most of the mining occurs in the Pyrenees mountains.", "Commodities mined include: iron, gold, coal, lead, silver, zinc, and salt.Regarding their role in the global economy, both the microstate of Andorra and the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar have been described as tax havens.The Galician region of Spain, in the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula, became one of the biggest entry points of cocaine in Europe, on a par with the Dutch ports.", "Hashish is smuggled from Morocco via the Strait of Gibraltar." ], [ "See also", "* Iberism" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Intermediate value theorem" ], [ "Introduction", "Intermediate value theorem: Let be a continuous function defined on and let be a number with .", "Then there exists some '''' between and such that .In mathematical analysis, the '''intermediate value theorem''' states that if is a continuous function whose domain contains the interval , then it takes on any given value between and at some point within the interval.This has two important corollaries:# If a continuous function has values of opposite sign inside an interval, then it has a root in that interval ('''Bolzano's theorem''').", "# The image of a continuous function over an interval is itself an interval." ], [ "Motivation", "The intermediate value theoremThis captures an intuitive property of continuous functions over the real numbers: given '''' continuous on with the known values and , then the graph of must pass through the horizontal line while moves from to .", "It represents the idea that the graph of a continuous function on a closed interval can be drawn without lifting a pencil from the paper." ], [ "Theorem", "The intermediate value theorem states the following:Consider an interval of real numbers and a continuous function .", "Then*''Version I.''", "if is a number between and , that is, then there is a such that .", "*''Version II.''", "the image set is also an interval (closed), and it contains .", "'''Remark:''' ''Version II'' states that the set of function values has no gap.", "For any two function values with , even if they are outside the interval between and , all points in the interval are also function values, A subset of the real numbers with no internal gap is an interval.", "''Version I'' is naturally contained in ''Version II''." ], [ "Relation to completeness", "The theorem depends on, and is equivalent to, the completeness of the real numbers.", "The intermediate value theorem does not apply to the rational numbers '''Q''' because gaps exist between rational numbers; irrational numbers fill those gaps.", "For example, the function for satisfies and .", "However, there is no rational number such that , because is an irrational number." ], [ "Proof", "=== Proof version A===The theorem may be proven as a consequence of the completeness property of the real numbers as follows:We shall prove the first case, .", "The second case is similar.Let be the set of all such that .", "Then is non-empty since is an element of .", "Since is non-empty and bounded above by , by completeness, the supremum exists.", "That is, is the smallest number that is greater than or equal to every member of .Note that, due to the continuity of at , we can keep within any of by keeping sufficiently close to .", "Since is a strict inequality, consider the implication when is the distance between and .", "No sufficiently close to can then make greater than or equal to , which means there are values greater than in .", "A more detailed proof goes like this:Choose .", "Then such that , Consider the interval .", "Notice that and every satisfies the condition .", "Therefore for every we have .", "Hence cannot be .Likewise, due to the continuity of at , we can keep within any of by keeping sufficiently close to .", "Since is a strict inequality, consider the similar implication when is the distance between and .", "Every sufficiently close to must then make greater than , which means there are values smaller than that are upper bounds of .", "A more detailed proof goes like this:Choose .", "Then such that , Consider the interval .", "Notice that and every satisfies the condition .", "Therefore for every we have .", "Hence cannot be .With and , it must be the case .", "Now we claim that .Fix some .", "Since is continuous at , such that , .Since and is open, such that .", "Set .", "Then we havefor all .", "By the properties of the supremum, there exists some that is contained in , and soPicking , we know that because is the supremum of .", "This means thatBoth inequalitiesare valid for all , from which we deduce as the only possible value, as stated.===Proof version B===We will only prove the case of , as the case is similar.Define which is equivalent to and lets us rewrite as , and we have to prove, that for some , which is more intuitive.", "We further define the set .", "Because we know, that so, that is not empty.", "Moreover, as , we know that is bounded and non-empty, so by Completeness, the supremum exists.There are 3 cases for the value of , those being and .", "For contradiction, let us assume, that .", "Then, by the definition of continuity, for , there exists a such that implies, that , which is equivalent to .", "If we just chose , where , then and , so .", "It follows that is an upper bound for .", "However, , contradicting the '''upper bound''' property of the ''least upper bound'' , so .", "Assume then, that .", "We similarly chose and know, that there exists a such that implies .", "We can rewrite this as which implies, that .", "If we now chose , then and .", "It follows that is an upper bound for .", "However, , which contradict the '''least''' property of the ''least upper bound'' , which means, that is impossible.", "If we combine both results, we get that or is the only remaining possibility.", "'''Remark:''' The intermediate value theorem can also be proved using the methods of non-standard analysis, which places \"intuitive\" arguments involving infinitesimals on a rigorous footing." ], [ "History", "A form of the theorem was postulated as early as the 5th century BCE, in the work of Bryson of Heraclea on squaring the circle.", "Bryson argued that, as circles larger than and smaller than a given square both exist, there must exist a circle of equal area.", "The theorem was first proved by Bernard Bolzano in 1817.Bolzano used the following formulation of the theorem:Let be continuous functions on the interval between and such that and .", "Then there is an between and such that .The equivalence between this formulation and the modern one can be shown by setting to the appropriate constant function.", "Augustin-Louis Cauchy provided the modern formulation and a proof in 1821.Both were inspired by the goal of formalizing the analysis of functions and the work of Joseph-Louis Lagrange.", "The idea that continuous functions possess the intermediate value property has an earlier origin.", "Simon Stevin proved the intermediate value theorem for polynomials (using a cubic as an example) by providing an algorithm for constructing the decimal expansion of the solution.", "The algorithm iteratively subdivides the interval into 10 parts, producing an additional decimal digit at each step of the iteration.", "Before the formal definition of continuity was given, the intermediate value property was given as part of the definition of a continuous function.", "Proponents include Louis Arbogast, who assumed the functions to have no jumps, satisfy the intermediate value property and have increments whose sizes corresponded to the sizes of the increments of the variable.Earlier authors held the result to be intuitively obvious and requiring no proof.", "The insight of Bolzano and Cauchy was to define a general notion of continuity (in terms of infinitesimals in Cauchy's case and using real inequalities in Bolzano's case), and to provide a proof based on such definitions." ], [ "Converse is false", "A Darboux function is a real-valued function that has the \"intermediate value property,\" i.e., that satisfies the conclusion of the intermediate value theorem: for any two values and in the domain of , and any between and , there is some between and with .", "The intermediate value theorem says that every continuous function is a Darboux function.", "However, not every Darboux function is continuous; i.e., the converse of the intermediate value theorem is false.As an example, take the function defined by for and .", "This function is not continuous at because the limit of as tends to 0 does not exist; yet the function has the intermediate value property.", "Another, more complicated example is given by the Conway base 13 function.In fact, Darboux's theorem states that all functions that result from the differentiation of some other function on some interval have the intermediate value property (even though they need not be continuous).Historically, this intermediate value property has been suggested as a definition for continuity of real-valued functions; this definition was not adopted." ], [ "Generalizations", "=== Multi-dimensional spaces ===The Poincaré-Miranda theorem is a generalization of the Intermediate value theorem from a (one-dimensional) interval to a (two-dimensional) rectangle, or more generally, to an ''n''-dimensional cube.Vrahatis presents a similar generalization to triangles, or more generally, ''n''-dimensional simplices.", "Let ''Dn'' be an ''n''-dimensional simplex with ''n''+1 vertices denoted by ''v''0,...,''vn''.", "Let ''F''=(''f''1,...,''fn'') be a continuous function from ''Dn'' to ''Rn'', that never equals 0 on the boundary of ''Dn''.", "Suppose ''F'' satisfies the following conditions:* For all ''i'' in 1,...,''n'', the sign of ''fi''(''vi'') is opposite to the sign of ''fi''(''x'') for all points ''x'' on the face opposite to ''vi'';* The sign-vector of ''f''1,...,''fn'' on ''v''0 is not equal to the sign-vector of ''f''1,...,''fn'' on all points on the face opposite to ''v0''.Then there is a point ''z'' in the interior of ''Dn'' on which ''F''(''z'')=(0,...,0).It is possible to normalize the ''fi'' such that ''fi''(''vi'')>0 for all ''i''; then the conditions become simpler:*For all ''i'' in 1,...,''n'', ''fi''(''vi'')>0, and ''fi''(''x'')i''.", "In particular, ''fi''(''v0'')0'', ''fi''(''x'')>0 for at least one ''i'' in 1,...,''n.", "''The theorem can be proved based on the Knaster–Kuratowski–Mazurkiewicz lemma.", "In can be used for approximations of fixed points and zeros.=== General metric and topological spaces ===The intermediate value theorem is closely linked to the topological notion of connectedness and follows from the basic properties of connected sets in metric spaces and connected subsets of '''R''' in particular:* If and are metric spaces, is a continuous map, and is a connected subset, then is connected.", "() * A subset is connected if and only if it satisfies the following property: .", "()In fact, connectedness is a topological property and generalizes to topological spaces: ''If and are topological spaces, is a continuous map, and is a connected space, then is connected.''", "The preservation of connectedness under continuous maps can be thought of as a generalization of the intermediate value theorem, a property of real valued functions of a real variable, to continuous functions in general spaces.Recall the first version of the intermediate value theorem, stated previously:The intermediate value theorem is an immediate consequence of these two properties of connectedness:The intermediate value theorem generalizes in a natural way: Suppose that is a connected topological space and is a totally ordered set equipped with the order topology, and let be a continuous map.", "If and are two points in and is a point in lying between and with respect to , then there exists in such that .", "The original theorem is recovered by noting that is connected and that its natural topology is the order topology.The Brouwer fixed-point theorem is a related theorem that, in one dimension, gives a special case of the intermediate value theorem." ], [ "In constructive mathematics", "In constructive mathematics, the intermediate value theorem is not true.", "Instead, one has to weaken the conclusion:* Let and be real numbers and be a pointwise continuous function from the closed interval to the real line, and suppose that and .", "Then for every positive number there exists a point in the unit interval such that ." ], [ "Practical applications", "A similar result is the Borsuk–Ulam theorem, which says that a continuous map from the -sphere to Euclidean -space will always map some pair of antipodal points to the same place.In general, for any continuous function whose domain is some closed convex shape and any point inside the shape (not necessarily its center), there exist two antipodal points with respect to the given point whose functional value is the same.The theorem also underpins the explanation of why rotating a wobbly table will bring it to stability (subject to certain easily met constraints)." ], [ "See also", "* * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Intermediate value Theorem - Bolzano Theorem at cut-the-knot* Bolzano's Theorem by Julio Cesar de la Yncera, Wolfram Demonstrations Project.", "* * * Mizar system proof: http://mizar.org/version/current/html/topreal5.html#T4" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Iran–Iraq War" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Iran–Iraq War''' was an armed conflict between Iran and Iraq that lasted from September 1980 to August 1988.Active hostilities began with the Iraqi invasion of Iran and lasted for eight years, until the acceptance of United Nations Security Council Resolution 598 by both sides.", "Iraq's primary rationale for the attack against Iran cited the need to prevent Ruhollah Khomeini—who had spearheaded the Iranian Revolution in 1979—from exporting the new Iranian ideology to Iraq.", "There were also fears among the Iraqi leadership of Saddam Hussein that Iran, a theocratic state with a population predominantly composed of Shia Muslims, would exploit sectarian tensions in Iraq by rallying Iraq's Shia majority against the Baʽathist government, which was officially secular and dominated by Sunni Muslims.", "Iraq also wished to replace Iran as the power player in the Persian Gulf, which was not seen as an achievable objective prior to the Islamic Revolution because of Pahlavi Iran's economic and military superiority as well as its close relationships with the United States and Israel.The Iran–Iraq War followed a long-running history of territorial border disputes between the two states, as a result of which Iraq planned to retake the eastern bank of the Shatt al-Arab that it had ceded to Iran in the 1975 Algiers Agreement.", "Iraqi support for Arab separatists in Iran increased following the outbreak of hostilities; Saddam disputedly may have wished to annex Iran's Arab-majority Khuzestan province.", "While the Iraqi leadership had hoped to take advantage of Iran's post-revolutionary chaos and expected a decisive victory in the face of a severely weakened Iran, the Iraqi military only made progress for three months, and by December 1980, the Iraqi invasion had stalled.", "The Iranian military began to gain momentum against the Iraqis and regained virtually all lost territory by June 1982.After pushing Iraqi forces back to the pre-war border lines, Iran rejected United Nations Security Council Resolution 514 and launched an invasion of Iraq.", "The subsequent Iranian offensive within Iraqi territory lasted for five years, with Iraq taking back the initiative in mid-1988 and subsequently launching a series of major counter-offensives that ultimately led to the conclusion of the war in a stalemate.The eight years of war-exhaustion, economic devastation, decreased morale, military stalemate, inaction by the international community towards the use of weapons of mass destruction by Iraqi forces on Iranian soldiers and civilians, as well as increasing Iran–United States military tensions all culminated in Iran's acceptance of a ceasefire brokered by the United Nations Security Council.", "In total, around 500,000 people were killed during the Iran–Iraq War, with Iran bearing the larger share of the casualties, excluding the tens of thousands of civilians killed in the concurrent Anfal campaign that targeted Iraqi Kurdistan.", "The end of the conflict resulted in neither reparations nor border changes, and the combined financial losses suffered by both combatants is believed to have exceeded .", "There were a number of proxy forces operating for both countries: Iraq and the pro-Iraqi Arab separatist militias in Iran were most notably supported by the National Council of Resistance of Iran; whereas Iran re-established an alliance with the Iraqi Kurds, being primarily supported by the Kurdistan Democratic Party and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan.", "During the conflict, Iraq received an abundance of financial, political, and logistical aid from the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, France, Italy, Yugoslavia, and the overwhelming majority of Arab countries.", "While Iran was comparatively isolated to a large degree, it received a significant amount of aid from Syria, Libya, China, North Korea, Israel, Pakistan, and South Yemen.The conflict has been compared to World War I in terms of the tactics used by both sides, including large-scale trench warfare with barbed wire stretched across fortified defensive lines, manned machine-gun posts, bayonet charges, Iranian human wave attacks, Iraq's extensive use of chemical weapons, and deliberate attacks on civilian targets.", "A notable feature of the war was the state-sanctioned glorification of martyrdom among Iranian children.", "The discourses on martyrdom formulated in the Iranian Shia Islamic context led to the widespread usage of human wave attacks and thus had a lasting impact on the dynamics of the conflict." ], [ "Background", "===Iran–Iraq relations===A meeting of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Houari Boumédiène, and Saddam Hussein (left to right) during the Algiers Agreement in 1975In April 1969, Iran abrogated the 1937 treaty over the Shatt al-Arab and Iranian ships stopped paying tolls to Iraq when they used the Shatt al-Arab.", "The Shah argued that the 1937 treaty was unfair to Iran because almost all river borders around the world ran along the ''thalweg'', and because most of the ships that used the Shatt al-Arab were Iranian.", "Iraq threatened war over the Iranian move, but on 24 April 1969, an Iranian tanker escorted by Iranian warships (Joint Operation Arvand) sailed down the Shatt al-Arab, and Iraq—being the militarily weaker state—did nothing.", "The Iranian abrogation of the 1937 treaty marked the beginning of a period of acute Iraqi-Iranian tension that would see significant bloodshed and was to last until the Algiers Agreement of 1975.The relationship between the governments of Iran and Iraq briefly improved in 1978, when Iranian agents in Iraq discovered plans for a pro-Soviet ''coup d'état'' against Iraq's government.", "When informed of this plot, Saddam ordered the execution of dozens of his army's officers, and in a sign of reconciliation, expelled from Iraq Ruhollah Khomeini, an exiled leader of clerical opposition to the Shah.", "Saddam considered the 1975 Algiers Agreement to be merely a truce, rather than a definite settlement, and waited for an opportunity to contest it.===After the Iranian Revolution===Tensions between Iraq and Iran were fuelled by Iran's Islamic revolution and its appearance of being a Pan-Islamic force, in contrast to Iraq's Arab nationalism.", "Despite Iraq's goal of regaining the Shatt al-Arab, the Iraqi government initially seemed to welcome the Iranian Revolution, which overthrew Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who was seen as a common enemy.", "There were frequent clashes along the Iran–Iraq border throughout 1980, with Iraq publicly complaining of at least 544 incidents and Iran citing at least 797 violations of its border and airspace.Ruhollah Khomeini rose to power after the Iranian Revolution.Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini called on Iraqis to overthrow the Ba'ath government, which was received with considerable anger in Baghdad.", "On 17 July 1979, despite Khomeini's call, Saddam gave a speech praising the Iranian Revolution and called for an Iraqi-Iranian friendship based on non-interference in each other's internal affairs.", "When Khomeini rejected Saddam's overture by calling for Islamic revolution in Iraq, Saddam was alarmed.", "Iran's new Islamic administration was regarded in Baghdad as an irrational, existential threat to the Ba'ath government, especially because the Ba'ath party, having a secular nature, discriminated against and posed a threat to the fundamentalist Shia movement in Iraq, whose clerics were Iran's allies within Iraq and whom Khomeini saw as oppressed.Saddam's primary interest in war may have also stemmed from his desire to right the supposed \"wrong\" of the Algiers Agreement, in addition to finally achieving his desire of becoming the regional superpower.", "Saddam's goal was to supplant Egypt as the \"leader of the Arab world\" and to achieve hegemony over the Persian Gulf.", "He saw Iran's increased weakness due to revolution, sanctions, and international isolation.", "Saddam had invested heavily in Iraq's military since his defeat against Iran in 1975, buying large amounts of weaponry from the Soviet Union and France.", "Between 1973 and 1980 alone, Iraq purchased an estimated 1,600 tanks and APCs and over 200 Soviet-made aircraft.By 1980, Iraq possessed 242,000 soldiers, second only to Egypt in the Arab world, 2,350 tanks and 340 combat aircraft.", "Watching the disintegration of the powerful Iranian army that frustrated him in 1974–1975, he saw an opportunity to attack, using the threat of Islamic Revolution as a pretext.", "Iraqi military intelligence reported in July 1980 that despite Iran's bellicose rhetoric, \"it is clear that, at present, Iran has no power to launch wide offensive operations against Iraq, or to defend on a large scale.\"", "Days before the Iraqi invasion and in the midst of rapidly escalating cross-border skirmishes, Iraqi military intelligence again reiterated on 14 September that \"the enemy deployment organization does not indicate hostile intentions and appears to be taking on a more defensive mode.", "\"Some scholars writing prior to the opening of formerly classified Iraqi archives, such as Alistair Finlan, argued that Saddam was drawn into a conflict with Iran due to the border clashes and Iranian meddling in Iraqi domestic affairs.", "Finlan stated in 2003 that the Iraqi invasion was meant to be a limited operation in order to send a political message to the Iranians to keep out of Iraqi domestic affairs, whereas Kevin M. Woods and Williamson Murray stated in 2014 that the balance of evidence suggests Saddam was seeking \"a convenient excuse for war\" in 1980.On 8 March 1980, Iran announced it was withdrawing its ambassador from Iraq, downgraded its diplomatic ties to the charge d'affaires level, and demanded that Iraq do the same.", "The following day, Iraq declared Iran's ambassador persona non grata, and demanded his withdrawal from Iraq by 15 March.===Iranian military preparations===In Iran, severe officer purges, including numerous executions ordered by Sadegh Khalkhali, the new Revolutionary Court judge, and shortages of spare parts for Iran's American and British-made equipment had crippled Iran's once-mighty military.", "Between February and September 1979, Iran's government executed 85 senior generals and forced all major-generals and most brigadier-generals into early retirement.Iranian President Abolhassan Banisadr, who was also commander-in-chief, inspecting a Jeep-mounted 106mm recoilless anti-tank gunBy September 1980, the revolutionary government had purged some 12,000 officers of all levels from the army.", "These purges resulted in a drastic decline in the Iranian military's operational capacities.On the eve of the revolution in 1978, international experts in military science had assessed that Iran's armed forces were the fifth most powerful in the world.", "However, by the eve of war with Iraq, the recently formidable Iranian army was in many crucial ways a shell of its former self, having been badly weakened by losses in experienced personnel.", "The desertion rate had reached 60%, the officer corps was devastated and its most highly skilled soldiers and aviators had been exiled, imprisoned, or executed.", "When the invasion occurred, many pilots and officers were released from prison, or had their executions commuted to combat the Iraqis.", "Throughout the war, Iran never managed to fully recover from this flight of human capital.Many junior officers were promoted to generals, resulting in the army being more integrated as a part of the regime by the war's end.", "Meanwhile, a new paramilitary organisation gained prominence in Iran, the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps.", "Created to protect the new regime and serve as a counterbalance to the army, the ''Revolutionary Guards'' (IRGC) had been trained to act only as a militia and struggled to adapt as needed following the Iraqi invasion, initially refusing to fight alongside the regular army, resulting in many defeats.", "It was not until 1982 that the two groups began carrying out combined operations.An additional paramilitary militia was founded in response to the invasion, the \"Army of 20 Million\", commonly known as the Basij.", "The Basij were poorly armed and had members as young as 12 and as old as 70.They often acted in conjunction with the Revolutionary Guard, launching so-called human wave attacks and other campaigns against the Iraqis.", "They were subordinate to the Revolutionary Guards, and they made up most of the manpower that was used in the Revolutionary Guard's attacks.Stephen Pelletiere wrote in his 1992 book ''The Iran–Iraq War: Chaos in a Vacuum'':Despite neglect by the new regime, at the outset of the conflict, Iran still had at least 1,000 operational tanks and several hundred functional aircraft and could cannibalize equipment to procure spare parts.", "Continuous sanctions greatly limited Iran from acquiring many additional heavy weapons, including tanks and aircraft.===Iraqi military preparations===Khuzestan Province in Iran, which Iraq planned to annexIn addition, the area around the Shatt al-Arab posed no obstacle for the Iraqis, as they possessed river crossing equipment.", "Iraq correctly deduced that Iran's defences at the crossing points around the Karkheh and Karoun Rivers were undermanned and that the rivers could be easily crossed.", "Iraqi intelligence was also informed that the Iranian forces in Khuzestan Province, which consisted of two divisions prior to the revolution, now only consisted of several ill-equipped and under-strength battalions.", "Only a handful of company-sized tank units remained operational.The only qualms the Iraqis had were over the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force (formerly the Imperial Iranian Air Force).", "Despite the purge of several key pilots and commanders, as well as the lack of spare parts, the air force showed its power during local uprisings and rebellions.", "They were also active after the failed U.S. attempt to rescue its hostages, Operation Eagle Claw.", "Based on these observations, Iraq's leaders decided to carry out a surprise airstrike against the Iranian air force's infrastructure prior to the main invasion.=== Khuzestan ===It is widely accepted among scholars that Iraq was seeking to annex, or at least to establish suzerainty over, Iran's Khuzestan province, but Saddam Hussein publicly denied this in November 1980.===Border conflicts leading up to the war===The Shatt al-Arab on the Iran–Iraq borderOn 10 September 1980, Iraq forcibly reclaimed territories in Zain al-Qaws and Saif Saad that it had been promised under the terms of the 1975 Algiers Agreement but that Iran had never handed over, leading to both Iran and Iraq declaring the treaty null and void, on 14 September and 17 September, respectively.", "As a result, the only outstanding border dispute between Iran and Iraq at the time of the Iraqi invasion of 22 September was the question of whether Iranian ships would fly Iraqi flags and pay Iraq navigation fees for a stretch of the Shatt al-Arab river spanning several miles." ], [ "Course of the war", "===1980: Iraqi invasion===Mehrabad Air Base in Tehran after Iraqi forces attacked Tehran on 22 September 1980C-47 Skytrain|rightIraq launched a full-scale invasion of Iran on 22 September 1980.The Iraqi Air Force launched surprise air strikes on ten Iranian airfields with the objective of destroying the Iranian Air Force.", "The attack failed to damage the Iranian Air Force significantly; it damaged some of Iran's airbase infrastructure, but failed to destroy a significant number of aircraft.", "The Iraqi Air Force was only able to strike in depth with a few MiG-23BN, Tu-22, and Su-20 aircraft, and Iran had built hardened aircraft shelters where most of its combat aircraft were stored.The next day, Iraq launched a ground invasion along a front measuring in three simultaneous attacks.", "Saddam hoped an attack on Iran would cause such a blow to Iran's prestige that it would lead to the new government's downfall, or at least end Iran's calls for his overthrow.Of Iraq's six divisions that invaded by ground, four were sent to Khuzestan, which was located near the border's southern end, to cut off the Shatt al-Arab from the rest of Iran and to establish a territorial security zone.", "The other two divisions invaded across the northern and central part of the border to prevent an Iranian counter-attack.", "Two of the four Iraqi divisions, one mechanised and one armoured, operated near the southern end and began a siege of the strategically important port cities of Abadan and Khorramshahr.The two armoured divisions secured the territory bounded by the cities of Khorramshahr, Ahvaz, Susangerd, and Musian.", "On the central front, the Iraqis occupied Mehran, advanced towards the foothills of the Zagros Mountains, and were able to block the traditional Tehran–Baghdad invasion route by securing territory forward of Qasr-e Shirin, Iran.", "On the northern front, the Iraqis attempted to establish a strong defensive position opposite Suleimaniya to protect the Iraqi Kirkuk oil complex.", "Iraqi hopes of an uprising by the ethnic Arabs of Khuzestan failed to materialise, as most of the ethnic Arabs remained loyal to Iran.The Iraqi troops advancing into Iran in 1980 were described by Patrick Brogan as \"badly led and lacking in offensive spirit\".", "The first known chemical weapons attack by Iraq on Iran probably took place during the fighting around Susangerd.", "Adnan Khayr Allah served as Iraqi Minister of Defence throughout the Iran–Iraq War, and was appointed Deputy Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, second only to Saddam Hussein.", "In this position, he played a crucial role in rebuilding and modernizing the Iraqi military.F-14A Tomcats equipped with AIM-54A, AIM-7 and AIM-9 missilesThough the Iraqi air invasion surprised the Iranians, the Iranian air force retaliated the day after with a large-scale attack against Iraqi air bases and infrastructure in Operation Kaman 99.Groups of F-4 Phantom and F-5 Tiger fighter jets attacked targets throughout Iraq, such as oil facilities, dams, petrochemical plants, and oil refineries, and included Mosul Airbase, Baghdad, and the Kirkuk oil refinery.", "Iraq was taken by surprise at the strength of the retaliation, which caused the Iraqis heavy losses and economic disruption, but the Iranians took heavy losses as well as losing many aircraft and aircrews to Iraqi air defenses.Iranian Army Aviation's AH-1 Cobra helicopter gunships began attacks on the advancing Iraqi divisions, along with F-4 Phantoms armed with AGM-65 Maverick missiles; they destroyed numerous armoured vehicles and impeded the Iraqi advance, though not completely halting it.", "Meanwhile, Iraqi air attacks on Iran were repelled by Iran's F-14A Tomcat interceptor fighter jets, using AIM-54A Phoenix missiles, which downed a dozen of Iraq's Soviet-built fighters in the first two days of battle.The Iranian regular military, police forces, volunteer Basij, and Revolutionary Guards all conducted their operations separately; thus, the Iraqi invading forces did not face coordinated resistance.", "However, on 24 September, the Iranian Navy attacked Basra, Iraq, destroying two oil terminals near the Iraqi port of Al-Faw, which reduced Iraq's ability to export oil.", "The Iranian ground forces, primarily consisting of the Revolutionary Guard, retreated to the cities, where they set up defences against the invaders.On 30 September, Iran's air force launched Operation Scorch Sword, striking and badly damaging the nearly-complete Osirak Nuclear Reactor near Baghdad.", "By 1 October, Baghdad had been subjected to eight air attacks.", "In response, Iraq launched aerial strikes against Iranian targets.The mountainous border between Iran and Iraq made a deep ground invasion almost impossible, and air strikes were used instead.", "The invasion's first waves were a series of air strikes targeted at Iranian airfields.", "Iraq also attempted to bomb Tehran, Iran's capital and command centre, into submission.====First Battle of Khorramshahr====Khorramshahr slowed the Iraqis for a month.On 22 September, a prolonged battle began in the city of Khorramshahr, eventually leaving around 7,000 dead on each side.", "Reflecting the bloody nature of the struggle, Iranians came to call Khorramshahr \"City of Blood\".The battle began with Iraqi air raids against key points and mechanised divisions advancing on the city in a crescent-like formation.", "They were slowed by Iranian air attacks and Revolutionary Guard troops with recoilless rifles, rocket-propelled grenades, and Molotov cocktails.", "The Iranians flooded the marsh areas around the city, forcing the Iraqis to traverse through narrow strips of land.", "Iraqi tanks launched attacks with no infantry support, and many tanks were lost to Iranian anti-tank teams.By 30 September, the Iraqis had managed to clear the Iranians from the outskirts of the city.", "The next day, the Iraqis launched infantry and armoured attacks into the city.", "After heavy house-to-house fighting, the Iraqis were repelled.", "On 14 October, the Iraqis launched a second offensive.", "The Iranians initiated a controlled withdrawal from the city, street by street.", "By 24 October, most of the city was captured, and the Iranians evacuated across the Karun River.", "Some partisans remained, and fighting continued until 10 November.====Iraqi advance stalls====Fighting during the leftThough Khorramshahr was captured, the battle had delayed the Iraqis enough to allow the large-scale deployment of the Iranian military.", "In November, Saddam ordered his forces to advance towards Dezful and Ahvaz, and lay sieges to both cities.", "However, the Iraqi offensive had been badly damaged by Iranian militias and air power.", "Iran's air force had destroyed Iraq's army supply depots and fuel supplies, and was strangling Iraq through an aerial siege.Iran's supplies had not been exhausted, despite sanctions, and the military often cannibalised spare parts from other equipment and began searching for parts on the black market.", "On 28 November, Iran launched Operation Morvarid (Pearl), a combined air and sea attack which destroyed 80% of Iraq's navy and all of its radar sites in the southern portion of the country.", "When Iraq laid siege to Abadan and dug its troops in around the city, it was unable to blockade the port, which allowed Iran to resupply Abadan by sea.Iraq's strategic reserves had been depleted, and by now it lacked the power to go on any major offensives until nearly the end of the war.", "On 7 December, Hussein announced that Iraq was going on the defensive.", "By the end of 1980, Iraq had destroyed about 500 Western-built Iranian tanks and captured 100 others.===1981: Stalemate===For the next eight months, both sides were on a defensive footing, with the exception of the Battle of Dezful, as the Iranians needed more time to reorganise their forces after the damage inflicted by the purge of 1979–80.During this period, fighting consisted mainly of artillery duels and raids.", "Iraq had mobilised 21 divisions for the invasion, while Iran countered with only 13 regular army divisions and one brigade.", "Of the regular divisions, only seven were deployed to the border.", "The war bogged down into World War I-style trench warfare with tanks and modern late-20th century weapons.", "Due to the power of anti-tank weapons such as the RPG-7, armored manoeuvre by the Iraqis was very costly, and they consequently entrenched their tanks into static positions.Iraq also began firing Scud missiles into Dezful and Ahvaz, and used terror bombing to bring the war to the Iranian civilian population.", "Iran launched dozens of \"human wave assaults\".====Battle of Dezful====Abulhassan Banisadr during a visit to the frontlinesOn 5 January 1981, Iran had reorganised its forces enough to launch a large-scale offensive, Operation Nasr (Victory).", "The Iranians launched their major armoured offensive from Dezful in the direction of Susangerd, consisting of tank brigades from the 16th ''Qazvin'', 77th ''Khorasan'', and 92nd Khuzestan Armoured Divisions, and broke through Iraqi lines.", "However, the Iranian tanks had raced through Iraqi lines with their flanks unprotected and with no infantry support; as a result, they were cut off by Iraqi tanks.In the ensuing Battle of Dezful, the Iranian armoured divisions were nearly wiped out in one of the biggest tank battles of the war.", "When the Iranian tanks tried to manoeuvre, they became stuck in the mud of the marshes, and many tanks were abandoned.", "The Iraqis lost 45 T-55 and T-62 tanks, while the Iranians lost 100–200 Chieftain and M-60 tanks.", "Reporters counted roughly 150 destroyed or deserted Iranian tanks, and also 40 Iraqi tanks.", "141 Iranians were killed during the battle.The battle had been ordered by Iranian president Abulhassan Banisadr, who was hoping that a victory might shore up his deteriorating political position; instead, the failure hastened his fall.", "Many of Iran's problems took place because of political infighting between President Banisadr, who supported the regular army, and the hardliners who supported the IRGC.", "Once he was impeached and the competition ended, the performance of the Iranian military improved.", "The Islamic Republic government in Iran was further distracted by internal fighting between the regime and the Mujahedin e-Khalq (MEK) on the streets of Iran's major cities in June 1981 and again in September.", "In 1983, the MEK started an alliance with Iraq following a meeting between MEK leader Massoud Rajavi and Iraqi Deputy Prime minister Tariq Aziz.In 1984 Banisadr left the coalition because of a dispute with Rajavi.", "In 1986, Rajavi moved from Paris to Iraq and set up a base on the Iranian border.", "The Battle of Dezful became a critical battle in Iranian military thinking.", "Less emphasis was placed on the Army with its conventional tactics, and more emphasis was placed on the Revolutionary Guard with its unconventional tactics.====Attack on H3====surprise attack on H-3 airbase is considered to be one of the most sophisticated air operations of the war.|rightThe Iraqi Air Force, badly damaged by the Iranians, was moved to the H-3 Airbase in Western Iraq, near the Jordanian border and away from Iran.", "However, on 3 April 1981, the Iranian air force used eight F-4 Phantom fighter bombers, four F-14 Tomcats, three Boeing 707 refuelling tankers, and one Boeing 747 command plane to launch a surprise attack on H3, destroying 27–50 Iraqi fighter jets and bombers.Despite the successful H-3 airbase attack (in addition to other air attacks), the Iranian Air Force was forced to cancel its successful 180-day air offensive.", "In addition, they abandoned their attempted control of Iranian airspace.", "They had been seriously weakened by sanctions and pre-war purges and further damaged by a fresh purge after the impeachment crisis of President Banisadr.", "The Iranian Air Force could not survive further attrition, and decided to limit their losses, abandoning efforts to control Iranian airspace.", "The Iranian air force would henceforth fight on the defensive, trying to deter the Iraqis rather than engaging them.", "While throughout 1981–1982 the Iraqi air force would remain weak, within the next few years they would rearm and expand again, and begin to regain the strategic initiative.====Introduction of human wave attacks====The Iranians suffered from a shortage of heavy weapons, but had a large number of devoted volunteer troops, so they began using human wave attacks against the Iraqis.", "Typically, an Iranian assault would commence with poorly trained Basij who would launch the primary human wave assaults to swamp the weakest portions of the Iraqi lines en masse (on some occasions even bodily clearing minefields).", "This would be followed up by the more experienced Revolutionary Guard infantry, who would breach the weakened Iraqi lines, and followed up by the regular army using mechanized forces, who would maneuver through the breach and attempt to encircle and defeat the enemy.IV bagAccording to historian Stephen C. Pelletiere, the idea of Iranian \"human wave attacks\" was a misconception.", "Instead, the Iranian tactics consisted of using groups of 22-man infantry squads, which moved forward to attack specific objectives.", "As the squads surged forward to execute their missions, that gave the impression of a \"human wave attack\".", "Nevertheless, the idea of \"human wave attacks\" remained virtually synonymous with any large-scale infantry frontal assault Iran carried out.", "Large numbers of troops would be used, aimed at overwhelming the Iraqi lines (usually the weakest portion, typically manned by the Iraqi Popular Army), regardless of losses.According to the former Iraqi general Ra'ad al-Hamdani, the Iranian human wave charges consisted of armed \"civilians\" who carried most of their necessary equipment themselves into battle and often lacked command and control and logistics.", "Operations were often carried out during the night and deception operations, infiltrations, and maneuvers became more common.", "The Iranians would also reinforce the infiltrating forces with new units to keep up their momentum.", "Once a weak point was found, the Iranians would concentrate all of their forces into that area in an attempt to break through with human wave attacks.The human wave attacks, while extremely bloody (tens of thousands of troops died in the process), when used in combination with infiltration and surprise, caused major Iraqi defeats.", "As the Iraqis would dig in their tanks and infantry into static, entrenched positions, the Iranians would manage to break through the lines and encircle entire divisions.", "Merely the fact that the Iranian forces used maneuver warfare by their light infantry against static Iraqi defenses was often the decisive factor in battle.", "However, lack of coordination between the Iranian Army and IRGC and shortages of heavy weaponry played a detrimental role, often with most of the infantry not being supported by artillery and armor.====Operation Eighth-Imam====After the Iraqi offensive stalled in March 1981, there was little change in the front other than Iran retaking the high ground above Susangerd in May.", "By late 1981, Iran returned to the offensive and launched a new operation (Operation Samen-ol-A'emeh (The Eighth Imam)), ending the Iraqi Siege of Abadan on 27–29 September 1981.The Iranians used a combined force of regular army artillery with small groups of armor, supported by Pasdaran (IRGC) and Basij infantry.", "On 15 October, after breaking the siege, a large Iranian convoy was ambushed by Iraqi tanks, and during the ensuing tank battle Iran lost 20 Chieftains and other armored vehicles and withdrew from the previously gained territory.====Operation Tariq al-Quds====On 29 November 1981, Iran began Operation Tariq al-Quds with three army brigades and seven Revolutionary Guard brigades.", "The Iraqis failed to properly patrol their occupied areas, and the Iranians constructed a road through the unguarded sand dunes, launching their attack from the Iraqi rear.", "The town of Bostan was retaken from Iraqi divisions by 7 December.", "By this time the Iraqi Army was experiencing serious morale problems, compounded by the fact that Operation Tariq al-Quds marked the first use of Iranian \"human wave\" tactics, where the Revolutionary Guard light infantry repeatedly charged at Iraqi positions, oftentimes without the support of armour or air power.", "The fall of Bostan exacerbated the Iraqis' logistical problems, forcing them to use a roundabout route from Ahvaz to the south to resupply their troops.", "6,000 Iranians and over 2,000 Iraqis were killed in the operation.===1982: Iraqi retreat, Iranian offensive===Iranian rightThe Iraqis, realising that the Iranians were planning to attack, decided to preempt them with Operation al-Fawz al-'Azim (Supreme Success) on 19 March.", "Using a large number of tanks, helicopters, and fighter jets, they attacked the Iranian buildup around the Roghabiyeh pass.", "Though Saddam and his generals assumed they had succeeded, in reality the Iranian forces remained fully intact.", "The Iranians had concentrated much of their forces by bringing them directly from the cities and towns throughout Iran via trains, buses, and private cars.", "The concentration of forces did not resemble a traditional military buildup, and although the Iraqis detected a population buildup near the front, they failed to realize that this was an attacking force.", "As a result, Saddam's army was unprepared for the Iranian offensives to come.====Operation Fath ol-Mobin====Iran's next major offensive, led by then Colonel Ali Sayad Shirazi, was Operation Fath ol-Mobin.", "On 22 March 1982, Iran launched an attack which took the Iraqi forces by surprise: using Chinook helicopters, they landed behind Iraqi lines, silenced their artillery, and captured an Iraqi headquarters.The Revolutionary Guard and regular army followed up by surrounding the Iraqi 9th and 10th Armoured and 1st Mechanised Divisions that had camped close to the Iranian town of Shush.", "The Iraqis launched a counter-attack using their 12th Armoured division to break the encirclement and rescue the surrounded divisions.", "Iraqi tanks came under attack by 95 Iranian F-4 Phantom and F-5 Tiger fighter jets, destroying much of the division.Operation Fath ol-Mobin was an Iranian victory; Iraqi forces were driven away from Shush, Dezful and Ahvaz.", "The Iranian armed forces destroyed 320–400 Iraqi tanks and armored vehicles in a costly success.", "In just the first day of the battle, the Iranians lost 196 tanks.", "By this time, most of the Khuzestan province had been recaptured.====Operation Beit ol-Moqaddas====Iraqi T-62 tank wreckage in Khuzestan Province, IranIn preparation for Operation Beit ol-Moqaddas, the Iranians had launched numerous air raids against Iraq air bases, destroying 47 jets (including Iraq's brand new Mirage F-1 fighter jets from France); this gave the Iranians air superiority over the battlefield while allowing them to monitor Iraqi troop movements.On 29 April, Iran launched the offensive.", "70,000 Revolutionary Guard and Basij members struck on several axes—Bostan, Susangerd, the west bank of the Karun River, and Ahvaz.", "The Basij launched human wave attacks, which were followed up by the regular army and Revolutionary Guard support along with tanks and helicopters.", "Under heavy Iranian pressure, the Iraqi forces retreated.", "By 12 May, Iran had driven out all Iraqi forces from the Susangerd area.", "The Iranians captured several thousand Iraqi troops and a large number of tanks.The Iraqis retreated to the Karun River, with only Khorramshahr and a few outlying areas remaining in their possession.", "Saddam ordered 70,000 troops to be placed around the city of Khorramshahr.", "The Iraqis created a hastily constructed defence line around the city and outlying areas.", "To discourage airborne commando landings, the Iraqis also placed metal spikes and destroyed cars in areas likely to be used as troop landing zones.", "Saddam Hussein even visited Khorramshahr in a dramatic gesture, swearing that the city would never be relinquished.", "However, Khorramshahr's only resupply point was across the Shatt al-Arab, and the Iranian air force began bombing the supply bridges to the city, while their artillery zeroed in on the besieged garrison.=====Second Battle of Khorramshahr=====Liberation of KhorramshahrIn the early morning hours of 23 May 1982, the Iranians began the drive towards Khorramshahr across the Karun River.", "This part of Operation Beit ol-Moqaddas was spearheaded by the 77th Khorasan division with tanks along with the Revolutionary Guard and Basij.", "The Iranians hit the Iraqis with destructive air strikes and massive artillery barrages, crossed the Karun River, captured bridgeheads, and launched human wave attacks towards the city.", "Saddam's defensive barricade collapsed; in less than 48 hours of fighting, the city fell and 19,000 Iraqis surrendered to the Iranians.", "A total of 10,000 Iraqis were killed or wounded in Khorramshahr, while the Iranians suffered 30,000 casualties.", "During the whole of Operation Beit ol-Moqaddas, 33,000 Iraqi soldiers were captured by the Iranians.====State of Iraqi armed forces====The fighting had battered the Iraqi military: its strength fell from 210,000 to 150,000 troops; over 20,000 Iraqi soldiers were killed and over 30,000 captured; two out of four active armoured divisions and at least three mechanised divisions fell to less than a brigade's strength; and the Iranians had captured over 450 tanks and armoured personnel carriers.The Iraqi Air Force was also left in poor shape: after losing up to 55 aircraft since early December 1981, they had only 100 intact fighter-bombers and interceptors.", "A defector who flew his MiG-21 to Syria in June 1982 revealed that the Iraqi Air Force had only three squadrons of fighter-bombers capable of mounting operations into Iran.", "The Iraqi Army Air Corps was in slightly better shape, and could still operate more than 70 helicopters.", "Despite this, the Iraqis still held 3,000 tanks, while Iran held 1,000.At this point, Saddam believed that his army was too demoralised and damaged to hold onto Khuzestan and major swathes of Iranian territory, and withdrew his remaining forces, redeploying them in defence along the border.", "However, his troops continued to occupy some key Iranian border areas of Iran, including the disputed territories that prompted his invasion, notably the Shatt al-Arab waterway.", "In response to their failures against the Iranians in Khorramshahr, Saddam ordered the executions of Generals Juwad Shitnah and Salah al-Qadhi and Colonels Masa and al-Jalil.", "At least a dozen other high-ranking officers were also executed during this time.", "This became an increasingly common punishment for those who failed him in battle.===Early international response===In April 1982, the rival Ba'athist regime in Syria, one of the few nations that supported Iran, closed the Kirkuk–Baniyas pipeline that had allowed Iraqi oil to reach tankers on the Mediterranean, reducing the Iraqi budget by $5 billion per month.", "Journalist Patrick Brogan wrote, \"It appeared for a while that Iraq would be strangled economically before it was defeated militarily.\"", "Syria's closure of the Kirkuk–Baniyas pipeline left Iraq with the pipeline to Turkey as the only means of exporting oil, along with transporting oil by tanker truck to the port of Aqaba in Jordan.The Turkish pipeline had a capacity of only , which was insufficient to pay for the war.", "Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the other Gulf states saved Iraq from bankruptcy by providing it with $37–60 billion in loans.", "Though Iraq had previously been hostile towards other Gulf states, \"the threat of Persian fundamentalism was far more feared.\"", "They were especially inclined to fear Iranian victory after Ayatollah Khomeini declared monarchies to be illegitimate and an un-Islamic form of government.", "Khomeini's statement was widely received as a call to overthrow the Gulf monarchies.", "Journalists John Bulloch and Harvey Morris wrote:The virulent Iranian campaign, which at its peak seemed to be making the overthrow of the Saudi regime a war aim on a par with the defeat of Iraq, did have an effect on the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, but not the one the Iranians wanted: instead of becoming more conciliatory, the Saudis became tougher, more self-confident, and less prone to seek compromise.Saudi Arabia was said to provide Iraq with $1 billion per month starting in mid-1982.Iraq began receiving support from the United States and west European countries as well.", "Saddam was given diplomatic, monetary, and military support by the United States, including massive loans, political influence, and intelligence on Iranian deployments gathered by American spy satellites.", "The Iraqis relied heavily on American satellite footage and radar planes to detect Iranian troop movements, and they enabled Iraq to move troops to the site before the battle.With Iranian success on the battlefield, the United States increased its support of the Iraqi government, supplying intelligence, economic aid, and dual-use equipment and vehicles, as well as normalizing its intergovernmental relations (which had been broken during the 1967 Six-Day War).", "President Ronald Reagan decided that the United States \"could not afford to allow Iraq to lose the war to Iran\", and that the United States \"would do whatever was necessary to prevent Iraq from losing\".", "In March 1982, Reagan signed National Security Study Memorandum (NSSM) 4-82—seeking \"a review of U.S. policy toward the Middle East\"—and in June Reagan signed a National Security Decision Directive (NSDD) co-written by NSC official Howard Teicher, which determined: \"The United States could not afford to allow Iraq to lose the war to Iran.", "\"In 1982, Reagan removed Iraq from the list of countries \"supporting terrorism\" and sold weapons such as howitzers to Iraq via Jordan.", "France sold Iraq millions of dollars worth of weapons, including Gazelle helicopters, Mirage F-1 fighters, and Exocet missiles.", "Both the United States and West Germany sold Iraq dual-use pesticides and poisons that would be used to create chemical weapons.Iran did not have the money to purchase arms to the same extent as Iraq did.", "They counted on China, North Korea, Libya, Syria, and Japan for supplying anything from weapons and munitions to logistical and engineering equipment.====Ceasefire proposal====On 20 June 1982, Saddam announced that he wanted to sue for peace and proposed an immediate ceasefire and withdrawal from Iranian territory within two weeks.", "Khomeini responded by saying the war would not end until a new government was installed in Iraq and reparations paid.", "He proclaimed that Iran would invade Iraq and would not stop until the Ba'ath regime was replaced by an Islamic republic.", "Iran supported a government in exile for Iraq, the Supreme Council of the Islamic Revolution in Iraq, led by exiled Iraqi cleric Mohammad Baqer al-Hakim, which was dedicated to overthrowing the Ba'ath party.", "They recruited POWs, dissidents, exiles, and Shias to join the Badr Brigade, the military wing of the organisation.The decision to invade Iraq was taken after much debate within the Iranian government.", "One faction, comprising Prime Minister Mir-Hossein Mousavi, Foreign Minister Ali Akbar Velayati, President Ali Khamenei, Army Chief of Staff General Ali Sayad Shirazi as well as Major General Qasem-Ali Zahirnejad, wanted to accept the ceasefire, as most of Iranian soil had been recaptured.", "In particular, General Shirazi and Zahirnejad were both opposed to the invasion of Iraq on logistical grounds, and stated they would consider resigning if \"unqualified people continued to meddle with the conduct of the war\".", "Of the opposing view was a hardline faction led by the clerics on the Supreme Defence Council, whose leader was the politically powerful speaker of the ''Majlis'', Akbar Rafsanjani.Iran also hoped that its attacks would ignite a revolt against Saddam's rule by the Shia and Kurdish population of Iraq, possibly resulting in his downfall.", "It was successful in doing so with the Kurdish population, but not the Shia.", "Iran had captured large quantities of Iraqi equipment, enough to create several tank battalions, Iran once again had 1,000 tanks, and also managed to clandestinely procure spare parts as well, including those pertaining to the F-14 Tomcat.At a cabinet meeting in Baghdad, Minister of Health Riyadh Ibrahim Hussein suggested that Saddam could step down temporarily as a way of easing Iran towards a ceasefire, and then afterwards would come back to power.", "Saddam, annoyed, asked if anyone else in the Cabinet agreed with the Health Minister's idea.", "When no one raised their hand in support, he escorted Riyadh Hussein to the next room, closed the door, and shot him with his pistol.===Iran invades Iraq and Iraqi tactics in response===An admonitory declaration issued from the Iraqi government in order to warn Iranian troops in the Iran–Iraq War.", "The statement says: \"Hey Iranians!", "No one has been downtrodden in the country where Ali ibn Abi Ṭālib, Husayn ibn Ali and Abbas ibn Ali are buried.", "Iraq has undoubtedly been an honorable country.", "All refugees are precious.", "Anyone who wants to live in exile can choose Iraq freely.", "We, the Sons of Iraq, have been ambushing foreign aggressors.", "The enemies who plan to assault Iraq will be disfavoured by God in this world and the hereafter.", "Be careful of attacking Iraq and Ali ibn Abi Ṭālib!", "If you surrender, you might be in peace.", "\"For the most part, Iraq remained on the defensive for the next five years, unable and unwilling to launch any major offensives, while Iran launched more than 70 offensives.", "Iraq's strategy changed from holding territory in Iran to denying Iran any major gains in Iraq, as well as holding onto disputed territories along the border.", "Saddam began a policy of total war, gearing most of his country towards defending against Iran.", "By 1988, Iraq was spending 40–75% of its GDP on military equipment.", "Saddam had also more than doubled the size of the Iraqi army, from 200,000 soldiers (12 divisions and three independent brigades) to 500,000 (23 divisions and nine brigades).", "Iraq also began launching air raids against Iranian border cities, greatly increasing the practice by 1984.By the end of 1982, Iraq had been resupplied with new Soviet and Chinese materiel, and the ground war entered a new phase.", "Iraq used newly acquired T-55, T-62 and T-72 tanks, as well as Chinese copies, BM-21 truck-mounted rocket launchers, and Mi-24 helicopter gunships to prepare a Soviet-type three-line defence, replete with obstacles such as barbed wire, minefields, fortified positions and bunkers.", "The Combat Engineer Corps built bridges across water obstacles, laid minefields, erected earthen revetments, dug trenches, built machine gun nests, and prepared new defence lines and fortifications.Iraq began to focus on using defense in depth to defeat the Iranians.", "Iraq created multiple static defense lines to bleed the Iranians through sheer size.", "When faced against large Iranian attack, where human waves would overrun Iraq's forward entrenched infantry defences, the Iraqis would often retreat, but their static defences would bleed the Iranians and channel them into certain directions, drawing them into traps or pockets.", "Iraqi air and artillery attacks would then pin the Iranians down, while tanks and mechanised infantry attacks using mobile warfare would push them back.Sometimes, the Iraqis would launch \"probing attacks\" into the Iranian lines to provoke them into launching their attacks sooner.", "While Iranian human wave attacks were successful against the dug-in Iraqi forces in Khuzestan, they had trouble breaking through Iraq's defense in depth lines.", "Iraq had a logistical advantage in their defence: the front was located near the main Iraqi bases and arms depots, allowing their army to be efficiently supplied.", "By contrast, the front in Iran was a considerable distance away from the main Iranian bases and arms depots, and as such, Iranian troops and supplies had to travel through mountain ranges before arriving at the front.Iran's military power was weakened once again by large purges in 1982, resulting from another supposedly attempted coup.====Operation Ramadan (First Battle of Basra)====The Iranian generals wanted to launch an all-out attack on Baghdad and seize it while the Iranian army's supplies allowed for such an offensive.", "This was rejected as being impracticable and the decision was made to capture one area of Iraq after the other, with the hope that this would force Iraq to withdraw from disputed border territories and begin negotiations to end the war.On 13 July 1982, Iran began their attack in southern Iraq, near Basra.", "Called Operation Ramadan, it involved over 180,000 troops from both sides, and was one of the largest land battles since World War II.", "Iranian strategy dictated that they launch their primary attack on the weakest point of the Iraqi lines.", "However, the Iraqis were informed of Iran's battle plans and moved all of their forces to the area the Iranians planned to attack.", "The Iraqis were equipped with tear gas to use against the enemy, which was the first major use of chemical warfare during the conflict, throwing an entire attacking division into chaos.95,000 Iranian child soldiers were casualties during the Iran–Iraq War, mostly between the ages of 16 and 17, with a few younger.Over 100,000 Revolutionary Guards and Basij volunteer forces charged towards the Iraqi lines.", "The Iraqi troops had entrenched themselves in formidable defenses, and had set up a network of bunkers and artillery positions.", "The Basij used human waves, and were even used to bodily clear the Iraqi minefields and allow the Revolutionary Guards to advance.", "Combatants came so close to one another that Iranians were able to board Iraqi tanks and throw grenades inside the hulls.", "By the eighth day, the Iranians had gained inside Iraq and had taken several causeways.", "Iran's Revolutionary Guards also used the T-55 tanks they had captured in earlier battles.The attacks came to a halt and the Iranians turned to defensive measures.", "Seeing this, Iraq used their Mi-25 helicopters, along with Gazelle helicopters armed with Euromissile HOT, against columns of Iranian mechanised infantry and tanks.", "These \"hunter-killer\" teams of helicopters, which had been formed with the help of East German advisors, proved very costly for the Iranians.", "Aerial dogfights occurred between Iraqi MiGs and Iranian F-4 Phantoms.On 16 July, Iran tried again further north and managed to push the Iraqis back.", "Only from Basra, the poorly equipped Iranian forces were surrounded on three sides by Iraqis with heavy weaponry.", "Some were captured, while many were killed.", "Only a last-minute attack by Iranian AH-1 Cobra helicopters stopped the Iraqis from routing the Iranians.", "Three more similar attacks occurred around the Khorramshahr-Baghdad road area towards the end of the month, but none were significantly successful.Iraq had concentrated three armoured divisions, the 3rd, 9th, and 10th, as a counter-attack force to attack any penetrations.", "They were successful in defeating the Iranian breakthroughs, but suffered heavy losses.", "The 9th Armoured Division in particular had to be disbanded, and was never reformed.", "The total casualty toll had grown to include 80,000 soldiers and civilians.", "400 Iranian tanks and armored vehicles were destroyed or abandoned, while Iraq lost at least 370 tanks.====Final operations of 1982====After Iran's failure in Operation Ramadan, they carried out only a few smaller attacks.", "Iran launched two limited offensives aimed at reclaiming the Sumar Hills and isolating the Iraqi pocket at Naft shahr at the international border, both of which were part of the disputed territories still under Iraqi occupation.", "They then aimed to capture the Iraqi border town of Mandali.", "They planned to take the Iraqis by surprise using Basij militiamen, army helicopters, and some armoured forces, then stretch their defences and possibly break through them to open a road to Baghdad for future exploitation.During Operation Muslim ibn Aqil (1–7 October), Iran recovered of disputed territory straddling the international border and reached the outskirts of Mandali before being stopped by Iraqi helicopter and armoured attacks.", "During Operation Muharram (1–21 November), the Iranians captured part of the Bayat oilfield with the help of their fighter jets and helicopters, destroying 105 Iraqi tanks, 70 APCs, and 7 planes with few losses.", "They nearly breached the Iraqi lines but failed to capture Mandali after the Iraqis sent reinforcements, including brand new T-72 tanks, which possessed armour that could not be pierced from the front by Iranian TOW missiles.", "The Iranian advance was also impeded by heavy rains.", "3,500 Iraqis and an unknown number of Iranians died, with only minor gains for Iran.===1983–84: Stalemate and war of attrition===The furthest ground gains made by both sides during the warAfter the failure of the 1982 summer offensives, Iran believed that a major effort along the entire breadth of the front would yield victory.", "In 1983, the Iranians launched five major assaults along the front.", "None achieved substantial success, as the Iranians staged more massive \"human wave\" attacks.", "By this time, it was estimated that no more than 70 Iranian fighter aircraft were still operational at any given time.", "Iran had its own helicopter repair facilities, left over from before the revolution, and often used helicopters for close air support.Iranian fighter pilots had superior training compared to their Iraqi counterparts, as most had received training from US officers before the 1979 revolution, and continued to dominate in combat.", "However, aircraft shortages, the size of defended territory/airspace, and American intelligence supplied to Iraq allowed the Iraqis to exploit gaps in Iranian airspace.", "Iraqi air campaigns met little opposition, striking over half of Iran, as the Iraqis were able to gain air superiority towards the end of the war.====Operation Before the Dawn====In Operation Before the Dawn, launched 6 February 1983, the Iranians shifted focus from the southern to the central and northern sectors.", "Employing 200,000 \"last reserve\" Revolutionary Guard troops, Iran attacked along a stretch near al-Amarah, Iraq, about southeast of Baghdad, in an attempt to reach the highways connecting northern and southern Iraq.", "The attack was stalled by of hilly escarpments, forests, and river torrents blanketing the way to al-Amarah, but the Iraqis could not force the Iranians back.", "Iran directed artillery on Basra, Al Amarah, and Mandali.The Iranians suffered a large number of casualties clearing minefields and breaching Iraqi anti-tank mines, which Iraqi engineers were unable to replace.", "After this battle, Iran reduced its use of human wave attacks, though they still remained a key tactic as the war went on.Further Iranian attacks were mounted in the Mandali–Baghdad north-central sector in April 1983, but were repelled by Iraqi mechanised and infantry divisions.", "Casualties were high, and by the end of 1983, an estimated 120,000 Iranians and 60,000 Iraqis had been killed.", "Iran held the advantage in the war of attrition.", "In 1983, Iran had an estimated population of 43.6 million to Iraq's 14.8 million, and the discrepancy continued to grow throughout the war.====Dawn Operations====From early 1983–1984, Iran launched a series of four ''Valfajr'' (Dawn) Operations, that eventually numbered to 10.During Operation Dawn-1, in early February 1983, 50,000 Iranian forces attacked westward from Dezful and were confronted by 55,000 Iraqi forces.", "The Iranian objective was to cut off the road from Basra to Baghdad in the central sector.", "The Iraqis carried out 150 air sorties against the Iranians, and even bombed Dezful, Ahvaz, and Khorramshahr in retribution.", "The Iraqi counterattack was broken up by Iran's 92nd Armoured Division.POWs in 1983 near Tikrit, IraqDuring Operation Dawn-2, the Iranians directed insurgency operations by proxy in April 1983 by supporting the Kurds in the north.", "With Kurdish support, the Iranians attacked on 23 July 1983, capturing the Iraqi town of Haj Omran and maintaining it against an Iraqi poison gas counteroffensive.", "This operation incited Iraq to later conduct indiscriminate chemical attacks against the Kurds.", "The Iranians attempted to further exploit activities in the north on 30 July 1983, during Operation Dawn-3.Iran saw an opportunity to sweep away Iraqi forces controlling the roads between the Iranian mountain border towns of Mehran, Dehloran and Elam.", "Iraq launched airstrikes, and equipped attack helicopters with chemical warheads.", "While ineffective, it demonstrated both the Iraqi general staff's and Saddam's increasing interest in using chemical weapons.", "In the end, 17,000 had been killed on both sides, with no gain for either country.The focus of Operation Dawn-4 in September 1983 was the northern sector in Iranian Kurdistan.", "Three Iranian regular divisions, the Revolutionary Guard, and Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) elements amassed in Marivan and Sardasht in a move to threaten the major Iraqi city Suleimaniyah.", "Iran's strategy was to press Kurdish tribes to occupy the Banjuin Valley, which was within of Suleimaniyah and from the oilfields of Kirkuk.", "To stem the tide, Iraq deployed Mi-8 attack helicopters equipped with chemical weapons and executed 120 sorties against the Iranian force, which stopped them into Iraqi territory.5,000 Iranians and 2,500 Iraqis died.", "Iran gained of its territory back in the north, gained of Iraqi land, and captured 1,800 Iraqi prisoners while Iraq abandoned large quantities of valuable weapons and war materiel in the field.", "Iraq responded to these losses by firing a series of SCUD-B missiles into the cities of Dezful, Masjid Soleiman, and Behbehan.", "Iran's use of artillery against Basra while the battles in the north raged created multiple fronts, which effectively confused and wore down Iraq.====Iran's change in tactics====Previously, the Iranians had outnumbered the Iraqis on the battlefield, but Iraq expanded their military draft, pursuing a policy of total war, and by 1984, the armies were equal in size.", "By 1986, Iraq had twice as many soldiers as Iran.", "By 1988, Iraq had 1 million soldiers, giving it the fourth largest army in the world.", "Some of its equipment, such as tanks, outnumbered Iran's by at least five to one.", "Iranian commanders, however, remained more tactically skilled.After the Dawn Operations, Iran attempted to change tactics.", "In the face of increasing Iraqi defense in depth, as well as increased armaments and manpower, Iran could no longer rely on simple human wave attacks.", "Iranian offensives became more complex and involved extensive maneuver warfare using primarily light infantry.", "Iran launched frequent, and sometimes smaller offensives to slowly gain ground and deplete the Iraqis through attrition.", "They wanted to drive Iraq into economic failure by wasting money on weapons and war mobilization, and to deplete their smaller population by bleeding them dry, in addition to creating an anti-government insurgency.", "They were successful in Kurdistan, but not southern Iraq.Iran supported their attacks with heavy weaponry when possible and with better planning, although the brunt of the battles still fell to the infantry.", "The Army and Revolutionary Guards worked together better as their tactics improved.", "Human wave attacks became less frequent, although were still used.", "To negate the Iraqi advantage of defense in depth, static positions, and heavy firepower, Iran began to focus on fighting in areas where the Iraqis could not use their heavy weaponry, such as marshes, valleys, and mountains, and frequently using infiltration tactics.Iran began training troops in infiltration, patrolling, night-fighting, marsh warfare, and mountain warfare.", "They began training thousands of Revolutionary Guard commandos in amphibious warfare, as southern Iraq is marshy and filled with wetlands.", "Iran used speedboats to cross the marshes and rivers in southern Iraq and landed troops on the opposing banks, where they would dig and set up pontoon bridges across the rivers and wetlands to allow heavy troops and supplies to cross.", "Iran also learned to integrate foreign guerrilla units as part of their military operations.", "On the northern front, Iran began working heavily with the Peshmerga, Kurdish guerrillas.", "Iranian military advisors organised the Kurds into raiding parties of 12 guerrillas, which would attack Iraqi command posts, troop formations, infrastructure, including roads and supply lines, and government buildings.", "The oil refineries of Kirkuk became a favourite target, and were often hit by homemade Peshmerga rockets.====Battle of the Marshes====An Iraqi POW who was shot by Iranian troops after they conquered the Iraqi Majnoon oil field in October 1984By 1984, the Iranian ground forces were reorganised well enough for the Revolutionary Guard to start Operation Kheibar, which lasted from 24 February to 19 March.", "On 15 February 1984, the Iranians began launching attacks against the central section of the front, where the Second Iraqi Army Corps was deployed: 250,000 Iraqis faced 250,000 Iranians.", "The goal of this new major offensive was the capture of Basra-Baghdad Highway, cutting off Basra from Baghdad and setting the stage for an eventual attack upon the city.", "The Iraqi high command had assumed that the marshlands above Basra were natural barriers to attack, and had not reinforced them.", "The marshes negated Iraqi advantage in armor, and absorbed artillery rounds and bombs.", "Prior to the attack, Iranian commandos on helicopters had landed behind Iraqi lines and destroyed Iraqi artillery.", "Iran launched two preliminary attacks prior to the main offensive, Operation Dawn 5 and Dawn 6.Operation Kheibar began on 24 February with Iranian infantrymen crossing the Hawizeh Marshes using motorboats and transport helicopters in an amphibious assault.", "The Iranians attacked the vital oil-producing Majnoon Island by landing troops via helicopters onto the islands and severing the communication lines between Amareh and Basra.", "They then continued the attack towards Qurna.", "By 27 February, they had captured the island, but suffered catastrophic helicopter losses to the IrAF.", "On that day, a massive array of Iranian helicopters transporting Pasdaran troops were intercepted by Iraqi combat aircraft (MiGs, Mirages and Sukhois).", "In what was essentially an aerial slaughter, Iraqi jets shot down 49 of the 50 Iranian helicopters.", "At times, fighting took place in waters over deep.", "Iraq ran live electrical cables through the water, electrocuting numerous Iranian troops and then displaying their corpses on state television.By 29 February, the Iranians had reached the outskirts of Qurna and were closing in on the Baghdad–Basra highway.", "They had broken out of the marshes and returned to open terrain, where they were confronted by conventional Iraqi weapons, including artillery, tanks, air power, and mustard gas.", "1,200 Iranian soldiers were killed in the counter-attack.", "The Iranians retreated back to the marshes, though they still held onto them along with Majnoon Island.Iranian troops firing a 152mm D-20 howitzerThe Battle of the Marshes saw an Iraqi defence that had been under continuous strain since 15 February.", "They were relieved by their use of chemical weapons and defence-in-depth, where they layered defensive lines: even if the Iranians broke through the first line, they were usually unable to break through the second due to exhaustion and heavy losses.", "They largely relied on Mi-24 Hind to \"hunt\" the Iranian troops in the marshes.", "At least 20,000 Iranians were killed in the marsh battles.", "Iran used the marshes as a springboard for future attacks/infiltrations.Four years into the war, the human cost to Iran had been 170,000 combat fatalities and 340,000 wounded.", "Iraqi combat fatalities were estimated at 80,000 with 150,000 wounded.===\"Tanker War\" and the \"War of the Cities\"===Unable to launch successful ground attacks against Iran, Iraq used their now expanded air force to carry out strategic bombing against Iranian shipping, economic targets, and cities in order to damage Iran's economy and morale.", "Iraq also wanted to provoke Iran into doing something that would cause the superpowers to be directly involved in the conflict on the Iraqi side.====Attacks on shipping====Operation Earnest Will: Tanker convoy No.", "12 under US Navy escort (21 October 1987)The so-called \"Tanker War\" started when Iraq attacked the oil terminal and oil tankers at Kharg Island in early 1984.Iraq's aim in attacking Iranian shipping was to provoke the Iranians to retaliate with extreme measures, such as closing the Strait of Hormuz to all maritime traffic, thereby bringing American intervention; the United States had threatened several times to intervene if the Strait of Hormuz were closed.", "As a result, the Iranians limited their retaliatory attacks to Iraqi shipping, leaving the strait open to general passage.Iraq declared that all ships going to or from Iranian ports in the northern zone of the Persian Gulf were subject to attack.", "They used F-1 Mirage, Super Etendard, Mig-23, Su-20/22, and Super Frelon helicopters armed with Exocet anti-ship missiles as well as Soviet-made air-to-surface missiles to enforce their threats.", "Iraq repeatedly bombed Iran's main oil export facility on Kharg Island, causing increasingly heavy damage.", "As a first response to these attacks, Iran attacked a Kuwaiti tanker carrying Iraqi oil near Bahrain on 13 May 1984, as well as a Saudi tanker in Saudi waters on 16 May.Because Iraq had become landlocked during the course of the war, they had to rely on their Arab allies, primarily Kuwait, to transport their oil.", "Iran attacked tankers carrying Iraqi oil from Kuwait, later attacking tankers from any Persian Gulf state supporting Iraq.", "Attacks on ships of noncombatant nations in the Persian Gulf sharply increased thereafter, with both nations attacking oil tankers and merchant ships of neutral nations in an effort to deprive their opponent of trade.", "The Iranian attacks against Saudi shipping led to Saudi F-15s shooting down a pair of F-4 Phantom II fighters on 5 June 1984.The air and small-boat attacks did little damage to Persian Gulf state economies, and Iran moved its shipping port to Larak Island in the Strait of Hormuz.The Iranian Navy imposed a naval blockade of Iraq, using its British-built frigates to stop and inspect any ships thought to be trading with Iraq.", "They operated with virtual impunity, as Iraqi pilots had little training in hitting naval targets.", "Some Iranian warships attacked tankers with ship-to-ship missiles, while others used their radars to guide land-based anti-ship missiles to their targets.", "Iran began to rely on its new Revolutionary Guard's navy, which used Boghammar speedboats fitted with rocket launchers and heavy machine guns.", "These speedboats would launch surprise attacks against tankers and cause substantial damage.", "Iran also used F-4 Phantom II fighters and helicopters to launch Maverick missiles and unguided rockets at tankers.A U.S. Navy ship, , was struck on 17 May 1987 by two Exocet anti-ship missiles fired from an Iraqi F-1 Mirage plane.", "The missiles had been fired at about the time the plane was given a routine radio warning by ''Stark''.", "The frigate did not detect the missiles with radar, and warning was given by the lookout only moments before they struck.", "Both missiles hit the ship, and one exploded in crew quarters, killing 37 sailors and wounding 21.Lloyd's of London, a British insurance market, estimated that the Tanker War damaged 546 commercial vessels and killed about 430 civilian sailors.", "The largest portion of the attacks was directed by Iraq against vessels in Iranian waters, with the Iraqis launching three times as many attacks as the Iranians.", "But Iranian speedboat attacks on Kuwaiti shipping led Kuwait to formally petition foreign powers on 1 November 1986 to protect its shipping.", "The Soviet Union agreed to charter tankers starting in 1987, and the United States Navy offered to provide protection for foreign tankers reflagged and flying the U.S. flag starting 7 March 1987 in Operation Earnest Will.", "Neutral tankers shipping to Iran were not protected by Earnest Will, resulting in reduced foreign tanker traffic to Iran, since they risked Iraqi air attack.", "Iran accused the United States of helping Iraq.During the course of the war, Iran attacked two Soviet merchant ships.", "''Seawise Giant'', the largest ship ever built, was struck by Iraqi Exocet missiles as it was carrying Iranian crude oil out of the Persian Gulf.====Attacks on cities====Meanwhile, Iraq's air force also began carrying out strategic bombing raids against Iranian cities.", "While Iraq had launched numerous attacks with aircraft and missiles against border cities from the beginning of the war and sporadic raids on Iran's main cities, this was the first systematic strategic bombing that Iraq carried out during the war.", "This would become known as the \"War of the Cities\".", "With the help of the USSR and the west, Iraq's air force had been rebuilt and expanded.", "Meanwhile, Iran, due to sanctions and lack of spare parts, had heavily curtailed its air force operations.", "Iraq used Tu-22 Blinder and Tu-16 Badger strategic bombers to carry out long-range high-speed raids on Iranian cities, including Tehran.", "Fighter-bombers such as the MiG-25 Foxbat and Su-22 Fitter were used against smaller or shorter range targets, as well as escorting the strategic bombers.", "Civilian and industrial targets were hit by the raids, and each successful raid inflicted economic damage from regular strategic bombing.In response, the Iranians deployed their F-4 Phantoms to combat the Iraqis, and eventually they deployed F-14s as well.", "By 1986, Iran also expanded their air defense network heavily to relieve the pressure on the air force.", "By later in the war, Iraqi air attacks were used only on fewer, more important targets.", "Starting in 1987, Saddam also ordered several chemical attacks on civilian targets in Iran, such as the town of Sardasht.A map indicating the attacks on civilian areas of Iran, Iraq, and Kuwait that were targeted during the \"War of the Cities\"Iran also launched several retaliatory air raids on Iraq, while primarily shelling border cities such as Basra.", "Iran also bought some Scud missiles from Libya, and launched them against Baghdad.", "These too inflicted damage upon Iraq.On 7 February 1984, during the first war of the cities, Saddam ordered his air force to attack eleven Iranian cities; bombardments ceased on 22 February 1984.It was estimated that 1,200 Iranian civilians were killed during the raids in February alone.====Strategic situation in 1984====By 1984, Iran's losses were estimated to be 300,000 soldiers, while Iraq's losses were estimated to be 150,000.Foreign analysts agreed that both Iran and Iraq failed to use their modern equipment properly, and both sides failed to carry out modern military assaults that could win the war.", "Both sides also abandoned equipment in the battlefield because their technicians were unable to carry out repairs.", "Iran and Iraq showed little internal coordination on the battlefield, and in many cases units were left to fight on their own.", "As a result, by the end of 1984, the war was a stalemate.", "One limited offensive Iran launched (Dawn 7) took place from 18 to 25 October 1984, when they recaptured the Iranian city of Mehran, which had been occupied by the Iraqis from the beginning of the war.===1985–86 Iraqi offensives===By 1985, Iraqi armed forces were receiving financial support from Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and other Persian Gulf states, and were making substantial arms purchases from the Soviet Union, China, and France.", "For the first time since early 1980, Saddam launched new offensives.On 6 January 1986, the Iraqis launched an offensive attempting to retake Majnoon Island.", "They were quickly bogged down into a stalemate against 200,000 Iranian infantrymen, reinforced by amphibious divisions.", "However, they managed to gain a foothold in the southern part of the island.Iraq also carried out another \"war of the cities\" between 12 and 14 March, hitting up to 158 targets in over 30 towns and cities, including Tehran.", "Iran responded by launching 14 Scud missiles for the first time, purchased from Libya.", "More Iraqi air attacks were carried out in August, resulting in hundreds of additional civilian casualties.", "Iraqi attacks against both Iranian and neutral oil tankers in Iranian waters continued, with Iraq carrying out 150 airstrikes using French bought Super Etendard and Mirage F-1 jets as well as Super Frelon helicopters, armed with Exocet missiles.====Operation Badr====Iraqi commanders discussing strategies on the battlefront, 1986The Iraqis attacked again on 28 January 1985; they were defeated, and the Iranians retaliated on 11 March 1985 with a major offensive directed against the Baghdad-Basra highway (one of the few major offensives conducted in 1985), codenamed Operation Badr (after the Battle of Badr, Muhammad's first military victory in Mecca).", "Ayatollah Khomeini urged Iranians on, declaring:It is our belief that Saddam wishes to return Islam to blasphemy and polytheism...if America becomes victorious...and grants victory to Saddam, Islam will receive such a blow that it will not be able to raise its head for a long time...The issue is one of Islam versus blasphemy, and not of Iran versus Iraq.This operation was similar to Operation Kheibar, though it invoked more planning.", "Iran used 100,000 troops, with 60,000 more in reserve.", "They assessed the marshy terrain, plotted points where they could land tanks, and constructed pontoon bridges across the marshes.", "The Basij forces were also equipped with anti-tank weapons.The ferocity of the Iranian offensive broke through the Iraqi lines.", "The Revolutionary Guard, with the support of tanks and artillery, broke through north of Qurna on 14 March.", "That same night 3,000 Iranian troops reached and crossed the Tigris River using pontoon bridges and captured part of the Baghdad–Basra Highway 6, which they had failed to achieve in Operations Dawn 5 and 6.Saddam responded by launching chemical attacks against the Iranian positions along the highway and by initiating the aforementioned second \"war of the cities\", with an air and missile campaign against twenty to thirty Iranian population centres, including Tehran.", "Under General Sultan Hashim Ahmad al-Tai and General Jamal Zanoun (both considered to be among Iraq's most skilled commanders), the Iraqis launched air attacks against the Iranian positions and pinned them down.", "They then launched a pincer attack using mechanized infantry and heavy artillery.", "Chemical weapons were used, and the Iraqis also flooded Iranian trenches with specially constructed pipes delivering water from the Tigris River.The Iranians retreated back to the Hoveyzeh marshes while being attacked by helicopters, and the highway was recaptured by the Iraqis.", "Operation Badr resulted in 10,000–12,000 Iraqi casualties and 15,000 Iranian ones.===Iranian counteroffensives===Iranian President Ali Khamenei on the battlefront during the warThe failure of the human wave attacks in earlier years had prompted Iran to develop a better working relationship between the Army and the Revolutionary Guard and to mould the Revolutionary Guard units into a more conventional fighting force.", "To combat Iraq's use of chemical weapons, Iran began producing an antidote.", "They also created and fielded their own homemade drones, the Mohajer 1's, fitted with six RPG-7's to launch attacks.", "They were primarily used in observation, being used for up to 700 sorties.For the rest of 1986, and until the spring of 1988, the Iranian Air Force's efficiency in air defence increased, with weapons being repaired or replaced and new tactical methods being used.", "For example, the Iranians would loosely integrate their SAM Sites and interceptors to create \"killing fields\" in which dozens of Iraqi planes were lost, which was reported in the West as the Iranian Air Force using F-14s as \"mini-AWACs\".", "The Iraqi Air Force reacted by increasing the sophistication of its equipment, incorporating modern electronic countermeasure pods, decoys such as chaff and flare, and anti-radiation missiles.Due to the heavy losses in the last war of the cities, Iraq reduced their use of aerial attacks on Iranian cities.", "Instead, they launched Scud missiles, which the Iranians could not stop.", "Since the range of the Scud missile was too short to reach Tehran, they converted them to al-Husayn missiles with the help of East German engineers, cutting up their Scuds into three chunks and attaching them together.", "Iran responded to these attacks by using their own Scud missiles.Compounding the extensive foreign help to Iraq, Iranian attacks were severely hampered by their shortages of weaponry, particularly heavy weapons as large amounts had been lost during the war.", "Iran still managed to maintain 1,000 tanks, often by capturing Iraqi ones and additional artillery, but many needed repairs to be operational.", "By this time Iran managed to procure spare parts from various sources, helping them to restore some weapons.", "They secretly imported some weapons, such as RBS-70 anti-aircraft MANPADS.", "In an exception to the United States' support for Iraq, in exchange for Iran using its influence to help free western hostages in Lebanon, the United States secretly sold Iran some limited supplies.", "In Akbar Rafsanjani's postwar interview, he stated that during the period when Iran was succeeding, for a short time the United States supported Iran, then shortly after began helping Iraq again.", "Iran managed to get some advanced weapons, such as anti-tank TOW missiles, which worked better than rocket-propelled grenades.", "Iran later reverse-engineered and produced those weapons themselves.", "All of these almost certainly helped increase the effectiveness of Iran, although it did not reduce the human cost of their attacks.====First Battle of al-Faw====Operation Dawn 8 during which Iran captured the Faw PeninsulaOn the night of 10–11 February 1986, the Iranians launched Operation Dawn 8, in which 30,000 troops in five Army divisions and men from the Revolutionary Guard and Basij advanced in a two-pronged offensive to capture the al-Faw peninsula in southern Iraq, the only area touching the Persian Gulf.", "The capture of Al Faw and Umm Qasr was a major goal for Iran.", "Iran began with a feint attack against Basra, which was stopped by the Iraqis.Meanwhile, an amphibious strike force landed at the foot of the peninsula.", "The resistance, consisting of several thousand poorly trained soldiers of the Iraqi Popular Army, fled or were defeated, and the Iranian forces set up pontoon bridges crossing the Shatt al-Arab, allowing 30,000 soldiers to cross in a short period of time.", "They drove north along the peninsula almost unopposed, capturing it after only 24 hours of fighting.", "Afterwards they dug in and set up defenses.The sudden capture of al-Faw shocked the Iraqis, since they had thought it impossible for the Iranians to cross the Shatt al-Arab.", "On 12 February 1986, the Iraqis began a counter-offensive to retake al-Faw, which failed after a week of heavy fighting.", "On 24 February 1986, Saddam sent one of his best commanders, General Maher Abd al-Rashid, and the Republican Guard to begin a new offensive to recapture al-Faw.", "A new round of heavy fighting took place.", "Their attempts again ended in failure, costing them many tanks and aircraft.", "Their 15th mechanised division was almost completely wiped out.", "The capture of al-Faw and the failure of the Iraqi counter-offensives were blows to the Ba'ath regime's prestige, and led the Gulf countries to fear that Iran might win the war.", "Kuwait in particular felt menaced with Iranian troops only away, and increased its support of Iraq accordingly.In March 1986, the Iranians tried to follow up their success by attempting to take Umm Qasr, which would have completely severed Iraq from the Gulf and placed Iranian troops on the border with Kuwait.", "The offensive failed due to Iranian shortages of armor.", "By this time, 17,000 Iraqis and 30,000 Iranians were casualties.", "The First Battle of al-Faw ended in March, but heavy combat operations lasted on the peninsula into 1988, with neither side being able to displace the other.", "The battle bogged down into a World War I-style stalemate in the marshes of the peninsula.====Battle of Mehran====Immediately after the Iranian capture of al-Faw, Saddam declared a new offensive against Iran, designed to drive deep into the state.", "The Iranian border city of Mehran, on the foot of the Zagros Mountains, was selected as the first target.", "On 15–19 May, Iraqi Army's Second Corps, supported by helicopter gunships, attacked and captured the city.", "Saddam then offered to exchange Mehran for al-Faw.", "The Iranians rejected the offer.", "Iraq then continued the attack, attempting to push deeper into Iran.", "Iraq's attack was quickly warded off by Iranian AH-1 Cobra helicopters with TOW missiles, which destroyed numerous Iraqi tanks and vehicles.The Iranians built up their forces on the heights surrounding Mehran.", "On 30 June, using mountain warfare tactics, they launched their attack, recapturing the city by 3 July.", "Saddam ordered the Republican Guard to retake the city on 4 July, but their attack was ineffective.", "Iraqi losses were heavy enough to allow the Iranians to also capture territory inside Iraq, and depleted the Iraqi military enough to prevent them from launching a major offensive for the next two years.", "Iraq's defeats at al-Faw and at Mehran were severe blows to the prestige of the Iraqi regime.", "Western powers, including the US, became more determined to prevent an Iraqi loss.====Situation at the end of 1986====Through the eyes of international observers, Iran was prevailing in the war by the end of 1986.In the northern front, the Iranians began launching attacks toward the city of Suleimaniya with the help of Kurdish fighters, taking the Iraqis by surprise.", "They came within of the city before being stopped by chemical and army attacks.", "Iran's army had also reached the Meimak Hills, only from Baghdad.", "Iraq managed to contain Iran's offensives in the south, but was under serious pressure, as the Iranians were slowly overwhelming them.Iraq responded by launching another \"war of the cities\".", "In one attack, Tehran's main oil refinery was hit, and in another instance, Iraq damaged Iran's Assadabad satellite dish, disrupting Iranian overseas telephone and telex service for almost two weeks.", "Civilian areas were also hit, resulting in many casualties.", "Iraq continued to attack oil tankers via air.", "Iran responded by launching Scud missiles and air attacks at Iraqi targets.Iraq continued to attack Kharg Island and the oil tankers and facilities as well.", "Iran created a tanker shuttle service of 20 tankers to move oil from Kharg to Larak Island, escorted by Iranian fighter jets.", "Once moved to Larak, the oil would be moved to oceangoing tankers, usually neutral.", "They also rebuilt the oil terminals damaged by Iraqi air raids and moved shipping to Larak Island, while attacking foreign tankers that carried Iraqi oil, as Iran had blocked Iraq's access to the open sea with the capture of al-Faw.", "By now, they almost always used the armed speedboats of the IRGC navy, and attacked many tankers.The tanker war escalated drastically, with attacks nearly doubling in 1986, the majority carried out by Iraq.", "Iraq got permission from the Saudi government to use its airspace to attack Larak Island, although due to the distance attacks were less frequent there.", "The escalating tanker war in the Gulf became an ever-increasing concern to foreign powers, especially the United States.In April 1986, Ayatollah Khomeini issued a fatwa declaring that the war must be won by March 1987.The Iranians increased recruitment efforts, obtaining 650,000 volunteers.", "The animosity between the Army and the Revolutionary Guard arose again, with the Army wanting to use more refined, limited military attacks, while the Revolutionary Guard wanted to carry out major offensives.", "Iran, confident in its successes, began planning their largest offensives of the war, which they called their \"final offensives\".====Iraq's dynamic defense strategy====Faced with their recent defeats in al-Faw and Mehran, Iraq appeared to be losing the war.", "Iraq's generals, angered by Saddam's interference, threatened a full-scale mutiny against the Ba'ath Party unless they were allowed to conduct operations freely.", "In one of the few times during his career, Saddam gave in to the demands of his generals.", "Up to this point, Iraqi strategy was to ride out Iranian attacks.", "However, the defeat at al-Faw led Saddam to declare the war to be ''Al-Defa al-Mutaharakha'' (The Dynamic Defense), and announcing that all civilians had to take part in the war effort.The government tried to integrate the Shias into the war effort by recruiting many as part of the Ba'ath Party.", "In an attempt to counterbalance the religious fervor of the Iranians and gain support from the devout masses, the regime also began to promote religion and, on the surface, Islamization, despite the fact that Iraq was run by a secular regime.", "Scenes of Saddam praying and making pilgrimages to shrines became common on state-run television.", "While Iraqi morale had been low throughout the war, the attack on al-Faw raised patriotic fervor, as the Iraqis feared invasion.Saddam also recruited volunteers from other Arab countries into the Republican Guard, and received much technical support from foreign nations as well.", "While Iraqi military power had been depleted in recent battles, through heavy foreign purchases and support, they were able to expand their military to much larger proportions by 1988.At the same time, Saddam ordered the al-Anfal campaign in an attempt to crush the Kurdish resistance, who were now allied with Iran.", "The result was the deaths of several hundred thousand Iraqi Kurds, and the destruction of villages, towns, and cities.Iraq began to try to perfect its maneuver tactics.", "The Iraqis began to prioritize the professionalization of their military.", "Prior to 1986, the conscription-based Iraqi regular army and the volunteer-based Iraqi Popular Army conducted the bulk of the operations in the war, to little effect.", "The Republican Guard, formerly an elite praetorian guard, was expanded as a volunteer army and filled with Iraq's best generals.", "Loyalty to the state was no longer a primary requisite for joining.", "After the war, due to Saddam's paranoia, the former duties of the Republican Guard were transferred to a new unit, the Special Republican Guard.", "Full-scale war games against hypothetical Iranian positions were carried out in the western Iraqi desert against mock targets.", "They were repeated over the course of a full year until the forces involved fully memorized their attacks.", "Iraq built its military massively, eventually possessing the 4th largest in the world, in order to overwhelm the Iranians through sheer size.===1987–88: Renewed Iranian Offensives===Burned-out vehicles shown in the aftermath of Operation MersadMeanwhile, Iran continued to attack as the Iraqis were planning their strike.", "In 1987 the Iranians renewed a series of major human wave offensives in both northern and southern Iraq.", "The Iraqis had elaborately fortified Basra with 5 defensive rings, exploiting natural waterways such as the Shatt-al-Arab and artificial ones, such as ''Fish Lake'' and the Jasim River, along with earth barriers.", "Fish Lake was a massive lake filled with mines, underwater barbed wire, electrodes and sensors.", "Behind each waterway and defensive line was radar-guided artillery, ground attack aircraft and helicopters, all capable of firing poison gas or conventional munitions.The Iranian strategy was to penetrate the Iraqi defences and encircle Basra, cutting off the city as well as the Al-Faw peninsula from the rest of Iraq.", "Iran's plan was for three assaults: a diversionary attack near Basra, the main offensive and another diversionary attack using Iranian tanks in the north to divert Iraqi heavy armor from Basra.", "For these battles, Iran had re-expanded their military by recruiting many new Basij and Pasdaran volunteers.", "Iran brought 150,000–200,000 total troops into the battles.==== Operation Karbala-4 ====On 25 December 1986, Iran launched Operation Karbala-4 (''Karbala'' referring to Husayn ibn Ali's Battle of Karbala).", "According to Iraqi General Ra'ad al-Hamdani, this was a diversionary attack.", "The Iranians launched an amphibious assault against the Iraqi island of Umm al-Rassas in the Shatt-Al-Arab river, parallel to Khoramshahr.", "They then set up a pontoon bridge and continued the attack, eventually capturing the island in a costly success but failing to advance further.", "The Iranians had 60,000 casualties, while the Iraqis 9,500.The Iraqi commanders exaggerated Iranian losses to Saddam, and it was assumed that the main Iranian attack on Basra had been fully defeated and that it would take the Iranians six months to recover.", "When the main Iranian attack, Operation Karbala 5, began, many Iraqi troops were on leave.====Karbala-5 (Sixth Battle of Basra)====The Siege of Basra, code-named Operation Karbala-5 (), was an offensive operation carried out by Iran in an effort to capture the Iraqi port city of Basra in early 1987.This battle, known for its extensive casualties and ferocious conditions, was the biggest battle of the war and proved to be the beginning of the end of the Iran–Iraq War.", "While Iranian forces crossed the border and captured the eastern section of Basra Governorate, the operation ended in a stalemate.====Karbala-6====At the same time as Operation Karbala 5, Iran launched Operation Karbala-6 against the Iraqis in Qasr-e Shirin in central Iran to prevent the Iraqis from rapidly transferring units down to defend against the Karbala-5 attack.", "The attack was carried out by Basij infantry and the Revolutionary Guard's 31st ''Ashura'' and the Army's 77th ''Khorasan'' armored divisions.", "The Basij attacked the Iraqi lines, forcing the Iraqi infantry to retreat.", "An Iraqi armored counter-attack surrounded the Basij in a pincer movement.", "The Iranian tank divisions attacked, breaking the encirclement.", "The Iranian attack was stopped by mass Iraqi chemical weapons attacks.===Iranian war-weariness===Operation Karbala-5 was a severe blow to Iran's military and morale.", "To foreign observers, it appeared that Iran was continuing to strengthen.", "By 1988, Iran had become self-sufficient in many areas, such as anti-tank TOW missiles, Scud ballistic missiles (Shahab-1), Silkworm anti-ship missiles, Oghab tactical rockets, and producing spare parts for their weaponry.", "Iran had improved its air defenses with smuggled surface to air missiles.", "Iran was even producing UAV's and the Pilatus PC-7 propeller aircraft for observation.", "Iran doubled their stocks of artillery, and was self-sufficient in the manufacture of ammunition and small arms.While it was not obvious to foreign observers, the Iranian public had become increasingly war-weary and disillusioned with the fighting, and relatively few volunteers joined the fight in 1987–88.Because the Iranian war effort relied on popular mobilization, their military strength actually declined, and Iran was unable to launch any major offensives after Karbala-5.As a result, for the first time since 1982, the momentum of the fighting shifted towards the regular army.", "Since the regular army was conscription based, it made the war even less popular.", "Many Iranians began to try to escape the conflict.", "As early as May 1985, anti-war demonstrations took place in 74 cities throughout Iran, which were crushed by the regime, resulting in some protesters being shot and killed.The leadership acknowledged that the war was a stalemate, and began to plan accordingly.", "No more \"final offensives\" were planned.", "The head of the Supreme Defense Council Akbar Rafsanjani announced during a news conference the end of human wave attacks.", "Mohsen Rezaee, head of the IRGC, announced that Iran would focus exclusively on limited attacks and infiltrations, while arming and supporting opposition groups inside of Iraq.On the Iranian home front, sanctions, declining oil prices, and Iraqi attacks on Iranian oil facilities and shipping took a heavy toll on the economy.", "While the attacks themselves were not as destructive as some analysts believed, the U.S.-led Operation Earnest Will, which protected Iraqi and allied oil tankers, but not Iranian ones, led many neutral countries to stop trading with Iran because of rising insurance and fear of air attack.", "Iranian oil and non-oil exports fell by 55%, inflation reached 50% by 1987, and unemployment skyrocketed.", "At the same time, Iraq was experiencing crushing debt and shortages of workers, encouraging its leadership to try to end the war quickly.====Strategic situation in late 1987====Adnan Khairallah, Iraqi Defense Minister, meeting with Iraqi soldiers during the warBy the end of 1987, Iraq possessed 5,550 tanks, outnumbering the Iranians six to one, and 900 fighter aircraft, outnumbering the Iranians ten to one.", "After Operation Karbala-5, Iraq only had 100 qualified fighter pilots remaining.", "Therefore, Iraq began to invest in recruiting foreign pilots from countries such as Belgium, South Africa, Pakistan, East Germany and the Soviet Union.", "They replenished their manpower by integrating volunteers from other Arab countries into their army.", "Iraq also became self-sufficient in chemical weapons and some conventional ones and received much equipment from abroad.", "Foreign support helped Iraq bypass its economic troubles and massive debt to continue the war and increase the size of its military.While the southern and central fronts were at a stalemate, Iran began to focus on carrying out offensives in northern Iraq with the help of the Peshmerga (Kurdish insurgents).", "The Iranians used a combination of semi-guerrilla and infiltration tactics in the Kurdish mountains with the Peshmerga.", "During Operation Karbala-9 in early April, Iran captured territory near Suleimaniya, provoking a severe poison gas counter-attack.", "During Operation Karbala-10, Iran attacked near the same area, capturing more territory.", "During Operation Nasr-4, the Iranians surrounded the city of Suleimaniya and, with the help of the Peshmerga, infiltrated over 140 km into Iraq and raided and threatened to capture the oil-rich city of Kirkuk and other northern oilfields.=== Air and tanker war ===With the stalemate on land, the air/tanker war began to play an increasingly major role in the conflict.", "The Iranian air force had become very small, with only 20 F-4 Phantoms, 20 F-5 Tigers, and 15 F-14 Tomcats in operation, although Iran managed to restore some damaged planes to service.", "The Iranian Air Force, despite its once sophisticated equipment, lacked enough equipment and personnel to sustain the war of attrition that had developed, and was unable to lead an outright onslaught against Iraq.The Iraqi Air Force, had originally lacked modern equipment and experienced pilots, but after pleas from Iraqi military leaders, Saddam decreased political influence on everyday operations and left the fighting to his combatants.", "The Soviets began delivering more advanced aircraft and weapons to Iraq, while the French improved training for flight crews and technical personnel and continually introduced new methods for countering Iranian weapons and tactics.", "Iranian ground air defense still shot down many Iraqi aircraft.The main Iraqi air effort had shifted to the destruction of Iranian war-fighting capability, primarily Persian Gulf oil fields, tankers, and Kharg Island, and starting in late 1986, the Iraqi Air Force began a comprehensive campaign against Iranian economic infrastructure.", "By late 1987, the Iraqi Air Force could count on direct American support for conducting long-range operations against Iranian infrastructural targets and oil installations deep in the Persian Gulf.", "U.S. Navy ships tracked and reported movements of Iranian shipping and defences.", "In the massive Iraqi air strike against Kharg Island, flown on 18 March 1988, the Iraqis destroyed two supertankers but lost five aircraft to Iranian F-14 Tomcats, including two Tupolev Tu-22Bs and one Mikoyan MiG-25RB.IRGC navy speedboats using swarm tacticsThe attacks on oil tankers continued.", "Both Iran and Iraq carried out frequent attacks during the first four months of the year.", "Iran was effectively waging a naval guerilla war with its IRGC navy speedboats, while Iraq attacked with its aircraft.", "In 1987, Kuwait asked to reflag its tankers to the U.S. flag.", "They did so in March, and the U.S. Navy began Operation Earnest Will to escort the tankers.", "The result of Earnest Will would be that, while oil tankers shipping Iraqi/Kuwaiti oil were protected, Iranian tankers and neutral tankers shipping to Iran would be unprotected, resulting in both losses for Iran and the undermining of its trade with foreign countries, damaging Iran's economy further.Iran deployed Silkworm missiles to attack ships, but only a few were actually fired.", "Both the United States and Iran jockeyed for influence in the Gulf.", "To discourage the United States from escorting tankers, Iran secretly mined some areas.", "The United States began to escort the reflagged tankers, but one was damaged by a mine while under escort.", "While being a public-relations victory for Iran, the United States increased its reflagging efforts.", "While Iran mined the Persian Gulf, their speedboat attacks were reduced, primarily attacking unflagged tankers shipping in the area.On 24 September, US Navy SEALS captured the Iranian mine-laying ship ''Iran Ajr'', a diplomatic disaster for the already isolated Iranians.", "Iran had previously sought to maintain at least a pretense of plausible deniability regarding its use of mines, but the Navy SEALS captured and photographed extensive evidence of ''Iran Ajr''s mine-laying activities.", "On 8 October, the U.S. Navy destroyed four Iranian speedboats, and in response to Iranian Silkworm missile attacks on Kuwaiti oil tankers, launched Operation Nimble Archer, destroying two Iranian oil rigs in the Persian Gulf.", "During November and December, the Iraqi air force launched a bid to destroy all Iranian airbases in Khuzestan and the remaining Iranian air force.", "Iran managed to shoot down 30 Iraqi fighters with fighter jets, anti-aircraft guns, and missiles, allowing the Iranian air force to survive to the end of the war.On 28 June, Iraqi fighter bombers attacked the Iranian town of Sardasht near the border, using chemical mustard gas bombs.", "While many towns and cities had been bombed before, and troops attacked with gas, this was the first time that the Iraqis had attacked a civilian area with poison gas.", "One quarter of the town's then population of 20,000 was burned and stricken, and 113 were killed immediately, with many more dying and suffering health effects over following decades.===1988: Final Iraqi offensives===By 1988, with massive equipment imports and reduced Iranian volunteers, Iraq was ready to launch major offensives against Iran.", "In February 1988, Saddam began the fifth and most deadly \"war of the cities\".", "Over the next two months, Iraq launched over 200 al-Husayn missiles at 37 Iranian cities.", "Saddam also threatened to use chemical weapons in his missiles, which caused 30% of Tehran's population to leave the city.", "Iran retaliated, launching at least 104 missiles against Iraq in 1988 and shelling Basra.", "This event was nicknamed the \"Scud Duel\" in the foreign media.", "In all, Iraq launched 520 Scuds and al-Husseins against Iran and Iran fired 177 in return.", "The Iranian attacks were too few in number to deter Iraq from launching their attacks.", "Iraq also increased their airstrikes against Kharg Island and Iranian oil tankers.", "With their tankers protected by U.S. warships, they could operate with virtual impunity.", "In addition, the West supplied Iraq's air force with laser-guided smart bombs, allowing them to attack economic targets while evading anti-aircraft defenses.", "These attacks began to have a major toll on the Iranian economy and morale and caused many casualties.====Iran's Kurdistan Operations====An Iranian soldier wearing a gas mask during the warIn March 1988, the Iranians carried out Operation Dawn 10, Operation Beit ol-Moqaddas 2, and Operation Zafar 7 in Iraqi Kurdistan with the aim of capturing the Darbandikhan Dam and the power plant at Lake Dukan, which supplied Iraq with much of its electricity and water, as well as the city of Suleimaniya.", "Iran hoped that the capture of these areas would bring more favourable terms to the ceasefire agreement.", "This infiltration offensive was carried out in conjunction with the Peshmerga.", "Iranian airborne commandos landed behind the Iraqi lines and Iranian helicopters hit Iraqi tanks with TOW missiles.", "The Iraqis were taken by surprise, and Iranian F-5E Tiger fighter jets even damaged the Kirkuk oil refinery.", "Iraq carried out executions of multiple officers for these failures in March–April 1988, including Colonel Jafar Sadeq.", "The Iranians used infiltration tactics in the Kurdish mountains, captured the town of Halabja and began to fan out across the province.Though the Iranians advanced to within sight of Dukan and captured around and 4,000 Iraqi troops, the offensive failed due to the Iraqi use of chemical warfare.", "The Iraqis launched the deadliest chemical weapons attacks of the war.", "The Republican Guard launched 700 chemical shells, while the other artillery divisions launched 200–300 chemical shells each, unleashing a chemical cloud over the Iranians, killing or wounding 60% of them, the blow was felt particularly by the Iranian 84th infantry division and 55th paratrooper division.", "The Iraqi special forces then stopped the remains of the Iranian force.", "In retaliation for Kurdish collaboration with the Iranians, Iraq launched a massive poison gas attack against Kurdish civilians in Halabja, recently taken by the Iranians, killing thousands of civilians.", "Iran airlifted foreign journalists to the ruined city, and the images of the dead were shown throughout the world, but Western mistrust of Iran and collaboration with Iraq led them to also blame Iran for the attack.====Second Battle of al-Faw====On 17 April 1988, Iraq launched Operation Ramadan Mubarak (Blessed Ramadan), a surprise attack against the 15,000 Basij troops on the al-Faw peninsula.", "The attack was preceded by Iraqi diversionary attacks in northern Iraq, with a massive artillery and air barrage of Iranian front lines.", "Key areas, such as supply lines, command posts, and ammunition depots, were hit by a storm of mustard gas and nerve gas, as well as by conventional explosives.", "Helicopters landed Iraqi commandos behind Iranian lines on al-Faw while the main Iraqi force made a frontal assault.", "Within 48 hours, all of the Iranian forces had been killed or cleared from the al-Faw Peninsula.", "The day was celebrated in Iraq as Faw Liberation Day throughout Saddam's rule.", "The Iraqis had planned the offensive well.", "Prior to the attack, the Iraqi soldiers gave themselves poison gas antidotes to shield themselves from the effect of the saturation of gas.", "The heavy and well executed use of chemical weapons was the decisive factor in the victory.", "Iraqi losses were relatively light, especially compared to Iran's casualties.", "Ra'ad al-Hamdani later recounted that the recapture of al-Faw marked \"the highest point of experience and expertise that the Iraqi Army reached.\"", "The Iranians eventually managed to halt the Iraqi drive as they pushed towards Khuzestan.To the shock of the Iranians, rather than breaking off the offensive, the Iraqis kept up their drive, and a new force attacked the Iranian positions around Basra.", "Following this, the Iraqis launched a sustained drive to clear the Iranians out of all of southern Iraq.", "One of the most successful Iraqi tactics was the \"one-two punch\" attack using chemical weapons.", "Using artillery, they would saturate the Iranian front line with rapidly dispersing cyanide and nerve gas, while longer-lasting mustard gas was launched via fighter-bombers and rockets against the Iranian rear, creating a \"chemical wall\" that blocked reinforcement.====Operation Praying Mantis====IS ''Sahand'' burns after being hit by 20 U.S. air launched missiles and bombs, killing a third of the crew, April 1988The same day as Iraq's attack on al-Faw peninsula, the United States Navy launched Operation Praying Mantis in retaliation against Iran for damaging a warship with a mine.", "Iran lost oil platforms, destroyers, and frigates in this battle, which ended only when President Reagan decided that the Iranian navy had been damaged enough.", "In spite of this, the Revolutionary Guard Navy continued their speedboat attacks against oil tankers.", "The defeats at al-Faw and in the Persian Gulf nudged Iranian leadership towards quitting the war, especially when facing the prospect of fighting the Americans.====Iranian counteroffensive====Faced with such losses, Khomeini appointed Rafsanjani as the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, though he had in actuality occupied that position for months.", "Rafsanjani ordered a last desperate counter-attack into Iraq, which was launched 13 June 1988.The Iranians infiltrated through the Iraqi trenches and moved into Iraq and managed to strike Saddam's presidential palace in Baghdad using fighter aircraft.", "After three days of fighting, the decimated Iranians were driven back to their original positions again as the Iraqis launched 650 helicopter and 300 aircraft sorties.====Operation Forty Stars====On 18 June 1988, the People's Mujahedin of Iran (MEK) conducted a military operation known as Operation Forty Stars ().", "In four days, the People's Mujahedin of Iran wiped out a Pasdaran division, seizing Mehran and building a bridgehead twelve miles into Iran.", "According to the MEK, Iraqi soldiers did not participate in the operation.", "Baghdad also said it was not involved in the battle.====Tawakalna ala Allah operations====On 25 May 1988, Iraq launched the first of five Tawakalna ala Allah Operations, consisting of one of the largest artillery barrages in history, coupled with chemical weapons.", "The marshes had been dried by drought, allowing the Iraqis to use tanks to bypass Iranian field fortifications, expelling the Iranians from the border town of Shalamcheh after less than 10 hours of combat.Iranian soldiers captured during Iraq's 1988 offensivesOn 25 June, Iraq launched the second Tawakal ala Allah operation against the Iranians on Majnoon Island.", "Iraqi commandos used amphibious craft to block the Iranian rear, then used hundreds of tanks with massed conventional and chemical artillery barrages to recapture the island after 8 hours of combat.", "Saddam appeared live on Iraqi television to \"lead\" the charge against the Iranians.", "The majority of the Iranian defenders were killed during the quick assault.", "The final two Tawakal ala Allah operations took place near al-Amarah and Khaneqan.", "By 12 July, the Iraqis had captured the city of Dehloran, inside Iran, along with 2,500 troops and much armour and material, which took four days to transport to Iraq.", "These losses included more than 570 of the 1,000 remaining Iranian tanks, over 430 armored vehicles, 45 self-propelled artillery, 300 towed artillery pieces, and 320 antiaircraft guns.", "These figures only included what Iraq could actually put to use; total amount of captured materiel was higher.", "Since March, the Iraqis claimed to have captured 1,298 tanks, 155 infantry fighting vehicles, 512 heavy artillery pieces, 6,196 mortars, 5,550 recoilless rifles and light guns, 8,050-man-portable rocket launchers, 60,694 rifles, 322 pistols, 454 trucks, and 1,600 light vehicles.", "The Iraqis withdrew from Dehloran soon after, claiming that they had \"no desire to conquer Iranian territory\".", "History professor Kaveh Farrokh considered this to be Iran's greatest military disaster during the war.", "Stephen Pelletier, a Journalist, Middle East expert, and author, noted that \"Tawakal ala Allah ... resulted in the absolute destruction of Iran's military machine.", "\"During the 1988 battles, the Iranians put up little resistance, having been worn out by nearly eight years of war.", "They lost large amounts of equipment.", "On 2 July, Iran belatedly set up a joint central command which unified the Revolutionary Guard, Army, and Kurdish rebels, and dispelled the rivalry between the Army and the Revolutionary Guard.", "However, this came too late and, following the capture of 570 of their operable tanks and the destruction of hundreds more, Iran was believed to have fewer than 200 remaining operable tanks on the southern front, against thousands of Iraqi ones.", "The only area where the Iranians were not suffering major defeats was in Kurdistan.===Iran accepts the ceasefire===Saddam sent a warning to Khomeini in mid-1988, threatening to launch a new and powerful full-scale invasion and attack Iranian cities with weapons of mass destruction.", "Shortly afterwards, Iraqi aircraft bombed the Iranian town of Oshnavieh with poison gas, immediately killing and wounding over 2,000 civilians.", "The fear of an all out chemical attack against Iran's largely unprotected civilian population weighed heavily on the Iranian leadership, and they realized that the international community had no intention of restraining Iraq.", "The lives of the civilian population of Iran were becoming very disrupted, with a third of the urban population evacuating major cities in fear of the seemingly imminent chemical war.", "Meanwhile, Iraqi conventional bombs and missiles continuously hit towns and cities, destroying vital civilian and military infrastructure, and increasing the death toll.", "Iran replied with missile and air attacks, but not sufficiently to deter the Iraqis.USS Vincennes'' in 1987 a year before it shot down Iran Air Flight 655With the threat of a new and even more powerful invasion, Commander-in-Chief Rafsanjani ordered the Iranians to retreat from Haj Omran, Kurdistan on 14 July.", "The Iranians did not publicly describe this as a retreat, instead calling it a \"temporary withdrawal\".", "By July, Iran's army inside Iraq had largely disintegrated.", "Iraq put up a massive display of captured Iranian weapons in Baghdad, claiming they captured 1,298 tanks, 5,550 recoilless rifles, and thousands of other weapons.", "However, Iraq had taken heavy losses as well, and the battles were very costly.In July 1988, Iraqi aircraft dropped bombs on the Iranian Kurdish village of Zardan.", "Dozens of villages, such as Sardasht, and some larger towns, such as Marivan, Baneh and Saqqez, were once again attacked with poison gas, resulting in even heavier civilian casualties.", "On 3 July 1988, the USS ''Vincennes'' shot down Iran Air Flight 655, killing 290 passengers and crew.", "The lack of international sympathy disturbed the Iranian leadership, and they came to the conclusion that the United States was on the verge of waging a full-scale war against them, and that Iraq was on the verge of unleashing its entire chemical arsenal upon their cities.At this point, elements of the Iranian leadership, led by Rafsanjani (who had initially pushed for the extension of the war), persuaded Khomeini to accept a ceasefire.", "They stated that in order to win the war, Iran's military budget would have to be increased eightfold and the war would last until 1993.On 20 July 1988, Iran accepted Resolution 598, showing its willingness to accept a ceasefire.", "A statement from Khomeini was read out in a radio address, and he expressed deep displeasure and reluctance about accepting the ceasefire,Happy are those who have departed through martyrdom.", "Happy are those who have lost their lives in this convoy of light.", "Unhappy am I that I still survive and have drunk the poisoned chalice...The news of the end of the war was greeted with celebration in Baghdad, with people dancing in the streets; in Tehran, however, the end of the war was greeted with a somber mood.====Operation Mersad and end of the war====Operation Mersad ( \"ambush\") was the last big military operation of the war.", "Both Iran and Iraq had accepted Resolution 598, but despite the ceasefire, after seeing Iraqi victories in the previous months, Mujahadeen-e-Khalq (MEK) decided to launch an attack of its own and wished to advance all the way to Tehran.", "Saddam and the Iraqi high command decided on a two-pronged offensive across the border into central Iran and Iranian Kurdistan.", "Shortly after Iran accepted the ceasefire the MEK army began its offensive, attacking into Ilam province under cover of Iraqi air power.", "In the north, Iraq also launched an attack into Iraqi Kurdistan, which was blunted by the Iranians.On 26 July 1988, the MEK started their campaign in central Iran, Operation Forough Javidan (Eternal Light), with the support of the Iraqi army.", "The Iranians had withdrawn their remaining soldiers to Khuzestan in fear of a new Iraqi invasion attempt, allowing the Mujahedeen to advance rapidly towards Kermanshah, seizing Qasr-e Shirin, Sarpol-e Zahab, Kerend-e Gharb, and Islamabad-e-Gharb.", "The MEK expected the Iranian population to rise up and support their advance; the uprising never materialised but they reached deep into Iran.", "In response, the Iranian military launched its counter-attack, Operation Mersad, under Lieutenant General Ali Sayyad Shirazi.", "Iranian paratroopers landed behind the MEK lines while the Iranian Air Force and helicopters launched an air attack, destroying much of the enemy columns.", "The Iranians defeated the MEK in the city of Kerend-e Gharb on 29 July 1988.On 31 July, Iran drove the MEK out of Qasr-e-Shirin and Sarpol Zahab, though MEK claimed to have \"voluntarily withdrawn\" from the towns.", "Iran estimated that 4,500 MEK were killed, while 400 Iranian soldiers died.MEK soldiers killed in Operation Mersad, 1988The last notable combat actions of the war took place on 3 August 1988, in the Persian Gulf when the Iranian navy fired on a freighter and Iraq launched chemical attacks on Iranian civilians, killing an unknown number of them and wounding 2,300.Iraq came under international pressure to curtail further offensives.", "Resolution 598 became effective on 8 August 1988, ending all combat operations between the two countries.", "By 20 August 1988, peace with Iran was restored.", "UN peacekeepers belonging to the UNIIMOG mission took the field, remaining on the Iran–Iraq border until 1991.The majority of Western analysts believe that the war had no winners while some believed that Iraq emerged as the victor of the war, based on Iraq's overwhelming successes between April and July 1988.While the war was now over, Iraq spent the rest of August and early September clearing the Kurdish resistance.", "Using 60,000 troops along with helicopter gunships, chemical weapons (poison gas), and mass executions, Iraq hit 15 villages, killing rebels and civilians, and forced tens of thousands of Kurds to relocate to settlements.", "Many Kurdish civilians fled to Iran.", "By 3 September 1988, the anti-Kurd campaign ended, and all resistance had been crushed.", "400 Iraqi soldiers and 50,000–100,000 Kurdish civilians and soldiers had been killed.At the war's conclusion, it took several weeks for the Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran to evacuate Iraqi territory to honor pre-war international borders set by the 1975 Algiers Agreement.", "The last prisoners of war were exchanged in 2003.The Security Council did not identify Iraq as the aggressor of the war until 11 December 1991, some 11 years after Iraq invaded Iran and 16 months following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait." ], [ "Aftermath", "===Casualties===The Al-Shaheed Monument in Baghdad was erected to commemorate the fallen Iraqi soldiers during the war.The Iran–Iraq War was the deadliest conventional war ever fought between regular armies of developing countries.", "Encyclopædia Britannica states: \"Estimates of total casualties range from 1,000,000 to twice that number.", "The number killed on both sides was perhaps 500,000, with Iran suffering the greatest losses.\"", "Iraqi casualties are estimated at 105,000–200,000 killed, while about 400,000 had been wounded and some 70,000 taken prisoner.", "Thousands of civilians on both sides died in air raids and ballistic missile attacks.", "Prisoners taken by both countries began to be released in 1990, though some were not released until more than 10 years after the end of the conflict.", "Cities on both sides had also been considerably damaged.", "While revolutionary Iran had been bloodied, Iraq was left with a large military and was a regional power, albeit with severe debt, financial problems, and labour shortages.According to Iranian government sources, the war cost Iran an estimated 200,000–220,000 killed, or up to 262,000 according to the conservative Western estimates.", "This includes 123,220 combatants, 60,711 MIA and 11,000–16,000 civilians.", "Combatants include 79,664 members of the Revolutionary Guard Corps and additional 35,170 soldiers from regular military.", "In addition, prisoners of war accounted for 42,875 Iranian casualties, captured and kept in Iraqi detention centres from 2.5 to more than 15 years after the war was over.According to the Janbazan Affairs Organization, 398,587 Iranians sustained injuries that required prolonged medical and health care following primary treatment, including 52,195 (13%) injured due to the exposure to chemical warfare agents.", "From 1980 to 2012, 218,867 Iranians died due to war injuries and the mean age of combatants was 23 years old.", "This includes 33,430 civilians, mostly women and children.", "More than 144,000 Iranian children were orphaned as a consequence of these deaths.", "Other estimates put Iranian casualties up to 600,000.Both Iraq and Iran manipulated loss figures to suit their purposes.", "At the same time, Western analysts accepted improbable estimates.", "By April 1988, such casualties were estimated at between 150,000 and 340,000 Iraqis dead, and 450,000 to 730,000 Iranians.", "Shortly after the end of the war, it was thought that Iran suffered even more than a million dead.", "Considering the style of fighting on the ground and the fact that neither side penetrated deeply into the other's territory, USMC analysts believe events do not substantiate the high casualties claimed.", "The Iraqi government has claimed 800,000 Iranians were killed in action, four times more than Iranian official figures, whereas Iraqi intelligence privately put the number at 228,000–258,000 as of August 1986.Iraqi losses were also revised downwards over time.===Peace talks and postwar situation===Iranian Martyr Cemetery in IsfahanWith the ceasefire in place, and UN peacekeepers monitoring the border, Iran and Iraq sent their representatives to Geneva, Switzerland, to negotiate a peace agreement on the terms of the ceasefire.", "However, peace talks stalled.", "Iraq, in violation of the UN ceasefire, refused to withdraw its troops from of disputed territory at the border area unless the Iranians accepted Iraq's full sovereignty over the Shatt al-Arab waterway.", "Foreign powers continued to support Iraq, which wanted to gain at the negotiating table what they failed to achieve on the battlefield, and Iran was portrayed as the one not wanting peace.In response, Iran refused to release 70,000 Iraqi prisoners of war, compared to 40,000 Iranian prisoners of war held by Iraq.", "They continued to carry out a naval blockade of Iraq, although its effects were mitigated by Iraqi use of ports in friendly neighbouring Arab countries.", "Iran began to improve relations with many of the states that opposed it during the war.", "Because of Iranian actions, by 1990, Saddam had become more conciliatory, and in a letter to the future fourth President of Iran Rafsanjani, he became more open to the idea of a peace agreement, although he still insisted on full sovereignty over the Shatt al-Arab.By 1990, Iran was undergoing military rearmament and reorganization, and purchased $10 billion worth of heavy weaponry from the USSR and China, including aircraft, tanks, and missiles.", "Rafsanjani reversed Iran's self-imposed ban on chemical weapons, and ordered the manufacture and stockpile of them (Iran destroyed them in 1993 after ratifying the Chemical Weapons Convention).", "As war with the western powers loomed, Iraq became concerned about the possibility of Iran mending its relations with the west in order to attack Iraq.", "Iraq had lost its support from the West, and its position in Iran was increasingly untenable.", "Saddam realized that if Iran attempted to expel the Iraqis from the disputed territories in the border area, it was likely they would succeed.Shortly after his invasion of Kuwait, Saddam wrote a letter to Rafsanjani stating that Iraq recognised Iranian rights over the eastern half of the Shatt al-Arab, a reversion to ''status quo ante bellum'' that he had repudiated a decade earlier, and that he would accept Iran's demands and withdraw Iraq's military from the disputed territories.", "A peace agreement was signed finalizing the terms of the UN resolution, diplomatic relations were restored, and by late 1990-early 1991, the Iraqi military withdrew.", "The UN peacekeepers withdrew from the border shortly afterward.", "Most of the prisoners of war were released in 1990, although some remained as late as 2003.Iranian politicians declared it to be the \"greatest victory in the history of the Islamic Republic of Iran\".Most historians and analysts consider the war to be a stalemate.", "Certain analysts believe that Iraq won, on the basis of the successes of their 1988 offensives which thwarted Iran's major territorial ambitions in Iraq and persuaded Iran to accept the ceasefire.", "Iranian analysts believe that they won the war because although they did not succeed in overthrowing the Iraqi government, they thwarted Iraq's major territorial ambitions in Iran, and that, two years after the war had ended, Iraq permanently gave up its claim of ownership over the entire Shatt al-Arab as well.On 9 December 1991, Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, UN Secretary General at the time, reported that Iraq's initiation of the war was unjustified, as was its occupation of Iranian territory and use of chemical weapons against civilians:That Iraq's explanations do not appear sufficient or acceptable to the international community is a fact...the attack cannot be justified under the charter of the United Nations, any recognized rules and principles of international law, or any principles of international morality, and entails the responsibility for conflict.", "Even if before the outbreak of the conflict there had been some encroachment by Iran on Iraqi territory, such encroachment did not justify Iraq's aggression against Iran—which was followed by Iraq's continuous occupation of Iranian territory during the conflict—in violation of the prohibition of the use of force, which is regarded as one of the rules of jus cogens...On one occasion I had to note with deep regret the experts' conclusion that \"chemical weapons had been used against Iranian civilians in an area adjacent to an urban center lacking any protection against that kind of attack.", "\"He also stated that had the UN accepted this fact earlier, the war would have almost certainly not lasted as long as it did.", "Iran, encouraged by the announcement, sought reparations from Iraq, but never received any.The Iranian Martyrs Museum in TehranThroughout the 1990s and early 2000s, Iran and Iraq relations remained balanced between a cold war and a cold peace.", "Despite renewed and somewhat thawed relations, both sides continued to have low level conflicts.", "Iraq continued to host and support the Mujahedeen-e-Khalq, which carried out multiple attacks throughout Iran up until the 2003 invasion of Iraq, including the assassination of Iranian general Ali Sayyad Shirazi in 1998, cross border raids, and mortar attacks.", "Iran carried out several airstrikes and missile attacks against Mujahedeen targets inside of Iraq, the largest taking place in 2001, when Iran fired 56 Scud missiles at Mujahedeen targets.According to General Hamdani, Iran continued to carry out low-level infiltrations of Iraqi territory, using Iraqi dissidents and anti-government activists rather than Iranian troops, in order to incite revolts.", "After the fall of Saddam in 2003, Hamdani claimed that Iranian agents infiltrated and created numerous militias in Iraq and built an intelligence system operating within the country.In 2005, the new government of Iraq apologised to Iran for starting the war.", "The Iraqi government also commemorated the war with various monuments, including the Hands of Victory and the al-Shaheed Monument, both in Baghdad.", "The war also helped to create a forerunner for the Coalition of the Gulf War, when the Gulf Arab states banded together early in the war to form the Gulf Cooperation Council to help Iraq fight Iran.===Economic situation===The economic loss at the time was believed to exceed $500 billion for each country ($1.2 trillion total).", "In addition, economic development stalled and oil exports were disrupted.", "Iraq had accrued more than $130 billion of international debt, excluding interest, and was also weighed down by a slowed GDP growth.", "Iraq's debt to Paris Club amounted to $21 billion, 85% of which had originated from the combined inputs of Japan, the USSR, France, Germany, the United States, Italy and the United Kingdom.", "The largest portion of Iraq's debt, amounting to $130 billion, was to its former Arab backers, with $67 billion loaned by Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, UAE, and Jordan.After the war, Iraq accused Kuwait of slant drilling and stealing oil, inciting its invasion of Kuwait, which in turn worsened Iraq's financial situation: the United Nations Compensation Commission mandated Iraq to pay reparations of more than $200 billion to victims of the invasion, including Kuwait and the United States.", "To enforce payment, Iraq was put under a comprehensive international embargo, which further strained the Iraqi economy and pushed its external debt to private and public sectors to more than $500 billion by the end of Saddam's rule.", "Combined with Iraq's negative economic growth after prolonged international sanctions, this produced a debt-to-GDP ratio of more than 1,000%, making Iraq the most indebted developing country in the world.", "The unsustainable economic situation compelled the new Iraqi government to request that a considerable portion of debt incurred during the Iran–Iraq war be written off.===Science and technology===The war had its impact on medical science: a surgical intervention for comatose patients with penetrating brain injuries was created by Iranian physicians treating wounded soldiers, later establishing neurosurgery guidelines to treat civilians who had suffered blunt or penetrating skull injuries.", "Iranian physicians' experience in the war informed the medical care of U.S. congresswoman Gabby Giffords after the 2011 Tucson shooting.In addition to helping trigger the Persian Gulf War, the Iran–Iraq War also contributed to Iraq's defeat in the Persian Gulf War.", "Iraq's military was accustomed to fighting the slow moving Iranian infantry formations with artillery and static defenses, while using mostly unsophisticated tanks to gun down and shell the infantry and overwhelm the smaller Iranian tank force; in addition to being dependent on weapons of mass destruction to help secure victories.", "Therefore, they were rapidly overwhelmed by the high-tech, quick-maneuvering Coalition forces using modern doctrines such as AirLand Battle." ], [ "Domestic situation", "===Iraq===At first, Saddam attempted to ensure that the Iraqi population suffered from the war as little as possible.", "There was rationing, but civilian projects begun before the war continued.", "At the same time, the already extensive personality cult around Saddam reached new heights while the regime tightened its control over the military.After the Iranian victories of the spring of 1982 and the Syrian closure of Iraq's main pipeline, Saddam did a volte-face on his policy towards the home front: a policy of austerity and total war was introduced, with the entire population being mobilised for the war effort.", "All Iraqis were ordered to donate blood and around 100,000 Iraqi civilians were ordered to clear the reeds in the southern marshes.", "Mass demonstrations of loyalty towards Saddam became more common.", "Saddam also began implementing a policy of discrimination against Iraqis of Iranian origin.In the summer of 1982, Saddam began a campaign of terror.", "More than 300 Iraqi Army officers were executed for their failures on the battlefield.", "In 1983, a major crackdown was launched on the leadership of the Shia community.", "Ninety members of the al-Hakim family, an influential family of Shia clerics whose leading members were the émigrés Mohammad Baqir al-Hakim and Abdul Aziz al-Hakim, were arrested, and 6 were hanged.The crackdown on Kurds saw 8,000 members of the Barzani clan, whose leader (Massoud Barzani) also led the Kurdistan Democratic Party, similarly executed.", "From 1983 onwards, a campaign of increasingly brutal repression was started against the Iraqi Kurds, characterised by Israeli historian Efraim Karsh as having \"assumed genocidal proportions\" by 1988.The al-Anfal Campaign was intended to \"pacify\" Iraqi Kurdistan permanently.", "By 1983, the Barzanis entered an alliance with Iran in defense against Saddam Hussein.====Gaining civilian support====To secure the loyalty of the Shia population, Saddam allowed more Shias into the Ba'ath Party and the government, and improved Shia living standards, which had been lower than those of the Iraqi Sunnis.", "Saddam had the state pay for restoring Imam Ali's tomb with white marble imported from Italy.", "The Baathists also increased their policies of repression against the Shia.", "The most infamous event was the massacre of 148 civilians of the Shia town of Dujail.Despite the costs of the war, the Iraqi regime made generous contributions to Shia ''waqf'' (religious endowments) as part of the price of buying Iraqi Shia support.", "The importance of winning Shia support was such that welfare services in Shia areas were expanded during a time in which the Iraqi regime was pursuing austerity in all other non-military fields.", "During the first years of the war in the early 1980s, the Iraqi government tried to accommodate the Kurds in order to focus on the war against Iran.", "In 1983, the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan agreed to cooperate with Baghdad, but the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) remained opposed.", "In 1983, Saddam signed an autonomy agreement with Jalal Talabani of the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK), though Saddam later reneged on the agreement.", "By 1985, the PUK and KDP had joined forces, and Iraqi Kurdistan saw widespread guerrilla warfare up to the end of the war.===Iran===An Iranian soldier's funeral in Mashhad, 2013Israeli-British historian Ephraim Karsh argued that the Iranian government saw the outbreak of war as chance to strengthen its position and consolidate the Islamic revolution, noting that government propaganda presented it domestically as a glorious ''jihad'' and a test of Iranian national character.", "The Iranian regime followed a policy of total war from the beginning, and attempted to mobilise the nation as a whole.", "They established a group known as the Reconstruction Campaign, whose members were exempted from conscription and were instead sent into the countryside to work on farms to replace the men serving at the front.Iranian workers had a day's pay deducted from their pay cheques every month to help finance the war, and mass campaigns were launched to encourage the public to donate food, money, and blood.", "To further help finance the war, the Iranian government banned the import of all non-essential items, and launched a major effort to rebuild the damaged oil plants.According to former Iraqi general Ra'ad al-Hamdani, the Iraqis believed that in addition to the Arab revolts, the Revolutionary Guards would be drawn out of Tehran, leading to a counter-revolution in Iran that would cause Khomeini's government to collapse and thus ensure Iraqi victory.", "However, rather than turning against the revolutionary government as experts had predicted, Iran's people (including Iranian Arabs) rallied in support of the country and put up a stiff resistance.====Civil unrest====In June 1981, street battles broke out between the Revolutionary Guard and the left-wing Mujaheddin e-Khalq (MEK), continuing for several days and killing hundreds on both sides.", "In September, more unrest broke out on the streets of Iran as the MEK attempted to seize power.", "Thousands of left-wing Iranians (many of whom were not associated with the MEK) were shot and hanged by the government.", "The MEK began an assassination campaign that killed hundreds of regime officials by the fall of 1981.On 28 June 1981, they assassinated the secretary-general of the Islamic Republican Party, Mohammad Beheshti and on 30 August, killed Iran's president, Mohammad-Ali Rajai.", "The government responded with mass executions of suspected MEK members, a practice that lasted until 1985.In addition to the open civil conflict with the MEK, the Iranian government was faced with Iraqi-supported rebellions in Iranian Kurdistan, which were gradually put down through a campaign of systematic repression.", "1985 also saw student anti-war demonstrations, which were crushed by government forces.====Economy====In September 2020, Ali Fadavi announced that Iran spent $19.6 billion in the war.", "The war furthered the decline of the Iranian economy that had begun with the revolution in 1978–79.Between 1979 and 1981, foreign exchange reserves fell from $14.6 billion to $1 billion.", "As a result of the war, living standards dropped dramatically, and Iran was described by British journalists John Bulloch and Harvey Morris as \"a dour and joyless place\" ruled by a harsh regime that \"seemed to have nothing to offer but endless war\".Though Iran was becoming bankrupt, Khomeini interpreted Islam's prohibition of usury to mean they could not borrow against future oil revenues to meet war expenses.", "As a result, Iran funded the war by the income from oil exports after cash had run out.", "The revenue from oil dropped from $20 billion in 1982 to $5 billion in 1988.French historian Pierre Razoux argued that this sudden drop in economic industrial potential, in conjunction with the increasing aggression of Iraq, placed Iran in a challenging position that had little leeway other than accepting Iraq's conditions of peace.In January 1985, former prime minister and anti-war Islamic Liberation Movement co-founder Mehdi Bazargan criticised the war in a telegram to the United Nations, calling it un-Islamic and illegitimate and arguing that Khomeini should have accepted Saddam's truce offer in 1982 instead of attempting to overthrow the Ba'ath.", "In a public letter to Khomeini sent in May 1988, he added \"Since 1986, you have not stopped proclaiming victory, and now you are calling upon population to resist until victory.", "Is that not an admission of failure on your part?\"", "Khomeini was annoyed by Bazargan's telegram, and issued a lengthy public rebuttal in which he defended the war as both Islamic and just.By 1987, Iranian morale had begun to crumble, reflected in the failure of government campaigns to recruit \"martyrs\" for the front.", "Israeli historian Efraim Karsh points to the decline in morale in 1987–88 as being a major factor in Iran's decision to accept the ceasefire of 1988.Not all saw the war in negative terms.", "The Islamic Revolution of Iran was strengthened and radicalised.", "The Iranian government-owned ''Etelaat'' newspaper wrote, \"There is not a single school or town that is excluded from the happiness of 'holy defence' of the nation, from drinking the exquisite elixir of martyrdom, or from the sweet death of the martyr, who dies in order to live forever in paradise.\"" ], [ "Comparison of Iraqi and Iranian military strength", "Iran's regular Army had been purged after the 1979 Revolution, with most high-ranking officers either having fled the country or been executed.At the beginning of the war, Iraq held a clear advantage in armour, while both nations were roughly equal in terms of artillery.", "The gap only widened as the war went on.", "Iran started with a stronger air force, but over time, the balance of power reversed in Iraq's favour (as Iraq was constantly expanding its military, while Iran was under arms sanctions).", "Estimates for 1980 and 1987 were: Imbalance of Power (1980–1987) Iraq Iran Tanks in 1980 2,700 1,740 (~500 operable)Tanks in 19874,500+1,000 Fighter aircraft in 1980 332 445 (205 operable)Fighter aircraft in 1987500+65 (serviceable) Helicopters in 1980 40 500Helicopters in 198715060 Artillery in 1980 1,000 1,000+ (~300 operable) Artillery in 1987 4,000+ 1,000+The conflict has been compared to World War I in terms of the tactics used, including large-scale trench warfare with barbed wire stretched across trenches, manned machine gun posts, bayonet charges, human wave attacks across a no man's land, and extensive use of chemical weapons such as sulfur mustard by the Iraqi government against Iranian troops, civilians, and Kurds.", "The world powers United States and the Soviet Union, together with many Western and Arab countries, provided military, intelligence, economic, and political support for Iraq.", "On average, Iraq imported about $7 billion in weapons during every year of the war, accounting for fully 12% of global arms sales in the period.The value of Iraqi arms imports increased to between $12 billion and $14 billion during 1984–1987, whereas the value of Iranian arms imports fell from $14 billion in 1985 to $5.89 billion in 1986 and an estimated $6 billion to $8 billion in 1987.Iran was constrained by the price of oil during the 1980s oil glut as foreign countries were largely unwilling to extend credit to Iran, but Iraq financed its continued massive military expansion by taking on vast quantities of debt that allowed it to win a number of victories against Iran near the end of the war but that left the country bankrupt.Despite its larger population, by 1988 Iran's ground forces numbered only 600,000 whereas the Iraqi army had grown to include 1 million soldiers." ], [ "Foreign support to Iraq and Iran", "Donald Rumsfeld as the American special envoy to the Middle East meets Saddam Hussein in December 1983.Rumsfeld was later US Defense Secretary during the 2003 Iraq War, which saw Saddam ousted from power and ultimately executed.During the war, Iraq was regarded by the West and the Soviet Union as a counterbalance to post-revolutionary Iran.", "The Soviet Union, Iraq's main arms supplier during the war, did not wish for the end of its alliance with Iraq, and was alarmed by Saddam's threats to find new arms suppliers in the West and China if the Kremlin did not provide him with the weapons he wanted.", "The Soviet Union hoped to use the threat of reducing arms supplies to Iraq as leverage for forming a Soviet-Iranian alliance.During the early years of the war, the United States lacked meaningful relations with either Iran or Iraq, the former due to the Iranian Revolution and the Iran hostage crisis and the latter because of Iraq's alliance with the Soviet Union and hostility towards Israel.", "Following Iran's success in repelling the Iraqi invasion and Khomeini's refusal to end the war in 1982, the United States made an outreach to Iraq, beginning with the restoration of diplomatic relations in 1984.The United States wished to both keep Iran away from Soviet influence and protect other Gulf states from any threat of Iranian expansion.", "As a result, the U.S. began to provide limited support to Iraq.", "In 1982, Henry Kissinger, former Secretary of State, outlined U.S. policy towards Iran:The focus of Iranian pressure at this moment is Iraq.", "There are few governments in the world less deserving of our support and less capable of using it.", "Had Iraq won the war, the fear in the Gulf and the threat to our interest would be scarcely less than it is today.", "Still, given the importance of the balance of power in the area, it is in our interests to promote a ceasefire in that conflict; though not a cost that will preclude an eventual rapprochement with Iran either if a more moderate regime replaces Khomeini's or if the present rulers wake up to geopolitical reality that the historic threat to Iran's independence has always come from the country with which it shares a border of : the Soviet Union.", "A rapprochement with Iran, of course, must await at a minimum Iran's abandonment of hegemonic aspirations in the Gulf.Richard Murphy, Assistant Secretary of State during the war, testified to Congress in 1984 that the Reagan administration believed a victory for either Iran or Iraq was \"neither militarily feasible nor strategically desirable\".Support to Iraq was given via technological aid, intelligence, the sale of dual-use chemical and biological warfare related technology and military equipment, and satellite intelligence.", "While there was direct combat between Iran and the United States, it is not universally agreed that the fighting between the United States and Iran was specifically to benefit Iraq, or for separate issues between the U.S. and Iran.", "American official ambiguity towards which side to support was summed up by Henry Kissinger when he remarked, \"It's a pity they can't both lose.\"", "The Americans and the British also either blocked or watered down UN resolutions that condemned Iraq for using chemical weapons against the Iranians and their own Kurdish citizens.More than 30 countries provided support to Iraq, Iran, or both; most of the aid went to Iraq.", "Iran had a complex clandestine procurement network to obtain munitions and critical materials.", "Iraq had an even larger clandestine purchasing network, involving 10–12 allied countries, to maintain ambiguity over their arms purchases and to circumvent \"official restrictions\".", "Arab mercenaries and volunteers from Egypt and Jordan formed the Yarmouk Brigade and participated in the war alongside Iraqis.===Iraq===Sa'dabad Palace in IranAccording to the Stockholm International Peace Institute, the Soviet Union, France, and China together accounted for over 90% of the value of Iraq's arms imports between 1980 and 1988.The United States pursued policies in favour of Iraq by reopening diplomatic channels, lifting restrictions on the export of dual-use technology, overseeing the transfer of third-party military hardware, and providing operational intelligence on the battlefield.", "France, which from the 1970s had been one of Iraq's closest allies, was a major supplier of military hardware.", "The French sold weapons equal to $5 billion, which made up well over a quarter of Iraq's total arms stockpile.", "Citing French magazine ''Le Nouvel Observateur'' as the primary source, but also quoting French officials, the ''New York Times'' reported France had been sending chemical precursors of chemical weapons to Iraq, since 1986.China, which had no direct stake in the victory of either side and whose interests in the war were entirely commercial, freely sold arms to both sides.Iraq also made extensive use of front companies, middlemen, secret ownership of all or part of companies all over the world, forged end-user certificates, and other methods to hide what it was acquiring.", "Some transactions may have involved people, shipping, and manufacturing in as many as 10 countries.", "Support from Great Britain exemplified the methods by which Iraq would circumvent export controls.", "Iraq bought at least one British company with operations in the United Kingdom and the United States, and had a complex relationship with France and the Soviet Union, its major suppliers of actual weapons.Turkey took action against the Kurds in 1986, alleging they were attacking the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), which prompted a harsh diplomatic intervention by Iran, which planned a new offensive against Iraq at the time and were counting on the support of Kurdish factions.Sudan supported Iraq directly during the war, sending a contingent to fight at the frontlines.", "The Sudanese unit consisted to a large degree of Ugandan refugees from the West Nile Region, recruited by Juma Oris.The United Nations Security Council initially called for a cease-fire after a week of fighting while Iraq was occupying Iranian territory, and renewed the call on later occasions.", "However, the UN did not come to Iran's aid to repel the Iraqi invasion, and the Iranians thus interpreted the UN as subtly biased in favour of Iraq.====Financial support====Iraq's main financial backers were the oil-rich Persian Gulf states, most notably Saudi Arabia ($30.9 billion), Kuwait ($8.2 billion), and the United Arab Emirates ($8 billion).", "In all, Iraq received $35 billion in loans from the West and between $30 and $40 billion from the Persian Gulf states during the 1980s.The Iraqgate scandal revealed that a branch of Italy's largest bank, Banca Nazionale del Lavoro (BNL), in Atlanta, Georgia, relied partially on U.S. taxpayer-guaranteed loans to funnel $5 billion to Iraq from 1985 to 1989.In August 1989, when FBI agents raided the Atlanta branch of BNL, branch manager Christopher Drogoul was charged with making unauthorised, clandestine, and illegal loans to Iraq—some of which, according to his indictment, were used to purchase arms and weapons technology.", "According to the ''Financial Times'', Hewlett-Packard, Tektronix, and Matrix Churchill's branch in Ohio were among the companies shipping militarily useful technology to Iraq under the eye of the U.S. government.===Iran===While the United States directly fought Iran, citing freedom of navigation as a major ''casus belli'', it also indirectly supplied some weapons to Iran as part of a complex and illegal programme that became known as the Iran–Contra affair.", "These secret sales were partly to help secure the release of hostages held in Lebanon, and partly to make money to help the Contras rebel group in Nicaragua.", "This arms-for-hostages agreement turned into a major scandal.Israel supported Iran in its war against Iraq through the supply of military equipment including spare parts for fighter jets, missile systems, ammunition and tank engines.", "Israel's motivations for supporting Iran stemmed from a fear of what would have become if Iraq came out victorious and as an opportunity to create business for the Israeli arms industry.North Korea was a major arms supplier to Iran, often acting as a third party in arms deals between Iran and the Communist bloc.", "Support included domestically manufactured arms and Eastern-Bloc weapons, for which the major powers wanted deniability.", "Among the other arms suppliers and supporters of Iran's Islamic Revolution, the major ones were Libya, Syria, and China.", "According to the Stockholm International Peace Institute, China was the largest foreign arms supplier to Iran between 1980 and 1988.Syria and Libya, breaking Arab solidarity, supported Iran with arms, rhetoric and diplomacy.", "However, Libya then distanced itself from Iran from 1987, criticizing Tehran's attitude and restoring diplomatic relations with Iraq.===Aid to both countries===Besides the United States and the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia also sold weapons to both countries for the entire duration of the conflict.", "Likewise, Portugal helped both countries; it was not unusual to see Iranian and Iraqi flagged ships anchored at Setúbal, waiting their turn to dock.From 1980 to 1987, Spain sold €458 million in weapons to Iran and €172 million to Iraq.", "Weapons sold to Iraq included 4x4 vehicles, BO-105 helicopters, explosives, and ammunition.", "A research party later discovered that an unexploded chemical Iraqi warhead in Iran was manufactured in Spain.Although neither side acquired any weapons from Turkey, both sides enjoyed Turkish civilian trade during the conflict, although the Turkish government remained neutral and refused to support the U.S.-imposed trade embargo on Iran.", "Turkey's export market jumped from $220 million in 1981 to $2 billion in 1985, making up 25% of Turkey's overall exports.", "Turkish construction projects in Iraq totaled $2.5 billion between 1974 and 1990.Trading with both countries helped Turkey to offset its ongoing economic crisis, though the benefits decreased as the war neared its end and accordingly disappeared entirely with Iraq's invasion of Kuwait and the resulting Iraq sanctions Turkey imposed in response." ], [ "U.S. involvement", "American support for Ba'athist Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War, in which it fought against post-revolutionary Iran, included several billion dollars' worth of economic aid, the sale of dual-use technology, non-U.S. origin weaponry, military intelligence, and special operations training.", "The U.S. refused to sell arms to Iraq directly due to Iraq's ties to terrorist groups, but several sales of \"dual-use\" technology have been documented; notably, Iraq purchased 45 Bell helicopters for $200 million in 1985.Total sales of U.S. dual-use technology to Iraq are estimated at $500 million.U.S.", "government support for Iraq was not a secret and was frequently discussed in open sessions of the Senate and House of Representatives.", "American views toward Iraq were not enthusiastically supportive in its conflict with Iran, and activity in assistance was largely to prevent an Iranian victory.", "This was encapsulated by Henry Kissinger when he remarked, \"It's a pity they both can't lose.\"===U.S.", "embargo===President Ronald Reagan and Vice President George H. W. Bush in the Oval Office of the White House, 20 July 1984A key element of U.S. political–military and energy–economic planning occurred in early 1983.The Iran–Iraq war had been going on for three years and there were significant casualties on both sides, reaching hundreds of thousands.", "Within the Reagan National Security Council concern was growing that the war could spread beyond the boundaries of the two belligerents.", "A National Security Planning Group meeting was called chaired by Vice President George Bush to review U.S. options.", "It was determined that there was a high likelihood that the conflict would spread into Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states, but that the United States had little capability to defend the region.It was determined that a prolonged war in the region would induce much higher oil prices and threaten the fragile world recovery which was just beginning to gain momentum.", "On 22 May 1984, President Reagan was briefed on the project conclusions in the Oval Office by William Flynn Martin who had served as the head of the NSC staff that organized the study.", "The full declassified presentation can be seen here.The conclusions were threefold: firstly, oil stocks needed to be increased among members of the International Energy Agency and, if necessary, released early in the event of oil market disruption; second, the United States needed to reinforce the security of friendly Arab states in the region; and thirdly, an embargo should be placed on sales of military equipment to Iran and Iraq.", "The plan was approved by the President and later affirmed by the G-7 leaders headed by Margaret Thatcher in the London Summit of 1984.===U.S.", "knowledge of Iraqi chemical weapons use===According to ''Foreign Policy'', the \"Iraqis used mustard gas and sarin prior to four major offensives in early 1988 that relied on U.S. satellite imagery, maps, and other intelligence.", "...", "According to recently declassified CIA documents and interviews with former intelligence officials like Francona, the U.S. had firm evidence of Iraqi chemical attacks beginning in 1983.", "\"===Iraqi attack on U.S. warship===USS ''Stark'' listing following two hits by Exocet missiles|rightOn 17 May 1987, an Iraqi Dassault Mirage F1 fighter jet launched two Exocet missiles at , a ''Perry'' class frigate.", "The first struck the port side of the ship and failed to explode, though it left burning propellant in its wake; the second struck moments later in approximately the same place and penetrated through to crew quarters, where it exploded, killing 37 crew members and leaving 21 injured.", "Whether or not Iraqi leadership authorised the attack is still unknown.", "Initial claims by the Iraqi government that ''Stark'' was inside the Iran–Iraq War zone were shown to be false, and the motives and orders of the pilot remain unanswered.Though American officials claimed that the pilot who attacked ''Stark'' had been executed, an ex-Iraqi Air Force commander since stated he had not been punished, and was still alive at the time.", "The attack remains the only successful anti-ship missile strike on an American warship.", "Due to the extensive political and military cooperation between the Iraqis and Americans by 1987, the attack had little effect on relations between the two countries.===U.S.", "military actions toward Iran===U.S.", "attention was focused on isolating Iran as well as maintaining freedom of navigation.", "It criticised Iran's mining of international waters, and sponsored UN Security Council Resolution 598, which passed unanimously on 20 July, under which the U.S. and Iranian forces skirmished during Operation Earnest Will.", "During Operation Nimble Archer in October 1987, the United States attacked Iranian oil platforms in retaliation for an Iranian attack on the U.S.-flagged Kuwaiti tanker ''Sea Isle City''.On 14 April 1988, the frigate was badly damaged by an Iranian mine, and 10 sailors were wounded.", "U.S. forces responded with Operation Praying Mantis on 18 April, the U.S. Navy's largest engagement of surface warships since World War II.", "Two Iranian oil platforms were destroyed, and five Iranian warships and gunboats were sunk.", "An American helicopter also crashed.====U.S.", "shoots down civilian airliner====In the course of escorts by the U.S. Navy, the cruiser shot down Iran Air Flight 655 on 3 July 1988, killing all 290 passengers and crew on board.", "The American government claimed that ''Vincennes'' was in international waters at the time (which was later proven to be untrue), that the Airbus A300 had been mistaken for an Iranian F-14 Tomcat, and that ''Vincennes'' feared that she was under attack.", "The Iranians maintain that ''Vincennes'' was in their own waters, and that the passenger jet was turning away and increasing altitude after take-off.", "U.S. Admiral William J. Crowe later admitted on ''Nightline'' that ''Vincennes'' was in Iranian territorial waters when it launched the missiles.", "At the time of the attack, Admiral Crowe claimed that the Iranian plane did not identify itself and sent no response to warning signals he had sent.", "In 1996, the United States expressed their regret for the event and the civilian deaths it caused." ], [ "Iraq's use of chemical weapons", "+ Usage of chemical weapons by Iraq against IranYearNumber of usageChemical agent usedCasualties* Killed Injured19804Yes20119816101198212198364YesYesYes402,2251985767711,64419861021024,7201987434429,440198834 * The actual casualties may be much higher, as the latency period is as long as 40 years.In a declassified 1991 report, the CIA estimated that Iran had suffered more than 50,000 casualties from Iraq's use of several chemical weapons, though current estimates are more than 100,000 as the long-term effects continue to cause casualties.", "The official CIA estimate did not include the civilian population contaminated in bordering towns or the children and relatives of veterans, many of whom have developed blood, lung and skin complications, according to the Organization for Veterans of Iran.", "According to a 2002 article in the ''Star-Ledger'', 20,000 Iranian soldiers were killed on the spot by nerve gas.", "As of 2002, 5,000 of the 80,000 survivors continue to seek regular medical treatment, while 1,000 are hospital inpatients.According to Iraqi documents, assistance in developing chemical weapons was obtained from firms in many countries, including the United States, West Germany, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and France.", "A report stated that Dutch, Australian, Italian, French and both West and East German companies were involved in the export of raw materials to Iraqi chemical weapons factories.", "Declassified CIA documents show that the United States was providing reconnaissance intelligence to Iraq around 1987–88 which was then used to launch chemical weapon attacks on Iranian troops and that the CIA fully knew that chemical weapons would be deployed and sarin and cyclosarin attacks followed.On 21 March 1986, the United Nations Security Council made a declaration stating that \"members are profoundly concerned by the unanimous conclusion of the specialists that chemical weapons on many occasions have been used by Iraqi forces against Iranian troops, and the members of the Council strongly condemn this continued use of chemical weapons in clear violation of the Geneva Protocol of 1925, which prohibits the use in war of chemical weapons.\"", "The United States was the only member who voted against the issuance of this statement.", "A mission to the region in 1988 found evidence of the use of chemical weapons, and was condemned in Security Council Resolution 612.Victims of the 1987 chemical attack on Sardasht, West Azerbaijan, IranAccording to W. Patrick Lang, senior defense intelligence officer at the U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency, \"the use of gas on the battlefield by the Iraqis was not a matter of deep strategic concern\" to Reagan and his aides, because they \"were desperate to make sure that Iraq did not lose\".", "He claimed that the Defense Intelligence Agency \"would have never accepted the use of chemical weapons against civilians, but the use against military objectives was seen as inevitable in the Iraqi struggle for survival\".", "The Reagan administration did not stop aiding Iraq after receiving reports of the use of poison gas on Kurdish civilians.The United States accused Iran of using chemical weapons as well, though the allegations have been disputed.", "Joost Hiltermann, the principal researcher for Human Rights Watch between 1992 and 1994, conducted a two-year study that included a field investigation in Iraq, and obtained Iraqi government documents in the process.", "According to Hiltermann, the literature on the Iran–Iraq War reflects allegations of chemical weapons used by Iran, but they are \"marred by a lack of specificity as to time and place, and the failure to provide any sort of evidence\".Analysts Gary Sick and Lawrence Potter have called the allegations against Iran \"mere assertions\" and stated, \"No persuasive evidence of the claim that Iran was the primary culprit of using chemical weapons was ever presented.\"", "Policy consultant and author Joseph Tragert stated, \"Iran did not retaliate with chemical weapons, probably because it did not possess any at the time\".", "Documents uncovered after the 2003 invasion of Iraq show that Iraqi military intelligence was not aware of any large-scale chemical attacks by Iranian forces, although a March 1987 document describes five small-scale chemical attacks perpetrated by the Iranians (four involving mustard gas and one involving phosgene, with the likely source being captured Iraqi munitions), and there are also reports of Iranian use of tear gas and white phosphorus.At his trial in December 2006, Saddam said he would take responsibility \"with honour\" for any attacks on Iran using conventional or chemical weapons during the war, but that he took issue with the charges that he ordered attacks on Iraqis.", "A medical analysis of the effects of Iraqi mustard gas is described in a U.S. military textbook and contrasted effects of World War I gas.At the time of the conflict, the United Nations Security Council issued statements that \"chemical weapons had been used in the war\".", "UN statements never clarified that only Iraq was using chemical weapons, and according to retrospective authors \"the international community remained silent as Iraq used weapons of mass destruction against Iranians as well as Iraqi Kurds.\"", "A 1987 UN report conducted at the behest of both belligerents discovered weapon fragments that established Iraqi responsibility for chemical attacks on Iranian soldiers and civilians, but could not substantiate Iraq's allegations of Iranian chemical weapons use: \"Iraqi forces have been affected by mustard gas and a pulmonary element, possibly phosgene.", "In the absence of conclusive evidence of the weapons used, it could not be determined how the injuries were caused.", "\"Evidence suggests that these Iraqi chemical casualties were likely the result of \"blowback,\" whereas the evidence that Iraq submitted to the UN—such as two Iranian 130 mm shells that UN specialists found had \"no internal chemical-resistant coating\" and were \"normally used for filling with high explosives\"—did not withstand scrutiny; UN official Iqbal Riza later acknowledged that Iraq's evidence was \"clearly fabricated.\"", "However, the report's phrasing—\"chemical weapons were again used against Iranian forces by Iraqi forces ... now also Iraqi forces have sustained injuries from chemical warfare\"—contributed to an erroneous perception that Iran and Iraq were equally at fault.In response to further Iraqi chemical attacks on Kurdish civilians after the August 1988 ceasefire with Iran, United States senators Claiborne Pell and Jesse Helms called for comprehensive economic sanctions against Iraq, including an oil embargo and severe limitations on the export of dual-use technology.", "Although the ensuing legislation passed in the U.S. Senate, it faced strong opposition within the House of Representatives and did not become law.", "In a rare rebuke, Secretary of State George Shultz condemned Iraq's \"unjustified and abhorrent\" chemical attacks, which Shultz's assistant Charles E. Redman characterized as \"unacceptable to the civilized world.\"", "Even after these pronouncements, however, the State Department advised against sanctions." ], [ "{{anchor|Distinctions and peculiarity}} Comparison to other conflicts", "Bruce Riedel describes the Iran–Iraq War as \"one of the largest and longest conventional interstate wars\" of the twentieth century and \"the only war in modern times in which chemical weapons were used on a massive scale.\"", "Kanan Makiya writes that \"there has not been anything like it in the long history of Iraqi–Iranian relations, just like there had been nothing like World War I in the history of Europe.", "\"Iran's attack on the ''Osirak'' nuclear reactor in September 1980 was the first attack on a nuclear reactor and one of only a small handful of military attacks on nuclear facilities in history.", "It was also the first instance of a pre-emptive attack on a nuclear reactor to forestall the development of a nuclear weapon, though it did not achieve its objective, as France repaired the reactor after the attack.", "(It took a second pre-emptive strike by the Israeli Air Force in June 1981 to disable the reactor, killing a French engineer in the process and causing France to pull out of ''Osirak''.", "The decommissioning of ''Osirak'' has been cited as causing a substantial delay to Iraqi acquisition of nuclear weapons.", ")The Iran–Iraq War was the first conflict in the history of warfare in which both forces used ballistic missiles against each other.", "This war also saw the only confirmed air-to-air helicopter battles in history with the Iraqi Mi-25s flying against Iranian AH-1J SeaCobras (supplied by the United States before the Iranian Revolution) on several separate occasions.", "In November 1980, not long after Iraq's initial invasion of Iran, two Iranian SeaCobras engaged two Mi-25s with TOW wire-guided antitank missiles.", "One Mi-25 went down immediately, the other was badly damaged and crashed before reaching base.The Iranians repeated this accomplishment on 24 April 1981, destroying two Mi-25s without incurring losses to themselves.", "One Mi-25 was also downed by an Iranian F-14A Tomcat.", "The Iraqis hit back, claiming the destruction of a SeaCobra on 14 September 1983 (with YaKB machine gun), then three SeaCobras on 5 February 1984 and three more on 25 February 1984 (two with Falanga missiles, one with S-5 rockets).", "After a lull in helicopter losses, each side lost a gunship on 13 February 1986.Later, a Mi-25 claimed a SeaCobra shot down with YaKB gun on 16 February, and a SeaCobra claimed a Mi-25 shot down with rockets on 18 February.The last engagement between the two types was on 22 May 1986, when Mi-25s shot down a SeaCobra.", "The final claim tally was 10 SeaCobras and 6 Mi-25s destroyed.", "The relatively small numbers and the inevitable disputes over actual kill numbers makes it unclear if one gunship had a real technical superiority over the other.", "Iraqi Mi-25s also claimed 43 kills against other Iranian helicopters, such as Agusta-Bell UH-1 Hueys.", "Both sides, especially Iraq, also carried out air and missile attacks against population centres.In October 1986, Iraqi aircraft began to attack civilian passenger trains and aircraft on Iranian soil, including an Iran Air Boeing 737 unloading passengers at Shiraz International Airport.", "In retaliation for the Iranian Operation Karbala 5, Iraq attacked 65 cities in 226 sorties over 42 days, bombing civilian neighbourhoods.", "Eight Iranian cities came under attack from Iraqi missiles.", "The bombings killed 65 children in an elementary school in Borujerd.", "The Iranians responded with Scud missile attacks on Baghdad and struck a primary school there.", "These events became known as the \"War of the Cities\".The \"War of the Cities\" resumed and peaked in 1988, when Iraq dropped 40 tons of high explosives on Tehran using modified Scud missiles (dubbed \"al-Husayn\" missiles) over seven weeks, causing panic among civilians and prompting almost 1 million residents of Tehran to temporarily flee their homes.", "Nevertheless, scholars have noted that this still \"ranks as one of the smallest strategic bombing campaigns in history,\" paling in comparison to strategic bombing during World War II, which saw 1.2 million tons of bombs dropped on German cities in 1944 alone, or more recent events such as the so-called \"Christmas bombings\" of North Vietnam, which saw 20,000 tons of bombs dropped on Hanoi and Haiphong in a mere eleven days.", "In total, 10,000–11,000 civilians died as a result of the aerial bombardment of Iranian cities with the majority of those deaths occurring in the final year of the war.Despite the war, Iran and Iraq maintained diplomatic relations and embassies in each other's countries until mid-1987.Iran's government used human waves to attack enemy troops and even in some cases to clear minefields.", "Children volunteered as well.", "Some reports mistakenly have the Basijis marching into battle while marking their expected entry to heaven by wearing \"Plastic Keys to Paradise\" around their necks, although other analysts regard this story as a hoax involving a misinterpretation of the carrying of a prayer book called \"The Keys to Paradise\"(Mafatih al-Janan) by Sheikh Abbas Qumi given to all volunteers.According to journalist Robin Wright:During the Fateh offensive in February 1987, I toured the southwest front on the Iranian side and saw scores of boys, aged anywhere from nine to sixteen, who said with staggering and seemingly genuine enthusiasm that they had volunteered to become martyrs.", "Regular army troops, the paramilitary Revolutionary Guards and mullahs all lauded these youths, known as baseeji Basij, for having played the most dangerous role in breaking through Iraqi lines.", "They had led the way, running over fields of mines to clear the ground for the Iranian ground assault.", "Wearing white headbands to signify the embracing of death, and shouting \"Shaheed, shaheed\" (Martyr, martyr) they literally blew their way into heaven.", "Their numbers were never disclosed.", "But a walk through the residential suburbs of Iranian cities provided a clue.", "Window after window, block after block, displayed black-bordered photographs of teenage or preteen youths." ], [ "Iran and Iraq's modern relationship", "The relationship between Iraq and Iran has warmed immensely since the downfall of Saddam Hussein, out of mostly pragmatic interests, as they share a common enemy in the Islamic State.", "Significant military assistance has been provided by Iran to Iraq, resulting in Iran holding a large amount of political influence in Iraq's newly elected Shia government.", "Iraq is also heavily dependent on the more stable and developed Iran for its energy needs, so a stable Iraq is an interest for Iran, foreign policy wise.rightThe Iran–Iraq War is regarded as being a major trigger for rising sectarianism in the region, as it was viewed by many as a clash between Sunni Muslims (Ba'athist Iraq and other Arab States) and the Shia revolutionaries that had recently taken power in Iran.", "There remains lingering animosity however despite the pragmatic alliance that has been formed as multiple government declarations from Iran have stated that the war will \"affect every issue of internal and foreign policy\" for decades to come.The sustained importance of this conflict is attributed mostly to the massive human and economic cost resulting from it, along with its ties to the Iranian Revolution.", "Another significant effect that the war has on Iran's policy is the issue of remaining war reparations.", "The UN estimates that Iraq owes about $149 billion, while Iran contends that, with both the direct and indirect effects taken into account, the cost of the war reaches a trillion.Iran has not vocalized the desire for these reparations in recent years, and has even suggested forms of financial aid.", "This is due most likely to Iran's interest in keeping Iraq politically stable, and imposing these reparation costs would further burden the already impoverished nation.", "The most important factor that governs Iraq's current foreign policy is the national government's consistent fragility following the overthrow of Saddam Hussein.", "Iraq's need for any and all allies that can help bring stability and bring development has allowed Iran to exert significant influence over the new Iraqi state despite lingering memories of the war.Currently, Iraq is between two opposing interests, one with Iran, who can provide a reliable source of power as well as military support to the influential Shia militias and political factions, and the other with the United States, who can offer Iraq significant economic aid packages, along with military support in the form of air and artillery strikes.", "If Iraq is seen to be pulled too far into one side's orbit, then the benefits offered to them by the other side will likely be gradually reduced or cut off completely.", "Another significant factor influencing relations is the shared cultural interests of Iraq and Iran's citizens to freely visit the multitude of holy sites located in each country." ], [ "Legacy and memory", "The war is known in Iran as the (\"Sacred Defence\") and the '''' (\"the Imposed War\").", "The war is known in the Arab world and a few other regions as the ''First Gulf War'' ().", "That name, or simply the 'Gulf War', was used by Western sources also, until it was used to refer to the conflict between the American-led coalition and Iraq in 1991.The Iran–Iraq War was rarely referred to as the ''Persian Gulf War'' until the 1990–1991 Persian Gulf War, after which the previous war was dubbed the ''First Persian Gulf War''.Besides the Iran-Iraq war, the 1990 Iraq–Kuwait conflict, as well as The Iraq War from 2003 to 2011 have all been called the ''Second Persian Gulf War''.", "State media in Iraq dubbed the war ''Saddam's Qadisiyyah'' (, ''''), in reference to the seventh-century Battle of al-Qādisiyyah, in which Arab warriors overcame the Sasanian Empire during the Muslim conquest of Iran.", "\"We are armed with Allahu Akbar\", the 1979 Iranian Islamic revolutionary military march song performed by IRGC troops in front of Ayatollah Khomeini in Jamaran Husinie, made a cultural impact during the war." ], [ "See also", "===Notable Iranian veterans======Notable Iranian casualties======Notable Iraqi casualties===*Juwad Shitnah*Mohammed Rayyan===Persons======Memoirs===* ''Eternal Fragrance (Last Sunday)''* ''Noureddin, Son of Iran''* ''One Woman's War: Da (Mother)''===Stories===* ''A City Under Siege: Tales of the Iran-Iraq War''* ''Persepolis''===Relevant conflicts===* Al-Fakkah Field dispute* Baluchi Autonomist Movement* List of modern conflicts in the Middle East" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * (syndicated by New York Times Syndication Sales, 1987, published in book form as \"Öl ins Feuer Internationale Waffengeschäfte im Golfkrieg\" Orell Füssli Verlag Zürich and Wiesbaden 1988 *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Chubin, Shahram, and Charles Tripp.", "''Iran and Iraq at War'' (Routledge, 2020) online review* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Iran-Iraq: Background to the War (Video on YouTube: AP Archive)* Iran-Iraq War; Photos by Alfred Yaghobzadeh" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Incremental reading" ], [ "Introduction", "Introduction to incremental reading by SuperMemo 15 FreewareAnki add-on: extracting a portion out of an article and creating a cloze deletion'''Incremental reading''' is a software-assisted method for learning and retaining information from reading, which involves the creation of flashcards out of electronic articles.", "\"Incremental reading\" means \"reading in portions\".", "Instead of a linear reading of articles one at a time, the method works by keeping a large list of electronic articles or books (often dozens or hundreds) and reading parts of several articles in each session.", "The user prioritizes articles in the reading list.", "During reading, key points of articles are broken up into flashcards, which are then learned and reviewed over an extended period with the help of a spaced repetition algorithm.This use of flashcards at later stages of the process is based on the spacing effect (the phenomenon whereby learning is greater when studying is spread out over time) and the testing effect (the finding that long-term memory is increased when some of the learning periods are devoted to retrieving the to-be-remembered information through testing).", "It targets people trying to learn for life a large amount of information, particularly if it comes from various sources." ], [ "History", "The method itself is often credited to the Polish software developer Piotr Woźniak.", "He implemented the first version of incremental reading in 1999 in SuperMemo 99, providing the essential tools of the method: a prioritized reading list and the possibility to extract portions of articles and to create cloze deletions.", "The term \"incremental reading\" itself appeared the following year with SuperMemo 2000.Later SuperMemo programmes subsequently enhanced the tools and techniques involved, such as webpage imports, material overload handling, etc.Limited incremental reading support for the text editor Emacs appeared in 2007.An Anki add-on for incremental reading was later published in 2011; for Anki 2.0 and 2.1, another add-on is available.Incremental reading was the first of a series of related concepts invented by Piotr Woźniak: incremental image learning, incremental video, incremental audio, incremental mail processing, incremental problem solving, and incremental writing.", "\"Incremental learning\" is the term Wozniak uses to refer to those concepts." ], [ "Method", "When reading an electronic article, the user extracts the most important parts (similar to underlining or highlighting a paper article) and gradually distills them into flashcards.", "Flashcards are information presented in a question-answer format (making active recall possible).", "Cloze deletions are often used in incremental reading, as they are easy to create from the text.", "Both extracts and flashcards are scheduled independently from the original article.With time and reviews, articles are supposed to be gradually converted into extracts and extracts into flashcards.", "Hence, incremental reading is a method of breaking down information from electronic articles into sets of flashcards.Contrary to extracts, flashcards are reviewed with active recall.", "This means that extracts such as \"George Washington was the first U.S. president\" must ultimately be converted into questions such as \"Who was the first U.S.", "president?\"", "(Answer: George Washington), or \"Who was George Washington?\"", "(Answer: the first U.S. president), etc., or cloze deletions such as \"BLANK was the first U.S. president\", \"George Washington was BLANK\", etc.This flashcard creation process is semi-automated – the reader chooses which material to learn and edits the precise wording of the questions.", "In contrast, the software assists in prioritizing articles and making the flashcards and does the scheduling: it calculates the time for the reader to review each chunk according to the rules of a spaced repetition algorithm.", "This means that all processed pieces of information are presented at increasing intervals.Individual articles are read in portions proportional to the attention span, which depends on the user, their mood, the article, etc.", "This allows for a substantial gain in attention, according to Piotr Wozniak.Without spaced repetition, the reader would quickly get lost in the glut of information when studying dozens of subjects in parallel.", "However, spaced repetition makes it possible to retain traces of the processed material in memory." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Kevin Purdy, ''Use Incremental Reading to Memorize Large Batches of Data'' (lifehacker.com)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Intelligence quotient" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''intelligence quotient''' ('''IQ''') is a total score derived from a set of standardised tests or subtests designed to assess human intelligence.", "The abbreviation \"IQ\" was coined by the psychologist William Stern for the German term , his term for a scoring method for intelligence tests at University of Breslau he advocated in a 1912 book.Historically, IQ was a score obtained by dividing a person's mental age score, obtained by administering an intelligence test, by the person's chronological age, both expressed in terms of years and months.", "The resulting fraction (quotient) was multiplied by 100 to obtain the IQ score.", "For modern IQ tests, the raw score is transformed to a normal distribution with mean 100 and standard deviation 15.This results in approximately two-thirds of the population scoring between IQ 85 and IQ 115 and about 2 percent each above 130 and below 70.Scores from intelligence tests are estimates of intelligence.", "Unlike, for example, distance and mass, a concrete measure of intelligence cannot be achieved given the abstract nature of the concept of \"intelligence\".", "IQ scores have been shown to be associated with such factors as nutrition, parental socioeconomic status, morbidity and mortality, parental social status, and perinatal environment.", "While the heritability of IQ has been investigated for nearly a century, there is still debate about the significance of heritability estimates and the mechanisms of inheritance.IQ scores are used for educational placement, assessment of intellectual disability, and evaluating job applicants.", "In research contexts, they have been studied as predictors of job performance and income.", "They are also used to study distributions of psychometric intelligence in populations and the correlations between it and other variables.", "Raw scores on IQ tests for many populations have been rising at an average rate that scales to three IQ points per decade since the early 20th century, a phenomenon called the Flynn effect.", "Investigation of different patterns of increases in subtest scores can also inform current research on human intelligence." ], [ "History", "===Precursors to IQ testing===Historically, even before IQ tests were devised, there were attempts to classify people into intelligence categories by observing their behavior in daily life.", "Those other forms of behavioral observation are still important for validating classifications based primarily on IQ test scores.", "Both intelligence classification by observation of behavior outside the testing room and classification by IQ testing depend on the definition of \"intelligence\" used in a particular case and on the reliability and error of estimation in the classification procedure.The English statistician Francis Galton (1822–1911) made the first attempt at creating a standardized test for rating a person's intelligence.", "A pioneer of psychometrics and the application of statistical methods to the study of human diversity and the study of inheritance of human traits, he believed that intelligence was largely a product of heredity (by which he did not mean genes, although he did develop several pre-Mendelian theories of particulate inheritance).", "He hypothesized that there should exist a correlation between intelligence and other observable traits such as reflexes, muscle grip, and head size.", "He set up the first mental testing center in the world in 1882 and he published \"Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development\" in 1883, in which he set out his theories.", "After gathering data on a variety of physical variables, he was unable to show any such correlation, and he eventually abandoned this research.Psychologist Alfred Binet, co-developer of the Stanford–Binet testFrench psychologist Alfred Binet, together with Victor Henri and Théodore Simon, had more success in 1905, when they published the Binet–Simon test, which focused on verbal abilities.", "It was intended to identify \"mental retardation\" in school children, but in specific contradistinction to claims made by psychiatrists that these children were \"sick\" (not \"slow\") and should therefore be removed from school and cared for in asylums.", "The score on the Binet–Simon scale would reveal the child's mental age.", "For example, a six-year-old child who passed all the tasks usually passed by six-year-olds—but nothing beyond—would have a mental age that matched his chronological age, 6.0.", "(Fancher, 1985).", "Binet thought that intelligence was multifaceted, but came under the control of practical judgment.In Binet's view, there were limitations with the scale and he stressed what he saw as the remarkable diversity of intelligence and the subsequent need to study it using qualitative, as opposed to quantitative, measures (White, 2000).", "American psychologist Henry H. Goddard published a translation of it in 1910.American psychologist Lewis Terman at Stanford University revised the Binet–Simon scale, which resulted in the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales (1916).", "It became the most popular test in the United States for decades.===General factor (''g'')===The many different kinds of IQ tests include a wide variety of item content.", "Some test items are visual, while many are verbal.", "Test items vary from being based on abstract-reasoning problems to concentrating on arithmetic, vocabulary, or general knowledge.The British psychologist Charles Spearman in 1904 made the first formal factor analysis of correlations between the tests.", "He observed that children's school grades across seemingly unrelated school subjects were positively correlated, and reasoned that these correlations reflected the influence of an underlying general mental ability that entered into performance on all kinds of mental tests.", "He suggested that all mental performance could be conceptualized in terms of a single general ability factor and a large number of narrow task-specific ability factors.", "Spearman named it ''g'' for \"general factor\" and labeled the specific factors or abilities for specific tasks ''s''.", "In any collection of test items that make up an IQ test, the score that best measures ''g'' is the composite score that has the highest correlations with all the item scores.", "Typically, the \"''g''-loaded\" composite score of an IQ test battery appears to involve a common strength in abstract reasoning across the test's item content.===United States military selection in World War I===During World War I, the Army needed a way to evaluate and assign recruits to appropriate tasks.", "This led to the development of several mental tests by Robert Yerkes, who worked with major hereditarians of American psychometrics—including Terman, Goddard—to write the test.", "The testing generated controversy and much public debate in the United States.", "Nonverbal or \"performance\" tests were developed for those who could not speak English or were suspected of malingering.", "Based on Goddard's translation of the Binet–Simon test, the tests had an impact in screening men for officer training:...the tests did have a strong impact in some areas, particularly in screening men for officer training.", "At the start of the war, the army and national guard maintained nine thousand officers.", "By the end, two hundred thousand officers presided, and two- thirds of them had started their careers in training camps where the tests were applied.", "In some camps, no man scoring below C could be considered for officer training.In total 1.75 million men were tested, making the results the first mass-produced written tests of intelligence, though considered dubious and non-usable, for reasons including high variability of test implementation throughout different camps and questions testing for familiarity with American culture rather than intelligence.", "After the war, positive publicity promoted by army psychologists helped to make psychology a respected field.", "Subsequently, there was an increase in jobs and funding in psychology in the United States.", "Group intelligence tests were developed and became widely used in schools and industry.The results of these tests, which at the time reaffirmed contemporary racism and nationalism, are considered controversial and dubious, having rested on certain contested assumptions: that intelligence was heritable, innate, and could be relegated to a single number, the tests were enacted systematically, and test questions actually tested for innate intelligence rather than subsuming environmental factors.", "The tests also allowed for the bolstering of jingoist narratives in the context of increased immigration, which may have influenced the passing of the Immigration Restriction Act of 1924.L.L.", "Thurstone argued for a model of intelligence that included seven unrelated factors (verbal comprehension, word fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, associative memory, perceptual speed, reasoning, and induction).", "While not widely used, Thurstone's model influenced later theories.David Wechsler produced the first version of his test in 1939.It gradually became more popular and overtook the Stanford–Binet in the 1960s.", "It has been revised several times, as is common for IQ tests, to incorporate new research.", "One explanation is that psychologists and educators wanted more information than the single score from the Binet.", "Wechsler's ten or more subtests provided this.", "Another is that the Stanford–Binet test reflected mostly verbal abilities, while the Wechsler test also reflected nonverbal abilities.", "The Stanford–Binet has also been revised several times and is now similar to the Wechsler in several aspects, but the Wechsler continues to be the most popular test in the United States.===IQ testing and the eugenics movement in the United States===Eugenics, a set of beliefs and practices aimed at improving the genetic quality of the human population by excluding people and groups judged to be inferior and promoting those judged to be superior, played a significant role in the history and culture of the United States during the Progressive Era, from the late 19th century until US involvement in World War II.The American eugenics movement was rooted in the biological determinist ideas of the British Scientist Sir Francis Galton.", "In 1883, Galton first used the word eugenics to describe the biological improvement of human genes and the concept of being \"well-born\".", "He believed that differences in a person's ability were acquired primarily through genetics and that eugenics could be implemented through selective breeding in order for the human race to improve in its overall quality, therefore allowing for humans to direct their own evolution.Henry H. Goddard was a eugenicist.", "In 1908, he published his own version, ''The Binet and Simon Test of Intellectual Capacity'', and cordially promoted the test.", "He quickly extended the use of the scale to the public schools (1913), to immigration (Ellis Island, 1914) and to a court of law (1914).Unlike Galton, who promoted eugenics through selective breeding for positive traits, Goddard went with the US eugenics movement to eliminate \"undesirable\" traits.", "Goddard used the term \"feeble-minded\" to refer to people who did not perform well on the test.", "He argued that \"feeble-mindedness\" was caused by heredity, and thus feeble-minded people should be prevented from giving birth, either by institutional isolation or sterilization surgeries.", "At first, sterilization targeted the disabled, but was later extended to poor people.", "Goddard's intelligence test was endorsed by the eugenicists to push for laws for forced sterilization.", "Different states adopted the sterilization laws at different paces.", "These laws, whose constitutionality was upheld by the Supreme Court in their 1927 ruling Buck v. Bell, forced over 60,000 people to go through sterilization in the United States.California's sterilization program was so effective that the Nazis turned to the government for advice on how to prevent the birth of the \"unfit\".", "While the US eugenics movement lost much of its momentum in the 1940s in view of the horrors of Nazi Germany, advocates of eugenics (including Nazi geneticist Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer) continued to work and promote their ideas in the United States.", "In later decades, some eugenic principles have made a resurgence as a voluntary means of selective reproduction, with some calling them \"new eugenics\".", "As it becomes possible to test for and correlate genes with IQ (and its proxies), ethicists and embryonic genetic testing companies are attempting to understand the ways in which the technology can be ethically deployed.===Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory===Psychologist Raymond Cattell defined fluid and crystallized intelligence and authored the Cattell Culture Fair III IQ test.Raymond Cattell (1941) proposed two types of cognitive abilities in a revision of Spearman's concept of general intelligence.", "Fluid intelligence (Gf) was hypothesized as the ability to solve novel problems by using reasoning, and crystallized intelligence (Gc) was hypothesized as a knowledge-based ability that was very dependent on education and experience.", "In addition, fluid intelligence was hypothesized to decline with age, while crystallized intelligence was largely resistant to the effects of aging.", "The theory was almost forgotten, but was revived by his student John L. Horn (1966) who later argued Gf and Gc were only two among several factors, and who eventually identified nine or ten broad abilities.", "The theory continued to be called Gf-Gc theory.John B. Carroll (1993), after a comprehensive reanalysis of earlier data, proposed the three stratum theory, which is a hierarchical model with three levels.", "The bottom stratum consists of narrow abilities that are highly specialized (e.g., induction, spelling ability).", "The second stratum consists of broad abilities.", "Carroll identified eight second-stratum abilities.", "Carroll accepted Spearman's concept of general intelligence, for the most part, as a representation of the uppermost, third stratum.In 1999, a merging of the Gf-Gc theory of Cattell and Horn with Carroll's Three-Stratum theory has led to the Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory (CHC Theory), with ''g'' as the top of the hierarchy, ten broad abilities below, and further subdivided into seventy narrow abilities on the third stratum.", "CHC Theory has greatly influenced many of the current broad IQ tests.Modern tests do not necessarily measure all of these broad abilities.", "For example, ''quantitative knowledge'' and ''reading & writing ability'' may be seen as measures of school achievement and not IQ.", "''Decision speed'' may be difficult to measure without special equipment.", "''g'' was earlier often subdivided into only Gf and Gc, which were thought to correspond to the nonverbal or performance subtests and verbal subtests in earlier versions of the popular Wechsler IQ test.", "More recent research has shown the situation to be more complex.", "Modern comprehensive IQ tests do not stop at reporting a single IQ score.", "Although they still give an overall score, they now also give scores for many of these more restricted abilities, identifying particular strengths and weaknesses of an individual.===Other theories===An alternative to standard IQ tests, meant to test the proximal development of children, originated in the writings of psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) during his last two years of his life.", "According to Vygotsky, the maximum level of complexity and difficulty of problems that a child is capable to solve under some guidance indicates their level of potential development.", "The difference between this level of potential and the lower level of unassisted performance indicates the child's zone of proximal development.", "Combination of the two indexesthe level of actual and the zone of the proximal developmentaccording to Vygotsky, provides a significantly more informative indicator of psychological development than the assessment of the level of actual development alone.", "His ideas on the zone of development were later developed in a number of psychological and educational theories and practices, most notably under the banner of dynamic assessment, which seeks to measure developmental potential (for instance, in the work of Reuven Feuerstein and his associates, who has criticized standard IQ testing for its putative assumption or acceptance of \"fixed and immutable\" characteristics of intelligence or cognitive functioning).", "Dynamic assessment has been further elaborated in the work of Ann Brown, and John D. Bransford and in theories of multiple intelligences authored by Howard Gardner and Robert Sternberg.J.P.", "Guilford's Structure of Intellect (1967) model of intelligence used three dimensions, which, when combined, yielded a total of 120 types of intelligence.", "It was popular in the 1970s and early 1980s, but faded owing to both practical problems and theoretical criticisms.Alexander Luria's earlier work on neuropsychological processes led to the PASS theory (1997).", "It argued that only looking at one general factor was inadequate for researchers and clinicians who worked with learning disabilities, attention disorders, intellectual disability, and interventions for such disabilities.", "The PASS model covers four kinds of processes (planning process, attention/arousal process, simultaneous processing, and successive processing).", "The planning processes involve decision making, problem solving, and performing activities and require goal setting and self-monitoring.The attention/arousal process involves selectively attending to a particular stimulus, ignoring distractions, and maintaining vigilance.", "Simultaneous processing involves the integration of stimuli into a group and requires the observation of relationships.", "Successive processing involves the integration of stimuli into serial order.", "The planning and attention/arousal components comes from structures located in the frontal lobe, and the simultaneous and successive processes come from structures located in the posterior region of the cortex.", "It has influenced some recent IQ tests, and been seen as a complement to the Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory described above." ], [ "Current tests", "Normalized IQ distribution with mean 100 and standard deviation 15There are a variety of individually administered IQ tests in use in the English-speaking world.", "The most commonly used individual IQ test series is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) for adults and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) for school-age test-takers.", "Other commonly used individual IQ tests (some of which do not label their standard scores as \"IQ\" scores) include the current versions of the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales, Woodcock–Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities, the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, the Cognitive Assessment System, and the Differential Ability Scales.There are various other IQ tests, including:# Raven's Progressive Matrices# Cattell Culture Fair III# Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales# Thurstone's Primary Mental Abilities# Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test# Multidimensional Aptitude Battery II# Das–Naglieri cognitive assessment system# Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test#Wide Range Intelligence TestIQ scales are ordinally scaled.", "The raw score of the norming sample is usually (rank order) transformed to a normal distribution with mean 100 and standard deviation 15.While one standard deviation is 15 points, and two SDs are 30 points, and so on, this does not imply that mental ability is linearly related to IQ, such that IQ 50 would mean half the cognitive ability of IQ 100.In particular, IQ points are not percentage points." ], [ "Reliability and validity", "+ IQ scores can differ to some degree for the same person on different IQ tests, so a person does not always belong to the same IQ score range each time the person is tested.", "(IQ score table data and pupil pseudonyms adapted from description of KABC-II norming study cited in .", ")PupilKABC-IIWISC-IIIWJ-IIIA9095111B125110105C10093101D116127118E9310593F106105105G9510090H112113103I1049697J1019986K817875L116124102===Reliability===Psychometricians generally regard IQ tests as having high statistical reliability.", "Reliability represents the measurement consistency of a test.", "A reliable test produces similar scores upon repetition.", "On aggregate, IQ tests exhibit high reliability, although test-takers may have varying scores when taking the same test on differing occasions, and may have varying scores when taking different IQ tests at the same age.", "Like all statistical quantities, any particular estimate of IQ has an associated standard error that measures uncertainty about the estimate.", "For modern tests, the confidence interval can be approximately 10 points and reported standard error of measurement can be as low as about three points.", "Reported standard error may be an underestimate, as it does not account for all sources of error.Outside influences such as low motivation or high anxiety can occasionally lower a person's IQ test score.", "For individuals with very low scores, the 95% confidence interval may be greater than 40 points, potentially complicating the accuracy of diagnoses of intellectual disability.", "By the same token, high IQ scores are also significantly less reliable than those near to the population median.", "Reports of IQ scores much higher than 160 are considered dubious.===Validity as a measure of intelligence===Reliability and validity are very different concepts.", "While reliability reflects reproducibility, validity refers to whether the test measures what it purports to measure.", "While IQ tests are generally considered to measure some forms of intelligence, they may fail to serve as an accurate measure of broader definitions of human intelligence inclusive of, for example, creativity and social intelligence.", "For this reason, psychologist Wayne Weiten argues that their construct validity must be carefully qualified, and not be overstated.", "According to Weiten, \"IQ tests are valid measures of the kind of intelligence necessary to do well in academic work.", "But if the purpose is to assess intelligence in a broader sense, the validity of IQ tests is questionable.", "\"Some scientists have disputed the value of IQ as a measure of intelligence altogether.", "In ''The Mismeasure of Man'' (1981, expanded edition 1996), evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould compared IQ testing with the now-discredited practice of determining intelligence via craniometry, arguing that both are based on the fallacy of reification, \"our tendency to convert abstract concepts into entities\".", "Gould's argument sparked a great deal of debate, and the book is listed as one of ''Discover Magazine''s \"25 Greatest Science Books of All Time\".Along these same lines, critics such as Keith Stanovich do not dispute the capacity of IQ test scores to predict some kinds of achievement, but argue that basing a concept of intelligence on IQ test scores alone neglects other important aspects of mental ability.", "Robert Sternberg, another significant critic of IQ as the main measure of human cognitive abilities, argued that reducing the concept of intelligence to the measure of ''g'' does not fully account for the different skills and knowledge types that produce success in human society.Despite these objections, clinical psychologists generally regard IQ scores as having sufficient statistical validity for many clinical purposes.===Test bias or differential item functioning===Differential item functioning (DIF), sometimes referred to as measurement bias, is a phenomenon when participants from different groups (e.g.", "gender, race, disability) with the same latent abilities give different answers to specific questions on the same IQ test.", "DIF analysis measures such specific items on a test alongside measuring participants' latent abilities on other similar questions.", "A consistent different group response to a specific question among similar types of questions can indicate an effect of DIF.", "It does not count as differential item functioning if both groups have an equally valid chance of giving different responses to the same questions.", "Such bias can be a result of culture, educational level and other factors that are independent of group traits.", "DIF is only considered if test-takers from different groups ''with the same underlying latent ability level'' have a different chance of giving specific responses.", "Such questions are usually removed in order to make the test equally fair for both groups.", "Common techniques for analyzing DIF are item response theory (IRT) based methods, Mantel-Haenszel, and logistic regression.A 2005 study found that \"differential validity in prediction suggests that the WAIS-R test may contain cultural influences that reduce the validity of the WAIS-R as a measure of cognitive ability for Mexican American students,\" indicating a weaker positive correlation relative to sampled white students.", "Other recent studies have questioned the culture-fairness of IQ tests when used in South Africa.", "Standard intelligence tests, such as the Stanford–Binet, are often inappropriate for autistic children; the alternative of using developmental or adaptive skills measures are relatively poor measures of intelligence in autistic children, and may have resulted in incorrect claims that a majority of autistic children are of low intelligence.===Flynn effect===Since the early 20th century, raw scores on IQ tests have increased in most parts of the world.", "When a new version of an IQ test is normed, the standard scoring is set so performance at the population median results in a score of IQ 100.The phenomenon of rising raw score performance means if test-takers are scored by a constant standard scoring rule, IQ test scores have been rising at an average rate of around three IQ points per decade.", "This phenomenon was named the Flynn effect in the book ''The Bell Curve'' after James R. Flynn, the author who did the most to bring this phenomenon to the attention of psychologists.Researchers have been exploring the issue of whether the Flynn effect is equally strong on performance of all kinds of IQ test items, whether the effect may have ended in some developed nations, whether there are social subgroup differences in the effect, and what possible causes of the effect might be.", "A 2011 textbook, ''IQ and Human Intelligence'', by N. J. Mackintosh, noted the Flynn effect demolishes the fears that IQ would be decreased.", "He also asks whether it represents a real increase in intelligence beyond IQ scores.", "A 2011 psychology textbook, lead authored by Harvard Psychologist Professor Daniel Schacter, noted that humans' inherited intelligence could be going down while acquired intelligence goes up.Research has suggested that the Flynn effect has slowed or reversed course in some Western countries beginning in the late 20th century.", "The phenomenon has been termed the ''negative Flynn effect''.", "A study of Norwegian military conscripts' test records found that IQ scores have been falling for generations born after the year 1975, and that the underlying cause of both initial increasing and subsequent falling trends appears to be environmental rather than genetic.===Age===IQ can change to some degree over the course of childhood.", "In one longitudinal study, the mean IQ scores of tests at ages 17 and 18 were correlated at with the mean scores of tests at ages five, six, and seven and at with the mean scores of tests at ages 11, 12, and 13.For decades, practitioners' handbooks and textbooks on IQ testing have reported IQ declines with age after the beginning of adulthood.", "However, later researchers pointed out this phenomenon is related to the Flynn effect and is in part a cohort effect rather than a true aging effect.", "A variety of studies of IQ and aging have been conducted since the norming of the first Wechsler Intelligence Scale drew attention to IQ differences in different age groups of adults.", "The current consensus is that fluid intelligence generally declines with age after early adulthood, while crystallized intelligence remains intact.", "Both cohort effects (the birth year of the test-takers) and practice effects (test-takers taking the same form of IQ test more than once) must be controlled to gain accurate data.", "It is unclear whether any lifestyle intervention can preserve fluid intelligence into older ages.The exact peak age of fluid intelligence or crystallized intelligence remains elusive.", "Cross-sectional studies usually show that especially fluid intelligence peaks at a relatively young age (often in the early adulthood) while longitudinal data mostly show that intelligence is stable until mid-adulthood or later.", "Subsequently, intelligence seems to decline slowly." ], [ "Genetics and environment", "Environmental and genetic factors play a role in determining IQ.", "Their relative importance has been the subject of much research and debate.===Heritability===The general figure for the heritability of IQ, according to an American Psychological Association report, is 0.45 for children, and rises to around 0.75 for late adolescents and adults.", "Heritability measures for ''g'' factor in infancy are as low as 0.2, around 0.4 in middle childhood, and as high as 0.9 in adulthood.", "One proposed explanation is that people with different genes tend to reinforce the effects of those genes, for example by seeking out different environments.===Shared family environment===Family members have aspects of environments in common (for example, characteristics of the home).", "This shared family environment accounts for 0.25–0.35 of the variation in IQ in childhood.", "By late adolescence, it is quite low (zero in some studies).", "The effect for several other psychological traits is similar.", "These studies have not looked at the effects of extreme environments, such as in abusive families.===Non-shared family environment and environment outside the family===Although parents treat their children differently, such differential treatment explains only a small amount of nonshared environmental influence.", "One suggestion is that children react differently to the same environment because of different genes.", "More likely influences may be the impact of peers and other experiences outside the family.===Individual genes===A very large proportion of the over 17,000 human genes are thought to have an effect on the development and functionality of the brain.", "While a number of individual genes have been reported to be associated with IQ, none have a strong effect.", "Deary and colleagues (2009) reported that no finding of a strong single gene effect on IQ has been replicated.", "Recent findings of gene associations with normally varying intellectual differences in adults and children continue to show weak effects for any one gene.A 2017 meta-analysis conducted on approximately 78,000 subjects identified 52 genes associated with intelligence.", "FNBP1L is reported to be the single gene most associated with both adult and child intelligence.===Gene-environment interaction===David Rowe reported an interaction of genetic effects with socioeconomic status, such that the heritability was high in high-SES families, but much lower in low-SES families.", "In the US, this has been replicated in infants, children, adolescents, and adults.", "Outside the US, studies show no link between heritability and SES.", "Some effects may even reverse sign outside the US.Dickens and Flynn (2001) have argued that genes for high IQ initiate an environment-shaping feedback cycle, with genetic effects causing bright children to seek out more stimulating environments that then further increase their IQ.", "In Dickens' model, environment effects are modeled as decaying over time.", "In this model, the Flynn effect can be explained by an increase in environmental stimulation independent of it being sought out by individuals.", "The authors suggest that programs aiming to increase IQ would be most likely to produce long-term IQ gains if they enduringly raised children's drive to seek out cognitively demanding experiences." ], [ "Interventions", "In general, educational interventions, as those described below, have shown short-term effects on IQ, but long-term follow-up is often missing.", "For example, in the US, very large intervention programs such as the Head Start Program have not produced lasting gains in IQ scores.", "Even when students improve their scores on standardized tests, they do not always improve their cognitive abilities, such as memory, attention and speed.", "More intensive, but much smaller projects, such as the Abecedarian Project, have reported lasting effects, often on socioeconomic status variables, rather than IQ.Recent studies have shown that training in using one's working memory may increase IQ.", "A study on young adults published in April 2008 by a team from the Universities of Michigan and Bern supports the possibility of the transfer of fluid intelligence from specifically designed working memory training.", "Further research will be needed to determine nature, extent and duration of the proposed transfer.", "Among other questions, it remains to be seen whether the results extend to other kinds of fluid intelligence tests than the matrix test used in the study, and if so, whether, after training, fluid intelligence measures retain their correlation with educational and occupational achievement or if the value of fluid intelligence for predicting performance on other tasks changes.", "It is also unclear whether the training is durable for extended periods of time." ], [ "Music", "Musical training in childhood correlates with higher than average IQ.", "However, a study of 10,500 twins found no effects on IQ, suggesting that the correlation was caused by genetic confounders.", "A meta-analysis concluded that \"Music training does not reliably enhance children and young adolescents' cognitive or academic skills, and that previous positive findings were probably due to confounding variables.", "\"It is popularly thought that listening to classical music raises IQ.", "However, multiple attempted replications (e.g.)", "have shown that this is at best a short-term effect (lasting no longer than 10 to 15 minutes), and is not related to IQ-increase." ], [ "Brain anatomy", "Several neurophysiological factors have been correlated with intelligence in humans, including the ratio of brain weight to body weight and the size, shape, and activity level of different parts of the brain.", "Specific features that may affect IQ include the size and shape of the frontal lobes, the amount of blood and chemical activity in the frontal lobes, the total amount of gray matter in the brain, the overall thickness of the cortex, and the glucose metabolic rate." ], [ "Health", "Health is important in understanding differences in IQ test scores and other measures of cognitive ability.", "Several factors can lead to significant cognitive impairment, particularly if they occur during pregnancy and childhood when the brain is growing and the blood–brain barrier is less effective.", "Such impairment may sometimes be permanent, or sometimes be partially or wholly compensated for by later growth.Since about 2010, researchers such as Eppig, Hassel, and MacKenzie have found a very close and consistent link between IQ scores and infectious diseases, especially in the infant and preschool populations and the mothers of these children.", "They have postulated that fighting infectious diseases strains the child's metabolism and prevents full brain development.", "Hassel postulated that it is by far the most important factor in determining population IQ.", "However, they also found that subsequent factors such as good nutrition and regular quality schooling can offset early negative effects to some extent.Developed nations have implemented several health policies regarding nutrients and toxins known to influence cognitive function.", "These include laws requiring fortification of certain food products and laws establishing safe levels of pollutants (e.g.", "lead, mercury, and organochlorides).", "Improvements in nutrition, and in public policy in general, have been implicated in IQ increases.Cognitive epidemiology is a field of research that examines the associations between intelligence test scores and health.", "Researchers in the field argue that intelligence measured at an early age is an important predictor of later health and mortality differences." ], [ "Social correlations", "===School performance===The American Psychological Association's report ''Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns'' states that wherever it has been studied, children with high scores on tests of intelligence tend to learn more of what is taught in school than their lower-scoring peers.", "The correlation between IQ scores and grades is about .50.This means that the explained variance is 25%.", "Achieving good grades depends on many factors other than IQ, such as \"persistence, interest in school, and willingness to study\" (p. 81).It has been found that the correlation of IQ scores with school performance depends on the IQ measurement used.", "For undergraduate students, the Verbal IQ as measured by WAIS-R has been found to correlate significantly (0.53) with the grade point average (GPA) of the last 60 hours (credits).", "In contrast, Performance IQ correlation with the same GPA was only 0.22 in the same study.Some measures of educational aptitude correlate highly with IQ testsfor instance, reported a correlation of 0.82 between ''g'' (general intelligence factor) and SAT scores; another research found a correlation of 0.81 between ''g'' and GCSE scores, with the explained variance ranging \"from 58.6% in Mathematics and 48% in English to 18.1% in Art and Design\".===Job performance===According to Schmidt and Hunter, \"for hiring employees without previous experience in the job the most valid predictor of future performance is general mental ability.\"", "The validity of IQ as a predictor of job performance is above zero for all work studied to date, but varies with the type of job and across different studies, ranging from 0.2 to 0.6.The correlations were higher when the unreliability of measurement methods was controlled for.", "While IQ is more strongly correlated with reasoning and less so with motor function, IQ-test scores predict performance ratings in all occupations.", "That said, for highly qualified activities (research, management) low IQ scores are more likely to be a barrier to adequate performance, whereas for minimally-skilled activities, athletic strength (manual strength, speed, stamina, and coordination) is more likely to influence performance.", "The prevailing view among academics is that it is largely through the quicker acquisition of job-relevant knowledge that higher IQ mediates job performance.", "This view has been challenged by Byington & Felps (2010), who argued that \"the current applications of IQ-reflective tests allow individuals with high IQ scores to receive greater access to developmental resources, enabling them to acquire additional capabilities over time, and ultimately perform their jobs better.", "\"Newer studies find that the effects of IQ on job performance have been greatly overestimated.", "The current estimates of the correlation between job performance and IQ are about 0.23 correcting for unreliability and range restriction.In establishing a causal direction to the link between IQ and work performance, longitudinal studies by Watkins and others suggest that IQ exerts a causal influence on future academic achievement, whereas academic achievement does not substantially influence future IQ scores.", "Treena Eileen Rohde and Lee Anne Thompson write that general cognitive ability, but not specific ability scores, predict academic achievement, with the exception that processing speed and spatial ability predict performance on the SAT math beyond the effect of general cognitive ability.However, large-scale longitudinal studies indicate an increase in IQ translates into an increase in performance at all levels of IQ: i.e.", "ability and job performance are monotonically linked at all IQ levels.===Income===It has been suggested that \"in economic terms it appears that the IQ score measures something with decreasing marginal value\" and it \"is important to have enough of it, but having lots and lots does not buy you that much\".The link from IQ to wealth is much less strong than that from IQ to job performance.", "Some studies indicate that IQ is unrelated to net worth.", "The American Psychological Association's 1995 report ''Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns'' stated that IQ scores accounted for about a quarter of the social status variance and one-sixth of the income variance.", "Statistical controls for parental SES eliminate about a quarter of this predictive power.", "Psychometric intelligence appears as only one of a great many factors that influence social outcomes.", "Charles Murray (1998) showed a more substantial effect of IQ on income independent of family background.", "In a meta-analysis, Strenze (2006) reviewed much of the literature and estimated the correlation between IQ and income to be about 0.23.Some studies assert that IQ only accounts for (explains) a sixth of the variation in income because many studies are based on young adults, many of whom have not yet reached their peak earning capacity, or even their education.", "On pg 568 of ''The g Factor'', Arthur Jensen says that although the correlation between IQ and income averages a moderate 0.4 (one-sixth or 16% of the variance), the relationship increases with age, and peaks at middle age when people have reached their maximum career potential.", "In the book, ''A Question of Intelligence'', Daniel Seligman cites an IQ income correlation of 0.5 (25% of the variance).A 2002 study further examined the impact of non-IQ factors on income and concluded that an individual's location, inherited wealth, race, and schooling are more important as factors in determining income than IQ.===Crime===The American Psychological Association's 1995 report ''Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns'' stated that the correlation between IQ and crime was −0.2.This association is generally regarded as small and prone to disappearance or a substantial reduction after controlling for the proper covariates, being much smaller than typical sociological correlates.", "It was −0.19 between IQ scores and the number of juvenile offenses in a large Danish sample; with social class controlled for, the correlation dropped to −0.17.A correlation of 0.20 means that the explained variance accounts for 4% of the total variance.", "The causal links between psychometric ability and social outcomes may be indirect.", "Children with poor scholastic performance may feel alienated.", "Consequently, they may be more likely to engage in delinquent behavior, compared to other children who do well.In his book ''The g Factor'' (1998), Arthur Jensen cited data which showed that, regardless of race, people with IQs between 70 and 90 have higher crime rates than people with IQs below or above this range, with the peak range being between 80 and 90.The 2009 ''Handbook of Crime Correlates'' stated that reviews have found that around eight IQ points, or 0.5 SD, separate criminals from the general population, especially for persistent serious offenders.", "It has been suggested that this simply reflects that \"only dumb ones get caught\" but there is similarly a negative relation between IQ and self-reported offending.", "That children with conduct disorder have lower IQ than their peers \"strongly argues\" for the theory.A study of the relationship between US county-level IQ and US county-level crime rates found that higher average IQs were very weakly associated with lower levels of property crime, burglary, larceny rate, motor vehicle theft, violent crime, robbery, and aggravated assault.", "These results were \"not confounded by a measure of concentrated disadvantage that captures the effects of race, poverty, and other social disadvantages of the county.\"", "However, this study is limited in that it extrapolated Add Health estimates to the respondent's counties, and as the dataset was not designed to be representative on the state or county level, it may not be generalizable.It has also been shown that the effect of IQ is heavily dependent on socioeconomic status and that it cannot be easily controlled away, with many methodological considerations being at play.", "Indeed, there is evidence that the small relationship is mediated by well-being, substance abuse, and other confounding factors that prohibit simple causal interpretation.", "A recent meta-analysis has shown that the relationship is only observed in higher risk populations such as those in poverty without direct effect, but without any causal interpretation.", "A nationally representative longitudinal study has shown that this relationship is entirely mediated by school performance.===Health and mortality===Multiple studies conducted in Scotland have found that higher IQs in early life are associated with lower mortality and morbidity rates later in life.===Other accomplishments===+ Average adult combined IQs associated with real-life accomplishments by various tests: Accomplishment IQ Test/study Year MDs, JDs, and PhDs 125 WAIS-R 1987 College graduates 112 KAIT 2000 K-BIT 1992 115 WAIS-R 1–3 years of college 104 KAIT K-BIT 105–110 WAIS-R Clerical and sales workers 100–105 High school graduates, skilled workers (e.g., electricians, cabinetmakers) 100 KAIT WAIS-R 97 K-BIT 1–3 years of high school (completed 9–11 years of school) 94 KAIT 90 K-BIT 95 WAIS-R Semi-skilled workers (e.g.", "truck drivers, factory workers) 90–95 Elementary school graduates (completed eighth grade) 90 Elementary school dropouts (completed 0–7 years of school) 80–85 Have 50/50 chance of reaching high school 75 + Average IQ of various occupational groups: Accomplishment IQ Test/study Year Professional and technical 112 Managers and administrators 104 Clerical workers, sales workers, skilled workers, craftsmen, and foremen 101 Semi-skilled workers (operatives, service workers, including private household) 92 Unskilled workers 87 + Type of work that can be accomplished: Accomplishment IQ Test/study Year Adults can harvest vegetables, repair furniture 60 Adults can do domestic work 50 There is considerable variation within and overlap among these categories.", "People with high IQs are found at all levels of education and occupational categories.", "The biggest difference occurs for low IQs with only an occasional college graduate or professional scoring below 90." ], [ "Group differences", "Among the most controversial issues related to the study of intelligence is the observation that IQ scores vary on average between ethnic and racial groups, though these differences have fluctuated and in many cases steadily decreased over time.", "While there is little scholarly debate about the continued existence of some of these differences, the current scientific consensus is that they stem from environmental rather than genetic causes.", "The existence of differences in IQ between the sexes has been debated, and largely depends on which tests are performed.===Race===While the concept of \"race\" is a social construct, discussions of a purported relationship between race and intelligence, as well as claims of genetic differences in intelligence along racial lines, have appeared in both popular science and academic research since the modern concept of race was first introduced.", "Despite the tremendous amount of research done on the topic, no scientific evidence has emerged that the average IQ scores of different population groups can be attributed to genetic differences between those groups.", "Growing evidence indicates that environmental factors, not genetic ones, explain the racial IQ gap.A 1996 task force investigation on intelligence sponsored by the American Psychological Association concluded that there were significant variations in IQ across races.", "However, a systematic analysis by William Dickens and James Flynn (2006) showed the gap between black and white Americans to have closed dramatically during the period between 1972 and 2002, suggesting that, in their words, the \"constancy of the Black–White IQ gap is a myth\".The problem of determining the causes underlying racial variation has been discussed at length as a classic question of \"nature versus nurture\", for instance by Alan S. Kaufman and Nathan Brody.", "Researchers such as statistician Bernie Devlin have argued that there are insufficient data to conclude that the black–white gap is due to genetic influences.", "Dickens and Flynn argued more positively that their results refute the possibility of a genetic origin, concluding that \"the environment has been responsible\" for observed differences.", "A review article published in 2012 by leading scholars on human intelligence reached a similar conclusion, after reviewing the prior research literature, that group differences in IQ are best understood as environmental in origin.", "More recently, geneticist and neuroscientist Kevin Mitchell has argued, on the basis of basic principles of population genetics, that \"systematic genetic differences in intelligence between large, ancient populations\" are \"inherently and deeply implausible\".The effects of stereotype threat have been proposed as an explanation for differences in IQ test performance between racial groups, as have issues related to cultural difference and access to education.===Sex===With the advent of the concept of ''g'' or general intelligence, many researchers have found that there are no significant sex differences in general intelligence, though ability in particular types of intelligence does vary.", "Thus, while some test batteries show slightly greater intelligence in males, others show greater intelligence in females.", "In particular, studies have shown female subjects performing better on tasks related to verbal ability, and males performing better on tasks related to rotation of objects in space, often categorized as spatial ability.", "These differences remain, as observes, \"even though men and women are essentially equal in general intelligence\".Some research indicates that male advantages on some cognitive tests are minimized when controlling for socioeconomic factors.", "Other research has concluded that there is slightly larger variability in male scores in certain areas compared to female scores, which results in slightly more males than females in the top and bottom of the IQ distribution.The existence of differences between male and female performance on math-related tests is contested, and a meta-analysis focusing on average gender differences in math performance found nearly identical performance for boys and girls.", "Currently, most IQ tests, including popular batteries such as the WAIS and the WISC-R, are constructed so that there are no overall score differences between females and males." ], [ "Public policy", "In the United States, certain public policies and laws regarding military service, education, public benefits, capital punishment, and employment incorporate an individual's IQ into their decisions.", "However, in the case of ''Griggs v. Duke Power Co.'' in 1971, for the purpose of minimizing employment practices that disparately impacted racial minorities, the U.S. Supreme Court banned the use of IQ tests in employment, except when linked to job performance via a job analysis.", "Internationally, certain public policies, such as improving nutrition and prohibiting neurotoxins, have as one of their goals raising, or preventing a decline in, intelligence.A diagnosis of intellectual disability is in part based on the results of IQ testing.", "Borderline intellectual functioning is the categorization of individuals of below-average cognitive ability (an IQ of 71–85), although not as low as those with an intellectual disability (70 or below).In the United Kingdom, the eleven plus exam which incorporated an intelligence test has been used from 1945 to decide, at eleven years of age, which type of school a child should go to.", "They have been much less used since the widespread introduction of comprehensive schools." ], [ "Classification", "Physicist Stephen Hawking.", "When asked his IQ, he replied: \"I have no idea.", "People who boast about their IQ are losers.", "\"IQ classification is the practice used by IQ test publishers for designating IQ score ranges into various categories with labels such as \"superior\" or \"average\".", "IQ classification was preceded historically by attempts to classify human beings by general ability based on other forms of behavioral observation.", "Those other forms of behavioral observation are still important for validating classifications based on IQ tests." ], [ "High-IQ societies", "There are social organizations, some international, which limit membership to people who have scores as high as or higher than the 98th percentile (two standard deviations above the mean) on some IQ test or equivalent.", "Mensa International is perhaps the best known of these.", "The largest 99.9th percentile (three standard deviations above the mean) society is the Triple Nine Society." ], [ "See also", "* Emotional competence* Emotional intelligence (EI), also known as emotional quotient (EQ) and emotional intelligence quotient (EIQ)* Raven's Progressive Matrices* Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales* Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale* Woodcock–Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited references", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *** *** *** * * * * * * * * * *** * * * *** * * * *** * * * * * * * * *** * * * * * *** * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * This practitioner's handbook includes chapters by L.G.", "Weiss, J.G.", "Harris, A. Prifitera, T. Courville, E. Rolfhus, D.H. Saklofske, J.A.", "Holdnack, D. Coalson, S.E.", "Raiford, D.M.", "Schwartz, P. Entwistle, V. L. Schwean, and T.", "Oakland.", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* Classics in the History of Psychology" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "IIT Kanpur" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur''' ('''IIT Kanpur''') is a public institute of technology located in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India.", "It was declared an Institute of National Importance by the Government of India under the Institutes of Technology Act.", "IIT Kanpur is ranked among the most prestigious academic institutions in India.The institution was established in 1959, as one of the first Indian Institutes of Technology, the institute was created with the assistance of a consortium of nine US research universities as part of the Kanpur Indo-American Programme (KIAP)." ], [ "History", "IIT Kanpur was established by an Act of Parliament in 1960 by the Government of India.", "The institute was started in December 1959 in a room in the canteen building of the Harcourt Butler Technological Institute at Agricultural Gardens in Kanpur.", "In 1963, the institute moved to its present location, on the Grand Trunk Road near Kalyanpur locality in Kanpur district.", "The campus was designed by Achyut Kavinde in a modernist style.During the first ten years of its existence, a consortium of nine US universities (namely MIT, UCB, California Institute of Technology, Princeton University, Carnegie Institute of Technology, University of Michigan, Ohio State University,Case Institute of Technology and Purdue University) helped set up IIT Kanpur's research laboratories and academic programmes under the Kanpur Indo-American Programme (KIAP).", "The first director of the institute was P. K. Kelkar (after whom the Central Library was renamed in 2002).Under the guidance of economist John Kenneth Galbraith, IIT Kanpur was the first institute in India to offer Computer science education.", "The earliest computer course was started at the institute in August 1963 on an IBM 1620 system.", "The initiative for computer education came from the Electrical engineering department, then under the chairmanship of Prof. H.K.", "Kesavan, who was concurrently the chairman of Electrical Engineering and head of the Computer Centre.", "Prof. Harry Huskey of the University of California, Berkeley, who preceded Kesavan, helped with the computer activity at IIT-Kanpur.", "In 1971, the institute began an independent academic program in Computer Science and Engineering, leading to MTech and PhD degrees.In 1972 the KIAP program ended, in part because of political tensions between India and Pakistan (as the USA supported Pakistan).", "Government funding was also reduced as a reaction to the sentiment that the IIT's were contributing to the brain drain.The institute's annual technical festival, Techkriti, was first started in 1995." ], [ "Campus", "IIT Kanpur is located on the Grand Trunk Road, west of Kanpur City and measures close to .", "This land was donated by the Government of Uttar Pradesh in 1960 and by March 1963 the institute had moved to its current location.PK Kelkar LibraryThe institute has around 6478 students with 3938 undergraduate students and 2540 postgraduate students and about 500 research associates.The academic area comprises the central library, departmental buildings, research centres, lecture hall complex, tutorial block and auditorium.", "The student hostels and other facilities like Student Activities Centre (SAC), Sports Complex lie outside the academic area.", "There are 15 Halls of Residence which are allotted to undergraduate, postgraduate and doctoral students.", "Additionally, married research scholars are allotted Single Bedroom Apartment (SBRA) facility on campus.===Noida Extension centre===IIT Kanpur has its Extension Centre in Noida with a small convention centre there for supporting outreach activities.", "Its foundation was laid on 4 December 2012 on 5 acres of land allocated by Uttar Pradesh state government in the sector-62 of Noida city, which is less than an hour's journey from New Delhi and the Indira Gandhi International Airport.", "The cost of construction is estimated to be about 25 crores.", "The new campus will have an auditorium, seminar halls for organising national and international conferences and an International Relations Office along with a 7-storey guest house.", "Several short-term management courses and refresher courses meant for distance learning will be available at the extension center.===Helicopter service===Being a major industrial town, Kanpur has good connectivity by rail and by road, but lags behind in terms of air connectivity.", "IIT Kanpur was suffering significantly in comparison to IIT Delhi and IIT Bombay due to this reason as far as visiting companies and other dignitaries are concernedOn 1 June 2013, a helicopter ferry service was started at IIT Kanpur run by Pawan Hans Helicopters Limited.", "In its initial run the service connects IIT Kanpur to Lucknow, but it is planned to later extend it to New Delhi.", "Currently there are two flights daily to and from Lucknow Airport with a duration of 25 minutes.", "Lucknow Airport operates both international and domestic flights to major cities.", "IIT Kanpur is the first academic institution in the country to provide such a service.", "The estimated charges are Rs.", "6000 (US$100) per person.", "If anyone would like to avail the facility, he/she has to contact the Student Placement Office (SPO) at IIT Kanpur, since the helicopter service is subject to availability of chopper rights.", "The campus also has airstrips which allows flight workshops and joyrides for students.", "Currently Kanpur has a domestic airport terminal at Chakeri, with flight connectivity to New Delhi, Mumbai, Pune, Chennai and Bengaluru airports.===New York Office===The institute has set up an office in New York with alumnus Sanjiv Khosla designated as the overseas brand ambassador of the institute.", "It is located on 62 William Street, Manhattan.", "The office aims to hunt for qualified and capable faculty abroad, facilitate internship opportunities in North American universities and be conduit for research tie ups with various US universities.", "The New York Office also tries to amass funds through the alumni based there.", "A system that invites students and faculty of foreign institutes to IIT Kanpur is also being formulated." ], [ "Organisation and administration", "===Governance===All IITs follow the same organization structure which has the President of India as the visitor at the top of the hierarchy.", "Directly under the president is the IIT Council.", "Under the IIT Council is the board of governors of each IIT.", "Under the board of governors is the director, who is the chief academic and executive officer of the IIT.", "Under the director, in the organizational structure, comes the deputy director.", "Under the director and the deputy director, come the deans, the heads of various departments, and the registrar.===Departments===The academic departments at IIT Kanpur are: Engineering Humanities Inter-Disciplinary * Aerospace Engineering* Biological Sciences and Bio-engineering* Chemical Engineering* Civil Engineering* Computer Science and Engineering* Electrical Engineering* Materials Science and Engineering* Mechanical Engineering* Sustainable Energy Engineering* Humanities and Social Sciences* Cognitive Science* Environmental Engineering and Management* Photonics Science and Engineering* Design* Material Science* Nuclear Engineering and Technology Sciences Management* Chemistry* Mathematics and Statistics* Physics* Earth Sciences* Economic Sciences* Management Sciences" ], [ "Academics", "IIT Kanpur Faculty Building===Undergraduate===IIT Kanpur offers four-year B.Tech programs in Aerospace Engineering, Biological Sciences and Bio-engineering, Chemical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Computer Science and Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Materials Science and Engineering and Mechanical Engineering.", "The admission to these programs is procured through Joint Entrance Examination.", "IITK offers admission only to bachelor's degree now (discontinuing the integrated course programs), but it can be extended by 1 year to make it integrated, depending on the choice of student and based on his/her performance there at undergraduate level.", "IIT Kanpur also offers four-year B.S.", "Programs in Pure and Applied Sciences (Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry in particular), Earth Science and Economics.===New academic system===From 2011, IIT Kanpur has started offering a four-year BS program in sciences and has kept its BTech Program intact.", "Entry to the five-year MTech/MBA programs and Dual degree programme will be done based on the CPI of students instead of JEE rank.", "In order to reduce the number of student exams, IIT Kanpur has also abolished the earlier system of conducting two mid-term examinations.", "Instead, only two examinations (plus two quizzes in most courses depending on the instructor-in-charge, one before mid-semesters and the other after the mid-semesters and before the end-semesters examination), one between the semester and other towards the end of it would be held from the academic session starting July 2011 onward as per Academic Review Committee's recommendations.===Postgraduate===Postgraduate courses in Engineering offer Master of Technology (MTech), MS (R) and PhD(Doctor of Philosophy) degrees.", "The institute also offers two-tier MSc(Master of Science) courses in areas of basic sciences in which students are admitted through Joint Admission Test for MSc (JAM) exam.", "The institute also offers M.Des.", "(2 years), M.B.A. (2 years) and MSc (2 years) degrees.", "Admissions to MTech is made once a year through Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering.", "Admissions to M. Des are made once a year through both Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE) and Common Entrance Exam for Design (CEED).", "Until 2011, admissions to the M.B.A. program were accomplished through the Joint Management Entrance Test (JMET), held yearly, and followed by a Group Discussion/Personal Interview process.", "In 2011, JMET was replaced by Common Admission Test (CAT).===Admissions===Undergraduate admissions until 2012 were being done through the national-level Indian Institute of Technology Joint Entrance Examination (IIT-JEE).", "Following the Ministry of Human Resource Development's decision to replace IIT-JEE with a common engineering entrance examination, IIT Kanpur's admissions are now based on JEE (Joint Entrance Examination) -Advanced level along with other IITs.Postgraduate admissions are made through the Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering and Common Admission Test.===Rankings===Internationally, IIT Kanpur was ranked 264 in the world by the QS World University Rankings of 2023 and 66 in Asia.IIT Kanpur was also ranked 5th in the overall category, 6th among research institutions, 5th among engineering colleges and 23rd among management schools in India by the National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) in 2023.", "''Outlook India'' ranked IIT Kanpur 5th among government engineering colleges in 2022.IIT Kanpur was ranked 6th in the QS India Rankings of 2020.In, India Today Best Engineering Colleges 2022, IIT Kanpur was ranked 3rd." ], [ "Laboratories and other facilities", "Department of Computer Science and Engineering at IIT KanpurSamtel Research and Development BuildingThe campus is spread over an area of .", "The institute has its own airfield for flight testing and gliding.", "The departments have their own libraries, laboratories and research facilities including the National Wind Tunnel Facility.Research centres at IIT Kanpur include:* Advanced Centre for Electronic Systems (ACES)* Advanced Centre for Material Science (ACMS)* Centre for Environmental Science and Engineering* Centre for Ganga River Basin Management and Studies* Centre for Lasers and Photonics* Centre for Mechatronics* Centre for Nanosciences* Centre for Technology for Sustainable Development* DIA Centre for Excellence* Interdisciplinary Centre for Cyber Security and Cyber Defense of Critical Infrastructures* Mehta Family Centre for Engineering in Medicine* National Information Centre of Earthquake Engineering* Prabhu Goel Research Centre for Computer and Internet Security* Samtel Centre for Display TechnologiesPK Kelkar Library (formerly Central Library) is an academic library of the institute with a collection of more than 300,000 volumes, and subscriptions to more than 1,000 periodicals.", "The library was renamed to its present name in 2003 after Dr. P K Kelkar, the first director of the institute.", "It is housed in a three-story building, with a total floor area of 6973 square metres.", "The Abstracting and Indexing periodicals, Microform and CD-ROM databases, technical reports, Standards and thesis are in the library.", "Each year, about 4,500 books and journal volumes are added to the library.The Western LabsThe New Core Labs (NCL) is 3-storey building with state of the art physics and chemistry laboratories for courses in the first year.", "The New Core Labs also has Linux and Windows computer labs for the use of first year courses and a Mathematics department laboratory housing machines with high computing power.IIT Kanpur has set up the '''Startup Innovation and Incubation Centre (SIIC)''' ''(previously known as \"SIDBI\" Innovation and Incubation Centre)'' in collaboration with the Small Industries development Bank of India (SIDBI) aiming to aid innovation, research, and entrepreneurial activities in technology-based areas.", "SIIC helps business Start-ups to develop their ideas into commercially viable products.A team of students, working under the guidance of faculty members of the institute and scientists of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) have designed and built India's first nano satellite Jugnu, which was successfully launched in orbit on 12 Oct 2011 by ISRO's PSLV-C18.===Computer Centre===The Computer Centre is one of the most advanced computing service centres among academic institution in India.", "It hosts the IIT Kanpur website and provides personal web space for students and faculties.", "It also provides a spam filtered email server and high speed fibre optic Internet to all the hostels and the academic areas.", "Users have multiple options to choose among various interfaces to access mail service.", "It has Linux and windows laboratories equipped with dozens of high-end software like MATLAB, Autocad, Ansys, Abaqus etc.", "for use of students.", "Apart from departmental computer labs, computer centre hosts more than 300 Linux terminals and more than 100 Windows terminals and is continuously available to the students for academic work and recreation.", "Computer centre has recently adopted an open source software policy for its infrastructure and computing.", "Various high-end compute and GPU servers are remotely available from data centre for user computation.The computer centre has multiple super computing clusters for research and teaching activity.", "In June 2014 IIT Kanpur launched their second supercomputer which is India's fifth most powerful supercomputer as of now.", "The new supercomputer 'Cluster Platform SL230s Gen8' manufactured by Hewlett-Packard has 15,360 cores and a theoretical peak (Rpeak) 307.2 TFlop/s and is the world's 192nd most powerful supercomputer as of June 2015.Recently, IIT Kanpur has developed a compressed air-based mineral transport system.", "The project was presented at the Global Investors Summit, in 2023.It received good feedback for its less material loss, reduced air pollution, and efficiency to reduce travel time to a great extent.", "The main objective of the system is to transport coal and slurry.===ŚIKṢĀ: Study Centre for Indian Knowledge System for Holistic Advancement===The mission of the ŚIKṢĀ Centre for Indian Knowledge System at IIT Kanpur is to promote, facilitate, and benefit from IKS-related studies, research, content development and outreach.The vision of the Centre is to establish IITK at the forefront of IKS studies in the world.", "ŚIKṢĀ Website===Gangwal School of Medical Sciences and Technology===Innovative and ambitious project of IIT Kanpur is the Gangwal School of Medical Sciences and Technology.", "Future innovations in medicine and healthcare will be driven by technological interventions.", "Website===Kotak School of Sustainability===The Kotak School of Sustainability at IIT Kanpur aims to excel in sustainability education, research and innovation, technology development, entrepreneurship, and outreach.", "The school will spearhead the development of holistic end-to-end technology solutions for sustainable development for a healthy planet and species.", "Website" ], [ "Students' research and related activities", "Research is controlled by the Office of the Dean of Research and Development (DoRD).", "Under the aegis of the Office the students publish the quarterly NERD Magazine (Notes on Engineering Research and Development) which publishes scientific and technical content created by students.", "Articles may be original work done by students in the form of hobby projects, term projects, internships, or theses.", "Articles of general interest which are informative but do not reflect original work are also accepted.", "The institute is part of the European Research and Education Collaboration with Asia (EURECA) programme since 2008.Along with the magazine, a student research organisation, PoWER (Promotion of Work Experience and Research) has been started.", "Under it several independent student groups are working on projects like the Lunar Rover for ISRO, alternate energy solutions under the Group for Environment and Energy Engineering, ICT solutions through a group Young Engineers, solution for diabetes, green community solutions through ideas like zero water and zero waste quality air approach.", "Through BRaIN (Biological Research and Innovation Network) students interested in solving biological problems get involved in research projects like genetically modifying fruit flies to study molecular systems and developing bio-sensors to detect alcohol levels.", "A budget of Rs 1.5 to 2 crore has been envisaged to support student projects that demonstrate technology.", ";DefenceAssisting the Indian Ordnance Factories in not only upgrading existing products, but also developing new weapon platforms.", ";JugnuThe students of IIT Kanpur made a nano satellite called Jugnu, which was given by president Pratibha Patil to ISRO for launch.", "Jugnu is a remote sensing satellite which will be operated by the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur.", "It is a nanosatellite which will be used to provide data for agriculture and disaster monitoring.", "It is a 3-kilogram (6.6lb) spacecraft, which measures 34 centimetres (13 in) in length by 10 centimetres (3.9 in) in height and width.", "Its development programme cost around 25 million rupees.", "It has a design life of one year.Jugnu's primary instrument is the Micro Imaging System, a near infrared camera which will be used to observe vegetation.", "It also carries a GPS receiver to aid tracking, and is intended to demonstrate a microelectromechanical inertial measurement unit.", ";IITK MotorsportsIITK motorsports is the biggest and most comprehensive student initiative of the college, founded in January 2011.It is a group of students from varied disciplines who aim at designing and fabricating a Formula-style race car for international Formula SAE(Society of Automotive Engineers) events.", "Most of the components of the car, except the engine, tyres and wheel rims, are designed and manufactured by the team members themselves.", "The car is designed to provide maximum performance under the constraints of the event, while ensuring the driveability, reliability, driver safety and aesthetics of the car are not compromised.", ";Maraal UAVsResearchers at IIT Kanpur have developed a series of solar powered UAVs named MARAAL-1 & MARAAL-2.Development of Maraal is notable as it is the first solar powered UAV developed in India.", "Maraal-2 is fully indigenous." ], [ "Student life", "===National events===*Antaragni: The annual cultural festival of IIT Kanpur, which was started in 1965, is held in October every year.", "The festival includes musical performances, dramas, literary games, folk dances, fashion shows and quizzes.", "*Techkriti: The annual four-day inter-collegiate technical and entrepreneurship festival usually held in March.", "It was started in 1995 with an aim to encourage interest and innovation in technology among students and to provide a platform for industry and academia to interact.", "Megabucks (a business and entrepreneurship festival) used to be held independently but was later merged with Techkriti in 2010.Notable speakers at Techkriti include APJ Abdul Kalam, Vladimir Voevodsky, Douglas Osheroff, Oliver Smithies, Rakesh Sharma, David Griffiths and Richard Stallman.", "* Udghosh: IIT Kanpur's annual sports festival usually held in September.", "It started in 2004 as an inter-college sports meet organised by the institute.", "Udghosh involves students from across India competing in the university's sports facilities.", "The festival includes motivational talks, a mini-marathon, gymnastic shows, and sport quizzes related to various sports events.", "* Vivekananda Youth Leadership Convention: An annual convention organised on the birth anniversary of Swami Vivekananda by Vivekananda Samiti, under Students Gymkhana with a focus on leadership, social innovation, and youth empowerment among students.", "The convention has included Kiran Bedi, Bana Singh, Yogendra Singh Yadav, Raju Narayana Swamy, Arunima Sinha, Rajendra Singh and other personalities from different fields in previous years.", "* E-Summit: Started in 2013 as the flagship event of Entrepreneurship Cell, IIT Kanpur, E-Summit is held annually for three days to promote entrepreneurship among students.", "It consists of various competitions, workshops and talks by eminent personalities in the domains of venture capital, product design and social entrepreneurship.===Students' Gymkhana===The Students' Gymkhana is the students' government organization of IIT Kanpur, established in 1962.The Students' Gymkhana functions mainly through the Students' Senate, an elected student representative body composed of senators elected from each batch and the six elected executives:* President, Students' Gymkhana.", "* General Secretary, Media and Culture.", "* General Secretary, Games and Sports.", "* General Secretary, Science and Technology.", "* General Secretary (UG), Academics and Career* General Secretary (PG), Academics and CareerThe number of senators in the Students' Senate is around 50–55.A senator is elected for every 150 students of IIT Kanpur.The meetings of the Students' Senate are chaired by the chairperson, Students' Senate, who is elected by the Senate.The Senate lays down the guidelines for the functions of the executives, their associated councils, the Gymkhana Festivals and other matters pertaining to the Student body at large.The Students' Senate has a say in the policy and decision-making bodies of the institute.", "The president, Students' Gymkhana and the chairperson, Students' Senate are among the special invitees to the Institute Academic Senate.", "The president is usually invited to the meetings of the board of governors when matters affecting students are being discussed.", "Nominees of the Students' Senate are also members of the various standing Committees of the Institute Senate including the disciplinary committee, the Undergraduate and Postgraduate committee, etc.", "All academic departments have Departmental Undergraduate and Post Graduate Committees consisting of members of the faculty and student nominees." ], [ "Notable alumni" ], [ "See also", "*Indian Institutes of Technology*Indian Institute of Technology Varanasi, another IIT in Uttar Pradesh*List of educational institutions in Kanpur*Institutes of National Importance" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Insulin" ], [ "Introduction", "Insulin is a peptide hormone containing two chains cross-linked by disulfide bridges.", "'''Insulin''' (, from Latin ''insula'', 'island') is a peptide hormone produced by beta cells of the pancreatic islets encoded in humans by the insulin (''INS)'' gene.", "It is considered to be the main anabolic hormone of the body.", "It regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and protein by promoting the absorption of glucose from the blood into liver, fat and skeletal muscle cells.", "In these tissues the absorbed glucose is converted into either glycogen via glycogenesis or fats (triglycerides) via lipogenesis, or, in the case of the liver, into both.", "Glucose production and secretion by the liver is strongly inhibited by high concentrations of insulin in the blood.", "Circulating insulin also affects the synthesis of proteins in a wide variety of tissues.", "It is therefore an anabolic hormone, promoting the conversion of small molecules in the blood into large molecules inside the cells.", "Low insulin levels in the blood have the opposite effect by promoting widespread catabolism, especially of reserve body fat.Beta cells are sensitive to blood sugar levels so that they secrete insulin into the blood in response to high level of glucose, and inhibit secretion of insulin when glucose levels are low.", "Insulin production is also regulated by glucose: high glucose promotes insulin production while low glucose levels lead to lower production.", "Insulin enhances glucose uptake and metabolism in the cells, thereby reducing blood sugar level.", "Their neighboring alpha cells, by taking their cues from the beta cells, secrete glucagon into the blood in the opposite manner: increased secretion when blood glucose is low, and decreased secretion when glucose concentrations are high.", "Glucagon increases blood glucose level by stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver.", "The secretion of insulin and glucagon into the blood in response to the blood glucose concentration is the primary mechanism of glucose homeostasis.Decreased or absent insulin activity results in diabetes mellitus, a condition of high blood sugar level (hyperglycaemia).", "There are two types of the disease.", "In diabetes mellitus type 1, the beta cells are destroyed by an autoimmune reaction so that insulin can no longer be synthesized or be secreted into the blood.", "In diabetes mellitus type 2, the destruction of beta cells is less pronounced than in type 1, and is not due to an autoimmune process.", "Instead, there is an accumulation of amyloid in the pancreatic islets, which likely disrupts their anatomy and physiology.", "The pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes is not well understood but reduced population of islet beta-cells, reduced secretory function of islet beta-cells that survive, and peripheral tissue insulin resistance are known to be involved.", "Type 2 diabetes is characterized by increased glucagon secretion which is unaffected by, and unresponsive to the concentration of blood glucose.", "But insulin is still secreted into the blood in response to the blood glucose.", "As a result, glucose accumulates in the blood.The human insulin protein is composed of 51 amino acids, and has a molecular mass of 5808 Da.", "It is a heterodimer of an A-chain and a B-chain, which are linked together by disulfide bonds.", "Insulin's structure varies slightly between species of animals.", "Insulin from non-human animal sources differs somewhat in effectiveness (in carbohydrate metabolism effects) from human insulin because of these variations.", "Porcine insulin is especially close to the human version, and was widely used to treat type 1 diabetics before human insulin could be produced in large quantities by recombinant DNA technologies.Insulin was the first peptide hormone discovered.", "Frederick Banting and Charles Best, working in the laboratory of John Macleod at the University of Toronto, were the first to isolate insulin from dog pancreas in 1921.Frederick Sanger sequenced the amino acid structure in 1951, which made insulin the first protein to be fully sequenced.", "The crystal structure of insulin in the solid state was determined by Dorothy Hodgkin in 1969.Insulin is also the first protein to be chemically synthesised and produced by DNA recombinant technology.", "It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system." ], [ "Evolution and species distribution", "Insulin may have originated more than a billion years ago.", "The molecular origins of insulin go at least as far back as the simplest unicellular eukaryotes.", "Apart from animals, insulin-like proteins are also known to exist in fungi and protists.Insulin is produced by beta cells of the pancreatic islets in most vertebrates and by the Brockmann body in some teleost fish.", "Cone snails: ''Conus geographus'' and ''Conus tulipa'', venomous sea snails that hunt small fish, use modified forms of insulin in their venom cocktails.", "The insulin toxin, closer in structure to fishes' than to snails' native insulin, slows down the prey fishes by lowering their blood glucose levels." ], [ "Production", "Diagram of insulin regulation upon high blood glucoseInsulin is produced exclusively in the beta cells of the pancreatic islets in mammals, and the Brockmann body in some fish.", "Human insulin is produced from the ''INS'' gene, located on chromosome 11.Rodents have two functional insulin genes; one is the homolog of most mammalian genes (''Ins2''), and the other is a retroposed copy that includes promoter sequence but that is missing an intron (''Ins1'').", "Transcription of the insulin gene increases in response to elevated blood glucose.", "This is primarily controlled by transcription factors that bind enhancer sequences in the ~400 base pairs before the gene's transcription start site.The major transcription factors influencing insulin secretion are PDX1, NeuroD1, and MafA.During a low-glucose state, PDX1 (pancreatic and duodenal homeobox protein 1) is located in the nuclear periphery as a result of interaction with HDAC1 and 2, which results in downregulation of insulin secretion.", "An increase in blood glucose levels causes phosphorylation of PDX1, which leads it to undergo nuclear translocation and bind the A3 element within the insulin promoter.", "Upon translocation it interacts with coactivators HAT p300 and SETD7.PDX1 affects the histone modifications through acetylation and deacetylation as well as methylation.", "It is also said to suppress glucagon.NeuroD1, also known as β2, regulates insulin exocytosis in pancreatic β cells by directly inducing the expression of genes involved in exocytosis.", "It is localized in the cytosol, but in response to high glucose it becomes glycosylated by OGT and/or phosphorylated by ERK, which causes translocation to the nucleus.", "In the nucleus β2 heterodimerizes with E47, binds to the E1 element of the insulin promoter and recruits co-activator p300 which acetylates β2.It is able to interact with other transcription factors as well in activation of the insulin gene.MafA is degraded by proteasomes upon low blood glucose levels.", "Increased levels of glucose make an unknown protein glycosylated.", "This protein works as a transcription factor for MafA in an unknown manner and MafA is transported out of the cell.", "MafA is then translocated back into the nucleus where it binds the C1 element of the insulin promoter.These transcription factors work synergistically and in a complex arrangement.", "Increased blood glucose can after a while destroy the binding capacities of these proteins, and therefore reduce the amount of insulin secreted, causing diabetes.", "The decreased binding activities can be mediated by glucose induced oxidative stress and antioxidants are said to prevent the decreased insulin secretion in glucotoxic pancreatic β cells.", "Stress signalling molecules and reactive oxygen species inhibits the insulin gene by interfering with the cofactors binding the transcription factors and the transcription factors itself.Several regulatory sequences in the promoter region of the human insulin gene bind to transcription factors.", "In general, the A-boxes bind to Pdx1 factors, E-boxes bind to NeuroD, C-boxes bind to MafA, and cAMP response elements to CREB.", "There are also silencers that inhibit transcription.=== Synthesis ===Insulin undergoes extensive posttranslational modification along the production pathway.", "Production and secretion are largely independent; prepared insulin is stored awaiting secretion.", "Both C-peptide and mature insulin are biologically active.", "Cell components and proteins in this image are not to scale.Insulin is synthesized as an inactive precursor molecule, a 110 amino acid-long protein called \"preproinsulin\".", "Preproinsulin is translated directly into the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), where its signal peptide is removed by signal peptidase to form \"proinsulin\".", "As the proinsulin folds, opposite ends of the protein, called the \"A-chain\" and the \"B-chain\", are fused together with three disulfide bonds.", "Folded proinsulin then transits through the Golgi apparatus and is packaged into specialized secretory vesicles.", "In the granule, proinsulin is cleaved by proprotein convertase 1/3 and proprotein convertase 2, removing the middle part of the protein, called the \"C-peptide\".", "Finally, carboxypeptidase E removes two pairs of amino acids from the protein's ends, resulting in active insulin – the insulin A- and B- chains, now connected with two disulfide bonds.The resulting mature insulin is packaged inside mature granules waiting for metabolic signals (such as leucine, arginine, glucose and mannose) and vagal nerve stimulation to be exocytosed from the cell into the circulation.Insulin and its related proteins have been shown to be produced inside the brain, and reduced levels of these proteins are linked to Alzheimer's disease.Insulin release is stimulated also by beta-2 receptor stimulation and inhibited by alpha-1 receptor stimulation.", "In addition, cortisol, glucagon and growth hormone antagonize the actions of insulin during times of stress.", "Insulin also inhibits fatty acid release by hormone-sensitive lipase in adipose tissue." ], [ "Structure", "'''The structure of insulin.'''", "The left side is a space-filling model of the insulin monomer, believed to be biologically active.", "Carbon is green, hydrogen white, oxygen red, and nitrogen blue.", "On the right side is a ribbon diagram of the insulin hexamer, believed to be the stored form.", "A monomer unit is highlighted with the A chain in blue and the B chain in cyan.", "Yellow denotes disulfide bonds, and magenta spheres are zinc ions.Contrary to an initial belief that hormones would be generally small chemical molecules, as the first peptide hormone known of its structure, insulin was found to be quite large.", "A single protein (monomer) of human insulin is composed of 51 amino acids, and has a molecular mass of 5808 Da.", "The molecular formula of human insulin is C257H383N65O77S6.It is a combination of two peptide chains (dimer) named an A-chain and a B-chain, which are linked together by two disulfide bonds.", "The A-chain is composed of 21 amino acids, while the B-chain consists of 30 residues.", "The linking (interchain) disulfide bonds are formed at cysteine residues between the positions A7-B7 and A20-B19.There is an additional (intrachain) disulfide bond within the A-chain between cysteine residues at positions A6 and A11.The A-chain exhibits two α-helical regions at A1-A8 and A12-A19 which are antiparallel; while the B chain has a central α -helix (covering residues B9-B19) flanked by the disulfide bond on either sides and two β-sheets (covering B7-B10 and B20-B23).The amino acid sequence of insulin is strongly conserved and varies only slightly between species.", "Bovine insulin differs from human in only three amino acid residues, and porcine insulin in one.", "Even insulin from some species of fish is similar enough to human to be clinically effective in humans.", "Insulin in some invertebrates is quite similar in sequence to human insulin, and has similar physiological effects.", "The strong homology seen in the insulin sequence of diverse species suggests that it has been conserved across much of animal evolutionary history.", "The C-peptide of proinsulin, however, differs much more among species; it is also a hormone, but a secondary one.Insulin is produced and stored in the body as a hexamer (a unit of six insulin molecules), while the active form is the monomer.", "The hexamer is about 36000 Da in size.", "The six molecules are linked together as three dimeric units to form symmetrical molecule.", "An important feature is the presence of zinc atoms (Zn2+) on the axis of symmetry, which are surrounded by three water molecules and three histidine residues at position B10.The hexamer is an inactive form with long-term stability, which serves as a way to keep the highly reactive insulin protected, yet readily available.", "The hexamer-monomer conversion is one of the central aspects of insulin formulations for injection.", "The hexamer is far more stable than the monomer, which is desirable for practical reasons; however, the monomer is a much faster-reacting drug because diffusion rate is inversely related to particle size.", "A fast-reacting drug means insulin injections do not have to precede mealtimes by hours, which in turn gives people with diabetes more flexibility in their daily schedules.", "Insulin can aggregate and form fibrillar interdigitated beta-sheets.", "This can cause injection amyloidosis, and prevents the storage of insulin for long periods." ], [ "Function", "=== Secretion ===Beta cells in the islets of Langerhans release insulin in two phases.", "The first-phase release is rapidly triggered in response to increased blood glucose levels, and lasts about 10 minutes.", "The second phase is a sustained, slow release of newly formed vesicles triggered independently of sugar, peaking in 2 to 3 hours.", "The two phases of the insulin release suggest that insulin granules are present in diverse stated populations or \"pools\".", "During the first phase of insulin exocytosis, most of the granules predispose for exocytosis are released after the calcium internalization.", "This pool is known as Readily Releasable Pool (RRP).", "The RRP granules represent 0.3-0.7% of the total insulin-containing granule population, and they are found immediately adjacent to the plasma membrane.", "During the second phase of exocytosis, insulin granules require mobilization of granules to the plasma membrane and a previous preparation to undergo their release.", "Thus, the second phase of insulin release is governed by the rate at which granules get ready for release.", "This pool is known as a Reserve Pool (RP).", "The RP is released slower than the RRP (RRP: 18 granules/min; RP: 6 granules/min).", "Reduced first-phase insulin release may be the earliest detectable beta cell defect predicting onset of type 2 diabetes.", "First-phase release and insulin sensitivity are independent predictors of diabetes.The description of first phase release is as follows:* Glucose enters the β-cells through the glucose transporters, GLUT 2.At low blood sugar levels little glucose enters the β-cells; at high blood glucose concentrations large quantities of glucose enter these cells.", "* The glucose that enters the β-cell is phosphorylated to glucose-6-phosphate (G-6-P) by glucokinase (hexokinase IV) which is not inhibited by G-6-P in the way that the hexokinases in other tissues (hexokinase I – III) are affected by this product.", "This means that the intracellular G-6-P concentration remains proportional to the blood sugar concentration.", "* Glucose-6-phosphate enters glycolytic pathway and then, via the pyruvate dehydrogenase reaction, into the Krebs cycle, where multiple, high-energy ATP molecules are produced by the oxidation of acetyl CoA (the Krebs cycle substrate), leading to a rise in the ATP:ADP ratio within the cell.", "* An increased intracellular ATP:ADP ratio closes the ATP-sensitive SUR1/Kir6.2 potassium channel (see sulfonylurea receptor).", "This prevents potassium ions (K+) from leaving the cell by facilitated diffusion, leading to a buildup of intracellular potassium ions.", "As a result, the inside of the cell becomes less negative with respect to the outside, leading to the depolarization of the cell surface membrane.", "* Upon depolarization, voltage-gated calcium ion (Ca2+) channels open, allowing calcium ions to move into the cell by facilitated diffusion.", "* The cytosolic calcium ion concentration can also be increased by calcium release from intracellular stores via activation of ryanodine receptors.", "* The calcium ion concentration in the cytosol of the beta cells can also, or additionally, be increased through the activation of phospholipase C resulting from the binding of an extracellular ligand (hormone or neurotransmitter) to a G protein-coupled membrane receptor.", "Phospholipase C cleaves the membrane phospholipid, phosphatidyl inositol 4,5-bisphosphate, into inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate and diacylglycerol.", "Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) then binds to receptor proteins in the plasma membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).", "This allows the release of Ca2+ ions from the ER via IP3-gated channels, which raises the cytosolic concentration of calcium ions independently of the effects of a high blood glucose concentration.", "Parasympathetic stimulation of the pancreatic islets operates via this pathway to increase insulin secretion into the blood.", "* The significantly increased amount of calcium ions in the cells' cytoplasm causes the release into the blood of previously synthesized insulin, which has been stored in intracellular secretory vesicles.This is the primary mechanism for release of insulin.", "Other substances known to stimulate insulin release include the amino acids arginine and leucine, parasympathetic release of acetylcholine (acting via the phospholipase C pathway), sulfonylurea, cholecystokinin (CCK, also via phospholipase C), and the gastrointestinally derived incretins, such as glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP).Release of insulin is strongly inhibited by norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which leads to increased blood glucose levels during stress.", "It appears that release of catecholamines by the sympathetic nervous system has conflicting influences on insulin release by beta cells, because insulin release is inhibited by α2-adrenergic receptors and stimulated by β2-adrenergic receptors.", "The net effect of norepinephrine from sympathetic nerves and epinephrine from adrenal glands on insulin release is inhibition due to dominance of the α-adrenergic receptors.When the glucose level comes down to the usual physiologic value, insulin release from the β-cells slows or stops.", "If the blood glucose level drops lower than this, especially to dangerously low levels, release of hyperglycemic hormones (most prominently glucagon from islet of Langerhans alpha cells) forces release of glucose into the blood from the liver glycogen stores, supplemented by gluconeogenesis if the glycogen stores become depleted.", "By increasing blood glucose, the hyperglycemic hormones prevent or correct life-threatening hypoglycemia.Evidence of impaired first-phase insulin release can be seen in the glucose tolerance test, demonstrated by a substantially elevated blood glucose level at 30 minutes after the ingestion of a glucose load (75 or 100 g of glucose), followed by a slow drop over the next 100 minutes, to remain above 120 mg/100 mL after two hours after the start of the test.", "In a normal person the blood glucose level is corrected (and may even be slightly over-corrected) by the end of the test.", "An insulin spike is a 'first response' to blood glucose increase, this response is individual and dose specific although it was always previously assumed to be food type specific only.=== Oscillations ===Insulin release from pancreas oscillates with a period of 3–6 minutes.Even during digestion, in general, one or two hours following a meal, insulin release from the pancreas is not continuous, but oscillates with a period of 3–6 minutes, changing from generating a blood insulin concentration more than about 800 p mol/l to less than 100 pmol/L (in rats).", "This is thought to avoid downregulation of insulin receptors in target cells, and to assist the liver in extracting insulin from the blood.", "This oscillation is important to consider when administering insulin-stimulating medication, since it is the oscillating blood concentration of insulin release, which should, ideally, be achieved, not a constant high concentration.", "This may be achieved by delivering insulin rhythmically to the portal vein, by light activated delivery, or by islet cell transplantation to the liver.=== Blood insulin level ===The idealized diagram shows the fluctuation of blood sugar (red) and the sugar-lowering hormone '''insulin''' (blue) in humans during the course of a day containing three meals.", "In addition, the effect of a sugar-rich versus a starch-rich meal is highlighted.The blood insulin level can be measured in international units, such as µIU/mL or in molar concentration, such as pmol/L, where 1 µIU/mL equals 6.945 pmol/L.", "A typical blood level between meals is 8–11 μIU/mL (57–79 pmol/L).=== Signal transduction ===The effects of insulin are initiated by its binding to a receptor, the insulin receptor (IR), present in the cell membrane.", "The receptor molecule contains an α- and β subunits.", "Two molecules are joined to form what is known as a homodimer.", "Insulin binds to the α-subunits of the homodimer, which faces the extracellular side of the cells.", "The β subunits have tyrosine kinase enzyme activity which is triggered by the insulin binding.", "This activity provokes the autophosphorylation of the β subunits and subsequently the phosphorylation of proteins inside the cell known as insulin receptor substrates (IRS).", "The phosphorylation of the IRS activates a signal transduction cascade that leads to the activation of other kinases as well as transcription factors that mediate the intracellular effects of insulin.The cascade that leads to the insertion of GLUT4 glucose transporters into the cell membranes of muscle and fat cells, and to the synthesis of glycogen in liver and muscle tissue, as well as the conversion of glucose into triglycerides in liver, adipose, and lactating mammary gland tissue, operates via the activation, by IRS-1, of phosphoinositol 3 kinase (PI3K).", "This enzyme converts a phospholipid in the cell membrane by the name of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2), into phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-triphosphate (PIP3), which, in turn, activates protein kinase B (PKB).", "Activated PKB facilitates the fusion of GLUT4 containing endosomes with the cell membrane, resulting in an increase in GLUT4 transporters in the plasma membrane.", "PKB also phosphorylates glycogen synthase kinase (GSK), thereby inactivating this enzyme.", "This means that its substrate, glycogen synthase (GS), cannot be phosphorylated, and remains dephosphorylated, and therefore active.", "The active enzyme, glycogen synthase (GS), catalyzes the rate limiting step in the synthesis of glycogen from glucose.", "Similar dephosphorylations affect the enzymes controlling the rate of glycolysis leading to the synthesis of fats via malonyl-CoA in the tissues that can generate triglycerides, and also the enzymes that control the rate of gluconeogenesis in the liver.", "The overall effect of these final enzyme dephosphorylations is that, in the tissues that can carry out these reactions, glycogen and fat synthesis from glucose are stimulated, and glucose production by the liver through glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis are inhibited.", "The breakdown of triglycerides by adipose tissue into free fatty acids and glycerol is also inhibited.After the intracellular signal that resulted from the binding of insulin to its receptor has been produced, termination of signaling is then needed.", "As mentioned below in the section on degradation, endocytosis and degradation of the receptor bound to insulin is a main mechanism to end signaling.", "In addition, the signaling pathway is also terminated by dephosphorylation of the tyrosine residues in the various signaling pathways by tyrosine phosphatases.", "Serine/Threonine kinases are also known to reduce the activity of insulin.The structure of the insulin–insulin receptor complex has been determined using the techniques of X-ray crystallography.=== Physiological effects ==='''Effect of insulin on glucose uptake and metabolism.'''", "Insulin binds to its receptor (1), which starts many protein activation cascades (2).", "These include translocation of Glut-4 transporter to the plasma membrane and influx of glucose (3), glycogen synthesis (4), glycolysis (5) and triglyceride synthesis (6).The insulin signal transduction pathway begins when insulin binds to the insulin receptor proteins.", "Once the transduction pathway is completed, the GLUT-4 storage vesicles becomes one with the cellular membrane.", "As a result, the GLUT-4 protein channels become embedded into the membrane, allowing glucose to be transported into the cell.The actions of insulin on the global human metabolism level include:* Increase of cellular intake of certain substances, most prominently glucose in muscle and adipose tissue (about two-thirds of body cells)* Increase of DNA replication and protein synthesis via control of amino acid uptake* Modification of the activity of numerous enzymes.The actions of insulin (indirect and direct) on cells include:* Stimulates the uptake of glucose – Insulin decreases blood glucose concentration by inducing intake of glucose by the cells.", "This is possible because Insulin causes the insertion of the GLUT4 transporter in the cell membranes of muscle and fat tissues which allows glucose to enter the cell.", "* Increased fat synthesis – insulin forces fat cells to take in blood glucose, which is converted into triglycerides; decrease of insulin causes the reverse.", "* Increased esterification of fatty acids – forces adipose tissue to make neutral fats (i.e., triglycerides) from fatty acids; decrease of insulin causes the reverse.", "* Decreased lipolysis in – forces reduction in conversion of fat cell lipid stores into blood fatty acids and glycerol; decrease of insulin causes the reverse.", "* Induced glycogen synthesis – When glucose levels are high, insulin induces the formation of glycogen by the activation of the hexokinase enzyme, which adds a phosphate group in glucose, thus resulting in a molecule that cannot exit the cell.", "At the same time, insulin inhibits the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase, which removes the phosphate group.", "These two enzymes are key for the formation of glycogen.", "Also, insulin activates the enzymes phosphofructokinase and glycogen synthase which are responsible for glycogen synthesis.", "* Decreased gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis – decreases production of glucose from noncarbohydrate substrates, primarily in the liver (the vast majority of endogenous insulin arriving at the liver never leaves the liver); decrease of insulin causes glucose production by the liver from assorted substrates.", "* Decreased proteolysis – decreasing the breakdown of protein* Decreased autophagy – decreased level of degradation of damaged organelles.", "Postprandial levels inhibit autophagy completely.", "* Increased amino acid uptake – forces cells to absorb circulating amino acids; decrease of insulin inhibits absorption.", "* Arterial muscle tone – forces arterial wall muscle to relax, increasing blood flow, especially in microarteries; decrease of insulin reduces flow by allowing these muscles to contract.", "* Increase in the secretion of hydrochloric acid by parietal cells in the stomach.", "* Increased potassium uptake – forces cells synthesizing glycogen (a very spongy, \"wet\" substance, that increases the content of intracellular water, and its accompanying K+ ions) to absorb potassium from the extracellular fluids; lack of insulin inhibits absorption.", "Insulin's increase in cellular potassium uptake lowers potassium levels in blood plasma.", "This possibly occurs via insulin-induced translocation of the Na+/K+-ATPase to the surface of skeletal muscle cells.", "* Decreased renal sodium excretion.", "* In hepatocytes, insulin binding acutely leads to activation of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), which dephosphorylates the bifunctional enzyme fructose bisphosphatase-2 (PFKB1), activating the phosphofructokinase-2 (PFK-2) active site.", "PFK-2 increases production of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate.", "Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate allosterically activates PFK-1, which favors glycolysis over gluconeogenesis.", "Increased glycolysis increases the formation of malonyl-CoA, a molecule that can be shunted into lipogenesis and that allosterically inhibits of carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (CPT1), a mitochondrial enzyme necessary for the translocation of fatty acids into the intermembrane space of the mitochondria for fatty acid metabolism.Insulin also influences other body functions, such as vascular compliance and cognition.", "Once insulin enters the human brain, it enhances learning and memory and benefits verbal memory in particular.", "Enhancing brain insulin signaling by means of intranasal insulin administration also enhances the acute thermoregulatory and glucoregulatory response to food intake, suggesting that central nervous insulin contributes to the co-ordination of a wide variety of homeostatic or regulatory processes in the human body.", "Insulin also has stimulatory effects on gonadotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus, thus favoring fertility.=== Degradation ===Once an insulin molecule has docked onto the receptor and effected its action, it may be released back into the extracellular environment, or it may be degraded by the cell.", "The two primary sites for insulin clearance are the liver and the kidney.", "It is broken down by the enzyme, protein-disulfide reductase (glutathione), which breaks the disulphide bonds between the A and B chains.", "The liver clears most insulin during first-pass transit, whereas the kidney clears most of the insulin in systemic circulation.", "Degradation normally involves endocytosis of the insulin-receptor complex, followed by the action of insulin-degrading enzyme.", "An insulin molecule produced endogenously by the beta cells is estimated to be degraded within about one hour after its initial release into circulation (insulin half-life ~ 4–6 minutes).=== Regulator of endocannabinoid metabolism ===Insulin is a major regulator of endocannabinoid (EC) metabolism and insulin treatment has been shown to reduce intracellular ECs, the 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) and anandamide (AEA), which correspond with insulin-sensitive expression changes in enzymes of EC metabolism.", "In insulin-resistant adipocytes, patterns of insulin-induced enzyme expression is disturbed in a manner consistent with elevated EC synthesis and reduced EC degradation.", "Findings suggest that insulin-resistant adipocytes fail to regulate EC metabolism and decrease intracellular EC levels in response to insulin stimulation, whereby obese insulin-resistant individuals exhibit increased concentrations of ECs.", "This dysregulation contributes to excessive visceral fat accumulation and reduced adiponectin release from abdominal adipose tissue, and further to the onset of several cardiometabolic risk factors that are associated with obesity and type 2 diabetes." ], [ "Hypoglycemia", "Hypoglycemia, also known as \"low blood sugar\", is when blood sugar decreases to below normal levels.", "This may result in a variety of symptoms including clumsiness, trouble talking, confusion, loss of consciousness, seizures or death.", "A feeling of hunger, sweating, shakiness and weakness may also be present.", "Symptoms typically come on quickly.The most common cause of hypoglycemia is medications used to treat diabetes mellitus such as insulin and sulfonylureas.", "Risk is greater in diabetics who have eaten less than usual, exercised more than usual or have consumed alcohol.", "Other causes of hypoglycemia include kidney failure, certain tumors, such as insulinoma, liver disease, hypothyroidism, starvation, inborn error of metabolism, severe infections, reactive hypoglycemia and a number of drugs including alcohol.", "Low blood sugar may occur in otherwise healthy babies who have not eaten for a few hours." ], [ "Diseases and syndromes", "There are several conditions in which insulin disturbance is pathologic:* Diabetes mellitus – general term referring to all states characterized by hyperglycemia.", "It can be of the following types:**Type 1 – autoimmune-mediated destruction of insulin-producing β-cells in the pancreas, resulting in absolute insulin deficiency** Type 2 – either inadequate insulin production by the β-cells or insulin resistance or both because of reasons not completely understood.", "*** there is correlation with diet, with sedentary lifestyle, with obesity, with age and with metabolic syndrome.", "Causality has been demonstrated in multiple model organisms including mice and monkeys; importantly, non-obese people do get Type 2 diabetes due to diet, sedentary lifestyle and unknown risk factors, though it is important to note that this may not be a causal relationship.", "*** it is likely that there is genetic susceptibility to develop Type 2 diabetes under certain environmental conditions** Other types of impaired glucose tolerance (see Diabetes)* Insulinoma – a tumor of beta cells producing excess insulin or reactive hypoglycemia.", "* Metabolic syndrome – a poorly understood condition first called syndrome X by Gerald Reaven.", "It is not clear whether the syndrome has a single, treatable cause, or is the result of body changes leading to type 2 diabetes.", "It is characterized by elevated blood pressure, dyslipidemia (disturbances in blood cholesterol forms and other blood lipids), and increased waist circumference (at least in populations in much of the developed world).", "The basic underlying cause may be the insulin resistance that precedes type 2 diabetes, which is a diminished capacity for insulin response in some tissues (e.g., muscle, fat).", "It is common for morbidities such as essential hypertension, obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease (CVD) to develop.", "* Polycystic ovary syndrome – a complex syndrome in women in the reproductive years where anovulation and androgen excess are commonly displayed as hirsutism.", "In many cases of PCOS, insulin resistance is present." ], [ "Medical uses", "Two vials of insulin.", "They have been given trade names, Actrapid (left) and NovoRapid (right) by the manufacturers.Biosynthetic human insulin (insulin human rDNA, INN) for clinical use is manufactured by recombinant DNA technology.", "Biosynthetic human insulin has increased purity when compared with extractive animal insulin, enhanced purity reducing antibody formation.", "Researchers have succeeded in introducing the gene for human insulin into plants as another method of producing insulin (\"biopharming\") in safflower.", "This technique is anticipated to reduce production costs.Several analogs of human insulin are available.", "These insulin analogs are closely related to the human insulin structure, and were developed for specific aspects of glycemic control in terms of fast action (prandial insulins) and long action (basal insulins).", "The first biosynthetic insulin analog was developed for clinical use at mealtime (prandial insulin), Humalog (insulin lispro), it is more rapidly absorbed after subcutaneous injection than regular insulin, with an effect 15 minutes after injection.", "Other rapid-acting analogues are NovoRapid and Apidra, with similar profiles.", "All are rapidly absorbed due to amino acid sequences that will reduce formation of dimers and hexamers (monomeric insulins are more rapidly absorbed).", "Fast acting insulins do not require the injection-to-meal interval previously recommended for human insulin and animal insulins.", "The other type is long acting insulin; the first of these was Lantus (insulin glargine).", "These have a steady effect for an extended period from 18 to 24 hours.", "Likewise, another protracted insulin analogue (Levemir) is based on a fatty acid acylation approach.", "A myristic acid molecule is attached to this analogue, which associates the insulin molecule to the abundant serum albumin, which in turn extends the effect and reduces the risk of hypoglycemia.", "Both protracted analogues need to be taken only once daily, and are used for type 1 diabetics as the basal insulin.", "A combination of a rapid acting and a protracted insulin is also available, making it more likely for patients to achieve an insulin profile that mimics that of the body's own insulin release.", "Insulin is also used in many cell lines, such as CHO-s, HEK 293 or Sf9, for the manufacturing of monoclonal antibodies, virus vaccines, and gene therapy products.Insulin is usually taken as subcutaneous injections by single-use syringes with needles, via an insulin pump, or by repeated-use insulin pens with disposable needles.", "Inhaled insulin is also available in the U.S. market.The Dispovan Single-Use Pen Needle by HMD is India’s first insulin pen needle that makes self-administration easy.", "Featuring extra-thin walls and a multi-bevel tapered point, these pen needles prioritise patient comfort by minimising pain and ensuring seamless medication delivery.", "The product aims to provide affordable Pen Needles to the developing part of the country through its wide distribution channel.", "Additionally, the universal design of these needles guarantees compatibility with all insulin pens.Unlike many medicines, insulin cannot be taken by mouth because, like nearly all other proteins introduced into the gastrointestinal tract, it is reduced to fragments, whereupon all activity is lost.", "There has been some research into ways to protect insulin from the digestive tract, so that it can be administered orally or sublingually.In 2021, the World Health Organization added insulin to its model list of essential medicines.Insulin, and all other medications, are supplied free of charge to people with diabetes by the National Health Service in the countries of the United Kingdom." ], [ "History of study", "=== Discovery ===In 1869, while studying the structure of the pancreas under a microscope, Paul Langerhans, a medical student in Berlin, identified some previously unnoticed tissue clumps scattered throughout the bulk of the pancreas.", "The function of the \"little heaps of cells\", later known as the ''islets of Langerhans'', initially remained unknown, but Édouard Laguesse later suggested they might produce secretions that play a regulatory role in digestion.", "Paul Langerhans' son, Archibald, also helped to understand this regulatory role.In 1889, the physician Oskar Minkowski, in collaboration with Joseph von Mering, removed the pancreas from a healthy dog to test its assumed role in digestion.", "On testing the urine, they found sugar, establishing for the first time a relationship between the pancreas and diabetes.", "In 1901, another major step was taken by the American physician and scientist Eugene Lindsay Opie, when he isolated the role of the pancreas to the islets of Langerhans: \"Diabetes mellitus when the result of a lesion of the pancreas is caused by destruction of the islands of Langerhans and occurs only when these bodies are in part or wholly destroyed\".Over the next two decades researchers made several attempts to isolate the islets' secretions.", "In 1906 George Ludwig Zuelzer achieved partial success in treating dogs with pancreatic extract, but he was unable to continue his work.", "Between 1911 and 1912, E.L. Scott at the University of Chicago tried aqueous pancreatic extracts and noted \"a slight diminution of glycosuria\", but was unable to convince his director of his work's value; it was shut down.", "Israel Kleiner demonstrated similar effects at Rockefeller University in 1915, but World War I interrupted his work and he did not return to it.In 1916, Nicolae Paulescu developed an aqueous pancreatic extract which, when injected into a diabetic dog, had a normalizing effect on blood sugar levels.", "He had to interrupt his experiments because of World War I, and in 1921 he wrote four papers about his work carried out in Bucharest and his tests on a diabetic dog.", "Later that year, he published \"Research on the Role of the Pancreas in Food Assimilation\".The name \"insulin\" was coined by Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer in 1916 for a hypothetical molecule produced by pancreatic islets of Langerhans (Latin ''insula'' for islet or island) that controls glucose metabolism.", "Unbeknown to Sharpey-Schafer, Jean de Meyer had introduced the very similar word \"insuline\" in 1909 for the same molecule.=== Extraction and purification ===In October 1920, Canadian Frederick Banting concluded that the digestive secretions that Minkowski had originally studied were breaking down the islet secretion, thereby making it impossible to extract successfully.", "A surgeon by training, Banting knew that blockages of the pancreatic duct would lead most of the pancreas to atrophy, while leaving the islets of Langerhans intact.", "He reasoned that a relatively pure extract could be made from the islets once most of the rest of the pancreas was gone.", "He jotted a note to himself: \"Ligate pancreatic ducts of dog.", "Keep dogs alive till acini degenerate leaving Islets.", "Try to isolate the internal secretion of these + relieve glycosureasic.", "\"Charles Best and Clark Noble ca.", "1920In the spring of 1921, Banting traveled to Toronto to explain his idea to John Macleod, Professor of Physiology at the University of Toronto.", "Macleod was initially skeptical, since Banting had no background in research and was not familiar with the latest literature, but he agreed to provide lab space for Banting to test out his ideas.", "Macleod also arranged for two undergraduates to be Banting's lab assistants that summer, but Banting required only one lab assistant.", "Charles Best and Clark Noble flipped a coin; Best won the coin toss and took the first shift.", "This proved unfortunate for Noble, as Banting kept Best for the entire summer and eventually shared half his Nobel Prize money and credit for the discovery with Best.", "On 30 July 1921, Banting and Best successfully isolated an extract (\"isletin\") from the islets of a duct-tied dog and injected it into a diabetic dog, finding that the extract reduced its blood sugar by 40% in 1 hour.Banting and Best presented their results to Macleod on his return to Toronto in the fall of 1921, but Macleod pointed out flaws with the experimental design, and suggested the experiments be repeated with more dogs and better equipment.", "He moved Banting and Best into a better laboratory and began paying Banting a salary from his research grants.", "Several weeks later, the second round of experiments was also a success, and Macleod helped publish their results privately in Toronto that November.", "Bottlenecked by the time-consuming task of duct-tying dogs and waiting several weeks to extract insulin, Banting hit upon the idea of extracting insulin from the fetal calf pancreas, which had not yet developed digestive glands.", "By December, they had also succeeded in extracting insulin from the adult cow pancreas.", "Macleod discontinued all other research in his laboratory to concentrate on the purification of insulin.", "He invited biochemist James Collip to help with this task, and the team felt ready for a clinical test within a month.Chart for Elizabeth Hughes, used to track blood, urine, diet in grams, and dietary prescriptions in gramsOn January 11, 1922, Leonard Thompson, a 14-year-old diabetic who lay dying at the Toronto General Hospital, was given the first injection of insulin.", "However, the extract was so impure that Thompson had a severe allergic reaction, and further injections were cancelled.", "Over the next 12 days, Collip worked day and night to improve the ox-pancreas extract.", "A second dose was injected on January 23, eliminating the glycosuria that was typical of diabetes without causing any obvious side-effects.", "The first American patient was Elizabeth Hughes, the daughter of U.S. Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes.", "The first patient treated in the U.S. was future woodcut artist James D. Havens; John Ralston Williams imported insulin from Toronto to Rochester, New York, to treat Havens.Banting and Best never worked well with Collip, regarding him as something of an interloper, and Collip left the project soon after.", "Over the spring of 1922, Best managed to improve his techniques to the point where large quantities of insulin could be extracted on demand, but the preparation remained impure.", "The drug firm Eli Lilly and Company had offered assistance not long after the first publications in 1921, and they took Lilly up on the offer in April.", "In November, Lilly's head chemist, George B. Walden discovered isoelectric precipitation and was able to produce large quantities of highly refined insulin.", "Shortly thereafter, insulin was offered for sale to the general public.=== Patent ===Toward the end of January 1922, tensions mounted between the four \"co-discoverers\" of insulin and Collip briefly threatened to separately patent his purification process.", "John G. FitzGerald, director of the non-commercial public health institution Connaught Laboratories, therefore stepped in as peacemaker.", "The resulting agreement of 25 January 1922 established two key conditions: 1) that the collaborators would sign a contract agreeing not to take out a patent with a commercial pharmaceutical firm during an initial working period with Connaught; and 2) that no changes in research policy would be allowed unless first discussed among FitzGerald and the four collaborators.", "It helped contain disagreement and tied the research to Connaught's public mandate.Initially, Macleod and Banting were particularly reluctant to patent their process for insulin on grounds of medical ethics.", "However, concerns remained that a private third-party would hijack and monopolize the research (as Eli Lilly and Company had hinted), and that safe distribution would be difficult to guarantee without capacity for quality control.", "To this end, Edward Calvin Kendall gave valuable advice.", "He had isolated thyroxin at the Mayo Clinic in 1914 and patented the process through an arrangement between himself, the brothers Mayo, and the University of Minnesota, transferring the patent to the public university.", "On April 12, Banting, Best, Collip, Macleod, and FitzGerald wrote jointly to the president of the University of Toronto to propose a similar arrangement with the aim of assigning a patent to the Board of Governors of the university.", "The letter emphasized that:The assignment to the University of Toronto Board of Governors was completed on 15 January 1923, for the token payment of $1.00.The arrangement was congratulated in ''The World's Work'' in 1923 as \"a step forward in medical ethics\".", "It has also received much media attention in the 2010s regarding the issue of healthcare and drug affordability.Following further concern regarding Eli Lilly's attempts to separately patent parts of the manufacturing process, Connaught's Assistant Director and Head of the Insulin Division Robert Defries established a patent pooling policy which would require producers to freely share any improvements to the manufacturing process without compromising affordability.=== Structural analysis and synthesis ===Purified animal-sourced insulin was initially the only type of insulin available for experiments and diabetics.", "John Jacob Abel was the first to produce the crystallised form in 1926.Evidence of the protein nature was first given by Michael Somogyi, Edward A. Doisy, and Philip A. Shaffer in 1924.It was fully proven when Hans Jensen and Earl A. Evans Jr. isolated the amino acids phenylalanine and proline in 1935.The amino acid structure of insulin was first characterized in 1951 by Frederick Sanger, and the first synthetic insulin was produced simultaneously in the labs of Panayotis Katsoyannis at the University of Pittsburgh and Helmut Zahn at RWTH Aachen University in the mid-1960s.", "Synthetic crystalline bovine insulin was achieved by Chinese researchers in 1965.The complete 3-dimensional structure of insulin was determined by X-ray crystallography in Dorothy Hodgkin's laboratory in 1969.Hans E. Weber discovered preproinsulin while working as a research fellow at the University of California Los Angeles in 1974.In 1973–1974, Weber learned the techniques of how to isolate, purify, and translate messenger RNA.", "To further investigate insulin, he obtained pancreatic tissues from a slaughterhouse in Los Angeles and then later from animal stock at UCLA.", "He isolated and purified total messenger RNA from pancreatic islet cells which was then translated in oocytes from ''Xenopus laevis'' and precipitated using anti-insulin antibodies.", "When total translated protein was run on an SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and sucrose gradient, peaks corresponding to insulin and proinsulin were isolated.", "However, to the surprise of Weber a third peak was isolated corresponding to a molecule larger than proinsulin.", "After reproducing the experiment several times, he consistently noted this large peak prior to proinsulin that he determined must be a larger precursor molecule upstream of proinsulin.", "In May 1975, at the American Diabetes Association meeting in New York, Weber gave an oral presentation of his work where he was the first to name this precursor molecule \"preproinsulin\".", "Following this oral presentation, Weber was invited to dinner to discuss his paper and findings by Donald Steiner, a researcher who contributed to the characterization of proinsulin.", "A year later in April 1976, this molecule was further characterized and sequenced by Steiner, referencing the work and discovery of Hans Weber.", "Preproinsulin became an important molecule to study the process of transcription and translation.The first genetically engineered, synthetic \"human\" insulin was produced using ''E.", "coli'' in 1978 by Arthur Riggs and Keiichi Itakura at the Beckman Research Institute of the City of Hope in collaboration with Herbert Boyer at Genentech.", "Genentech, founded by Swanson, Boyer and Eli Lilly and Company, went on in 1982 to sell the first commercially available biosynthetic human insulin under the brand name Humulin.", "The vast majority of insulin used worldwide is biosynthetic recombinant \"human\" insulin or its analogues.", "Recently, another approach has been used by a pioneering group of Canadian researchers, using an easily grown safflower plant, for the production of much cheaper insulin.Recombinant insulin is produced either in yeast (usually ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'') or ''E.", "coli''.", "In yeast, insulin may be engineered as a single-chain protein with a KexII endoprotease (a yeast homolog of PCI/PCII) site that separates the insulin A chain from a C-terminally truncated insulin B chain.", "A chemically synthesized C-terminal tail is then grafted onto insulin by reverse proteolysis using the inexpensive protease trypsin; typically the lysine on the C-terminal tail is protected with a chemical protecting group to prevent proteolysis.", "The ease of modular synthesis and the relative safety of modifications in that region accounts for common insulin analogs with C-terminal modifications (e.g.", "lispro, aspart, glulisine).", "The Genentech synthesis and completely chemical synthesis such as that by Bruce Merrifield are not preferred because the efficiency of recombining the two insulin chains is low, primarily due to competition with the precipitation of insulin B chain.=== Nobel Prizes ===Frederick Banting (right) joined by Charles Best in 1924The Nobel Prize committee in 1923 credited the practical extraction of insulin to a team at the University of Toronto and awarded the Nobel Prize to two men: Frederick Banting and John Macleod.", "They were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1923 for the discovery of insulin.", "Banting, incensed that Best was not mentioned, shared his prize with him, and Macleod immediately shared his with James Collip.", "The patent for insulin was sold to the University of Toronto for one dollar.Two other Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work on insulin.", "British molecular biologist Frederick Sanger, who determined the primary structure of insulin in 1955, was awarded the 1958 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.", "Rosalyn Sussman Yalow received the 1977 Nobel Prize in Medicine for the development of the radioimmunoassay for insulin.Several Nobel Prizes also have an indirect connection with insulin.", "George Minot, co-recipient of the 1934 Nobel Prize for the development of the first effective treatment for pernicious anemia, had diabetes mellitus.", "William Castle observed that the 1921 discovery of insulin, arriving in time to keep Minot alive, was therefore also responsible for the discovery of a cure for pernicious anemia.", "Dorothy Hodgkin was awarded a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1964 for the development of crystallography, the technique she used for deciphering the complete molecular structure of insulin in 1969.==== Controversy ====Nicolae PaulescuThe work published by Banting, Best, Collip and Macleod represented the preparation of purified insulin extract suitable for use on human patients.", "Although Paulescu discovered the principles of the treatment, his saline extract could not be used on humans; he was not mentioned in the 1923 Nobel Prize.", "Ian Murray was particularly active in working to correct \"the historical wrong\" against Nicolae Paulescu.", "Murray was a professor of physiology at the Anderson College of Medicine in Glasgow, Scotland, the head of the department of Metabolic Diseases at a leading Glasgow hospital, vice-president of the British Association of Diabetes, and a founding member of the International Diabetes Federation.", "Murray wrote:In a private communication, Arne Tiselius, former head of the Nobel Institute, expressed his personal opinion that Paulescu was equally worthy of the award in 1923." ], [ "See also", "* Treatment** Conventional insulinotherapy** Diabetic coma** Insulin therapy** Intensive insulinotherapy** Insulin pump* Anatomy and physiology** Leptin* Other medical / diagnostic uses** Insulin tolerance test** Triple bolus test* Insulin Signal Transduction pathway** Insulin signal transduction pathway and regulation of blood glucose* Other uses**Cone Snail venom* List of Canadian inventions and discoveries" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * Famous Canadian Physicians: Sir Frederick Banting at Library and Archives Canada* * *" ], [ "External links", "* University of Toronto Libraries Collection: Discovery and Early Development of Insulin, 1920–1925* CBC Digital Archives – Banting, Best, Macleod, Collip: Chasing a Cure for Diabetes* Animations of insulin's action in the body at AboutKidsHealth.ca (archived 9 March 2011)*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Inductor" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''inductor''', also called a '''coil''', '''choke''', or '''reactor''', is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores energy in a magnetic field when electric current flows through it.", "An inductor typically consists of an insulated wire wound into a coil.When the current flowing through the coil changes, the time-varying magnetic field induces an electromotive force (''emf'') (voltage) in the conductor, described by Faraday's law of induction.", "According to Lenz's law, the induced voltage has a polarity (direction) which opposes the change in current that created it.", "As a result, inductors oppose any changes in current through them.An inductor is characterized by its inductance, which is the ratio of the voltage to the rate of change of current.", "In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of inductance is the henry (H) named for 19th century American scientist Joseph Henry.", "In the measurement of magnetic circuits, it is equivalent to .", "Inductors have values that typically range from 1µH (10−6H) to 20H.", "Many inductors have a magnetic core made of iron or ferrite inside the coil, which serves to increase the magnetic field and thus the inductance.", "Along with capacitors and resistors, inductors are one of the three passive linear circuit elements that make up electronic circuits.", "Inductors are widely used in alternating current (AC) electronic equipment, particularly in radio equipment.", "They are used to block AC while allowing DC to pass; inductors designed for this purpose are called chokes.", "They are also used in electronic filters to separate signals of different frequencies, and in combination with capacitors to make tuned circuits, used to tune radio and TV receivers.The term inductor seems to come from Heinrich Daniel Ruhmkorff, who called the induction coil he invented in 1851 an inductorium." ], [ "Description", "An electric current flowing through a conductor generates a magnetic field surrounding it.", "The magnetic flux linkage generated by a given current depends on the geometric shape of the circuit.", "Their ratio defines the inductance .", "Thus:.The inductance of a circuit depends on the geometry of the current path as well as the magnetic permeability of nearby materials.", "An inductor is a component consisting of a wire or other conductor shaped to increase the magnetic flux through the circuit, usually in the shape of a coil or helix, with two terminals.", "Winding the wire into a coil increases the number of times the magnetic flux lines link the circuit, increasing the field and thus the inductance.", "The more turns, the higher the inductance.", "The inductance also depends on the shape of the coil, separation of the turns, and many other factors.", "By adding a \"magnetic core\" made of a ferromagnetic material like iron inside the coil, the magnetizing field from the coil will induce magnetization in the material, increasing the magnetic flux.", "The high permeability of a ferromagnetic core can increase the inductance of a coil by a factor of several thousand over what it would be without it.===Constitutive equation===Any change in the current through an inductor creates a changing flux, inducing a voltage across the inductor.", "By Faraday's law of induction, the voltage induced by any change in magnetic flux through the circuit is given by :.Reformulating the definition of above, we obtain:.It follows that:if is independent of time, current and magnetic flux linkage.Thus, inductance is also a measure of the amount of electromotive force (voltage) generated for a given rate of change of current.", "For example, an inductor with an inductance of 1 henry produces an EMF of 1 volt when the current through the inductor changes at the rate of 1 ampere per second.", "This is usually taken to be the constitutive relation (defining equation) of the inductor.The dual of the inductor is the capacitor, which stores energy in an electric field rather than a magnetic field.", "Its current–voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the inductor equations and replacing ''L'' with the capacitance ''C''.===Lenz's law===The polarity (direction) of the induced voltage is given by Lenz's law, which states that the induced voltage will be such as to oppose the change in current.", "For example, if the current through an inductor is increasing, the induced voltage will be positive at the current's entrance point and negative at the exit point, tending to oppose the additional current.", "The energy from the external circuit necessary to overcome this potential \"hill\" is being stored in the magnetic field of the inductor.", "If the current is decreasing, the induced voltage will be negative at the current's entrance point and positive at the exit point, tending to maintain the current.", "In this case energy from the magnetic field is being returned to the circuit.===Energy stored in an inductor===One intuitive explanation as to why a potential difference is induced on a change of current in an inductor goes as follows:When there is a change in current through an inductor there is a change in the strength of the magnetic field.", "For example, if the current is increased, the magnetic field increases.", "This, however, does not come without a price.", "The magnetic field contains potential energy, and increasing the field strength requires more energy to be stored in the field.", "This energy comes from the electric current through the inductor.", "The increase in the magnetic potential energy of the field is provided by a corresponding drop in the electric potential energy of the charges flowing through the windings.", "This appears as a voltage drop across the windings as long as the current increases.", "Once the current is no longer increased and is held constant, the energy in the magnetic field is constant and no additional energy must be supplied, so the voltage drop across the windings disappears.Similarly, if the current through the inductor decreases, the magnetic field strength decreases, and the energy in the magnetic field decreases.", "This energy is returned to the circuit in the form of an increase in the electrical potential energy of the moving charges, causing a voltage rise across the windings.====Derivation====The work done per unit charge on the charges passing the inductor is .", "The negative sign indicates that the work is done ''against'' the emf, and is not done ''by'' the emf.", "The current is the charge per unit time passing through the inductor.", "Therefore, the rate of work done by the charges against the emf, that is the rate of change of energy of the current, is given by:From the constitutive equation for the inductor, so::In a ferromagnetic core inductor, when the magnetic field approaches the level at which the core saturates, the inductance will begin to change, it will be a function of the current .", "Neglecting losses, the energy stored by an inductor with a current passing through it is equal to the amount of work required to establish the current through the inductor.This is given by:, where is the so-called \"differential inductance\" and is defined as: .", "In an air core inductor or a ferromagnetic core inductor below saturation, the inductance is constant (and equal to the differential inductance), so the stored energy is:For inductors with magnetic cores, the above equation is only valid for linear regions of the magnetic flux, at currents below the saturation level of the inductor, where the inductance is approximately constant.", "Where this is not the case, the integral form must be used with variable.=== Voltage step response - short and long term limit ===When a voltage step is applied to an inductor, its short and long-term response are easy to calculate:* In the short-time limit, since the current cannot change instantaneously, the initial current is zero.", "The short-time equivalence of an inductor is an open circuit.", "* In the long-time limit, the transient response of the inductor will die out, the magnetic flux through the inductor will become constant, so no voltage would be induced between the terminals of the inductor.", "Therefore, the long-time equivalence of an inductor is a wire (''i.e''., a short circuit).", "* To give a mathematical analysis, we should note that any practical inductor is associated with a small resistance ''R''.Then, if the inductor ''L'' is connected to a battery of voltage ''V'' at time ''t = 0'', the circuit equation for ''t > 0'' is , whose solution is , with limits at ''t = 0'' and as described in the bullets above.===Ideal and real inductors===The constitutive equation describes the behavior of an ''ideal inductor'' with inductance , and without resistance, capacitance, or energy dissipation.", "In practice, inductors do not follow this theoretical model; ''real inductors'' have a measurable resistance due to the resistance of the wire and energy losses in the core, and parasitic capacitance between turns of the wire.A real inductor's capacitive reactance rises with frequency, and at a certain frequency, the inductor will behave as a resonant circuit.", "Above this self-resonant frequency, the capacitive reactance is the dominant part of the inductor's impedance.", "At higher frequencies, resistive losses in the windings increase due to the skin effect and proximity effect.Inductors with ferromagnetic cores experience additional energy losses due to hysteresis and eddy currents in the core, which increase with frequency.", "At high currents, magnetic core inductors also show sudden departure from ideal behavior due to nonlinearity caused by magnetic saturation of the core.Inductors radiate electromagnetic energy into surrounding space and may absorb electromagnetic emissions from other circuits, resulting in potential electromagnetic interference.An early solid-state electrical switching and amplifying device called a saturable reactor exploits saturation of the core as a means of stopping the inductive transfer of current via the core.====''Q'' factor====The winding resistance appears as a resistance in series with the inductor; it is referred to as DCR (DC resistance).", "This resistance dissipates some of the reactive energy.", "The quality factor (or ''Q'') of an inductor is the ratio of its inductive reactance to its resistance at a given frequency, and is a measure of its efficiency.", "The higher the Q factor of the inductor, the closer it approaches the behavior of an ideal inductor.", "High Q inductors are used with capacitors to make resonant circuits in radio transmitters and receivers.", "The higher the Q is, the narrower the bandwidth of the resonant circuit.The Q factor of an inductor is defined as:where is the inductance, is the DC resistance, and the product is the inductive reactance''Q'' increases linearly with frequency if ''L'' and ''R'' are constant.", "Although they are constant at low frequencies, the parameters vary with frequency.", "For example, skin effect, proximity effect, and core losses increase ''R'' with frequency; winding capacitance and variations in permeability with frequency affect ''L''.At low frequencies and within limits, increasing the number of turns ''N'' improves ''Q'' because ''L'' varies as ''N''2 while ''R'' varies linearly with ''N''.", "Similarly increasing the radius ''r'' of an inductor improves (or increases) ''Q'' because ''L'' varies with ''r''2 while ''R'' varies linearly with ''r''.", "So high ''Q'' air core inductors often have large diameters and many turns.", "Both of those examples assume the diameter of the wire stays the same, so both examples use proportionally more wire.", "If the total mass of wire is held constant, then there would be no advantage to increasing the number of turns or the radius of the turns because the wire would have to be proportionally thinner.Using a high permeability ferromagnetic core can greatly increase the inductance for the same amount of copper, so the core can also increase the Q. Cores however also introduce losses that increase with frequency.", "The core material is chosen for best results for the frequency band.", "High Q inductors must avoid saturation; one way is by using a (physically larger) air core inductor.", "At VHF or higher frequencies an air core is likely to be used.", "A well designed air core inductor may have a Q of several hundred." ], [ "Applications", "Example of signal filtering.", "In this configuration, the inductor blocks AC current, while allowing DC current to pass.decouples DC current, while allowing AC current to pass.Inductors are used extensively in analog circuits and signal processing.", "Applications range from the use of large inductors in power supplies, which in conjunction with filter capacitors remove ripple which is a multiple of the mains frequency (or the switching frequency for switched-mode power supplies) from the direct current output, to the small inductance of the ferrite bead or torus installed around a cable to prevent radio frequency interference from being transmitted down the wire.", "Inductors are used as the energy storage device in many switched-mode power supplies to produce DC current.", "The inductor supplies energy to the circuit to keep current flowing during the \"off\" switching periods and enables topographies where the output voltage is higher than the input voltage.A tuned circuit, consisting of an inductor connected to a capacitor, acts as a resonator for oscillating current.", "Tuned circuits are widely used in radio frequency equipment such as radio transmitters and receivers, as narrow bandpass filters to select a single frequency from a composite signal, and in electronic oscillators to generate sinusoidal signals.Two (or more) inductors in proximity that have coupled magnetic flux (mutual inductance) form a transformer, which is a fundamental component of every electric utility power grid.", "The efficiency of a transformer may decrease as the frequency increases due to eddy currents in the core material and skin effect on the windings.", "The size of the core can be decreased at higher frequencies.", "For this reason, aircraft use 400 hertz alternating current rather than the usual 50 or 60 hertz, allowing a great saving in weight from the use of smaller transformers.", "Transformers enable switched-mode power supplies that isolate the output from the input.Inductors are also employed in electrical transmission systems, where they are used to limit switching currents and fault currents.", "In this field, they are more commonly referred to as reactors.Inductors have parasitic effects which cause them to depart from ideal behavior.", "They create and suffer from electromagnetic interference (EMI).", "Their physical size prevents them from being integrated on semiconductor chips.", "So the use of inductors is declining in modern electronic devices, particularly compact portable devices.", "Real inductors are increasingly being replaced by active circuits such as the gyrator which can synthesize inductance using capacitors." ], [ "Inductor construction", "An inductor usually consists of a coil of conducting material, typically insulated copper wire, wrapped around a core either of plastic (to create an air-core inductor) or of a ferromagnetic (or ferrimagnetic) material; the latter is called an \"iron core\" inductor.", "The high permeability of the ferromagnetic core increases the magnetic field and confines it closely to the inductor, thereby increasing the inductance.", "Low frequency inductors are constructed like transformers, with cores of electrical steel laminated to prevent eddy currents.", "'Soft' ferrites are widely used for cores above audio frequencies, since they do not cause the large energy losses at high frequencies that ordinary iron alloys do.", "Inductors come in many shapes.", "Some inductors have an adjustable core, which enables changing of the inductance.", "Inductors used to block very high frequencies are sometimes made by stringing a ferrite bead on a wire.Small inductors can be etched directly onto a printed circuit board by laying out the trace in a spiral pattern.", "Some such planar inductors use a planar core.", "Small value inductors can also be built on integrated circuits using the same processes that are used to make interconnects.", "Aluminium interconnect is typically used, laid out in a spiral coil pattern.", "However, the small dimensions limit the inductance, and it is far more common to use a circuit called a ''gyrator'' that uses a capacitor and active components to behave similarly to an inductor.", "Regardless of the design, because of the low inductances and low power dissipation on-die inductors allow, they are currently only commercially used for high frequency RF circuits.===Shielded inductors===Inductors used in power regulation systems, lighting, and other systems that require low-noise operating conditions, are often partially or fully shielded.", "In telecommunication circuits employing induction coils and repeating transformers shielding of inductors in close proximity reduces circuit cross-talk." ], [ "Types", "===Air-core inductor===The term ''air core coil'' describes an inductor that does not use a magnetic core made of a ferromagnetic material.", "The term refers to coils wound on plastic, ceramic, or other nonmagnetic forms, as well as those that have only air inside the windings.", "Air core coils have lower inductance than ferromagnetic core coils, but are often used at high frequencies because they are free from energy losses called core losses that occur in ferromagnetic cores, which increase with frequency.", "A side effect that can occur in air core coils in which the winding is not rigidly supported on a form is 'microphony': mechanical vibration of the windings can cause variations in the inductance.====Radio-frequency inductor====ferrite loopstick or rod antenna, bottom, have basket windings.At high frequencies, particularly radio frequencies (RF), inductors have higher resistance and other losses.", "In addition to causing power loss, in resonant circuits this can reduce the Q factor of the circuit, broadening the bandwidth.", "In RF inductors, which are mostly air core types, specialized construction techniques are used to minimize these losses.", "The losses are due to these effects:*'''Skin effect''': The resistance of a wire to high frequency current is higher than its resistance to direct current because of skin effect.", "Due to induced eddy currents, radio frequency alternating current does not penetrate far into the body of a conductor but travels along its surface.", "For example, at 6 MHz the skin depth of copper wire is about 0.001 inches (25 µm); most of the current is within this depth of the surface.", "Therefore, in a solid wire, the interior portion of the wire may carry little current, effectively increasing its resistance.", "*'''Proximity effect''': Another similar effect that also increases the resistance of the wire at high frequencies is proximity effect, which occurs in parallel wires that lie close to each other.", "The individual magnetic field of adjacent turns induces eddy currents in the wire of the coil, which causes the current in the conductor to be concentrated in a thin strip on the side near the adjacent wire.", "Like skin effect, this reduces the effective cross-sectional area of the wire conducting current, increasing its resistance.", "*'''Dielectric losses''': The high frequency electric field near the conductors in a tank coil can cause the motion of polar molecules in nearby insulating materials, dissipating energy as heat.", "So coils used for tuned circuits are often not wound on coil forms but are suspended in air, supported by narrow plastic or ceramic strips.", "*'''Parasitic capacitance''': The capacitance between individual wire turns of the coil, called parasitic capacitance, does not cause energy losses but can change the behavior of the coil.", "Each turn of the coil is at a slightly different potential, so the electric field between neighboring turns stores charge on the wire, so the coil acts as if it has a capacitor in parallel with it.", "At a high enough frequency this capacitance can resonate with the inductance of the coil forming a tuned circuit, causing the coil to become self-resonant.To reduce parasitic capacitance and proximity effect, high Q RF coils are constructed to avoid having many turns lying close together, parallel to one another.", "The windings of RF coils are often limited to a single layer, and the turns are spaced apart.", "To reduce resistance due to skin effect, in high-power inductors such as those used in transmitters the windings are sometimes made of a metal strip or tubing which has a larger surface area, and the surface is silver-plated.", "; Basket-weave coils: To reduce proximity effect and parasitic capacitance, multilayer RF coils are wound in patterns in which successive turns are not parallel but criss-crossed at an angle; these are often called ''honeycomb'' or ''basket-weave'' coils.", "These are occasionally wound on a vertical insulating supports with dowels or slots, with the wire weaving in and out through the slots.", "; Spiderweb coils: Another construction technique with similar advantages is flat spiral coils.", "These are often wound on a flat insulating support with radial spokes or slots, with the wire weaving in and out through the slots; these are called ''spiderweb'' coils.", "The form has an odd number of slots, so successive turns of the spiral lie on opposite sides of the form, increasing separation.", "; Litz wire: To reduce skin effect losses, some coils are wound with a special type of radio frequency wire called litz wire.", "Instead of a single solid conductor, litz wire consists of a number of smaller wire strands that carry the current.", "Unlike ordinary stranded wire, the strands are insulated from each other, to prevent skin effect from forcing the current to the surface, and are twisted or braided together.", "The twist pattern ensures that each wire strand spends the same amount of its length on the outside of the wire bundle, so skin effect distributes the current equally between the strands, resulting in a larger cross-sectional conduction area than an equivalent single wire.", "; Axial InductorSmall inductors for low current and low power are made in molded cases resembling resistors.", "These may be either plain (phenolic) core or ferrite core.", "An ohmmeter readily distinguishes them from similar-sized resistors by showing the low resistance of the inductor.===Ferromagnetic-core inductor===A variety of types of ferrite core inductors and transformersFerromagnetic-core or iron-core inductors use a magnetic core made of a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material such as iron or ferrite to increase the inductance.", "A magnetic core can increase the inductance of a coil by a factor of several thousand, by increasing the magnetic field due to its higher magnetic permeability.", "However the magnetic properties of the core material cause several side effects which alter the behavior of the inductor and require special construction: ====Laminated-core inductor====ballast inductor for a metal halide lamp Low-frequency inductors are often made with laminated cores to prevent eddy currents, using construction similar to transformers.", "The core is made of stacks of thin steel sheets or laminations oriented parallel to the field, with an insulating coating on the surface.", "The insulation prevents eddy currents between the sheets, so any remaining currents must be within the cross sectional area of the individual laminations, reducing the area of the loop and thus reducing the energy losses greatly.", "The laminations are made of low-conductivity silicon steel to further reduce eddy current losses.====Ferrite-core inductor====For higher frequencies, inductors are made with cores of ferrite.", "Ferrite is a ceramic ferrimagnetic material that is nonconductive, so eddy currents cannot flow within it.", "The formulation of ferrite is xxFe2O4 where xx represents various metals.", "For inductor cores soft ferrites are used, which have low coercivity and thus low hysteresis losses.====Powdered-iron-core inductor ====Another material is powdered iron cemented with a binder.", "Medium frequency equipment almost exclusively uses powdered iron cores, and inductors and transformers built for the lower shortwaves are made using either cemented powdered iron or ferrites.====Toroidal-core inductor====Toroidal inductor in the power supply of a wireless routerIn an inductor wound on a straight rod-shaped core, the magnetic field lines emerging from one end of the core must pass through the air to re-enter the core at the other end.", "This reduces the field, because much of the magnetic field path is in air rather than the higher permeability core material and is a source of electromagnetic interference.", "A higher magnetic field and inductance can be achieved by forming the core in a closed magnetic circuit.", "The magnetic field lines form closed loops within the core without leaving the core material.", "The shape often used is a toroidal or doughnut-shaped ferrite core.", "Because of their symmetry, toroidal cores allow a minimum of the magnetic flux to escape outside the core (called ''leakage flux''), so they radiate less electromagnetic interference than other shapes.", "Toroidal core coils are manufactured of various materials, primarily ferrite, powdered iron and laminated cores.===Variable inductor===A \"roller coil\", an adjustable air-core RF inductor used in the tuned circuits of radio transmitters.", "One of the contacts to the coil is made by the small grooved wheel, which rides on the wire.", "Turning the shaft rotates the coil, moving the contact wheel up or down the coil, allowing more or fewer turns of the coil into the circuit, to change the inductance.Probably the most common type of variable inductor today is one with a moveable ferrite magnetic core, which can be slid or screwed in or out of the coil.", "Moving the core farther into the coil increases the permeability, increasing the magnetic field and the inductance.", "Many inductors used in radio applications (usually less than 100 MHz) use adjustable cores in order to tune such inductors to their desired value, since manufacturing processes have certain tolerances (inaccuracy).", "Sometimes such cores for frequencies above 100 MHz are made from highly conductive non-magnetic material such as aluminum.", "They decrease the inductance because the magnetic field must bypass them.Air core inductors can use sliding contacts or multiple taps to increase or decrease the number of turns included in the circuit, to change the inductance.", "A type much used in the past but mostly obsolete today has a spring contact that can slide along the bare surface of the windings.", "The disadvantage of this type is that the contact usually short-circuits one or more turns.", "These turns act like a single-turn short-circuited transformer secondary winding; the large currents induced in them cause power losses.A type of continuously variable air core inductor is the ''variometer''.", "This consists of two coils with the same number of turns connected in series, one inside the other.", "The inner coil is mounted on a shaft so its axis can be turned with respect to the outer coil.", "When the two coils' axes are collinear, with the magnetic fields pointing in the same direction, the fields add and the inductance is maximum.", "When the inner coil is turned so its axis is at an angle with the outer, the mutual inductance between them is smaller so the total inductance is less.", "When the inner coil is turned 180° so the coils are collinear with their magnetic fields opposing, the two fields cancel each other and the inductance is very small.", "This type has the advantage that it is continuously variable over a wide range.", "It is used in antenna tuners and matching circuits to match low frequency transmitters to their antennas.Another method to control the inductance without any moving parts requires an additional DC current bias winding which controls the permeability of an easily saturable core material.", "''See'' Magnetic amplifier.===Choke===An MF or HF radio choke for tenths of an ampere, and a ferrite bead VHF choke for several amperes.A choke is an inductor designed specifically for blocking high-frequency alternating current (AC) in an electrical circuit, while allowing DC or low-frequency signals to pass.", "Because the inductor resistricts or \"chokes\" the changes in current, this type of inductor is called a choke.", "It usually consists of a coil of insulated wire wound on a magnetic core, although some consist of a donut-shaped \"bead\" of ferrite material strung on a wire.", "Like other inductors, chokes resist changes in current passing through them increasingly with frequency.", "The difference between chokes and other inductors is that chokes do not require the high Q factor construction techniques that are used to reduce the resistance in inductors used in tuned circuits." ], [ "Circuit analysis", "The effect of an inductor in a circuit is to oppose changes in current through it by developing a voltage across it proportional to the rate of change of the current.", "An ideal inductor would offer no resistance to a constant direct current; however, only superconducting inductors have truly zero electrical resistance.The relationship between the time-varying voltage ''v''(''t'') across an inductor with inductance ''L'' and the time-varying current ''i''(''t'') passing through it is described by the differential equation:: When there is a sinusoidal alternating current (AC) through an inductor, a sinusoidal voltage is induced.", "The amplitude of the voltage is proportional to the product of the amplitude () of the current and the angular frequency () of the current.", ":In this situation, the phase of the current lags that of the voltage by π/2 (90°).", "For sinusoids, as the voltage across the inductor goes to its maximum value, the current goes to zero, and as the voltage across the inductor goes to zero, the current through it goes to its maximum value.If an inductor is connected to a direct current source with value ''I'' via a resistance ''R'' (at least the DCR of the inductor), and then the current source is short-circuited, the differential relationship above shows that the current through the inductor will discharge with an exponential decay::===Reactance===The ratio of the peak voltage to the peak current in an inductor energised from an AC source is called the reactance and is denoted ''X''L.", ":Thus,:where ''ω'' is the angular frequency.Reactance is measured in ohms but referred to as ''impedance'' rather than resistance; energy is stored in the magnetic field as current rises and discharged as current falls.", "Inductive reactance is proportional to frequency.", "At low frequency the reactance falls; at DC, the inductor behaves as a short circuit.", "As frequency increases the reactance increases and at a sufficiently high frequency the reactance approaches that of an open circuit.===Corner frequency===In filtering applications, with respect to a particular load impedance, an inductor has a corner frequency defined as::===Laplace circuit analysis (s-domain)===When using the Laplace transform in circuit analysis, the impedance of an ideal inductor with no initial current is represented in the ''s'' domain by::where: '''' is the inductance, and: '''' is the complex frequency.If the inductor does have initial current, it can be represented by: ===Inductor networks===Inductors in a parallel configuration each have the same potential difference (voltage).", "To find their total equivalent inductance (''L''eq):: A diagram of several inductors, side by side, both leads of each connected to the same wires:The current through inductors in series stays the same, but the voltage across each inductor can be different.", "The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage.", "To find their total inductance:: A diagram of several inductors, connected end to end, with the same amount of current going through each:These simple relationships hold true only when there is no mutual coupling of magnetic fields between individual inductors.====Mutual inductance====Mutual inductance occurs when the magnetic field of an inductor induces a magnetic field in an adjacent inductor.", "Mutual induction is the basis of transformer construction.", ":where M is the maximum mutual inductance possible between 2 inductors and L1 and L2 are the two inductors.In general :as only a fraction of self flux is linked with the other.", "This fraction is called \"Coefficient of flux linkage (K)\" or \"Coefficient of coupling\".", ":" ], [ "Inductance formulas", "The table below lists some common simplified formulas for calculating the approximate inductance of several inductor constructions.", "Construction Formula Notes Cylindrical air-core coil * ''L'' = inductance in henries (H)* ''μ0'' = permeability of free space = 4'''' × 10−7 H/m* ''K'' = Nagaoka coefficient* ''N'' = number of turns* ''A'' = area of cross-section of the coil in square metres (m2)* ''ℓ'' = length of coil in metres (m) Calculation of Nagaoka's coefficient (''K'') is complicated; normally it must be looked up from a table.", "Straight wire conductor ,where::* ''L'' = inductance* ''ℓ'' = cylinder length* ''r'' = cylinder radius* ''μ''0 = permeability of free space = 4'''' × 10−7 H/m* ''μ'' = conductor permeability* ''ρ'' = resistivity* ''ω'' = phase rate* = 0.2 µH/m, exactly.", "Exact if ω = 0, or if ω = ∞.The term ''B'' subtracts rather than adds.", "(when ) (when )* ''L'' = inductance (nH)* ''ℓ'' = length of conductor (mm)* ''d'' = diameter of conductor (mm)* ''f'' = frequency* = 0.2 µH/m, exactly.", "Requires ''ℓ'' > 100 ''d''For relative permeability ''μ''r = 1 (e.g., Cu or Al).", "Small loop or very short coil * ''L'' = inductance in the same units as ''μ''0.", "* ''D'' = Diameter of the coil (conductor center-to-center)* ''d'' = diameter of the conductor* ''N'' = number of turns* ''f'' = operating frequency (regular ''f'', not ''ω'')* ''σ'' = specific conductivity of the coil conductor* ''μ''r = relative permeability of the conductor * Total conductor length should be roughly  wavelength or smaller.", "* Proximity effects are not included: edge-to-edge gap between turns should be 2×''d'' or larger.", "* = 0.2 µH/m, exactly.", "Conductor ''μ''r should be as close to 1 as possible – copper or aluminum rather than a magnetic or paramagnetic metal.", "Medium or long air-core cylindrical coil * ''L'' = inductance (µH)* ''r'' = outer radius of coil (cm)* ''ℓ'' = length of coil (cm)* ''N'' = number of turns Requires cylinder length ''ℓ'' > 0.4 ''r'': Length must be at least of the diameter.", "Not applicable to single-loop antennas or very short, stubby coils.", "Multilayer air-core coil * ''L'' = inductance (µH)* ''r'' = mean radius of coil (cm)* ''ℓ'' = physical length of coil winding (cm)* ''N'' = number of turns* ''d'' = depth of coil (outer radius minus inner radius) (cm) Flat spiral air-core coil * ''L'' = inductance (µH)* ''r'' = mean radius of coil (cm)* ''N'' = number of turns* ''d'' = depth of coil (outer radius minus inner radius) (cm) * ''L'' = inductance (µH)* ''r'' = mean radius of coil (in)* ''N'' = number of turns* ''d'' = depth of coil (outer radius minus inner radius) (in) Accurate to within 5 percent for ''d'' > 0.2 ''r''.", "Toroidal air-core (circular cross-section) * ''L'' = inductance (nH)* ''d'' = diameter of coil winding (cm)* ''N'' = number of turns* ''D'' = 2 * radius of revolution (cm) * ''L'' = inductance (nH)* ''d'' = diameter of coil winding (cm)* ''N'' = number of turns* ''D'' = 2 * radius of revolution (cm) Approximation when ''d'' 1'' = inside diameter of toroid (cm)* ''d2'' = outside diameter of toroid (cm)* ''N'' = number of turns* ''h'' = height of toroid (cm)" ], [ "See also", "* Bellini–Tosi direction finder (radio goniometer)* Hanna curve* Induction coil* Induction cooking* Induction loop* LC circuit*RLC circuit* Saturable reactor – a type of adjustable inductor* Solenoid* Accumulator (energy)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", ";Source*" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Insulin pump" ], [ "Introduction", "Insulin pump in useChild diabetic wearing a state-of-the-art insulin pump (referred to as a \"patch pump\").", "His waterproof device needs no one infusion setAn '''insulin pump''' is a medical device used for the administration of insulin in the treatment of diabetes mellitus, also known as continuous subcutaneous insulin therapy.The device configuration may vary depending on design.", "A traditional pump includes:* the pump (including controls, processing module, and batteries)* a disposable reservoir for insulin (inside the pump)* a disposable infusion set, including a cannula for subcutaneous insertion (under the skin) and a tubing system to connect the insulin reservoir to the cannula.Other configurations are possible.", "More recent models may include disposable or semi-disposable designs for the pumping mechanism and may eliminate tubing from the infusion set.An insulin pump is an alternative to multiple daily injections of insulin by insulin syringes or an insulin pen and allows for flexible insulin therapy when used in conjunction with blood glucose monitoring and carbohydrate counting." ], [ "Medical uses", "Insulin pumps are used to deliver insulin on a continuous basis to a person with type I diabetes.===Advantages===* Users report better quality of life (QOL) compared to using other devices for administering insulin.", "The improvement in QOL is reported in type 1 and insulin-requiring type 2 diabetes subjects on pumps.", "* The use of rapid-acting insulin for basal needs offers relative freedom from a structured meal and exercise regime previously needed to control blood sugar with slow-acting insulin.", "* Programmable basal rates allow for scheduled insulin deliveries of varying amounts at different times of the day.", "This is especially useful in controlling events such as the dawn phenomenon resulting in fewer and less severe low blood sugar events during the night.", "* Many users feel that bolusing insulin from a pump is more convenient and discreet than injection.", "* Insulin pumps make it possible to deliver more precise amounts of insulin than can be injected using a syringe.", "This supports tighter control over blood sugar and hemoglobin A1c levels, reducing the chance of long-term complications associated with diabetes.", "This is predicted to result in a long-term cost savings relative to multiple daily injections.", "* Many modern insulin pumps have a \"bolus wizard\" that calculates how much bolus insulin is needed, taking into account expected carbohydrate intake, blood sugar level, and still-active insulin.", "* Insulin pumps can provide an accurate record of insulin usage through their history menus.", "On many insulin pumps, this history can be uploaded to a computer and graphed for trend analysis.", "* Neuropathy is a troublesome complication of diabetes resistant to usual treatment.", "There are reports of alleviation or even total disappearance of resistant neuropathic pain with the use of insulin pumps.", "* Recent studies of use of insulin pumps in Type 2 diabetes have shown profound improvements in HbA1c, sexual performance, and neuropathy pain.===Disadvantages===Insulin pumps, cartridges, and infusion sets may be far more expensive than syringes used for insulin injection with several insulin pumps costing more than $6,000; necessary supplies can cost over $300.Another disadvantage of insulin pump use is a higher risk of developing diabetic ketoacidosis if the pump malfunctions.", "This can happen if the pump battery is discharged, if the insulin is inactivated by heat exposure, if the insulin reservoir runs empty, the tubing becomes loose and insulin leaks rather than being injected, or if the cannula becomes bent or kinked in the body, preventing delivery.", "Therefore, pump users typically monitor their blood sugars more frequently to evaluate the effectiveness of insulin delivery.", "* Since the insulin pump needs to be worn most of the time, pump users need strategies to participate in activities that may damage the pump, such as rough sports and activities in the water.", "Some users may find that wearing the pump all the time (together with the infusion set tubing) is uncomfortable or unwieldy.", "* Possibility of insulin pump malfunctioning, and having to resort back to multiple daily injections until a replacement becomes available.", "However most pump manufacturers will have a program that will get a new pump to the user within 24 hours or allow the user to buy a second pump as a backup for a small fee.", "Additionally the pump itself will make many safety checks throughout the day, in some cases up to 4,000,000 and may have a second microprocessor dedicated to this.", "* Users may experience scar tissue buildup around the inserted cannula, resulting in a hard bump under the skin after the cannula is removed.", "The scar tissue does not heal particularly fast, so years of wearing the pump and changing the infusion site will cause the user to start running out of viable \"spots\" to wear the pump.", "In addition, the areas with scar tissue buildup generally have lower insulin sensitivity and may affect basal rates and bolus amounts.", "In some extreme cases the insulin delivery will appear to have no/little effect on lowering blood glucose levels and the site must be changed.", "* Users may experience allergic reactions and other skin irritation from the adhesive on the back of an infusion set.", "Experience may vary according to the individual, the pump manufacturer, and the type of infusion set used.", "* A larger supply of insulin may be required in order to use the pump.", "Many units of insulin can be wasted while refilling the pump's reservoir, filling the tubing, or changing an infusion site.", "This may affect prescription and dosage information.===Accessibility===Use of insulin pumps is increasing because of:* Easy delivery of multiple insulin injections for those using intensive insulin therapy.", "* Accurate delivery of very small boluses, helpful for infants.", "* Growing support among doctors and insurance companies due to the benefits contributing to reducing the incidence of long-term complications.", "* Improvements in blood glucose monitoring.", "New meters require smaller drops of blood, and the corresponding lancet poke in the fingers is smaller and less painful.", "These meters also support alternate site testing for the most routine tests for practically painless testing." ], [ "History", "In 1974, the first insulin pump was created and was named the '''Biostator'''.", "The first pump was a 60 kg bedside device.", "It also had the capability of monitoring blood glucose levels, so this also doubles as the first continuous glucose monitor.", "Between 1978 and 1988, Robert Channon, working with Guy's Hospital and the Bristol Royal Infirmary, developed a series of miniature insulin infusion pumps.", "Today, insulin pumps are so small that they can fit in a pocket or a purse.In 1984, an '''Infusaid''' implantable infusion device was used to treat a 22-year-old patient successfully.The insulin pump was first endorsed in the United Kingdom in 2003 by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE).===Developments===New insulin pumps are becoming \"smart\" as new features are added to their design.", "These simplify the tasks involved in delivering an insulin bolus.", "* '''insulin on board''': This calculation is based on the size of a bolus, the time elapsed since the completion of the bolus, and a programmable metabolic rate.", "The pump software will estimate the insulin remaining in the bloodstream and relay it to the user.", "This supports the process of performing a new bolus before the effects of the last bolus are complete and, thereby, helps prevent the user from overcompensating for high blood sugar with unnecessary correction boluses.", "* '''bolus calculators''': Pump software helps by calculating the dose for the next insulin bolus.", "The user enters the grams of carbohydrates to be consumed, and the bolus \"wizard\" calculates the units of insulin needed.", "It adjusts for the most recent blood glucose level and the insulin on board, and then suggests the best insulin dose to the user to approve and deliver.", "* '''custom alarms''': The pump can monitor for activities during specific times of day and alarm the user if an expected activity did not occur.", "Examples include a missed meal bolus, a missed blood glucose test, a new blood glucose test 15 minutes after a low blood glucose test, etc.", "The alarms are customized for each user.", "* '''touch bolus''': For persons with visual impairments, this button on the pump can be used to bolus for insulin without using the display.", "This works with a system of beeps to confirm the bolus parameters to the pump user.", "This feature is described as 'touch', 'audio', or 'easy' bolus depending on brand.", "The feature was first introduced in the mid- to late 1990s.", "* '''interface to personal computers''': Since the late 1990s, most pumps can interface with personal computers for managing and documenting pump programming and/or to upload data from the pump.", "This simplifies record keeping and can be interfaced with diabetes management software.", "* '''integration with blood glucose meters''': Blood glucose data can be manually entered into the pump to support the bolus wizard for calculation of the next insulin bolus.", "Some pumps support an interface between the insulin pump and a blood glucose meter.", "** The Medtronic Diabetes Minimed Paradigm series of insulin pumps allow for radio frequency (RF) communication.", "This enables the pump to receive data from a Lifescan (in the US) or Bayer (in other countries) blood glucose meter.", "** The Animas Ping is a pump/blood glucose meter combo that connect to each other using radio frequency.", "They both can work independently of each other and each have their own history storage.", "The main purpose of the connection between the pump and the meter is that it allows boluses to be made from the meter or the pump.", "This is particularly useful when correcting for a high blood sugar as the meter remembers readings and automatically enters them in correction boluses if they are less than 15 minutes old.", "** The DANA Diabecare IISG insulin pump has a blood glucose meter in it.", "After a blood glucose check with the integrated glucometer, the user can use the bolus wizard to deliver a required bolus.", "** The Insulet ''OmniPod'' has a separate remote, also known as a Personal Diabetes Monitor (PDM), that features a built-in meter that uses Freestyle test strips.", "This eliminates the need to carry and manage a separate meter or transfer blood glucose results from device to device.", "* '''integration with continuous glucose monitoring systems''': Some insulin pumps can be used as a display for interstitial glucose values obtained from a continuous glucose monitoring system or sensor.", "** The Minimed Paradigm series' RF link also supports a continuous blood glucose sensor known as the Paradigm REAL-Time Continuous Glucose Monitor that wirelessly provides an interstitial glucose value every 5 minutes on the pump screen.", "The Medtronic REAL-Time System was the first to link a continuous monitor with an insulin pump system.", "In the Minimed 530G with Enlite (in the US) or Paradigm Veo (in other countries), the pump can enter a low glucose suspend mode stopping all insulin delivery (bolus and basal insulin) if interstitial glucose values fall below the hypoglycemia threshold.", "In the Minimed 640G insulin pump series, low glucose suspend mode can also be entered based on predicted hypoglycemia.", "** The Animas Vibe is an insulin pump that is fully integrated with the Dexcom G4 Continuous Glucose Monitor.", "The two connect wirelessly to monitor and track blood glucose levels and detect patterns.", "The Dexcom G4 has the advantage of being designed to monitor glucose levels every five minutes throughout 7 days of continuous wear.", "The Animas Vibe was approved for use in Europe in 2011, and Canada and the United States in January and December 2014, respectively.", "NOTE: Animas insulin pumps are not available due to Johnson & Johnson's decision to cease operations at their Animas subsidiary.", "** The Tandem Diabetes Care t:Slim X2 was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 2019 and is the first insulin pump to be designated as an alternate controller enabled (ACE) insulin pump.", "ACE insulin pumps allow users to integrate continuous glucose monitors, automated insulin dosing (AID) systems, and other diabetes management devices with the pump to create a personalized diabetes therapy system.", "Many users of the t:slim X2 integrate the pump with the Dexcom G6, a continuous glucose monitor approved by the FDA in 2018.It was the first CGM authorized for use in an integrated therapy system.", "The device does not require users to provide fingerstick calibrations and lasts for up to ten days.", "* Other options may include remote control, tubeless pod, touch screen interface, rechargeable battery, pre-filled insulin cartridge, and mobile bolus.", "'''MiniMed 670G''' is a type of insulin pump and sensor system created by Medtronic.", "It was approved by the US FDA in September 2016 and was the first approved hybrid closed loop system which senses a patient's basal insulin requirement and automatically adjusts its delivery to the body.", "'''Mylife YpsoPump''', developed by Ypsomed, was launched in Europe in 2016.Eli Lilly had planned to work with Ypsomed to introduce this to the United States, but that effort was terminated in 2022.", "'''Omnipod 5''': On January 28, 2022, Insulet Corporation announced the FDA has approved the Omnipod 5, the first tubeless closed loop insulin pump with Smartphone control, working with the Dexcom G6 Continuous Glucose Monitor.", "The Omnipod 5 will have a feature named SmartAdjust technology that allows for the increase, decrease, or suspension of insulin based on the user's custom blood glucose targets.", "'''INSUL by AgVa''': AgVa Healthcare announced that Insul by Agva is the world's most advanced and affordable Insulin pump.", "Features such as a built-in glucometer, Bluetooth connectivity, android and IOS app, as well as long-lasting and economical disposables.===Future developments===* When insulin pump technology is combined with a continuous blood glucose monitoring system, the technology seems promising for real time control of the blood sugar level.", "Currently there are no mature algorithms to automatically control the insulin delivery based on feedback of the blood glucose level.", "When the loop is closed, the system may function as an artificial pancreas.", "* Insulin pumps are being used for infusing pramlintide (brand name Symlin, or synthetic amylin) with insulin for improved postprandial glycemic control compared to insulin alone.", "* Dual hormone insulin pumps that infuse either insulin or glucagon.", "In event of hypoglycemia, the glucagon could be triggered to increase the blood glucose.", "This would be particularly valuable in a closed loop system under the control of a glucose sensor.", "The Artificial Pancreas, currently in clinical trials for FDA approval, is a recently developed device designed with this technology in mind.", "* Ultrafast insulins.", "These insulins are absorbed more quickly than the currently available Humalog, Novolog, and Apidra which have a peak at about 60 minutes.", "Faster insulin uptake would theoretically coordinate with meals better, and allow faster recovery from hyperglycemia if the insulin infusion is suspended.", "Biodel is developing an ultrafast insulin" ], [ "Dosing", "Filling an insulin pump reservoir.", "(Left to right) 1: Reservoir in sterile packaging.", "2: Filling the reservoir.", "3: Reservoir with needle and plunger removed, ready for attachment to infusion set.300px300px300px300pxAn insulin pump allows the replacement of slow-acting insulin for basal needs with a continuous infusion of rapid-acting insulin.The insulin pump delivers a single type of rapid-acting insulin in two ways:* a bolus dose that is pumped to cover food eaten or to correct a high blood glucose level.", "* a basal dose that is pumped continuously at an adjustable basal rate to deliver insulin needed between meals and at night.===Bolus shape===An insulin pump user can influence the profile of the rapid-acting insulin by shaping the bolus.", "Users can experiment with bolus shapes to determine what is best for any given food, which means that they can improve control of blood sugar by adapting the bolus shape to their needs.A '''standard bolus''' is an infusion of insulin pumped completely at the onset of the bolus.", "It's the most similar to an injection.", "By pumping with a \"spike\" shape, the expected action is the fastest possible bolus for that type of insulin.", "The standard bolus is most appropriate when eating high carb low protein low fat meals because it will return blood sugar to normal levels quickly.An '''extended bolus''' is a slow infusion of insulin spread out over time.", "By pumping with a \"square wave\" shape, the bolus avoids a high initial dose of insulin that may enter the blood and cause low blood sugar before digestion can facilitate sugar entering the blood.", "The extended bolus also extends the action of insulin well beyond that of the insulin alone.", "The extended bolus is appropriate when covering high fat high protein meals such as steak, which will be raising blood sugar for many hours past the onset of the bolus.", "The extended bolus is also useful for those with slow digestion (such as with gastroparesis or coeliac disease).A '''combination bolus'''/'''multiwave bolus''' is the combination of a standard bolus spike with an extended bolus square wave.", "This shape provides a large dose of insulin up front, and then also extends the tail of the insulin action.", "The combination bolus is appropriate for high carb high fat meals such as pizza, pasta with heavy cream sauce, and chocolate cake.A '''super bolus''' is a method of increasing the spike of the standard bolus.", "Since the action of the bolus insulin in the blood stream will extend for several hours, the basal insulin could be stopped or reduced during this time.", "This facilitates the \"borrowing\" of the basal insulin and including it into the bolus spike to deliver the same total insulin with faster action than can be achieved with spike and basal rate together.", "The super bolus is useful for certain foods (like sugary breakfast cereals) which cause a large post-prandial peak of blood sugar.", "It attacks the blood sugar peak with the fastest delivery of insulin that can be practically achieved by pumping.===Bolus timing===Since the pump user is responsible to manually start a bolus, this provides an opportunity for the user to pre-bolus to improve upon the insulin pump's capability to prevent post-prandial hyperglycemia.", "A pre-bolus is simply a bolus of insulin given before it is actually needed to cover carbohydrates eaten.There are two situations where a pre-bolus is helpful:# A pre-bolus of insulin will mitigate a spike in blood sugar that results from eating high glycemic foods.", "Infused insulin analogs such as NovoLog and Apidra typically begin to reduce blood sugar levels 15 or 20 minutes after infusion.", "As a result, easily digested sugars often hit the bloodstream much faster than infused insulin intended to cover them, and the blood sugar level spikes upward as a result.", "If the bolus were infused 20 minutes before eating, then the pre-bloused insulin would hit the bloodstream simultaneously with the digested sugars to control the magnitude of the spike.# A pre-bolus of insulin can combine a meal bolus and a correction bolus when the blood sugar is above the target range before a meal.", "The timing of the bolus is a controllable variable to bring down the blood sugar level before eating again causes it to increase.Similarly, a low blood sugar level or a low glycemic food might be best treated with a bolus ''after'' a meal is begun.", "The blood sugar level, the type of food eaten, and a person's individual response to food and insulin affect the ideal time to bolus with the pump.===Basal rate patterns===The pattern for delivering basal insulin throughout the day can also be customized with a pattern to suit the pump user.", "* A reduction of basal at night to prevent low blood sugar in infants and toddlers.", "* An increase of basal at night to counteract high blood sugar levels due to growth hormone in teenagers.", "* A pre-dawn increase to prevent high blood sugar due to the dawn effect in adults and teens.", "* In a proactive plan before regularly scheduled exercise times such as morning gym for elementary school children or after-school basketball practice for high school children.===Basal rate determination===Basal insulin requirements will vary between individuals and periods of the day.", "The basal rate for a particular time period is determined by fasting while periodically evaluating the blood sugar level.", "Neither food nor bolus insulin must be taken for 4 hours before or during the evaluation period.", "If the blood sugar level changes dramatically during evaluation, then the basal rate can be adjusted to increase or decrease insulin delivery to keep the blood sugar level approximately steady.For instance, to determine an individual's morning basal requirement, they must skip breakfast.", "On waking, they would test their blood glucose level periodically until lunch.", "Changes in blood glucose level are compensated with adjustments in the morning basal rate.", "The process is repeated over several days, varying the fasting period, until a 24-hour basal profile has been built up which keeps fasting blood sugar levels relatively steady.", "Once the basal rate is matched to the fasting basal insulin need, the pump user will then gain the flexibility to skip or postpone meals such as sleeping late on the weekends or working overtime on a weekday.Many factors can change insulin requirements and require an adjustment to the basal rate:* continued beta cell death following diagnosis of type 1 diabetes (honeymoon period)* growth spurts particularly during puberty* weight gain or loss* any drug treatment that affects insulin sensitivity (e.g.", "corticosteroids)* eating, sleeping, or exercise routine changes* whenever the control over hyperglycemia is degrading* and according to the seasons.A pump user should be educated by their diabetes care professional about basal rate determination before beginning pump therapy.===Temporary basal rates===Since the basal insulin is provided as a rapid-acting insulin, the basal insulin can be immediately increased or decreased as needed with a temporary basal rate.", "Examples when this is helpful include:* As a passenger during a long car drive, when insulin needs are different due to inactivity.", "* While driving on an extended trip, to reduce the risk of hypoglycemia, a lower temporary basal rate may be programmed.", "* During and after spontaneous exercise or sports activities, when the body needs less insulin.", "* During illness or stress, when basal demand increases due to insulin resistance.", "* When blood ketones are present, when additional insulin is needed.", "* When on an extended fast (such as Ramadan, Lent, or Yom Kippur) when basal requirements may be lower.", "* During menses, when additional basal insulin might be needed." ], [ "Security", "In August 2011, an IBM researcher, Jay Radcliffe, demonstrated a security flaw in insulin pumps.", "Radcliffe was able to hack the wireless interface used to control the pump remotely.", "Pump manufacturer Medtronic later said security research by McAfee uncovered a flaw in its pumps that could be exploited." ], [ "See also", "* Automated insulin delivery system* Continuous glucose monitor* Minimed Paradigm" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* American Diabetes Association: Insulin Pumps * Diabetes.co.uk guide to insulin pumps available in the UK* Diabetes Educator - Insulin pump therapy:Best practices in choosing and using infusion devices" ] ]
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[ [ "ISO 3166" ], [ "Introduction", "'''ISO 3166''' is a standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) that defines codes for the names of countries, dependent territories, special areas of geographical interest, and their principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states).", "The official name of the standard is '''''Codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions'''''." ], [ "Parts", "It consists of three parts:* '''ISO 3166-1''', ''Codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions – Part 1: Country codes'', defines codes for the names of countries, dependent territories, and special areas of geographical interest.", "It defines three sets of country codes:** ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 – two-letter country codes which are the most widely used of the three, and used most prominently for the Internet's country code top-level domains (with a few exceptions).", "** ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 – three-letter country codes which allow a better visual association between the codes and the country names than the alpha-2 codes.", "** ISO 3166-1 numeric – three-digit country codes which are identical to those developed and maintained by the United Nations Statistics Division, with the advantage of script (writing system) independence, and hence useful for people or systems using non-Latin scripts.", "* '''ISO 3166-2''', ''Codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions – Part 2: Country subdivision code'', defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces, states, departments, regions) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.", "* '''ISO 3166-3''', ''Codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions – Part 3: Code for formerly used names of countries'', defines codes for country names which have been deleted from ISO 3166-1 since its first publication in 1974." ], [ "Editions", "The first edition of ISO 3166, which included only alphabetic country codes, was published in 1974.The second edition, published in 1981, also included numeric country codes, with the third and fourth editions published in 1988 and 1993 respectively.", "The fifth edition, published between 1997 and 1999, was expanded into three parts to include codes for subdivisions and former countries." ], [ "ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency", "The ISO 3166 standard is maintained by the '''ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency''' ('''ISO 3166/MA'''), located at the ISO central office in Geneva.", "Originally it was located at the Deutsches Institut für Normung (DIN) in Berlin.", "Its principal tasks are:* To add and to eliminate country names and to assign code elements to them;* To publish lists of country names and code elements;* To maintain a reference list of all country code elements and subdivision code elements used and their period of use;* To issue newsletters announcing changes to the code tables;* To advise users on the application of ISO 3166.===Members===There are fifteen experts with voting rights on the ISO 3166/MA.", "Nine are representatives of national standards organizations:* Association française de normalisation (AFNOR) – France* American National Standards Institute (ANSI) – United States* British Standards Institution (BSI) – United Kingdom* Deutsches Institut für Normung (DIN) – Germany* Japanese Industrial Standards Committee (JISC) - Japan*Standards Australia (SA) - Australia*Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS) - Kenya* Standardization Administration of China (SAC) - China* Swedish Standards Institute (SIS) – SwedenThe other six are representatives of major United Nations agencies or other international organizations who are all users of ISO 3166-1:* International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)* International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)* International Telecommunication Union (ITU)* Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)* Universal Postal Union (UPU)* United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)The ISO 3166/MA has further associated members who do not participate in the votes but who, through their expertise, have significant influence on the decision-taking procedure in the maintenance agency." ], [ "Codes beginning with \"X\"", "Country codes beginning with \"X\" are used for private custom use (reserved), never for official codes.", "Despite the words \"private custom\", the use may include other public standards.", "ISO affirms that no country code beginning with X will ever be standardised.", "Examples of X codes include:* The ISO 3166-based NATO country codes (STANAG 1059, 9th edition) use \"X\" codes for imaginary exercise countries ranging from XXB for \"Brownland\" to XXY for \"Yellowland\", as well as for major commands such as XXE for SHAPE or XXS for SACLANT.", "* X currencies defined in ISO 4217." ], [ "Current country codes" ], [ "See also", "* **ISO standards**ISO 3166*** **** **** **** *** *** ** * ** * ** *** *** *** ** * ** **" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency, International Organization for Standardization (ISO)" ] ]
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[ [ "Intensive insulin therapy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Intensive insulin therapy''' or '''flexible insulin therapy''' is a therapeutic regimen for diabetes mellitus treatment.", "This newer approach contrasts with conventional insulin therapy.", "Rather than minimize the number of insulin injections per day (a technique which demands a rigid schedule for food and activities), the intensive approach favors flexible meal times with variable carbohydrate as well as flexible physical activities.", "The trade-off is the increase from 2 or 3 injections per day to 4 or more injections per day, which was considered \"intensive\" relative to the older approach.", "In North America in 2004, many endocrinologists prefer the term \"flexible insulin therapy\" (FIT) to \"intensive therapy\" and use it to refer to any method of replacing insulin that attempts to mimic the pattern of small continuous basal insulin secretion of a working pancreas combined with larger insulin secretions at mealtimes.", "The semantic distinction reflects changing treatment." ], [ "Rationale", "Long-term studies like the UK Prospective Diabetes Study (''UKPDS'') and the Diabetes control and complications trial (''DCCT'') showed that intensive insulin therapy achieved blood glucose levels closer to non-diabetic people and that this was associated with reduced frequency and severity of blood vessel damage.", "Damage to large and small blood vessels (macro- and microvascular disease) is central to the development of complications of diabetes.This evidence convinced most physicians who specialize in diabetes care that an important goal of treatment is to make the biochemical profile of the diabetic patient (blood lipids, HbA1c, etc.)", "as close to the values of non-diabetic people as possible.", "This is especially true for young patients with many decades of life ahead." ], [ "General description", "A working pancreas continually secretes small amounts of insulin into the blood to maintain normal glucose levels, which would otherwise rise from glucose release by the liver, especially during the early morning dawn phenomenon.", "This insulin is referred to as ''basal insulin secretion'', and constitutes almost half the insulin produced by the normal pancreas.Bolus insulin is produced during the digestion of meals.", "Insulin levels rise immediately as we begin to eat, remaining higher than the basal rate for 1 to 4 hours.", "This meal-associated (''prandial'') insulin production is roughly proportional to the amount of carbohydrate in the meal.Intensive or flexible therapy involves supplying a continual supply of insulin to serve as the ''basal insulin'', supplying meal insulin in doses proportional to nutritional load of the meals, and supplying extra insulin when needed to correct high glucose levels.", "These three components of the insulin regimen are commonly referred to as basal insulin, bolus insulin, and high glucose correction insulin.===Two common regimens: pens, injection ports, and pumps===One method of intensive insulinotherapy is based on multiple daily injections (sometimes referred to in medical literature as ''MDI'').", "Meal insulin is supplied by injection of rapid-acting insulin before each meal in an amount proportional to the meal.", "Basal insulin is provided as a once or twice daily injection of dose of a long-acting insulin.In an MDI regimen, long-acting insulins are preferred for basal use.", "An older insulin used for this purpose is ultralente, and beef ultralente in particular was considered for decades to be the gold standard of basal insulin.", "Long-acting insulin analogs such as insulin glargine (brand name ''Lantus'', made by Sanofi-Aventis) and insulin detemir (brand name ''Levemir'', made by Novo Nordisk) are also used, with insulin glargine used more than insulin detemir.", "Rapid-acting insulin analogs such as lispro (brand name ''Humalog'', made by Eli Lilly and Company) and aspart (brand name ''Novolog''/''Novorapid'', made by Novo Nordisk and ''Apidra'' made by Sanofi Aventis) are preferred by many clinicians over older regular insulin for meal coverage and high correction.", "Many people on MDI regimens carry insulin pens to inject their rapid-acting insulins instead of traditional syringes.", "Some people on an MDI regimen also use injection ports such as the I-port to minimize the number of daily skin punctures.The other method of intensive/flexible insulin therapy is an insulin pump.", "It is a small mechanical device about the size of a deck of cards.", "It contains a syringe-like reservoir with about three days' insulin supply.", "This is connected by thin, disposable, plastic tubing to a needle-like cannula inserted into the patient's skin and held in place by an adhesive patch.", "The infusion tubing and cannula must be removed and replaced every few days.An insulin pump can be programmed to infuse a steady amount of rapid-acting insulin under the skin.", "This steady infusion is termed the basal rate and is designed to supply the background insulin needs.", "Each time the patient eats, he or she must press a button on the pump to deliver a specified dose of insulin to cover that meal.", "Extra insulin is also given the same way to correct a high glucose reading.", "Although current pumps can include a glucose sensor, they cannot automatically respond to meals or to rising or falling glucose levels.Both MDI and pumping can achieve similarly excellent glycemic control.", "Some people prefer injections because they are less expensive than pumps and do not require the wearing of a continually attached device.", "However, the clinical literature is very clear that patients whose basal insulin requirements tend not to vary throughout the day or do not require dosage precision smaller than 0.5 IU, are much less likely to realize much significant advantage of pump therapy.", "Another perceived advantage of pumps is the freedom from syringes and injections, however, infusion sets still require less frequent injections to guide infusion sets into the subcutaneous tissue.Intensive/flexible insulin therapy requires frequent blood glucose checking.", "To achieve the best balance of blood sugar with either intensive/flexible method, a patient must check his or her glucose level with a meter monitoring of blood glucose several times a day.", "This allows optimization of the basal insulin and meal coverage as well as correction of high glucose episodes." ], [ "Advantages and disadvantages", "The two primary advantages of intensive/flexible therapy over more traditional two or three injection regimens are:# greater flexibility of meal times, carbohydrate quantities, and physical activities, and# better glycemic control to reduce the incidence and severity of the complications of diabetes.Major disadvantages of intensive/flexible therapy are that it requires greater amounts of education and effort to achieve the goals, and it increases the daily cost for glucose monitoring four or more times a day.", "This cost can substantially increase when the therapy is implemented with an insulin pump and/or continuous glucose monitor.It is a common notion that more frequent hypoglycemia is a disadvantage of intensive/flexible regimens.", "The frequency of hypoglycemia increases with increasing effort to achieve normal blood glucoses with most insulin regimens, but hypoglycemia can be minimized with appropriate glucose targets and control strategies.", "The difficulties lie in remembering to test, estimating meal size, taking the meal bolus and eating within the prescribed time, and being aware of snacks and meals that are not the expected size.", "When implemented correctly, flexible regimens offer greater ability to achieve good glycemic control with easier accommodation to variations of eating and physical activity.A 2020 Cochrane systematic review did not find enough evidence of reduction of cardiovascular mortality, non-fatal myocardial infarction or non-fatal stroke when comparing insulin to metformin monotherapy." ], [ "Semantics of changing care: why \"flexible\" is replacing \"intensive\" therapy", "Over the last two decades, the evidence that better glycemic control (i.e., keeping blood glucose and HbA1c levels as close to normal as possible) reduces the rates of many complications of diabetes has become overwhelming.", "As a result, diabetes specialists have expended increasing effort to help most people with diabetes achieve blood glucose levels as close to normal as achievable.", "It takes about the same amount of effort to achieve good glycemic control with a traditional two or three injection regimen as it does with flexible therapy: frequent glucose monitoring, attention to timing and amounts of meals.", "Many diabetes specialists no longer think of flexible insulin therapy as \"intensive\" or \"special\" treatment for a select group of patients but simply as standard care for most patients with type 1 diabetes." ], [ "Treatment devices used", "The insulin pump is one device used in intensive insulinotherapy.", "The insulin pump is about the size of a beeper.", "It can be programmed to send a steady stream of insulin as ''basal insulin''.", "It contains a reservoir or cartridge holding several days' worth of insulin, the tiny battery-operated pump, and the computer chip that regulates how much insulin is pumped.", "The infusion set is a thin plastic tube with a fine needle at the end.", "There are also newer \"pods\" which do not require tubing.", "It carries the insulin from the pump to the infusion site beneath the skin.", "It sends a larger amount before eating meals as \"bolus\" doses.The insulin pump replaces insulin injections.", "This device is useful for people who regularly forget to inject themselves or for people who don't like injections.", "This machine does the injecting by replacing the slow-acting insulin for basal needs with an ongoing infusion of rapid-acting insulin.Basal insulin: the insulin that controls blood glucose levels between meals and overnight.", "It controls glucose in the fasting state.Boluses: the insulin that is released when food is eaten or to correct a high reading.Another device used in intensive insulinotherapy is the injection port.", "An injection port is a small disposable device, similar to the infusion set used with an insulin pump, configured to accept a syringe.", "Standard insulin injections are administered through the injection port.", "When using an injection port, the syringe needle always stays above the surface of the skin, thus reducing the number of skin punctures associated with intensive insulinotheraphy." ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Inverse function" ], [ "Introduction", "A function and its inverse .", "Because maps to 3, the inverse maps 3 back to .In mathematics, the '''inverse function''' of a function (also called the '''inverse''' of ) is a function that undoes the operation of .", "The inverse of exists if and only if is bijective, and if it exists, is denoted by For a function , its inverse admits an explicit description: it sends each element to the unique element such that .As an example, consider the real-valued function of a real variable given by .", "One can think of as the function which multiplies its input by 5 then subtracts 7 from the result.", "To undo this, one adds 7 to the input, then divides the result by 5.Therefore, the inverse of is the function defined by" ], [ "Definitions", "If maps to , then maps back to .Let be a function whose domain is the set , and whose codomain is the set .", "Then is ''invertible'' if there exists a function from to such that for all and for all .If is invertible, then there is exactly one function satisfying this property.", "The function is called the inverse of , and is usually denoted as , a notation introduced by John Frederick William Herschel in 1813.The function is invertible if and only if it is bijective.", "This is because the condition for all implies that is injective, and the condition for all implies that is surjective.The inverse function to can be explicitly described as the function:.===Inverses and composition===Recall that if is an invertible function with domain and codomain , then: , for every and for every .Using the composition of functions, this statement can be rewritten to the following equations between functions:: and where is the identity function on the set ; that is, the function that leaves its argument unchanged.", "In category theory, this statement is used as the definition of an inverse morphism.Considering function composition helps to understand the notation .", "Repeatedly composing a function with itself is called iteration.", "If is applied times, starting with the value , then this is written as ; so , etc.", "Since , composing and yields , \"undoing\" the effect of one application of .===Notation===While the notation might be misunderstood, certainly denotes the multiplicative inverse of and has nothing to do with the inverse function of .", "The notation might be used for the inverse function to avoid ambiguity with the multiplicative inverse.In keeping with the general notation, some English authors use expressions like to denote the inverse of the sine function applied to (actually a partial inverse; see below).", "Other authors feel that this may be confused with the notation for the multiplicative inverse of , which can be denoted as .", "To avoid any confusion, an inverse trigonometric function is often indicated by the prefix \"arc\" (for Latin ).", "For instance, the inverse of the sine function is typically called the arcsine function, written as .", "Similarly, the inverse of a hyperbolic function is indicated by the prefix \"ar\" (for Latin ).", "For instance, the inverse of the hyperbolic sine function is typically written as .", "The expressions like can still be useful to distinguish the multivalued inverse from the partial inverse: .", "Other inverse special functions are sometimes prefixed with the prefix \"inv\", if the ambiguity of the notation should be avoided." ], [ "Examples", "===Squaring and square root functions===The function given by is not injective because for all .", "Therefore, is not invertible.If the domain of the function is restricted to the nonnegative reals, that is, we take the function with the same ''rule'' as before, then the function is bijective and so, invertible.", "The inverse function here is called the ''(positive) square root function'' and is denoted by .=== Standard inverse functions ===The following table shows several standard functions and their inverses:+Inverse arithmetic functions Function Inverse Notes (i.e. )", "(i.e. )", "(i.e. )", "if is even; integer and and trigonometric functions inverse trigonometric functions various restrictions (see table below) hyperbolic functions inverse hyperbolic functions various restrictions=== Formula for the inverse ===Many functions given by algebraic formulas possess a formula for their inverse.", "This is because the inverse of an invertible function has an explicit description as: .This allows one to easily determine inverses of many functions that are given by algebraic formulas.", "For example, if is the function: then to determine for a real number , one must find the unique real number such that .", "This equation can be solved:: Thus the inverse function is given by the formula: Sometimes, the inverse of a function cannot be expressed by a closed-form formula.", "For example, if is the function: then is a bijection, and therefore possesses an inverse function .", "The formula for this inverse has an expression as an infinite sum::" ], [ "Properties", "Since a function is a special type of binary relation, many of the properties of an inverse function correspond to properties of converse relations.===Uniqueness===If an inverse function exists for a given function , then it is unique.", "This follows since the inverse function must be the converse relation, which is completely determined by .===Symmetry===There is a symmetry between a function and its inverse.", "Specifically, if is an invertible function with domain and codomain , then its inverse has domain and image , and the inverse of is the original function .", "In symbols, for functions and ,: and This statement is a consequence of the implication that for to be invertible it must be bijective.", "The involutory nature of the inverse can be concisely expressed by :The inverse of is .The inverse of a composition of functions is given by :Notice that the order of and have been reversed; to undo followed by , we must first undo , and then undo .For example, let and let .", "Then the composition is the function that first multiplies by three and then adds five,: To reverse this process, we must first subtract five, and then divide by three,: This is the composition.===Self-inverses===If is a set, then the identity function on is its own inverse:: More generally, a function is equal to its own inverse, if and only if the composition is equal to .", "Such a function is called an involution.===Graph of the inverse===The graphs of and .", "The dotted line is .If is invertible, then the graph of the function: is the same as the graph of the equation: This is identical to the equation that defines the graph of , except that the roles of and have been reversed.", "Thus the graph of can be obtained from the graph of by switching the positions of the and axes.", "This is equivalent to reflecting the graph across the line.===Inverses and derivatives===The inverse function theorem states that a continuous function is invertible on its range (image) if and only if it is either strictly increasing or decreasing (with no local maxima or minima).", "For example, the function: is invertible, since the derivative is always positive.If the function is differentiable on an interval and for each , then the inverse is differentiable on .", "If , the derivative of the inverse is given by the inverse function theorem,: Using Leibniz's notation the formula above can be written as: This result follows from the chain rule (see the article on inverse functions and differentiation).The inverse function theorem can be generalized to functions of several variables.", "Specifically, a differentiable multivariable function is invertible in a neighborhood of a point as long as the Jacobian matrix of at is invertible.", "In this case, the Jacobian of at is the matrix inverse of the Jacobian of at ." ], [ "Real-world examples", "* Let be the function that converts a temperature in degrees Celsius to a temperature in degrees Fahrenheit, then its inverse function converts degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius, since * Suppose assigns each child in a family its birth year.", "An inverse function would output which child was born in a given year.", "However, if the family has children born in the same year (for instance, twins or triplets, etc.)", "then the output cannot be known when the input is the common birth year.", "As well, if a year is given in which no child was born then a child cannot be named.", "But if each child was born in a separate year, and if we restrict attention to the three years in which a child was born, then we do have an inverse function.", "For example, * Let be the function that leads to an percentage rise of some quantity, and be the function producing an percentage fall.", "Applied to $100 with = 10%, we find that applying the first function followed by the second does not restore the original value of $100, demonstrating the fact that, despite appearances, these two functions are not inverses of each other.", "* The formula to calculate the pH of a solution is .", "In many cases we need to find the concentration of acid from a pH measurement.", "The inverse function is used." ], [ "Generalizations", "===Partial inverses===The square root of is a partial inverse to .Even if a function is not one-to-one, it may be possible to define a '''partial inverse''' of by restricting the domain.", "For example, the function: is not one-to-one, since .", "However, the function becomes one-to-one if we restrict to the domain , in which case: (If we instead restrict to the domain , then the inverse is the negative of the square root of .)", "Alternatively, there is no need to restrict the domain if we are content with the inverse being a multivalued function:: The inverse of this cubic function has three branches.Sometimes, this multivalued inverse is called the '''full inverse''' of , and the portions (such as and −) are called ''branches''.", "The most important branch of a multivalued function (e.g.", "the positive square root) is called the ''principal branch'', and its value at is called the ''principal value'' of .For a continuous function on the real line, one branch is required between each pair of local extrema.", "For example, the inverse of a cubic function with a local maximum and a local minimum has three branches (see the adjacent picture).The arcsine is a partial inverse of the sine function.These considerations are particularly important for defining the inverses of trigonometric functions.", "For example, the sine function is not one-to-one, since: for every real (and more generally for every integer ).", "However, the sine is one-to-one on the interval, and the corresponding partial inverse is called the arcsine.", "This is considered the principal branch of the inverse sine, so the principal value of the inverse sine is always between − and .", "The following table describes the principal branch of each inverse trigonometric function:functionRange of usual principal value arcsin arccos arctan arccot arcsec arccsc ===Left and right inverses===Function composition on the left and on the right need not coincide.", "In general, the conditions # \"There exists such that \" and # \"There exists such that \"imply different properties of .", "For example, let denote the squaring map, such that for all in , and let denote the square root map, such that for all .", "Then for all in ; that is, is a right inverse to .", "However, is not a left inverse to , since, e.g., .====Left inverses====If , a '''left inverse''' for (or ''retraction'' of ) is a function such that composing with from the left gives the identity function That is, the function satisfies the rule: If , then .The function must equal the inverse of on the image of , but may take any values for elements of not in the image.A function with nonempty domain is injective if and only if it has a left inverse.", "An elementary proof runs as follows:* If is the left inverse of , and , then .", "* If nonempty is injective, construct a left inverse as follows: for all , if is in the image of , then there exists such that .", "Let ; this definition is unique because is injective.", "Otherwise, let be an arbitrary element of .For all , is in the image of .", "By construction, , the condition for a left inverse.In classical mathematics, every injective function with a nonempty domain necessarily has a left inverse; however, this may fail in constructive mathematics.", "For instance, a left inverse of the inclusion of the two-element set in the reals violates indecomposability by giving a retraction of the real line to the set" ], [ "See also", "* Lagrange inversion theorem, gives the Taylor series expansion of the inverse function of an analytic function* Integral of inverse functions* Inverse Fourier transform* Reversible computing" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Inertia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Inertia''' is the tendency of objects in motion to stay in motion, and objects at rest to stay at rest, unless a force causes its speed or direction to change.", "It is one of the fundamental principles in classical physics, and described by Isaac Newton in his first law of motion (also known as The Principle of Inertia).", "It is one of the primary manifestations of mass, one of the core quantitative properties of physical systems.", "Newton writes:In his 1687 work ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica'', Newton defined inertia as a force:" ], [ "History and development", "=== Early understanding of inertial motion ===Professor John H. Lienhard points out the Mozi – based on a Chinese text from the Warring States period (475–221 BCE) – as having given the first description of inertia.", "Before the European Renaissance, the prevailing theory of motion in western philosophy was that of Aristotle (384–322 BCE).", "On the surface of the Earth, the inertia property of physical objects is often masked by gravity and the effects of friction and air resistance, both of which tend to decrease the speed of moving objects (commonly to the point of rest).", "This misled the philosopher Aristotle to believe that objects would move only as long as force was applied to them.", "Aristotle said that all moving objects (on Earth) eventually come to rest unless an external power (force) continued to move them.", "Aristotle explained the continued motion of projectiles, after being separated from their projector, as an (itself unexplained) action of the surrounding medium continuing to move the projectile.Despite its general acceptance, Aristotle's concept of motion was disputed on several occasions by notable philosophers over nearly two millennia.", "For example, Lucretius (following, presumably, Epicurus) stated that the \"default state\" of the matter was motion, not stasis (stagnation).", "In the 6th century, John Philoponus criticized the inconsistency between Aristotle's discussion of projectiles, where the medium keeps projectiles going, and his discussion of the void, where the medium would hinder a body's motion.", "Philoponus proposed that motion was not maintained by the action of a surrounding medium, but by some property imparted to the object when it was set in motion.", "Although this was not the modern concept of inertia, for there was still the need for a power to keep a body in motion, it proved a fundamental step in that direction.", "This view was strongly opposed by Averroes and by many scholastic philosophers who supported Aristotle.", "However, this view did not go unchallenged in the Islamic world, where Philoponus had several supporters who further developed his ideas.In the 11th century, Persian polymath Ibn Sina (Avicenna) claimed that a projectile in a vacuum would not stop unless acted upon.===Theory of impetus===In the 14th century, Jean Buridan rejected the notion that a motion-generating property, which he named ''impetus'', dissipated spontaneously.", "Buridan's position was that a moving object would be arrested by the resistance of the air and the weight of the body which would oppose its impetus.", "Buridan also maintained that impetus increased with speed; thus, his initial idea of impetus was similar in many ways to the modern concept of momentum.", "Despite the obvious similarities to more modern ideas of inertia, Buridan saw his theory as only a modification to Aristotle's basic philosophy, maintaining many other peripatetic views, including the belief that there was still a fundamental difference between an object in motion and an object at rest.", "Buridan also believed that impetus could be not only linear but also circular in nature, causing objects (such as celestial bodies) to move in a circle.", "Buridan's theory was followed up by his pupil Albert of Saxony (1316–1390) and the Oxford Calculators, who performed various experiments which further undermined the Aristotelian model.", "Their work in turn was elaborated by Nicole Oresme who pioneered the practice of illustrating the laws of motion with graphs.Shortly before Galileo's theory of inertia, Giambattista Benedetti modified the growing theory of impetus to involve linear motion alone:Benedetti cites the motion of a rock in a sling as an example of the inherent linear motion of objects, forced into circular motion.===Classical inertia===According to Charles Coulston Gillispie, inertia \"entered science as a physical consequence of Descartes' geometrization of space-matter, combined with the immutability of God.\"", "The first physicist to completely break away from the Aristotelian model of motion was Isaac Beeckman in 1614.The term \"inertia\" was first introduced by Johannes Kepler in his ''Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae'' (published in three parts from 1617 to 1621); however, the meaning of Kepler's term (which he derived from the Latin word for \"idleness\" or \"laziness\") was not quite the same as its modern interpretation.", "Kepler defined inertia only in terms of resistance to movement, once again based on the presumption that rest was a natural state which did not need explanation.", "It was not until the later work of Galileo and Newton unified rest and motion in one principle that the term \"inertia\" could be applied to these concepts as it is today.The principle of inertia, as formulated by Aristotle for \"motions in a void\", includes that a mundane object tends to resist a change in motion.", "The Aristotelian division of motion into mundane and celestial became increasingly problematic in the face of the conclusions of Nicolaus Copernicus in the 16th century, who argued that the Earth is never at rest, but is actually in constant motion around the Sun.Isaac Newton, 1689Galileo GalileiGalileo, in his further development of the Copernican model, recognized these problems with the then-accepted nature of motion and, at least partially, as a result, included a restatement of Aristotle's description of motion in a void as a basic physical principle:A body moving on a level surface will continue in the same direction at a constant speed unless disturbed.", "Galileo writes that \"all external impediments removed, a heavy body on a spherical surface concentric with the earth will maintain itself in that state in which it has been; if placed in a movement towards the west (for example), it will maintain itself in that movement.", "\"This notion, which is termed \"circular inertia\" or \"horizontal circular inertia\" by historians of science, is a precursor to but is distinct from Newton's notion of rectilinear inertia.", "For Galileo, a motion is \"horizontal\" if it does not carry the moving body towards or away from the center of the Earth, and for him, \"a ship, for instance, having once received some impetus through the tranquil sea, would move continually around our globe without ever stopping.\"", "It is also worth noting that Galileo later (in 1632) concluded that based on this initial premise of inertia, it is impossible to tell the difference between a moving object and a stationary one without some outside reference to compare it against.", "This observation ultimately came to be the basis for Albert Einstein to develop the theory of special relativity.Concepts of inertia in Galileo's writings would later come to be refined, modified, and codified by Isaac Newton as the first of his Laws of Motion (first published in Newton's work, ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica'', in 1687):Every body perseveres in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a right line, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed thereon.", "Despite having defined the concept in his laws of motion, Newton did not actually use the term \"inertia.” In fact, originally he viewed the respective phenomenon as being caused by \"innate forces\" inherent in matter, which resisted any acceleration.", "Given this perspective, and borrowing from Kepler, Newton attributed the term \"inertia\" to mean \"the innate force possessed by an object which resists changes in motion\"; thus, Newton defined \"inertia\" to mean the cause of the phenomenon, rather than the phenomenon itself.", "However, Newton's original ideas of \"innate resistive force\" were ultimately problematic for a variety of reasons, and thus most physicists no longer think in these terms.", "As no alternate mechanism has been readily accepted, and it is now generally accepted that there may not be one that we can know, the term \"inertia\" has come to mean simply the phenomenon itself, rather than any inherent mechanism.", "Thus, ultimately, \"inertia\" in modern classical physics has come to be a name for the same phenomenon as described by Newton's First Law of Motion, and the two concepts are now considered to be equivalent.The effect of inertial mass: if pulled slowly, the upper thread breaks (a).", "If pulled quickly, the lower thread breaks (b).===Relativity===Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity, as proposed in his 1905 paper entitled \"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies\", was built on the understanding of inertial reference frames developed by Galileo, Huygens and Newton.", "While this revolutionary theory did significantly change the meaning of many Newtonian concepts such as mass, energy, and distance, Einstein's concept of inertia remained at first unchanged from Newton's original meaning.", "However, this resulted in a limitation inherent in special relativity: the principle of relativity could only apply to inertial reference frames.", "To address this limitation, Einstein developed his general theory of relativity (\"The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity\", 1916), which provided a theory including ''noninertial'' (accelerated) reference frames.In general relativity, the concept of inertial motion got a broader meaning.", "Taking into account general relativity, inertial motion is any movement of a body that is not affected by forces of electrical, magnetic, or other origin, but that is only under the influence of gravitational masses.", "Physically speaking, this happens to be exactly what a properly functioning three-axis accelerometer is indicating when it does not detect any proper acceleration." ], [ "Etymology", "The term inertia comes from the Latin word ''iners'', meaning idle or sluggish." ], [ "Rotational inertia", "A quantity related to inertia is ''rotational inertia'' (→ moment of inertia), the property that a rotating rigid body maintains its state of uniform rotational motion.", "Its angular momentum remains unchanged unless an external torque is applied; this is called conservation of angular momentum.", "Rotational inertia is often considered in relation to a rigid body.", "For example, a gyroscope uses the property that it resists any change in the axis of rotation." ], [ "See also", "*Flywheel energy storage devices which may also be known as an ''Inertia battery''*General relativity*Vertical and horizontal*Inertial navigation system*Inertial response of synchronous generators in an electrical grid*Kinetic energy*List of moments of inertia*Mach's principle*Newton's laws of motion*Classical mechanics*Special relativity*Parallel axis theorem" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Butterfield, H (1957), ''The Origins of Modern Science'', .", "*Clement, J (1982), \"Students' preconceptions in introductory mechanics\", ''American Journal of Physics'' vol 50, pp 66–71*Crombie, A C (1959), ''Medieval and Early Modern Science'', vol.", "2.", "*McCloskey, M (1983), \"Intuitive physics\", ''Scientific American'', April, pp. 114–123.", "*McCloskey, M & Carmazza, A (1980), \"Curvilinear motion in the absence of external forces: naïve beliefs about the motion of objects\", ''Science'' vol.", "210, pp. 1139–1141.", "***" ], [ "External links", "** Why Does the Earth Spin?", "(YouTube)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ibanez" ], [ "Introduction", " is a Japanese guitar brand owned by Hoshino Gakki.", "Based in Nagoya, Aichi, Japan, Hoshino Gakki were one of the first Japanese musical instrument companies to gain a significant foothold in import guitar sales in the United States and Europe, as well as the first brand of guitars to mass-produce the seven-string guitar and eight-string guitar.", "Ibanez manufactures effects, accessories, amps, and instruments in Japan, China, Indonesia, and the United States (at a Los Angeles-based custom shop).", "they marketed nearly 165 models of bass guitar, 130 acoustic guitars, and more than 300 electric guitars.", "After Gibson and Fender, Ibanez is considered the third biggest guitar brand." ], [ "History", "The Hoshino Gakki company began in 1908 as the musical instrument sales division of the ''Hoshino Shoten'', a bookstore chain.", "Hoshino Gakki decided in 1935 to make Spanish-style acoustic guitars, at first using the \"Ibanez Salvador\" brand name in honor of Spanish luthier Salvador Ibáñez, and later simply \"Ibanez\".", "Accordingly, the brand originally was spelled in Japan, reflecting the Spanish pronunciation, before changing its spelling in 1986 to the current name, which represents an English pronunciation of Ibanez.The modern era of Ibanez guitars began in 1957.The late 1950s and 1960s Ibanez catalogues show guitars with some wild-looking designs, manufactured by Kiso Suzuki Violin,'''Note''': the wide variety of musical instruments in this catalog reflect their full-time export business during that era.", "The arched-top guitars and violin-family instruments suggest the involvement of Suzuki Violin in Nagoya and its brother factory, Kiso Suzuki Violin in Kiso.", "Their third brother in Matsumoto, Shin'ichi Suzuki was a founder of the Suzuki method, and their cultural activities influenced the establishment of FujiGen in Matsumoto, according to a co-founder of FujiGen, Yuichiro Yokouchi .", "Guyatone, and their own Tama factory established in 1962.After the Tama factory stopped manufacturing guitars in 1966, Hoshino Gakki contracted the Teisco String Instruments Company to make Ibanez guitars.", "After the Teisco String Instrument factory closed in 1970, Hoshino Gakki contracted with FujiGen Gakki to make Ibanez guitars.In the 1960s, Japanese guitar makers mainly copied American guitar designs, and Ibanez-branded copies of Gibson, Fender, and Rickenbacker models appeared.", "This resulted in the so-called lawsuit period.As a result of the lawsuit, Hoshino Gakki introduced Ibanez models that were definitely not copies of the Gibson or Fender designs, such as the Iceman and the Roadstar series.", "The company has produced its own guitar designs ever since.", "The late 1980s and early 1990s were an important period for the Ibanez brand.", "Hoshino Gakki's relationship with guitarist Steve Vai resulted in the introduction of the Ibanez JEM and the Ibanez Universe models; after the earlier successes of the Roadstar and Iceman models in the late 1970s – early 1980s, Hoshino Gakki entered the superstrat market with the RG series, a lower-priced version of their JEM series.Hoshino Gakki also had semi-acoustic, nylon- and steel-stringed acoustic guitars manufactured under the Ibanez name.", "Most Ibanez guitars were made by the FujiGen guitar factory in Japan up until the mid- to late 1980s, and from then on Ibanez guitars have also been made in other Asian countries such as Korea, China, and Indonesia.", "During the early 1980s, the FujiGen guitar factory also produced most of the Roland guitar synthesizers, including the Stratocaster-style Roland G-505, the twin-humbucker Roland G-202 (endorsed by Adrian Belew, Eric Clapton, Dean Brown, Jeff Baxter, Yannis Spathas, Christoforos Krokidis, Steve Howe, Mike Rutherford, Andy Summers, Neal Schon and Steve Hackett) and the Ibanez X-ING IMG-2010.Cimar and Starfield were guitar and bass brands owned by Hoshino Gakki.", "In the 1970s, Hoshino Gakki and Kanda Shokai shared some guitar designs, and so some Ibanez and Greco guitars have the same features.", "The Greco versions were sold in Japan and the Ibanez versions were sold outside Japan.", "From 1982, Ibanez guitars have also been sold in Japan as well.Guitar brands such as Antoria and Mann shared some Ibanez guitar designs.", "The Antoria guitar brand was managed by JT Coppock Leeds Ltd England.", "CSL was a brand name managed by Charles Summerfield Ltd England.", "Maurice Summerfield of the Charles Summerfield Ltd company contributed some design ideas to Hoshino Gakki and also imported Ibanez and CSL guitars into the UK from 1964 to 1987.The Maxxas brand name came about because Hoshino Gakki thought that the guitar did not fit in with the Ibanez model range and was therefore named Maxxas by Rich Lasner from Hoshino USA.===The \"lawsuit\" guitars===Mid-1970s \"Lawsuit Era\" solid body, Set neck, Mann/Ibanez electric guitarHarry Rosenbloom, founder of the (now-closed) Medley Music of Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, was manufacturing handmade guitars under the name \"Elger\".", "By 1965, Rosenbloom had decided to stop manufacturing guitars and chose to become the exclusive North American distributor for Ibanez guitars.", "In September 1972, Hoshino began a partnership with Elger Guitars to import guitars from Japan.", "In September 1981, Elger was renamed \"Hoshino U.S.A.\", retaining the company headquarters in Bensalem Township, Pennsylvania as a distribution and quality-control center.On June 28, 1977, in the Philadelphia Federal District Court, a lawsuit was filed by the Norlin Corporation, the parent company of Gibson Guitars, against Elger/Hoshino U.S.A.'s use of the Gibson headstock design and logo.", "Hoshino settled out of court in early 1978 and the case was officially closed on February 2, 1978.After the lawsuit, Hoshino Gakki abandoned the strategy of copying \"classic\" electric guitar designs, having already introduced a plethora of original designs.", "Hoshino was producing their original Artist models from 1974, introducing a set-neck model in 1975.In 1977, they upgraded and extended their Artist range and introduced a number of other top-quality original designs made to match or surpass famous American brands: the Performer and short-lived Concert ranges, which competed with the Les Paul; through-neck Musicians; Studios in fixed- and through-neck construction; the radically shaped Iceman; and the Roadster which morphed into the Roadstar range, precursor to the popular superstrat era in the mid-1980s.", "The newer Ibanez models began incorporating more modern elements into their design such as radical body shapes, slimmer necks, 2-octave fingerboards, slim pointed headstocks, higher-output electronics, humbucker/single-coil/humbucker (H/S/H) pickup configurations, locking tremolo bridges and different finishes." ], [ "Guitars", "===Sub-brands===;Ibanez J.", "Custom:The J.", "Custom series are the most exclusive and expensive guitars Ibanez offers.", "They are \"envisioned to be the finest Japanese-made guitar in history\".", "Built by some of the most skilled luthiers in Japan, they \"represent every advance in design and technology Ibanez has developed over the last 20 years\".", "As of 2022, they feature aftermarket pickups of the Dimarzio brand (DiMarzio® Air Norton™, DiMarzio® True Velvet™, DiMarzio® The Tone Zone® and DiMarzio® PAF® 7), 5 piece maple/wenge necks with Titanium reinforcement rods, ebony fingerboard with a tree of life fret board inlay, and Edge Zero tremolo systems.", "Even among J.", "Customs there are two tiers: most of the standard production J.", "Customs (the ones that appear in catalogs) are produced by FujiGen Gakki while the more limited production models are produced by Sugi Guitars.", "The Sugi-made models are typically produced in very limited numbers from one-offs to maybe a dozen copies of a single design.", ";Ibanez Prestige:The Prestige guitars are Ibanez's top-of-the-line models that are built in Japan.", "They feature higher quality materials, high craftsmanship, and higher quality bridges compared to other models.", ";Ibanez Premium:The Premium guitars are similar to other models but are built in Ibanez's Indonesian premium factory to premium quality standards.", ";Ibanez Gio:The Ibanez Gio are Ibanez' budget guitars, designed for high playability at low costs.", "Many high end Ibanez guitars are recreated in the more affordable Gio form, such as the RGA and ART models.;U.S.A.", "custom :USA custom range.", "Late 1980s to mid-1990s.", "Also known as Ibanez LACS (L.A.", "Custom Shop), services only their endorsed artists today.===Solid body electric guitars===;Ibanez RG:2017 Ibanez RG652FX WH The main characteristics that are common among all Ibanez RG guitars (RG stands for Roadstar Guitar) are that they feature 24 frets and use thin necks, known as \"Wizard\", which allows for faster playing.", "The RG features a line up of guitars with both floating tremolo systems and fixed bridge systems.", ";Ibanez RGA:The Ibanez RGA was introduced at a time when the Ibanez RG series only had tremolo bridges.", "Since then, the RG series has introduced fixed bridge models, but Ibanez still produces the RGA series with an arched top to differentiate from the RG series.", "The arched top allows for added comfort while playing the guitar.", ";Ibanez RGD:The Ibanez RGD guitar was developed for heavy metal guitar players.", "The RGD features a 26.5\" scale which allows for lower than standard guitar tuning while retaining standard string tension without use of thicker gauge strings.", "It also features an extra deep scoop cut on the lower horn for easy high fret access.", "Ibanez currently makes two Ibanez RGD Prestige models.", ";Ibanez S:The Ibanez S (Saber) guitar has an extremely thin body made out of mahogany, and is available in 6, 7 and 8-string models.", "They may come with either 22 or 24 frets, depending on year of manufacture.", "The standard line currently have Wizard III necks that are slightly wider and thicker than the original Wizard.", "All S models have bodies that are thicker in the middle where the pickups are, and taper off towards the outer edges.", "The guitars use ZR (Zero Resistance), Lo-TRS, and variants of the Edge bridge system as well as fixed bridges.", "Ibanez currently makes 8 Prestige S-Series guitars.", ";Ibanez DN:The Ibanez DN guitar (DN stands for Darkstone) was developed for heavy metal guitar players.", "The main features of the DN are that it has a set-in neck for speed and playing comfort, medium frets, and coil tapped pickups.", "This guitar is currently discontinued.", ";Ibanez X:The Ibanez X guitars are Ibanez guitars that feature unconventional and unique body designs.", "An example would be the Ibanez Xiphos, which is stylized to look like the letter X.", "For all X guitars currently available and for more information, check the Ibanez Electric Guitar page in 2013.", "(as of 2013, variations may be: Halberd XH300 and Glaive XG300, Mick Thomson Signature MTM100, MTM10);Ibanez Artist (AR):The Ibanez Artist guitars were designed for heavy playing such as for heavy metal or traditional rock.", "The Artist ARZ is a single cutaway, 24 fret, 25\" scale guitar that features a wide variety of bridges and pickups depending on the specific models.", "The Artist ART is a single cutaway, 22 fret, 24.75\" scale guitar that features a hard tail bridge.", "The Ibanez AR is a reissued series originating from the 70s.", "The AR series features a set-in neck, double cutaway, with 22 frets on a 24.75\" scale.", ";Ibanez FR:The Ibanez FR is a simple body type guitar that is designed to be played in many genres.", ";Ibanez Mikro:The Ibanez Mikro series are small form factor guitars designed for children, beginners, or guitar players looking for a guitar that is easy to transport.===Hollow body electric guitars===;Ibanez Artcore series:The first Ibanez Artcore models were released in mid-2002 whose goal was to offer an affordable range of full-hollow and semi-hollow body guitars that appealed to entry level guitarists who were unable or unwilling to pay big money on high-priced guitars.", ";Ibanez Artcore Custom:Headstock from an ARTCORE series guitar The Artcore Custom is Ibanez's flagship model for the Artcore series.", "The bodies of the guitars are made of maple, the neck has a set-in construction type, and features wood control knobs and hand rolled frets.", ";Ibanez AK:The Ibanez AK is a guitar designed for jazz and blues type playing.", "It features a slim set-in neck with a body designed to easily access the higher frets.", "The AK is easily distinguishable by its sharper lower body horn (Florentine cutaway ?)", "that other Artcore guitars do not have.===Production signature guitars===JEM7VWHJS10th Chrome BoyPGM models* JEM, Universe and Pia Series – Steve Vai Signature* JS – Joe Satriani Signature* PGM – Paul Gilbert Signature* APEX – Munky Signature* E-Gen – Herman Li Signature* NDM4 – Noodles Signature* PWM - Paul Waggoner Signature* KIKO - Kiko Loureiro Signature* STM2 – Sam Totman Signature* ORM – Omar Rodriguez Signature* MBM – Matt Bachand Signature* HRG – H. R. Giger Signature* GB – George Benson Signature* K7 – Head and Munky Signature* PM – Pat Metheny Signature* PS10 – Paul Stanley Signature* JSM – John Scofield Signature* AT – Andy Timmons Signature* TAM - Tosin Abasi Signature* RBM - Reb Beach Signature* JBM - Jake Bowen Signature* BBM - Ben Bruce Signature* JIVA - Nita Strauss Signature* THBB - Tim Henson Signature* SLM - Scott LePage Signature* MAR - Mario Camarena Signature* EH - Erick Hansel Signature* YY - Yvette Young Signature* M8M - Mårten Hagström Signature* FTM - Fredrik Thordendal Signature* ICHI - Ichika Nito Signature* LB - Lari Basilio Signature===Discontinued guitars===* Ibanez R series, also known as the Radius series, are famous for having lightweight aerofoil-profiled basswood bodies.", "The main endorser was Joe Satriani before he was given his own Signature JS series.", "The Radius series is now discontinued.", "* RT series – Superstrat design with 24 frets.", "Discontinued in 1994.", "* RX series – Superstrat design but with 22 frets instead.", "Discontinued in 1998, and currently only exists as GRX (budget model of RX series).", "* Axstar (a.k.a.", "Axstar by Ibanez) – discontinued* EDR/EXR – Ergodyne series – discontinued* MC – Musician series – Discontinued – Neck-through construction (except for MC-100, which has a bolt-on neck), with 24 frets (two octaves) – As with the Artist models of the late 1970s, some of these guitars were equipped with trisound switches, and some models (MC 400 and MC 500) were equipped with active electronics.", "* ST – Studio series 1977–82 offset double cutaway ranging from bolt on to fixed and through necks with pairs of V2 distortion humbuckers.", "24 frets and 25.5\" scale.", "* CN – Concert range 1977–79 like a bolt on neck Artist with slightly offset cutaways.", "* SB70 – Studio & Blazer spot build: Mixing Studio series double cutaway, ash bodies with Blazer series 21 fret bolt on maple necks, and sporting a fixed brass bridge, 2 Super 70 Humbuckers, 1 vol, 2 tone knobs, a pickup selector switch, and a phase mini-toggle switch (which gives a unique strat-like quack sound), an estimated 300-400 of these were assembled, mostly in 1982.A cult following has emerged, as these guitars are rare, and sell for 3x-4x their original price.", "Learn more at The Unofficial SB70 Registry: https://www.ibanezcollectors.com/forum/index.php?topic=20623.0* BL – Blazer series 1980–82 – fixed bridge strat-like with maple necks and mahogany or ash bodies sporting 3 single coil pickups (Super 6 or BL) or 2 Super 70 humbuckers.", "* ARC-100/300 (Retro Series)* ARX-100/300 (Retro Series)* AR-100/200 (black vintage top)* V Series – Flying V's – discontinued* Ibanez Artcore Series – Ibanez's full and semi-hollow guitar line, with some models discontinued since their debut in 2002.", "* Ibanez Jet King 2 and Jet King 1 – A modern remake of the Ibanez Rhythm maker, vintage looking and sounding guitars.", "* Radius series – discontinued, a modified version is now taken over by the Joe Satriani signature series which features a multi-radius neck.", "* EX Series – Manufactured in Korea and Japan (rare).", "* PL – Pro Line series* RR – Rocket Roll* DT – Destroyer* IC – Iceman - a radical shape endorsed and used by Paul Stanley, Various pickup combinations.", "* Talman Series – discontinued* CN Concert Series – This was a short lived series produced in 1978 then discontinued soon afterwards.", "It features an asymmetric double cutaway body with two humbuckers, a hard tail bridge and a bolt on neck.", "The top end model (the CN250) was one of the earliest guitars to feature \"half vine\" fingerboard inlays.", "* Power II series (540PII) - extended length lower cutaway, wide (1 3/4\")nut, available in H-H or H-S with edge trem.", "Often erroneously assumed to be an Alex Skolnick signature model due to his picture in the 88-89 catalogue with a 540PII.", "Primarily released for the Japanese market, although it has the Bensalem Penn.", "neck plate.", "* AFD – Artfield* GR – Ghostrider series, arched-top double cutaway design.", "24\" scale length.", "Most notably played by Shawn Lane.", "* Cimar by Ibanez* ICJ100WZ – Jay Yuenger Signature* K7 – Korn Signature* Stanley Jordan Signature* AH10 – Allan Holdsworth Signature* LR10 – Lee Ritenour Signature* JP20 – Joe Pass Signature* MFM – Marty Friedman Signature* MTM – Mick Thomson Signature* VM1 – Vinnie Moore Signature* FGM – Frank Gambale Signature* JPM – John Petrucci Signature* RBM2NT – Reb Beach Signature* DMM1 – Daron Malakian Signature* MMM – Mike Mushok Signature* RS1010SL – Steve Lukather Signature* STM1 – Sam Totman Signature* NDM1 and NDM2 – Noodles Signature===Bass guitar models===;SR (Soundgear) Series:Middle-class model range in the new millennium, though it included expensive high-end and top-of-the-line Japanese models in the late 1980s and 1990s.", "Later top offerings were branded as Signature and SR Prestige models for clearer segmentation, and all non-Prestige model production moved outside Japan.", "Current models from the SR250 and up feature soap bar-style humbuckers with active EQ.", ":;SR Prestige::High-end versions of the Ibanez Soundgear (SR-5004/5/6 & SR-4004/5/6) Bass Guitars made in Japan using exotic woods and high-quality custom Bartolini pickups & new \"PWC-III\" Power Curve III 3-band EQ with EQ bypass switch to bypass the electronics and take the bass signal directly from the pickups to the output jack.", "All Japanese-built current production models are in the Prestige series.", ":;SR Premium::Nordstrand pickups.", "Indonesian-built.", "* AFFIRMA series - solidbody basses designed by Rolf Spuler and made in Japan ** AFR - set neck, one magnetic pickup, and a piezo bridge ** Original series was launched in the early 1990s, a reissue series was released 2020 * ARTCORE Series- Archtop Basses** ARTIST (Model 2626B - Carved-top solid-body set-neck bass, twin humbuckers, made late Seventies.", ")** AFB200 – Hollow-body bass guitar** AGB200 – Semihollow-body bass guitar* ATK Series** ATK 300 4 string model** ATK 305 5 string model** ATK 1200, the Prestige version of the standard ATK, has extra neck pickup** ATK 800E, to be released in 2012, a Premium version of the standard ATK.", "Has extra neck pickup** ATK 805E, to be released in 2012, a Premium version of the standard ATK.", "Has extra neck pickup, 5-string model* Blazer* BTB (Boutique Bass) Series** BTB 400QM (discontinued)** BTB 406QM (Special Edition 6 String Model)** BTB Prestige – High-end range which are made in Japan.", "** BTB Iron Label Standard** BTB Iron Label Multiscale*Ergodyne Series - Bodies made from Luthite polymer.", "** EDA Series** EDB Series** EDC Series* EWB Series* GARTB 20* GATK 20 – More affordable version of the ATK.", "* GAXB Series (discontinued)* GSR Series- A lower-cost version of the Soundgear Series** GSR 100 – The original GSR bass guitar (Discontinued)** GSR 100 EX** GSR 105 EX** GSR 180** GSRM 20** GSR 250 M** GSR 200** GSR 200 FM – The GSR but with different color designs such as sunburst.", "** GSR 205 – Nominated for Ibanez's \"Best of Model\" award** GSR 205 FM* ICB (Iceman) Series* JTK (Jet King) Series* JUMPSTART Series- Similar to the GSR Series, named for the Jumpstart Pack which comes with amp and other accessories.", "* Musician Series* ROADGEAR Series* SRX (Soundgear) Series* EX series* Roadstar Series* S series* STUDIO series - Late Seventies bolt-on neck alternative to the Musician series.", "Included an 8-string bass.", "* TR Series===Signature basses===;K5 Fieldy:A custom 5-string Soundgear design w/ \"K5\" Inlay centered on 12th fret.", "It was based around a late-1990s then-top-of-the-line Soundgear SR885 owned by the artist, retaining the shape and electronics, but with different colour options and a change of woods to suit his preferences.", "Early models were Japanese-built, but production later moved to other Asian countries, around the same time Japanese models were rebranded with the Prestige moniker and positioned as the absolute top of the line.", "* SDB – Sharlee D'Angelo Signature bass* PRB – Paul Romanko Signature bass* GWB – Gary Willis Signature bass* MDB – Mike D'Antonio Signature bass* DTB – Dionald Tubang Signature bass* GVB - Gerald Veasley Signature bass* VWB1 – Verdine White Signature bass (discontinued)* PGB - Paul Gray Signature and Tribute bass (discontinued)* DWB - Doug Wimbish Series===Acoustic guitar models===* AE Series**AE5LG* AEL Series* AES Series* DT Series* EP9 Series* EW Series* GA Series* JAMPACK Series* MANDOLIN Series* MANN Series (Canadian distribution only)* MASA Series* PF Series* PC series* TALMAN Series* V Series* Concord* SAGE Series* A300AVV acoustic/electric single cutaway (Ambiance series)===Amplifiers======Guitar amplifiers===* IBZ**IBZ15GR**IBZ10G* TBX Tone Blaster Series * TSA** TSA15/TSA15H** TSA30/TSA30H===Bass amplifiers===* Promethean* IBZ* Sound Wave===Acoustic amplifiers===* Troubadour" ], [ "Effect pedals", "Tube ScreamerIbanez DE7 Delay/Echo PedalIn the 1970s, the '''Nisshin Onpa''' company who owned the Maxon brand name, developed and began selling a series of effect pedals in Japan.", "Hoshino Gakki licensed these for sale using the name Ibanez outside Japan.", "These two companies eventually began doing less and less business together until Nisshin Onpa ceased manufacturing the TS-9 reissue for Hoshino Gakki in 2002.", "*ToneLok Series**AP7 Analog Phaser**AW7 Autowah**CF7 Stereo Chorus/Flanger**DE7 Stereo Delay/Echo**DS7 Distortion**FZ7 Fuzz**LF7 Lo-Fi**PD7 Phat Hed Bass Overdrive**SB7 Synthesizer Bass**SH7 Seventh Heaven**SM7 Smashbox**TC7 Tri Mode Chorus**TS7 Tube Screamer**WD7 Weeping Demon**WD7JR Weeping Demon Junior*8 Series**AD-80 Analog Delay 1979-1981**TS808 Tube Screamer 1979 - 1981* 9 series **AD9 Analog Delay**AF9 Auto Filter**BB9 Bottom Booster**BC9 Bi-Mode Chorus**CP9 Compressor/Limiter**CS9 Stereo Chorus**FL9 Flanger**GE9 Graphic EQ**JD9 Jet Driver**OD9 Overdrive**PQ9 Parametric EQ**PT9 Phaser**SD9 Sonic Distortion**SM9 Super Metal**ST9 Super Tube Screamer**TS9 Tube Screamer**TS9B Bass Tube Screamer**TS9DX Turbo Tube Screamer**TS930TH 30th Anniversary Tube Screamer*Wah Pedals**WD7**WH10V3" ], [ "Ibanez endorsers: past and present" ], [ "Serial numbers", " Serial numbers'''Ibanez Serial Numbers''' (non Acoustic)'''Japanese Ibanez Serial Numbers'''1997 and after (CE logo designation)* F = FujiGen* YYXXXXX format* YY = year (98=1998)* XXXXX = production number1987-1997* F = FujiGen* H = Terada* I = Ida Gakki (Iida)* YXXXXX format* Y = year (2=1992)* XXXXX = production number1975-1986* MYYXXXX format* M = Month (A = January to L = December)* YY = year (82=1982)* XXXX = production numberMost Ibanez models with this serial number format were made by FujiGen Gakki.", "Exceptions are the Ibanez Blazer models which were made by Dyna Gakki and the Axstar by Ibanez models AX40, AX45, AX48, AXB50, AXB60, AXB65, AX70, AX75 which were made by Chushin Gakki.", "The Ibanez Axstar AXB1000 model was made by FujiGen Gakki.", "'''Korean Ibanez Serial Numbers'''C = Cor-Tek (Cort), S = Samick(1990–1995), S/SQ = Saehan(Sunghan), P = Peerless (Iida), Y = Yoojin, A = Sae-In.", "* YYMMXXXX format* YY = year (03=2003)* MM = month (01=January...12=December)* XXXX = production numberE = Sung-Eum* YMMXXXX format* Y = year (9=1999)* MM = month (01=January...12=December)* XXXX = production numberW = World* MYXXXX format* M=month (1=January...9=September, X=October...Z=December)* Y=year (3=2003)* XXXX = production number'''Indonesian Ibanez Serial Numbers'''I = Cor-Tek (Cort) Indonesia, K = KWO* YYMMXXXXX format* YY = year (03=2003)* MM = month (01=January...12=December)* XXXXX = production number'''Chinese Ibanez Serial Numbers'''Z = Yeou Chern, J=Sejung* YYMMXXXXX format* YY = year (03=2003)* MM = month (01=January...12=December)* XXXXX = production number'''Odd Ibanez Serial Numbers'''* 2940000 Acoustic* 2 = Cor-Tek (Cort) Taejan* YYXXXX format* YY = year (94=1994)* XXXX = production number* Ibanez Ghostrider model numbers GR=Cor-Tek (Cort), MGR=SamickOlder Acoustic* YYMM (Kato)* YY = year (82=1982)* MM = month (01=January...12=December)Silver Cadet model* Z = Woo-sinPickup Serial Numbers" ], [ "References", ";Models===Bibliography===** *" ], [ "External links", "* * Ibanez Serial Number Lookup" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Incest" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Incest''' ( ) is human sexual activity between family members or close relatives.", "This typically includes sexual activity between people in consanguinity (blood relations), and sometimes those related by affinity (marriage or stepfamily), adoption, or lineage.", "It is forbidden and considered immoral in most societies, and can lead to an increased risk of genetic disorders in children in case of pregnancy.The incest taboo is one of the most widespread of all cultural taboos, both in present and in past societies.", "Most modern societies have laws regarding incest or social restrictions on closely consanguineous marriages.", "In societies where it is illegal, consensual adult incest is seen by some as a victimless crime.", "Some cultures extend the incest taboo to relatives with no consanguinity, such as milk-siblings, stepsiblings, and adoptive siblings, albeit sometimes with less intensity.", "Third-degree relatives (such as half-aunt, half-nephew, first cousin) on average have 12.5% common genetic heritage, and sexual relations between them are viewed differently in various cultures, from being discouraged to being socially acceptable.", "Children of incestuous relationships have been regarded as illegitimate, and are still so regarded in some societies today.", "In most cases, the parents did not have the option to marry to remove that status, as incestuous marriages were, and are, normally also prohibited.A common justification for prohibiting incest is avoiding inbreeding, a collection of genetic disorders suffered by the children of parents with a close genetic relationship.", "Such children are at greater risk of congenital disorders, developmental and physical disability, and death; that risk is proportional to their parents' coefficient of relationship, a measure of how closely the parents are related genetically.", "However, cultural anthropologists have noted that inbreeding avoidance cannot form the sole basis for the incest taboo because the boundaries of the incest prohibition vary widely between cultures and not necessarily in ways that maximize the avoidance of inbreeding.In some societies, such as those of Ancient Egypt, brother–sister, father–daughter, mother–son, cousin–cousin, aunt–nephew, uncle–niece, and other combinations of relations within a royal family were married as a means of perpetuating the royal lineage.", "Some societies have different views about what constitutes illegal or immoral incest.", "For example, in Samoa, marriage between a brother and an older sister was allowed, while marriage between a brother and a younger sister was declared as unethical.", "However, sexual relations with a first-degree relative (meaning a parent, sibling, or child) are almost universally forbidden." ], [ "Terminology", "The number next to each box indicates the degree of relationship relative to the given person.The English word ''incest'' is derived from the Latin ''incestus'', which has a general meaning of \"impure, unchaste\".", "It was introduced into Middle English, both in the generic Latin sense (preserved throughout the Middle English period) and in the narrow modern sense.", "The derived adjective ''incestuous'' appears in the 16th century.", "Before the Latin term came in, incest was known in Old English as ''sib-leger'' (from ''sibb'' 'kinship' + ''leger'' 'to lie') or ''mǣġhǣmed'' (from ''mǣġ'' 'kin, parent' + ''hǣmed'' 'sexual intercourse') but in time, both words fell out of use.", "Terms like ''incester'' and ''incestual'' have been used to describe those interested or involved in sexual relations with relatives among humans, while ''inbreeder'' has been used in relation to similar behavior among non-human organisms." ], [ "History", "===Antiquity===In ancient China, first cousins with the same surnames (i.e.", "those born to the father's brothers) were not permitted to marry, while those with different surnames could marry (i.e.", "maternal cousins and paternal cousins born to the father's sisters).In Achaemenid Persia, marriages between family members, such as half-siblings, nieces and cousins took place but were not seen as incestuous.", "However, Greek sources state that brother-sister and father-daughter marriages allegedly took place inside the royal family, yet it remains problematic to determine the reliability of these accounts.", "According to Herodotus, Shah Cambyses II supposedly married two of his sisters, Atossa and Roxane.", "This would have been regarded as illegal.", "However, Herodotus also states that Cambyses married Otanes' daughter Phaidyme, whilst his contemporary Ctesias names Roxane as Cambyses' wife, but she is not referred to as his sister.", "The accusations against Cambyses of committing incest are mentioned as part of his \"blasphemous actions\", which were designed to illustrate his \"madness and vanity\".", "These reports all derive from the same Egyptian source that was antagonistic towards Cambyses, and some of these allegations of \"crimes\", such as the killing of the Apis bull, have been confirmed as false, which means that the report of Cambyses' supposed incestuous acts is questionable.Several of the Egyptian kings married their sisters and had several children with them to continue the royal bloodline.", "For example, Tutankhamun married his half-sister Ankhesenamun, and was himself the child of an incestuous union between Akhenaten and an unidentified sister-wife.", "Several scholars, such as Frier et al., state that sibling marriages were widespread among all classes in Egypt during the Graeco-Roman period.", "Numerous papyri and the Roman census declarations attest to many husbands and wives being brother and sister, of the same father and mother.", "However, it has also been argued that the available evidence does not support the view that such relations were common.The most famous of these relationships were in the Ptolemaic royal family; Cleopatra VII was married to two of her younger brothers, Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV, whilst her mother and father, Cleopatra V and Ptolemy XII, were also brother and sister.", "Arsinoe II and her younger brother Ptolemy II Philadelphus were the first in the family to participate in a full-sibling marriage, a departure from custom.", "A union between full siblings was counternormative in Greek and Macedonian tradition, and prohibited by the laws of at least some cities.", "It evidently caused some degree of astonishment: the Alexandrian poet Sotades was put to death for criticizing the \"wicked\" nature of the marriage, while his contemporary Theokritos more politically compared it to the relationship of Zeus with his older sister Hera.", "Ptolemy and his sister-wife Arsinoe put emphasis on their incestuous union through their mutual adoption of the epithet ''Philadelphos'' (\"Sibling-Lover\").", "They were the first full-sibling royal couple in the kingdom's known history to produce a child, Ptolemy V, and for the subsequent century and more the Ptolemies participated in full-sibling unions wherever possible.It may have been observation of their next-door Ptolemaic competitors that guided the Seleukids to their own experimentations with sibling unions.", "The daughter of Antiochus III and Laodice III, Laodice IV, married her two full-blooded older brothers, Antiochus and Seleucus IV, and also her younger brother Antiochus IV.", "Her second and third brother-husbands ruled as king one after the other, making her the queen in both her marriages.", "She bore children to all three of her brothers from her unions with them.", "One of them was her son Demetrius I, who also took the throne at one point and married a full-sister of his own, Laodice V. Laodice V bore her brother-husband three children; their marriage is the last known sibling marriage in the kingdom's history.Egyptian king Tutankhamun married his half-sister Ankhesenamun.There are records of brothersister unions in some of the smaller kingdoms of the Hellenistic era, though none of them seem to have pursued it with the zeal and resolve of the Ptolemies.", "The Pontic and Kommagenian kingdoms had full-sibling unions in a few ages.", "Mithridates IV of Pontus married his sister Laodice; the couple adopted the double epithet ''Philadelphoi'', which they publicized on their coinage, where, as with Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II, they were depicted in jugate coinage, with the likeness of Hera and Zeus on the back.", "Mithridates VI Eupator also wed a sister called Laodice.", "In Commagane the later pro-Roman King Antiochus III Philokaisar wed his sister Iotapa, and the couple procreated themselves exactly, producing their son, Antiochus IV Epiphanes, and their daughter, Iotapa, who would unite with him and also adopt the epithet ''Philadelphos''.The fable of ''Oedipus'', with a theme of inadvertent incest between a mother and son, ends in disaster and shows ancient taboos against incest, since Oedipus blinds himself in disgust and shame after his incestuous actions.", "In the 'sequel' to ''Oedipus'', ''Antigone'', his four children are also punished for their parents' incestuousness.", "Incest appears in the commonly accepted version of the birth of Adonis, when his mother, Myrrha, has sex with her father, Cinyras, during a festival, disguised as a prostitute.In ancient Greece, Spartan King Leonidas I, hero of the legendary Battle of Thermopylae, was married to his niece Gorgo, daughter of his half-brother Cleomenes I. Greek law allowed marriage between a brother and sister if they had different mothers: for example, some accounts say that Elpinice was for a time married to her half-brother Cimon.Incest was sometimes acknowledged as a positive sign of tyranny in ancient Greece.", "Herodotus recounts a dream of Hippias, son of Pisistratus, in which he \"slept with his own mother\", and this dream gave him assurance that he would regain power over Athens.", "Suetonius attributes this omen to a dream of Julius Caesar, explaining the symbolism of dreaming of sexual intercourse with one's own mother.Incest is mentioned and condemned in Virgil's ''Aeneid'' Book VI: ''hic thalamum invasit natae vetitosque hymenaeos'' \"This one invaded a daughter's room and a forbidden sex act\".Shield Jaguar II with his aunt-wife, Lady Xoc AD 709Roman civil law prohibited marriages within four degrees of consanguinity but had no degrees of affinity with regard to marriage.", "Roman civil laws prohibited any marriage between parents and children, either in the ascending or descending line ad infinitum.", "Adoption was considered the same as affinity in that an adoptive father could not marry an unemancipated daughter or granddaughter even if the adoption had been dissolved.", "Incestuous unions were discouraged and considered ''nefas'' (against the laws of gods and man) in ancient Rome.", "In AD 295, incest was explicitly forbidden by an imperial edict, which divided the concept of ''incestus'' into two categories of unequal gravity: the ''incestus iuris gentium'', which was applied to both Romans and non-Romans in the Empire, and the ''incestus iuris civilis'', which concerned only Roman citizens.", "Therefore, for example, an Egyptian could marry an aunt, but a Roman could not.", "Despite the act of incest being unacceptable within the Roman Empire, Roman Emperor Caligula is rumored to have had sexual relationships with all three of his sisters (Julia Livilla, Drusilla, and Agrippina the Younger).", "Emperor Claudius, after executing his previous wife, married his brother's daughter, Agrippina the Younger, and changed the law to allow an otherwise illegal union.", "The law prohibiting marrying a sister's daughter remained.", "The taboo against incest in ancient Rome is demonstrated by the fact that politicians would use charges of incest (often false charges) as insults and means of political disenfranchisement.Strabo reported that the Persian magi and the Irish had sex with their own mothers.", "Ctesias' ''History of Persia'' mentions how some Macedonians who saw a performance of ''Oedipus Tyrannus'' were perplexed at why Oedipus felt the need to mutilate himself after learning the truth about his birth; they booed the actor, and urged each other \"Go for your mother\".In Norse mythology, there are themes of brothersister marriage, a prominent example being between Njörðr and his unnamed sister (perhaps Nerthus), parents of Freyja and Freyr.", "Loki in turn also accuses Freyja and Freyr of having a sexual relationship.===Biblical references===The earliest Biblical reference to possible incest involves Cain.", "It was cited that he knew his wife and she conceived and bore Enoch.", "A literalist reading of this passage indicates that, during this period, there was no other woman except Eve, or there was an unnamed sister, in which case Cain had an incestuous relationship with his mother or his sister.", "According to the Book of Jubilees, Cain married his sister Awan.", "Later, in Genesis 20 of the Hebrew Bible, the Patriarch Abraham married his half-sister Sarah.", "Other references include the passage in 2 Samuel 13 where Amnon, King David's son, rapes his half-sister Tamar.", "According to Michael D. Coogan, it would have been perfectly all right for Amnon to have married her, the Bible being inconsistent about prohibiting incest.In Genesis 19:3038, while living in an isolated area after the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, Lot's two daughters conspire to inebriate and rape their father due to the lack of available partners to continue his line of descent.", "Because of intoxication, Lot \"perceived not\" when his firstborn, and the following night his younger, daughter lay with him.Moses was also born of an incestuous marriage.", "Exodus 6 details how his father, Amram, was the nephew of his mother, Jochebed.", "An account noted that the incestuous relations did not suffer the fate of childlessness, which was the punishment for such couples in Levitical law.", "It stated, however, that the incest exposed Moses \"to the peril of wild beasts, of the weather, of the water, and more.", "\"===From the Middle Ages onward===Many European monarchs were related due to political marriages, such that many such marriages were between cousins of some degree, uncles and nieces, and so forth, and sometimes first cousins.", "This was especially true in the Habsburg, Hohenzollern, Savoy, and Bourbon royal houses.", "However, relations between siblings, which may have been tolerated in other cultures, were considered abhorrent.", "For example, the false accusation that Anne Boleyn and her brother, George Boleyn, had committed incest was one of the reasons given for both being executed in May 1536.Historians agree that the false accusation against Anne Boleyn and George Boleyn was trumped up in order to ensure the king could go on to marry Jane Seymour.", "Sects deemed heretical, such as the Waldensians, were accused of incest.Incestuous marriages were also seen in the royal houses of ancient Japan and Korea, Inca Peru, Ancient Hawaii, and, at times, Central Africa, Mexico, and Thailand.", "Like the kings of ancient Egypt, the Inca rulers married their sisters.", "Huayna Capac, for instance, was the son of Topa Inca Yupanqui and the Inca's sister and wife.The ruling Inca king was expected to marry his full sister.", "If he had no children by his eldest sister, he married the second and third until they had children.", "Preservation of the purity of the Sun's blood was one of the reasons for the brothersister marriage of the Inca king.", "The Inca kings claimed divine descent from celestial bodies and emulated the behavior of their celestial ancestor, the Sun, who married his sister, the Moon.", "Another reason the princes and kings married their sisters was so the heir might inherit the kingdom as much as through his mother as through his father.", "Therefore, the prince could invoke both principles of inheritance.Half-sibling marriages were found in ancient Japan, such as the marriage of Emperor Bidatsu and his half-sister Empress Suiko.", "Japanese Prince Kinashi no Karu had sexual relations with his full sister Princess Karu no Ōiratsume, although the action was regarded as foolish.", "In order to prevent the influence of the other families, Korean Goryeo dynasty monarch Gwangjong married his half-sister Daemok in the 10th century.", "Marriage with a family member not related by blood was also regarded as contravening morality and was therefore incest.", "One example of this is the 14th century Chunghye of Goryeo, who raped one of his deceased father's concubines, who was thus regarded to be his mother.In India, the largest proportion of women aged 13 to 49 who marry their close relatives are in Tamil Nadu, then Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Maharashtra.", "While it is rare for uncleniece marriages, it is more common in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.===Others===In some Southeast Asian cultures, stories of incest being common among certain ethnicities are sometimes told as expressions of contempt for those ethnicities.Marriages between younger brothers and their older sisters were common among the early Udege people.In the Hawaiian Islands, high ''ali'i'' chiefs were obligated to marry their older sisters in order to increase their ''mana''.", "These copulations were thought to maintain the purity of the royal blood.", "Another reason for these familial unions was to maintain a limited size of the ruling ''ali'i'' group.", "As per the priestly regulations of Kanalu, put in place after multiple disasters, \"chiefs must increase their numbers and this can be done if a brother marries his older sister.\"" ], [ "Prevalence and statistics", "Incest between an adult and a person under the age of consent is considered a form of child sexual abuse that has been shown to be one of the most extreme forms of childhood abuse; it often results in serious and long-term psychological trauma, especially in the case of parental incest.", "Its prevalence is difficult to generalize, but research has estimated 10–15% of the general population as having had at least one such sexual contact, with less than 2% involving intercourse or attempted intercourse.", "Among women, research has yielded estimates as high as 20%.Fatherdaughter incest was for many years the most commonly reported and studied form of incest.", "More recently, studies have suggested that sibling incest, particularly older brothers having sexual relations with younger siblings, is the most common form of incest, with some studies finding sibling incest occurring more frequently than other forms of incest.", "Some studies suggest that adolescent perpetrators of sibling abuse choose younger victims, abuse victims over a lengthier period, use violence more frequently and severely than adult perpetrators, and that sibling abuse has a higher rate of penetrative acts than father or stepfather incest, with father and older brother incest resulting in greater reported distress than stepfather incest.", "South Africa, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Pakistan, and Nigeria are some of the countries with the most incest through consanguineous marriage." ], [ "Types", "===Between adults and children===Sex between an adult family member and a child is usually considered a form of child sexual abuse, also known as '''child incestuous abuse''', and for many years has been the most reported form of incest.", "Father–daughter and stepfather–stepdaughter sex are the most commonly reported forms of adult–child incest, with most of the remaining involving a mother or stepmother.", "Many studies found that stepfathers tend to be far more likely than biological fathers to engage in this form of incest.", "One study of adult women in San Francisco estimated that 17% of women were abused by stepfathers and 2% were abused by biological fathers.", "Father–son incest is reported less often, but it is not known how close the frequency is to heterosexual incest because it is likely more under-reported.", "The prevalence of incest between parents and their children is difficult to estimate due to secrecy and privacy.In a 1999 news story, the BBC reported: \"Close-knit family life in India masks an alarming amount of sexual abuse of children and teenage girls by family members, a new report suggests.", "Delhi organisation RAHI said 76% of respondents to its survey had been abused when they were children 40% of those by a family member.", "\"According to the National Center for Victims of Crime a large proportion of rape committed in the United States is perpetrated by a family member:A study of victims of father–daughter incest in the 1970s showed that there were \"common features\" within families before the occurrence of incest: estrangement between the mother and the daughter, extreme paternal dominance, and reassignment of some of the mother's traditional major family responsibility to the daughter.", "Oldest and only daughters were more likely to be the victims of incest.", "It was also stated that the incest experience was psychologically harmful to the woman in later life, frequently leading to low self-esteem, very unhealthy sexual activity, contempt for other women, and other emotional problems.Adults who as children were incestuously victimized by adults often suffer from low self-esteem, difficulties in interpersonal relationships, and sexual dysfunction, and are at an extremely high risk of many mental disorders, including depression, anxiety disorders, phobic avoidance reactions, somatoform disorder, substance abuse, borderline personality disorder, and complex post-traumatic stress disorder.The Goler clan in Nova Scotia is a specific instance in which child sexual abuse in the form of forced adultchild and siblingsibling incest took place over at least three generations.", "A number of Goler children were victims of sexual abuse at the hands of fathers, mothers, uncles, aunts, sisters, brothers, cousins, and each other.", "During interrogation by police, several of the adults openly admitted to engaging in many forms of sexual activity, up to and including full intercourse, multiple times with the children.", "Sixteen adults (both men and women) were charged with hundreds of allegations of incest and sexual abuse of children as young as five.", "In July 2012, twelve children were removed from the 'Colt' family (a pseudonym) in New South Wales, Australia, after the discovery of four generations of incest.", "Child protection workers and psychologists said interviews with the children indicated \"a virtual sexual free-for-all\".In Japan, there is a popular misconception that mother–son incestuous contact is common, due to the manner in which it is depicted in the press and popular media.", "According to Hideo Tokuoka, \"when Americans think of incest, they think of fathers and daughters; in Japan one thinks of mothers and sons\" due to the extensive media coverage of mother–son incest there.", "Some Western researchers assumed that mother–son incest is common in Japan, but research into victimization statistics from police and health-care systems discredits this; it shows that the vast majority of sexual abuse in Japan, including incest, is perpetrated by men against young girls.While incest between adults and children generally involves the adult as the perpetrator of abuse, there are rare instances of sons sexually assaulting their mothers.", "These sons are typically mid-adolescent to young adult, and, unlike parent-initiated incest, the incidents involve some kind of physical force.", "Although the mothers may be accused of being seductive with their sons and inviting the sexual contact, this is contrary to evidence.", "Such accusations can parallel other forms of rape, where, due to victim blaming, a woman is accused of being at fault for the rape.", "In some cases, mother–son incest is best classified as acquaintance rape of the mother by the adolescent son.===Between children===Childhood sibling–sibling incest is considered to be widespread but rarely reported.", "Sibling–sibling incest becomes child-on-child sexual abuse when it occurs without consent, without equality, or as a result of coercion.", "In this form, it is believed to be the most common form of intrafamilial abuse.", "The most commonly reported form of abusive sibling incest is abuse of a younger sibling by an older sibling.", "A 2006 study showed a large portion of adults who experienced sibling incest abuse have \"distorted\" or \"disturbed\" beliefs (such as that the act was \"normal\") both about their own experience and the subject of sexual abuse in general.Sibling abusive incest is most prevalent in families where one or both parents are often absent or emotionally unavailable, with the abusive siblings using incest as a way to assert their power over a weaker sibling.", "Absence of the father in particular has been found to be a significant element of most cases of sexual abuse of female children by a brother.", "The damaging effects on both childhood development and adult symptoms resulting from brother–sister sexual abuse are similar to the effects of father–daughter, including substance abuse, depression, suicidality, and eating disorders.===Between adults===Proponents of incest between consenting adults draw clear boundaries between the behavior of consenting adults on one hand and rape, child molestation, and abusive incest on the other.", "However, even consensual relationships such as these are still legally classified as incest and criminalized in many jurisdictions (although there are certain exceptions).", "James Roffee, a senior lecturer in criminology at Monash University and former worker on legal responses to familial sexual activity in England and Wales, and Scotland discussed how the European Convention on Human Rights deems all familial sexual acts to be criminal, even if all parties give their full consent and are knowledgeable to all possible consequences.", "He also argues that the use of particular language tools in the legislation manipulates the reader to deem all familial sexual activities as immoral and criminal, even if all parties are consenting adults.In ''Slate'', William Saletan drew a legal connection between gay sex and incest between consenting adults.", "As he described in his article, in 2003, US Senator Rick Santorum commented on a pending US Supreme Court case involving sodomy laws (primarily as a matter of constitutional rights to privacy and equal protection under the law):Saletan argued that, legally and morally, there is essentially no difference between the two, and went on to support incest between consenting adults being covered by a legal right to privacy.", "UCLA law professor Eugene Volokh has made similar arguments.", "In a more recent article, Saletan said that incest is wrong because it introduces the possibility of irreparably damaging family units by introducing \"a notoriously incendiary dynamic sexual tension into the mix\".====Aunts, uncles, nieces or nephews====In the Netherlands, marrying one's nephew or niece is legal, but only with the explicit permission of the Dutch government, due to the possible risk of genetic defects among the offspring.", "Nephew-niece marriages predominantly occur among foreign immigrants.", "In November 2008, the Scientific Institute of the Christian Democratic Party (CDA) announced that it wanted a ban on marriages to nephews and nieces.Consensual sex between individuals aged 16 and older is always lawful in the Netherlands and Belgium, even among closely related family members.", "Sexual acts between an adult family member and a minor are illegal, though they are classified not as incest but as abuse of the authority such an adult has over a minor, comparable to that of a teacher, coach, or priest.In Florida, consensual adult sexual intercourse with someone known to be one's aunt, uncle, niece, or nephew constitutes a felony of the third degree.", "Other states also commonly prohibit marriages between such kin.", "The legality of sex with a half-aunt or half-uncle varies state by state.In the United Kingdom, incest includes only sexual intercourse with a parent, grandparent, child, or sibling, but the more recently introduced offense of \"sex with an adult relative\" extends as far as half-siblings, uncles, aunts, nephews, and nieces.", "However, the term 'incest' remains widely used in popular culture to describe any form of sexual activity with a relative.In Canada, marriage between uncles and nieces and between aunts and nephews is legal.====Between adult siblings====One of the most public cases of adult sibling incest in the 2000s is the case of Patrick Stübing and Susan Karolewski, a brothersister couple from Germany.", "Because of violent behavior on the part of his father, Patrick was taken in at the age of 3 by foster parents, who adopted him later.", "At the age of 23 he learned about his biological parents, contacted his mother, and met her and his then 16-year-old sister Susan for the first time.", "The now-adult Patrick moved in with his birth family shortly thereafter.", "After their mother died suddenly six months later, the siblings became intimately close, and had their first child together in 2001.By 2004, they had had four children together: Eric, Sarah, Nancy, and Sofia.", "The public nature of their relationship, and the repeated prosecutions and jail time they have served as a result, have caused some in Germany to question whether incest between consenting adults should be punished at all.", "An article about them in ''Der Spiegel'' states that the couple are happy together.", "According to court records, the first three children have mental and physical disabilities, and have been placed in foster care.", "In April 2012, at the European Court of Human Rights, Patrick Stübing lost his case that the conviction violated his right to a private and family life.", "On 24 September 2014, the German Ethics Council recommended that the government abolish laws criminalizing incest between siblings, arguing that such bans impinge upon citizens.Some societies differentiate between full-sibling and half-sibling relations.====Cousin relationships====Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor married his first cousin Maria of Spain.Marriages and sexual relationships between first cousins are stigmatized as incest in some cultures, but tolerated in much of the world.", "Currently, 24 US states prohibit marriages between first cousins, and another seven permit them only under special circumstances.The United Kingdom permits both marriage and sexual relations between first cousins.In some non-Western societies, marriages between close biological relatives account for 2060% of all marriages.First- and second-cousin marriages are rare in Western Europe, North America, and Oceania, accounting for less than 1% of marriages, but reach 9% in South America, East Asia, and South Europe, and about 50% in regions of the Middle East, North Africa, and South Asia.", "Communities such as the Dhond and the Bhittani of Pakistan clearly prefer marriages between cousins due to the belief they ensure purity of the descent line, provide intimate knowledge of the spouses, and ensure that patrimony will not pass into the hands of \"outsiders\".", "Cross-cousin marriages are preferred among the Yanomami of Brazilian Amazonia, among many other tribal societies identified by anthropologists.There are some cultures in Asia which stigmatize cousin marriage, in some instances even marriages between second cousins or more remotely related people.", "This is notably true in the culture of Korea.", "In South Korea, before 1997, two people with the same last name and clan were prohibited from marrying.", "In light of this law being held unconstitutional, South Korea now only prohibits up to third cousins (see Article 809 of the Korean Civil Code).", "Hmong culture prohibits the marriage of anyone with the same last name to do so would result in being shunned by the entire community, and they are usually stripped of their last name.In a review of 48 studies of children parented by cousins, the rate of birth defects was twice that of non-related couples: 4% for cousin couples as opposed to 2% for the general population.====Defined through marriage====Some cultures include relatives by marriage in incest prohibitions; these relationships are called affinity rather than consanguinity.", "For example, the question of the legality and morality of a widower who wished to marry his deceased wife's sister was the subject of long and fierce debate in the United Kingdom in the 19th century, involving, among others, Matthew Boulton and Charles La Trobe.", "The marriages were entered into in Scotland and Switzerland respectively, where they were legal.", "In medieval Europe, standing as a godparent to a child also created a bond of affinity.", "But in other societies, a deceased spouse's sibling was considered the ideal person to marry.", "The Hebrew Bible forbids a man from marrying his brother's widow with the exception that, if his brother dies childless, the man is required to marry his brother's widow so as to \"raise up seed to him\".", "Some societies have long practiced sororal polygyny, a form of polygamy in which a man marries multiple wives who are sisters to each other (though not closely related to him).In Islamic law, marriage among close blood relations like parents, stepparents, parents in-law, siblings, stepsiblings, the children of siblings, aunts, and uncles is forbidden, while first or second cousins may marry.", "Marrying the widow of a brother or the sister of a deceased or divorced wife is also allowed." ], [ "Inbreeding", "Offspring of biologically related parents are subject to the possible impact of inbreeding.", "Such offspring have a higher possibility of congenital birth defects (see Coefficient of relationship), because it increases the proportion of zygotes that are homozygous for deleterious recessive alleles that produce such disorders (see Inbreeding depression).", "Because most such alleles are rare in populations, it is unlikely that two unrelated marriage partners will both be heterozygous carriers.", "However, because close relatives share a large fraction of their alleles, the probability that any such rare deleterious allele present in the common ancestor will be inherited from both related parents is increased dramatically with respect to non-inbred couples.", "Contrary to common belief, inbreeding does not in itself alter allele frequencies, but rather increases the relative proportion of homozygotes to heterozygotes.", "This has two contrary effects:* In the short term, because incestuous reproduction increases zygosity, deleterious recessive alleles will express themselves more frequently, leading to increases in spontaneous abortions of zygotes, perinatal deaths, and postnatal offspring with birth defects.", "* In the long run, however, because of this increased exposure of deleterious recessive alleles to natural selection, their frequency decreases more rapidly in inbred population, leading to a \"healthier\" population (with fewer deleterious recessive alleles).The closer two persons are related, the higher the zygosity, and thus the more severe the biological costs of inbreeding.", "This fact likely explains why inbreeding between close relatives, such as siblings, is less common than inbreeding between cousins.There may also be other deleterious effects besides those caused by recessive diseases.", "Thus, similar immune systems may be more vulnerable to infectious diseases (see Major histocompatibility complex and sexual selection).A 1994 study found a mean excess mortality with inbreeding among first cousins of 4.4%.", "A 2008 study also found decreased lifespan among offspring of first cousins, but no difference between lifespans after the second cousin level.", "Children of parentchild or siblingsibling unions are at increased risk compared to cousincousin unions.", "Studies suggest that 20–36% of these children will die or have major disability due to the inbreeding.", "A study of 29 offspring resulting from brothersister or fatherdaughter incest found that 20 had congenital abnormalities, including four directly attributable to autosomal recessive alleles." ], [ "Laws", "Laws regarding sexual activity between close relatives vary considerably between jurisdictions, and depend on the type of sexual activity and the nature of the family relationship of the parties involved, as well as the age and sex of the parties.", "Prohibition of incest laws may extend to restrictions on marriage rights, which also vary between jurisdictions.", "Most jurisdictions prohibit parentchild and sibling marriages, while others also prohibit first-cousin and uncleniece and auntnephew marriages.", "In most places, incest is illegal, regardless of the ages of the two partners.", "In other countries, incestuous relationships between consenting adults (with the age varying by location) are permitted, including in the Netherlands, France, Slovenia, and Spain.", "Sweden is the only country that allows marriage between half-siblings, and they must seek government counseling before marriage.While the legality of consensual incest varies by country, sexual assault committed against a relative is seen as a very serious crime.", "In some legal systems, the fact of a perpetrator being a close relative to the victim constitutes an aggravating circumstance in the case of sexual crimes such as rape and sexual conduct with a minor– this is the case in Romania." ], [ "Religious and philosophical views <span class=\"anchor\" id=\"Religious views\"></span>", "===Jewish===According to the Torah, per Leviticus 18, \"the children of Israel\" Israelite men and women alike are forbidden from sexual relations between people who are \"near of kin\" (verse 6), who are defined as:* Children and their mothers (verse 7);* Siblings and half-siblings (verses 9 and 11).", "Relationships between these are particularly singled out for a curse in Deuteronomy 27, and they are of the only two kinds of incestuous relationship that are among the particularly singled-out relationships with the other particularly singled-out relationships being ones of non-incestuous family betrayal (cf.", "verse 20) and bestiality (cf.", "verse 21);* Grandparents and grandchildren (verse 10);* Aunts and nephews, uncles and nieces, etc.", "(verses 12–14).", "Relationships between these are the second kind of relationships that are particularly singled out for a curse in Deuteronomy 27, and the explicit examples of children-in-law and mothers-in-law (verse 23) serve to remind the Israelites that the parents-in-law are also (or at least should also be) the children-in-law's aunts and uncles:And Moses commanded the children of Israel according to the word of the LORD, saying: 'The tribe of the sons of Joseph speaketh right.", "This is the thing which the LORD hath commanded concerning the daughters of Zelophehad, saying: Let them be married to whom they think best; only into the family of the tribe of their father shall they be married.", "So shall no inheritance of the children of Israel remove from tribe to tribe; for the children of Israel shall cleave every one to the inheritance of the tribe of his fathers.", "And every daughter, that possesseth an inheritance in any tribe of the children of Israel, shall be wife unto one of the family of the tribe of her father, that the children of Israel may possess every man the inheritance of his fathers.", "So shall no inheritance remove from one tribe to another tribe; for the tribes of the children of Israel shall cleave each one to its own inheritance.'", "Even as the LORD commanded Moses, so did the daughters of Zelophehad.", "For Mahlah, Tirzah, and Hoglah, and Milcah, and Noah, the daughters of Zelophehad, were married unto their father's brothers' sons.Incestuous relationships, along with the other forbidden relationships that are mentioned in Leviticus 18, are considered so severe among ''chillulim HaShem'', acts which bring shame to the name of God, as to be punishable by death as specified in Leviticus 20.In the 4th century BC, the Soferim (''scribes'') declared that there were relationships within which marriage constituted incest, in addition to those mentioned by the Torah.", "These additional relationships were termed ''seconds'' (Hebrew: ''sheniyyot''), and included the wives of a man's grandfather and grandson.", "The classical rabbis prohibited marriage between a man and any of these ''seconds'' of his, on the basis that doing so would act as a ''safeguard'' against infringing the biblical incest rules, although there was inconclusive debate about exactly what the limits should be for the definition of ''seconds''.Marriages that are forbidden in the Torah (with the exception of uncleniece marriages) were regarded by the rabbis of the Middle Ages as invalid– as if they had never occurred; any children born to such a couple were regarded as bastards under Jewish law, and the relatives of the spouse were not regarded as forbidden relations for a further marriage.", "On the other hand, relationships that were prohibited due to qualifying as ''seconds'' and so forth were regarded as wicked, but still valid; while such a couple may have been pressured to divorce, any children of the union were still seen as legitimate.===Christian===The New Testament condemns relations between a man \"and his father's wife\" (1 Corinthians 5:15).", "It is inevitable for Bible literalists to accept that the first children of Adam and Eve would have been in incestuous relations as we regard it today.", "However, according to the Bible, God's law forbidding incest had not at that time been given to men, and was delivered to Moses after Adam and Eve were created.", "Protestant Christians who adopt the Old Testament as part of their rule of faith and practice make a distinction between the ceremonial law and the moral law given to Moses, with the demands of the ceremonial law being fulfilled by Christ's atoning death.", "Protestants view Leviticus 18:620 as part of the moral law and still applicable, thus condemning sexual/marriage relations between a man and his mother, sister, stepsister, stepmother (if a man has more than one wife it is forbidden for a son to have relations with or marry any of his father's wives), aunt, granddaughter, or his brother's wife.", "Leviticus 18 goes on to condemn relations between a man and the daughter of a woman he is having relations with, and the sister of a woman he has had sexual relations with while the first sister is still alive.The Book of Common Prayer of the Anglican Communion allows marriages up to and including first cousins.The Catholic Church regards incest as a sin against the Sacrament of Matrimony.", "For the Catholic Church, at the heart of the immorality of incest is the corruption and disordering of proper family relations.", "These disordered relationships take on a particularly grave and immoral character when it becomes child sexual abuse.As the ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' says: '''2388''' ''Incest'' designates intimate relations between relatives or in-laws within a degree that prohibits marriage between them.", "St. Paul stigmatizes this especially grave offense: 'It is actually reported that there is immorality among you...for a man is living with his father's wife....In the name of the Lord Jesus...you are to deliver this man to Satan for the destruction of the flesh....' Incest corrupts family relationships and marks a regression toward animality.", "'''2389''' Connected to incest is any sexual abuse perpetrated by adults on children or adolescents entrusted to their care.", "The offense is compounded by the scandalous harm done to the physical and moral integrity of the young, who will remain scarred by it all their lives; and the violation of responsibility for their upbringing.===Islamic===The Quran gives specific rules regarding incest, which prohibit a man from marrying or having sexual relationships with:* his father's wife (his mother, or stepmother, his mother-in-law, a woman from whom he has nursed, even the children of this woman);* either parent's sister (aunt);* his sister, his half sister, a woman who has nursed from the same woman as he, his sister-in-law (wife's sister) while still married.", "Half relations are as sacred as full relations;* his niece (child of sibling);* his daughter, his stepdaughter (if the marriage to her mother was consummated), his daughter-in-law.Cousin marriage finds support in Islamic scriptures and is widespread in the Middle East.Although Islam allows cousin marriage, there are hadiths attributed to Muhammad calling for distance from the marriage of relatives.", "However, Muslim scholars generally consider these hadiths unreliable.===Zoroastrian===In Ancient Persia, incest between cousins is a blessed virtue although in some sources incest is believed to be related to that of parentchild or brothersister.", "Under Zoroastrianism, royalty, clergy, and commoners practiced incest, though the extent in the lattermost class was unknown.", "This tradition was called Xwedodah ().", "The tradition was considered so sacred that the bodily fluids produced by an incestuous couple were thought to have curative powers.", "For instance, the Vendidad advised corpse-bearers to purify themselves with a mixture of the urine of a married incestuous couple.", "Friedrich Nietzsche, in his book ''The Birth of Tragedy'', cited that among Zoroastrians a wise priest is born only by Xvaetvadatha.To what extent Xvaetvadatha was practiced in Sasanian Iran and before especially outside the royal and noble families (\"dynastic incest\") and, perhaps, the clergy and whether practices ascribed to them can be assumed to be characteristic of the general population is not clear.", "There is a lack of genealogies and census material on the frequency of Xvaetvadatha.", "Evidence from Dura-Europos, however, combined with that of the Jewish and Christian sources citing actual cases under the Sasanians, strengthens the evidence of the Zoroastrian texts.", "In the post-Sasanian Zoroastrian literature, Xvaetvadatha is said to refer to marriages between cousins instead, which have always been relatively common.", "It has been observed that such incestuous acts received a great deal of glorification as a religious practice and, in addition to being condemned by foreigners (though the reliability of these accusations is questionable since accusations of incest were a common way of denigrating other groups), were considered a great challenge by their own proponents, with accounts suggesting that four copulations was deemed a rare achievement worthy of eternal salvation.", "It has been suggested that because taking up incestuous relations was a great personal challenge, seemingly repugnant even to Zoroastrians of the time, it served as an honest signal of commitment and devotion to religious ideals.===Hindu===Rigveda regards incest to be \"evil\".", "Hinduism speaks of incest in abhorrent terms.", "Hindus believe there are both karmic and practical bad effects of incest and thus practice strict rules of both endogamy and exogamy in relation to the family tree (''gotra'') or bloodline (''Pravara'').", "Marriage within the ''gotra'' (''swagotra'' marriage) is banned under the rule of exogamy in the traditional matrimonial system.", "People within the ''gotra'' are regarded as kin, and marrying such a person would be thought of as incest.", "Marriage with paternal cousins (a form of parallel-cousin relationship) is strictly prohibited.", "Traditional Hindu laws of marriage suggest that, between a man and a woman who are about to marry, there should be no common ancestor (gotra) between the groom and the bride for up to 6 generations on the fathers' side of the groom and bride and up to 4 generations on the mothers' side of the groom and bride.", "Some orthodox Hindus might extend this limit to up to 8 generations on the father's side and 6 generations on the mother's side (for both the bride and groom).Although generally marriages between persons having the same ''gotra'' are frowned upon, how this is defined may vary regionally.", "Depending on culture and caste of the population in the region, marriage may be restricted up to seven generations of ''gotra'' of father, mother, and grandmother.", "In a few rural areas, marriage is banned within the same local community.===Stoicism===The founder of Stoicism, Zeno of Citium, stated that incest was permissible in ''Republic'', as did the later prominent Stoic philosopher Chrysippus.", "However, Zeno only advocates for incest under unique circumstances, such as procreating with one's ailing mother in order to beget \"glorious\" children, thus comforting her.", "Otherwise, incest is condemned as being contrary to Nature.", "Zeno further condemns incest from a moral and psychological perspective, considering it to be a sign of Plato's tyrannical soul, defined as a soul that is governed by illimitable desire.", "He uses Oedipus as a tragic example.", "Nonetheless, later Stoic disciples by the 1st century BC downplayed the pro-incest advocacy, accusing Zeno of being \"young and thoughtless\" when he wrote ''Republic''." ], [ "Other animals", "Common fruit fly females prefer to mate with their own brothers over unrelated males.Inbreeding avoidance is rare in non-human animals.", "North Carolina State University found that bed bugs, in contrast to most other insects, tolerate incest and are able to genetically withstand the effects of inbreeding quite well.Many species of mammals, including humanity's closest primate relatives, tend to avoid mating with close relatives, especially if there are alternative partners available.", "However, some chimpanzees have been recorded attempting to mate with their mothers.", "Male rats have been recorded engaging in mating with their sisters, but they tend to prefer non-related females over their sisters.Livestock breeders often practice controlled breeding to eliminate undesirable characteristics within a population, which is also coupled with the culling of what is considered unfit offspring, especially when trying to establish a new and desirable trait in the stock." ], [ "See also", "* Accidental incest* Genetic distance* Genetic diversity* Genetic sexual attraction* Incest in folklore and mythology* Incest in popular culture* Prohibited degree of kinship* Proximity of blood* Watta satta* Westermarck effect which prevents most incest" ], [ "References", ";Citations;Bibliography* * * Bixler, Ray H. (1982) \"Comment on the Incidence and Purpose of Royal Sibling Incest,\" ''American Ethnologist'', ''9''(3), August, pp. 580–582.", "* Leavitt, G. C. (1990) \"Sociobiological explanations of incest avoidance: A critical claim of evidential claims\", ''American Anthropologist'', 92: 971–993.", "* * Sacco, Lynn (2009).", "''Unspeakable: Father–Daughter Incest in American History''.", "Johns Hopkins University Press.", "351 * Indrajit Bandyopadhyay (29 October 2008).", "\"A Study In Folk \"Mahabharata\": How Balarama Became Abhimanyu's Father-in-law\".", "''Epic India: A New Arts & Culture Magazine''* Đõ, Quý Toàn; Iyer, Sriya; Joshi, Shareen (2006).", "The Economics of Consanguineous Marriages.", "World Bank, Development Research Group, Poverty Team.", "* link pp.", "30–31*" ], [ "External links", "* * * \"Incest / Sexual Abuse of Children\" by Patricia D. McClendon, MSSW" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Industrial Revolution" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Industrial Revolution''', also known as the '''First Industrial Revolution''', was a period of global transition of the human economy towards more widespread, efficient and stable manufacturing processes that succeeded the Agricultural Revolution, starting from Great Britain and spreading to continental Europe and the United States, that occurred during the period from around 1760 to about 1820–1840.This transition included going from hand production methods to machines; new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes; the increasing use of water power and steam power; the development of machine tools; and the rise of the mechanized factory system.", "Output greatly increased, and the result was an unprecedented rise in population and the rate of population growth.", "The textile industry was the first to use modern production methods, and textiles became the dominant industry in terms of employment, value of output, and capital invested.The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain, and many of the technological and architectural innovations were of British origin.", "By the mid-18th century, Britain was the world's leading commercial nation, controlling a global trading empire with colonies in North America and the Caribbean.", "Britain had major military and political hegemony on the Indian subcontinent; particularly with the proto-industrialised Mughal Bengal, through the activities of the East India Company.", "The development of trade and the rise of business were among the major causes of the Industrial Revolution.The Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in history.", "Comparable only to humanity's adoption of agriculture with respect to material advancement, the Industrial Revolution influenced in some way almost every aspect of daily life.", "In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth.", "Some economists have said the most important effect of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the general population in the Western world began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to improve meaningfully until the late 19th and 20th centuries.", "GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy, while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita economic growth in capitalist economies.", "Economic historians agree that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in human history since the domestication of animals and plants.The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes.", "Eric Hobsbawm held that the Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s, while T. S. Ashton held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830.Rapid industrialisation first began in Britain, starting with mechanized textiles spinning in the 1780s, with high rates of growth in steam power and iron production occurring after 1800.Mechanized textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe and the United States in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium and the United States and later textiles in France.An economic recession occurred from the late 1830s to the early 1840s when the adoption of the Industrial Revolution's early innovations, such as mechanized spinning and weaving, slowed as their markets matured.", "Innovations developed late in the period, such as the increasing adoption of locomotives, steamboats and steamships, and hot blast iron smelting.", "New technologies such as the electrical telegraph, widely introduced in the 1840s and 1850s, were not powerful enough to drive high rates of growth.", "Rapid economic growth began to occur after 1870, springing from a new group of innovations in what has been called the Second Industrial Revolution.", "These innovations included new steel-making processes, mass production, assembly lines, electrical grid systems, the large-scale manufacture of machine tools, and the use of increasingly advanced machinery in steam-powered factories." ], [ "Etymology", "The earliest recorded use of the term \"Industrial Revolution\" was in July 1799 by French envoy Louis-Guillaume Otto, announcing that France had entered the race to industrialise.", "In his 1976 book ''Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society'', Raymond Williams states in the entry for \"Industry\": \"The idea of a new social order based on major industrial change was clear in Southey and Owen, between 1811 and 1818, and was implicit as early as Blake in the early 1790s and Wordsworth at the turn of the 19th century.\"", "The term ''Industrial Revolution'' applied to technological change was becoming more common by the late 1830s, as in Jérôme-Adolphe Blanqui's description in 1837 of .Friedrich Engels in ''The Condition of the Working Class in England'' in 1844 spoke of \"an industrial revolution, a revolution which at the same time changed the whole of civil society\".", "Although Engels wrote his book in the 1840s, it was not translated into English until the late 19th century, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then.", "Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, whose 1881 lectures gave a detailed account of the term.Economic historians and authors such as Mendels, Pomeranz, and Kridte argue that proto-industrialization in parts of Europe, the Muslim world, Mughal India, and China created the social and economic conditions that led to the Industrial Revolution, thus causing the Great Divergence.", "Some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and that the term ''revolution'' is a misnomer.", "This is still a subject of debate among some historians." ], [ "Requirements", "Six factors facilitated industrialization: high levels of agricultural productivity (see British Agricultural Revolution) to provide excess manpower and food; a pool of managerial and entrepreneurial skills; available ports, rivers, canals, and roads to cheaply move raw materials and outputs; natural resources such as coal, iron, and waterfalls; political stability and a legal system that supported business; and financial capital available to invest.", "Once industrialization began in Great Britain, new factors can be added: the eagerness of British entrepreneurs to export industrial expertise and the willingness to import the process.", "Britain met the criteria and industrialized starting in the 18th century, and then it exported the process to western Europe (especially Belgium, France, and the German states) in the early 19th century.", "The United States copied the British model in the early 19th century, and Japan copied the Western European models in the late 19th century." ], [ "Important technological developments", "The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century.", "By the 1830s, the following gains had been made in important technologies:* '''Textiles''' – mechanised cotton spinning powered by water, and later steam, increased the output of a worker by a factor of around 500.The power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40.The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50.Large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton.", "* '''Steam power''' – the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel.", "The adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses.", "The high-pressure engine had a high power-to-weight ratio, making it suitable for transportation.", "Steam power underwent a rapid expansion after 1800.", "* '''Iron making''' – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost of pig iron and wrought iron production.", "Using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, resulting in economies of scale.", "The steam engine began being used to power blast air (indirectly by pumping water to a water wheel) in the 1750s, enabling a large increase in iron production by overcoming the limitation of water power.", "The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760.It was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher blast furnace temperatures.", "The puddling process produced a structural grade iron at a lower cost than the finery forge.", "The rolling mill was fifteen times faster than hammering wrought iron.", "Developed in 1828, hot blast greatly increased fuel efficiency in iron production in the following decades.", "* '''Invention of machine tools''' – the first machine tools invented were the screw-cutting lathe, the cylinder boring machine, and the milling machine.", "Machine tools made the economical manufacture of precision metal parts possible, although it took several decades to develop effective techniques for making interchangeable parts.===Textile manufacture=======British textile industry statistics====A handloome weaving from William Hogarth's ''Industry and Idleness'' in 1747In 1750, Britain imported 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton, most of which was spun and woven by the cottage industry in Lancashire.", "The work was done by hand in workers' homes or occasionally in master weavers' shops.", "Wages in Lancashire were about six times those in India in 1770 when overall productivity in Britain was about three times higher than in India.", "In 1787, raw cotton consumption was 22 million pounds, most of which was cleaned, carded, and spun on machines.", "The British textile industry used 52 million pounds of cotton in 1800, which increased to 588 million pounds in 1850.The share of value added by the cotton textile industry in Britain was 2.6% in 1760, 17% in 1801, and 22.4% in 1831.Value added by the British woollen industry was 14.1% in 1801.Cotton factories in Britain numbered approximately 900 in 1797.In 1760, approximately one-third of cotton cloth manufactured in Britain was exported, rising to two-thirds by 1800.In 1781, cotton spun amounted to 5.1 million pounds, which increased to 56 million pounds by 1800.In 1800, less than 0.1% of world cotton cloth was produced on machinery invented in Britain.", "In 1788, there were 50,000 spindles in Britain, rising to 7 million over the next 30 years.====Wool====The earliest European attempts at mechanized spinning were with wool; however, wool spinning proved more difficult to mechanize than cotton.", "Productivity improvement in wool spinning during the Industrial Revolution was significant but far less than that of cotton.====Silk====John Lombe's silk mill site today in Derby, rebuilt as Derby Silk MillArguably the first highly mechanised factory was John Lombe's water-powered silk mill at Derby, operational by 1721.Lombe learned silk thread manufacturing by taking a job in Italy and acting as an industrial spy; however, because the Italian silk industry guarded its secrets closely, the state of the industry at that time is unknown.", "Although Lombe's factory was technically successful, the supply of raw silk from Italy was cut off to eliminate competition.", "In order to promote manufacturing, the Crown paid for models of Lombe's machinery which were exhibited in the Tower of London.====Cotton====Parts of India, China, Central America, South America, and the Middle East have a long history of hand manufacturing cotton textiles, which became a major industry sometime after 1000 AD.", "In tropical and subtropical regions where it was grown, most was grown by small farmers alongside their food crops and was spun and woven in households, largely for domestic consumption.", "In the 15th century, China began to require households to pay part of their taxes in cotton cloth.", "By the 17th century, almost all Chinese wore cotton clothing.", "Almost everywhere cotton cloth could be used as a medium of exchange.", "In India, a significant amount of cotton textiles were manufactured for distant markets, often produced by professional weavers.", "Some merchants also owned small weaving workshops.", "India produced a variety of cotton cloth, some of exceptionally fine quality.Cotton was a difficult raw material for Europe to obtain before it was grown on colonial plantations in the Americas.", "The early Spanish explorers found Native Americans growing unknown species of excellent quality cotton: sea island cotton (''Gossypium barbadense'') and upland green seeded cotton ''Gossypium hirsutum''.", "Sea island cotton grew in tropical areas and on barrier islands of Georgia and South Carolina but did poorly inland.", "Sea island cotton began being exported from Barbados in the 1650s.", "Upland green seeded cotton grew well on inland areas of the southern U.S. but was not economical because of the difficulty of removing seed, a problem solved by the cotton gin.", "A strain of cotton seed brought from Mexico to Natchez, Mississippi, in 1806 became the parent genetic material for over 90% of world cotton production today; it produced bolls that were three to four times faster to pick.====Trade and textiles====European colonial empires at the start of the Industrial Revolution, superimposed upon modern political boundariesThe Age of Discovery was followed by a period of colonialism beginning around the 16th century.", "Following the discovery of a trade route to India around southern Africa by the Portuguese, the British founded the East India Company, along with smaller companies of different nationalities which established trading posts and employed agents to engage in trade throughout the Indian Ocean region.One of the largest segments of this trade was in cotton textiles, which were purchased in India and sold in Southeast Asia, including the Indonesian archipelago where spices were purchased for sale to Southeast Asia and Europe.", "By the mid-1760s cloth was over three-quarters of the East India Company's exports.", "Indian textiles were in demand in the North Atlantic region of Europe where previously only wool and linen were available; however, the number of cotton goods consumed in Western Europe was minor until the early 19th century.====Pre-mechanized European textile production====weaver in Nürnberg, By 1600, Flemish refugees began weaving cotton cloth in English towns where cottage spinning and weaving of wool and linen was well established.", "They were left alone by the guilds who did not consider cotton a threat.", "Earlier European attempts at cotton spinning and weaving were in 12th-century Italy and 15th-century southern Germany, but these industries eventually ended when the supply of cotton was cut off.", "The Moors in Spain grew, spun, and wove cotton beginning around the 10th century.British cloth could not compete with Indian cloth because India's labour cost was approximately one-fifth to one-sixth that of Britain's.", "In 1700 and 1721, the British government passed Calico Acts to protect the domestic woollen and linen industries from the increasing amounts of cotton fabric imported from India.The demand for heavier fabric was met by a domestic industry based around Lancashire that produced fustian, a cloth with flax warp and cotton weft.", "Flax was used for the warp because wheel-spun cotton did not have sufficient strength, but the resulting blend was not as soft as 100% cotton and was more difficult to sew.On the eve of the Industrial Revolution, spinning and weaving were done in households, for domestic consumption, and as a cottage industry under the putting-out system.", "Occasionally the work was done in the workshop of a master weaver.", "Under the putting-out system, home-based workers produced under contract to merchant sellers, who often supplied the raw materials.", "In the off-season the women, typically farmers' wives, did the spinning and the men did the weaving.", "Using the spinning wheel, it took anywhere from four to eight spinners to supply one handloom weaver.====Invention of textile machinery====A model of the spinning jenny in a museum in Wuppertal.", "Invented by James Hargreaves in 1764, the spinning jenny was one of the innovations that started the revolution.The only surviving example of a spinning mule built by the inventor Samuel Crompton, the mule produced high-quality thread with minimal labour, now on display at Bolton Museum in Greater ManchesterThe interior of Marshall's Temple Works in Leeds, West YorkshireThe flying shuttle, patented in 1733 by John Kay—with a number of subsequent improvements including an important one in 1747—doubled the output of a weaver, worsening the imbalance between spinning and weaving.", "It became widely used around Lancashire after 1760 when John's son, Robert, invented the dropbox, which facilitated changing thread colors.Lewis Paul patented the roller spinning frame and the flyer-and-bobbin system for drawing wool to a more even thickness.", "The technology was developed with the help of John Wyatt of Birmingham.", "Paul and Wyatt opened a mill in Birmingham which used their rolling machine powered by a donkey.", "In 1743, a factory opened in Northampton with 50 spindles on each of five of Paul and Wyatt's machines.", "This operated until about 1764.A similar mill was built by Daniel Bourn in Leominster, but this burnt down.", "Both Lewis Paul and Daniel Bourn patented carding machines in 1748.Based on two sets of rollers that travelled at different speeds, it was later used in the first cotton spinning mill.In 1764, in the village of Stanhill, Lancashire, James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny, which he patented in 1770.It was the first practical spinning frame with multiple spindles.", "The jenny worked in a similar manner to the spinning wheel, by first clamping down on the fibres, then by drawing them out, followed by twisting.", "It was a simple, wooden framed machine that only cost about £6 for a 40-spindle model in 1792 and was used mainly by home spinners.", "The jenny produced a lightly twisted yarn only suitable for weft, not warp.The spinning frame or water frame was developed by Richard Arkwright who, along with two partners, patented it in 1769.The design was partly based on a spinning machine built by Kay, who was hired by Arkwright.", "For each spindle the water frame used a series of four pairs of rollers, each operating at a successively higher rotating speed, to draw out the fibre which was then twisted by the spindle.", "The roller spacing was slightly longer than the fibre length.", "Too close a spacing caused the fibres to break while too distant a spacing caused uneven thread.", "The top rollers were leather-covered and loading on the rollers was applied by a weight.", "The weights kept the twist from backing up before the rollers.", "The bottom rollers were wood and metal, with fluting along the length.", "The water frame was able to produce a hard, medium-count thread suitable for warp, finally allowing 100% cotton cloth to be made in Britain.", "Arkwright and his partners used water power at a factory in Cromford, Derbyshire in 1771, giving the invention its name.Samuel Crompton's spinning mule was introduced in 1779.Mule implies a hybrid because it was a combination of the spinning jenny and the water frame, in which the spindles were placed on a carriage, which went through an operational sequence during which the rollers stopped while the carriage moved away from the drawing roller to finish drawing out the fibres as the spindles started rotating.", "Crompton's mule was able to produce finer thread than hand spinning and at a lower cost.", "Mule-spun thread was of suitable strength to be used as a warp and finally allowed Britain to produce highly competitive yarn in large quantities.Realising that the expiration of the Arkwright patent would greatly increase the supply of spun cotton and lead to a shortage of weavers, Edmund Cartwright developed a vertical power loom which he patented in 1785.In 1776, he patented a two-man operated loom.", "Cartwright's loom design had several flaws, the most serious being thread breakage.", "Samuel Horrocks patented a fairly successful loom in 1813.Horock's loom was improved by Richard Roberts in 1822, and these were produced in large numbers by Roberts, Hill & Co. Roberts was additonally a maker of high-quality machine tools and a pioneer in the use of jigs and gauges for precision workshop measurement.The demand for cotton presented an opportunity to planters in the Southern United States, who thought upland cotton would be a profitable crop if a better way could be found to remove the seed.", "Eli Whitney responded to the challenge by inventing the inexpensive cotton gin.", "A man using a cotton gin could remove seed from as much upland cotton in one day as would previously have taken two months to process, working at the rate of one pound of cotton per day.These advances were capitalised on by entrepreneurs, of whom the best known is Arkwright.", "He is credited with a list of inventions, but these were actually developed by such people as Kay and Thomas Highs; Arkwright nurtured the inventors, patented the ideas, financed the initiatives, and protected the machines.", "He created the cotton mill which brought the production processes together in a factory, and he developed the use of powerfirst horsepower and then water powerwhich made cotton manufacture a mechanised industry.", "Other inventors increased the efficiency of the individual steps of spinning (carding, twisting and spinning, and rolling) so that the supply of yarn increased greatly.", "Steam power was then applied to drive textile machinery.", "Manchester acquired the nickname Cottonopolis during the early 19th century owing to its sprawl of textile factories.Although mechanization dramatically decreased the cost of cotton cloth, by the mid-19th century machine-woven cloth still could not equal the quality of hand-woven Indian cloth, in part because of the fineness of thread made possible by the type of cotton used in India, which allowed high thread counts.", "However, the high productivity of British textile manufacturing allowed coarser grades of British cloth to undersell hand-spun and woven fabric in low-wage India, eventually destroying the Indian industry.===Iron industry===The reverberatory furnace could produce cast iron using mined coal; the burning coal remained separate from the iron,so it did not contaminate the iron with impurities like sulfur and silica, which led to increased iron production.The Iron Bridge in Shropshire, England, the world's first bridge constructed of iron, opened in 1781.====British iron production statistics====Bar iron was the commodity form of iron used as the raw material for making hardware goods such as nails, wire, hinges, horseshoes, wagon tires, chains, etc., as well as structural shapes.", "A small amount of bar iron was converted into steel.", "Cast iron was used for pots, stoves, and other items where its brittleness was tolerable.", "Most cast iron was refined and converted to bar iron, with substantial losses.", "Bar iron was made by the bloomery process, which was the predominant iron smelting process until the late 18th century.In the UK in 1720, there were 20,500 tons of cast iron produced with charcoal and 400 tons with coke.", "In 1750 charcoal iron production was 24,500 and coke iron was 2,500 tons.", "In 1788 the production of charcoal cast iron was 14,000 tons while coke iron production was 54,000 tons.", "In 1806 charcoal cast iron production was 7,800 tons and coke cast iron was 250,000 tons.In 1750 the UK imported 31,200 tons of bar iron and either refined from cast iron or directly produced 18,800 tons of bar iron using charcoal and 100 tons using coke.", "In 1796 the UK was making 125,000 tons of bar iron with coke and 6,400 tons with charcoal; imports were 38,000 tons and exports were 24,600 tons.", "In 1806 the UK did not import bar iron but exported 31,500 tons.====Iron process innovations====puddling furnaceA major change in the iron industries during the Industrial Revolution was the replacement of wood and other bio-fuels with coal; for a given amount of heat, mining coal required much less labour than cutting wood and converting it to charcoal, and coal was much more abundant than wood, supplies of which were becoming scarce before the enormous increase in iron production that took place in the late 18th century.In 1709, Abraham Darby made progress using coke to fuel his blast furnaces at Coalbrookdale.", "However, the coke pig iron he made was not suitable for making wrought iron and was used mostly for the production of cast iron goods, such as pots and kettles.", "He had the advantage over his rivals in that his pots, cast by his patented process, were thinner and cheaper than theirs.In 1750, coke had generally replaced charcoal in the smelting of copper and lead and was in widespread use in glass production.", "In the smelting and refining of iron, coal and coke produced inferior iron to that made with charcoal because of the coal's sulfur content.", "Low sulfur coals were known, but they still contained harmful amounts.", "Conversion of coal to coke only slightly reduces the sulfur content.", "A minority of coals are coking.", "Another factor limiting the iron industry before the Industrial Revolution was the scarcity of water power to power blast bellows.", "This limitation was overcome by the steam engine.Use of coal in iron smelting started somewhat before the Industrial Revolution, based on innovations by Clement Clerke and others from 1678, using coal reverberatory furnaces known as cupolas.", "These were operated by the flames playing on the ore and charcoal or coke mixture, reducing the oxide to metal.", "This has the advantage that impurities (such as sulphur ash) in the coal do not migrate into the metal.", "This technology was applied to lead from 1678 and to copper from 1687.It was also applied to iron foundry work in the 1690s, but in this case the reverberatory furnace was known as an air furnace.", "(The foundry cupola is a different, and later, innovation.", ")Coke pig iron was hardly used to produce wrought iron until 1755–56, when Darby's son Abraham Darby II built furnaces at Horsehay and Ketley where low sulfur coal was available (and not far from Coalbrookdale).", "These furnaces were equipped with water-powered bellows, the water being pumped by Newcomen steam engines.", "The Newcomen engines were not attached directly to the blowing cylinders because the engines alone could not produce a steady air blast.", "Abraham Darby III installed similar steam-pumped, water-powered blowing cylinders at the Dale Company when he took control in 1768.The Dale Company used several Newcomen engines to drain its mines and made parts for engines which it sold throughout the country.Steam engines made the use of higher-pressure and volume blast practical; however, the leather used in bellows was expensive to replace.", "In 1757, ironmaster John Wilkinson patented a hydraulic powered blowing engine for blast furnaces.", "The blowing cylinder for blast furnaces was introduced in 1760 and the first blowing cylinder made of cast iron is believed to be the one used at Carrington in 1768 that was designed by John Smeaton.Cast iron cylinders for use with a piston were difficult to manufacture; the cylinders had to be free of holes and had to be machined smooth and straight to remove any warping.", "James Watt had great difficulty trying to have a cylinder made for his first steam engine.", "In 1774 Wilkinson invented a precision boring machine for boring cylinders.", "After Wilkinson bored the first successful cylinder for a Boulton and Watt steam engine in 1776, he was given an exclusive contract for providing cylinders.", "After Watt developed a rotary steam engine in 1782, they were widely applied to blowing, hammering, rolling and slitting.The solutions to the sulfur problem were the addition of sufficient limestone to the furnace to force sulfur into the slag as well as the use of low sulfur coal.", "The use of lime or limestone required higher furnace temperatures to form a free-flowing slag.", "The increased furnace temperature made possible by improved blowing also increased the capacity of blast furnaces and allowed for increased furnace height.", "In addition to lower cost and greater availability, coke had other important advantages over charcoal in that it was harder and made the column of materials (iron ore, fuel, slag) flowing down the blast furnace more porous and did not crush in the much taller furnaces of the late 19th century.As cast iron became cheaper and widely available, it began being a structural material for bridges and buildings.", "A famous early example is the Iron Bridge built in 1778 with cast iron produced by Abraham Darby III.", "However, most cast iron was converted to wrought iron.", "Conversion of cast iron had long been done in a finery forge.", "An improved refining process known as potting and stamping was developed, but this was superseded by Henry Cort's puddling process.", "Cort developed two significant iron manufacturing processes: rolling in 1783 and puddling in 1784.Puddling produced a structural grade iron at a relatively low cost.Puddling was a means of decarburizing molten pig iron by slow oxidation in a reverberatory furnace by manually stirring it with a long rod.", "The decarburized iron, having a higher melting point than cast iron, was raked into globs by the puddler.", "When the glob was large enough, the puddler would remove it.", "Puddling was backbreaking and extremely hot work.", "Few puddlers lived to be 40.Because puddling was done in a reverberatory furnace, coal or coke could be used as fuel.", "The puddling process continued to be used until the late 19th century when iron was being displaced by steel.", "Because puddling required human skill in sensing the iron globs, it was never successfully mechanised.", "Rolling was an important part of the puddling process because the grooved rollers expelled most of the molten slag and consolidated the mass of hot wrought iron.", "Rolling was 15 times faster at this than a trip hammer.", "A different use of rolling, which was done at lower temperatures than that for expelling slag, was in the production of iron sheets, and later structural shapes such as beams, angles, and rails.The puddling process was improved in 1818 by Baldwyn Rogers, who replaced some of the sand lining on the reverberatory furnace bottom with iron oxide.", "In 1838 John Hall patented the use of roasted tap cinder (iron silicate) for the furnace bottom, greatly reducing the loss of iron through increased slag caused by a sand lined bottom.", "The tap cinder also tied up some phosphorus, but this was not understood at the time.", "Hall's process also used iron scale or rust which reacted with carbon in the molten iron.", "Hall's process, called ''wet puddling'', reduced losses of iron with the slag from almost 50% to around 8%.Puddling became widely used after 1800.Up to that time, British iron manufacturers had used considerable amounts of iron imported from Sweden and Russia to supplement domestic supplies.", "Because of the increased British production, imports began to decline in 1785, and by the 1790s Britain eliminated imports and became a net exporter of bar iron.Hot blast, patented by the Scottish inventor James Beaumont Neilson in 1828, was the most important development of the 19th century for saving energy in making pig iron.", "By using preheated combustion air, the amount of fuel to make a unit of pig iron was reduced at first by between one-third using coke or two-thirds using coal; the efficiency gains continued as the technology improved.", "Hot blast also raised the operating temperature of furnaces, increasing their capacity.", "Using less coal or coke meant introducing fewer impurities into the pig iron.", "This meant that lower quality coal could be used in areas where coking coal was unavailable or too expensive; however, by the end of the 19th century transportation costs fell considerably.Shortly before the Industrial Revolution, an improvement was made in the production of steel, which was an expensive commodity and used only where iron would not do, such as for cutting edge tools and for springs.", "Benjamin Huntsman developed his crucible steel technique in the 1740s.", "The raw material for this was blister steel, made by the cementation process.", "The supply of cheaper iron and steel aided a number of industries, such as those making nails, hinges, wire, and other hardware items.", "The development of machine tools allowed better working of iron, causing it to be increasingly used in the rapidly growing machinery and engine industries.===Steam power===A Watt steam engine, invented by James Watt, who transformed the steam engine from a reciprocating motion that was used for pumping to a rotating motion suited to industrial applications; Watt and others significantly improved the efficiency of the steam engine.Newcomen's steam-powered atmospheric engine was the first practical piston steam engine; subsequent steam engines were to power the Industrial Revolution.The development of the stationary steam engine was an important element of the Industrial Revolution; however, during the early period of the Industrial Revolution, most industrial power was supplied by water and wind.", "In Britain, by 1800 an estimated 10,000 horsepower was being supplied by steam.", "By 1815 steam power had grown to 210,000 hp.The first commercially successful industrial use of steam power was patented by Thomas Savery in 1698.He constructed in London a low-lift combined vacuum and pressure water pump that generated about one horsepower (hp) and was used in numerous waterworks and in a few mines (hence its \"brand name\", ''The Miner's Friend'').", "Savery's pump was economical in small horsepower ranges but was prone to boiler explosions in larger sizes.", "Savery pumps continued to be produced until the late 18th century.The first successful piston steam engine was introduced by Thomas Newcomen before 1712.Newcomen engines were installed for draining hitherto unworkable deep mines, with the engine on the surface; these were large machines, requiring a significant amount of capital to build, and produced upwards of .", "They were also used to power municipal water supply pumps.", "They were extremely inefficient by modern standards, but when located where coal was cheap at pit heads, they opened up a great expansion in coal mining by allowing mines to go deeper.", "Despite their disadvantages, Newcomen engines were reliable and easy to maintain and continued to be used in the coalfields until the early decades of the 19th century.", "By 1729, when Newcomen died, his engines had spread to Hungary in 1722, and then to Germany, Austria, and Sweden.", "A total of 110 are known to have been built by 1733 when the joint patent expired, of which 14 were abroad.", "In the 1770s the engineer John Smeaton built some very large examples and introduced a number of improvements.", "A total of 1,454 engines had been built by 1800.A fundamental change in working principles was brought about by Scotsman James Watt.", "With financial support from his business partner Englishman Matthew Boulton, he had succeeded by 1778 in perfecting his steam engine, which incorporated a series of radical improvements, notably the closing off of the upper part of the cylinder thereby making the low-pressure steam drive the top of the piston instead of the atmosphere; use of a steam jacket; and the celebrated separate steam condenser chamber.", "The separate condenser did away with the cooling water that had been injected directly into the cylinder which cooled the cylinder and wasted steam.", "Likewise, the steam jacket kept steam from condensing in the cylinder, also improving efficiency.", "These improvements increased engine efficiency so that Boulton and Watt's engines used only 20–25% as much coal per horsepower-hour as Newcomen's.", "Boulton and Watt opened the Soho Foundry for the manufacture of such engines in 1795.In 1783, the Watt steam engine had been fully developed into a double-acting rotative type, which meant that it could be used to directly drive the rotary machinery of a factory or mill.", "Both of Watt's basic engine types were commercially very successful, and by 1800 the firm Boulton & Watt had constructed 496 engines, with 164 driving reciprocating pumps, 24 serving blast furnaces, and 308 powering mill machinery; most of the engines generated from .Until about 1800, the most common pattern of steam engine was the beam engine, built as an integral part of a stone or brick engine-house, but soon various patterns of self-contained rotative engines (readily removable but not on wheels) were developed, such as the table engine.", "Around the start of the 19th century, at which time the Boulton and Watt patent expired, the Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick and the American Oliver Evans began to construct higher-pressure non-condensing steam engines, exhausting against the atmosphere.", "High pressure yielded an engine and boiler compact enough to be used on mobile road and rail locomotives and steamboats.Small industrial power requirements continued to be provided by animal and human muscle until widespread electrification in the early 20th century.", "These included crank-powered, treadle-powered and horse-powered workshop, and light industrial machinery.===Machine tools===Maudslay's early screw-cutting lathes, developed in the late 1790smilling machine, developed around 1818 by Robert Johnson and Simeon NorthPre-industrial machinery was built by various craftsmenmillwrights built watermills and windmills; carpenters made wooden framing; and smiths and turners made metal parts.", "Wooden components had the disadvantage of changing dimensions with temperature and humidity, and the various joints tended to rack (work loose) over time.", "As the Industrial Revolution progressed, machines with metal parts and frames became more common.", "Other important uses of metal parts were in firearms and threaded fasteners, such as machine screws, bolts, and nuts.", "There was also the need for precision in making parts.", "Precision would allow better working machinery, interchangeability of parts, and standardization of threaded fasteners.The demand for metal parts led to the development of several machine tools.", "They have their origins in the tools developed in the 18th century by makers of clocks and watches and scientific instrument makers to enable them to batch-produce small mechanisms.", "Before the advent of machine tools, metal was worked manually using the basic hand tools of hammers, files, scrapers, saws, and chisels.", "Consequently, the use of metal machine parts was kept to a minimum.", "Hand methods of production were laborious and costly, and precision was difficult to achieve.The first large precision machine tool was the cylinder boring machine invented by John Wilkinson in 1774.It was designed to bore the large cylinders on early steam engines.", "Wilkinson's machine was the first to use the principle of line-boring, where the tool is supported on both ends, unlike earlier designs used for boring cannon that relied on a less stable cantilevered boring bar.The planing machine, the milling machine and the shaping machine were developed in the early decades of the 19th century.", "Although the milling machine was invented at this time, it was not developed as a serious workshop tool until somewhat later in the 19th century.James Fox of Derby and Matthew Murray of Leeds were manufacturers of machine tools who found success in exporting from England and are also notable for having developed the planer around the same time as Richard Roberts of Manchester.Henry Maudslay, who trained a school of machine tool makers early in the 19th century, was a mechanic with superior ability who had been employed at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich.", "He worked as an apprentice at the Royal Arsenal under Jan Verbruggen.", "In 1774 Verbruggen had installed a horizontal boring machine which was the first industrial size lathe in the UK.", "Maudslay was hired away by Joseph Bramah for the production of high-security metal locks that required precision craftsmanship.", "Bramah patented a lathe that had similarities to the slide rest lathe.", "Maudslay perfected the slide rest lathe, which could cut machine screws of different thread pitches by using changeable gears between the spindle and the lead screw.", "Before its invention, screws could not be cut to any precision using various earlier lathe designs, some of which copied from a template.", "The slide rest lathe was called one of history's most important inventions.", "Although it was not entirely Maudslay's idea, he was the first person to build a functional lathe using a combination of known innovations of the lead screw, slide rest, and change gears.Maudslay left Bramah's employment and set up his own shop.", "He was engaged to build the machinery for making ships' pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Portsmouth Block Mills.", "These machines were all-metal and were the first machines for mass production and making components with a degree of interchangeability.", "The lessons Maudslay learned about the need for stability and precision he adapted to the development of machine tools, and in his workshops, he trained a generation of men to build on his work, such as Richard Roberts, Joseph Clement and Joseph Whitworth.The techniques to make mass-produced metal parts of sufficient precision to be interchangeable is largely attributed to a program of the U.S. Department of War which perfected interchangeable parts for firearms in the early 19th century.", "In the half-century following the invention of the fundamental machine tools, the machine industry became the largest industrial sector of the U.S. economy, by value added.===Chemicals===The large-scale production of chemicals was an important development during the Industrial Revolution.", "The first of these was the production of sulphuric acid by the lead chamber process invented by the Englishman John Roebuck (James Watt's first partner) in 1746.He was able to greatly increase the scale of the manufacture by replacing the relatively expensive glass vessels formerly used with larger, less expensive chambers made of riveted sheets of lead.", "Instead of making a small amount each time, he was able to make around in each of the chambers, at least a tenfold increase.The production of an alkali on a large scale became an important goal as well, and Nicolas Leblanc succeeded in 1791 in introducing a method for the production of sodium carbonate (soda ash).", "The Leblanc process was a reaction of sulfuric acid with sodium chloride to give sodium sulfate and hydrochloric acid.", "The sodium sulfate was heated with calcium carbonate and coal to give a mixture of sodium carbonate and calcium sulfide.", "Adding water separated the soluble sodium carbonate from the calcium sulfide.", "The process produced a large amount of pollution (the hydrochloric acid was initially vented to the atmosphere, and calcium sulfide was a waste product).", "Nonetheless, this synthetic soda ash proved economical compared to that produced from burning specific plants (barilla or kelp), which were the previously dominant sources of soda ash, and also to potash (potassium carbonate) produced from hardwood ashes.", "These two chemicals were very important because they enabled the introduction of a host of other inventions, replacing many small-scale operations with more cost-effective and controllable processes.", "Sodium carbonate had many uses in the glass, textile, soap, and paper industries.", "Early uses for sulfuric acid included pickling (removing rust from) iron and steel, and for bleaching cloth.The development of bleaching powder (calcium hypochlorite) by Scottish chemist Charles Tennant in about 1800, based on the discoveries of French chemist Claude Louis Berthollet, revolutionised the bleaching processes in the textile industry by dramatically reducing the time required (from months to days) for the traditional process then in use, which required repeated exposure to the sun in bleach fields after soaking the textiles with alkali or sour milk.", "Tennant's factory at St Rollox, Glasgow, became the largest chemical plant in the world.After 1860 the focus on chemical innovation was in dyestuffs, and Germany took world leadership, building a strong chemical industry.", "Aspiring chemists flocked to German universities in the 1860–1914 era to learn the latest techniques.", "British scientists by contrast, lacked research universities and did not train advanced students; instead, the practice was to hire German-trained chemists.===Concrete===The Thames Tunnel, which opened in 1843; concrete was used in the world's first underwater tunnel.In 1824 Joseph Aspdin, a British bricklayer turned builder, patented a chemical process for making portland cement which was an important advance in the building trades.", "This process involves sintering a mixture of clay and limestone to about , then grinding it into a fine powder which is then mixed with water, sand and gravel to produce concrete.", "Portland cement concrete was used by the English engineer Marc Isambard Brunel several years later when constructing the Thames Tunnel.", "Concrete was used on a large scale in the construction of the London sewer system a generation later.===Gas lighting===Though others made a similar innovation elsewhere, the large-scale introduction of gas lighting was the work of William Murdoch, an employee of Boulton & Watt.", "The process consisted of the large-scale gasification of coal in furnaces, the purification of the gas (removal of sulphur, ammonia, and heavy hydrocarbons), and its storage and distribution.", "The first gas lighting utilities were established in London between 1812 and 1820.They soon became one of the major consumers of coal in the UK.", "Gas lighting affected social and industrial organisation because it allowed factories and stores to remain open longer than with tallow candles or oil lamps.", "Its introduction allowed nightlife to flourish in cities and towns as interiors and streets could be lighted on a larger scale than before.===Glass making===Great Exhibition of 1851Glass was made in ancient Greece and Rome.", "A new method of glass production, known as the cylinder process, was developed in Europe during the early 19th century.", "In 1832 this process was used by the Chance Brothers to create sheet glass.", "They became the leading producers of window and plate glass.", "This advancement allowed for larger panes of glass to be created without interruption, thus freeing up the space planning in interiors as well as the fenestration of buildings.", "The Crystal Palace is the supreme example of the use of sheet glass in a new and innovative structure.===Paper machine===A machine for making a continuous sheet of paper on a loop of wire fabric was patented in 1798 by Louis-Nicolas Robert in France.", "The paper machine is known as a Fourdrinier after the financiers, brothers Sealy and Henry Fourdrinier, who were stationers in London.", "Although greatly improved and with many variations, the Fourdrinier machine is the predominant means of paper production today.", "The method of continuous production demonstrated by the paper machine influenced the development of continuous rolling of iron and later steel and other continuous production processes.===Agriculture===The British Agricultural Revolution is considered one of the causes of the Industrial Revolution because improved agricultural productivity freed up workers to work in other sectors of the economy.", "In contrast, per-capita food supply in Europe was stagnant or declining and did not improve in some parts of Europe until the late 18th century.The English lawyer Jethro Tull invented an improved seed drill in 1701.It was a mechanical seeder that distributed seeds evenly across a plot of land and planted them at the correct depth.", "This was important because the yield of seeds harvested to seeds planted at that time was around four or five.", "Tull's seed drill was very expensive and not very reliable and therefore did not have much of an effect.", "Good quality seed drills were not produced until the mid 18th century.Joseph Foljambe's ''Rotherham plough'' of 1730 was the first commercially successful iron plough.", "The threshing machine, invented by the Scottish engineer Andrew Meikle in 1784, displaced hand threshing with a flail, a laborious job that took about one-quarter of agricultural labour.", "Lower labor requirements subsequently result in lowered wages and numbers of farm labourers, who faced near starvation, leading to the 1830 agricultural rebellion of the Swing Riots.Machine tools and metalworking techniques developed during the Industrial Revolution eventually resulted in precision manufacturing techniques in the late 19th century for mass-producing agricultural equipment, such as reapers, binders, and combine harvesters.===Mining===Coal mining in Britain, particularly in South Wales, started early.", "Before the steam engine, pits were often shallow bell pits following a seam of coal along the surface, which were abandoned as the coal was extracted.", "In other cases, if the geology was favourable the coal was mined by means of an adit or drift mine driven into the side of a hill.", "Shaft mining was done in some areas, but the limiting factor was the problem of removing water.", "It could be done by hauling buckets of water up the shaft or to a sough (a tunnel driven into a hill to drain a mine).", "In either case, the water had to be discharged into a stream or ditch at a level where it could flow away by gravity.The introduction of the steam pump by Thomas Savery in 1698 and the Newcomen steam engine in 1712 greatly facilitated the removal of water and enabled shafts to be made deeper, enabling more coal to be extracted.", "These were developments that had begun before the Industrial Revolution, but the adoption of John Smeaton's improvements to the Newcomen engine followed by James Watt's more efficient steam engines from the 1770s reduced the fuel costs of engines, making mines more profitable.", "The Cornish engine, developed in the 1810s, was much more efficient than the Watt steam engine.Coal mining was very dangerous owing to the presence of firedamp in many coal seams.", "Some degree of safety was provided by the safety lamp which was invented in 1816 by Sir Humphry Davy and independently by George Stephenson.", "However, the lamps proved a false dawn because they became unsafe very quickly and provided a weak light.", "Firedamp explosions continued, often setting off coal dust explosions, so casualties grew during the entire 19th century.", "Conditions of work were very poor, with a high casualty rate from rock falls.===Transportation===At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, inland transport was by navigable rivers and roads, with coastal vessels employed to move heavy goods by sea.", "Wagonways were used for conveying coal to rivers for further shipment, but canals had not yet been widely constructed.", "Animals supplied all of the motive power on land, with sails providing the motive power on the sea.", "The first horse railways were introduced toward the end of the 18th century, with steam locomotives being introduced in the early decades of the 19th century.", "Improving sailing technologies boosted average sailing speed by 50% between 1750 and 1830.The Industrial Revolution improved Britain's transport infrastructure with a turnpike road network, a canal and waterway network, and a railway network.", "Raw materials and finished products could be moved more quickly and cheaply than before.", "Improved transportation also allowed new ideas to spread quickly.====Canals and improved waterways====The Bridgewater Canal, which proved very commercially successful, crossed the Manchester Ship Canal, one of the last canals to be built.Before and during the Industrial Revolution navigation on several British rivers was improved by removing obstructions, straightening curves, widening and deepening, and building navigation locks.", "Britain had over of navigable rivers and streams by 1750.Canals and waterways allowed bulk materials to be economically transported long distances inland.", "This was because a horse could pull a barge with a load dozens of times larger than the load that could be drawn in a cart.Canals began to be built in the UK in the late 18th century to link the major manufacturing centres across the country.", "Known for its huge commercial success, the Bridgewater Canal in North West England, which opened in 1761 and was mostly funded by The 3rd Duke of Bridgewater.", "From Worsley to the rapidly growing town of Manchester its construction cost £168,000 (£ ), but its advantages over land and river transport meant that within a year of its opening in 1761, the price of coal in Manchester fell by about half.", "This success helped inspire a period of intense canal building, known as Canal Mania.", "Canals were hastily built with the aim of replicating the commercial success of the Bridgewater Canal, the most notable being the Leeds and Liverpool Canal and the Thames and Severn Canal which opened in 1774 and 1789 respectively.By the 1820s a national network was in existence.", "Canal construction served as a model for the organisation and methods later used to construct the railways.", "They were eventually largely superseded as profitable commercial enterprises by the spread of the railways from the 1840s on.", "The last major canal to be built in the United Kingdom was the Manchester Ship Canal, which upon opening in 1894 was the largest ship canal in the world, and opened Manchester as a port.", "However, it never achieved the commercial success its sponsors had hoped for and signalled canals as a dying mode of transport in an age dominated by railways, which were quicker and often cheaper.Britain's canal network, together with its surviving mill buildings, is one of the most enduring features of the early Industrial Revolution to be seen in Britain.====Roads====Construction of the first macadam road in the United States in 1823.In the foreground, workers are breaking stones \"so as not to exceed 6 ounces in weight or to pass a two-inch ring\".France was known for having an excellent system of roads at the time of the Industrial Revolution; however, most of the roads on the European continent and in the UK were in bad condition and dangerously rutted.", "Much of the original British road system was poorly maintained by thousands of local parishes, but from the 1720s (and occasionally earlier) turnpike trusts were set up to charge tolls and maintain some roads.", "Increasing numbers of main roads were turnpiked from the 1750s to the extent that almost every main road in England and Wales was the responsibility of a turnpike trust.", "New engineered roads were built by John Metcalf, Thomas Telford and most notably John McAdam, with the first 'macadam' stretch of road being Marsh Road at Ashton Gate, Bristol in 1816.The first macadam road in the U.S. was the \"Boonsborough Turnpike Road\" between Hagerstown and Boonsboro, Maryland in 1823.The major turnpikes radiated from London and were the means by which the Royal Mail was able to reach the rest of the country.", "Heavy goods transport on these roads was by means of slow, broad-wheeled carts hauled by teams of horses.", "Lighter goods were conveyed by smaller carts or by teams of packhorse.", "Stagecoaches carried the rich, and the less wealthy could pay to ride on carriers carts.", "Productivity of road transport increased greatly during the Industrial Revolution, and the cost of travel fell dramatically.", "Between 1690 and 1840 productivity almost tripled for long-distance carrying and increased four-fold in stage coaching.====Railways====A portrait depicting the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1830, the first inter-city railway in the world and which spawned Railway Mania due to its successRailways were made practical by the widespread introduction of inexpensive puddled iron after 1800, the rolling mill for making rails, and the development of the high-pressure steam engine also around 1800.Reducing friction was one of the major reasons for the success of railroads compared to wagons.", "This was demonstrated on an iron plate-covered wooden tramway in 1805 at Croydon, England.A good horse on an ordinary turnpike road can draw two thousand pounds, or one ton.", "A party of gentlemen were invited to witness the experiment, that the superiority of the new road might be established by ocular demonstration.", "Twelve wagons were loaded with stones, till each wagon weighed three tons, and the wagons were fastened together.", "A horse was then attached, which drew the wagons with ease, in two hours, having stopped four times, in order to show he had the power of starting, as well as drawing his great load.Wagonways for moving coal in the mining areas had started in the 17th century and were often associated with canal or river systems for the further movement of coal.", "These were all horse-drawn or relied on gravity, with a stationary steam engine to haul the wagons back to the top of the incline.", "The first applications of the steam locomotive were on wagon or plate ways (as they were then often called from the cast-iron plates used).", "Horse-drawn public railways begin in the early 19th century when improvements to pig and wrought iron production were lowering costs.Steam locomotives began being built after the introduction of high-pressure steam engines after the expiration of the Boulton and Watt patent in 1800.High-pressure engines exhausted used steam to the atmosphere, doing away with the condenser and cooling water.", "They were also much lighter weight and smaller in size for a given horsepower than the stationary condensing engines.", "A few of these early locomotives were used in mines.", "Steam-hauled public railways began with the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825.The rapid introduction of railways followed the 1829 Rainhill trials, which demonstrated Robert Stephenson's successful locomotive design and the 1828 development of hot blast, which dramatically reduced the fuel consumption of making iron and increased the capacity of the blast furnace.", "On 15 September 1830, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, the first inter-city railway in the world, was opened and was attended by Prime Minister Arthur Wellesley.", "The railway was engineered by Joseph Locke and George Stephenson, linked the rapidly expanding industrial town of Manchester with the port town of Liverpool.", "The opening was marred by problems caused by the primitive nature of the technology being employed; however, problems were gradually solved, and the railway became highly successful, transporting passengers and freight.The success of the inter-city railway, particularly in the transport of freight and commodities, led to Railway Mania.", "Construction of major railways connecting the larger cities and towns began in the 1830s but only gained momentum at the very end of the first Industrial Revolution.", "After many of the workers had completed the railways, they did not return to their rural lifestyles but instead remained in the cities, providing additional workers for the factories." ], [ "Social effects", "On a structural level the Industrial Revolution asked society the so-called social question, demanding new ideas for managing large groups of individuals.", "Visible poverty on one hand and growing population and materialistic wealth on the other caused tensions between the very rich and the poorest people within society.", "These tensions were sometimes violently released and led to philosophical ideas such as socialism, communism and anarchism.===Factory system===Prior to the Industrial Revolution, most of the workforce was employed in agriculture, either as self-employed farmers as landowners or tenants or as landless agricultural labourers.", "It was common for families in various parts of the world to spin yarn, weave cloth and make their own clothing.", "Households also spun and wove for market production.", "At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, India, China, and regions of Iraq and elsewhere in Asia and the Middle East produced most of the world's cotton cloth while Europeans produced wool and linen goods.In Great Britain in the 16th century, the putting-out system was practised, by which farmers and townspeople produced goods for a market in their homes, often described as ''cottage industry''.", "Typical putting-out system goods included spinning and weaving.", "Merchant capitalists typically provided the raw materials, paid workers by the piece, and were responsible for the sale of the goods.", "Embezzlement of supplies by workers and poor quality were common problems.", "The logistical effort in procuring and distributing raw materials and picking up finished goods were also limitations of the putting-out system.Some early spinning and weaving machinery, such as a 40 spindle jenny for about six pounds in 1792, was affordable for cottagers.", "Later machinery such as spinning frames, spinning mules and power looms were expensive (especially if water-powered), giving rise to capitalist ownership of factories.The majority of textile factory workers during the Industrial Revolution were unmarried women and children, including many orphans.", "They typically worked for 12 to 14 hours per day with only Sundays off.", "It was common for women to take factory jobs seasonally during slack periods of farm work.", "Lack of adequate transportation, long hours, and poor pay made it difficult to recruit and maintain workers.The change in the social relationship of the factory worker compared to farmers and cottagers was viewed unfavourably by Karl Marx; however, he recognized the increase in productivity made possible by technology.===Standards of living===Some economists, such as Robert Lucas Jr., say that the real effect of the Industrial Revolution was that \"for the first time in history, the living standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth ...", "Nothing remotely like this economic behaviour is mentioned by the classical economists, even as a theoretical possibility.\"", "Others argue that while the growth of the economy's overall productive powers was unprecedented during the Industrial Revolution, living standards for the majority of the population did not grow meaningfully until the late 19th and 20th centuries and that in many ways workers' living standards declined under early capitalism: some studies have estimated that real wages in Britain only increased 15% between the 1780s and 1850s and that life expectancy in Britain did not begin to dramatically increase until the 1870s.", "The average height of the population declined during the Industrial Revolution, implying that their nutritional status was also decreasing.During the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically.", "The percentage of the children born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5% in 1730–1749 to 31.8% in 1810–1829.The effects on living conditions have been controversial and were hotly debated by economic and social historians from the 1950s to the 1980s.", "Over the course of the period from 1813 to 1913, there was a significant increase in worker wages.====Food and nutrition====Chronic hunger and malnutrition were the norms for the majority of the population of the world including Britain and France until the late 19th century.", "Until about 1750, malnutrition limited life expectancy in France to about 35 years and about 40 years in Britain.", "The United States population of the time was adequately fed, much taller on average, and had a life expectancy of 45–50 years, although U.S. life expectancy declined by a few years by the mid 19th century.", "Food consumption per capita also declined during an episode known as the Antebellum Puzzle.Food supply in Great Britain was adversely affected by the Corn Laws (1815–1846) which imposed tariffs on imported grain.", "The laws were enacted to keep prices high in order to benefit domestic producers.", "The Corn Laws were repealed in the early years of the Great Irish Famine.The initial technologies of the Industrial Revolution, such as mechanized textiles, iron and coal, did little, if anything, to lower food prices.", "In Britain and the Netherlands, food supply increased before the Industrial Revolution with better agricultural practices; however, population grew as well.====Housing====Housing in London by Gustave DoréThe rapid population growth in the 19th century included the new industrial and manufacturing cities, as well as service centers such as Edinburgh and London.", "The critical factor was financing, which was handled by building societies that dealt directly with large contracting firms.", "Private renting from housing landlords was the dominant tenure.", "P. Kemp says this was usually of advantage to tenants.", "People moved in so rapidly there was not enough capital to build adequate housing for everyone, so low-income newcomers squeezed into increasingly overcrowded slums.", "Clean water, sanitation, and public health facilities were inadequate; the death rate was high, especially infant mortality, and tuberculosis among young adults.", "Cholera from polluted water and typhoid were endemic.", "Unlike rural areas, there were no famines such as the one that devastated Ireland in the 1840s.A large exposé literature grew up condemning the unhealthy conditions.", "By far the most famous publication was by one of the founders of the socialist movement, ''The Condition of the Working Class in England'' in 1844 Friedrich Engels describes backstreet sections of Manchester and other mill towns, where people lived in crude shanties and shacks, some not completely enclosed, some with dirt floors.", "These shanty towns had narrow walkways between irregularly shaped lots and dwellings.", "There were no sanitary facilities.", "The population density was extremely high.", "However, not everyone lived in such poor conditions.", "The Industrial Revolution also created a middle class of businessmen, clerks, foremen, and engineers who lived in much better conditions.Conditions improved over the course of the 19th century with new public health acts regulating things such as sewage, hygiene, and home construction.", "In the introduction of his 1892 edition, Engels notes that most of the conditions he wrote about in 1844 had been greatly improved.", "For example, the Public Health Act 1875 led to the more sanitary byelaw terraced house.====Water and sanitation====Pre-industrial water supply relied on gravity systems, and pumping of water was done by water wheels.", "Pipes were typically made of wood.", "Steam-powered pumps and iron pipes allowed the widespread piping of water to horse watering troughs and households.Engels' book describes how untreated sewage created awful odours and turned the rivers green in industrial cities.", "In 1854 John Snow traced a cholera outbreak in Soho in London to fecal contamination of a public water well by a home cesspit.", "Snow's findings that cholera could be spread by contaminated water took some years to be accepted, but his work led to fundamental changes in the design of public water and waste systems.===Literacy===In the 18th century, there were relatively high levels of literacy among farmers in England and Scotland.", "This permitted the recruitment of literate craftsmen, skilled workers, foremen, and managers who supervised the emerging textile factories and coal mines.", "Much of the labour was unskilled, and especially in textile mills children as young as eight proved useful in handling chores and adding to the family income.", "Indeed, children were taken out of school to work alongside their parents in the factories.", "However, by the mid-19th century, unskilled labor forces were common in Western Europe, and British industry moved upscale, needing many more engineers and skilled workers who could handle technical instructions and handle complex situations.", "Literacy was essential to be hired.", "A senior government official told Parliament in 1870::Upon the speedy provision of elementary education depends are industrial prosperity.", "It is of no use trying to give technical teaching to our citizens without elementary education; uneducated labourers—and many of our labourers are utterly uneducated—are, for the most part, unskilled labourers, and if we leave our work–folk any longer unskilled, notwithstanding their strong sinews and determined energy, they will become overmatched in the competition of the world.The invention of the paper machine and the application of steam power to the industrial processes of printing supported a massive expansion of newspaper and pamphlet publishing, which contributed to rising literacy and demands for mass political participation.===Clothing and consumer goods===Wedgwood tea and coffee serviceConsumers benefited from falling prices for clothing and household articles such as cast iron cooking utensils, and in the following decades, stoves for cooking and space heating.", "Coffee, tea, sugar, tobacco, and chocolate became affordable to many in Europe.", "The consumer revolution in England from the early 17th century to the mid-18th century had seen a marked increase in the consumption and variety of luxury goods and products by individuals from different economic and social backgrounds.", "With improvements in transport and manufacturing technology, opportunities for buying and selling became faster and more efficient than previous.", "The expanding textile trade in the north of England meant the three-piece suit became affordable to the masses.", "Founded by Josiah Wedgwood in 1759, Wedgwood fine china and porcelain tableware was starting to become a common feature on dining tables.", "Rising prosperity and social mobility in the 18th century increased the number of people with disposable income for consumption, and the marketing of goods (of which Wedgwood was a pioneer) for individuals, as opposed to items for the household, started to appear, and the new status of goods as status symbols related to changes in fashion and desired for aesthetic appeal.Winchester's High Street in 1853; the number of High Streets, the primary street for retail in Britain in towns and cities rapidly grew in the 18th century.New businesses in various industries appeared in towns and cities throughout Britain.", "Confectionery was one such industry that saw rapid expansion.", "According to food historian Polly Russell: \"chocolate and biscuits became products for the masses, thanks to the Industrial Revolution and the consumers it created.", "By the mid-19th century, sweet biscuits were an affordable indulgence and business was booming.", "Manufacturers such as Huntley & Palmers in Reading, Carr's of Carlisle and McVitie's in Edinburgh transformed from small family-run businesses into state-of-the-art operations\".", "In 1847 Fry's of Bristol produced the first chocolate bar.", "Their competitor Cadbury of Birmingham was the first to commercialize the association between confectionery and romance when they produced a heart-shaped box of chocolates for Valentine's Day in 1868.The department store became a common feature in major High Streets across Britain; one of the first was opened in 1796 by Harding, Howell & Co. on Pall Mall in London.", "In addition to goods being sold in the growing number of stores, street sellers were common in an increasingly urbanized country.", "Matthew White: \"Crowds swarmed in every thoroughfare.", "Scores of street sellers 'cried' merchandise from place to place, advertising the wealth of goods and services on offer.", "Milkmaids, orange sellers, fishwives and piemen, for example, all walked the streets offering their various wares for sale, while knife grinders and the menders of broken chairs and furniture could be found on street corners\".", "An early soft drinks company, R. White's Lemonade, began in 1845 by selling drinks in London in a wheelbarrow.Increased literacy rates, industrialisation, and the invention of the railway created a new market for cheap popular literature for the masses and the ability for it to be circulated on a large scale.", "Penny dreadfuls were created in the 1830s to meet this demand.", "''The Guardian'' described penny dreadfuls as \"Britain's first taste of mass-produced popular culture for the young\", and \"the Victorian equivalent of video games\".", "By the 1860s and 1870s more than one million boys' periodicals were sold per week.", "Labelled an \"authorpreneur\" by ''The Paris Review'', Charles Dickens used innovations from the revolution to sell his books, such as the new printing presses, enhanced advertising revenues, and the expansion of railroads.", "His first novel, ''The Pickwick Papers'' (1836), became a publishing phenomenon with its unprecedented success sparking numerous spin-offs and merchandise ranging from ''Pickwick'' cigars, playing cards, china figurines, Sam Weller puzzles, Weller boot polish and joke books.", "Nicholas Dames in ''The Atlantic'' writes, \"Literature\" is not a big enough category for ''Pickwick''.", "It defined its own, a new one that we have learned to call \"entertainment\".In 1861, Welsh entrepreneur Pryce Pryce-Jones formed the first mail order business, an idea which would change the nature of retail.", "Selling Welsh flannel, he created mail order catalogues, with customers able to order by mail for the first timethis following the Uniform Penny Post in 1840 and the invention of the postage stamp (Penny Black) where there was a charge of one penny for carriage and delivery between any two places in the United Kingdom irrespective of distanceand the goods were delivered throughout the UK via the newly created railway system.", "As the railway network expanded overseas, so did his business.===Population increase===The Industrial Revolution was the first period in history during which there was a simultaneous increase in both population and per capita income.", "According to Robert Hughes in ''The Fatal Shore'', the population of England and Wales, which had remained steady at six million from 1700 to 1740, rose dramatically after 1740.The population of England had more than doubled from 8.3 million in 1801 to 16.8 million in 1850 and, by 1901, had nearly doubled again to 30.5 million.", "Improved conditions led to the population of Britain increasing from 10 million to 30 million in the 19th century.", "Europe's population increased from about 100 million in 1700 to 400 million by 1900.===Urbanization===The Black Country west of Birmingham, EnglandThe growth of the modern industry since the late 18th century led to massive urbanisation and the rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas.", "In 1800, only 3% of the world's population lived in cities, compared to nearly 50% by the beginning of the 21st century.", "Manchester had a population of 10,000 in 1717, but by 1911 it had burgeoned to 2.3 million.===Effect on women and family life===Women's historians have debated the effect of the Industrial Revolution and capitalism generally on the status of women.", "Taking a pessimistic side, Alice Clark argues that when capitalism arrived in 17th-century England, it lowered the status of women as they lost much of their economic importance.", "Clark argues that in 16th-century England, women were engaged in many aspects of industry and agriculture.", "The home was a central unit of production, and women played a vital role in running farms and in some trades and landed estates.", "Their useful economic roles gave them a sort of equality with their husbands.", "However, Clark argues, as capitalism expanded in the 17th century, there was more division of labour with the husband taking paid labour jobs outside the home, and the wife was reduced to unpaid household work.", "Middle- and upper-class women were confined to an idle domestic existence, supervising servants; lower-class women were forced to take poorly paid jobs.", "Capitalism, therefore, had a negative effect on powerful women.In a more positive interpretation, Ivy Pinchbeck argues that capitalism created the conditions for women's emancipation.", "Tilly and Scott have emphasised the continuity in the status of women, finding three stages in English history.", "In the pre-industrial era, production was mostly for home use, and women produced much of the needs of the households.", "The second stage was the \"family wage economy\" of early industrialisation; the entire family depended on the collective wages of its members, including husband, wife, and older children.", "The third or modern stage is the \"family consumer economy\", in which the family is the site of consumption, and women are employed in large numbers in retail and clerical jobs to support rising standards of consumption.Ideas of thrift and hard work characterized middle-class families as the Industrial Revolution swept Europe.", "These values were displayed in Samuel Smiles' book ''Self-Help'', in which he states that the misery of the poorer classes was \"voluntary and self-imposed—the results of idleness, thriftlessness, intemperance, and misconduct.", "\"===Labour conditions=======Social structure and working conditions====In terms of social structure, the Industrial Revolution witnessed the triumph of a middle class of industrialists and businessmen over a landed class of nobility and gentry.", "Ordinary working people found increased opportunities for employment in mills and factories, but these were often under strict working conditions with long hours of labour dominated by a pace set by machines.", "As late as 1900, most industrial workers in the United States worked a 10-hour day (12 hours in the steel industry), yet earned 20–40% less than the minimum deemed necessary for a decent life; however, most workers in textiles, which was by far the leading industry in terms of employment, were women and children.", "For workers of the labouring classes, industrial life \"was a stony desert, which they had to make habitable by their own efforts.", "\"Harsh working conditions were prevalent long before the Industrial Revolution took place.", "Pre-industrial society was very static and often cruel—child labour, dirty living conditions, and long working hours were just as prevalent before the Industrial Revolution.====Factories and urbanisation====''Cottonopolis'', an 1840 portrait of Manchester's factory chimneysIndustrialisation led to the creation of the factory.", "The factory system contributed to the growth of urban areas as large numbers of workers migrated into the cities in search of work in the factories.", "Nowhere was this better illustrated than the mills and associated industries of Manchester, nicknamed \"Cottonopolis\", and the world's first industrial city.", "Manchester experienced a six-times increase in its population between 1771 and 1831.Bradford grew by 50% every ten years between 1811 and 1851, and by 1851 only 50% of the population of Bradford were actually born there.In addition, between 1815 and 1939, 20% of Europe's population left home, pushed by poverty, a rapidly growing population, and the displacement of peasant farming and artisan manufacturing.", "They were pulled abroad by the enormous demand for labour overseas, the ready availability of land, and cheap transportation.", "Still, many did not find a satisfactory life in their new homes, leading 7 million of them to return to Europe.", "This mass migration had large demographic effects: in 1800, less than 1% of the world population consisted of overseas Europeans and their descendants; by 1930, they represented 11%.", "The Americas felt the brunt of this huge emigration, largely concentrated in the United States.For much of the 19th century, production was done in small mills which were typically water-powered and built to serve local needs.", "Later, each factory would have its own steam engine and a chimney to give an efficient draft through its boiler.In other industries, the transition to factory production was not so divisive.", "Some industrialists tried to improve factory and living conditions for their workers.", "One of the earliest such reformers was Robert Owen, known for his pioneering efforts in improving conditions for workers at the New Lanark mills and often regarded as one of the key thinkers of the early socialist movement.By 1746 an integrated brass mill was working at Warmley near Bristol.", "Raw material went in at one end, was smelted into brass and was turned into pans, pins, wire, and other goods.", "Housing was provided for workers on site.", "Josiah Wedgwood and Matthew Boulton (whose Soho Manufactory was completed in 1766) were other prominent early industrialists who employed the factory system.====Child labour====A young \"drawer\" pulling a coal tub along a mine gallery.", "In Britain, laws passed in 1842 and 1844 improved mine working conditions.The Industrial Revolution led to a population increase, but the chances of surviving childhood did not improve throughout the Industrial Revolution, although ''infant'' mortality rates were reduced markedly.", "There was still limited opportunity for education, and children were expected to work.", "Employers could pay a child less than an adult even though their productivity was comparable; there was no need for strength to operate an industrial machine, and since the industrial system was new, there were no experienced adult labourers.", "This made child labour the labour of choice for manufacturing in the early phases of the Industrial Revolution between the 18th and 19th centuries.", "In England and Scotland in 1788, two-thirds of the workers in 143 water-powered cotton mills were described as children.Child labour existed before the Industrial Revolution, but with the increase in population and education it became more visible.", "Many children were forced to work in relatively bad conditions for much lower pay than their elders, 10–20% of an adult male's wage.Reports were written detailing some of the abuses, particularly in the coal mines and textile factories, and these helped to popularise the children's plight.", "The public outcry, especially among the upper and middle classes, helped stir change in the young workers' welfare.Politicians and the government tried to limit child labour by law, but factory owners resisted; some felt that they were aiding the poor by giving their children money to buy food to avoid starvation, and others simply welcomed the cheap labour.", "In 1833 and 1844, the first general laws against child labour, the Factory Acts, were passed in Britain: children younger than nine were not allowed to work, children were not permitted to work at night, and the workday of youth under age 18 was limited to twelve hours.", "Factory inspectors supervised the execution of the law; however, their scarcity made enforcement difficult.", "About ten years later, the employment of children and women in mining was forbidden.", "Although laws such as these decreased the number of child labourers, child labour remained significantly present in Europe and the United States until the 20th century.====Organisation of labour====The Industrial Revolution concentrated labour into mills, factories, and mines, thus facilitating the organisation of ''combinations'' or trade unions to help advance the interests of working people.", "The power of a union could demand better terms by withdrawing all labour and causing a consequent cessation of production.", "Employers had to decide between giving in to the union demands at a cost to themselves or suffering the cost of the lost production.", "Skilled workers were difficult to replace, and these were the first groups to successfully advance their conditions through this kind of bargaining.The main method the unions used to effect change was strike action.", "Many strikes were painful events for both sides, the unions and the management.", "In Britain, the Combination Act 1799 forbade workers to form any kind of trade union until its repeal in 1824.Even after this, unions were still severely restricted.", "One British newspaper in 1834 described unions as \"the most dangerous institutions that were ever permitted to take root, under shelter of law, in any country...\"In 1832, the Reform Act extended the vote in Britain but did not grant universal suffrage.", "That year six men from Tolpuddle in Dorset founded the Friendly Society of Agricultural Labourers to protest against the gradual lowering of wages in the 1830s.", "They refused to work for less than ten shillings per week, although by this time wages had been reduced to seven shillings per week and were due to be further reduced to six.", "In 1834 James Frampton, a local landowner, wrote to Prime Minister Lord Melbourne to complain about the union, invoking an obscure law from 1797 prohibiting people from swearing oaths to each other, which the members of the Friendly Society had done.", "Six men were arrested, found guilty, and transported to Australia.", "They became known as the Tolpuddle Martyrs.", "In the 1830s and 1840s, the chartist movement was the first large-scale organised working-class political movement that campaigned for political equality and social justice.", "Its ''Charter'' of reforms received over three million signatures but was rejected by Parliament without consideration.Working people also formed friendly societies and cooperative societies as mutual support groups against times of economic hardship.", "Enlightened industrialists, such as Robert Owen supported these organisations to improve the conditions of the working class.", "Unions slowly overcame the legal restrictions on the right to strike.", "In 1842, a general strike involving cotton workers and colliers was organised through the chartist movement which stopped production across Great Britain.", "Eventually, effective political organisation for working people was achieved through the trades unions who, after the extensions of the franchise in 1867 and 1885, began to support socialist political parties that later merged to become the British Labour Party.====Luddites====The rapid industrialisation of the English economy cost many craft workers their jobs.", "The movement started first with lace and hosiery workers near Nottingham and spread to other areas of the textile industry.", "Many weavers also found themselves suddenly unemployed since they could no longer compete with machines which only required relatively limited (and unskilled) labour to produce more cloth than a single weaver.", "Many such unemployed workers, weavers, and others turned their animosity towards the machines that had taken their jobs and began destroying factories and machinery.", "These attackers became known as Luddites, supposedly followers of Ned Ludd, a folklore figure.", "The first attacks of the Luddite movement began in 1811.The Luddites rapidly gained popularity, and the British government took drastic measures using the militia or army to protect industry.", "Those rioters who were caught were tried and hanged, or transported for life.Unrest continued in other sectors as they industrialised, such as with agricultural labourers in the 1830s when large parts of southern Britain were affected by the Captain Swing disturbances.", "Threshing machines were a particular target, and hayrick burning was a popular activity.", "However, the riots led to the first formation of trade unions and further pressure for reform.====Shift in production's center of gravity====The traditional centers of hand textile production such as India, parts of the Middle East, and later China could not withstand the competition from machine-made textiles, which over a period of decades destroyed the hand made textile industries and left millions of people without work, many of whom starved.The Industrial Revolution generated an enormous and unprecedented economic division in the world, as measured by the share of manufacturing output.+Share of total world manufacturing output (percentage)17501800186018801900Europe23.228.153.261.362.0United States0.10.87.214.723.6Japan3.83.52.62.42.4Rest of the world73.067.736.620.911.0====Cotton and the expansion of slavery====Cheap cotton textiles increased the demand for raw cotton; previously, it had primarily been consumed in subtropical regions where it was grown, with little raw cotton available for export.", "Consequently, prices of raw cotton rose.", "British production grew from 2 million pounds in 1700 to 5 million pounds in 1781 to 56 million in 1800.The invention of the cotton gin by American Eli Whitney in 1792 was the decisive event.", "It allowed green-seeded cotton to become profitable, leading to the widespread growth of the large slave plantation in the United States, Brazil, and the West Indies.", "In 1791 American cotton production was about 2 million pounds, soaring to 35 million by 1800, half of which was exported.", "America's cotton plantations were highly efficient and profitable and were able to keep up with demand.", "The U.S. Civil War created a \"cotton famine\" that led to increased production in other areas of the world, including European colonies in Africa.===Effect on environment===Levels of air pollution rose during the Industrial Revolution, sparking the first modern environmental laws to be passed in the mid-19th century.The origins of the environmental movement lay in the response to increasing levels of smoke pollution in the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution.", "The emergence of great factories and the concomitant immense growth in coal consumption gave rise to an unprecedented level of air pollution in industrial centers; after 1900 the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste.", "The first large-scale, modern environmental laws came in the form of Britain's Alkali Acts, passed in 1863, to regulate the deleterious air pollution (gaseous hydrochloric acid) given off by the Leblanc process used to produce soda ash.", "An alkali inspector and four sub-inspectors were appointed to curb this pollution.", "The responsibilities of the inspectorate were gradually expanded, culminating in the Alkali Order 1958 which placed all major heavy industries that emitted smoke, grit, dust, and fumes under supervision.The manufactured gas industry began in British cities in 1812–1820.The technique used produced highly toxic effluent that was dumped into sewers and rivers.", "The gas companies were repeatedly sued in nuisance lawsuits.", "They usually lost and modified the worst practices.", "The City of London repeatedly indicted gas companies in the 1820s for polluting the Thames and poisoning its fish.", "Finally, Parliament wrote company charters to regulate toxicity.", "The industry reached the U.S. around 1850 causing pollution and lawsuits.In industrial cities local experts and reformers, especially after 1890, took the lead in identifying environmental degradation and pollution, and initiating grass-roots movements to demand and achieve reforms.", "Typically the highest priority went to water and air pollution.", "The Coal Smoke Abatement Society was formed in Britain in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental non-governmental organizations.", "It was founded by artist William Blake Richmond, frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke.", "Although there were earlier pieces of legislation, the Public Health Act 1875 required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke.", "It also provided for sanctions against factories that emitted large amounts of black smoke.", "The provisions of this law were extended in 1926 with the Smoke Abatement Act to include other emissions, such as soot, ash, and gritty particles, and to empower local authorities to impose their own regulations." ], [ "Industrialisation beyond Great Britain", "===Europe===The Industrial Revolution in continental Europe came later than in Great Britain.", "It started in Belgium and France, then spread to the German states by the middle of the 19th century.", "In many industries, this involved the application of technology developed in Britain in new places.", "Typically, the technology was purchased from Britain or British engineers and entrepreneurs moved abroad in search of new opportunities.", "By 1809, part of the Ruhr Valley in Westphalia was called 'Miniature England' because of its similarities to the industrial areas of Britain.", "Most European governments provided state funding to the new industries.", "In some cases (such as iron), the different availability of resources locally meant that only some aspects of the British technology were adopted.====Austria-Hungary====The Habsburg realms which became Austria-Hungary in 1867 included 23 million inhabitants in 1800, growing to 36 million by 1870.Nationally, the per capita rate of industrial growth averaged about 3% between 1818 and 1870.However, there were strong regional differences.", "The railway system was built in the 1850–1873 period.", "Before they arrived transportation was very slow and expensive.", "In the Alpine and Bohemian (modern-day Czech Republic) regions, proto-industrialization began by 1750 and became the center of the first phases of the Industrial Revolution after 1800.The textile industry was the main factor, utilizing mechanization, steam engines, and the factory system.", "In the Czech lands, the \"first mechanical loom followed in Varnsdorf in 1801\", with the first steam engines appearing in Bohemia and Moravia just a few years later.", "The textile production flourished particularly in Prague and Brno (German: Brünn), which was considered the 'Moravian Manchester'.", "The Czech lands, especially Bohemia, became the center of industrialization due to its natural and human resources.", "The iron industry had developed in the Alpine regions after 1750, with smaller centers in Bohemia and Moravia.", "Hungary—the eastern half of the Dual Monarchy, was heavily rural with little industry before 1870.In 1791, Prague organized the first World's Fair/List of world's fairs, Bohemia (modern-day Czech Republic).", "The first industrial exhibition was on the occasion of the coronation of Leopold II as a king of Bohemia, which took place in Clementinum, and therefore celebrated the considerable sophistication of manufacturing methods in the Czech lands during that time period.Technological change accelerated industrialization and urbanization.", "The GNP per capita grew roughly 1.76% per year from 1870 to 1913.That level of growth compared very favorably to that of other European nations such as Britain (1%), France (1.06%), and Germany (1.51%).", "However, in a comparison with Germany and Britain: the Austro-Hungarian economy as a whole still lagged considerably, as sustained modernization had begun much later.====Belgium====Belgium was the second country in which the Industrial Revolution took place and the first in continental Europe: Wallonia (French-speaking southern Belgium) took the lead.", "Starting in the middle of the 1820s, and especially after Belgium became an independent nation in 1830, numerous works comprising coke blast furnaces as well as puddling and rolling mills were built in the coal mining areas around Liège and Charleroi.", "The leader was a transplanted Englishman John Cockerill.", "His factories at Seraing integrated all stages of production, from engineering to the supply of raw materials, as early as 1825.Wallonia exemplified the radical evolution of industrial expansion.", "Thanks to coal (the French word \"houille\" was coined in Wallonia), the region geared up to become the 2nd industrial power in the world after Britain.", "But it is also pointed out by many researchers, with its ''Sillon industriel'', \"Especially in the Haine, Sambre and Meuse valleys, between the Borinage and Liège...there was a huge industrial development based on coal-mining and iron-making...\".", "Philippe Raxhon wrote about the period after 1830: \"It was not propaganda but a reality the Walloon regions were becoming the second industrial power all over the world after Britain.\"", "\"The sole industrial centre outside the collieries and blast furnaces of Walloon was the old cloth-making town of Ghent.\"", "Professor Michel De Coster stated: \"The historians and the economists say that Belgium was the second industrial power of the world, in proportion to its population and its territory ...", "But this rank is the one of Wallonia where the coal-mines, the blast furnaces, the iron and zinc factories, the wool industry, the glass industry, the weapons industry... were concentrated.\"", "Many of the 19th-century coal mines in Wallonia are now protected as World Heritage Sites.Wallonia was also the birthplace of a strong socialist party and strong trade unions in a particular sociological landscape.", "At the left, the ''Sillon industriel'', which runs from Mons in the west, to Verviers in the east (except part of North Flanders, in another period of the industrial revolution, after 1920).", "Even if Belgium is the second industrial country after Britain, the effect of the industrial revolution there was very different.", "In 'Breaking stereotypes', Muriel Neven and Isabelle Devious say:The Industrial Revolution changed a mainly rural society into an urban one, but with a strong contrast between northern and southern Belgium.", "During the Middle Ages and the early modern period, Flanders was characterised by the presence of large urban centres ... at the beginning of the nineteenth century this region (Flanders), with an urbanisation degree of more than 30 percent, remained one of the most urbanised in the world.", "By comparison, this proportion reached only 17 percent in Wallonia, barely 10 percent in most West European countries, 16 percent in France, and 25 percent in Britain.", "Nineteenth-century industrialisation did not affect the traditional urban infrastructure, except in Ghent... Also, in Wallonia, the traditional urban network was largely unaffected by the industrialisation process, even though the proportion of city-dwellers rose from 17 to 45 percent between 1831 and 1910.Especially in the Haine, Sambre and Meuse valleys, between the Borinage and Liège, where there was a huge industrial development based on coal-mining and iron-making, urbanisation was fast.", "During these eighty years, the number of municipalities with more than 5,000 inhabitants increased from only 21 to more than one hundred, concentrating nearly half of the Walloon population in this region.", "Nevertheless, industrialisation remained quite traditional in the sense that it did not lead to the growth of modern and large urban centres, but to a conurbation of industrial villages and towns developed around a coal mine or a factory.", "Communication routes between these small centres only became populated later and created a much less dense urban morphology than, for instance, the area around Liège where the old town was there to direct migratory flows.====France====The Industrial Revolution in France followed a particular course as it did not correspond to the main model followed by other countries.", "Notably, most French historians argue France did not go through a clear ''take-off''.", "Instead, France's economic growth and industrialisation process was slow and steady through the 18th and 19th centuries.", "However, some stages were identified by Maurice Lévy-Leboyer:* French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars (1789–1815),* industrialisation, along with Britain (1815–1860),* economic slowdown (1860–1905),* renewal of the growth after 1905.====Germany====Based on its leadership in chemical research in the universities and industrial laboratories, Germany, which was unified in 1871, became dominant in the world's chemical industry in the late 19th century.", "At first the production of dyes based on aniline was critical.Germany's political disunitywith three dozen statesand a pervasive conservatism made it difficult to build railways in the 1830s.", "However, by the 1840s, trunk lines linked the major cities; each German state was responsible for the lines within its own borders.", "Lacking a technological base at first, the Germans imported their engineering and hardware from Britain, but quickly learned the skills needed to operate and expand the railways.", "In many cities, the new railway shops were the centres of technological awareness and training, so that by 1850, Germany was self-sufficient in meeting the demands of railroad construction, and the railways were a major impetus for the growth of the new steel industry.", "Observers found that even as late as 1890, their engineering was inferior to Britain's.", "However, German unification in 1871 stimulated consolidation, nationalisation into state-owned companies, and further rapid growth.", "Unlike the situation in France, the goal was the support of industrialisation, and so heavy lines crisscrossed the Ruhr and other industrial districts and provided good connections to the major ports of Hamburg and Bremen.", "By 1880, Germany had 9,400 locomotives pulling 43,000 passengers and 30,000 tons of freight, and pulled ahead of France.====Sweden====During the period 1790–1815, Sweden experienced two parallel economic movements: an ''agricultural revolution'' with larger agricultural estates, new crops, and farming tools and commercialisation of farming, and a ''proto industrialisation'', with small industries being established in the countryside and with workers switching between agricultural work in summer and industrial production in winter.", "This led to economic growth benefiting large sections of the population and leading up to a consumption revolution starting in the 1820s.", "Between 1815 and 1850, the protoindustries developed into more specialised and larger industries.", "This period witnessed increasing regional specialisation with mining in Bergslagen, textile mills in Sjuhäradsbygden, and forestry in Norrland.", "Several important institutional changes took place in this period, such as free and mandatory schooling introduced in 1842 (as the first country in the world), the abolition of the national monopoly on trade in handicrafts in 1846, and a stock company law in 1848.From 1850 to 1890, Sweden experienced its \"first\" Industrial Revolution with a veritable explosion in export, dominated by crops, wood, and steel.", "Sweden abolished most tariffs and other barriers to free trade in the 1850s and joined the gold standard in 1873.Large infrastructural investments were made during this period, mainly in the expanding railroad network, which was financed in part by the government and in part by private enterprises.", "From 1890 to 1930, new industries developed with their focus on the domestic market: mechanical engineering, power utilities, papermaking and textile.===Japan===The Industrial Revolution began about 1870 as Meiji period leaders decided to catch up with the West.", "The government built railroads, improved roads, and inaugurated a land reform program to prepare the country for further development.", "It inaugurated a new Western-based education system for all young people, sent thousands of students to the United States and Europe, and hired more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan (Foreign government advisors in Meiji Japan).In 1871, a group of Japanese politicians known as the Iwakura Mission toured Europe and the United States to learn Western ways.", "The result was a deliberate state-led industrialisation policy to enable Japan to quickly catch up.", "The Bank of Japan, founded in 1882, used taxes to fund model steel and textile factories.", "Education was expanded and Japanese students were sent to study in the West.Modern industry first appeared in textiles, including cotton and especially silk, which was based in home workshops in rural areas.===United States===Slater's Mill in Pawtucket, Rhode IslandDuring the late 18th and early 19th centuries when the UK and parts of Western Europe began to industrialise, the US was primarily an agricultural and natural resource producing and processing economy.", "The building of roads and canals, the introduction of steamboats and the building of railroads were important for handling agricultural and natural resource products in the large and sparsely populated country of the period.Important American technological contributions during the period of the Industrial Revolution were the cotton gin and the development of a system for making interchangeable parts, the latter aided by the development of the milling machine in the US.", "The development of machine tools and the system of interchangeable parts was the basis for the rise of the US as the world's leading industrial nation in the late 19th century.Oliver Evans invented an automated flour mill in the mid-1780s that used control mechanisms and conveyors so that no labour was needed from the time grain was loaded into the elevator buckets until the flour was discharged into a wagon.", "This is considered to be the first modern materials handling system an important advance in the progress toward mass production.The United States originally used horse-powered machinery for small-scale applications such as grain milling, but eventually switched to water power after textile factories began being built in the 1790s.", "As a result, industrialisation was concentrated in New England and the Northeastern United States, which has fast-moving rivers.", "The newer water-powered production lines proved more economical than horse-drawn production.", "In the late 19th century steam-powered manufacturing overtook water-powered manufacturing, allowing the industry to spread to the Midwest.Thomas Somers and the Cabot Brothers founded the Beverly Cotton Manufactory in 1787, the first cotton mill in America, the largest cotton mill of its era, and a significant milestone in the research and development of cotton mills in the future.", "This mill was designed to use horsepower, but the operators quickly learned that the horse-drawn platform was economically unstable, and had economic losses for years.", "Despite the losses, the Manufactory served as a playground of innovation, both in turning a large amount of cotton, but also developing the water-powered milling structure used in Slater's Mill.In 1793, Samuel Slater (1768–1835) founded the Slater Mill at Pawtucket, Rhode Island.", "He had learned of the new textile technologies as a boy apprentice in Derbyshire, England, and defied laws against the emigration of skilled workers by leaving for New York in 1789, hoping to make money with his knowledge.", "After founding Slater's Mill, he went on to own 13 textile mills.", "Daniel Day established a wool carding mill in the Blackstone Valley at Uxbridge, Massachusetts in 1809, the third woollen mill established in the US (The first was in Hartford, Connecticut, and the second at Watertown, Massachusetts.).", "The John H. Chafee Blackstone River Valley National Heritage Corridor retraces the history of \"America's Hardest-Working River', the Blackstone.", "The Blackstone River and its tributaries, which cover more than from Worcester, Massachusetts to Providence, Rhode Island, was the birthplace of America's Industrial Revolution.", "At its peak over 1,100 mills operated in this valley, including Slater's Mill, and with it the earliest beginnings of America's industrial and technological development.Merchant Francis Cabot Lowell from Newburyport, Massachusetts, memorised the design of textile machines on his tour of British factories in 1810.Realising that the War of 1812 had ruined his import business but that demand for domestic finished cloth was emerging in America, on his return to the United States, he set up the Boston Manufacturing Company.", "Lowell and his partners built America's second cotton-to-cloth textile mill at Waltham, Massachusetts, second to the Beverly Cotton Manufactory.", "After his death in 1817, his associates built America's first planned factory town, which they named after him.", "This enterprise was capitalised in a public stock offering, one of the first uses of it in the United States.", "Lowell, Massachusetts, using of canals and delivered by the Merrimack River, is considered by some as a major contributor to the success of the American Industrial Revolution.", "The short-lived utopia-like Waltham-Lowell system was formed, as a direct response to the poor working conditions in Britain.", "However, by 1850, especially following the Great Famine of Ireland, the system had been replaced by poor immigrant labour.A major U.S. contribution to industrialisation was the development of techniques to make interchangeable parts from metal.", "Precision metal machining techniques were developed by the U.S. Department of War to make interchangeable parts for small firearms.", "The development work took place at the Federal Arsenals at Springfield Armory and Harpers Ferry Armory.", "Techniques for precision machining using machine tools included using fixtures to hold the parts in the proper position, jigs to guide the cutting tools and precision blocks and gauges to measure the accuracy.", "The milling machine, a fundamental machine tool, is believed to have been invented by Eli Whitney, who was a government contractor who built firearms as part of this program.", "Another important invention was the Blanchard lathe, invented by Thomas Blanchard.", "The Blanchard lathe, or pattern tracing lathe, was actually a shaper that could produce copies of wooden gun stocks.", "The use of machinery and the techniques for producing standardised and interchangeable parts became known as the American system of manufacturing.Precision manufacturing techniques made it possible to build machines that mechanised the shoe industry and the watch industry.", "The industrialisation of the watch industry started in 1854 also in Waltham, Massachusetts, at the Waltham Watch Company, with the development of machine tools, gauges and assembling methods adapted to the micro precision required for watches." ], [ "Second Industrial Revolution", "Sächsische Maschinenfabrik in Chemnitz, Germany in 1868Steel is often cited as the first of several new areas for industrial mass-production, which are said to characterise a \"Second Industrial Revolution\", beginning around 1850, although a method for mass manufacture of steel was not invented until the 1860s, when Sir Henry Bessemer invented a new furnace which could convert molten pig iron into steel in large quantities.", "However, it only became widely available in the 1870s after the process was modified to produce more uniform quality.", "Bessemer steel was being displaced by the open hearth furnace near the end of the 19th century.Sir Henry Bessemer's Bessemer converter, the most important technique for making steel from the 1850s to the 1950s, located in SheffieldThis Second Industrial Revolution gradually grew to include chemicals, mainly the chemical industries, petroleum (refining and distribution), and, in the 20th century, the automotive industry, and was marked by a transition of technological leadership from Britain to the United States and Germany.The increasing availability of economical petroleum products also reduced the importance of coal and further widened the potential for industrialisation.A new revolution began with electricity and electrification in the electrical industries.", "The introduction of hydroelectric power generation in the Alps enabled the rapid industrialisation of coal-deprived northern Italy, beginning in the 1890s.By the 1890s, industrialisation in these areas had created the first giant industrial corporations with burgeoning global interests, as companies like U.S. Steel, General Electric, Standard Oil and Bayer AG joined the railroad and ship companies on the world's stock markets." ], [ "New Industrialism", "The New Industrialist movement advocates for increasing domestic manufacturing while reducing emphasis on a financial-based economy that relies on real estate and trading speculative assets.", "New Industrialism has been described as \"supply-side progressivism\" or embracing the idea of \"Building More Stuff\".", "New Industrialism developed after the China Shock that resulted in lost manufacturing jobs in the U.S. after China joined the World Trade Organization in 2001.The movement strengthened after the reduction of manufacturing jobs during the Great Recession and when the U.S. was not able to manufacture enough tests or facemasks during the COVID-19 pandemic.", "New Industrialism calls for building enough housing to satisfy demand in order to reduce the profit in land speculation, to invest in infrastructure, and to develop advanced technology to manufacture green energy for the world.", "New Industrialists believe that the United States is not building enough productive capital and should invest more into economic growth." ], [ "Causes", "GDP per capita changed very little for most of human history before the Industrial Revolution.The causes of the Industrial Revolution were complicated and remain a topic for debate.", "Geographic factors include Britain's vast mineral resources.", "In addition to metal ores, Britain had the highest quality coal reserves known at the time, as well as abundant water power, highly productive agriculture, and numerous seaports and navigable waterways.Some historians believe the Industrial Revolution was an outgrowth of social and institutional changes brought by the end of feudalism in Britain after the English Civil War in the 17th century, although feudalism began to break down after the Black Death of the mid 14th century, followed by other epidemics, until the population reached a low in the 14th century.", "This created labour shortages and led to falling food prices and a peak in real wages around 1500, after which population growth began reducing wages.", "Inflation caused by coinage debasement after 1540 followed by precious metals supply increasing from the Americas caused land rents (often long-term leases that transferred to heirs on death) to fall in real terms.The Enclosure movement and the British Agricultural Revolution made food production more efficient and less labour-intensive, forcing the farmers who could no longer be self-sufficient in agriculture into cottage industry, for example weaving, and in the longer term into the cities and the newly developed factories.", "The colonial expansion of the 17th century with the accompanying development of international trade, creation of financial markets and accumulation of capital are also cited as factors, as is the scientific revolution of the 17th century.", "A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made people able to accumulate more human capital during their youth, thereby encouraging economic development.Until the 1980s, it was universally believed by academic historians that technological innovation was the heart of the Industrial Revolution and the key enabling technology was the invention and improvement of the steam engine.", "Marketing professor Ronald Fullerton suggested that innovative marketing techniques, business practices, and competition also influenced changes in the manufacturing industry.Lewis Mumford has proposed that the Industrial Revolution had its origins in the Early Middle Ages, much earlier than most estimates.", "He explains that the model for standardised mass production was the printing press and that \"the archetypal model for the industrial era was the clock\".", "He also cites the monastic emphasis on order and time-keeping, as well as the fact that medieval cities had at their centre a church with bell ringing at regular intervals as being necessary precursors to a greater synchronisation necessary for later, more physical, manifestations such as the steam engine.The presence of a large domestic market should also be considered an important driver of the Industrial Revolution, particularly explaining why it occurred in Britain.", "In other nations, such as France, markets were split up by local regions, which often imposed tolls and tariffs on goods traded among them.", "Internal tariffs were abolished by Henry VIII of England, they survived in Russia until 1753, 1789 in France and 1839 in Spain.Governments' grant of limited monopolies to inventors under a developing patent system (the Statute of Monopolies in 1623) is considered an influential factor.", "The effects of patents, both good and ill, on the development of industrialisation are clearly illustrated in the history of the steam engine, the key enabling technology.", "In return for publicly revealing the workings of an invention the patent system rewarded inventors such as James Watt by allowing them to monopolise the production of the first steam engines, thereby rewarding inventors and increasing the pace of technological development.", "However, monopolies bring with them their own inefficiencies which may counterbalance, or even overbalance, the beneficial effects of publicising ingenuity and rewarding inventors.", "Watt's monopoly prevented other inventors, such as Richard Trevithick, William Murdoch, or Jonathan Hornblower, whom Boulton and Watt sued, from introducing improved steam engines, thereby retarding the spread of steam power.===Causes in Europe===London Coal Exchange, .", "European 17th-century colonial expansion, international trade, and creation of financial markets produced a new legal and financial environment, one which supported and enabled 18th-century industrial growth.One question of active interest to historians is why the Industrial Revolution occurred in Europe and not in other parts of the world in the 18th century, particularly China, India, and the Middle East (which pioneered in shipbuilding, textile production, water mills, and much more in the period between 750 and 1100), or at other times like in Classical Antiquity or the Middle Ages.", "A recent account argued that Europeans have been characterized for thousands of years by a freedom-loving culture originating from the aristocratic societies of early Indo-European invaders.", "Many historians, however, have challenged this explanation as being not only Eurocentric, but also ignoring historical context.", "In fact, before the Industrial Revolution, \"there existed something of a global economic parity between the most advanced regions in the world economy.\"", "These historians have suggested a number of other factors, including education, technological changes (see Scientific Revolution in Europe), \"modern\" government, \"modern\" work attitudes, ecology, and culture.China was the world's most technologically advanced country for many centuries; however, China stagnated economically and technologically and was surpassed by Western Europe before the Age of Discovery, by which time China banned imports and denied entry to foreigners.", "China was also a totalitarian society.", "It also taxed transported goods heavily.", "Modern estimates of per capita income in Western Europe in the late 18th century are of roughly 1,500 dollars in purchasing power parity (and Britain had a per capita income of nearly 2,000 dollars) whereas China, by comparison, had only 450 dollars.", "India was essentially feudal, politically fragmented and not as economically advanced as Western Europe.Historians such as David Landes and sociologists Max Weber and Rodney Stark credit the different belief systems in Asia and Europe with dictating where the revolution occurred.", "The religion and beliefs of Europe were largely products of Judaeo-Christianity and Greek thought.", "Conversely, Chinese society was founded on men like Confucius, Mencius, Han Feizi (Legalism), Lao Tzu (Taoism), and Buddha (Buddhism), resulting in very different worldviews.", "Other factors include the considerable distance of China's coal deposits, though large, from its cities as well as the then unnavigable Yellow River that connects these deposits to the sea.Regarding India, the Marxist historian Rajani Palme Dutt said, \"The capital to finance the Industrial Revolution in India instead went into financing the Industrial Revolution in Britain.\"", "In contrast to China, India was split up into many competing kingdoms after the decline of the Mughal Empire, with the major ones in its aftermath including the Marathas, Sikhs, Bengal Subah, and Kingdom of Mysore.", "In addition, the economy was highly dependent on two sectorsagriculture of subsistence and cotton, and there appears to have been little technical innovation.", "It is believed that the vast amounts of wealth were largely stored away in palace treasuries by monarchs prior to the British take over.Economic historian Joel Mokyr argued that political fragmentation, the presence of a large number of European states, made it possible for heterodox ideas to thrive, as entrepreneurs, innovators, ideologues and heretics could easily flee to a neighboring state in the event that the one state would try to suppress their ideas and activities.", "This is what set Europe apart from the technologically advanced, large unitary empires such as China and India by providing \"an insurance against economic and technological stagnation\".", "China had both a printing press and movable type, and India had similar levels of scientific and technological achievement as Europe in 1700, yet the Industrial Revolution would occur in Europe, not China or India.", "In Europe, political fragmentation was coupled with an \"integrated market for ideas\" where Europe's intellectuals used the of Latin, had a shared intellectual basis in Europe's classical heritage and the pan-European institution of the Republic of Letters.In addition, Europe's monarchs desperately needed revenue, pushing them into alliances with their merchant classes.", "Small groups of merchants were granted monopolies and tax-collecting responsibilities in exchange for payments to the state.", "Located in a region \"at the hub of the largest and most varied network of exchange in history\", Europe advanced as the leader of the Industrial Revolution.", "In the Americas, Europeans found a windfall of silver, timber, fish, and maize, leading historian Peter Stearns to conclude that \"Europe's Industrial Revolution stemmed in great part from Europe's ability to draw disproportionately on world resources.", "\"Modern capitalism originated in the Italian city-states around the end of the first millennium.", "The city-states were prosperous cities that were independent from feudal lords.", "They were largely republics whose governments were typically composed of merchants, manufacturers, members of guilds, bankers and financiers.", "The Italian city-states built a network of branch banks in leading western European cities and introduced double entry bookkeeping.", "Italian commerce was supported by schools that taught numeracy in financial calculations through abacus schools.===Causes in Britain===As the Industrial Revolution developed, British manufacturing output surged ahead of other economies''Iron and Coal'', a mid-19th century portrait by William Bell ScottGreat Britain provided the legal and cultural foundations that enabled entrepreneurs to pioneer the Industrial Revolution.", "Key factors fostering this environment were:* The period of peace and stability which followed the unification of England and Scotland* There were no internal trade barriers, including between England and Scotland, or feudal tolls and tariffs, making Britain the \"largest coherent market in Europe\"* The rule of law (enforcing property rights and respecting the sanctity of contracts)* A straightforward legal system that allowed the formation of joint-stock companies (corporations)* Free market (capitalism)* Geographical and natural resource advantages of Great Britain were the fact that it had extensive coastlines and many navigable rivers in an age where water was the easiest means of transportation and Britain had the highest quality coal in Europe.", "Britain also had a large number of sites for water power.There were two main values that drove the Industrial Revolution in Britain.", "These values were self-interest and an entrepreneurial spirit.", "Because of these interests, many industrial advances were made that resulted in a huge increase in personal wealth and a consumer revolution.", "These advancements also greatly benefitted British society as a whole.", "Countries around the world started to recognise the changes and advancements in Britain and use them as an example to begin their own Industrial Revolutions.A debate sparked by Trinidadian politician and historian Eric Williams in his work ''Capitalism and Slavery'' (1944) concerned the role of slavery in financing the Industrial Revolution.", "Williams argued that European capital amassed from slavery was vital in the early years of the revolution, contending that the rise of industrial capitalism was the driving force behind abolitionism instead of humanitarian motivations.", "These arguments led to significant historiographical debates among historians, with American historian Seymour Drescher critiquing Williams' arguments in ''Econocide'' (1977).Instead, the greater liberalisation of trade from a large merchant base may have allowed Britain to produce and use emerging scientific and technological developments more effectively than countries with stronger monarchies, particularly China and Russia.", "Britain emerged from the Napoleonic Wars as the only European nation not ravaged by financial plunder and economic collapse, and having the only merchant fleet of any useful size (European merchant fleets were destroyed during the war by the Royal Navy).", "Britain's extensive exporting cottage industries also ensured markets were already available for many early forms of manufactured goods.", "The conflict resulted in most British warfare being conducted overseas, reducing the devastating effects of territorial conquest that affected much of Europe.", "This was further aided by Britain's geographical positionan island separated from the rest of mainland Europe.", "''William and Mary Presenting the Cap of Liberty to Europe'' a 1716 illustration by James Thornhill, depicting William III and Mary II, who had taken the throne after the Glorious Revolution and signed the English Bill of Rights of 1689.William tramples on arbitrary power and hands the red cap of liberty to Europe where, unlike Britain, absolute monarchy stayed the normal form of power execution.", "Below William is the French king Louis XIV.Another theory is that Britain was able to succeed in the Industrial Revolution due to the availability of key resources it possessed.", "It had a dense population for its small geographical size.", "Enclosure of common land and the related agricultural revolution made a supply of this labour readily available.", "There was also a local coincidence of natural resources in the North of England, the English Midlands, South Wales and the Scottish Lowlands.", "Local supplies of coal, iron, lead, copper, tin, limestone and water power resulted in excellent conditions for the development and expansion of industry.", "Also, the damp, mild weather conditions of the North West of England provided ideal conditions for the spinning of cotton, providing a natural starting point for the birth of the textiles industry.The stable political situation in Britain from around 1689 following the Glorious Revolution, and British society's greater receptiveness to change (compared with other European countries) can also be said to be factors favouring the Industrial Revolution.", "Peasant resistance to industrialisation was largely eliminated by the Enclosure movement, and the landed upper classes developed commercial interests that made them pioneers in removing obstacles to the growth of capitalism.", "(This point is also made in Hilaire Belloc's ''The Servile State''.", ")The French philosopher Voltaire wrote about capitalism and religious tolerance in his book on English society, ''Letters on the English'' (1733), noting why England at that time was more prosperous in comparison to the country's less religiously tolerant European neighbours.", "\"Take a view of the Royal Exchange in London, a place more venerable than many courts of justice, where the representatives of all nations meet for the benefit of mankind.", "There the Jew, the Mahometan Muslim, and the Christian transact together, as though they all professed the same religion, and give the name of infidel to none but bankrupts.", "There the Presbyterian confides in the Anabaptist, and the Churchman depends on the Quaker's word.", "If one religion only were allowed in England, the Government would very possibly become arbitrary; if there were but two, the people would cut one another's throats; but as there are such a multitude, they all live happy and in peace.", "\"Britain's population grew 280% from 1550 to 1820, while the rest of Western Europe grew 50–80%.", "Seventy percent of European urbanisation happened in Britain from 1750 to 1800.By 1800, only the Netherlands was more urbanised than Britain.", "This was only possible because coal, coke, imported cotton, brick and slate had replaced wood, charcoal, flax, peat and thatch.", "The latter compete with land grown to feed people while mined materials do not.", "Yet more land would be freed when chemical fertilisers replaced manure and horse's work was mechanised.", "A workhorse needs for fodder while even early steam engines produced four times more mechanical energy.In 1700, five-sixths of the coal mined worldwide was in Britain, while the Netherlands had none; so despite having Europe's best transport, lowest taxes, and most urbanised, well-paid, and literate population, it failed to industrialise.", "In the 18th century, it was the only European country whose cities and population shrank.", "Without coal, Britain would have run out of suitable river sites for mills by the 1830s.", "Based on science and experimentation from the continent, the steam engine was developed specifically for pumping water out of mines, many of which in Britain had been mined to below the water table.", "Although extremely inefficient they were economical because they used unsaleable coal.", "Iron rails were developed to transport coal, which was a major economic sector in Britain.Economic historian Robert Allen has argued that high wages, cheap capital and very cheap energy in Britain made it the ideal place for the industrial revolution to occur.", "These factors made it vastly more profitable to invest in research and development, and to put technology to use in Britain than other societies.", "However, two 2018 studies in ''The Economic History Review'' showed that wages were not particularly high in the British spinning sector or the construction sector, casting doubt on Allen's explanation.", "A 2022 study in the ''Journal of Political Economy'' by Morgan Kelly, Joel Mokyr, and Cormac O Grada found that industrialization happened in areas with low wages and high mechanical skills, whereas literacy, banks and proximity to coal had little explanatory power.===Transfer of knowledge===''A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery'' a illustration by Joseph Wright of Derby depicting informal philosophical societies spreading scientific advancesKnowledge of innovation was spread by several means.", "Workers who were trained in the technique might move to another employer or might be poached.", "A common method was for someone to make a study tour, gathering information where he could.", "During the whole of the Industrial Revolution and for the century before, all European countries and America engaged in study-touring; some nations, like Sweden and France, even trained civil servants or technicians to undertake it as a matter of state policy.", "In other countries, notably Britain and America, this practice was carried out by individual manufacturers eager to improve their own methods.", "Study tours were common then, as now, as was the keeping of travel diaries.", "Records made by industrialists and technicians of the period are an incomparable source of information about their methods.Another means for the spread of innovation was by the network of informal philosophical societies, like the Lunar Society of Birmingham, in which members met to discuss natural philosophy and often its application to manufacturing.", "The Lunar Society flourished from 1765 to 1809, and it has been said of them, \"They were, if you like, the revolutionary committee of that most far reaching of all the eighteenth-century revolutions, the Industrial Revolution\".", "Other such societies published volumes of proceedings and transactions.", "For example, the London-based Royal Society of Arts published an illustrated volume of new inventions, as well as papers about them in its annual ''Transactions''.There were publications describing technology.", "Encyclopaedias such as Harris's ''Lexicon Technicum'' (1704) and Abraham Rees's ''Cyclopaedia'' (1802–1819) contain much of value.", "''Cyclopaedia'' contains an enormous amount of information about the science and technology of the first half of the Industrial Revolution, very well illustrated by fine engravings.", "Foreign printed sources such as the ''Descriptions des Arts et Métiers'' and Diderot's ''Encyclopédie'' explained foreign methods with fine engraved plates.Periodical publications about manufacturing and technology began to appear in the last decade of the 18th century, and many regularly included notice of the latest patents.", "Foreign periodicals, such as the ''Annales des Mines'', published accounts of travels made by French engineers who observed British methods on study tours.====Protestant work ethic====Another theory is that the British advance was due to the presence of an entrepreneurial class which believed in progress, technology and hard work.", "The existence of this class is often linked to the Protestant work ethic (see Max Weber) and the particular status of the Baptists and the dissenting Protestant sects, such as the Quakers and Presbyterians that had flourished with the English Civil War.", "Reinforcement of confidence in the rule of law, which followed establishment of the prototype of constitutional monarchy in Britain in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and the emergence of a stable financial market there based on the management of the national debt by the Bank of England, contributed to the capacity for, and interest in, private financial investment in industrial ventures.Dissenters found themselves barred or discouraged from almost all public offices, as well as education at England's only two universities at the time (although dissenters were still free to study at Scotland's four universities).", "When the restoration of the monarchy took place and membership in the official Anglican Church became mandatory due to the Test Act, they thereupon became active in banking, manufacturing and education.", "The Unitarians, in particular, were very involved in education, by running Dissenting Academies, where, in contrast to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge and schools such as Eton and Harrow, much attention was given to mathematics and the sciences – areas of scholarship vital to the development of manufacturing technologies.Historians sometimes consider this social factor to be extremely important, along with the nature of the national economies involved.", "While members of these sects were excluded from certain circles of the government, they were considered fellow Protestants, to a limited extent, by many in the middle class, such as traditional financiers or other businessmen.", "Given this relative tolerance and the supply of capital, the natural outlet for the more enterprising members of these sects would be to seek new opportunities in the technologies created in the wake of the scientific revolution of the 17th century." ], [ "Criticisms", "The industrial revolution has been criticised for causing ecological collapse, mental illness, pollution and detrimental social systems.", "It has also been criticised for valuing profits and corporate growth over life and wellbeing.", "Multiple movements have arisen which reject aspects of the industrial revolution, such as the Amish or primitivists.===Individualism humanism and harsh conditions===Humanists and individualists criticise the Industrial revolution for mistreating women and children and turning men into work machines that lacked autonomy.", "Critics of the Industrial revolution promoted a more interventionist state and formed new organizations to promote human rights.===Primitivism===A primitive lifestyle living outside the Industrial RevolutionPrimitivism argues that the Industrial Revolution have created an un-natural frame of society and the world in which humans need to adapt to an un-natural urban landscape in which humans are perpetual cogs without personal autonomy.Certain primitivists argue for a return to pre-industrial society, while others argue that technology such as modern medicine, and agriculture are all positive for humanity assuming they are controlled by and serve humanity and have no effect on the natural environment.===Pollution and ecological collapse===The Industrial Revolution has been criticised for leading to immense ecological and habitat destruction.", "It has led to immense decrease in the biodiversity of life on Earth.", "The Industrial revolution has been said to be inherently unsustainable and will lead to eventual collapse of society, mass hunger, starvation, and resource scarcity.====The Anthropocene====The Anthropocene is a proposed epoch or mass extinction coming from humanity (anthropo- is the Greek root for humanity).", "Since the start of the Industrial revolution humanity has permanently changed the Earth, such as immense decrease in biodiversity, and mass extinction caused by the Industrial revolution.", "The effects include permanent changes to the Earth's atmosphere and soil, forests, the mass destruction of the Industrial revolution has led to catastrophic impacts on the Earth.", "Most organisms are unable to adapt leading to mass extinction with the remaining undergoing evolutionary rescue, as a result of the Industrial revolution.Permanent changes in the distribution of organisms from human influence will become identifiable in the geologic record.", "Researchers have documented the movement of many species into regions formerly too cold for them, often at rates faster than initially expected.", "This has occurred in part as a result of changing climate, but also in response to farming and fishing, and to the accidental introduction of non-native species to new areas through global travel.", "The ecosystem of the entire Black Sea may have changed during the last 2000 years as a result of nutrient and silica input from eroding deforested lands along the Danube River.===Opposition from Romanticism===During the Industrial Revolution, an intellectual and artistic hostility towards the new industrialisation developed, associated with the Romantic movement.", "Romanticism revered the traditionalism of rural life and recoiled against the upheavals caused by industrialization, urbanization and the wretchedness of the working classes.", "Its major exponents in English included the artist and poet William Blake and poets William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley.", "The movement stressed the importance of \"nature\" in art and language, in contrast to \"monstrous\" machines and factories; the \"Dark satanic mills\" of Blake's poem \"And did those feet in ancient time\".", "Mary Shelley's ''Frankenstein'' reflected concerns that scientific progress might be two-edged.", "French Romanticism likewise was highly critical of industry." ], [ "See also", "* Proto-industrialization* Capitalist mode of production* Industrialization of China* Economic history of the United Kingdom* Fourth Industrial Revolution* History of capitalism* Industrial Age* Industrial society* Law of the handicap of a head start – Dialectics of progress* Machine Age* ''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism''* Steam* Textile manufacture during the British Industrial Revolution, a good description of the early industrial revolution" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "===Further reading===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * .", "Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois, ().", "* * * * * * * * * * * ===Historiography===* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Industrial Revolution* BBC History Home Page: Industrial Revolution* National Museum of Science and Industry website: machines and personalities* Factory Workers in the Industrial Revolution** ''History.com'': The Industrial Revolution – articles, videos, pictures, and facts * \"The Day the World Took Off\" Six-part video series from the University of Cambridge tracing the question \"Why did the Industrial Revolution begin when and where it did.\"" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "International Court of Justice" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''International Court of Justice''' ('''ICJ'''; , '''CIJ'''), also called the '''World Court''', is the only international court that adjudicates general disputes between nations, and gives advisory opinions on international legal issues.", "It is one of the six organs of the United Nations (UN), and is located in The Hague, Netherlands.The ICJ is the successor of the Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ), which was established in 1920 by the League of Nations.", "After the Second World War, the League and the PCIJ were replaced by the United Nations and ICJ, respectively.", "The Statute of the ICJ, which sets forth its purpose and structure, draws heavily from that of its predecessor, whose decisions remain valid.", "All member states of the UN are party to the ICJ Statute and may initiate contentious legal cases; however, advisory proceedings may be submitted only by certain UN organs and agencies.The ICJ consists of a panel of 15 judges elected by the UN General Assembly and Security Council for nine-year terms.", "No more than one judge of each nationality may be represented on court at the same time, and judges collectively must reflect the principal civilizations and legal systems of the world.", "Seated in the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands, the ICJ is the only principal UN organ not located in New York City.", "Its official working languages are English and French.Since the entry of its first case on 22 May 1947, the ICJ has entertained 191 cases through 13 November 2023.Pursuant to Article 59 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, the court’s rulings and opinions are binding on the parties with respect to the particular case ruled on by the court." ], [ "History", "The first permanent institution established for the purpose of settling international disputes was the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA), which was created by the Hague Peace Conference of 1899.Initiated by the Russian Tsar Nicholas II, the conference involved all the world's major powers, as well as several smaller states, and resulted in the first multilateral treaties concerned with the conduct of warfare.", "Among these was the ''Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes'', which set forth the institutional and procedural framework for arbitral proceedings, which would take place in The Hague, Netherlands.", "Although the proceedings would be supported by a permanent bureau—whose functions would be equivalent to that of a secretariat or court registry—the arbitrators would be appointed by the disputing states from a larger pool provided by each member of the convention.", "The PCA was established in 1900 and began proceedings in 1902.A second Hague Peace Conference in 1907, which involved most of the world's sovereign states, revised the convention and enhanced the rules governing arbitral proceedings before the PCA.", "During this conference, the United States, Great Britain and Germany submitted a joint proposal for a permanent court whose judges would serve full-time.", "As the delegates could not agree as to how the judges would be selected, the matter was temporarily shelved pending an agreement to be adopted at a later convention.The Hague Peace Conferences, and the ideas that emerged therefrom, influenced the creation of the Central American Court of Justice, which was established in 1908 as one of the earliest regional judicial bodies.", "Various plans and proposals were made between 1911 and 1919 for the establishment of an international judicial tribunal, which would not be realized in the formation of a new international system following the First World War.=== The Permanent Court of International Justice ===The unprecedented bloodshed of the First World War led to the creation of the League of Nations, established by the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 as the first worldwide intergovernmental organization aimed at maintaining peace and collective security.", "Article 14 League's Covenant called for the establishment of a Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ), which would be responsible for adjudicating any international dispute submitted to it by the contesting parties, as well as to provide an advisory opinion upon any dispute or question referred to it by the League of Nations.In December 1920, following several drafts and debates, the Assembly of the league unanimously adopted the statute of the PCIJ, which was signed and ratified the following year by a majority of members.", "Among other things, the new Statute resolved the contentious issues of selecting judges by providing that the judges be elected by both the council and the Assembly of the league concurrently but independently.", "The makeup of the PCIJ would reflect the \"main forms of civilization and the principal legal systems of the world\".", "The PCIJ would be permanently placed at the Peace Palace in The Hague, alongside Permanent Court of Arbitration.The PCIJ represented a major innovation in international jurisprudence in several ways:* Unlike previous international arbitral tribunals, it was a permanent body governed by its statutory provisions and rules of procedure* It had a permanent registry that served as a liaison with governments and international bodies;* Its proceedings were largely public, including pleadings, oral arguments, and all documentary evidence;* It was accessible to all states and could be declared by states to have compulsory jurisdiction over disputes; * The PCIJ Statute was the first to list sources of law it would draw upon, which in turn became sources of international law* Judges were more representative of the world and its legal systems than any prior international judicial body.", "* As a permanent body, the PCIJ would, over time, make a series of decisions and rulings that would develop international lawUnlike the ICJ, the PCIJ was not part of the league, nor were members of the league automatically a party to its Statute.", "The United States, which played a key role in both the second Hague Peace Conference and the Paris Peace Conference, was notably not a member of the league.", "However, several of its nationals served as judges of the court.From its first session in 1922 until 1940, the PCIJ dealt with 29 interstate disputes and issued 27 advisory opinions.", "The court's widespread acceptance was reflected by the fact that several hundred international treaties and agreements conferred jurisdiction upon it over specified categories of disputes.", "In addition to helping resolve several serious international disputes, the PCIJ helped clarify several ambiguities in international law that contributed to its development.The United States played a major role in setting up the World Court but never joined.", "Presidents Wilson, Harding, Coolidge, Hoover, and Roosevelt all supported membership, but it was impossible to get a two-thirds majority in the Senate for a treaty.=== Establishment of the International Court of Justice ===Following a peak of activity in 1933, the PCIJ began to decline in its activities due to the growing international tension and isolationism that characterized the era.", "The Second World War effectively put an end to the court, which held its last public session in December 1939 and issued its last orders in February 1940.In 1942 the United States and United Kingdom jointly declared support for establishing or re-establishing an international court after the war, and in 1943, the U.K. chaired a panel of jurists from around the world, the \"Inter-Allied Committee\", to discuss the matter.", "Its 1944 report recommended that:* The statute of any new international court should be based on that of the PCIJ;* The new court should retain an advisory jurisdiction;* Acceptance of the new court's jurisdiction should be voluntary;* The court should deal only with judicial and not political mattersSeveral months later, a conference of the major Allied Powers—China, the USSR, the U.K., and the U.S.—issued a joint declaration recognizing the necessity \"of establishing at the earliest practicable date a general international organization, based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all peace-loving States, and open to membership by all such States, large and small, for the maintenance of international peace and security\".The following Allied conference at Dumbarton Oaks, in the United States, published a proposal in October 1944 that called for the establishment of an intergovernmental organization that would include an international court.", "A meeting was subsequently convened in Washington, D.C., in April 1945, involving 44 jurists from around the world to draft a statute for the proposed court.", "The draft statute was substantially similar to that of the PCIJ, and it was questioned whether a new court should even be created.", "During the San Francisco Conference, which took place from 25 April to 26 June 1945 and involved 50 countries, it was decided that an entirely new court should be established as a principal organ of the new United Nations.", "The statute of this court would form an integral part of the United Nations Charter, which, to maintain continuity, expressly held that the Statute of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) was based upon that of the PCIJ.Consequently, the PCIJ convened for the last time in October 1945 and resolved to transfer its archives to its successor, which would take its place at the Peace Palace.", "The judges of the PCIJ all resigned on 31 January 1946, with the election of the first members of the ICJ taking place the following February at the First Session of the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council.", "In April 1946, the PCIJ was formally dissolved, and the ICJ, in its first meeting, was elected President José Gustavo Guerrero of El Salvador, who had served as the last president of the PCIJ.", "The court also appointed members of its Registry, mainly drawn from that of the PCIJ, and held an inaugural public sitting later that month.The first case was submitted in May 1947 by the United Kingdom against Albania concerning incidents in the Corfu Channel." ], [ "Activities", "The Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands, seat of the ICJEstablished in 1945 by the UN Charter, the court began work in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice.", "The Statute of the International Court of Justice, similar to that of its predecessor, is the main constitutional document constituting and regulating the court.The court's workload covers a wide range of judicial activity.", "After the court ruled that the United States's covert war against Nicaragua was in violation of international law (''Nicaragua v. United States''), the United States withdrew from compulsory jurisdiction in 1986 to accept the court's jurisdiction only on a discretionary basis.", "Chapter XIV of the United Nations Charter authorizes the UN Security Council to enforce Court rulings.", "However, such enforcement is subject to the veto power of the five permanent members of the council, which the United States used in the ''Nicaragua'' case." ], [ "Composition", "The ICJ is composed of fifteen judges elected to nine-year terms by the UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council from a list of people nominated by the national groups in the Permanent Court of Arbitration.", "The election process is set out in Articles 4–19 of the ICJ Statute.", "Elections are staggered, with five judges elected every three years to ensure continuity within the court.", "Should a judge die in office, the practice has generally been to elect a judge in a special election to complete the term.", "Historically, deceased judges have been replaced by judges from the same region, though not —as often wrongly asserted— necessarily from the same nationality.", "Article 3 states that no two judges may be nationals of the same country.", "According to Article 9, the membership of the court is supposed to represent the \"main forms of civilization and of the principal legal systems of the world\".", "This has been interpreted to include common law, civil law, socialist law, and Islamic law, while the precise meaning of \"main forms of civilization\" is contested.There is an informal understanding that the seats will be distributed by geographic regions so that there are five seats for Western countries, three for African states (including one judge of Francophone civil law, one of Anglophone common law and one Arab), two for Eastern European states, three for Asian states and two for Latin American and Caribbean states.", "For most of the court's history, the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council (France, USSR, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States) have always had a judge serving, thereby occupying three of the Western seats, one of the Asian seats and one of the Eastern European seats.", "Exceptions have been China not having a judge on the court from 1967 to 1985, during which time it did not put forward a candidate, and British judge Sir Christopher Greenwood being withdrawn as a candidate for election for a second nine-year term on the bench in 2017, leaving no judges from the United Kingdom on the court.", "Greenwood had been supported by the UN Security Council but failed to get a majority in the UN General Assembly.", "Indian judge Dalveer Bhandari took the seat instead.Article 6 of the Statute provides that all judges should be \"elected regardless of their nationality among persons of high moral character\" who are either qualified for the highest judicial office in their home states or known as lawyers with sufficient competence in international law.", "Judicial independence is dealt with specifically in Articles 16–18.Judges of the International Court of Justice are entitled to the style of His/Her Excellency.", "Judges are not able to hold any other post or act as counsel.", "In practice, members of the court have their own interpretation of these rules and many have chosen to remain involved in outside arbitration and hold professional posts as long as there is no conflict of interest.", "Former judge Bruno Simma and current judge Georg Nolte have acknowledged that moonlighting should be restricted.", "A judge can be dismissed only by a unanimous vote of the other members of the court.", "Despite these provisions, the independence of ICJ judges has been questioned.", "For example, during the ''Nicaragua'' case, the United States issued a communiqué suggesting that it could not present sensitive material to the court because of the presence of judges from the Soviet bloc.Judges may deliver joint judgments or give their own separate opinions.", "Decisions and advisory opinions are by majority, and, in the event of an equal division, the president's vote becomes decisive, which occurred in the ''Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflict'' (Opinion requested by WHO), 1996 ICJ Reports 66.Judges may also deliver separate dissenting opinions.In its 77 years of history, only five women have been elected to the Court, with former UN Special Rapporteur Philip Alston calling for states to take seriously questions of representation in the bench.In 2023, judges elected to take office from 2024 did not include a Russian member, so for the first time, from 2024 there will be no member from the Commonwealth of Independent States.", "This is also the first time that Russia would not have a judge on the ICJ, even going back to its predecessor, the Soviet Union.===''Ad hoc'' judges===Article 31 of the statute sets out a procedure whereby ''ad hoc'' judges sit on contentious cases before the court.", "The system allows any party to a contentious case (if it otherwise does not have one of that party's nationals sitting on the court) to select one additional person to sit as a judge on that case only.", "It is thus possible that as many as seventeen judges may sit on one case.The system may seem strange when compared with domestic court processes, but its purpose is to encourage states to submit cases.", "For example, if a state knows that it will have a judicial officer who can participate in deliberation and offer other judges local knowledge and an understanding of the state's perspective, it may be more willing to submit to the jurisdiction of the court.", "Although this system does not sit well with the judicial nature of the body, it is usually of little practical consequence.", "''Ad hoc'' judges usually (but not always) vote in favour of the state that appointed them and thus cancel each other out.===Chambers===Generally, the court sits as full bench, but in the last fifteen years, it has on occasion sat as a chamber.", "Articles 26–29 of the statute allow the court to form smaller chambers, usually 3 or 5 judges, to hear cases.", "Two types of chambers are contemplated by Article 26: firstly, chambers for special categories of cases, and second, the formation of ''ad hoc'' chambers to hear particular disputes.", "In 1993, a special chamber was established, under Article 26(1) of the ICJ statute, to deal specifically with environmental matters (although it has never been used).", "''Ad hoc'' chambers are more frequently convened.", "For example, chambers were used to hear the ''Gulf of Maine Case'' (Canada/US).", "In that case, the parties made clear they would withdraw the case unless the court appointed judges to the chamber acceptable to the parties.", "Judgments of chambers may have either less authority than full Court judgments or diminish the proper interpretation of universal international law informed by a variety of cultural and legal perspectives.", "On the other hand, the use of chambers might encourage greater recourse to the court and thus enhance international dispute resolution.===Current composition===, the composition of the court is as follows: Name Nationality Position Term began Term ends Abdulqawi Yusuf Member 2009 2027 Xue Hanqin Member 2010 2030 Peter Tomka Member 2003 2030 Ronny Abraham Member 2005 2027 Mohamed Bennouna Member 2006 2024 Leonardo Nemer Caldeira Brant ''(Replaced Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade)'' Member 2022 2027 Joan Donoghue President 2010 2024 Julia Sebutinde Member 2012 2030 Dalveer Bhandari Member 2012 2027 Patrick Lipton Robinson Member 2015 2024 Hilary Charlesworth ''(Replaced James Crawford'') Member 2021 2024 Kirill Gevorgian Vice-president 2015 2024 Nawaf Salam Member 2018 2027 Yuji Iwasawa Member 2018 2030 Georg Nolte Member 2021 2030 Philippe Gautier Registrar 2019 2026 For the 2021–2024 term===Presidents=== # President Start End Country 1 José Gustavo Guerrero 1946 1949 2 Jules Basdevant 1949 1952 3 Arnold McNair 1952 1955 4 Green Hackworth 1955 1958 5 Helge Klæstad 1958 1961 6 Bohdan Winiarski 1961 1964 7 Percy Spender 1964 1967 8 José Bustamante y Rivero 1967 1970 9 Muhammad Zafarullah Khan 1970 1973 10 Manfred Lachs 1973 1976 11 Eduardo Jiménez de Aréchaga 1976 1979 12 Humphrey Waldock 1979 1981 13 Taslim Elias 1982 1985 14 Nagendra Singh 1985 1988 15 José Ruda 1988 1991 16 Robert Jennings 1991 1994 17 Mohammed Bedjaoui 1994 1997 18 Stephen Schwebel 1997 2000 19 Gilbert Guillaume 2000 2003 20 Shi Jiuyong 2003 2006 21 Rosalyn Higgins 2006 2009 22 Hisashi Owada 2009 2012 23 Peter Tomka 2012 2015 24 Ronny Abraham 2015 2018 25 Abdulqawi Yusuf 2018 2021 26 Joan Donoghue 2021 2024 27Nawaf Salam2024present" ], [ "Jurisdiction", "As stated in Article 93 of the UN Charter, all UN members are automatically parties to the court's statute.", "Non-UN members may also become parties to the court's statute under the Article 93(2) procedure, which was used by Switzerland in 1948 and Nauru in 1988, prior to either joining the UN.", "Once a state is a party to the court's statute, it is entitled to participate in cases before the court.", "However, being a party to the statute does not automatically give the court jurisdiction over disputes involving those parties.", "The issue of jurisdiction is considered in the three types of ICJ cases: contentious issues, incidental jurisdiction, and advisory opinions.===Contentious issues===First gathering after Second World War, Dutch newsreel from 1946In contentious cases (adversarial proceedings seeking to settle a dispute), the ICJ produces a binding ruling between states that agree to submit to the ruling of the court.", "Only states may be parties in contentious cases; individuals, corporations, component parts of a federal state, NGOs, UN organs, and self-determination groups are excluded from direct participation, although the court may receive information from public international organizations.", "However, this does not preclude non-state interests from being the subject of proceedings; for example, a state may bring a case on behalf of one of its nationals or corporations, such as in matters concerning diplomatic protection.Jurisdiction is often a crucial question for the court in contentious cases.", "The key principle is that the ICJ has jurisdiction only on the basis of consent.", "Under Article 36, there are four foundations for the court's jurisdiction:# ''Compromis'' or \"special agreement\", in which parties provide explicit consent to the court's jurisdiction by referring cases to it.", "While not true compulsory jurisdiction, this is perhaps the most effective jurisdictional basis, because the parties concerned have a desire for the dispute to be resolved by the court, and are thus more likely to comply with the court's judgment.# Compromissory clauses in a binding treaty.", "Most modern treaties contain such clauses to provide for dispute resolution by the ICJ.", "Cases founded on compromissory clauses have not been as effective as cases founded on special agreement, since a state may have no interest in having the matter examined by the court and may refuse to comply with a judgment.", "For example, during the Iran hostage crisis, Iran refused to participate in a case brought by the US based on a compromissory clause contained in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations and did not comply with the judgment.", "Since the 1970s, the use of such clauses has declined; many modern treaties set out their own dispute resolution regime, often based on forms of arbitration.# Optional clause declarations accepting the court's jurisdiction.", "Also known as Article 36(2) jurisdiction, it is sometimes misleadingly labeled \"compulsory\", though such declarations are voluntary.", "Many such declarations contain reservations that exclude from jurisdiction certain types of disputes (''ratione materia'').", "The principle of reciprocity may further limit jurisdiction, as Article 36(2) holds that such declaration may be made \"in relation to any other State accepting the same obligation...\".", "As of January 2018, seventy-four states had a declaration in force, up from sixty-six in February 2011; of the permanent Security Council members, only the United Kingdom has a declaration.", "In the court's early years, most declarations were made by industrialized countries.", "Since the 1986 ''Nicaragua'' case, declarations made by developing countries have increased, reflecting a growing confidence in the court.", "However, even those industrialized countries that have invoked optional declarations have sometimes increased exclusions or rescinded them altogether.", "Notable examples include the United States in the ''Nicaragua'' case, and Australia, which modified its declaration in 2002 to exclude disputes on maritime boundaries, most likely to prevent an impending challenge from East Timor, which gained independence two months later.# Article 36(5) provides for jurisdiction on the basis of declarations made under the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice.", "Article 37 similarly transfers jurisdiction under any compromissory clause in a treaty that gave jurisdiction to the PCIJ.Additionally, the court may have jurisdiction on the basis of tacit consent (''forum prorogatum'').", "In the absence of clear jurisdiction under Article 36, jurisdiction is established if the respondent accepts ICJ jurisdiction explicitly or simply pleads on the merits.", "This arose in the 1949 Corfu Channel Case (U.K. v. Albania), in which the court held that a letter from Albania stating that it submitted to the jurisdiction of the ICJ was sufficient to grant the court jurisdiction.=== Incidental jurisdiction ===Until rendering a final judgment, the court has competence to order interim measures for the protection of the rights of a party to a dispute.", "One or both parties to a dispute may apply the ICJ for issuing interim measures.", "In the ''Frontier Dispute'' Case, both parties to the dispute, Burkina Faso and Mali, submitted an application to the court to indicate interim measures.", "Incidental jurisdiction of the court derives from the Article 41 of its Statute.", "Similar to the final judgment, the order for interim measures of the court are binding on state parties to the dispute.", "The ICJ has competence to indicate interim measures only if the ''prima facie'' jurisdiction is satisfied.===Advisory opinions===Unilateral Declaration of Independence by the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo\" An advisory opinion is a function of the court open only to specified United Nations bodies and agencies.", "The UN Charter grants the General Assembly or the Security Council the power to request the court to issue an advisory opinion on any legal question.", "Organs of the UN other than the General Assembly or the Security Council require the General Assembly's authorization to request an advisory opinion of the ICJ.", "These organs of the UN only request an advisory opinion regarding the matters that fall within the scope of their activities.", "On receiving a request, the court decides which states and organizations might provide useful information and gives them an opportunity to present written or oral statements.", "Advisory opinions were intended as a means by which UN agencies could seek the court's help in deciding complex legal issues that might fall under their respective mandates.In principle, the court's advisory opinions are only consultative in character but they are influential and widely respected.", "Certain instruments or regulations can provide in advance that the advisory opinion shall be specifically binding on particular agencies or states, but inherently they are non-binding under the Statute of the court.", "This non-binding character does not mean that advisory opinions are without legal effect, because the legal reasoning embodied in them reflects the court's authoritative views on important issues of international law.", "In arriving at them, the court follows essentially the same rules and procedures that govern its binding judgments delivered in contentious cases submitted to it by sovereign states.An advisory opinion derives its status and authority from the fact that it is the official pronouncement of the principal judicial organ of the United Nations.Advisory opinions have often been controversial because the questions asked are controversial or the case was pursued as an indirect way of bringing what is really a contentious case before the court.", "Examples of advisory opinions can be found in the section advisory opinions in the List of International Court of Justice cases article.", "One such well-known advisory opinion is the ''Nuclear Weapons Case''." ], [ "Examples of contentious cases", "South Africa's case alleging Israel's violation of the Genocide Convention in Gaza, the Hague, 12 January 2024* 1980: A complaint by the United States that Iran was detaining American diplomats in Tehran in violation of international law.", "* 1982: A dispute between Tunisia and Libya over the delimitation of the continental shelf between them.", "* 1989: A complaint by Iran after the shooting down of Iran Air Flight 655 by a United States Navy guided missile cruiser.", "* 1984: A dispute over the course of the maritime boundary dividing the U.S. and Canada in the Gulf of Maine area.", "* 1999: A complaint by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia against the member states of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization regarding their actions in the Kosovo War.", "This was denied on 15 December 2004 because of lack of jurisdiction, the FRY not being a party to the ICJ statute at the time it made the application.", "* 2011: A complaint by the Republic of North Macedonia (former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia) that Greece's vetoing of its accession to NATO violates the Interim Accord of 13 September 1995 between the two countries.", "The complaint was decided in favour of North Macedonia on 5 December 2011.", "* 2005: A complaint by the Democratic Republic of the Congo that its sovereignty had been violated by Uganda and that the DRC had lost billions of dollars worth of resources was decided in favour of the DRC.", "* 2017: A complaint by the Republic of India regarding a death penalty verdict against an Indian citizen, Kulbhushan Jadhav, by a Pakistani military court (based on alleged espionage and subversive activities).", "* 2022: A complaint by Ukraine against Russia for violating the 1948 Genocide Convention, to which both Ukraine and Russia are parties, by falsely claiming genocide as a pretext for invading Ukraine.", "The International Association of Genocide Scholars supported Ukraine, who asked for expedited provisional measures directing Russia to halt its offensive.", "Russian representatives refused to appear.", "On 16 March, the ICJ ordered Russia to \"immediately suspend the military operations\", on a 13–2 vote with the Russian and Chinese judges in opposition.", "The order is binding on Russia, but the ICJ cannot enforce it." ], [ "Relationship with UN Security Council", "Article 94 establishes the duty of all UN members to comply with decisions of the court involving them.", "If parties do not comply, the issue may be taken before the Security Council for enforcement action.", "There are obvious problems with such a method of enforcement.", "If the judgment is against one of the five permanent members of the Security Council or its allies, any resolution on enforcement could then be vetoed by that member.", "That occurred, for example, after the ''Nicaragua'' case, when Nicaragua brought the issue of the United States' noncompliance with the court's decision before the Security Council.", "Furthermore, if the Security Council refuses to enforce a judgment against any other state, there is no method of forcing the state to comply.", "Furthermore, the most effective form to take action for the Security Council, coercive action under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, can be justified only if international peace and security are at stake.", "The Security Council has never done that so far.The relationship between the ICJ and the Security Council, and the separation of their powers, was considered by the court in 1992 in the ''Pan Am'' case.", "The court had to consider an application from Libya for the order of provisional measures of protection to safeguard its rights, which, it alleged, were being infringed by the threat of economic sanctions by the United Kingdom and United States.", "The problem was that these sanctions had been authorized by the Security Council, which resulted in a potential conflict between the Chapter VII functions of the Security Council and the judicial function of the court.", "The court decided, by eleven votes to five, that it could not order the requested provisional measures because the rights claimed by Libya, even if legitimate under the 1971 Montreal Convention, could not be ''prima facie'' regarded as appropriate since the action was ordered by the Security Council.", "In accordance with Article 103 of the UN Charter, obligations under the Charter took precedence over other treaty obligations.", "Nevertheless, the court declared the application admissible in 1998.A decision on the merits has not been given since the parties (United Kingdom, United States, and Libya) settled the case out of court in 2003.There was a marked reluctance on the part of a majority of the court to become involved in a dispute in such a way as to bring it potentially into conflict with the Council.", "The court stated in the ''Nicaragua'' case that there is no necessary inconsistency between action by the Security Council and adjudication by the ICJ.", "However, when there is room for conflict, the balance appears to be in favour of the Security Council.Should either party fail \"to perform the obligations incumbent upon it under a judgment rendered by the Court\", the Security Council may be called upon to \"make recommendations or decide upon measures\" if the Security Council deems such actions necessary.", "In practice, the court's powers have been limited by the unwillingness of the losing party to abide by the court's ruling and by the Security Council's unwillingness to impose consequences.", "However, in theory, \"so far as the parties to the case are concerned, a judgment of the Court is binding, final and without appeal\", and \"by signing the Charter, a State Member of the United Nations undertakes to comply with any decision of the International Court of Justice in a case to which it is a party.", "\"For example, the United States had previously accepted the court's compulsory jurisdiction upon its creation in 1946 but in 1984, after ''Nicaragua v. United States'', withdrew its acceptance following the court's judgment that called on the US to \"cease and to refrain\" from the \"unlawful use of force\" against the government of Nicaragua.", "The court ruled (with only the American judge dissenting) that the United States was \"in breach of its obligation under the Treaty of Friendship with Nicaragua not to use force against Nicaragua\" and ordered the United States to pay war reparations." ], [ "Law applied", "When deciding cases, the court applies international law as summarized in Article 38 of the ICJ Statute, which provides that in arriving at its decisions the court shall apply international conventions, international custom and the \"general principles of law recognized by civilized nations.\"", "It may also refer to academic writing (\"the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations\") and previous judicial decisions to help interpret the law although the court is not formally bound by its previous decisions under the doctrine of ''stare decisis''.", "Article 59 makes clear that the common law notion of precedent or ''stare decisis'' does not apply to the decisions of the ICJ.", "The court's decision binds only the parties to that particular controversy.", "Under 38(1)(d), however, the court may consider its own previous decisions and frequently cites them.If the parties agree, they may also grant the court the liberty to decide ''ex aequo et bono'' (\"out of equality, and for the good\"), granting the ICJ the freedom to make an equitable decision based on what is fair under the circumstances.", "That provision has not been used in the court's history.", "So far, the International Court of Justice has dealt with about 180 cases." ], [ "Procedure", "The ICJ is vested with the power to make its own rules.", "Court procedure is set out in the ''Rules of Court of the International Court of Justice 1978'' (as amended on 29 September 2005).Cases before the ICJ will follow a standard pattern.", "The case is lodged by the applicant, which files a written memorial setting out the basis of the court's jurisdiction and the merits of its claim.", "The respondent may accept the court's jurisdiction and file its own memorial on the merits of the case.===Preliminary objections===A respondent that does not wish to submit to the jurisdiction of the court may raise preliminary objections.", "Any such objections must be ruled upon before the court can address the merits of the applicant's claim.", "Often, a separate public hearing is held on the preliminary objections and the court will render a judgment.", "Respondents normally file preliminary objections to the jurisdiction of the court and/or the admissibility of the case.", "Inadmissibility refers to a range of arguments about factors the court should take into account in deciding jurisdiction, such as the fact that the issue is not justiciable or that it is not a \"legal dispute\".In addition, objections may be made because all necessary parties are not before the court.", "If the case necessarily requires the court to rule on the rights and obligations of a state that has not consented to the court's jurisdiction, the court does not proceed to issue a judgment on the merits.If the court decides it has jurisdiction and the case is admissible, the respondent then is required to file a Memorial addressing the merits of the applicant's claim.", "Once all written arguments are filed, the court holds a public hearing on the merits.Once a case has been filed, any party (usually the applicant) may seek an order from the court to protect the ''status quo'' pending the hearing of the case.", "Such orders are known as Provisional (or Interim) Measures and are analogous to interlocutory injunctions in United States law.", "Article 41 of the statute allows the court to make such orders.", "The court must be satisfied to have ''prima facie'' jurisdiction to hear the merits of the case before it grants provisional measures.===Applications to intervene===In cases in which a third state's interests are affected, that state may be permitted to intervene in the case and participate as a full party.", "Under Article 62, a state \"with an interest of a legal nature\" may apply; however, it is within the court's discretion whether or not to allow the intervention.", "Intervention applications are rare, and the first successful application occurred only in 1991.===Judgment and remedies===Once deliberation has taken place, the court issues a majority opinion.", "Individual judges may issue concurring opinions (if they agree with the outcome reached in the judgment of the court but differ in their reasoning) or dissenting opinions (if they disagree with the majority).", "No appeal is possible, but any party may ask for the court to clarify if there is a dispute as to the meaning or scope of the court's judgment." ], [ "Criticisms", "The International Court has been criticized with respect to its rulings, its procedures, and its authority.", "As with criticisms of the United Nations, many critics and opponents of the court refer to the general authority assigned to the body by member states through its Charter, rather than to specific problems with the composition of judges or their rulings.", "Major criticisms include the following:* \"Compulsory\" jurisdiction is limited to cases where both parties have agreed to submit to its decision, and so instances of aggression tend to be automatically escalated to and adjudicated by the Security Council.", "ICJ rulings are legally binding on states but not enforceable without their approval or compliance.", "* The International Court of Justice cannot hear the cases of organizations, private enterprises, and individuals.", "Furthermore, UN agencies are unable to raise a case except in the circumstance of a non-binding advisory opinion.", "The national states are the only ones who are able to bring cases for and act as defendants for these individuals.", "As a result, victims of war crimes, crimes against humanity and minority groups may not have the support of their national state.", "* Other existing international thematic courts, such as the ICC, are not under the umbrella of the International Court.", "Unlike ICJ, international thematic courts like ICC work independently from United Nations.", "Such dualistic structure between various international courts sometimes makes it hard for the courts to engage in effective and collective jurisdiction.", "* The International Court does not enjoy a full separation of powers, with permanent members of the Security Council being able to veto enforcement of cases, even those to which they consented to be bound.", "Because the jurisdiction does not have binding force itself, in many cases, the instances of aggression are adjudicated by Security Council by adopting a resolution, etc.", "There is, therefore, a likelihood for the permanent member states of Security Council to avoid the legal responsibility brought up by International Court of Justice, as shown in the example of ''Nicaragua v. United States''.", "* The court has been accused of judicial parsimony, with its rulings tending to dismiss submissions of parties on jurisdictional grounds and not resolving the underlying dispute between them." ], [ "See also", "* International Criminal Court* International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda* International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia* International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea* List of treaties that confer jurisdiction on the International Court of Justice* Provisional measure of protection* Supranational aspects of international organizations* Universal jurisdiction" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Accinelli, R. D. \"Peace Through Law: The United States and the World Court, 1923–1935\".", "''Historical Papers / Communications historiques'', 7#1 (1972) 247–261..* Bowett, D W. The International court of justice : process, practice and procedure (British Institute of International and Comparative Law: London, 1997).", "* Creamer, Cosette & Godzmirka, Zuzanna.", "\"The Job Market for Justice: Screening and Selecting Candidates for the International Court of Justice\", Leiden Journal of International Law (2017).", "* Dunne, Michael.", "\"Isolationism of a Kind: Two Generations of World Court Historiography in the United States\", ''Journal of American Studies'' (1987) 21#3 pp 327–351.", "* Kahn, Gilbert N. \"Presidential Passivity on a Nonsalient Issue: President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the 1935 World Court Fight.\"", "''Diplomatic History'' 4.2 (1980): 137–160.", "* Kolb, Robert, The International Court of Justice (Hart Publishing: Oxford, 2013).", "* Patterson, David S. \"The United States and the origins of the world court\".", "''Political Science Quarterly'' 91.2 (1976): 279–295..* Rosenne, S., ''Rosenne's the world court: what it is and how it works'' (6th ed.).", "Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2003.", "* Van Der Wolf W. & De Ruiter D., \"The International Court of Justice: Facts and Documents About the History and Work of the Court\" (''International Courts Association, 2011'')* * Yee, Sienho.", "\"Article 38 of the ICJ Statute and Applicable Law: Selected Issues in Recent Cases\", ''Journal of International Dispute Settlement'' 7 (2016), 472–498.", "* Zimmermann, Andreas; Christian Tomuschat, Karin Oellers-Frahm & Christian J. Tams (eds.", "), ''The Statute of the International Court of Justice: A Commentary'' (2nd.", "ed.", "October 2012, Oxford University Press)." ], [ "External links", "* Official site* ICJ Multimedia Gallery (photos, videos, webstreaming)* List of cases ruled upon by the ICJ since its creation in 1946* Peace Palace Library – ICJ Research Guide * The Statute of the International Court of Justice on the United Nations AVL: summary of the procedural history, list of selected preparatory documents and audiovisual material related to the negotiations and adoption of the Statute.", "* International Criminal Court : See also, a tribunal to prosecute individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression* CIJ ICJ: International Court of Justice on Youtube===Lectures===* The ICJ in the Service of Peace and Justice, Conference organized on the Occasion of the Centenary of the Peace Palace* Lecture by Awn Shawkat Al-Khasawneh entitled \"Reflections on the Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice\" in the Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law* Lecture by Mohamed Bennouna entitled \"La Cour internationale de Justice, juge des souverainetés?\"", "in the Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law* Lecture by Philippe Couvreur entitled \"La Cour internationale de Justice\" in the Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law* Lecture by Vera Gowlland-Debbas entitled \"The International Court of Justice as the Principal Judicial Organ of the United Nations\" in the Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law* Lecture by Mariko Kawano entitled \"Some Salient Features of the Contemporary International Disputes in the Precedents of the International Court of Justice\" in the Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law* Lecture by Mariko Kawano entitled \"International Court of Justice and Disputes Involving the Interests of Third Parties to the Proceedings or the Common Interests of the International Community as a Whole or of the Community Established by a Convention\" in the Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law* Lecture by Edward McWhinney entitled \"Judicial Activism and the International Court of Justice\" in the Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law* Lecture by Alain Pellet entitled \"Conseil devant la Cour internationale de Justice\" in the Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law* Lecture by Jiuyong Shi entitled \"The Present and Future Role of the International Court of Justice in the Peaceful Settlement of International Disputes\" in the Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "ISBN" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''International Standard Book Number''' ('''ISBN''') is a numeric commercial book identifier that is intended to be unique.", "Publishers purchase or receive ISBNs from an affiliate of the International ISBN Agency.An ISBN is assigned to each separate edition and variation (except reprintings) of a publication.", "For example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book must each have a different ISBN.", "The ISBN is ten digits long if assigned before 2007, and thirteen digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007.The method of assigning an ISBN is nation-specific and varies between countries, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country.The initial ISBN identification format was devised in 1967, based upon the 9-digit '''Standard Book Numbering''' ('''SBN''') created in 1966.The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO 2108 (the 9-digit SBN code can be converted to a 10-digit ISBN by prefixing it with a zero).Privately published books sometimes appear without an ISBN.", "The International ISBN Agency sometimes assigns such books ISBNs on its own initiative.Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number (ISSN), identifies periodical publications such as magazines and newspapers.", "The International Standard Music Number (ISMN) covers musical scores." ], [ "{{anchor|SBN}}History", "The Standard Book Number (SBN) is a commercial system using nine-digit code numbers to identify books.", "In 1965, British bookseller and stationers WHSmith announced plans to implement a standard numbering system for its books.", "They hired consultants to work on their behalf, and the system was devised by Gordon Foster, emeritus professor of statistics at Trinity College Dublin.", "The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Technical Committee on Documentation sought to adapt the British SBN for international use.", "The ISBN identification format was conceived in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker (regarded as the \"Father of the ISBN\") and in 1968 in the United States by Emery Koltay (who later became director of the U.S. ISBN agency R. R. Bowker).The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the ISO and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO 2108.The United Kingdom continued to use the nine-digit SBN code until 1974.ISO has appointed the International ISBN Agency as the registration authority for ISBN worldwide and the ISBN Standard is developed under the control of ISO Technical Committee 46/Subcommittee 9 TC 46/SC 9.The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978.Total number of ISBN registrations.", "2020An SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit \"0\".", "For example, the second edition of ''Mr.", "J. G. Reeder Returns'', published by Hodder in 1965, has , where \"340\" indicates the publisher, \"01381\" is the serial number assigned by the publisher, and \"8\" is the check digit.", "By prefixing a zero, this can be converted to ; the check digit does not need to be re-calculated.", "Some publishers, such as Ballantine Books, would sometimes use 12-digit SBNs where the last three digits indicated the price of the book; for example, ''Woodstock Handmade Houses'' had a 12-digit Standard Book Number of 345-24223-8-595 (valid SBN: 345-24223-8, : 0-345-24223-8), and it cost .Since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained thirteen digits, a format that is compatible with \"Bookland\" European Article Numbers, which have 13 digits.The United-States, with 3.9 million registered ISBNs in 2020, was by far the biggest user of the ISBN identifier in 2020, followed by the Republic of Korea (329,582), Germany (284,000), China (263,066), the UK (188,553) and Indonesia (144,793).", "Lifetime ISBNs registered in the United States are over 39 millions in 2020." ], [ "Overview", "A separate ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation (except reprintings) of a publication.", "For example, an ebook, audiobook, paperback, and hardcover edition of the same book must each have a different ISBN assigned to it.", "The ISBN is thirteen digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, and ten digits long if assigned before 2007.An International Standard Book Number consists of four parts (if it is a 10-digit ISBN) or five parts (for a 13-digit ISBN).Section 5 of the International ISBN Agency's official user manual describes the structure of the 13-digit ISBN, as follows:The parts of a 10-digit ISBN and the corresponding EAN‑13 and barcode.", "Note the different check digits in each.", "The part of the EAN‑13 labeled \"EAN\" is the Bookland country code.# for a 13-digit ISBN, a prefix element – a ''GS1 prefix'': so far 978 or 979 have been made available by GS1,# the ''registration group element'' (language-sharing country group, individual country or territory),# the ''registrant'' element,# the ''publication element'', and# a ''checksum character'' or check digit.A 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts (''prefix element'', ''registration group'', ''registrant'', ''publication'' and ''check digit''), and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces.", "Separating the parts (''registration group'', ''registrant'', ''publication'' and ''check digit'') of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces.", "Figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits.=== Issuing process ===ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for that country or territory regardless of the publication language.", "The ranges of ISBNs assigned to any particular country are based on the publishing profile of the country concerned, and so the ranges will vary depending on the number of books and the number, type, and size of publishers that are active.", "Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture and thus may receive direct funding from the government to support their services.", "In other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded.A full directory of ISBN agencies is available on the International ISBN Agency website.", "A list for a few countries is given below:* Australia – Thorpe-Bowker* Brazil – The National Library of Brazil; (Up to 28 February 2020)* Brazil – Câmara Brasileira do Livro (From 1 March 2020)* Canada – English Library and Archives Canada, a government agency; French ;* Colombia – Cámara Colombiana del Libro, an NGO* Hong Kong – Books Registration Office (BRO), under the Hong Kong Public Libraries* Iceland – Landsbókasafn (National and University Library of Iceland)* India – The Raja Rammohun Roy National Agency for ISBN (Book Promotion and Copyright Division), under Department of Higher Education, a constituent of the Ministry of Human Resource Development* Israel – The Israel Center for Libraries* Italy – ''EDISER srl'', owned by ''Associazione Italiana Editori'' (Italian Publishers Association)* Kenya – National Library of Kenya* Lebanon – Lebanese ISBN Agency* Maldives – The National Bureau of Classification (NBC)* Malta – The National Book Council ()* Morocco – The National Library of Morocco* New Zealand – The National Library of New Zealand* Nigeria – National Library of Nigeria* Pakistan – National Library of Pakistan* Philippines – National Library of the Philippines* South Africa – National Library of South Africa* Spain – Spanish ISBN Agency – Agencia del ISBN* Turkey – General Directorate of Libraries and Publications, a branch of the Ministry of Culture* United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland – ''Nielsen Book Services Ltd'', part of Nielsen Holdings N.V.* United States – R. R. Bowker=== Registration group element ===The ISBN registration group element is a 1-to-5-digit number that is valid within a single prefix element (i.e.", "one of 978 or 979), and can be separated between hyphens, such as .", "Registration groups have primarily been allocated within the 978 prefix element.", "The single-digit registration groups within the 978-prefix element are: 0 or 1 for English-speaking countries; 2 for French-speaking countries; 3 for German-speaking countries; 4 for Japan; 5 for Russian-speaking countries; and 7 for People's Republic of China.", "Example 5-digit registration groups are 99936 and 99980, for Bhutan.", "The allocated registration groups are: 0–5, 600–631, 65, 7, 80–94, 950–989, 9910–9989, and 99901–99993.Books published in rare languages typically have longer group elements.Within the 979 prefix element, the registration group 0 is reserved for compatibility with International Standard Music Numbers (ISMNs), but such material is not actually assigned an ISBN.", "The registration groups within prefix element 979 that have been assigned are 8 for the United States of America, 10 for France, 11 for the Republic of Korea, and 12 for Italy.The original 9-digit standard book number (SBN) had no registration group identifier, but prefixing a zero to a 9-digit SBN creates a valid 10-digit ISBN.=== Registrant element ===The national ISBN agency assigns the registrant element (cf.", ":Category:ISBN agencies) and an accompanying series of ISBNs within that registrant element to the publisher; the publisher then allocates one of the ISBNs to each of its books.", "In most countries, a book publisher is not legally required to assign an ISBN, although most large bookstores only handle publications that have ISBNs assigned to them.The International ISBN Agency maintains the details of over one million ISBN prefixes and publishers in the Global Register of Publishers.", "This database is freely searchable over the internet.Publishers receive blocks of ISBNs, with larger blocks allotted to publishers expecting to need them; a small publisher may receive ISBNs of one or more digits for the registration group identifier, several digits for the registrant, and a single digit for the publication element.", "Once that block of ISBNs is used, the publisher may receive another block of ISBNs, with a different registrant element.", "Consequently, a publisher may have different allotted registrant elements.", "There also may be more than one registration group identifier used in a country.", "This might occur once all the registrant elements from a particular registration group have been allocated to publishers.By using variable block lengths, registration agencies are able to customise the allocations of ISBNs that they make to publishers.", "For example, a large publisher may be given a block of ISBNs where fewer digits are allocated for the registrant element and many digits are allocated for the publication element; likewise, countries publishing many titles have few allocated digits for the registration group identifier and many for the registrant and publication elements.", "Here are some sample codes, illustrating block length variations.", "ISBN Country or area Publisher 99921-58-10-7 Qatar NCCAH, Doha 9971-5-0210-0 Singapore World Scientific 960-425-059-0 Greece Sigma Publications 80-902734-1-6 Czech Republic; Slovakia Taita Publishers 85-359-0277-5 Brazil Companhia das Letras 1-84356-028-3 English-speaking area Simon Wallenberg Press 0-684-84328-5 English-speaking area Scribner 0-8044-2957-X English-speaking area Frederick Ungar 0-85131-041-9 English-speaking area J.", "A. Allen & Co. 93-86954-21-4 English-speaking area Edupedia Publications Pvt Ltd. 0-943396-04-2 English-speaking area Willmann–Bell 0-9752298-0-X English-speaking area KT Publishing==== English language pattern ====English-language registration group elements are 0 and 1 (2 of more than 220 registration group elements).", "These two registration group elements are divided into registrant elements in a systematic pattern, which allows their length to be determined, as follows: Publicationelement length 0 – Registration group element 1 – Registration group element TotalRegistrants From To Registrants From To Registrants 6 digits 0-00-xxxxxx-x 0-19-xxxxxx-x 20 1-01-xxxxxx-x1-05-xxxxxx-x 1-02-xxxxxx-x1-05-xxxxxx-x 3 23 5 digits 0-200-xxxxx-x0-229-xxxxx-x0-370-xxxxx-x0-640-xxxxx-x0-646-xxxxx-x0-649-xxxxx-x0-656-xxxxx-x 0-227-xxxxx-x0-368-xxxxx-x0-638-xxxxx-x0-644-xxxxx-x0-647-xxxxx-x0-654-xxxxx-x0-699-xxxxx-x 494 1-000-xxxxx-x1-030-xxxxx-x1-040-xxxxx-x1-100-xxxxx-x1-714-xxxxx-x 1-009-xxxxx-x1-034-xxxxx-x1-049-xxxxx-x1-397-xxxxx-x1-716-xxxxx-x 326 820 4 digits 0-2280-xxxx-x0-3690-xxxx-x0-6390-xxxx-x0-6550-xxxx-x0-7000-xxxx-x 0-2289-xxxx-x0-3699-xxxx-x0-6397-xxxx-x0-6559-xxxx-x0-8499-xxxx-x 1,538 1-0350-xxxx-x1-0700-xxxx-x1-3980-xxxx-x1-6500-xxxx-x1-6860-xxxx-x1-7170-xxxx-x1-7620-xxxx-x1-7900-xxxx-x1-8672-xxxx-x1-9730-xxxx-x 1-0399-xxxx-x1-0999-xxxx-x1-5499-xxxx-x1-6799-xxxx-x1-7139-xxxx-x1-7319-xxxx-x1-7634-xxxx-x1-7999-xxxx-x1-8675-xxxx-x1-9877-xxxx-x 2,867 4,405 3 digits 0-85000-xxx-x 0-89999-xxx-x 5,000 1-55000-xxx-x1-68000-xxx-x1-74000-xxx-x1-76500-xxx-x1-77540-xxx-x1-77650-xxx-x1-77830-xxx-x1-80000-xxx-x1-83850-xxx-x1-86760-xxx-x 1-64999-xxx-x1-68599-xxx-x1-76199-xxx-x1-77499-xxx-x1-77639-xxx-x1-77699-xxx-x1-78999-xxx-x1-83799-xxx-x1-86719-xxx-x1-86979-xxx-x 22,010 27,010 2 digits 0-900000-xx-x0-900372-xx-x 0-900370-xx-x0-949999-xx-x 49,999 1-869800-xx-x1-916506-xx-x1-916908-xx-x1-919655-xx-x1-987800-xx-x1-991200-xx-x 1-915999-xx-x1-916869-xx-x1-919599-xx-x1-972999-xx-x1-991149-xx-x1-998989-xx-x 113,741 163,740 1 digit 0-6398000-x-x0-6450000-x-x0-6480000-x-x0-9003710-x-x0-9500000-x-x 0-6399999-x-x0-6459999-x-x0-6489999-x-x0-9003719-x-x0-9999999-x-x 522,010 1-0670000-x-x1-7320000-x-x1-7635000-x-x1-7750000-x-x1-7764000-x-x1-7770000-x-x1-8380000-x-x1-9160000-x-x1-9168700-x-x1-9196000-x-x1-9911500-x-x1-9989900-x-x 1-0699999-x-x1-7399999-x-x1-7649999-x-x1-7753999-x-x1-7764999-x-x1-7782999-x-x1-8384999-x-x1-9165059-x-x1-9169079-x-x1-9196549-x-x1-9911999-x-x1-9999999-x-x 164,590 686,600 Total 579,061 Total 303,537 882,598" ], [ "Check digits", "A check digit is a form of redundancy check used for error detection, the decimal equivalent of a binary check bit.", "It consists of a single digit computed from the other digits in the number.", "The method for the 10-digit ISBN is an extension of that for SBNs, so the two systems are compatible; an SBN prefixed with a zero (the 10-digit ISBN) will give the same check digit as the SBN without the zero.", "The check digit is base eleven, and can be an integer between 0 and 9, or an 'X'.", "The system for 13-digit ISBNs is not compatible with SBNs and will, in general, give a different check digit from the corresponding 10-digit ISBN, so does not provide the same protection against transposition.", "This is because the 13-digit code was required to be compatible with the EAN format, and hence could not contain an 'X'.=== check digits ===According to the 2001 edition of the International ISBN Agency's official user manual, the check digit (which is the last digit of the 10-digit ISBN) must range from 0 to 10 (the symbol 'X' is used for 10), and must be such that the sum of the ten digits, each multiplied by its (integer) weight, descending from 10 to 1, is a multiple of 11.That is, if is the th digit, then must be chosen such that:For example, for an of 0-306-40615-2:Formally, using modular arithmetic, this is renderedIt is also true for s that the sum of all ten digits, each multiplied by its weight in ''ascending'' order from 1 to 10, is a multiple of 11.For this example:Formally, this is renderedThe two most common errors in handling an ISBN (e.g.", "when typing it or writing it down) are a single altered digit or the transposition of adjacent digits.", "It can be proven mathematically that all pairs of valid s differ in at least two digits.", "It can also be proven that there are no pairs of valid s with eight identical digits and two transposed digits.", "(These proofs are true because the ISBN is less than eleven digits long and because 11 is a prime number.)", "The ISBN check digit method therefore ensures that it will always be possible to detect these two most common types of error, i.e., if either of these types of error has occurred, the result will never be a valid ISBN – the sum of the digits multiplied by their weights will never be a multiple of 11.However, if the error were to occur in the publishing house and remain undetected, the book would be issued with an invalid ISBN.In contrast, it is possible for other types of error, such as two altered non-transposed digits, or three altered digits, to result in a valid ISBN (although it is still unlikely).=== check digit calculation ===Each of the first nine digits of the 10-digit ISBN – excluding the check digit itself – is multiplied by its (integer) weight, descending from 10 to 2, and the sum of these nine products found.", "The value of the check digit is simply the one number between 0 and 10 which, when added to this sum, means the total is a multiple of 11.For example, the check digit for an of 0-306-40615-''?''", "is calculated as follows:Adding 2 to 130 gives a multiple of 11 (because 132 = 12×11) – this is the only number between 0 and 10 which does so.", "Therefore, the check digit has to be 2, and the complete sequence is .", "If the value of required to satisfy this condition is 10, then an 'X' should be used.Alternatively, modular arithmetic is convenient for calculating the check digit using modulus 11.The remainder of this sum when it is divided by 11 (i.e.", "its value modulo 11), is computed.", "This remainder plus the check digit must equal either 0 or 11.Therefore, the check digit is (11 minus the remainder of the sum of the products modulo 11) modulo 11.Taking the remainder modulo 11 a second time accounts for the possibility that the first remainder is 0.Without the second modulo operation, the calculation could result in a check digit value of , which is invalid.", "(Strictly speaking, the ''first'' \"modulo 11\" is not needed, but it may be considered to simplify the calculation.", ")For example, the check digit for the of 0-306-40615-''?''", "is calculated as follows:Thus the check digit is 2.It is possible to avoid the multiplications in a software implementation by using two accumulators.", "Repeatedly adding t into s computes the necessary multiples:// Returns ISBN error syndrome, zero for a valid ISBN, non-zero for an invalid one.// digitsi must be between 0 and 10.int CheckISBN(int const digits10) { int i, s = 0, t = 0; for (i = 0; i The modular reduction can be done once at the end, as shown above (in which case s could hold a value as large as 496, for the invalid ), or s and t could be reduced by a conditional subtract after each addition.=== check digit calculation ===Appendix 1 of the International ISBN Agency's official user manual describes how the 13-digit ISBN check digit is calculated.", "The check digit, which is the last digit of the ISBN, must range from 0 to 9 and must be such that the sum of all the thirteen digits, each multiplied by its (integer) weight, alternating between 1 and 3, is a multiple of 10.As ISBN-13 is a subset of EAN-13, the algorithm for calculating the check digit is exactly the same for both.Formally, using modular arithmetic, this is rendered:The calculation of an check digit begins with the first twelve digits of the 13-digit ISBN (thus excluding the check digit itself).", "Each digit, from left to right, is alternately multiplied by 1 or 3, then those products are summed modulo 10 to give a value ranging from 0 to 9.Subtracted from 10, that leaves a result from 1 to 10.A zero replaces a ten, so, in all cases, a single check digit results.For example, the check digit of 978-0-306-40615-''?''", "is calculated as follows: s = 9×1 + 7×3 + 8×1 + 0×3 + 3×1 + 0×3 + 6×1 + 4×3 + 0×1 + 6×3 + 1×1 + 5×3 = 9 + 21 + 8 + 0 + 3 + 0 + 6 + 12 + 0 + 18 + 1 + 15 = 93 93 / 10 = 9 remainder 3 10 – 3 = 7Thus, the check digit is 7, and the complete sequence is .In general, the check digit is calculated as follows.LetThenThis check system – similar to the UPC check digit formula – does not catch all errors of adjacent digit transposition.", "Specifically, if the difference between two adjacent digits is 5, the check digit will not catch their transposition.", "For instance, the above example allows this situation with the 6 followed by a 1.The correct order contributes to the sum; while, if the digits are transposed (1 followed by a 6), the contribution of those two digits will be .", "However, 19 and 9 are congruent modulo 10, and so produce the same, final result: both ISBNs will have a check digit of 7.The formula uses the prime modulus 11 which avoids this blind spot, but requires more than the digits 0–9 to express the check digit.Additionally, if the sum of the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, 10th, and 12th digits is tripled then added to the remaining digits (1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th, and 13th), the total will always be divisible by 10 (i.e., end in 0).=== to conversion ===A 10-digit ISBN is converted to a 13-digit ISBN by prepending \"978\" to the and recalculating the final checksum digit using the algorithm.", "The reverse process can also be performed, but not for numbers commencing with a prefix other than 978, which have no 10-digit equivalent.=== Errors in usage ===Publishers and libraries have varied policies about the use of the ISBN check digit.", "Publishers sometimes fail to check the correspondence of a book title and its ISBN before publishing it; that failure causes book identification problems for libraries, booksellers, and readers.", "For example, is shared by two books – ''Ninja gaiden: a novel based on the best-selling game by Tecmo'' (1990) and ''Wacky laws'' (1997), both published by Scholastic.Most libraries and booksellers display the book record for an invalid ISBN issued by the publisher.", "The Library of Congress catalogue contains books published with invalid ISBNs, which it usually tags with the phrase \"Cancelled ISBN\".", "The International Union Library Catalog (a.k.a., WorldCat OCLC – Online Computer Library Center system) often indexes by invalid ISBNs, if the book is indexed in that way by a member library.=== eISBN ===Only the term \"ISBN\" should be used; the terms \"eISBN\" and \"e-ISBN\" have historically been sources of confusion and should be avoided.", "If a book exists in one or more digital (e-book) formats, each of those formats must have its own ISBN.", "In other words, each of the three separate EPUB, Amazon Kindle, and PDF formats of a particular book will have its own specific ISBN.", "They should not share the ISBN of the paper version, and there is no generic \"eISBN\" which encompasses all the e-book formats for a title." ], [ "EAN format used in barcodes, and upgrading", "The barcodes on a book's back cover (or inside a mass-market paperback book's front cover) are EAN-13; they may have a separate barcode encoding five digits called an EAN-5 for the currency and the recommended retail price.", "For 10-digit ISBNs, the number \"978\", the Bookland \"country code\", is prefixed to the ISBN in the barcode data, and the check digit is recalculated according to the EAN-13 formula (modulo 10, 1× and 3× weighting on alternating digits).Partly because of an expected shortage in certain ISBN categories, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) decided to migrate to a 13-digit ISBN ().", "The process began on 1 January 2005 and was planned to conclude on 1 January 2007., all the 13-digit ISBNs began with 978.As the 978 ISBN supply is exhausted, the 979 prefix was introduced.", "Part of the 979 prefix is reserved for use with the Musicland code for musical scores with an ISMN.", "The 10-digit ISMN codes differed visually as they began with an \"M\" letter; the bar code represents the \"M\" as a zero, and for checksum purposes it counted as a 3.All ISMNs are now thirteen digits commencing ; to will be used by ISBN.Publisher identification code numbers are unlikely to be the same in the 978 and 979 ISBNs, likewise, there is no guarantee that language area code numbers will be the same.", "Moreover, the 10-digit ISBN check digit generally is not the same as the 13-digit ISBN check digit.", "Because the GTIN-13 is part of the Global Trade Item Number (GTIN) system (that includes the GTIN-14, the GTIN-12, and the GTIN-8), the 13-digit ISBN falls within the 14-digit data field range.Barcode format compatibility is maintained, because (aside from the group breaks) the barcode format is identical to the EAN barcode format of existing 10-digit ISBNs.", "So, migration to an EAN-based system allows booksellers the use of a single numbering system for both books and non-book products that is compatible with existing ISBN based data, with only minimal changes to information technology systems.", "Hence, many booksellers (e.g., Barnes & Noble) migrated to EAN barcodes as early as March 2005.Although many American and Canadian booksellers were able to read EAN-13 barcodes before 2005, most general retailers could not read them.", "The upgrading of the UPC barcode system to full EAN-13, in 2005, eased migration to the in North America." ], [ "See also", "* ASIN (Amazon Standard Identification Number)* BICI (Book Item and Component Identifier)* Book sources search – a Wikipedia resource that allows search by ISBNs* CODEN (serial publication identifier currently used by libraries; replaced by the ISSN for new works)* DOI (Digital Object Identifier)* ESTC (English Short Title Catalogue)* ISAN (International Standard Audiovisual Number)* ISRC (International Standard Recording Code)* ISTC (International Standard Text Code)* ISWC (International Standard Musical Work Code)* ISWN (International Standard Wine Number)* LCCN (Library of Congress Control Number)* (Book identification system used between 1951 and 1990 in the former GDR)* List of group-0 ISBN publisher codes* List of group-1 ISBN publisher codes* List of ISBN registration groups* SICI (Serial Item and Contribution Identifier)* VD 16 (''Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachbereich erschienenen Drucke des 16.Jahrhunderts'', \"Bibliography of Books Printed in the German Speaking Countries of the Sixteenth Century\")* VD 17 (''Verzeichnis der im deutschen Sprachraum erschienenen Drucke des 17.Jahrhunderts'', \"Bibliography of Books Printed in the German Speaking Countries of the Seventeenth Century\")" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ISO 2108:2017 – International Standard Book Number (ISBN)* International ISBN Agency – coordinates and supervises the worldwide use of the ISBN system** Numerical List of Group Identifiers – List of language/region prefixes** Free conversion tool: to & to from the ISBN agency.", "Also shows correct hyphenation & verifies if ISBNs are valid or not.", "* *  – Using International Standard Book Numbers as Uniform Resource Names (URN)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "IP address" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''Internet Protocol address''' ('''IP address''') is a numerical label such as that is assigned to a device connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication.", "IP addresses serve two main functions: network interface identification, and location addressing.Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit number.", "However, because of the growth of the Internet and the depletion of available IPv4 addresses, a new version of IP (IPv6), using 128 bits for the IP address, was standardized in 1998.IPv6 deployment has been ongoing since the mid-2000s.IP addresses are written and displayed in human-readable notations, such as in IPv4, and in IPv6.The size of the routing prefix of the address is designated in CIDR notation by suffixing the address with the number of significant bits, e.g., , which is equivalent to the historically used subnet mask .The IP address space is managed globally by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), and by five regional Internet registries (RIRs) responsible in their designated territories for assignment to local Internet registries, such as Internet service providers (ISPs), and other end users.", "IPv4 addresses were distributed by IANA to the RIRs in blocks of approximately 16.8 million addresses each, but have been exhausted at the IANA level since 2011.Only one of the RIRs still has a supply for local assignments in Africa.", "Some IPv4 addresses are reserved for private networks and are not globally unique.Network administrators assign an IP address to each device connected to a network.", "Such assignments may be on a ''static'' (fixed or permanent) or ''dynamic'' basis, depending on network practices and software features." ], [ "Function", "An IP address serves two principal functions: it identifies the host, or more specifically its network interface, and it provides the location of the host in the network, and thus the capability of establishing a path to that host.", "Its role has been characterized as follows: \"A name indicates what we seek.", "An address indicates where it is.", "A route indicates how to get there.\"", "The header of each IP packet contains the IP address of the sending host and that of the destination host." ], [ "IP versions", "Two versions of the Internet Protocol are in common use on the Internet today.", "The original version of the Internet Protocol that was first deployed in 1983 in the ARPANET, the predecessor of the Internet, is Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4).By the early 1990s, the rapid exhaustion of IPv4 address space available for assignment to Internet service providers and end-user organizations prompted the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to explore new technologies to expand addressing capability on the Internet.", "The result was a redesign of the Internet Protocol which became eventually known as Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) in 1995.IPv6 technology was in various testing stages until the mid-2000s when commercial production deployment commenced.Today, these two versions of the Internet Protocol are in simultaneous use.", "Among other technical changes, each version defines the format of addresses differently.", "Because of the historical prevalence of IPv4, the generic term ''IP address'' typically still refers to the addresses defined by IPv4.The gap in version sequence between IPv4 and IPv6 resulted from the assignment of version 5 to the experimental Internet Stream Protocol in 1979, which however was never referred to as IPv5.Other versions v1 to v9 were defined, but only v4 and v6 ever gained widespread use.", "v1 and v2 were names for TCP protocols in 1974 and 1977, as there was no separate IP specification at the time.", "v3 was defined in 1978, and v3.1 is the first version where TCP is separated from IP.", "v6 is a synthesis of several suggested versions, v6 ''Simple Internet Protocol'', v7 ''TP/IX: The Next Internet'', v8 ''PIP — The P Internet Protocol'', and v9 ''TUBA — Tcp & Udp with Big Addresses''." ], [ "Subnetworks", "IP networks may be divided into subnetworks in both IPv4 and IPv6.For this purpose, an IP address is recognized as consisting of two parts: the ''network prefix'' in the high-order bits and the remaining bits called the ''rest field'', ''host identifier'', or ''interface identifier'' (IPv6), used for host numbering within a network.", "The subnet mask or CIDR notation determines how the IP address is divided into network and host parts.The term ''subnet mask'' is only used within IPv4.Both IP versions however use the CIDR concept and notation.", "In this, the IP address is followed by a slash and the number (in decimal) of bits used for the network part, also called the ''routing prefix''.", "For example, an IPv4 address and its subnet mask may be and , respectively.", "The CIDR notation for the same IP address and subnet is , because the first 24 bits of the IP address indicate the network and subnet." ], [ "IPv4 addresses", "Decomposition of an IPv4 address from dot-decimal notation to its binary valueAn IPv4 address has a size of 32 bits, which limits the address space to (232) addresses.", "Of this number, some addresses are reserved for special purposes such as private networks (~18 million addresses) and multicast addressing (~270 million addresses).IPv4 addresses are usually represented in dot-decimal notation, consisting of four decimal numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots, e.g., .", "Each part represents a group of 8 bits (an octet) of the address.", "In some cases of technical writing, IPv4 addresses may be presented in various hexadecimal, octal, or binary representations.===Subnetting history===In the early stages of development of the Internet Protocol, the network number was always the highest order octet (most significant eight bits).", "Because this method allowed for only 256 networks, it soon proved inadequate as additional networks developed that were independent of the existing networks already designated by a network number.", "In 1981, the addressing specification was revised with the introduction of classful network architecture.Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual network assignments and fine-grained subnetwork design.", "The first three bits of the most significant octet of an IP address were defined as the ''class'' of the address.", "Three classes (''A'', ''B'', and ''C'') were defined for universal unicast addressing.", "Depending on the class derived, the network identification was based on octet boundary segments of the entire address.", "Each class used successively additional octets in the network identifier, thus reducing the possible number of hosts in the higher order classes (''B'' and ''C'').", "The following table gives an overview of this now-obsolete system.+ Historical classful network architecture Class Leading bits Size of ''network number'' bit field Size of ''rest''bit field Numberof networks Number of addressesper network Start address End address A 0 8 24 128 (27) (224) 0.0.0.0 127.255.255.255 B 10 16 16 (214) (216) 128.0.0.0 191.255.255.255 C 110 24 8 (221) 256 (28) 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255Classful network design served its purpose in the startup stage of the Internet, but it lacked scalability in the face of the rapid expansion of networking in the 1990s.", "The class system of the address space was replaced with Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) in 1993.CIDR is based on variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) to allow allocation and routing based on arbitrary-length prefixes.", "Today, remnants of classful network concepts function only in a limited scope as the default configuration parameters of some network software and hardware components (e.g.", "netmask), and in the technical jargon used in network administrators' discussions.===Private addresses===Early network design, when global end-to-end connectivity was envisioned for communications with all Internet hosts, intended that IP addresses be globally unique.", "However, it was found that this was not always necessary as private networks developed and public address space needed to be conserved.Computers not connected to the Internet, such as factory machines that communicate only with each other via TCP/IP, need not have globally unique IP addresses.", "Today, such private networks are widely used and typically connect to the Internet with network address translation (NAT), when needed.Three non-overlapping ranges of IPv4 addresses for private networks are reserved.", "These addresses are not routed on the Internet and thus their use need not be coordinated with an IP address registry.", "Any user may use any of the reserved blocks.", "Typically, a network administrator will divide a block into subnets; for example, many home routers automatically use a default address range of through ()." ], [ "IPv6 addresses", "Decomposition of an IPv6 address from hexadecimal representation to its binary valueIn IPv6, the address size was increased from 32 bits in IPv4 to 128 bits, thus providing up to 2128 (approximately ) addresses.", "This is deemed sufficient for the foreseeable future.The intent of the new design was not to provide just a sufficient quantity of addresses, but also redesign routing in the Internet by allowing more efficient aggregation of subnetwork routing prefixes.", "This resulted in slower growth of routing tables in routers.", "The smallest possible individual allocation is a subnet for 264 hosts, which is the square of the size of the entire IPv4 Internet.", "At these levels, actual address utilization ratios will be small on any IPv6 network segment.", "The new design also provides the opportunity to separate the addressing infrastructure of a network segment, i.e.", "the local administration of the segment's available space, from the addressing prefix used to route traffic to and from external networks.", "IPv6 has facilities that automatically change the routing prefix of entire networks, should the global connectivity or the routing policy change, without requiring internal redesign or manual renumbering.The large number of IPv6 addresses allows large blocks to be assigned for specific purposes and, where appropriate, to be aggregated for efficient routing.", "With a large address space, there is no need to have complex address conservation methods as used in CIDR.All modern desktop and enterprise server operating systems include native support for IPv6, but it is not yet widely deployed in other devices, such as residential networking routers, voice over IP (VoIP) and multimedia equipment, and some networking hardware.===Private addresses===Just as IPv4 reserves addresses for private networks, blocks of addresses are set aside in IPv6.In IPv6, these are referred to as unique local addresses (ULAs).", "The routing prefix is reserved for this block, which is divided into two blocks with different implied policies.", "The addresses include a 40-bit pseudorandom number that minimizes the risk of address collisions if sites merge or packets are misrouted.Early practices used a different block for this purpose (), dubbed site-local addresses.", "However, the definition of what constituted a ''site'' remained unclear and the poorly defined addressing policy created ambiguities for routing.", "This address type was abandoned and must not be used in new systems.Addresses starting with , called link-local addresses, are assigned to interfaces for communication on the attached link.", "The addresses are automatically generated by the operating system for each network interface.", "This provides instant and automatic communication between all IPv6 hosts on a link.", "This feature is used in the lower layers of IPv6 network administration, such as for the Neighbor Discovery Protocol.Private and link-local address prefixes may not be routed on the public Internet.==IP address assignment == IP addresses are assigned to a host either dynamically as they join the network, or persistently by configuration of the host hardware or software.", "Persistent configuration is also known as using a '''static IP address'''.", "In contrast, when a computer's IP address is assigned each time it restarts, this is known as using a '''dynamic IP address'''.Dynamic IP addresses are assigned by network using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).", "DHCP is the most frequently used technology for assigning addresses.", "It avoids the administrative burden of assigning specific static addresses to each device on a network.", "It also allows devices to share the limited address space on a network if only some of them are online at a particular time.", "Typically, dynamic IP configuration is enabled by default in modern desktop operating systems.The address assigned with DHCP is associated with a ''lease'' and usually has an expiration period.", "If the lease is not renewed by the host before expiry, the address may be assigned to another device.", "Some DHCP implementations attempt to reassign the same IP address to a host, based on its MAC address, each time it joins the network.", "A network administrator may configure DHCP by allocating specific IP addresses based on MAC address.DHCP is not the only technology used to assign IP addresses dynamically.", "Bootstrap Protocol is a similar protocol and predecessor to DHCP.", "Dialup and some broadband networks use dynamic address features of the Point-to-Point Protocol.Computers and equipment used for the network infrastructure, such as routers and mail servers, are typically configured with static addressing.In the absence or failure of static or dynamic address configurations, an operating system may assign a link-local address to a host using stateless address autoconfiguration.===Sticky dynamic IP address ===''Sticky'' is an informal term used to describe a dynamically assigned IP address that seldom changes.", "IPv4 addresses, for example, are usually assigned with DHCP, and a DHCP service ''can'' use rules that maximize the chance of assigning the same address each time a client asks for an assignment.", "In IPv6, a prefix delegation can be handled similarly, to make changes as rare as feasible.", "In a typical home or small-office setup, a single router is the only device visible to an Internet service provider (ISP), and the ISP may try to provide a configuration that is as stable as feasible, i.e.", "''sticky''.", "On the local network of the home or business, a local DHCP server may be designed to provide sticky IPv4 configurations, and the ISP may provide a sticky IPv6 prefix delegation, giving clients the option to use sticky IPv6 addresses.", "''Sticky'' should not be confused with ''static''; sticky configurations have no guarantee of stability, while static configurations are used indefinitely and only changed deliberately.===Address autoconfiguration=== Address block is defined for the special use of link-local addressing for IPv4 networks.", "In IPv6, every interface, whether using static or dynamic addresses, also receives a link-local address automatically in the block .", "These addresses are only valid on the link, such as a local network segment or point-to-point connection, to which a host is connected.", "These addresses are not routable and, like private addresses, cannot be the source or destination of packets traversing the Internet.When the link-local IPv4 address block was reserved, no standards existed for mechanisms of address autoconfiguration.", "Filling the void, Microsoft developed a protocol called Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA), whose first public implementation appeared in Windows 98.APIPA has been deployed on millions of machines and became a ''de facto'' standard in the industry.", "In May 2005, the IETF defined a formal standard for it.===Addressing conflicts===An IP address conflict occurs when two devices on the same local physical or wireless network claim to have the same IP address.", "A second assignment of an address generally stops the IP functionality of one or both of the devices.", "Many modern operating systems notify the administrator of IP address conflicts.", "When IP addresses are assigned by multiple people and systems with differing methods, any of them may be at fault.", "If one of the devices involved in the conflict is the default gateway access beyond the LAN for all devices on the LAN, all devices may be impaired." ], [ "Routing", "IP addresses are classified into several classes of operational characteristics: unicast, multicast, anycast and broadcast addressing.===Unicast addressing===The most common concept of an IP address is in unicast addressing, available in both IPv4 and IPv6.It normally refers to a single sender or a single receiver, and can be used for both sending and receiving.", "Usually, a unicast address is associated with a single device or host, but a device or host may have more than one unicast address.", "Sending the same data to multiple unicast addresses requires the sender to send all the data many times over, once for each recipient.===Broadcast addressing===Broadcasting is an addressing technique available in IPv4 to address data to all possible destinations on a network in one transmission operation as an ''all-hosts broadcast''.", "All receivers capture the network packet.", "The address is used for network broadcast.", "In addition, a more limited directed broadcast uses the all-ones host address with the network prefix.", "For example, the destination address used for directed broadcast to devices on the network is .IPv6 does not implement broadcast addressing and replaces it with multicast to the specially defined all-nodes multicast address.===Multicast addressing===A multicast address is associated with a group of interested receivers.", "In IPv4, addresses through (the former Class D addresses) are designated as multicast addresses.", "IPv6 uses the address block with the prefix for multicast.", "In either case, the sender sends a single datagram from its unicast address to the multicast group address and the intermediary routers take care of making copies and sending them to all interested receivers (those that have joined the corresponding multicast group).===Anycast addressing===Like broadcast and multicast, anycast is a one-to-many routing topology.", "However, the data stream is not transmitted to all receivers, just the one which the router decides is closest in the network.", "Anycast addressing is a built-in feature of IPv6.In IPv4, anycast addressing is implemented with Border Gateway Protocol using the shortest-path metric to choose destinations.", "Anycast methods are useful for global load balancing and are commonly used in distributed DNS systems." ], [ "Geolocation", "A host may use geolocation to deduce the geographic position of its communicating peer." ], [ "Public address", "A public IP address is a globally routable unicast IP address, meaning that the address is not an address reserved for use in private networks, such as those reserved by , or the various IPv6 address formats of local scope or site-local scope, for example for link-local addressing.", "Public IP addresses may be used for communication between hosts on the global Internet.In a home situation, a public IP address is the IP address assigned to the home's network by the ISP.", "In this case, it is also locally visible by logging into the router configuration.Most public IP addresses change, and relatively often.", "Any type of IP address that changes is called a dynamic IP address.", "In home networks, the ISP usually assigns a dynamic IP.", "If an ISP gave a home network an unchanging address, it is more likely to be abused by customers who host websites from home, or by hackers who can try the same IP address over and over until they breach a network." ], [ "Firewalling", "For security and privacy considerations, network administrators often desire to restrict public Internet traffic within their private networks.", "The source and destination IP addresses contained in the headers of each IP packet are a convenient means to discriminate traffic by IP address blocking or by selectively tailoring responses to external requests to internal servers.", "This is achieved with firewall software running on the network's gateway router.", "A database of IP addresses of restricted and permissible traffic may be maintained in blacklists and whitelists, respectively." ], [ "Address translation", "Multiple client devices can appear to share an IP address, either because they are part of a shared web hosting service environment or because an IPv4 network address translator (NAT) or proxy server acts as an intermediary agent on behalf of the client, in which case the real originating IP address is masked from the server receiving a request.", "A common practice is to have a NAT mask many devices in a private network.", "Only the public interface(s) of the NAT needs to have an Internet-routable address.The NAT device maps different IP addresses on the private network to different TCP or UDP port numbers on the public network.", "In residential networks, NAT functions are usually implemented in a residential gateway.", "In this scenario, the computers connected to the router have private IP addresses and the router has a public address on its external interface to communicate on the Internet.", "The internal computers appear to share one public IP address." ], [ "Diagnostic tools", "Computer operating systems provide various diagnostic tools to examine network interfaces and address configuration.", "Microsoft Windows provides the command-line interface tools ipconfig and netsh and users of Unix-like systems may use ifconfig, netstat, route, lanstat, fstat, and iproute2 utilities to accomplish the task." ], [ "See also", "*Hostname*IP address spoofing*IP aliasing*IP multicast*List of assigned /8 IPv4 address blocks*Reverse DNS lookup*Virtual IP address*WHOIS" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "If and only if" ], [ "Introduction", "In logic and related fields such as mathematics and philosophy, \"'''if and only if'''\" (shortened as \"'''iff'''\") is a biconditional logical connective between statements where either both statements are true or both are false.", "The connective is biconditional (a statement of '''material equivalence'''), and can be likened to the standard material conditional (\"only if\", equal to \"if ... then\") combined with its reverse (\"if\"); hence the name.", "The result is that the truth of either one of the connected statements requires the truth of the other (i.e.", "either both statements are true, or both are false), though it is controversial whether the connective thus defined is properly rendered by the English \"if and only if\"—with its pre-existing meaning.", "For example, ''P if and only if Q'' means that ''P'' is true whenever ''Q'' is true, and the only case in which ''P'' is true is if ''Q'' is also true, whereas in the case of ''P if Q'', there could be other scenarios where ''P'' is true and ''Q'' is false.In writing, phrases commonly used as alternatives to P \"if and only if\" Q include: ''Q is necessary and sufficient for P'', ''for P it is necessary and sufficient that Q'', ''P is equivalent (or materially equivalent) to Q'' (compare with material implication), ''P precisely if Q'', ''P precisely (or exactly) when Q'', ''P exactly in case Q'', and ''P just in case Q''.", "Some authors regard \"iff\" as unsuitable in formal writing; others consider it a \"borderline case\" and tolerate its use.", "In logical formulae, logical symbols, such as and , are used instead of these phrases; see below." ], [ "Definition", "The truth table of ''P'' ''Q'' is as follows:+ Truth table ''P'' ''Q'' T T T T T T F F T F F T T F F F F T T TIt is equivalent to that produced by the XNOR gate, and opposite to that produced by the XOR gate." ], [ "Usage", "===Notation===The corresponding logical symbols are \"\", \"\", and , and sometimes \"iff\".", "These are usually treated as equivalent.", "However, some texts of mathematical logic (particularly those on first-order logic, rather than propositional logic) make a distinction between these, in which the first, ↔, is used as a symbol in logic formulas, while ⇔ is used in reasoning about those logic formulas (e.g., in metalogic).", "In Łukasiewicz's Polish notation, it is the prefix symbol .Another term for the logical connective, i.e., the symbol in logic formulas, is exclusive nor.In TeX, \"if and only if\" is shown as a long double arrow: via command \\iff or \\Longleftrightarrow.===Proofs===In most logical systems, one proves a statement of the form \"P iff Q\" by proving either \"if P, then Q\" and \"if Q, then P\", or \"if P, then Q\" and \"if not-P, then not-Q\".", "Proving these pairs of statements sometimes leads to a more natural proof, since there are not obvious conditions in which one would infer a biconditional directly.", "An alternative is to prove the disjunction \"(P and Q) or (not-P and not-Q)\", which itself can be inferred directly from either of its disjuncts—that is, because \"iff\" is truth-functional, \"P iff Q\" follows if P and Q have been shown to be both true, or both false.===Origin of iff and pronunciation===Usage of the abbreviation \"iff\" first appeared in print in John L. Kelley's 1955 book ''General Topology''.", "Its invention is often credited to Paul Halmos, who wrote \"I invented 'iff,' for 'if and only if'—but I could never believe I was really its first inventor.", "\"It is somewhat unclear how \"iff\" was meant to be pronounced.", "In current practice, the single 'word' \"iff\" is almost always read as the four words \"if and only if\".", "However, in the preface of ''General Topology'', Kelley suggests that it should be read differently: \"In some cases where mathematical content requires 'if and only if' and euphony demands something less I use Halmos' 'iff'\".", "The authors of one discrete mathematics textbook suggest: \"Should you need to pronounce iff, really hang on to the 'ff' so that people hear the difference from 'if'\", implying that \"iff\" could be pronounced as .=== Usage in definitions ===Conventionally, definitions are \"if and only if\" statements; some texts — such as Kelley's ''General Topology'' — follow this convention, and use \"if and only if\" or ''iff'' in definitions of new terms.", "However, this usage of \"if and only if\" is relatively uncommon and overlooks the linguistic fact that the \"if\" of a definition is interpreted as meaning \"if and only if\".", "The majority of textbooks, research papers and articles (including English Wikipedia articles) follow the linguistic convention of interpreting \"if\" as \"if and only if\" whenever a mathematical definition is involved (as in \"a topological space is compact if every open cover has a finite subcover\").", "Moreover, in the case of a recursive definition, the ''only if'' half of the definition is interpreted as a sentence in the metalanguage stating that the sentences in the definition of a predicate are the ''only sentences'' determining the extension of the predicate." ], [ "Distinction from \"if\" and \"only if\"", "* ''\"Madison will eat the fruit if it is an apple.\"''", "(equivalent to ''\"Only if Madison will eat the fruit, can it be an apple\"'' or ''\"Madison will eat the fruit ''←'' the fruit is an apple\"'')*: This states that Madison will eat fruits that are apples.", "It does not, however, exclude the possibility that Madison might also eat bananas or other types of fruit.", "All that is known for certain is that she will eat any and all apples that she happens upon.", "That the fruit is an apple is a ''sufficient'' condition for Madison to eat the fruit.", "* ''\"Madison will eat the fruit only if it is an apple.\"''", "(equivalent to ''\"If Madison will eat the fruit, then it is an apple\"'' or ''\"Madison will eat the fruit ''→'' the fruit is an apple\"'')*: This states that the only fruit Madison will eat is an apple.", "It does not, however, exclude the possibility that Madison will refuse an apple if it is made available, in contrast with (1), which requires Madison to eat any available apple.", "In this case, that a given fruit is an apple is a ''necessary'' condition for Madison to be eating it.", "It is not a sufficient condition since Madison might not eat all the apples she is given.", "* ''\"Madison will eat the fruit if and only if it is an apple.\"''", "(equivalent to ''\"Madison will eat the fruit ''↔'' the fruit is an apple\"'')*: This statement makes it clear that Madison will eat all and only those fruits that are apples.", "She will not leave any apple uneaten, and she will not eat any other type of fruit.", "That a given fruit is an apple is both a ''necessary'' and a ''sufficient'' condition for Madison to eat the fruit.Sufficiency is the converse of necessity.", "That is to say, given ''P''→''Q'' (i.e.", "if ''P'' then ''Q''), ''P'' would be a sufficient condition for ''Q'', and ''Q'' would be a necessary condition for ''P''.", "Also, given ''P''→''Q'', it is true that ''¬Q''→''¬P'' (where ¬ is the negation operator, i.e.", "\"not\").", "This means that the relationship between ''P'' and ''Q'', established by ''P''→''Q'', can be expressed in the following, all equivalent, ways::''P'' is sufficient for ''Q'':''Q'' is necessary for ''P'':''¬Q'' is sufficient for ''¬P'':''¬P'' is necessary for ''¬Q''As an example, take the first example above, which states ''P''→''Q'', where ''P'' is \"the fruit in question is an apple\" and ''Q'' is \"Madison will eat the fruit in question\".", "The following are four equivalent ways of expressing this very relationship::If the fruit in question is an apple, then Madison will eat it.", ":Only if Madison will eat the fruit in question, is it an apple.", ":If Madison will not eat the fruit in question, then it is not an apple.", ":Only if the fruit in question is not an apple, will Madison not eat it.Here, the second example can be restated in the form of ''if...then'' as \"If Madison will eat the fruit in question, then it is an apple\"; taking this in conjunction with the first example, we find that the third example can be stated as \"If the fruit in question is an apple, then Madison will eat it; ''and'' if Madison will eat the fruit, then it is an apple\"." ], [ "In terms of Euler diagrams", "File:Example of A is a proper subset of B.svg|''A'' is a proper subset of ''B''.", "A number is in ''A'' only if it is in ''B''; a number is in ''B'' if it is in ''A''.File:Example of C is no proper subset of B.svg|''C'' is a subset but not a proper subset of ''B''.", "A number is in ''B'' if and only if it is in ''C'', and a number is in ''C'' if and only if it is in ''B''.Euler diagrams show logical relationships among events, properties, and so forth.", "\"P only if Q\", \"if P then Q\", and \"P→Q\" all mean that P is a subset, either proper or improper, of Q.", "\"P if Q\", \"if Q then P\", and Q→P all mean that Q is a proper or improper subset of P. \"P if and only if Q\" and \"Q if and only if P\" both mean that the sets P and Q are identical to each other." ], [ "More general usage", "''Iff'' is used outside the field of logic as well.", "Wherever logic is applied, especially in mathematical discussions, it has the same meaning as above: it is an abbreviation for ''if and only if'', indicating that one statement is both necessary and sufficient for the other.", "This is an example of mathematical jargon (although, as noted above, ''if'' is more often used than ''iff'' in statements of definition).The elements of ''X'' are ''all and only'' the elements of ''Y'' means: \"For any ''z'' in the domain of discourse, ''z'' is in ''X'' if and only if ''z'' is in ''Y''.\"" ], [ "When \"if\" means \"if and only if\"", "In their Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, Russell and Norvig note (page 282), in effect, that it is often more natural to express ''if and only if'' as ''if'' together with a \"database (or logic programming) semantics\".", "They give the example of the English sentence \"Richard has two brothers, Geoffrey and John\".In a database or logic program, this could be represented simply by two sentences::Brother(Richard, Geoffrey).", ":Brother(Richard, John).The database semantics interprets the database (or program) as containing ''all'' and ''only'' the knowledge relevant for problem solving in a given domain.", "It interprets ''only if'' as expressing in the metalanguage that the sentences in the database represent the ''only'' knowledge that should be considered when drawing conclusions from the database.", "In first-order logic (FOL) with the standard semantics, the same English sentence would need to be represented, using ''if and only if'', with ''only if'' interpreted in the object language, in some such form as:: X(Brother(Richard, X) iff X = Geoffrey or X = John).", ":Geoffrey ≠ John.Compared with the standard semantics for FOL, the database semantics has a more efficient implementation.", "Instead of reasoning with sentences of the form::''conclusion iff conditions''it uses sentences of the form::''conclusion if conditions'' to reason forwards from ''conditions'' to ''conclusions'' or backwards from ''conclusions'' to ''conditions''.The database semantics is analogous to the legal principle expressio unius est exclusio alterius (the express mention of one thing excludes all others).", "Moreover, it underpins the application of logic programming to the representation of legal texts and legal reasoning." ], [ "See also", "*Definition*Equivalence relation*Logical biconditional* Logical equality* Logical equivalence* If and only if in logic programs* Polysyllogism" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** Language Log: \"Just in Case\"* Southern California Philosophy for philosophy graduate students: \"Just in Case\"" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "IP" ], [ "Introduction", "'''IP''' or '''Ip''' or '''ip''' may refer to:" ], [ "Businesses and organizations", "* IP College (Indraprastha College for Women), a constituent college of the University of Delhi, New Delhi, India* Imperial Police, a former Indian police agency* ''Inicjatywa Pracownicza'' (Workers' Initiative), a Polish trade union* International Paper, an American pulp and paper company* Iraqi Police* Atyrau Airways (IATA code: IP)* Italiana Petroli (IP Gruppo api), an Italian petroleum company" ], [ "Places", "* Ipswich, for Ipswich and surrounding areas, England* Ip, Sălaj, Romania* Ip (river), a river in Sălaj County, Romania* IP Casino Resort Spa, in Biloxi, Mississippi, US" ], [ "Science and technology", "===Biology and medicine===* Immunoprecipitation, a molecular biology technique* Incontinentia pigmenti, a genetic disorder* Infundibulopelvic ligament, part of the female pelvis* Interphalangeal joint (disambiguation)* Interventional pulmonology, a less invasive lung treatment than surgery* Intestinal permeability* Intraperitoneal injection (IP injection), the injection of a substance into the peritoneum* Prostacyclin receptor (symbol PTGIR, older synonym IP)===Computing===* Internet Protocol, a set of rules for sending data across a network** IP address, a numerical label assigned to each device connected to a computer network* IP (complexity), a class in computational complexity theory* IP core (intellectual property core), a reusable design unit owned by one party* Instruction pointer, a processor register* Intelligent Peripheral, a part of a public telecommunications Intelligent Network* Image processing* ip, a Linux command in the iproute2 collection===Other science and technology===* IP code (Ingress Protection code), an equipment protection classification scheme* Identified patient, a psychology term* Identity preserved, an agricultural designation* Induced polarization, a geophysical imaging technique* Intercept point, a measure in amplifiers and mixers* Ion plating, a chemical process" ], [ "Law and government", "* Inspector of Police, a rank in police forces of India.", "* Intellectual property, creations of the mind for which exclusive legal rights are recognized* Industrial property, similar to intellectual property but including trademarks and excluding artistic copyright* Insolvency practitioner, a legal specialist* Industrial policy, a country's effort to encourage the development of certain sectors of the economy* Integrated project (EU), a type of research project* Immunity passport* I/P, sometimes used as shorthand for the Israeli–Palestinian conflict" ], [ "Other uses", "* Ip (cuneiform)* Ip (surname)* Inflectional phrase, a functional phrase that has inflectional properties* Innings pitched, a baseball statistic* Integrated Programme, an academic scheme in Singapore* ''Internationale Politik'', a German political journal* Item and Process, a linguistic method to describe phenomena of allomorphy" ], [ "See also", "* IP in IP, an IP tunneling protocol* List of IP version numbers* Ip Man (disambiguation)* * IP3 (disambiguation)* IP5 (disambiguation)* Independence Party (disambiguation)* Independent Party (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "List of Italian dishes" ], [ "Introduction", " (left) and pizza Margherita (DOC) (right)Tiramisu is an Italian dessert.This is a '''list of Italian dishes and foods'''.", "Italian cuisine has developed through centuries of social and political changes, with roots as far back as the 4th century BC.", "Italian cuisine has its origins in Etruscan, ancient Greek, and ancient Roman cuisines.Significant changes occurred with the discovery of the New World and the introduction of potatoes, tomatoes, bell peppers and maize, now central to the cuisine, but not introduced in quantity until the 18th century.Italian cuisine includes deeply rooted traditions common to the whole country, as well as all the regional gastronomies, different from each other, especially between the north, the centre and the south of Italy, which are in continuous exchange.", "Many dishes that were once regional have proliferated with variations throughout the country.", "Italian cuisine offers an abundance of taste, and is one of the most popular and copied around the world.", "The most popular dishes and recipes, over the centuries, have often been created by ordinary people more so than by chefs, which is why many Italian recipes are suitable for home and daily cooking, respecting regional specificities.The Mediterranean diet forms the basis of Italian cuisine, rich in pasta, fish, fruits and vegetables.", "Cheese, cold cuts and wine are central to Italian cuisine, and along with pizza and coffee (especially espresso) form part of Italian gastronomic culture.", "Desserts have a long tradition of merging local flavours such as citrus fruits, pistachio and almonds with sweet cheeses like mascarpone and ricotta or exotic tastes as cocoa, vanilla and cinnamon.", "Gelato, tiramisu and cassata are among the most famous examples of Italian desserts, cakes and patisserie.", "Italian cuisine relies heavily on traditional products; the country has a large number of traditional specialities protected under EU law.", "Italy is the world's largest producer of wine, as well as the country with the widest variety of indigenous grapevine varieties in the world." ], [ "Dishes and foods", "The cuisine of Italy has many unique dishes and foods.===Soups and sauces===* – an Italian soup that was originally a peasant food.", "Historically, its primary ingredients were water, stale bread, onion, tomato and olive oil, along with various vegetables and leftover foods that may have been available.", "* (Sicilian snail soup)* * * * * * , , * * , * * * * * Fondue* * * * * Macaroni soup* * * , , (or ), * Minestrone* (sometime also called )* * * * * * * * Pesto, * * Ragù – a meat-based sauce commonly served with pasta, (), , , , (), ()* * * * * * * Walnut soup* , , , , , , , , (or ), ===Bread===A focacciaPanino* * Bruschetta* * Ciabatta – an Italian white bread made from wheat flour, water, salt, olive oil, and yeast, created in 1982 by a baker in Adria, Veneto, Italy, in response to popularity of French baguettes* * * – typical bread of Rome* * * * * * * Crostini* * , * * * Focaccia, , ( or in Venetian language)* * * * – typical bread of Milan* * Muffuletta* * * * , * * * (Lazio)* * * * * * * * ()* * , * * * * – traditional crusty peasant bread* (or outside Tuscany) – without salt* Panettone* * * * Panino* * * * , * Pita – typical bread of Catanzaro* Pizza di Pasqua () – a rustic pizza with cheese and pepper from the Teramo area* , * * – typical bread of Rome* * * * * * * * * ===Common pizzas===Neapolitan pizza (Margherita)* Calzone – folded over dough usually filled with ricotta and other ingredients* – from Chieti; a dough of risen eggs and cheese, baked in a thin pastry shell* Panzerotto* Pizza ai frutti di mare – an Italian seafood pizza that may be served with scampi, mussels or squid* Pizza ai quattro formaggi () – with four different cheeses, typically Parmesan, Gorgonzola, ricotta and mozzarella (sometimes melted together, sometimes in sectors), with (rossa, red) or without tomato sauce (bianca, white)* (Italian for pizza by the slice) – a variety of pizza baked in large rectangular trays, and generally sold in rectangular or square slices by weight, with prices marked per kilogram or per 100 grams.", "This type of pizza was invented in Rome, Italy, and is common throughout Italy.", "* (or ) – a small pan pizza common to Piedmont* Pizza capricciosa – with tomato, mozzarella, mushrooms, artichokes, black and green olives* () – shallow-fried pizza* Pizza Margherita – tomato and mozzarella* Pizza marinara – tomato, oregano and garlic* Pizza napoletana () – tomato, mozzarella and anchovy* – tomato, mozzarella and onions* Pizza quattro stagioni () – based on tomato and divided in four sectors, one for each season:* Pizza romana () – tomato, mozzarella, capers and anchovy* Pizza siciliana () and ) – tomato, mozzarella, capers, olive and anchovy===Pasta varieties===A collection of different pasta varietiesSpaghettiMacaroni* * Agnolotti, * * * * Bucatini* * * Cannelloni* Capellini* * Cappelletti* * * Conchiglie* * , * * * * Eliche* Farfalle* * Fettuccine* * Fusilli* * Gnocchi* – dumplings made with semolina flour* * Lasagna* * * Linguine* * Macaroni* * , * (Sardinian pasta)* * * * * Orecchiette* Orzo* * * * * * Pappardelle* * * Penne* * * * * , , * Rigatoni* Spaghetti* * – means \"little stars\" in Italian.", "The pasta is shaped like small stars.", "* * * * * Tagliatelle* (or tagliarini)* – sometimes served with pesto* Tortelli* Tortellini* * * Trofie* * Vermicelli* Ziti===Pasta dishes===, dressed in butter and sageBaked lasagne with ragù* * , * * * * , , , * , , * * * * * , , * Carbonara* * * * * * * * * * * * * * , * * * * * , * * * * , , , , , , , , * * * , also known as ()* * Lasagna, , , * – with clam sauce* * * * * , , , , , * * * * * * * * , ,* * * – a type of huge ravioli, * , , * * , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , * * , * , * * * * Ravioli, , , , , , * , , * , , (or )* * * * , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , * * * * * , , , , , , * , , , , , * (or )* * * , , , , , , , * , * , * * , * , , * * * * , ===Rice dishes===Arancini with Rice dishes are very common in northern Italy, especially in the Lombardy and Veneto regions, though rice dishes are found throughout the country.", "* Arancini* * * * * * * – rice and peas* Risotto, , , , , , , – risotto prepared with Gorgonzola cheese, , , , , – risotto with saffron, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , * * * ===Fish dishes===A variation of , a fish dish featuring black olives, scallions and mushrooms* , * * * * * * * ()* , , , , , * , * * * * , * * * * * * * * * , , * , , * * – fried squid, (or )* * * * * * * ()* , * * * , , * , , * * * * * – stuffed sardines, , , , , * * * , * , * , , * * * , , * , * , ()* , * * * ===Meat dishes and cured meats===Rabbit , polenta and lentils with potatoes''Bruscitti'' served with ''polenta'' porridge* , , , * , , * * * (Umbrian guanciale)* (beefsteak Florentine style)* * Braciola, * * * Bresaola* * * * – refers to a meal prepared \"hunter-style\" with onions, herbs, usually tomatoes, often bell peppers, and sometimes wine.", "* * * * , * * * * * * * * , or , * , , , * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Genoa salami* Goulash or * (or )* * Guanciale* * * * * * * * , * * * , * * * Mortadella, * * * 'Nduja* * ()* * Ossobuco, * Pancetta* * * * * * * * * * , * * * (or )* , , * (), (), , , , , , , * * * * * (or )* , , , , , , * * Salami* (), ()* , * , * * * * , , * * Speck, , * , * * , of various varieties* * * * * * (* , , * * * , * ===Vegetable dishes===Caponata* (asparagus)* Caponata – a Sicilian aubergine (eggplant) dish consisting of a cooked vegetable salad made from chopped fried eggplant and celery seasoned with sweetened vinegar, with capers in a sweet and sour sauce* , * * ()* (or )* * * * () – a salad of tomatoes, mozzarella and basil, () – a typical salad dish of Sicilian and Spanish cuisine which uses oranges as its main ingredient.", "It is usually served at the beginning or at the end of a meal, , , () – a salad consisting of tomatoes, boiled potatoes, red onions and mackerel (or fresh cheese) and seasoned with olive oil, oregano, salt and capers* * , , , , , * – a Tuscan salad of bread and tomatoes, popular in the summer* * * * , * * – Italian-style crudités* * * * * Stuffed eggplant (aubergine)* * ===Nut dishes===* Chestnut pie – has been documented back to the 15th century in Italy, in the book (English: ''On honest indulgence and good health'') written by the Italian writer and gastronomist Bartolomeo Platina.===Wines===Tuscan Chianti in a traditional A glass of LambruscoSangiovese grapesVineyards in Langhe and Montferrat, Piedmont, the official name of a UNESCO World Heritage Site comprising \"five distinct wine-growing areas with outstanding landscapes\" plus the Castle of Grinzane Cavour in the region of Piedmont, Italy.DOCG and DOC labels on two Italian wine bottlesChianti region* Abruzzo** Montepulciano d'Abruzzo** Trebbiano d'Abruzzo* Basilicata** Aglianico del Vulture** Grottino di Roccanova** Matera** Terre dell'Alta Val d'Agri* Calabria** Cirò* Campania** Aglianico del Taburno** Campi Flegrei Piedirosso** Falanghina** Falerno del Massico** Fiano di Avellino** Greco di Tufo** Lacryma Christi** Solopaca** Taurasi* Emilia-Romagna** Albana** Bonarda** Gutturnio** Lambrusco** Pignoletto** Sangiovese** Trebbiano* Friuli-Venezia Giulia** Friulano** Pignolo** Ramandolo** Refosco dal peduncolo rosso** Ribolla Gialla** Schiopettino** Tazzelenghe** Verduzzo friulano* Lazio** Marino* Liguria** Cinque Terre* Lombardy** Oltrepò Pavese** Barbera** Bonarda** Conero** Franciacorta** Sassella** Grumello** Inferno* Marche** Colli Maceratesi** Falerio dei Colli Ascolani** Rosso Piceno Superiore** Spumante Brut** Valcalepio* Piedmont** Acqui** Alba** Asti** Barolo** Carema Riserva** Colli Tortonesi** Gattinara** Gavi** Grignolino** Langhe** Monferrato** Nebbiolo** Nizza** Ovada* Apulia (Puglia)** Malvasia** Negroamaro* Sardinia** Cagliari** Cannonau** Monti** Nuragus** Ogliastra* Sicily** Cerasuolo di Vittoria** Donna Fugata** Etna DOC** Noto** Passito di Pantelleria** Marsala** Nero d'Avola* Trentino** Marzemino* Tuscany** Bolgheri** Brunello di Montalcino** Carmignano** Chianti** Colli Apuani** Colli Etruria Centrale** Colline Lucchesi** Elba** Montalcino** Montescudaio** Moscadello di Montalcino** Nipozzano** Parrina** Pitigliano** San Gimignano** Scansano** Val di Chiana** Val di Cornia** Valdinievole** Valle di Arbia** Vino Nobile di Montepulciano** Vin Santo Toscano (or Vin Santo)* Umbria** Grechetto** Orvieto** Rosso di Montefalco** Sagrantino** Torgiano* Veneto** Amarone** Bardolino** Colli Euganei** Conegliano Veneto** Custoza** Prosecco** Soave** Valdobbiadene** Valpolicella===Liqueurs===* Centerbe* Limoncello* Nocello* Nocino===Cheeses===GorgonzolaParmigiano ReggianoStracchinoPecorino romanoAsiagoTaleggio* Acceglio* Alpkäse* Ambra di Talamello* Asiago* Asino* Bastardo del Grappa* Bel Paese* Bitto* Bocconcini* Bra* Burrata* Burrino* Caciocavallo* Cacio figurato* Cacioricotta* Caciotta* Caciottella* Calcagno* Canestrato* Caprino* Casciotta d'Urbino* Caso peruto* Castelmagno* Castelrosso* Casu martzu* Crescenza* Crotonese* Crucolo* Crutin* Dolcelatte* Fior di latte* Fontina* Formai de Mut dell'Alta Valle Brembana* Gorgonzola* Grana Padano* Liptauer* Malga* Mascarpone* Montasio* Monte Re* Monte Veronese* Morlacco del Grappa* Mozzarella, mozzarella di bufala, mozzarella di bufala campana* Murazzano* Padraccio* Parmigiano Reggiano (Parmesan)* Pecorino* Pecorino di Carmasciano* Pecorino di Forenza* Pecorino romano* Pecorino sardo* Piave* Provola, provola affumicata, provola silana* Provolone* Puzzone di Moena* Quartirolo Lombardo* Ragusano* Raschera* Ricotta* Ricotta di fuscella* Ricotta salata* Robiola* Rosa Camuna* Salva* Scamorza* Silter* Spongarda* Squacquerone* Stracchino* Taleggio* Toma* Valtellina Casera====Cheese dishes====* Mozzarella in carrozza* ===Desserts and pastry===A semifreddo dessertZeppole* – fruit preserves made with vinegar, honey, and grape juice* * (cookie)* * * * Biscotti, * Biscuit Tortoni* * , * * * * * * * * * * * , * * * * , * * * * * * * * Gelato* * and – hazelnut chocolates or spread* * * Granita* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Panna cotta* * * * * * , * * * * Profiterole* * * * * * * * Semifreddo* , * * * – tiny fritters held together with honey and decorated with multi-colored sprinkles* * * * Tiramisu* * , , , , , , , , , * * * * (or )* * Zeppola, * ===Coffee===Espresso is coffee brewed by forcing a small amount of nearly boiling water under pressure through finely ground coffee beans.", "* – coffee, hot chocolate and whipped cream, only in Turin* , made with a * – believed to have originated in World War II, when American G.I.s in Italy would dilute espresso with hot water to approximate the coffee to which they were accustomed.", "* * Caffè latte* or – espresso over ice with addition of almond milk instead of sugar, typical in Salento* * , made with a moka pot* , an Italian sweet iced coffee drink* Cappuccino* * Espresso – known generally in Italy simply as caffè* – coffee and served in a traditional bulbous wooden loving cup, shaped like a multi-spouted teapot, and drunk in the Aosta Valley and Piedmont* , similar to a caffè latte, but with less coffee* – similar to a small cappuccino, invariably served in a glass, and drunk mainly in Turin, in the whole Piedmont and in Milan; similar to the * Ristretto* \"\".", "A once popular high energy breakfast, item enjoyed by children.===Other foods===* * * * * , , * * , * Frittata, * * * * * * (also known as or * * * * * * * * * * , , , , , * , , , * * * * ===Unique dishes and foods by region=======Friuli-Venezia Giulia====* Asino – cheese of Carnic Prealps* or – cooked turnips that were preserved in marc* – sort of tortellini with a ricotta filling, of the Carnic Alps* – leavened cake of Viennese origin* Formadi frânt and formadi salât – cheeses* – sliced cooked potatoes with onions and Montasio cheese* – cake made with a very rich filling of dry fruits, raisins and candied citron* – small fried crescent, made with a kind of potato dumpling dough* Montasio – cheese of the Friuli* DOP, famous ham exported all over the world* Scuete fumade – sweet smoked ricotta* , of Cormons and of the Carso plateau* ====Veneto====* – a type of pasta similar to tagliatelle but bigger with a sauce of liver of the duck* or – pastries* – boiled meats with pepper sauce, most common in the province of Verona* – a soup of pasta and beans* – polenta accompanied with roasted wild birds* – raw or cooked radicchio salad with pancetta* – rice with young peas* – fried, marinated sardines====Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol====*  – aromatized salt beef with beans* – *  – barley soup* Speck – a type of salume from the historical-geographical region of Tyrol and generally obtained from pork leg subjected to a process of cold-smoking*  – spinach dumplings*  – a typical Trentino Alto Adige first course, similar to in flavour, different in form*  – a typical dessert of the Christmas tradition of the Trentino-Alto Adige region.", "Made with dried fruit (pine nuts, walnuts, almonds) and candied fruit.", "*  (in dialect ()) – typical fried dessert from the Trentino-Alto Adige culture*  – Austro-Hungarian culinary artefact, served in every alpine hut with plenty of \"currant jam\" () on top====Lombardy====PanettoneOssobuco with Bresaola served with bread, olives and onions with Pavese stew-based sauceTaleggio* – a type of egg-based stuffed pasta originating from the province of Mantua (in the Mantuan dialect they are commonly called ''agnulìn'' or ''agnulì''), often eaten in soup or broth* – a type of egg-based stuffed pasta served dry, with a sauce based on Pavese stew, or in goose broth* – a type of , a bitter-sweet flavored macaron, that is traditional to Saronno, a of Lombardy* Bel Paese – a semi-soft cheese.", "It was invented in 1906 by Egidio Galbani who wanted to produce a mild and delicate cheese to sell mainly in Italy.", "The name Bel Paese comes from the title of a book written by Antonio Stoppani (though the reference is much older, being used by Dante and Petrarch).", "It is Italian for \"beautiful country\", and is used as a phrase for Italy itself.", "* – an artisanal sweet leavened bread originating from the Valtellina valley of Lombardy, Italy.", "It is typically prepared for Christmas during which time it is an essential component of Christmas festivities.", "* Bitto – a DOP () cheese produced in the Valtelline Valley, in Lombardy.", "It owes its name to the Bitto River.", "Bitto is produced only in the summer months, when the cows feed on the high alpine meadows.", "* Bresaola – an air-dried, salted beef (but it can also be made of horse, venison and pork) that has been aged two or three months until it becomes hard and turns a dark red, almost purple color.", "It is made from top (inside) round, and it is lean and tender, with a sweet, musty smell.", "* – a braised meat dish cut very thin and cooked in wine and fennel seeds, historically obtained by stripping leftover meat.", "Originating from Alto Milanese, are common in the whole Insubria.", "* – a kind of stuffed pasta, typical of the culinary tradition of Lombardy, in the north-central part of Italy* – a typical winter dish popular in Western Lombardy.", "The dish has a strong, decisive flavour, and was a favourite of conductor Arturo Toscanini.", "One writer describes it as a \"noble, ancient Milanese dish\", and writes of the inexpressible \"pleasure that it furnishes the soul as well as the palate, especially on a wintry day\".", "* – a traditional Easter bread, the counterpart of the two well-known Italian Christmas desserts, panettone and * – a popular variety of found in the city of Milan.", "It is traditionally prepared with a veal rib chop or sirloin bone-in and made into a breaded cutlet, fried in butter.", "* Gorgonzola – a veined PDO Italian blue cheese, made from unskimmed cow's milk.", "It can be buttery or firm, crumbly and quite salty, with a \"bite\" from its blue veining.", "Outside the EU and the countries recognizing the geographical origin protection, the name \"Gorgonzola\" can legally be used for similar cheeses, with only the full Italian name unambiguously referring to PDO Gorgonzola.", "It is a famously pungent cheese.", "* Mascarpone – a soft acid-set cream cheese.", "It is recognized in Italy as a (\"traditional agri-food product\"; PAT).", "* – a white bread, recognizable by its bulged shape* – meatballs typical of Milanese cuisine in the Italian region of Lombardy.", "The main ingredient of the dish is leftover meat, usually beef because of its popularity in Milan: the dish was developed to use up leftover cuts of beef.", "The meatballs are also enriched with sausage, raw salami, liver, mortadella and other pork.", "The first attested recipe for dates back to 1839.", "* – a spicy cookie typical of Crema, Lombardy, Italy.", "Mainly used in the preparation of the filling of , it includes nutmeg, cinnamon, cloves, mace, cilantro, star anise, black pepper and cocoa among the ingredients.", "It has a spicy flavour.", "* – a sweet/spicy sauce made with candied fruits and meant to be served along boiled beef* – a small sweet -style biscuits with hazelnut flour* Ossobuco – a specialty of Lombard cuisine of cross-cut veal shanks braised with vegetables, white wine, and broth.", "It is often garnished with gremolata and traditionally served with either or polenta, depending on the regional variation.", "The marrow in the hole in the bone, a prized delicacy, is the defining feature of the dish.", "* – a typical Lombard dessert, from the provinces of Milan, Monza, Lodi, Lecco and Como.", "is a small sweet flatbread flavored with elderflower.", "* Panettone – a Milanese Christmas traditional sweet bread made with a yeast and egg dough along with candied citrus peel, and raisins* – buckwheat tagliatelle dressed with potatoes, greens (often Swiss chard or spinach), butter and Bitto cheese: a speciality of the Valtellina* Quartirolo Lombardo – a soft cheese made with cow's milk, which has a Protected designation of origin (PDO) status* – a stirred rice dish made with Vialone or Carnaroli rice flavored with saffron and beef marrow* Rosa Camuna – a mild semi-hard paste cheese made with partially skimmed cow's milk.", "Its shape and name come from the Camunian rose of Val Camonica where the cheese is produced.", "* * Salva – a cheese from Crema (PDO) made with raw curd.", "It is a washed-rind cheese that undergoes a medium or long aging period.", "* Silter – a hard cheese made within the Alpine Lombardy region around province of Brescia and surrounding areas and traditionally produced with unpasteurised cows milk during summer months and September.", "It is brined.", "* Spongarda – a local cake with its origins in Crema.", "The Lombardy region includes it as \"\" in the list of traditional food products.", "* Taleggio – a semisoft, washed-rind, smear-ripened Italian cheese that is named after Val Taleggio.", "The cheese has a thin crust and a strong aroma, but its flavour is comparatively mild with an unusual fruity tang.", "Taleggio and similar cheeses have been around since Roman times, with Cicero, Cato the Elder, and Pliny the Elder all mentioning it in their writings.", "* – a candy made of honey, sugar, and egg white, with toasted almonds or hazelnuts* – a typical autumnal dessert from the northern Italian town of Crema.", "It is presented in a round shape, but it is often available cut into slices.", "It has a golden brown hue and the fragrance of the small American or Concord grapes which are one of its main ingredients.", "The crust has an uneven texture with small holes in it.", "* – a typical cake of Mantuan and Brescian cuisine.", "It is made with leavened dough rich in butter and sugar, which is rolled up and placed in the baking tin, taking the characteristic shape of a basket of rosebuds, hence the name.", "* – a cake of the Lombard cuisine, notably from Brianza.", "Its main ingredients are stale bread, milk and cocoa, often enriched with biscuits, , sugar, pine seeds, raisins, candied orange and citron and aromatized with anise.", "* – ravioli with a squash filling* Valtellina Casera – a cheese made from semi-skimmed cows' milk in the northern Italian province of Sondrio.", "Its origins date back to the sixteenth century and it is much used in the cuisine of the Valtellina: particularly in dishes based on buckwheat flour such as pizzoccheri and sciatt ( in Lombard language).", "* – a sweet of the Lombard cuisine covered with sugar grains or almond icing.", "It is served in two versions: the bigger one is consumed during Christmas, like panettone; the smaller one is eaten as breakfast, along with cappuccino, like croissants.", "Veneziana is butter and flour-based and uses sourdough as leavening; the smaller version is usually plain, sometimes filled with custard, while the bigger version contains candied orange.", "* – a soup consisting of broth into which slices of stale bread and poached eggs are placed.", "It is generally served with grated Parmesan.", "Usually in Lombardy either Grana Padano or Granone Lodigiano are used.====Valle D'Aosta====* – rice cake with ox tongue* – savoy cabbage stew thickened with stale bread====Piedmont==== with ingredientsPanna cotta with cream and garnish* – a hot dip based on anchovies, olive oil and garlic (sometimes blanched in milk), to accompany vegetables (either raw or cooked), meat or fried polenta sticks* * – stew made from wine marinated beef* – semolina dumpling* – jugged hare*  – a dish based on rice with borlotti beans, and red wine* – a dish based on rice with borlotti beans, and red wine* Panna cotta – sweetened cream set with gelatin* – winter pears in red wine* – risotto cooked with meat broth and seasoned with nutmeg, Parmesan and truffle* – veal in tuna sauce* – fried frogs* – risotto with frogs* – pork salami aged under a thick layer of lard====Liguria====* – the direct ancestor of pesto, it is a spread made from garlic cloves, egg yolk and olive oil pestled in a mortar until creamy.", "* – morsels of salt cod dipped in flour batter and fried* – a soup made with fresh anchovies, onion, olive oil and tomato sauce where crusty bread is then dipped; originally prepared by fishermen on long fishing expeditions and eaten with hard tack instead of bread.", "* – whitebait of anchovies and sardines, usually boiled and eaten with lemon juice, salt and olive oil as an entrée* – seafood stew* – a preparation of fish, shellfishes and vegetables layered in an aspic* – a stew made of goat meat and white beans, a typical dish of the hinterland of Imperia* – this cold preparation features an outer layer of beef breast made into a pocket and stuffed with a mix of brain, lard, onion, carrot, peas, eggs and breadcrumbs, then sewn and boiled.", "It is then sliced and eaten as an entrée or a sandwich filler.", "* – sweet corn tarts* – a salad made with tomatoes, bell peppers, cucumber, black olives, basil, garlic, anchovies, hard boiled egg, oregano and tuna* – a preparation similar to chickpea farinata substituting pumpkin for the legumes' flour as its main ingredient; the result is slightly sweeter and thicker than the original.", "* – similar to , but with added veal* – a thick milk based cream left to solidify, then cut in rectangular pieces which are breaded and fried* – a traditional Savonese soup uniting macaroni pasta, tripe, onion, carrot, sausage, \"\", which is the Italian word for Swiss chard, parsley, and white wine in a base of capon broth, with olive oil to help make it satisyfing.", "Tomato may be added but that is not the traditional way to make it (traditional ingredients: chicken or capon broth, carrot, onion, parsley, thistle leaves, veal tripe, pork sausage, , white wine, butter, olive oil, Parmesan cheese, salt).", "* – a soup of chickpeas, beans and wheat grains, typical of eastern Liguria and likely of Arab origin* – originally a cut of dolphin meat dried and then made tender again thanks to immersion in olive oil, for several decades tuna has replaced dolphin meat* – sweet bread made with raisins, pine nuts and candied orange and cedar skins* – a kind of semifreddo rich in cream and eggs flavoured with coffee, similar to a cappuccino in ice cream form* and – chickpea-based polentas and pancakes respectively* Pesto – probably Liguria's most famous recipe, widely enjoyed beyond regional borders, is a green sauce made from basil leaves, sliced garlic, pine nuts, pecorino or Parmesan (or a mix of both) and olive oil.", "Traditionally used as a pasta dressing (especially with gnocchi or , it is finding wider uses as sandwich spread and finger-food filler).", "* – focaccia-style pizza topped with tomato slices (not sauce) onions and anchovies* – fried fish marinated in wine, garlic, lemon juice and sage, typical of Moneglia* – fritters made from bread dough (often incorporating some cornmeal in it)* – wooden skewers alternating morsels of leftover chicken meats (crests, testicles, livers...) and mushrooms, dipped in white béchamel sauce, left to dry a bit and then breaded and fried* – a salami made from all kind of leftover meats from pork butchering (especially from the head)* – unlike all other rice cakes this preparation is not sweet, but a savoury pie made with rice, caillé, Parmesan and eggs, it can be wrapped in a thin layer of dough or simply baked until firm.", "* – savory flan filled with a mixture of green vegetables, ricotta and Parmesan cheese, milk and marjoram; some eggs are then poured in the already-placed filling, so that their yolks will remain whole when cooked.", "* – pasta with pesto (olive oil, garlic, basil, Parmesan and cheese) sauce====Emilia-Romagna====Boiled (top) served with polenta and lentils* Traditional balsamic vinegar and balsamic vinegar – very precious, expensive and rare sweet, dark, sweet and aromatic vinegar, made in small quantities according to elaborated and time-consuming procedures (it takes at least 12 years to brew the youngest ''aceto balsamico'') from local grapes must (look for the essential denomination on the label to avoid confusing it with the cheaper and completely different vinegar, mass-produced from wine and other ingredients* – from the hills south of Modena* Cannelloni, and – pasta filled with béchamel, cream, ham and others* – large size filled egg pasta with chestnut puree and sweet , from Romagna* Cappelletti – small egg pasta \"hats\" filled with ricotta, parsley, Parmesan and nutmeg, sometimes also chicken breast or pork and lemon zest, from Emilia, in particular Reggio* – hat shaped bag of pork rind with stuffing similar to 's, to be boiled (from Parma, Reggio Emilia and Modena)* – cold meat made with pig's feet and head from Modena* – cured pork neck form Piacenza and Parma* – big raw spiced pork sausage to be boiled, stuffing rich in pork rind (from Emilia provinces)* Baked or (currently known also as \"\", that is the traditional name of the stone dies which were baked between) – a small round (approx.", "8 cm diameter, 1 cm or less thick) flat bread from the Modena Apennine Mountains* – flat bread from Bologna and Modena: to be fried in pork fat or baked between hot dies (see above)* – a cured ham made with the most tender of the pork rump: the best is from the small Zibello () area, in Parma lowlands.", "* – spinach and cheese filled pie from Reggio Emilia* – broad beans with mortadella* – typical Romagna quill shaped egg pasta usually dressed with guanciale ('cheek bacon'), peas, Parmesan and a hint of cream* – fried pastry puffs from Modena ( was a very local name: until few decades ago it was unknown even in neighbouring Emilian provinces where different denominations, i.e.", "in Bologna, for similar fried puffs).", "* – typical Bologna short and small diameter curly pasta pipes with sausage ragù* Mortadella – baked sweet and aromatic pork sausage from Bologna* – very rich Christmas dried fruit and nut dessert with almonds, candies and a lot of sweet spices* Parmesan – prized ancient long-aged cheese from Reggio Emilia, Parma, Modena and Bologna* – noodles made of breadcrumbs, Parmesan cheese, lemon zest and nutmeg from Romagna – cured pork back fat pounded with garlic, rosemary and Parmesan used to fill and baked * – a sweet focaccia topped with raisins, almonds, walnuts, and pine nuts, native to Rimini, and traditionally eaten in November for All Souls' Day* – fried Romagna pastry rectangles* – pancake shaped flat bread (from Romagna) which can be smaller and higher or larger and very thin* – jam-filled pastry* – pasta peas with beans from Piacenza* – salami from province of Parma* – soft sausage from Ferrara, seasonal* – gourmet salami from a small town near Parma; it is made with seasoned pork shoulder, stuffed in cow bladders and slowly boiled or steamed.", "* – very rich Christmas time thin tart: a soft crust with flour sugar dusting, stuffed with finely broken almonds and other nuts, candies and a lot of sweet spices, from Reggio Emilia* Squacquerone – sweet, runny, milky cheese from Romagna* Tagliatelle – egg pasta noodles, very popular across Emilia-Romagna; they are made in slightly different thickness, width and length according to local practise (in Bologna the authentic size of bolognese is officially registered at the local Chamber of Commerce).", "* – roasted pigeons popular in Emilia* o (\"Barozzi tart\" or \"black tart\") – a dessert made with a coffee/cocoa and almond filling encased in a fine pastry dough (from Modena)* – griddle baked pasta rectangles filed with potato and pumpkin puree and sausage or bacon bits* Tortelli – usually square, made in all Emilia-Romagna, filled with Swiss chard or spinach, ricotta and Parmesan in Romagna or ricotta, parsley, Parmesan in Bologna (where they are called \"\") and Emilia, or with potatoes and pancetta in the Apennine mountains* Tortellini – small egg pasta navel shapes filled with lean pork, eggs, Parmesan, mortadella, and nutmeg (from Bologna and Modena: according to a legend, they were invented in Castelfranco Emilia by a peeping innkeeper after the navel of a beautiful guest)* – stuffed pig's trotter, fat, but leaner than 's, stuffing; to be boiled (from Modena)====Tuscany====* – grilled Florentine T-bone steak traditionally from the Chianina cattle breed* – Tuscan cream* – pig's liver forcemeat stuffed into pig's stomach and baked in a slow oven with stock and red wine* – ossobuco \"Tuscan-style\"* – fresh seasonal raw or slightly blanched vegetables served with seasoned olive oil for dipping* – twice-cooked vegetable soup* – cooked abomasumTuscan bread specialties* – baked on a bed of chestnut leaves and served on Good Friday* – from the Maremma made from maize* – round loaf fried in olive oil* – classic Tuscan unsalted bread* – made from maize flour* – a rosemary bread seasoned with sugar and salt.", "The bread was originally served during Holy Week decorated with a cross on top and sold at the Church by ; it is, however, offered year round now.", "* – equal parts wheat and maize flour, with pine nuts and raisins added* – unsalted bread made with semolina with a crisp crust* – a bread from the Garfagnana area, with pork cracklings mixed in* – in other areas this bread often takes the form of small loaves or rolls, but in Tuscany it is a rolled-out dough with red grapes incorporated into it and sprinkled with sugar.", "It is bread served often in the autumn in place of dessert and often served with figs.", "* – Lunigiana specialty made with flour, water and salt baked over red-hot coals and served with cheese and olive oil* – an Easter bread with a high fat content, containing raisins, saffron, and spices.", "It is consecrated in a church before being served with eggs.", "* – sweet rolls eaten on the feast day of St. Anthony* – dough rolled out onto baking sheet and can have pork cracklings, herbs, potatoes and/or tomatoes added to the top along with a salt and olive oil* – made with a fine flour, salt dough with yeast and olive oil* – sandwich====Umbria====* – lentil stew with sausages* – spelt soup* ( – spit-roasted pigeon* – carp in fennel sauceSpecialties of the Norcineria (Umbrian Butcher)* – cured, matured pig's cheek* – smoked, spiced pig intestines eaten raw, spit-roasted, or broiled* – Sausage highly seasoned with garlic and pepper* – sausage made from the pig's head* – sweet or hot pig's liver sausage, the sweet version containing raisins, orange peel and sugar* – a pressed, cured ham made from the legs of pigs fed on a strict diet of acorns====Marche====* – fish stew, San Benedetto del Tronto-style, with green tomatoes and sweet green pepper* – fish stew, without tomato, wild saffron spiced* – fried stoned olives stuffed with pork, beef, chicken, eggs and Parmesan in Ascoli Piceno – spinach and meat dumplingsUnique ham and sausage specialties* – in this region refers to a boiling sausage made from pig's head, bacon, orange peel, nutmeg and sometimes pinenuts or almonds.", "It is meant to be eaten within a month of preparation.", "* – made from the belly and shoulder of pig with half its weight in pork fat and seasoned with salt, pepper, orange peel and fennel.", "It is stuffed into an intestine casing, dried in a smoking chamber and cured for three weeks.", "* – a liver sausage with pork belly and shoulder, where the liver replaces the fat of other sausages* – mortadella made from fat and lean pork with liver and lung added to the fine-grained emulsification.", "It is seasoned with salt and pepper, stuffed into casings and smoked.", "This sausage is often served at festivals.", "* – made from free-range black pigs, this is a smoked prosciutto washed with vinegar and ground black pepper* – made from the leg and loin meat of the black pig, this sausage is highly seasoned with peppercorns and hung to dry* – similar to , except that it is made solely from leg of pork with pepper and salt* – made with lean pork shoulder, or leg meat, along with diced bacon, salt, pepper, and whole peppercorns.", "It is cased in hog's intestines, dried for one-and-a-half days and then placed in a warm room for 3–4 days, two days in a cold room and then two months in a ventilated storage room.", "* – finely emulsified pork flavored with bacon, salt and pepper.", "The sausage is smoked and then aged.====Lazio====Gnocchi* – bucatini with guanciale, tomatoes and pecorino* – artichokes fried in olive oil, typical of Roman Jewish cooking* – artichokes Roman-style; outer leaves removed, stuffed with mint, garlic, breadcrumbs and braised* – oxtail ragout* * – veal cutlet, Roman-style; topped with raw ham and sage and simmered with white wine and butter* – spaghetti with eggs, guanciale and pecorino====Abruzzo and Molise====* – lamb stuffed with grated pecorino and eggs* * – skewered pieces of meat* – a narrow stripped pasta served with a sauce of tomatoes, bacon and pecorino* (also known as ) – a long (single) hand made pasta served with tomato sauce* – mini mozzarella cheese coated with a batter flavored with saffron* – a cake-like dessert made from a mixture of flour and crushed almonds, and coated in chocolate* – a layered (with two or three cream fillings – white custard, chocolate or almond) sponge cake, that is soaked with alchermes (if you can find it) or rum.", "* (also known as ) – a thin, cookie made with a waffle iron device, often flavored with anise* * – Abruzzo crêpes (flour, water and eggs), seasoned with pecorino, rolled and served in chicken broth* – mutton sauce made with onion, rosemary, bacon, white wine, and tomatoes* – a lasagne made with scripelle (Abruzzo crêpes) layered with a ragout of beef, pork, onion, carrot and celery, also layered with mushrooms, crumbled hard boiled egg, peas and béchamel sauce====Campania====* – pork loin with tomatoes sauce, garlic, capers and pine nuts* – fish caponata; bread (baked in the shape of a donut), anchovies, tuna, lemon juice, olive oil and pepper* – Neapolitan Easter pie with Parmesan, pecorino, eggs, salami, bacon, and pepper* – a Neapolitan potato casserole with ham, Parmesan and pecorino* – fried Neapolitan \"doughnuts\" made with flour, potato, yeast and sugar* Caprese salad – salad of tomatoes, mozzarella and basil* Limoncello – lemon liqueur* – macaroni with Neapolitan sauce; a sauce of braised beef, carrot, celery, onion, garlic, white wine, tomato paste and fresh basil* – eggplant; marinated eggplant with red pepper and olive oil* – mid-August dessert; eggplants with chocolate and almonds* – particular variety of cheese products made exclusively with milk from buffalo* – fried mozzarella with slices of toasted bread and olive oil* – Neapolitan Christmas dessert; cookies with almonds and coffee covered with chocolate* – sliced eggplant pan fried in oil, layered with tomato sauce and cheese, and baked in an oven* – Neapolitan ricotta cake* – mussel and Clam soup with tomato sauce, served with slices of toasted bread* () – the most popular is pizza Margherita: pizza topped with tomatoes sauce, mozzarella, Parmesan, basil and olive oil* () – octopus with tomatoes sauce, chopped tomatoes, olives and garlic* () – tomatoes sauce, onions, olive oil, carrots, celery, veal shank, pork ribs, lard, basil, salt and pepper* – Neapolitan Christmas dessert; almond crunch cookies* () – rice with mushrooms, onions, tomato-paste, beef, peas, Parmesan, mozzarella and olive oil* – Neapolitan ricotta dessert; seashell-shaped pastry with ricotta* – Neapolitan dessert; slightly larger than a traditional , it is filled with a and garnished with ('sour black cherry').", "* – spaghetti with clams in a white sauce with garlic, olive oil and pepper* – Neapolitan Christmas dessert; honey balls with lemon juice and colored candy* – chocolate cake with almonds* – fritters for Saint Joseph's Day; cream-filled with crème pâtissière====Apulia====Orecchiette with sauce* Burrata – an Italian cow milk cheese (occasionally buffalo milk) made from mozzarella and cream.", "The outer casing is solid cheese, while the inside contains stracciatella and cream, giving it an unusual, soft texture.", "It is typical of Apulia.", "* Caciocavallo podolico – a variety of cheese products made exclusively with Podolica cow milk* Cacioricotta – a cheese produced throughout Apulia*Calzone (in Lecce) or panzerotto (in Bari and Taranto) – puff pastry with oil which in its typicality contemplated the use of olives, ham, onions, mozzarella, cheese and tomato sauce for filling.", "Cooked either in the oven as savory pie, or deep fried.", "* – a pastry, particularly prepared around Christmas, made of a thin strip of a dough made of flour, olive oil, and white wine that is wrapped upon itself, intentionally leaving cavities and openings, to form a sort of \"rose\" shape; the dough is then deep-fried, dried, and soaked in either lukewarm or honey.", "* – bacon or boneless meat from sheep or goat (and in some cases veal), which is cut into long (20–30 cm) and thin (3–4 cm) strips, and seasoned with salt, chili, and fennel seeds before being sun-dried* – ear-like pasta with rapini* – oysters broiled with parsley, garlic, oregano, breadcrumbs, olive oil, and lemon juice* – an ancient dish of Capitanata, made from a base of stale bread and accompanied with a wide variety of wild vegetables, fennel seeds, oil of Tavoliere, and chili peppers* – shortcrust pastry shell and a custard heart* – potato focaccia stuffed with tomatoes, onions, bacon, mozzarella, parsley, and covered with breadcrumbs* (or , also known as , \"fava beans and leaves\") – fava bean puree with stewed cicory.", "During Christmas festivities, cicory is stewed in red wine instead of water.", "* or – a Bari specialty made with rice, potatoes, and mussels, similar to paella, cooked in an earthenware pan or in the oven.", "It has a Salento variant called It is likely that this recipe is a variant of paella, given the long Spanish domination in the Kingdom of Naples.", "* – typical street food of Salento: a puff pastry filled with béchamel, mozzarella and tomato* or – home made pasta typical of Salento in the shape of long lagane rolled up on themselves that are served with fresh tomato sauce, basil and (someone adds a little breadcrumbs to dry any residual draining water), others use (a spicy ricotta cream), or with meat sauce (pork or lamb) with the addition of chilli, to taste* – a casserole of baked vegetables topped with mozzarella and fresh basil* – lamb intestines wrapped around lamb liver or offal, typically testicles, generally grilled on a skewer, sometimes stewed in tomato and onions* – mussels steamed with , garlic, tomatoes, and white wine.", "Often eaten with short pasta types.", "Variations prepared in the hinterland of Taranto may include white beans or kidney beans.", "'''Apulian bread specialties'''* – a bread made of dough filled with mozzarella, tomatoes, ham, onion or leek, and served in slices* – a bread made from barley flour and durum wheat flour, which goes through a dual baking process becoming very similar to hardtack, and is soaked in water before being prepared and eaten* – a bread made from durum wheat, yeast, flour, salt, and water* – sourdough durum wheat bread weighing up to * – a bread made in honor of the Virgin Mary.", "It is a small, soft, round loaf made of white flour.", "* – a bread filled with olives* – bread dough mixed with mashed potato and rolled into flat cakes, covered with halved tomatoes and seasoned with salt and pepper* – a ring-shaped snack food which can be sweet or savory====Basilicata====* – lamb with potatoes* – cod with crunchy red peppers* – stew with artichokes, potatoes, broad beans and pancetta* – ear-like pasta with typical spicy salami from Basilicata* – cheese made of sheep's milk, typical of the Forenza area* – pasta dish served with , fried bread crumb and * – pasta dish served with tomato, onion dipped in red wine, lard and * – Potenza-style chicken; chicken braised with tomatoes, onion, white wine, , topped with fresh basil, parsley and pecorino cheese* – type of omelette with horseradish, potatoes and cheese* – pasta dish served with tomato, anchovy, fried bread crumb and chopped walnuts* – baked turnover filled with pork, eggs and cheese====Calabria===='Nduja with bread, with a piece of 'nduja sausage in the background* – a very milky cheese* * – a tomato salad with hot pepper* – home made pasta with goat or pork meat and tomatoes* – eggplant marinated with mint* – stuffed eggplant* 'Nduja – a spicy preserved meat, similar to the French Andouille* – swordfish rolls in tomato sauce* – padded pepper* – stockfish with olive, tomatoes and caper bush* – typical sausages made with fennel and pepper (the prototypical \"Italian\" sausage as sold in the United States)* – a uniquely Calabrian salami* ====Sicily====* Arancini – stuffed rice balls which are coated with breadcrumbs and fried* Cannoli – shortcrust pastry cylinder shell filled with sweet ricotta, mascarpone or chocolate or vanilla cream* Caponata – eggplants with tomatoes and olives* * – Sicilian pie; pastry dough baked with a filling of , Parmesan, and bound a sauce of ham, chicken, liver, onion, carrot, truffles, diced hard-boiled egg and seasoned with clove, cinnamon, salt and pepper.", "(\"serval\") makes reference to the arms of the Lampedusa family and Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa's well-known novel , not the contents of the dish.", "* Granita – semi-frozen dessert made from sugar, water and various flavorings, typically lemon or almond or coffee or mulberry* – bean paste with fennel* – dish of the island of Pantelleria* – spaghetti with tomato and eggplant* – a Sicilian chickpea fritter, often eaten as a sandwich and popular as street food* – flat bread stuffed in different ways* () – pizza prepared in a manner that originated in Sicily* – tuna Palermo-style; tuna marinated in white wine, lemon, garlic, rosemary and broiled, then served with pan-seared sardines====Sardinia====* – type of cheese* – a kind of ravioli* – semolina gnocchi with saffron* – type of bread* or – small pig cooked with myrtle* – a pie filled with meat or vegetables* – bread and cheese soup" ], [ "Ingredients", "Most important ingredients (see also: Italian Herbs and Spices):* Extra-virgin olive oil* Parmesan (aged cow's-milk cheese)* Pecorino (aged sheep's-milk cheese)* TomatoFile:Oli de l'Empordà.jpg|Extra-virgin olive oilFile:Parmesan Series (4341277992).jpg|File:Pecorino di Filiano.jpg|PecorinoFile:Italian Vine Tomatoes (3026014294).jpg|Italian vine tomatoes===Other common ingredients===Balsamic vinegarPasta being prepared in a pasta machineRadicchio* Anchovies, preserved in olive oil, or in salt* Asparagus* Balsamic vinegar* Baccala (dried, salted cod)* Bresaola (air-dried salted beef)* Broccoli* Butter* Capers, preserved in vinegar or, more frequently, salt* Artichokes* Cauliflower* Kale* Chickpeas* Cucumber* Chicory* Sauerkraut* Beans* (\"emmer\")* Strawberries* Porcini mushrooms, white mushrooms* Lard* Lentils* Lemon* Eggplants (aubergines)* Apples* Honey* Hazelnuts* Walnuts* Olives* Barley* Pasta* Potatoes* Swordfish* Bell peppers* Pears* * Pesto* Pine nuts* Peas* Pistachios* Polenta* Prosciutto* Radicchio – leaf chicory (Cichorium intybus, Asteraceae), sometimes known as Italian chicory.", "resembles a large red Belgian endive.", "* Ricotta* Rice* Rocket (rucola or arugula)* Cuttlefish* Speck* Spinach* Truffle* Tripe* Tuna* Grapes* Pumpkin* Zucchini (courgette)" ], [ "Herbs and spices", "* Garlic* Bay leaves* Dill* Anise* Basil* Starflower* Cinnamon* Capers* Clove* Onion* Chives* Fennel* Juniper* Marjoram* Mint* Calamint* Nutmeg* Oregano* Black pepper* Chili pepper* Parsley* Horseradish* Rosemary* Sage* Thyme* Saffron" ], [ "See also", "* Italian cuisine* Italian food products* Italian meal structure* List of Italian chefs* List of Italian restaurants" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Isaac Ambrose" ], [ "Introduction", "Isaac Ambrose.", "'''Isaac Ambrose''' (1604 – 20 January 1664) was an English Puritan divine.", "He graduated with a BA.", "from Brasenose College, Oxford, on 1624.He obtained the curacy of St Edmund’s Church, Castleton, Derbyshire, in 1627.He was one of king's four preachers in Lancashire in 1631.He was twice imprisoned by commissioners of array.", "He worked for the establishment of Presbyterianism; successively at Leeds, Preston, and Garstang, whence he was ejected for nonconformity in 1662.He also published religious works." ], [ "Biography", "Ambrose was born in 1604.He was the son of Richard Ambrose, vicar of Ormskirk, and was probably descended from the Ambroses of Lowick in Furness, a well-known Roman Catholic family.", "He entered Brasenose College, Oxford, in 1621, in his seventeenth year.Having graduated B.A.", "in 1624 and been ordained, Ambroses received in 1627 the little cure of Castleton in Derbyshire.", "By the influence of William Russell, earl of Bedford, he was appointed one of the king's itinerant preachers in Lancashire, and after living for a time in Garstang, he was selected by the Lady Margaret Hoghton as vicar of Preston.", "He associated himself with Presbyterianism, and was on the celebrated committee for the ejection of \"scandalous and ignorant ministers and schoolmasters\" during the Commonwealth.So long as Ambrose continued at Preston he was favoured with the warm friendship of the Hoghton family, their ancestral woods and the tower near Blackburn affording him sequestered places for those devout meditations and \"experiences\" that give such a charm to his diary, portions of which are quoted in his ''Prima Media & Ultima'' (1650, 1659).", "The immense auditory of his sermon (''Redeeming the Time'') at the funeral of Lady Hoghton was long a living tradition all over the county.", "On account of the feeling engendered by the civil war Ambrose left his great church of Preston in 1654, and became minister of Garstang, whence, however, in 1662 he was ejected along two thousand ministers who refused to conform (see Great Ejection).", "His after years were passed among old friends and in quiet meditation at Preston.", "He died of apoplexy about 20 January 1664." ], [ "Character assessment", "As a religious writer Ambrose has a vividness and freshness of imagination possessed by scarcely any of the Puritan Nonconformists.", "Many who have no love for Puritan doctrine, nor sympathy with Puritan experience, have appreciated the pathos and beauty of his writings, and his ''Looking unto Jesus'' long held its own in popular appreciation with the writings of John Bunyan.Dr Edmund Calamy the Elder (1600–1666) wrote about him:In the opinion of John Eglington Bailey (his biographer in the DNB), his character has been misrepresented by Wood.", "He was of a peaceful disposition; and though he put his name to the fierce \"Harmonious Consent\", he was not naturally a partisan.", "He evaded the political controversies of the time.", "His gentleness of character and earnest presentation of the gospel attached him to his people.", "He was much given to secluding himself, retiring every May into the woods of Hoghton Tower and remaining there a month.Bailey continues that Dr. Halley justly characterises him as the most meditative puritan of Lancashire.", "This quality pervades his writings, which abound, besides, in deep feeling and earnest piety.", "Mr. Hunter has called attention to his recommendation of diaries as a means of advancing personal piety, and has remarked, in reference to the fragments from Ambrose's diary quoted in the \"Media\", that \"with such passages before us we cannot but lament that the carelessness of later times should have suffered such a curious and valuable document to perish; for perished it is to be feared it has\"." ], [ "Works", "* '' Looking unto Jesus: A View of the Everlasting Gospel; Or, The Soul's Eying of Jesus as Carrying on the Great Work of Man's Salvation, from First to Last''* '' The Christian Warrior: Wrestling with Sin, Satan, The World and the Flesh''* '' The well-ordered family : wherein the duties of various members are described and urged.", "A small, but very comprehensive piece, suitable to be in the hand of every ; and may be especially seasonable in the present day''* '' Prima, media et ultima, or, The First, Middle and Last Things\"" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "**" ] ]
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[ [ "International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling" ], [ "Introduction", "States-parties to the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (in blue)The '''International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling''' is an international environmental agreement aimed at the \"proper conservation of whale stocks and thus make possible the orderly development of the whaling industry\".", "It governs the commercial, scientific, and aboriginal subsistence whaling practices of 88 member nations.The convention is a successor to the 1931 Geneva Convention for Regulation of Whaling and the 1937 International Agreement for the Regulation of Whaling, established in response to the overexploitation of whales in the post-World War I period.", "Neither instrument was effective, but each provided the framework for the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, which was spearheaded by the United States and signed by 15 nations in Washington, D.C., on 3 December 1946; the convention took effect on 10 November 1948.A protocol broadening the scope of the convention's enforcement was signed on 19 November 1956.The objectives of the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling are to protect all whale species from overhunting; establish a system of international regulation for whale fisheries to ensure proper conservation and development of whale stocks; and safeguard for future generations the important natural resources represented by whale stocks.", "The primary instrument implementing these aims is the International Whaling Commission, established by the convention as its main decision-making body.", "The IWC meets annually and adopts a binding \"schedule\" that regulates catch limits, whaling methods, protected areas, and the right to carry out scientific research involving the killing of whales." ], [ "Members", "As of January 2021, there are 88 parties to the convention.", "The initial signatories were Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Denmark, France, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Peru, South Africa, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States.Although Norway is party to the convention, it maintains an objection to the 1986 IWC global moratorium and it does not apply to it.===Withdrawals===Eight states have withdrawn from the convention since its ratification: Canada, Egypt, Greece, Jamaica, Mauritius, Philippines, the Seychelles and Venezuela.Belize, Brazil, Dominica, Ecuador, Iceland, Japan, New Zealand, and Panama have all withdrawn from the convention temporarily but ratified it second time; the Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden have each withdrawn from the convention twice, only to have accepted it a third time.Japan is the most recent member to depart, in January 2019, so as to resume commercial whaling." ], [ "Effectiveness", "There have been consistent disagreement over the scope of the convention.", "The 1946 Convention does not define a 'whale'.", "Some members of IWC claim that it has the legal competence to regulate catches of only great whales (the baleen whales and the sperm whale).", "Others believe that all cetaceans, including the smaller dolphins and porpoises, fall within IWC jurisdiction.An analysis by the Carnegie Council determined that while the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling has had \"ambiguous success\" owing to its internal divisions, it has nonetheless \"successfully managed the historical transition from open whale hunting to highly restricted hunting.", "It has stopped all but the most highly motivated whale-hunting countries.", "This success has made its life more difficult, since it has left the hardest part of the problem for last.\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Text of the Convention at the IWC website* Ratifications" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "International Organization for Standardization" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''International Organization for Standardization''' ('''ISO''' ) is an independent, non-governmental, international standard development organization composed of representatives from the national standards organizations of member countries.", "Membership requirements are given in Article 3 of the ISO Statutes.ISO was founded on 23 February 1947, and () it has published over 25,000 international standards covering almost all aspects of technology and manufacturing.", "It has over 800 technical committees (TCs) and subcommittees (SCs) to take care of standards development.", "The organization develops and publishes international standards in technical and nontechnical fields, including everything from manufactured products and technology to food safety, transport, IT, agriculture, and healthcare.", "More specialized topics like electrical and electronic engineering are instead handled by the International Electrotechnical Commission.", "It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland.", "The three official languages of ISO are English, French, and Russian." ], [ "Name and abbreviations", "The International Organization for Standardization in French is '''' and in Russian, ('''').Although one might think ''ISO'' is an abbreviation for \"International Standardization Organization\" or a similar title in another language, the letters do not officially represent an acronym or initialism.", "The organization provides this explanation of the name:Because 'International Organization for Standardization' would have different acronyms in different languages (IOS in English, OIN in French), our founders decided to give it the short form ''ISO''.", "''ISO'' is derived from the Greek word '''' (, meaning \"equal\").", "Whatever the country, whatever the language, the short form of our name is always ''ISO''.During the founding meetings of the new organization, however, the Greek word explanation was not invoked, so this meaning may be a false etymology.Both the name ''ISO'' and the ISO logo are registered trademarks and their use is restricted." ], [ "History", "Plaque marking the building in Prague where the ISO predecessor, the ISA, was founded.The organization that is known today as ISO began in 1926 as the '''International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations''' ('''ISA'''), which primarily focused on mechanical engineering.", "The ISA was suspended in 1942 during World War II but, after the war, the ISA was approached by the recently-formed United Nations Standards Coordinating Committee (UNSCC) with a proposal to form a new global standards body.In October 1946, ISA and UNSCC delegates from 25 countries met in London and agreed to join forces to create the International Organization for Standardization.", "The organization officially began operations on 23 February 1947.ISO Standards were originally known as '''''ISO Recommendations''''' ('''''ISO/R'''''), e.g., \"ISO 1\" was issued in 1951 as \"ISO/R 1\"." ], [ "Structure and organization", "ISO is a voluntary organization whose members are recognized authorities on standards, each one representing one country.", "Members meet annually at a General Assembly to discuss the strategic objectives of ISO.", "The organization is coordinated by a central secretariat based in Geneva.A council with a rotating membership of 20 member bodies provides guidance and governance, including setting the annual budget of the central secretariat.The technical management board is responsible for more than 250 technical committees, who develop the ISO standards.===Joint technical committee with IEC===ISO has a joint technical committee (JTC) with the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) to develop standards relating to information technology (IT).", "Known as JTC 1 and entitled \"Information technology\", it was created in 1987 and its mission is \"to develop worldwide Information and Communication Technology (ICT) standards for business and consumer applications.", "\"There was previously also a JTC 2 that was created in 2009 for a joint project to establish common terminology for \"standardization in the field of energy efficiency and renewable energy sources\".", "It was later disbanded.=== Membership ===A map of ISO members as of November 2020 , there are 167 national members representing ISO in their country, with each country having only one member.ISO has three membership categories,* ''Member bodies'' are national bodies considered the most representative standards body in each country.", "These are the only members of ISO that have voting rights.", "* ''Correspondent members'' are countries that do not have their own standards organization.", "These members are informed about the work of ISO, but do not participate in standards promulgation.", "* ''Subscriber members'' are countries with small economies.", "They pay reduced membership fees, but can follow the development of standards.Participating members are called \"P\" members, as opposed to observing members, who are called \"O\" members.=== Financing ===ISO is funded by a combination of:* Organizations that manage the specific projects or loan experts to participate in the technical work* Subscriptions from member bodies, whose subscriptions are in proportion to each country's gross national product and trade figures* Sale of standards" ], [ "{{anchor|Standards}}International standards and other publications", "International standards are the main products of ISO.", "It also publishes technical reports, technical specifications, publicly available specifications, technical corrigenda, and guides.", "'''International standards''': These are designated using the format ''ISO/IEC /ASTM IS nnnnn-p:yyyy Title'', where ''nnnnn'' is the number of the standard, ''p'' is an optional part number, ''yyyy'' is the year published, and ''Title'' describes the subject.", "''IEC'' for ''International Electrotechnical Commission'' is included if the standard results from the work of ISO/IEC JTC 1 (the ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee).", "''ASTM'' (American Society for Testing and Materials) is used for standards developed in cooperation with ASTM International.", "''yyyy'' and ''IS'' are not used for an incomplete or unpublished standard and, under some circumstances, may be left off the title of a published work.", "'''Technical reports''': These are issued when a technical committee or subcommittee has collected data of a different kind from that normally published as an International Standard, such as references and explanations.", "The naming conventions for these are the same as for standards, except ''TR'' prepended instead of ''IS'' in the report's name.For example:* ISO/IEC TR 17799:2000 Code of Practice for Information Security Management* ISO/TR 19033:2000 Technical product documentation – Metadata for construction documentation'''Technical and publicly available specifications''': Technical specifications may be produced when \"the subject in question is still under development or where for any other reason there is the future but not immediate possibility of an agreement to publish an International Standard\".", "A publicly available specification is usually \"an intermediate specification, published prior to the development of a full International Standard, or, in IEC may be a 'dual logo' publication published in collaboration with an external organization\".", "By convention, both types of specification are named in a manner similar to the organization's technical reports.For example:* ISO/TS 16952-1:2006 Technical product documentation – Reference designation system – Part 1: General application rules (later withdrawn and replaced by ISO/TS 81346-3:2012, which was later withdrawn)* ISO/PAS 11154:2006 Road vehicles – Roof load carriers (later revised in ISO 11154:2023, which does not have the \"PAS\" abbreviation in its name)'''Technical corrigenda''':When partnering with IEC in their joint technical committee, ISO also sometimes issues \"technical corrigenda\" (where \"corrigenda\" is the plural of corrigendum).", "These are amendments made to existing standards to correct minor technical flaws or ambiguities.", "'''ISO guides''':These are meta-standards covering \"matters related to international standardization\".", "They are named using the format ''\"ISO/IEC Guide N:yyyy: Title\"''.For example:* ISO/IEC Guide 2:2004 Standardization and related activities – General vocabulary* ISO/IEC Guide 65:1996 General requirements for bodies operating product certification (since revised and reissued as ISO/IEC 17065:2012 Conformity assessment — Requirements for bodies certifying products, processes and services).===Document copyright===ISO documents have strict copyright restrictions and ISO charges for most copies.", ", the typical cost of a copy of an ISO standard is about or more (and electronic copies typically have a single-user license, so they cannot be shared among groups of people).", "Some standards by ISO and its official U.S. representative (and, via the U.S. National Committee, the International Electrotechnical Commission) are made freely available." ], [ "Standardization process", "A standard published by ISO/IEC is the last stage of a long process that commonly starts with the proposal of new work within a committee.", "Some abbreviations used for marking a standard with its status are:* PWI – Preliminary Work Item* NP or NWIP – New Proposal / New Work Item Proposal (e.g., ISO/IEC NP 23007)* AWI – Approved new Work Item (e.g., ISO/IEC AWI 15444-14)* WD – Working Draft (e.g., ISO/IEC WD 27032)* CD – Committee Draft (e.g., ISO/IEC CD 23000-5)* FCD – Final Committee Draft (e.g., ISO/IEC FCD 23000-12)* DIS – Draft International Standard (e.g., ISO/IEC DIS 14297)* FDIS – Final Draft International Standard (e.g., ISO/IEC FDIS 27003)* PRF – Proof of a new International Standard (e.g., ISO/IEC PRF 18018)* IS – International Standard (e.g., ISO/IEC 13818-1:2007)Abbreviations used for amendments are:* NP Amd – New Proposal Amendment (e.g., ISO/IEC 15444-2:2004/NP Amd 3)* AWI Amd – Approved new Work Item Amendment (e.g., ISO/IEC 14492:2001/AWI Amd 4)* WD Amd – Working Draft Amendment (e.g., ISO 11092:1993/WD Amd 1)* CD Amd / PDAmd – Committee Draft Amendment / Proposed Draft Amendment (e.g., ISO/IEC 13818-1:2007/CD Amd 6)* FPDAmd / DAM (DAmd) – Final Proposed Draft Amendment / Draft Amendment (e.g., ISO/IEC 14496-14:2003/FPDAmd 1)* FDAM (FDAmd) – Final Draft Amendment (e.g., ISO/IEC 13818-1:2007/FDAmd 4)* PRF Amd – (e.g., ISO 12639:2004/PRF Amd 1)* Amd – Amendment (e.g., ISO/IEC 13818-1:2007/Amd 1:2007)Other abbreviations are:* TR – Technical Report (e.g., ISO/IEC TR 19791:2006)* DTR – Draft Technical Report (e.g., ISO/IEC DTR 19791)* TS – Technical Specification (e.g., ISO/TS 16949:2009)* DTS – Draft Technical Specification (e.g., ISO/DTS 11602-1)* PAS – Publicly Available Specification* TTA – Technology Trends Assessment (e.g., ISO/TTA 1:1994)* IWA – International Workshop Agreements (e.g., IWA 1:2005)* Cor – Technical Corrigendum (e.g., ISO/IEC 13818-1:2007/Cor 1:2008)* Guide – a guidance to technical committees for the preparation of standardsInternational Standards are developed by ISO technical committees (TC) and subcommittees (SC) by a process with six steps:* Stage 1: Proposal stage* Stage 2: Preparatory stage* Stage 3: Committee stage* Stage 4: Enquiry stage* Stage 5: Approval stage* Stage 6: Publication stageThe TC/SC may set up working groups (WG) of experts for the preparation of a working drafts.", "Subcommittees may have several working groups, which may have several Sub Groups (SG).+ Stage code Stage Associated document name Abbreviations 00 Preliminary Preliminary work item PWI 10 Proposal New work item proposal 20 Preparatory Working draft or drafts 30 Committee Committee draft or drafts 40 Enquiry Enquiry draft (CDV in IEC) 50 Approval Final draft 60 Publication International Standard 90 Review 95 Withdrawal It is possible to omit certain stages, if there is a document with a certain degree of maturity at the start of a standardization project, for example, a standard developed by another organization.", "ISO/IEC directives also allow the so-called \"Fast-track procedure\".", "In this procedure, a document is submitted directly for approval as a draft International Standard (DIS) to the ISO member bodies or as a final draft International Standard (FDIS), if the document was developed by an international standardizing body recognized by the ISO Council.The first step, a proposal of work (New Proposal), is approved at the relevant subcommittee or technical committee (e.g., SC 29 and JTC 1 respectively in the case of MPEG, the Moving Picture Experts Group).", "A working group (WG) of experts is typically set up by the subcommittee for the preparation of a working draft (e.g., MPEG is a collection of seven working groups as of 2023).", "When the scope of a new work is sufficiently clarified, some of the working groups may make an open request for proposals—known as a \"call for proposals\".", "The first document that is produced, for example, for audio and video coding standards is called a verification model (VM) (previously also called a \"simulation and test model\").", "When a sufficient confidence in the stability of the standard under development is reached, a working draft (WD) is produced.", "This is in the form of a standard, but is kept internal to working group for revision.", "When a working draft is sufficiently mature and the subcommittee is satisfied that it has developed an appropriate technical document for the problem being addressed, it becomes a committee draft (CD) and is sent to the P-member national bodies of the SC for the collection of formal comments.", "Revisions may be made in response to the comments, and successive committee drafts may be produced and circulated until consensus is reached to proceed to the next stage, called the \"enquiry stage\".After a consensus to proceed is established, the subcommittee will produce a draft international standard (DIS), and the text is submitted to national bodies for voting and comment within a period of five months.", "A document in the DIS stage is available to the public for purchase and may be referred to with its ISO DIS reference number.Following consideration of any comments and revision of the document, the draft is then approved for submission as a Final Draft International Standard (FDIS) if a two-thirds majority of the P-members of the TC/SC are in favour and if not more than one-quarter of the total number of votes cast are negative.", "ISO will then hold a ballot among the national bodies where no technical changes are allowed (a yes/no final approval ballot), within a period of two months.", "It is approved as an International Standard (IS) if a two-thirds majority of the P-members of the TC/SC is in favour and not more than one-quarter of the total number of votes cast are negative.", "After approval, the document is published by the ISO central secretariat, with only minor editorial changes introduced in the publication process before the publication as an International Standard.===International Workshop Agreements===International Workshop Agreements (IWAs) are documents that establish a collaboration agreement that allow \"key industry players to negotiate in an open workshop environment\" outside of ISO in a way that may eventually lead to development of an ISO standard." ], [ "Products named after ISO", "On occasion, the fact that many of the ISO-created standards are ubiquitous has led to common use of \"ISO\" to describe the product that conforms to a standard.", "Some examples of this are:* Disk images ending in the file extension \"ISO\" to signify that they are using the ISO 9660 standard file system as opposed to another file system—hence disc images commonly being referred to as \"ISOs\".", "* The sensitivity of a photographic film to light (its \"film speed\") is described by ISO 6, ISO 2240, and ISO 5800.Hence, the speed of the film often is referred to by its ISO number.", "* As it was originally defined in ISO 518, the flash hot shoe found on cameras often is called the \"ISO shoe\".", "* ISO 11783, the communication protocol for the agriculture industry, which is marketed as ISOBUS.", "* ISO 13216, the standardized attachment points for child safety seats, which is marketed as ISOFIX.", "* ISO 668, the standardized intermodal containers, sometimes called \"ISO containers\"." ], [ "ISO awards", "ISO presents several awards to acknowledge the valuable contributions made in the realm of international standardization:* '''The Lawrence D. Eicher Award''': This award acknowledges outstanding standards development.", "It is available to all ISO and ISO/IEC technical committees.", "* '''The ISO Next Generation Award''': Aimed at young professionals from ISO member nations, this award highlights those who advocate for sustainability-centric standardization and emphasize the importance of partnerships.", "* '''The ISO Excellence Award''': Dedicated to recognizing the endeavors of ISO's technical professionals, any individual nominated as an expert, project leader, or convenor in a committee working group is eligible for this award." ], [ "Criticism", "Except for a relatively small number of standards, ISO standards are not available free of charge, but rather for a purchase fee, which has been seen by some as unaffordable for small open-source projects.The process of developing standards within ISO was criticized around 2007 as being too difficult for timely completion of large and complex standards, and some members were failing to respond to ballots, causing problems in completing the necessary steps within the prescribed time limits.", "In some cases, alternative processes have been used to develop standards outside of ISO and then submit them for its approval.", "A more rapid \"fast-track\" approval procedure was used in ISO/IEC JTC 1 for the standardization of Office Open XML (OOXML, ISO/IEC 29500, approved in April 2008), and another rapid alternative \"publicly available specification\" (PAS) process had been used by OASIS to obtain approval of OpenDocument as an ISO/IEC standard (ISO/IEC 26300, approved in May 2006).", "Martin Bryan, the outgoing convenor (chairman) of working group 1 (WG1) of ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 34, submitted a report saying:The computer security entrepreneur and Ubuntu founder, Mark Shuttleworth, was quoted in a ZDNet blog article in 2008 about the process of standardization of OOXML as saying: \"I think it de-values the confidence people have in the standards setting process\", and alleged that ISO did not carry out its responsibility.", "He also said that Microsoft had intensely lobbied many countries that traditionally had not participated in ISO and stacked technical committees with Microsoft employees, solution providers, and resellers sympathetic to Office Open XML:When you have a process built on trust and when that trust is abused, ISO should halt the process... ISO is an engineering old boys club and these things are boring so you have to have a lot of passion ... then suddenly you have an investment of a lot of money and lobbying and you get artificial results.", "The process is not set up to deal with intensive corporate lobbying and so you end up with something being a standard that is not clear." ], [ "See also", "* * * * – for sustainability information and linking up with reporting on their 17#GlobalGoals indicators* – a set of technical standards maintained by the Euro-Asian Council for Standardization, Metrology, and Certification* * * – the Interface Marketing Supplier Integration Institute* * * * * * * * * * === ISO divisions ===Technical Committees of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) include:* – ''Terminology and other language and content resources''* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * ''MIT Innovations and Entrepreneurship Seminar Series''." ], [ "External links", "* ** Publicly Available Standards, with free access to a small subset of the standards.", "** Advanced search for standards and/or projects** Online Browsing Platform (OBP), access to most up to date content in ISO standards, graphical symbols, codes or terms and definitions." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Individualist anarchism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Individualist anarchism''' is the branch of anarchism that emphasizes the individual and their will over external determinants such as groups, society, traditions, and ideological systems.", "Although usually contrasted with social anarchism, both individualist and social anarchism have influenced each other.", "Mutualism, an economic theory sometimes considered a synthesis of communism and property, has been considered individualist anarchism and other times part of social anarchism.", "Many anarcho-communists regard themselves as radical individualists, seeing anarcho-communism as the best social system for the realization of individual freedom.", "Some anarcho-capitalists claim anarcho-capitalism is part of the individualist anarchist tradition, while others disagree and claim individualist anarchism is only part of the socialist movement and part of the libertarian socialist tradition.", "Economically, while European individualist anarchists are pluralists who advocate anarchism without adjectives and synthesis anarchism, ranging from anarcho-communist to mutualist economic types, most American individualist anarchists of the 19th century advocated mutualism, a libertarian socialist form of market socialism, or a free-market socialist form of classical economics.", "Individualist anarchists are opposed to property that violates the entitlement theory of justice, that is, gives privilege due to unjust acquisition or exchange, and thus is exploitative, seeking to \"destroy the tyranny of capital, — that is, of property\" by mutual credit.Individualist anarchism represents a group of several traditions of thought and individualist philosophies within the anarchist movement.", "Among the early influences on individualist anarchism were William Godwin (philosophical anarchism), Josiah Warren (sovereignty of the individual), Max Stirner (egoism), Lysander Spooner (natural law), Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (mutualism), Henry David Thoreau (transcendentalism), Herbert Spencer (law of equal liberty) and Anselme Bellegarrigue (civil disobedience).", "From there, individualist anarchism expanded through Europe and the United States, where prominent 19th-century individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker held that \"if the individual has the right to govern himself, all external government is tyranny\".Within anarchism, individualist anarchism is primarily a literary phenomenon while social anarchism has been the dominant form of anarchism, emerging in the late 19th century as a distinction from ''individualist anarchism'' after anarcho-communism replaced collectivist anarchism as the dominant tendency.", "Individualist anarchism has been described by some as the anarchist branch most influenced by and tied to liberalism (the classical liberalism deriving anti-capitalist notions and socialist economics from classical political economists and the labor theory of value) as well as being described as a part of the liberal or liberal-socialist wing—in contrast to the collectivist or communist wing—of anarchism and libertarian socialism.", "However most do not agree with this divide as social anarchists including collectivist and communist anarchists regard the individualist anarchists as socialists and libertarian socialists due to their opposition to capitalist profit, interest, and absentee rent.", "The very idea of an individualist–socialist divide is also contested as individualist anarchism is largely socialistic and can be considered a form of individualist socialism, with non-Lockean individualism encompassing socialism.", "Individualist anarchism is the basis of most anarchist schools of thought, influencing nearly all anarchist tendencies and having contributed to much of anarchist discourse." ], [ "Overview", "The term ''individualist anarchism'' is often used as a classificatory term, but in very different ways.", "Some such as the authors of ''An Anarchist FAQ'' use the classification individualist anarchism/social anarchism.", "Others such as Geoffrey Ostergaard, who see individualist anarchism as distinctly non-socialist, recognizing anarcho-capitalist as part of the individualist anarchist tradition, use the classification individualist anarchism/socialist anarchism accordingly.", "However, others do not consider anarcho-capitalism as part of the anarchist movement, arguing that anarchism has historically been an anti-capitalist movement and anarchists reject that it is compatible with capitalism.", "In addition, an analysis of several individualist anarchists who advocated free-market anarchism shows that it is different from anarcho-capitalism and other capitalist theories due to these individualist anarchists retaining the labor theory of value and socialist doctrines.", "Other classifications include communal/mutualist anarchism.", "Michael Freeden identifies four broad types of individualist anarchism.", "Freeden says the first is the type associated with William Godwin that advocates self-government with a \"progressive rationalism that included benevolence to others\".", "The second type is the amoral self-serving rationality of egoism as most associated with Max Stirner.", "The third type is \"found in Herbert Spencer's early predictions, and in that of some of his disciples such as Wordsworth Donisthorpe, foreseeing the redundancy of the state in the source of social evolution\".", "The fourth type retains a moderated form of egoism and accounts for social cooperation through the advocacy of market relationships.", "Individualist anarchism of different kinds have the following things in common:# The concentration on the individual and their will in preference to any construction such as morality, ideology, social custom, religion, metaphysics, ideas or the will of others.# The rejection of or reservations about the idea of revolution, seeing it as a time of mass uprising which could bring about new hierarchies.", "Instead, they favor more evolutionary methods of bringing about anarchy through alternative experiences and experiments and education which could be brought about today.", "This is also because it is not seen as desirable for individuals to wait for revolution to start experiencing alternative experiences outside what is offered in the current social system.# Individual experience and exploration is emphasized.", "The view that relationships with other persons or things can be in one's own interest only and can be as transitory and without compromises as desired since in individualist anarchism sacrifice is usually rejected.", "In this way, Max Stirner recommended associations of egoists.Individualists anarchists considered themselves to be socialists and part of the socialist movement which according to those anarchists was divided in two wings, namely anarchist socialism and state socialism.", "Benjamin Tucker criticized those who were trying to exclude individualist anarchism from socialism based on dictionary's definitions.", "Tucker held that the mutualist title to land and other scarce resources would involve a radical change and restriction of capitalist property rights.", "It should also be noted social anarchists including collectivist and communist anarchists regard the individualist anarchists as socialists due to their opposition to surplus-value, something even Karl Marx (whom Tucker was influenced by ) would agree is anti-capitalist.Individualist anarchists such as Tucker argued that it was \"not Socialist Anarchism against Individualist Anarchism, but of Communist Socialism against Individualist Socialism\".", "Tucker further noted that \"the fact that State Socialism has overshadowed other forms of Socialism gives it no right to a monopoly of the Socialistic idea\".", "In 1888, Tucker, who proclaimed himself to be an anarchistic socialist in opposition to state socialism, included the full text of a \"Socialistic Letter\" by Ernest Lesigne in his essay \"State Socialism and Anarchism\".", "Tucker's two socialisms were the state socialism which he associated to the Marxist school and the libertarian socialism that he advocated.", "What those two schools of socialism had in common was the labor theory of value and the ends, by which anarchism pursued different means.According to Rudolf Rocker, individualist anarchists \"all agree on the point that man be given the full reward of his labour and recognised in this right the economic basis of all personal liberty.", "They regard free competition ... as something inherent in human nature.", "...", "They answered the socialists of other schools who saw in free competition one of the destructive elements of capitalistic society that the evil lies in the fact that today we have too little rather than too much competition\".", "Individualist anarchist Joseph Labadie wrote that both \"the two great sub-divisions of Socialists Anarchists and State Socialists agree that the resources of nature — land, mines, and so forth — should not be held as private property and subject to being held by the individual for speculative purposes, that use of these things shall be the only valid title, and that each person has an equal right to the use of all these things.", "They all agree that the present social system is one composed of a class of slaves and a class of masters, and that justice is impossible under such conditions\".", "The egoist form of individualist anarchism, derived from the philosophy of Max Stirner, supports the individual doing exactly what he pleases—taking no notice of God, state, or moral rules.", "To Stirner, rights were ''spooks'' in the mind, and he held that society does not exist but \"the individuals are its reality\"—he supported property by force of might rather than moral right.", "Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw \"associations of egoists\" drawn together by respect for each other's ruthlessness.Liberty'', American individualist anarchist publication edited by Benjamin TuckerFor historian Eunice Minette Schuster, American individualist anarchism \"stresses the isolation of the individual – his right to his own tools, his mind, his body, and to the products of his labor.", "To the artist who embraces this philosophy it is \"aesthetic\" anarchism, to the reformer, ethical anarchism, to the independent mechanic, economic anarchism.", "The former is concerned with philosophy, the latter with practical demonstration.", "The economic anarchist is concerned with constructing a society on the basis of anarchism.", "Economically he sees no harm whatever in the private possession of what the individual produces by his own labor, but only so much and no more.", "The aesthetic and ethical type found expression in the transcendentalism, humanitarianism, and Romanticism of the first part of the nineteenth century, the economic type in the pioneer life of the West during the same period, but more favorably after the Civil War\".For this reason, it has been suggested that in order to understand individualist anarchism one must take into account \"the social context of their ideas, namely the transformation of America from a pre-capitalist to a capitalist society ... the non-capitalist nature of the early U.S. can be seen from the early dominance of self-employment (artisan and peasant production).", "At the beginning of the 19th century, around 80% of the working (non-slave) male population were self-employed.", "The great majority of Americans during this time were farmers working their own land, primarily for their own needs\" and \"individualist anarchism is clearly a form of artisanal socialism ... while communist anarchism and anarcho-syndicalism are forms of industrial (or proletarian) socialism\".", "''Liberty'' insisted on \"the abolition of the State and the abolition of usury; on no more government of man by man, and no more exploitation of man by man\" and anarchism is \"the abolition of the State and the abolition of usury\".", "Those anarchists held that there were \"two schools of Socialistic thought, ... State Socialism and Anarchism\" and \"liberty insists on Socialism ... — true Socialism, Anarchistic Socialism: the prevalence on earth of Liberty, Equality, and Solidarity\".", "Individualist anarchists followed Proudhon and other anarchists that \"exploitation of man by man and the domination of man over man are inseparable, and each is the condition of the other\", that \"the bottom claim of Socialism\" was \"that labour should be put in possession of its own\", that \"the natural wage of labour is its product\" in an \"effort to abolish the exploitation of labour by capital\" and that anarchists \"do not admit the government of man by man any more than the exploitation of man by man\", advocating \"the complete destruction of the domination and exploitation of man by man\".", "Contemporary individualist anarchist Kevin Carson characterizes American individualist anarchism by saying that \"unlike the rest of the socialist movement, the individualist anarchists believed that the natural wage of labor in a free market was its product, and that economic exploitation could only take place when capitalists and landlords harnessed the power of the state in their interests.", "Thus, individualist anarchism was an alternative both to the increasing statism of the mainstream socialist movement, and to a classical liberal movement that was moving toward a mere apologetic for the power of big business\".", "''L'Anarchie'', French individualist anarchist journal established in April 1905 by Albert LibertadIn European individualist anarchism, a different social context helped the rise of European individualist illegalism and as such \"the illegalists were proletarians who had nothing to sell but their labour power, and nothing to discard but their dignity; if they disdained waged-work, it was because of its compulsive nature.", "If they turned to illegality it was due to the fact that honest toil only benefited the employers and often entailed a complete loss of dignity, while any complaints resulted in the sack; to avoid starvation through lack of work it was necessary to beg or steal, and to avoid conscription into the army many of them had to go on the run\".", "A European tendency of individualist anarchism advocated violent individual acts of individual reclamation, propaganda by the deed and criticism of organization.", "Such individualist anarchist tendencies include French illegalism and Italian anti-organizational insurrectionarism.", "Bookchin reports that at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th \"it was in times of severe social repression and deadening social quiescence that individualist anarchists came to the foreground of libertarian activity – and then primarily as terrorists.", "In France, Spain, and the United States, individualistic anarchists committed acts of terrorism that gave anarchism its reputation as a violently sinister conspiracy\".Another important tendency within individualist anarchist currents emphasizes individual subjective exploration and defiance of social conventions.", "Individualist anarchist philosophy attracted \"amongst artists, intellectuals and the well-read, urban middle classes in general\".", "Murray Bookchin describes a lot of individualist anarchism as people who \"expressed their opposition in uniquely personal forms, especially in fiery tracts, outrageous behavior and aberrant lifestyles in the cultural ghettos of fin de siecle New York, Paris and London.", "As a credo, individualist anarchism remained largely a bohemian lifestyle, most conspicuous in its demands for sexual freedom ('free love') and enamored of innovations in art, behavior, and clothing\".", "In this way, free love currents and other radical lifestyles such as naturism had popularity among individualist anarchists.For Catalan historian Xavier Diez, \"under its iconoclastic, antiintelectual, antitheist run, which goes against all sacralized ideas or values it entailed, a philosophy of life which could be considered a reaction against the sacred gods of capitalist society.", "Against the idea of nation, it opposed its internationalism.", "Against the exaltation of authority embodied in the military institution, it opposed its antimilitarism.", "Against the concept of industrial civilization, it opposed its naturist vision\".", "In regards to economic questions, there are diverse positions.", "There are adherents to mutualism (Proudhon, Émile Armand and the early Tucker), egoistic disrespect for \"ghosts\" such as private property and markets (Stirner, John Henry Mackay, Lev Chernyi and the later Tucker) and adherents to anarcho-communism (Albert Libertad, illegalism and Renzo Novatore).", "Anarchist historian George Woodcock finds a tendency in individualist anarchism of a \"distrust (of) all co-operation beyond the barest minimum for an ascetic life\".", "On the issue of violence opinions have gone from a violentist point of view mainly exemplified by illegalism and insurrectionary anarchism to one that can be called anarcho-pacifist.", "In the particular case of Spanish individualist anarchist Miguel Giménez Igualada, he went from illegalist practice in his youth towards a pacifist position later in his life." ], [ "Early influences", "=== William Godwin ===William Godwin, a radical liberal and utilitarian, who was one of the first to espouse what became known as individualist anarchismWilliam Godwin can be considered an individualist anarchist and philosophical anarchist who was influenced by the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment, and developed what many consider the first expression of modern anarchist thought.", "According to Peter Kropotkin, Godwin was \"the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work\".", "Godwin advocated extreme individualism, proposing that all cooperation in labor be eliminated.", "Godwin was a utilitarian who believed that all individuals are not of equal value, with some of us \"of more worth and importance\" than others depending on our utility in bringing about social good.", "Therefore, he does not believe in equal rights, but the person's life that should be favored that is most conducive to the general good.", "Godwin opposed government because it infringes on the individual's right to \"private judgement\" to determine which actions most maximize utility, but also makes a critique of all authority over the individual's judgement.", "This aspect of Godwin's philosophy, minus the utilitarianism, was developed into a more extreme form later by Stirner.Godwin took individualism to the radical extent of opposing individuals performing together in orchestras, writing in ''Political Justice'' that \"everything understood by the term co-operation is in some sense an evil\".", "The only apparent exception to this opposition to cooperation is the spontaneous association that may arise when a society is threatened by violent force.", "One reason he opposed cooperation is he believed it to interfere with an individual's ability to be benevolent for the greater good.", "Godwin opposes the idea of government, but wrote that a minimal state as a present \"necessary evil\" that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge.", "He believed democracy to be preferable to other forms of government.Title page from the third edition of ''Political Justice'' by William GodwinGodwin's political views were diverse and do not perfectly agree with any of the ideologies that claim his influence as writers of the ''Socialist Standard'', organ of the Socialist Party of Great Britain, consider Godwin both an individualist and a communist; Murray Rothbard did not regard Godwin as being in the individualist camp at all, referring to him as the \"founder of communist anarchism\"; and historian Albert Weisbord considers him an individualist anarchist without reservation.", "Some writers see a conflict between Godwin's advocacy of \"private judgement\" and utilitarianism as he says that ethics requires that individuals give their surplus property to each other resulting in an egalitarian society, but at the same time he insists that all things be left to individual choice.", "As noted by Kropotkin, many of Godwin's views changed over time.William Godwin's influenced \"the socialism of Robert Owen and Charles Fourier.", "After success of his British venture, Owen himself established a cooperative community within the United States at New Harmony, Indiana during 1825.One member of this commune was Josiah Warren, considered to be the first individualist anarchist.", "After New Harmony failed, Warren shifted his ideological loyalties from socialism to anarchism.", "According to anarchist Peter Sabatini, this \"was no great leap, given that Owen's socialism had been predicated on Godwin's anarchism\".=== Pierre-Joseph Proudhon ===Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, the first self-identified anarchistPierre-Joseph Proudhon was the first philosopher to label himself an \"anarchist\".", "Some consider Proudhon to be an individualist anarchist while others regard him to be a social anarchist.", "Some commentators do not identify Proudhon as an individualist anarchist due to his preference for association in large industries, rather than individual control.=== Max Stirner ===Portrait of Max Stirner by Friedrich EngelsJohann Kaspar Schmidt, better known as Max Stirner (the ''nom de plume'' he adopted from a schoolyard nickname he had acquired as a child because of his high brow, in German ''Stirn''), was a German philosopher who ranks as one of the literary fathers of nihilism, existentialism, post-modernism and anarchism, especially of individualist anarchism.", "Stirner's main work is ''The Ego and Its Own'', also known as ''The Ego and His Own'' (''Der Einzige und sein Eigentum'' in German which translates literally as ''The Only One individual and his Property'' or ''The Unique Individual and His Property'').", "This work was first published in 1844 in Leipzig and has since appeared in numerous editions and translations.==== Egoism ====Max Stirner's philosophy, sometimes called egoism, is a form of individualist anarchism.", "Stirner was a Hegelian philosopher whose \"name appears with familiar regularity in historically oriented surveys of anarchist thought as one of the earliest and best-known exponents of individualist anarchism\".", "In 1844, Stirner's work ''The Ego and Its Own'' was published and is considered to be \"a founding text in the tradition of individualist anarchism\".", "Stirner does not recommend that the individual try to eliminate the state, but simply that they disregard the state when it conflicts with one's autonomous choices and go along with it when doing so is conducive to one's interests.", "Stirner says that the egoist rejects pursuit of devotion to \"a great idea, a good cause, a doctrine, a system, a lofty calling\", arguing that the egoist has no political calling, but rather \"lives themselves out\" without regard to \"how well or ill humanity may fare thereby\".", "Stirner held that the only limitation on the rights of the individual is that individual's power to obtain what he desires.", "Stirner proposes that most commonly accepted social institutions, including the notion of state, property as a right, natural rights in general and the very notion of \"society\" as a legal and ideal abstractness, were mere spooks in the mind.", "Stirner wants to \"abolish not only the state but also society as an institution responsible for its members\".", "Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw Union of egoists, non-systematic associations which he proposed in as a form of organization in place of the state.", "A Union is understood as a relation between egoists which is continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will.", "Even murder is permissible \"if it is right for me\", although it is claimed by egoist anarchists that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous unions between individuals.", "''The Ego and Its Own'' (1844) by Max StirnerFor Stirner, property simply comes about through might, arguing that \"whoever knows how to take, to defend, the thing, to him belongs property\".", "He further says that \"what I have in my power, that is my own.", "So long as I assert myself as holder, I am the proprietor of the thing\" and that \"I do not step shyly back from your property, but look upon it always as my property, in which I respect nothing.", "Pray do the like with what you call my property!\"", "His concept of \"egoistic property\" not only a lack of moral restraint on how one obtains and uses ''things'', but includes other people as well.", "His embrace of egotism is in stark contrast to Godwin's altruism.", "Although Stirner was opposed to communism, for the same reasons he opposed capitalism, humanism, liberalism, property rights and nationalism, seeing them as forms of authority over the individual and as spooks in the mind, he has influenced many anarcho-communists and post-left anarchists.", "The writers of ''An Anarchist FAQ'' report that \"many in the anarchist movement in Glasgow, Scotland, took Stirner's 'Union of egoists' literally as the basis for their anarcho-syndicalist organising in the 1940s and beyond\".", "Similarly, the noted anarchist historian Max Nettlau states that \"on reading Stirner, I maintain that he cannot be interpreted except in a socialist sense\".", "Stirner does not personally oppose the struggles carried out by certain ideologies such as socialism, humanism or the advocacy of human rights.", "Rather, he opposes their legal and ideal abstractness, a fact that makes him different from the liberal individualists, including the anarcho-capitalists and right-libertarians, but also from the ''Übermensch'' theories of fascism as he places the individual at the center and not the sacred collective.", "About socialism, Stirner wrote in a letter to Moses Hess that \"I am not at all against socialism, but against consecrated socialism; my selfishness is not opposed to love ... nor is it an enemy of sacrifice, nor of self-denial ... and least of all of socialism ... — in short, it is not an enemy of true interests; it rebels not against love, but against sacred love, not against thought, but against sacred thought, not against socialists, but against sacred socialism\".This position on property is quite different from the Native American, natural law, form of individualist anarchism which defends the inviolability of the private property that has been earned through labor.", "However, Benjamin Tucker rejected the natural rights philosophy and adopted Stirner's egoism in 1886, with several others joining with him.", "This split the American individualists into fierce debate, \"with the natural rights proponents accusing the egoists of destroying libertarianism itself\".", "Other egoists include James L. Walker, Sidney Parker, Dora Marsden and John Beverly Robinson.", "In Russia, individualist anarchism inspired by Stirner combined with an appreciation for Friedrich Nietzsche attracted a small following of bohemian artists and intellectuals such as Lev Chernyi as well as a few lone wolves who found self-expression in crime and violence.", "They rejected organizing, believing that only unorganized individuals were safe from coercion and domination, believing this kept them true to the ideals of anarchism.", "This type of individualist anarchism inspired anarcha-feminist Emma Goldman.Although Stirner's philosophy is individualist, it has influenced some libertarian communists and anarcho-communists.", "\"For Ourselves Council for Generalized Self-Management\" discusses Stirner and speaks of a \"communist egoism\" which is said to be a \"synthesis of individualism and collectivism\" and says that \"greed in its fullest sense is the only possible basis of communist society\".", "Forms of libertarian communism such as Situationism are influenced by Stirner.", "Anarcho-communist Emma Goldman was influenced by both Stirner and Peter Kropotkin and blended their philosophies together in her own as shown in books of hers such as ''Anarchism And Other Essays''.=== Early individualist anarchism in the United States ======= Josiah Warren ====Josiah WarrenJosiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, ''The Peaceful Revolutionist'', was the first anarchist periodical published, an enterprise for which he built his own printing press, cast his own type and made his own printing plates.", "He put his theories to the test by establishing an experimental \"labor for labor store\" called the Cincinnati Time Store where trade was facilitated by notes backed by a promise to perform labor.", "The store proved successful and operated for three years after which it was closed so that Warren could pursue establishing colonies based on mutualism.", "These included Utopia and Modern Times.", "Warren said that Stephen Pearl Andrews' ''The Science of Society'' (published in 1852) was the most lucid and complete exposition of Warren's own theories.", "Catalan historian Xavier Diez report that the intentional communal experiments pioneered by Warren were influential in European individualist anarchists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries such as Émile Armand and the intentional communities started by them.==== Henry David Thoreau ====Henry David ThoreauHenry David Thoreau was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe.", "Thoreau was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher and leading transcendentalist.", "He is best known for his book ''Walden'', a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings; and his essay, ''Civil Disobedience'', an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state.", "His thought is an early influence on green anarchism, but with an emphasis on the individual experience of the natural world influencing later naturist currents, simple living as a rejection of a materialist lifestyle and self-sufficiency were Thoreau's goals and the whole project was inspired by transcendentalist philosophy.", "Many have seen in Thoreau one of the precursors of ecologism and anarcho-primitivism represented today in John Zerzan.", "For George Woodcock, this attitude can be also motivated by certain idea of resistance to progress and of rejection of the growing materialism which is the nature of American society in the mid 19th century.The essay \"Civil Disobedience\" (''Resistance to Civil Government'') was first published in 1849.It argues that people should not permit governments to overrule or atrophy their consciences and that people have a duty to avoid allowing such acquiescence to enable the government to make them the agents of injustice.", "Thoreau was motivated in part by his disgust with slavery and the Mexican–American War.", "The essay later influenced Mohandas Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., Martin Buber and Leo Tolstoy through its advocacy of nonviolent resistance.", "It is also the main precedent for anarcho-pacifism.", "The American version of individualist anarchism has a strong emphasis on the non-aggression principle and individual sovereignty.", "Some individualist anarchists such as Thoreau do not speak of economics, but simply of the right of \"disunion\" from the state and foresee the gradual elimination of the state through social evolution." ], [ "Developments and expansion", "=== Anarcha-feminism, free love, freethought and LGBT issues ===''Lucifer the Lightbearer'', an influential American free love journalAn important current within individualist anarchism is free love.", "Free love advocates sometimes traced their roots back to Josiah Warren and to experimental communities, and viewed sexual freedom as a clear, direct expression of an individual's self-ownership.", "Free love particularly stressed women's rights since most sexual laws, such as those governing marriage and use of birth control, discriminated against women.", "The most important American free love journal was ''Lucifer the Lightbearer'' (1883–1907) edited by Moses Harman and Lois Waisbrooker but also there existed Ezra Heywood and Angela Heywood's ''The Word'' (1872–1890, 1892–1893).", "M. E. Lazarus was also an important American individualist anarchist who promoted free love.", "John William Lloyd, a collaborator of Benjamin Tucker's periodical ''Liberty'', published in 1931 a sex manual that he called ''The Karezza Method or Magnetation: The Art of Connubial Love''.In Europe, the main propagandist of free love within individualist anarchism was Émile Armand.", "He proposed the concept of ''la camaraderie amoureuse'' to speak of free love as the possibility of voluntary sexual encounter between consenting adults.", "He was also a consistent proponent of polyamory.", "In France, there was also feminist activity inside individualist anarchism as promoted by individualist feminists Marie Küge, Anna Mahé, Rirette Maîtrejean and Sophia Zaïkovska.The Brazilian individualist anarchist Maria Lacerda de Moura lectured on topics such as education, women's rights, free love and antimilitarism.", "Her writings and essays garnered her attention not only in Brazil, but also in Argentina and Uruguay.", "She also wrote for the Spanish individualist anarchist magazine ''Al Margen'' alongside Miguel Giménez Igualada.", "In Germany, the Stirnerists Adolf Brand and John Henry Mackay were pioneering campaigners for the acceptance of male bisexuality and homosexuality.Freethought as a philosophical position and as activism was important in both North American and European individualist anarchism, but in the United States freethought was basically an anti-Christian, anti-clerical movement whose purpose was to make the individual politically and spiritually free to decide for himself on religious matters.", "A number of contributors to ''Liberty'' were prominent figures in both freethought and anarchism.", "The individualist anarchist George MacDonald was a co-editor of ''Freethought'' and for a time ''The Truth Seeker''.", "E.C.", "Walker was co-editor of ''Lucifer, the Light-Bearer''.", "Many of the anarchists were ardent freethinkers; reprints from freethought papers such as ''Lucifer, the Light-Bearer'', ''Freethought'' and ''The Truth Seeker'' appeared in ''Liberty''.", "The church was viewed as a common ally of the state and as a repressive force in and of itself.In Europe, a similar development occurred in French and Spanish individualist anarchist circles: \"Anticlericalism, just as in the rest of the libertarian movement, is another of the frequent elements which will gain relevance related to the measure in which the (French) Republic begins to have conflicts with the church ... Anti-clerical discourse, frequently called for by the french individualist André Lorulot, will have its impacts in ''Estudios'' (a Spanish individualist anarchist publication).", "There will be an attack on institutionalized religion for the responsibility that it had in the past on negative developments, for its irrationality which makes it a counterpoint of philosophical and scientific progress.", "There will be a criticism of proselitism and ideological manipulation which happens on both believers and agnostics\".", "This tendencies will continue in French individualist anarchism in the work and activism of Charles-Auguste Bontemps and others.", "In the Spanish individualist anarchist magazine ''Ética'' and ''Iniciales'', \"there is a strong interest in publishing scientific news, usually linked to a certain atheist and anti-theist obsession, philosophy which will also work for pointing out the incompatibility between science and religion, faith and reason.", "In this way there will be a lot of talk on Darwin's theories or on the negation of the existence of the soul\".=== Anarcho-naturism ===''Walden'' by Henry David Thoreau was an influential early eco-anarchist work.Another important current, especially within French and Spanish individualist anarchist groups was naturism.", "Naturism promoted an ecological worldview, small ecovillages and most prominently nudism as a way to avoid the artificiality of the industrial mass society of modernity.", "Naturist individualist anarchists saw the individual in his biological, physical and psychological aspects and avoided and tried to eliminate social determinations.", "An early influence in this vein was Henry David Thoreau and his famous book ''Walden''.", "Important promoters of this were Henri Zisly and Émile Gravelle who collaborated in ''La Nouvelle Humanité'' followed by ''Le Naturien'', ''Le Sauvage'', ''L'Ordre Naturel'' and ''La Vie Naturelle''.=== Individualist anarchism and Friedrich Nietzsche ===The thought of German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been influential in individualist anarchism, specifically in thinkers such as France's Émile Armand, the Italian Renzo Novatore and the Colombian Biofilo Panclasta.", "Robert C. Holub, author of ''Nietzsche: Socialist, Anarchist, Feminist'' posits that \"translations of Nietzsche's writings in the United States very likely appeared first in ''Liberty'', the anarchist journal edited by Benjamin Tucker\".=== Individualist anarchism in the United States ======= Mutualism and utopianism ====Stephen Pearl AndrewsFor American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster, \"it is apparent ... that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and Stephen Pearl Andrews ... William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form\".", "William Batchelder Greene is best known for the works ''Mutual Banking'' (1850) which proposed an interest-free banking system and ''Transcendentalism'', a critique of the New England philosophical school.", "He saw mutualism as the synthesis of \"liberty and order\".", "His \"associationism ... is checked by individualism.", "... 'Mind your own business,' 'Judge not that ye be not judged.'", "Over matters which are purely personal, as for example, moral conduct, the individual is sovereign, as well as over that which he himself produces.", "For this reason he demands 'mutuality' in marriage – the equal right of a woman to her own personal freedom and property and feminist and spiritualist tendencies\".", "Within some individualist anarchist circles, ''mutualism'' came to mean non-communist anarchism.Contemporary American anarchist Hakim Bey reports that \"Steven Pearl Andrews ... was not a fourierist (see Charles Fourier), but he lived through the brief craze for phalansteries in America & adopted a lot of fourierist principles & practices, ... a maker of worlds out of words.", "He syncretized Abolitionism, Free Love, spiritual universalism, (Josiah) Warren, & (Charles) Fourier into a grand utopian scheme he called the Universal Pantarchy.", "...", "He was instrumental in founding several 'intentional communities,' including the 'Brownstone Utopia' on 14th St. in New York, & 'Modern Times' in Brentwood, Long Island.", "The latter became as famous as the best-known fourierist communes (Brook Farm in Massachusetts & the North American Phalanx in New Jersey) – in fact, Modern Times became downright notorious (for 'Free Love') & finally foundered under a wave of scandalous publicity.", "Andrews (& Victoria Woodhull) were members of the infamous Section 12 of the 1st International, expelled by Marx for its anarchist, feminist, & spiritualist tendencies\".==== Boston anarchists ====Lysander SpoonerAnother form of individualist anarchism was found in the United States as advocated by the so-called Boston anarchists.", "By default, American individualists had no difficulty accepting the concepts that \"one man employ another\" or that \"he direct him\", in his labor but rather demanded that \"all natural opportunities requisite to the production of wealth be accessible to all on equal terms and that monopolies arising from special privileges created by law be abolished\".They believed state monopoly capitalism (defined as a state-sponsored monopoly) prevented labor from being fully rewarded.", "Voltairine de Cleyre summed up the philosophy by saying that the anarchist individualists \"are firm in the idea that the system of employer and employed, buying and selling, banking, and all the other essential institutions of Commercialism, centred upon private property, are in themselves good, and are rendered vicious merely by the interference of the State\".Even among the 19th-century American individualists, there was not a monolithic doctrine as they disagreed amongst each other on various issues including intellectual property rights and possession versus property in land.", "A major schism occurred later in the 19th century when Tucker and some others abandoned their traditional support of natural rights as espoused by Lysander Spooner and converted to an \"egoism\" modeled upon Max Stirner's philosophy.", "Lysander Spooner besides his individualist anarchist activism was also an important anti-slavery activist and became a member of the First International.Some Boston anarchists, including Benjamin Tucker, identified themselves as socialists, which in the 19th century was often used in the sense of a commitment to improving conditions of the working class (i.e.", "\"the labor problem\").", "The Boston anarchists such as Tucker and his followers continue to be considered socialists due to their opposition to usury.", "They do so because as the modern economist Jim Stanford points out there are many different kinds of competitive markets such as market socialism and capitalism is only one type of a market economy.", "By around the start of the 20th century, the heyday of individualist anarchism had passed.==== Individualist anarchism and the labor movement ====Dyer LumGeorge Woodcock reports that the American individualist anarchists Lysander Spooner and William B. Greene had been members of the socialist First International.Two individualist anarchists who wrote in Benjamin Tucker's ''Liberty'' were also important labor organizers of the time.", "Joseph Labadie was an American labor organizer, individualist anarchist, social activist, printer, publisher, essayist and poet.", "In 1883, Labadie embraced a non-violent version of individualist anarchism.", "Without the oppression of the state, Labadie believed, humans would choose to harmonize with \"the great natural laws ... without robbing their fellows through interest, profit, rent and taxes\".", "However, he supported community cooperation as he supported community control of water utilities, streets and railroads.", "Although he did not support the militant anarchism of the Haymarket anarchists, he fought for the clemency of the accused because he did not believe they were the perpetrators.", "In 1888, Labadie organized the Michigan Federation of Labor, became its first president and forged an alliance with Samuel Gompers.", "A colleague of Labadie's at ''Liberty'', Dyer Lum was another important individualist anarchist labor activist and poet of the era.", "A leading anarcho-syndicalist and a prominent left-wing intellectual of the 1880s, he is remembered as the lover and mentor of early anarcha-feminist Voltairine de Cleyre.Lum was a prolific writer who wrote a number of key anarchist texts and contributed to publications including ''Mother Earth'', ''Twentieth Century'', ''The Alarm'' (the journal of the International Working People's Association) and ''The Open Court'' among others.", "Lum's political philosophy was a fusion of individualist anarchist economics—\"a radicalized form of ''laissez-faire'' economics\" inspired by the Boston anarchists—with radical labor organization similar to that of the Chicago anarchists of the time.", "Herbert Spencer and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon influenced Lum strongly in his individualist tendency.", "He developed a \"mutualist\" theory of unions and as such was active within the Knights of Labor and later promoted anti-political strategies in the American Federation of Labor.", "Frustration with abolitionism, spiritualism and labor reform caused Lum to embrace anarchism and radicalize workers.", "Convinced of the necessity of violence to enact social change he volunteered to fight in the American Civil War, hoping thereby to bring about the end of slavery.", "Kevin Carson has praised Lum's fusion of individualist ''laissez-faire'' economics with radical labor activism as \"creative\" and described him as \"more significant than any in the Boston group\".==== Egoist anarchism ====Benjamin TuckerSome of the American individualist anarchists later in this era such as Benjamin Tucker abandoned natural rights positions and converted to Max Stirner's egoist anarchism.", "Rejecting the idea of moral rights, Tucker said that there were only two rights, \"the right of might\" and \"the right of contract\".", "He also said after converting to Egoist individualism that \"in times past ... it was my habit to talk glibly of the right of man to land.", "It was a bad habit, and I long ago sloughed it off ... Man's only right to land is his might over it\".", "In adopting Stirnerite egoism in 1886, Tucker rejected natural rights which had long been considered the foundation of libertarianism in the United States.", "This rejection galvanized the movement into fierce debates, with the natural rights proponents accusing the egoists of destroying libertarianism itself.", "So bitter was the conflict that a number of natural rights proponents withdrew from the pages of ''Liberty'' in protest even though they had hitherto been among its frequent contributors.", "Thereafter, ''Liberty'' championed egoism although its general content did not change significantly.Several periodicals were undoubtedly influenced by ''Liberty'''s presentation of egoism.", "They included ''I'' published by Clarence Lee Swartz, edited by William Walstein Gordak and J. William Lloyd (all associates of ''Liberty''); and ''The Ego'' and ''The Egoist'', both of which were edited by Edward H. Fulton.", "Among the egoist papers that Tucker followed were the German ''Der Eigene'', edited by Adolf Brand; and ''The Eagle'' and ''The Serpent'', issued from London.", "The latter, the most prominent English-language egoist journal, was published from 1898 to 1900 with the subtitle \"A Journal of Egoistic Philosophy and Sociology\".American anarchists who adhered to egoism include Benjamin Tucker, John Beverley Robinson, Steven T. Byington, Hutchins Hapgood, James L. Walker, Victor Yarros and Edward H. Fulton.", "Walker published the work ''The Philosophy of Egoism'' in which he argued that egoism \"implies a rethinking of the self-other relationship, nothing less than 'a complete revolution in the relations of mankind' that avoids both the 'archist' principle that legitimates domination and the 'moralist' notion that elevates self-renunciation to a virtue.", "Walker describes himself as an 'egoistic anarchist' who believed in both contract and cooperation as practical principles to guide everyday interactions\".", "For Walker, \"what really defines egoism is not mere self-interest, pleasure, or greed; it is the sovereignty of the individual, the full expression of the subjectivity of the individual ego\".Italian anti-organizationalist individualist anarchism was brought to the United States by Italian born individualists such as Giuseppe Ciancabilla and others who advocated for violent propaganda by the deed there.", "Anarchist historian George Woodcock reports the incident in which the important Italian social anarchist Errico Malatesta became involved \"in a dispute with the individualist anarchists of Paterson, who insisted that anarchism implied no organization at all, and that every man must act solely on his impulses.", "At last, in one noisy debate, the individual impulse of a certain Ciancabilla directed him to shoot Malatesta, who was badly wounded but obstinately refused to name his assailant\".Enrico Arrigoni (pseudonym Frank Brand) was an Italian American individualist anarchist Lathe operator, house painter, bricklayer, dramatist and political activist influenced by the work of Max Stirner.", "He took the pseudonym Brand from a fictional character in one of Henrik Ibsen's plays.", "In the 1910s, he started becoming involved in anarchist and anti-war activism around Milan.", "From the 1910s until the 1920s, he participated in anarchist activities and popular uprisings in various countries including Switzerland, Germany, Hungary, Argentina and Cuba.", "He lived from the 1920s onwards in New York City, where he edited the individualist anarchist eclectic journal ''Eresia'' in 1928.He also wrote for other American anarchist publications such as ''L' Adunata dei refrattari'', ''Cultura Obrera'', ''Controcorrente'' and ''Intesa Libertaria''.", "During the Spanish Civil War, he went to fight with the anarchists, but he was imprisoned and was helped on his release by Emma Goldman.", "Afterwards, Arrigoni became a longtime member of the Libertarian Book Club in New York City.", "His written works include ''The Totalitarian Nightmare'' (1975), ''The Lunacy of the Superman'' (1977), ''Adventures in the Country of the Monoliths'' (1981) and ''Freedom: My Dream'' (1986).==== Post-left anarchy and insurrectionary anarchism ====Murray Bookchin identified post-left anarchy as a form of individualist anarchism in ''Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism: An Unbridgeable Chasm'' where he identifies \"a shift among Euro-American anarchists away from social anarchism and toward individualist or lifestyle anarchism.", "Indeed, lifestyle anarchism today is finding its principal expression in spray-can graffiti, post-modernist nihilism, antirationalism, neoprimitivism, anti-technologism, neo-Situationist 'cultural terrorism', mysticism, and a 'practice' of staging Foucauldian 'personal insurrections'\".", "Post-left anarchist Bob Black in his long critique of Bookchin's philosophy called ''Anarchy After Leftism'' said about post-left anarchy that \"it is, unlike Bookchinism, \"individualistic\" in the sense that if the freedom and happiness of the individual – i.e., each and every really existing person, every Tom, Dick and Murray – is not the measure of the good society, what is?", "\"A strong relationship does exist between post-left anarchism and the work of individualist anarchist Max Stirner.", "Jason McQuinn says that \"when I (and other anti-ideological anarchists) criticize ideology, it is always from a specifically critical, anarchist perspective rooted in both the skeptical, individualist-anarchist philosophy of Max Stirner.Hakim Bey has said that \"from Stirner's 'Union of Self-Owning Ones' we proceed to Nietzsche's circle of 'Free Spirits' and thence to Charles Fourier's 'Passional Series', doubling and redoubling ourselves even as the Other multiplies itself in the eros of the group\".", "Bey also wrote that \"the Mackay Society, of which Mark & I are active members, is devoted to the anarchism of Max Stirner, Benj.", "Tucker & John Henry Mackay.", "...", "The Mackay Society, incidentally, represents a little-known current of individualist thought which never cut its ties with revolutionary labor.", "Dyer Lum, Ezra & Angela Haywood represent this school of thought; Jo Labadie, who wrote for Tucker's ''Liberty'', made himself a link between the American 'plumb-line' anarchists, the 'philosophical' individualists, & the syndicalist or communist branch of the movement; his influence reached the Mackay Society through his son, Laurance.", "Like the Italian Stirnerites (who influenced us through our late friend Enrico Arrigoni) we support all anti-authoritarian currents, despite their apparent contradictions\".As far as posterior individualist anarchists, Jason McQuinn for some time used the pseudonym Lev Chernyi in honor of the Russian individualist anarchist of the same name while Feral Faun has quoted Italian individualist anarchist Renzo Novatore and has translated both Novatore and the young Italian individualist anarchist Bruno Filippi=== Individualist anarchism in Europe ===Émile ArmandEuropean individualist anarchism proceeded from the roots laid by William Godwin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Max Stirner.", "Proudhon was an early pioneer of anarchism as well as of the important individualist anarchist current of mutualism.", "Stirner became a central figure of individualist anarchism through the publication of his seminal work ''The Ego and Its Own'' which is considered to be \"a founding text in the tradition of individualist anarchism\".European individualist anarchists include Albert Libertad, Bellegarrigue, Oscar Wilde, Émile Armand, Lev Chernyi, John Henry Mackay, Han Ryner, Adolf Brand, Miguel Giménez Igualada, Renzo Novatore and currently Michel Onfray.", "Important currents within it include free love, anarcho-naturism and illegalism.==== France ====Han RynerFrom the legacy of Proudhon and Stirner there emerged a strong tradition of French individualist anarchism.", "An early important individualist anarchist was Anselme Bellegarrigue.", "He participated in the French Revolution of 1848, was author and editor of ''Anarchie, Journal de l'Ordre and Au fait !", "Au fait !", "Interprétation de l'idée démocratique'' and wrote the important early Anarchist Manifesto in 1850.Catalan historian of individualist anarchism Xavier Diez reports that during his travels in the United States \"he at least contacted (Henry David) Thoreau and, probably (Josiah) Warren\".", "''Autonomie Individuelle'' was an individualist anarchist publication that ran from 1887 to 1888.It was edited by Jean-Baptiste Louiche, Charles Schæffer and Georges Deherme.Later, this tradition continued with such intellectuals as Albert Libertad, André Lorulot, Émile Armand, Victor Serge, Zo d'Axa and Rirette Maîtrejean, who in 1905 developed theory in the main individualist anarchist journal in France, ''L'Anarchie''.Zo d'AxaIn this sense, \"the theoretical positions and the vital experiences of French individualism are deeply iconoclastic and scandalous, even within libertarian circles.", "The call of nudist naturism, the strong defence of birth control methods, the idea of \"unions of egoists\" with the sole justification of sexual practices, that will try to put in practice, not without difficulties, will establish a way of thought and action, and will result in sympathy within some, and a strong rejection within others\".Albert LibertadFrench individualist anarchists grouped behind Émile Armand, published ''L'Unique'' after World War II.", "''L'Unique'' went from 1945 to 1956 with a total of 110 numbers.", "Gérard de Lacaze-Duthiers was a French writer, art critic, pacifist and anarchist.", "Lacaze-Duthiers, an art critic for the Symbolist review journal ''La Plume'', was influenced by Oscar Wilde, Friedrich Nietzsche and Max Stirner.", "His (1906) ''L'Ideal Humain de l'Art'' helped found the \"artistocracy movement\"—a movement advocating life in the service of art.", "His ideal was an anti-elitist aestheticism: \"All men should be artists\".", "Together with André Colomer and Manuel Devaldes, in 1913 he founded ''L'Action d'Art'', an anarchist literary journal.", "After World War II, he contributed to the journal ''L'Unique''.", "Within the synthesist anarchist organization, the Fédération Anarchiste, there existed an individualist anarchist tendency alongside anarcho-communist and anarchosyndicalist currents.", "Individualist anarchists participating inside the Fédération Anarchiste included Charles-Auguste Bontemps, Georges Vincey and André Arru.", "The new base principles of the francophone Anarchist Federation were written by the individualist anarchist Charles-Auguste Bontemps and the anarcho-communist Maurice Joyeux which established an organization with a plurality of tendencies and autonomy of federated groups organized around synthesist principles.", "Charles-Auguste Bontemps was a prolific author mainly in the anarchist, freethinking, pacifist and naturist press of the time.", "His view on anarchism was based around his concept of \"Social Individualism\" on which he wrote extensively.", "He defended an anarchist perspective which consisted on \"a collectivism of things and an individualism of persons\".The prolific contemporary French philosopher Michel Onfray has written from an individualist anarchist perspective.===== Illegalism =====Caricature of the Bonnot gangIllegalism is an anarchist philosophy that developed primarily in France, Italy, Belgium and Switzerland during the early 1900s as an outgrowth of Stirner's individualist anarchism.", "Illegalists usually did not seek moral basis for their actions, recognizing only the reality of \"might\" rather than \"right\"; and for the most part, illegal acts were done simply to satisfy personal desires, not for some greater ideal, although some committed crimes as a form of propaganda of the deed.", "The illegalists embraced direct action and propaganda of the deed.Influenced by theorist Max Stirner's egoism as well as Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (his view that \"property is theft!", "\"), Clément Duval and Marius Jacob proposed the theory of la ''reprise individuelle'' (individual reclamation) which justified robbery on the rich and personal direct action against exploiters and the system.==== Germany ====John Henry MackayIn Germany, the Scottish-German John Henry Mackay became the most important propagandist for individualist anarchist ideas.", "He fused Stirnerist egoism with the positions of Benjamin Tucker and actually translated Tucker into German.", "Two semi-fictional writings of his own, ''Die Anarchisten'' and ''Der Freiheitsucher'', contributed to individualist theory through an updating of egoist themes within a consideration of the anarchist movement.", "English translations of these works arrived in the United Kingdom and in individualist American circles led by Tucker.", "''Der Eigene'', Stirnerist pioneer gay activist publicationAdolf Brand was a German writer, Stirnerist anarchist and pioneering campaigner for the acceptance of male bisexuality and homosexuality.", "In 1896, Brand published a German homosexual periodical, ''Der Eigene''.", "This was the first ongoing homosexual publication in the world.", "The name was taken from writings of egoist philosopher Max Stirner (who had greatly influenced the young Brand) and refers to Stirner's concept of \"self-ownership\" of the individual.", "''Der Eigene'' concentrated on cultural and scholarly material and may have had an average of around 1,500 subscribers per issue during its lifetime, although the exact numbers are uncertain.", "Contributors included Erich Mühsam, Kurt Hiller, John Henry Mackay (under the pseudonym Sagitta) and artists Wilhelm von Gloeden, Fidus and Sascha Schneider.", "Brand contributed many poems and articles himself.", "Benjamin Tucker followed this journal from the United States.", "''Der Einzige'' was a German individualist anarchist magazine.", "It appeared in 1919 as a weekly, then sporadically until 1925 and was edited by cousins Anselm Ruest (pseudonym for Ernst Samuel) and Mynona (pseudonym for Salomo Friedlaender).", "Its title was adopted from the book ''Der Einzige und sein Eigentum'' (''The Ego and Its Own'') by Max Stirner.", "Another influence was the thought of German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche.", "The publication was connected to the local expressionist artistic current and the transition from it towards Dada.==== Italy ====Renzo NovatoreIn Italy, individualist anarchism had a strong tendency towards illegalism and violent propaganda by the deed similar to French individualist anarchism, but perhaps more extreme and which emphazised criticism of organization be it anarchist or of other type.", "In this respect, we can consider notorious magnicides carried out or attempted by individualists Giovanni Passannante, Sante Caserio, Michele Angiolillo, Luigi Lucheni and Gaetano Bresci who murdered King Umberto I. Caserio lived in France and coexisted within French illegalism and later assassinated French President Sadi Carnot.", "The theoretical seeds of current insurrectionary anarchism were already laid out at the end of 19th century Italy in a combination of individualist anarchism criticism of permanent groups and organization with a socialist class struggle worldview.During the early 20th century, the intellectual work of individualist anarchist Renzo Novatore came to importance and he was influenced by Max Stirner, Friedrich Nietzsche, Georges Palante, Oscar Wilde, Henrik Ibsen, Arthur Schopenhauer and Charles Baudelaire.", "He collaborated in numerous anarchist journals and participated in futurism avant-garde currents.", "In his thought, he adhered to Stirnerist disrespect for private property, only recognizing property of one's own spirit.", "Novatore collaborated in the individualist anarchist journal ''Iconoclasta!''", "alongside the young Stirnerist illegalist Bruno Filippi.The individualist philosopher and poet Renzo Novatore belonged to the leftist section of the avant-garde movement of futurism alongside other individualist anarcho-futurists such as Dante Carnesecchi, Leda Rafanelli, Auro d'Arcola and Giovanni Governato.", "There was also Pietro Bruzzi who published the journal ''L'Individualista'' in the 1920s alongside Ugo Fedeli and Francesco Ghezzi, but who fell to fascist forces later.", "Bruzzi also collaborated with the Italian American individualist anarchist publication ''Eresia'' of New York City.During the Founding Congress of the Italian Anarchist Federation in 1945, there was a group of individualist anarchists led by Cesare Zaccaria who was an important anarchist of the time.", "Later during the IX Congress of the Italian Anarchist Federation in Carrara in 1965, a group decided to split off from this organization and created the ''Gruppi di Iniziativa Anarchica''.", "In the 1970s, it was mostly composed of \"veteran individualist anarchists with an of pacifism orientation, naturism\".The contemporary imprisoned Italian insurrectionary anarchist philosopher Michele Fabiani writes from an explicit individualist anarchist perspective in such essays as ''Critica individualista anarchica alla modernità'' (\"Individualist Anarchist Critique of Modernity\").", "Horst Fantazzini (March 4, 1939 – December 24, 2001) was an Italian-German individualist anarchist who pursued an illegalist lifestyle and practice until his death in 2001.He gained media notoriety mainly due to his many bank robberies through Italy and other countries.", "In 1999, the film ''Ormai è fatta!''", "appeared based on his life.==== Russia ====Individualist anarchism was one of the three categories of anarchism in Russia, along with the more prominent anarcho-communism and anarcho-syndicalism.", "The ranks of the Russian individualist anarchists were predominantly drawn from the intelligentsia and the working class.", "For anarchist historian Paul Avrich, \"the two leading exponents of individualist anarchism, both based in Moscow, were Aleksei Alekseevich Borovoi and Lev Chernyi (born Pavel Dmitrievich Turchaninov).", "From Nietzsche, they inherited the desire for a complete overturn of all values accepted by bourgeois society political, moral, and cultural.", "Furthermore, strongly influenced by Max Stirner and Benjamin Tucker, the German and American theorists of individualist anarchism, they demanded the total liberation of the human personality from the fetters of organized society\".Some Russian individualists anarchists \"found the ultimate expression of their social alienation in violence and crime, others attached themselves to avant-garde literary and artistic circles, but the majority remained \"philosophical\" anarchists who conducted animated parlor discussions and elaborated their individualist theories in ponderous journals and books\".Lev Chernyi was an important individualist anarchist involved in resistance against the rise to power of the Bolshevik Party as he adhered mainly to Stirner and the ideas of Tucker.", "In 1907, he published a book entitled ''Associational Anarchism'' in which he advocated the \"free association of independent individuals\".", "On his return from Siberia in 1917, he enjoyed great popularity among Moscow workers as a lecturer.", "Chernyi was also Secretary of the Moscow Federation of Anarchist Groups, which was formed in March 1917.He was an advocate \"for the seizure of private homes\", which was an activity seen by the anarchists after the October Revolution as direct expropriation on the bourgoise.", "He died after being accused of participation in an episode in which this group bombed the headquarters of the Moscow Committee of the Communist Party.", "Although most likely not being really involved in the bombing, he might have died of torture.Chernyi advocated a Nietzschean overthrow of the values of bourgeois Russian society, and rejected the voluntary communes of anarcho-communist Peter Kropotkin as a threat to the freedom of the individual.", "Scholars including Avrich and Allan Antliff have interpreted this vision of society to have been greatly influenced by the individualist anarchists Max Stirner and Benjamin Tucker.", "Subsequent to the book's publication, Chernyi was imprisoned in Siberia under the Russian Czarist regime for his revolutionary activities.On the other hand, Alexei Borovoi was a professor of philosophy at Moscow University, \"a gifted orator and the author of numerous books, pamphlets, and articles which attempted to reconcile individualist anarchism with the doctrines of syndicallism\".", "He wrote among other theoretical works ''Anarkhizm'' in 1918, just after the October Revolution; and ''Anarchism and Law''.", "For him, \"the chief importance is given not to Anarchism as the aim but to Anarchy as the continuous quest for the aim\".", "He manifests there that \"no social ideal, from the point of view of anarchism, could be referred to as absolute in a sense that supposes it's the crown of human wisdom, the end of social and ethical quest of man\".==== Spain ====While Spain was influenced by American individualist anarchism, it was more closely related to the French currents.", "Around the start of the 20th century, individualism in Spain gathered force through the efforts of people such as Dorado Montero, Ricardo Mella, Federico Urales, Miguel Giménez Igualada, Mariano Gallardo and J. Elizalde who translated French and American individualists.", "Important in this respect were also magazines such as ''La Idea Libre'', ''La Revista Blanca'', ''Etica'', ''Iniciales'', ''Al margen'', ''Estudios'' and ''Nosotros''.", "The most influential thinkers there were Max Stirner, Émile Armand and Han Ryner.", "Just as in France, the spread of Esperanto and anationalism had importance just as naturism and free love currents.", "Later, Armand and Ryner themselves started writing in the Spanish individualist press.", "Armand's concept of amorous camaraderie had an important role in motivating polyamory as realization of the individual.Catalan historian Xavier Diez reports that the Spanish individualist anarchist press was widely read by members of anarcho-communist groups and by members of the anarcho-syndicalist trade union CNT.", "There were also the cases of prominent individualist anarchists such as Federico Urales and Miguel Giménez Igualada who were members of the CNT and J. Elizalde who was a founding member and first secretary of the Iberian Anarchist Federation (IAF).Spanish individualist anarchist Miguel Giménez Igualada wrote the lengthy theory book called ''Anarchism'' espousing his individualist anarchism.", "Between October 1937 and February 1938, he was editor of the individualist anarchist magazine ''Nosotros'' in which many works of Armand and Ryner appeared.", "He also participated in the publishing of another individualist anarchist maganize ''Al Margen: Publicación quincenal individualista''.", "In his youth, he engaged in illegalist activities.", "His thought was deeply influenced by Max Stirner, of which he was the main popularizer in Spain through his own writings.", "He published and wrote the preface to the fourth edition in Spanish of ''The Ego and Its Own'' from 1900.He proposed the creation of a \"Union of egoists\" to be a federation of individualist anarchists in Spain, but it did not succeed.", "In 1956, he published an extensive treatise on Stirner, dedicated to fellow individualist anarchist Émile Armand.", "Afterwards, he traveled and lived in Argentina, Uruguay and Mexico.Federico Urales was an important individualist anarchist who edited ''La Revista Blanca''.", "The individualist anarchism of Urales was influenced by Auguste Comte and Charles Darwin.", "He saw science and reason as a defense against blind servitude to authority.", "He was critical of influential individualist thinkers such as Nietzsche and Stirner for promoting an asocial egoist individualism and instead promoted an individualism with solidarity seen as a way to guarantee social equality and harmony.", "He was highly critical of anarcho-syndicalism, which he viewed as plagued by excessive bureaucracy; and he thought that it tended towards reformism.", "Instead, he favored small groups based on ideological alignment.", "He supported and participated in the establishment of the IAF in 1927.In 1956, Miguel Giménez Igualada—on exile escaping from Franco's dictatorship—published an extensive treatise on Stirner which he dedicated to fellow individualist anarchist Émile Armand.", "On the subject of individualist anarchist theory, he publisheds ''Anarchism'' in 1968 during his exile in Mexico from Franco's dictatorship in Spain.", "He was present in the First Congress of the Mexican Anarchist Federation in 1945.In 2000, Ateneo Libertario Ricardo Mella, Ateneo Libertario Al Margen, Ateneu Enciclopèdic Popular, Ateneo Libertario de Sant Boi and Ateneu Llibertari Poble Sec y Fundació D'Estudis Llibertaris i Anarcosindicalistes republished Émile Armand's writings on free love and individualist anarchism in a compilation titled ''Individualist anarchism and Amorous camaraderie''.", "Recently, Spanish historian Xavier Diez has dedicated extensive research on Spanish individualist anarchism as can be seen in his books ''El anarquismo individualista en España: 1923–1938'' and ''Utopia sexual a la premsa anarquista de Catalunya.", "La revista Ética-Iniciales(1927–1937)'' which deals with free love thought as present in the Spanish individualist anarchist magazine ''Iniciales''.==== United Kingdom ====Oscar Wilde, famous anarchist Irish writer of the decadent movement and famous dandyThe English Enlightenment political theorist William Godwin was an important influence as mentioned before.", "The Irish anarchist writer of the Decadent Movement Oscar Wilde influenced individualist anarchists such as Renzo Novatore and gained the admiration of Benjamin Tucker.", "In his important essay ''The Soul of Man under Socialism'' from 1891, Wilde defended socialism as the way to guarantee individualism and so he saw that \"with the abolition of private property, then, we shall have true, beautiful, healthy Individualism.", "Nobody will waste his life in accumulating things, and the symbols for things.", "One will live.", "To live is the rarest thing in the world.", "Most people exist, that is all\".", "For anarchist historian George Woodcock, \"Wilde's aim in ''The Soul of Man under Socialism'' is to seek the society most favorable to the artist ... for Wilde art is the supreme end, containing within itself enlightenment and regeneration, to which all else in society must be subordinated ... Wilde represents the anarchist as aesthete\".", "Woodcock finds that \"the most ambitious contribution to literary anarchism during the 1890s was undoubtedly Oscar Wilde ''The Soul of Man under Socialism''\" and finds that it is influenced mainly by the thought of William Godwin.In the late 19th century in the United Kingdom, there existed individualist anarchists such as Wordsworth Donisthorpe, Joseph Hiam Levy, Joseph Greevz Fisher, John Badcock Jr., Albert Tarn and Henry Albert Seymour who were close to the United States group around Benjamin Tucker's magazine ''Liberty''.", "In the mid-1880s, Seymour published a journal called ''The Anarchist'' and also later took a special interest in free love as he participated in the journal ''The Adult: A Journal for the Advancement of Freedom in Sexual Relationships''.", "''The Serpent'', issued from London, was the most prominent English-language egoist journal and published from 1898 to 1900 with the subtitle \"A Journal of Egoistic Philosophy and Sociology\".", "Henry Meulen was another British anarchist who was notable for his support of free banking.In the United Kingdom, Herbert Read was influenced highly by egoism as he later approached existentialism (see existentialist anarchism).", "Albert Camus devoted a section of ''The Rebel'' to Stirner.", "Although throughout his book Camus is concerned to present \"the rebel\" as a preferred alternative to \"the revolutionary\", he nowhere acknowledges that this distinction is taken from the one that Stirner makes between \"the revolutionary\" and \"the insurrectionist\".", "Sidney Parker is a British egoist individualist anarchist who wrote articles and edited anarchist journals from 1963 to 1993 such as ''Minus One'', ''Egoist'', and ''Ego''.", "Donald Rooum is an English anarchist cartoonist and writer with a long association with Freedom Press.", "Rooum stated that for his thought, \"the most influential source is Max Stirner.", "I am happy to be called a Stirnerite anarchist, provided 'Stirnerite' means one who agrees with Stirner's general drift, not one who agrees with Stirner's every word\".", "''An Anarchist FAQ'' reports: \"From meeting anarchists in Glasgow during the Second World War, long-time anarchist activist and artist Donald Rooum likewise combined Stirner and anarcho-communism\".In the hybrid of post-structuralism and anarchism called post-anarchism, Saul Newman has written a lot on Stirner and his similarities to post-structuralism.", "He writes:Max Stirner's impact on contemporary political theory is often neglected.", "However in Stirner's political thinking there can be found a surprising convergence with poststructuralist theory, particularly with regard to the function of power.", "Andrew Koch, for instance, sees Stirner as a thinker who transcends the Hegelian tradition he is usually placed in, arguing that his work is a precursor poststructuralist ideas about the foundations of knowledge and truth.Newman has published several essays on Stirner.", "\"War on the State: Stirner and Deleuze's Anarchism\" and \"Empiricism, Pluralism, and Politics in Deleuze and Stirner\" discusses what he sees are similarities between Stirner's thought and that of Gilles Deleuze.", "In \"Spectres of Stirner: A Contemporary Critique of Ideology\", he discusses the conception of ideology in Stirner.", "In \"Stirner and Foucault: Toward a Post-Kantian Freedom\", similarities between Stirner and Michel Foucault.", "He also wrote \"Politics of the Ego: Stirner's Critique of Liberalism\".=== Individualist anarchism in Latin America ===Argentine anarchist historian Ángel Cappelletti reports that in Argentina \"among the workers that came from Europe in the 2 first decades of the century, there was curiously some stirnerian individualists influenced by the philosophy of Nietzsche, that saw syndicalism as a potential enemy of anarchist ideology.", "They established ... affinity groups that in 1912 came to, according to Max Nettlau, to the number of 20.In 1911 there appeared, in Colón, the periodical ''El Único'', that defined itself as 'Publicación individualista'\".Vicente Rojas Lizcano, whose pseudonym was Biófilo Panclasta, was a Colombian individualist anarchist writer and activist.", "In 1904, he began using the name Biofilo Panclasta.", "''Biofilo'' in Spanish stands for \"lover of life\" and ''Panclasta'' for \"enemy of all\".", "He visited more than fifty countries propagandizing for anarchism which in his case was highly influenced by the thought of Stirner and Nietszche.", "Among his written works there are ''Siete años enterrado vivo en una de las mazmorras de Gomezuela: Horripilante relato de un resucitado''(1932) and ''Mis prisiones, mis destierros y mi vida'' (1929) which talk about his many adventures while living his life as an adventurer, activist and vagabond as well as his thought and the many times he was imprisoned in different countries.Maria Lacerda de Moura, individualist anarcha-feministMaria Lacerda de Moura was a Brazilian teacher, journalist, anarcha-feminist and individualist anarchist.", "Her ideas regarding education were largely influenced by Francisco Ferrer.", "She later moved to São Paulo and became involved in journalism for the anarchist and labor press.", "There she also lectured on topics including education, women's rights, free love and antimilitarism.", "Her writings and essays garnered her attention not only in Brazil, but also in Argentina and Uruguay.", "In February 1923, she launched ''Renascença'', a periodical linked with the anarchist, progressive and freethinking circles of the period.", "Her thought was mainly influenced by individualist anarchists such as Han Ryner and Émile Armand.", "She maintained contact with Spanish individualist anarchist circles.Horst Matthai Quelle was a Spanish language German anarchist philosopher influenced by Max Stirner.", "In 1938, at the beginning of the German economic crisis and the rise of Nazism and fascism in Europe, Quelle moved to Mexico.", "Quelle earned his undergraduate degree, master's and doctorate in philosophy at the National Autonomous University of Mexico, where he returned as a professor of philosophy in the 1980s.", "He argued that since the individual gives form to the world, he is those objects, the others and the whole universe.", "One of his main views was a \"theory of infinite worlds\" which for him was developed by pre-Socratic philosophers.During the 1990s in Argentina, there appeared a Stirnerist publication called ''El Único: publicacion periódica de pensamiento individualista''." ], [ "Criticism", "George Bernard Shaw expressed doubts about the distribution of wealth under individualist anarchism.Murray Bookchin criticized individualist anarchism for its opposition to democracy and its embrace of \"lifestylism\" at the expense of anti-capitalism and class struggle.", "Bookchin claimed that individualist anarchism supports only negative liberty and rejects the idea of positive liberty.", "Albert Meltzer proposed that individualist anarchism differs radically from revolutionary anarchism and that it \"is sometimes too readily conceded 'that this is, after all, anarchism'\".", "Meltzer claimed that Benjamin Tucker's acceptance of the use of a private police force (including to break up violent strikes to protect the \"employer's 'freedom'\") is contradictory to the definition of anarchism as \"no government\".", "Meltzer opposed anarcho-capitalism for similar reasons, arguing that it actually supports a \"limited State\" and that \"it is only possible to conceive of Anarchism which is free, communistic and offering no economic necessity for repression of countering it\".", "Tucker's views of strikes and trade unions evolved from skepticism, believing that strikes should be organized by free workers rather than by bureaucratic union officials and organizations, to sympathize with those involved in the Haymarket massacre.George Bernard Shaw initially had flirtations with individualist anarchism before coming to the conclusion that it was \"the negation of socialism, and is, in fact, unsocialism carried as near to its logical conclusion as any sane man dare carry it\".", "Shaw's argument was that even if wealth was initially distributed equally, the degree of ''laissez-faire'' advocated by Tucker would result in the distribution of wealth becoming unequal because it would permit private appropriation and accumulation.", "According to Carlotta Anderson, American individualist anarchists accept that free competition results in unequal wealth distribution, but they \"do not see that as an injustice\".", "Tucker explained that \"if I go through life free and rich, I shall not cry because my neighbor, equally free, is richer.", "Liberty will ultimately make all men rich; it will not make all men equally rich.", "Authority may (and may not) make all men equally rich in purse; it certainly will make them equally poor in all that makes life best worth living\".", "Nonetheless, Peter Marshall states that \"the egalitarian implications of traditional individualist anarchists\" such as Tucker and Lysander Spooner have been overlooked.Collectivist and social anarchists dispute the individualist anarchist claim that free competition and markets would yield the libertarian-egalitarian anarchist society that individualist anarchists share with them.", "In their views, \"state intervention merely props up a system of class exploitation and gives capitalism a human face\".The authors of ''An Anarchist FAQ'' argue that individualist anarchists did not advocate free competition and markets as normative claims and merely thought those were better means than the ones proposed by anarcho-communists for the development of an anarchist society.", "Individualist anarchists such as Tucker thought interests, profits, rents and usury would disappear, something that both anarcho-capitalists such as Murray Rothbard and social anarchists did not think was true or believe would not happen.", "In a free market, people would be paid in proportion to how much labor they exerted and that exploitation or usury was taking place if they were not.", "The theory was that unregulated banking would cause more money to be available and that this would allow proliferation of new businesses which would in turn raise demand for labor.", "This led Tucker to believe that the labor theory of value would be vindicated and equal amounts of labor would receive equal pay.", "Later in his life, Tucker grew skeptical that free competition could remove concentrated capital.=== Individualist anarchism and anarcho-capitalism ===While anarcho-capitalism is sometimes described as a form of individualist anarchism, some scholars have criticized those, including some Marxists and right-libertarians, for taking it at face value.", "Other scholars such as Benjamin Franks, who considers anarcho-capitalism part of individualist anarchism and hence excludes those forms of individualist anarchism that defend or reinforce hierarchical forms from the anarchist camp, have been criticized by those who include individualist anarchism as part of the anarchist and socialist traditions whilst excluding anarcho-capitalism, including the authors of ''An Anarchist FAQ''.", "Some anarchist scholars criticized those, especially in Anglo-American philosophy, who define anarchism only in terms of opposition to the state, when anarchism, including both individualist and social traditions, is much more than that.", "Anarchists, including both individualist and social anarchists, also criticized some Marxists and other socialists for excluding anarchism from the socialist camp.", "In ''European Socialism: A History of Ideas and Movements'', Carl Landauer summarized the difference between communist and individualist anarchists by stating that \"the communist anarchists also do not acknowledge any right to society to force the individual.", "They differ from the anarchistic individualists in their belief that men, if freed from coercion, will enter into voluntary associations of a communistic type, while the other wing believes that the free person will prefer a high degree of isolation\".Without the labor theory of value, some argue that 19th-century individualist anarchists approximate the modern movement of anarcho-capitalism, although this has been contested or rejected.", "As economic theory changed, the popularity of the labor theory of classical economics was superseded by the subjective theory of value of neoclassical economics and Murray Rothbard, a student of Ludwig von Mises, combined Mises' Austrian School of economics with the absolutist views of human rights and rejection of the state he had absorbed from studying the individualist American anarchists of the 19th century such as Tucker and Spooner.", "In the mid-1950s, Rothbard was concerned with differentiating himself from communist and socialistic economic views of other anarchists, including the individualist anarchists of the 19th century, arguing that \"we are not anarchists ... but not archists either .... Perhaps, then, we could call ourselves by a new name: nonarchist\".", "Joe Peacott, an American individualist in the mutualist tradition, criticizes anarcho-capitalists for trying to hegemonize the individualist anarchism label and make appear as if all individualist anarchists are in favor of capitalism.", "Peacott states that \"individualists, both past and present, agree with the communist anarchists that present-day capitalism is based on economic coercion, not on voluntary contract.", "Rent and interest are mainstays of modern capitalism, and are protected and enforced by the state.", "Without these two unjust institutions, capitalism could not exist\".There is a strong current within anarchism including anarchist activists and scholars which rejects that anarcho-capitalism can be considered a part of the anarchist movement because anarchism has historically been an anti-capitalist movement and anarchists see it as incompatible with capitalist forms.", "Although some regard anarcho-capitalism as a form of individualist anarchism, many others disagree with it and contest there is a socialist–individualist divide as individualist anarchism is largely socialistic.", "Rothbard argued that individualist anarchism is different from anarcho-capitalism and other capitalist theories due to the individualist anarchists retaining the labor theory of value and socialist economics.", "Similarly, many writers deny that anarcho-capitalism is a form of anarchism and that capitalism is compatible with anarchism.", "''The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism'' writes that \"as Benjamin Franks rightly points out, individualisms that defend or reinforce hierarchical forms such as the economic-power relations of anarcho-capitalism are incompatible with practices of social anarchism based on developing immanent goods which contest such as inequalities\".", "Laurence Davis cautiosly asks \"Is anarcho-capitalism really a form of anarchism or instead a wholly different ideological paradigm whose adherents have attempted to expropriate the language of anarchism for their own anti-anarchist ends?\"", "Davis cites Iain McKay, \"whom Franks cites as an authority to support his contention that 'academic analysis has followed activist currents in rejecting the view that anarcho-capitalism has anything to do with social anarchism'\", as arguing \"quite emphatically on the very pages cited by Franks that anarcho-capitalism is by no means a type of anarchism\".", "McKay writes that \"it is important to stress that anarchist opposition to the so-called capitalist 'anarchists' does ''not'' reflect some kind of debate within anarchism, as many of these types like to pretend, but a debate between anarchism and its old enemy capitalism.", "...", "Equally, given that anarchists and 'anarcho'-capitalists have fundamentally ''different'' analyses and goals it is hardly 'sectarian' to point this out\".Davis writes that \"Franks asserts without supporting evidence that most major forms of individualist anarchism have been largely anarcho-capitalist in content, and concludes from this premise that most forms of individualism are incompatible with anarchism\".", "Davis argues that \"the conclusion is unsuistainable because the premise is false, depending as it does for any validity it might have on the further assumption that anarcho-capitalism is indeed a form of anarchism.", "If we reject this view, then we must also reject the individual anarchist versus the communal anarchist 'chasm' style of argument that follows from it\".", "Davis maintains that \"the ideological core of anarchism is the belief that society can and should be organised without hierarchy and domination.", "Historically, anarchists have struggles against a wide range of regimes of domination, from capitalism, the state system, patriarchy, heterosexism, and the domination of nature to colonialism, the war system, slavery, fascism, white supremacy, and certain forms of organised religion\".", "According to Davis, \"while these visions range from the predominantly individualistic to the predominantly communitarian, features common to virtually all include an emphasis on self-management and self-regulatory methods of organisation, voluntary association, decentralised society, based on the principle of free association, in which people will manage and govern themselves\".", "Finally, Davis includes a footnote stating that \"individualist anarchism may plausibly be re regarded as a form of both socialism and anarchism.", "Whether the individualist anarchists were ''consistent'' anarchists (and socialists) is another question entirely.", "... McKay comments as follows: 'any individualist anarchism which support wage labour is ''inconsistent'' anarchism.", "It ''can'' easily be made ''consistent'' anarchism by applying its own principles consistently.", "In contrast 'anarcho'-capitalism rejects so many of the basic, underlying, principles of anarchism ... that it cannot be made consistent with the ideals of anarchism'\"." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* William D. P. Bliss, Historical Sketch of Individualist Anarchism (1897) with further references" ], [ "External links", "**Archives of individualist and egoist texts at the Anarchist Library." ] ]
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[ [ "Italo Calvino" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Italo Calvino''' (, also , ; 15 October 1923 – 19 September 1985) was an Italian writer and journalist.", "His best-known works include the ''Our Ancestors'' trilogy (1952–1959), the ''Cosmicomics'' collection of short stories (1965), and the novels ''Invisible Cities'' (1972) and ''If on a winter's night a traveler'' (1979).Admired in Britain, Australia and the United States, Calvino was the most translated contemporary Italian writer at the time of his death.", "He is buried in the garden cemetery of Castiglione della Pescaia in Tuscany." ], [ "Biography", "===Parents===Italo Calvino was born in Santiago de las Vegas, a suburb of Havana, Cuba, in 1923.His father, Mario, was a tropical agronomist and botanist who also taught agriculture and floriculture.", "Born 47 years earlier in Sanremo, Italy, Mario Calvino had emigrated to Mexico in 1909 where he took up an important position with the Ministry of Agriculture.", "In an autobiographical essay, Italo Calvino explained that his father \"had been in his youth an anarchist, a follower of Kropotkin and then a Socialist Reformist\".", "In 1917, Mario left for Cuba to conduct scientific experiments, after living through the Mexican Revolution.Calvino's mother, Giuliana Luigia Evelina \"Eva\" Mameli, was a botanist and university professor.", "A native of Sassari in Sardinia and 11 years younger than her husband, she married while still a junior lecturer at Pavia University.", "Born into a secular family, Eva was a pacifist educated in the \"religion of civic duty and science\".", "Eva gave Calvino his unusual first name to remind him of his Italian heritage, although since he would up growing up in Italy after all, Calvino thought his name sounded \"belligerently nationalist\".", "Calvino described his parents as being \"very different in personality from one another\", suggesting perhaps deeper tensions behind a comfortable, albeit strict, middle-class upbringing devoid of conflict.", "As an adolescent, he found it hard to relate to poverty and the working-class, and was \"ill at ease\" with his parents' openness to the labourers who filed into his father's study on Saturdays to receive their weekly paycheck.===Early life and education===In 1925, less than two years after Calvino's birth, the family returned to Italy and settled permanently in Sanremo on the Ligurian coast.", "Calvino's brother Floriano, who became a distinguished geologist, was born in 1927.The family divided their time between the Villa Meridiana, an experimental floriculture station which also served as their home, and Mario's ancestral land at San Giovanni Battista.", "On this small working farm set in the hills behind Sanremo, Mario pioneered the cultivation of the then exotic fruits such as avocado and grapefruit, eventually obtaining an entry in the for his achievements.", "The vast forests and luxuriant fauna omnipresent in Calvino's early fiction such as ''The Baron in the Trees'' derive from this \"legacy\".", "In an interview, Calvino stated that \"San Remo continues to pop out in my books, in the most diverse pieces of writing.\"", "He and Floriano would climb the tree-rich estate and perch for hours on the branches reading their favourite adventure stories.", "Less salubrious aspects of this \"paternal legacy\" are described in ''The Road to San Giovanni'', Calvino's memoir of his father in which he exposes their inability to communicate: \"Talking to each other was difficult.", "Both verbose by nature, possessed of an ocean of words, in each other's presence we became mute, would walk in silence side by side along the road to San Giovanni.\"", "A fan of Rudyard Kipling's ''The Jungle Book'' as a child, Calvino felt that his early interest in stories made him the \"black sheep\" of a family that held literature in less esteem than the sciences.", "Fascinated by American movies and cartoons, he was equally attracted to drawing, poetry, and theatre.", "On a darker note, Calvino recalled that his earliest memory was of a Marxist professor who had been brutally assaulted by Benito Mussolini's Blackshirts: \"I remember clearly that we were at dinner when the old professor came in with his face beaten up and bleeding, his bowtie all torn up over it, asking for help.", "\"Other legacies include the parents' beliefs in Freemasonry, republicanism with elements of anarchism and Marxism.", "Austere freethinkers with an intense hatred of the ruling National Fascist Party, Eva and Mario also refused to give their sons any education in the Catholic Faith or any other religion.", "Italo attended the English nursery school St George's College, followed by a Protestant elementary private school run by Waldensians.", "His secondary schooling, with a classical lyceum curriculum, was completed at the state-run Liceo Gian Domenico Cassini where, at his parents' request, he was exempted from religion classes but frequently asked to justify his anti-conformism to teachers, janitors, and fellow pupils.", "In his mature years, Calvino described the experience as having made him \"tolerant of others' opinions, particularly in the field of religion, remembering how irksome it was to hear myself mocked because I did not follow the majority's beliefs\".", "In 1938, Eugenio Scalfari, who went on to found the weekly magazine and , a major Italian newspaper, came from Civitavecchia to join the same class though a year younger, and they shared the same desk.", "The two teenagers formed a lasting friendship, Calvino attributing his political awakening to their university discussions.", "Seated together \"on a huge flat stone in the middle of a stream near our land\", he and Scalfari founded a university movement called the MUL.Eva managed to delay her son's enrolment in the Party's armed scouts, the , and then arranged that he be excused, as a non-Catholic, from performing devotional acts in Church.", "But later on, as a compulsory member, he could not avoid the assemblies and parades of the , and was forced to participate in the Italian invasion of the French Riviera in June 1940.===World War II===In 1941, Calvino enrolled at the University of Turin, choosing the Agriculture Faculty where his father had previously taught courses in agronomy.", "Concealing his literary ambitions to please his family, he passed four exams in his first year while reading anti-Fascist works by Elio Vittorini, Eugenio Montale, Cesare Pavese, Johan Huizinga, and Pisacane, and works by Max Planck, Werner Heisenberg, and Albert Einstein on physics.", "Calvino's real aspiration was to be a playwright.", "His letters to Eugenio Scalfari overflow with references to Italian and foreign plays, and with plots and characters of future theatrical projects.", "Luigi Pirandello and Gabriele D'Annunzio, Cesare Vico Lodovici and Ugo Betti, Eugene O'Neill and Thornton Wilder are among the main authors Calvino cites as his sources of inspiration.", "Disdainful of Turin students, Calvino saw himself as enclosed in a \"provincial shell\" that offered the illusion of immunity from the Fascist nightmare: \"We were ‘hard guys’ from the provinces, hunters, snooker-players, show-offs, proud of our lack of intellectual sophistication, contemptuous of any patriotic or military rhetoric, coarse in our speech, regulars in the brothels, dismissive of any romantic sentiment and desperately devoid of women.", "\"Calvino transferred to the University of Florence in 1943 and reluctantly passed three more exams in agriculture.", "By the end of the year, the Germans had succeeded in occupying Liguria and setting up Benito Mussolini's puppet Republic of Salò in northern Italy.", "Now twenty years old, Calvino refused military service and went into hiding.", "Reading intensely in a wide array of subjects, he also reasoned politically that, of all the partisan groupings, the communists were the best organized with \"the most convincing political line\".In spring 1944, Eva encouraged her sons to enter the Italian Resistance in the name of \"natural justice and family virtues\".", "Using the nom de guerre \"Santiago\", Calvino joined the ''Garibaldi Brigades'', a clandestine Communist group and, for twenty months, endured the fighting in the Maritime Alps until 1945 and the Liberation.", "As a result of his refusal to be a conscript, his parents were held hostage by the Nazis for an extended period at the Villa Meridiana.", "Calvino wrote of his mother's ordeal that \"she was an example of tenacity and courage… behaving with dignity and firmness before the SS and the Fascist militia, and in her long detention as a hostage, not least when the blackshirts three times pretended to shoot my father in front of her eyes.", "The historical events which mothers take part in acquire the greatness and invincibility of natural phenomena\".===Turin and communism===Calvino settled in Turin in 1945, after a long hesitation over living there or in Milan.", "He often humorously belittled this choice, describing Turin as a \"city that is serious but sad\".", "Returning to university, he abandoned Agriculture for the Arts Faculty.", "A year later, he was initiated into the literary world by Elio Vittorini, who published his short story (1945; \"Gone to Headquarters\") in , a Turin-based weekly magazine associated with the university.", "The horror of the war had not only provided the raw material for his literary ambitions but deepened his commitment to the Communist cause.", "Viewing civilian life as a continuation of the partisan struggle, he confirmed his membership in the Italian Communist Party.", "On reading Vladimir Lenin's ''State and Revolution'', he plunged into post-war political life, associating himself chiefly with the worker's movement in Turin.In 1947, he graduated with a Master's thesis on Joseph Conrad, wrote short stories in his spare time, and landed a job in the publicity department at the Einaudi publishing house run by Giulio Einaudi.", "Although brief, his stint put him in regular contact with Cesare Pavese, Natalia Ginzburg, Norberto Bobbio, and many other left-wing intellectuals and writers.", "He then left Einaudi to work as a journalist for the official Communist daily, , and the newborn Communist political magazine, .", "During this period, Pavese and poet Alfonso Gatto were Calvino's closest friends and mentors.His first novel, (''The Path to the Nest of Spiders'') written with valuable editorial advice from Pavese, won the Premio Riccione on publication in 1947.With sales topping 5000 copies, a surprise success in postwar Italy, the novel inaugurated Calvino's neorealist period.", "In a clairvoyant essay, Pavese praised the young writer as a \"squirrel of the pen\" who \"climbed into the trees, more for fun than fear, to observe partisan life as a fable of the forest\".", "In 1948, he interviewed one of his literary idols, Ernest Hemingway, travelling with Natalia Ginzburg to his home in Stresa.", "(''The Crow Comes Last''), a collection of stories based on his wartime experiences, was published to acclaim in 1949.Despite the triumph, Calvino grew increasingly worried by his inability to compose a worthy second novel.", "He returned to Einaudi in 1950, responsible this time for the literary volumes.", "He eventually became a consulting editor, a position that allowed him to hone his writing talent, discover new writers, and develop into \"a reader of texts\".", "In late 1951, presumably to advance in the Communist Party, he spent two months in the Soviet Union as a correspondent for .", "While in Moscow, he learned of his father's death on 25 October.", "The articles and correspondence he produced from this visit were published in 1952, winning the Saint-Vincent Prize for journalism.Over a seven-year period, Calvino wrote three realist novels, ''The White Schooner'' (1947–1949), ''Youth in Turin'' (1950–1951), and ''The Queen's Necklace'' (1952–54), but all were deemed defective.", "Calvino's first efforts as a fictionist were marked with his experience in the Italian resistance during the Second World War, however, his acclamation as a writer of fantastic stories came in the 1950s.", "During the eighteen months it took to complete (''Youth in Turin''), he made an important self-discovery: \"I began doing what came most naturally to me – that is, following the memory of the things I had loved best since boyhood.", "Instead of making myself write the book I ''ought'' to write, the novel that was expected of me, I conjured up the book I myself would have liked to read, the sort by an unknown writer, from another age and another country, discovered in an attic.\"", "The result was (1952; ''The Cloven Viscount'') composed in 30 days between July and September 1951.The protagonist, a seventeenth-century viscount sundered in two by a cannonball, incarnated Calvino's growing political doubts and the divisive turbulence of the Cold War.", "Skilfully interweaving elements of the fable and the fantasy genres, the allegorical novel launched him as a modern \"fabulist\".", "In 1954, Giulio Einaudi commissioned his (1956; ''Italian Folktales'') on the basis of the question, \"Is there an Italian equivalent of the Brothers Grimm?\"", "For two years, Calvino collated tales found in 19th century collections across Italy then translated 200 of the finest from various dialects into Italian.", "Key works he read at this time were Vladimir Propp's ''Morphology of the Folktale'' and ''Historical Roots of Russian Fairy Tales'', stimulating his own ideas on the origin, shape and function of the story.In 1952 Calvino wrote with Giorgio Bassani for , a magazine named after the popular name of the party's head offices in Rome.", "He also worked for , a Marxist weekly.From 1955 to 1958 Calvino had an affair with Italian actress Elsa De Giorgi, a married, older woman.", "Excerpts of the hundreds of love letters Calvino wrote to her were published in the in 2004, causing some controversy.===After communism===In 1957, disillusioned by the 1956 Soviet invasion of Hungary, Calvino left the Italian Communist Party.", "In his letter of resignation published in on 7 August, he explained the reason for his dissent (the violent suppression of the Hungarian uprising and the revelation of Joseph Stalin's crimes) while confirming his \"confidence in the democratic perspectives\" of world Communism.", "He withdrew from taking an active role in politics and never joined another party.", "Ostracized by the PCI party leader Palmiro Togliatti and his supporters on publication of ''Becalmed in the Antilles'' (), a satirical allegory of the party's immobilism, Calvino began writing ''The Baron in the Trees''.", "Completed in three months and published in 1957, the fantasy is based on the \"problem of the intellectual's political commitment at a time of shattered illusions\".", "He found new outlets for his periodic writings in the journals and , the magazine , and the weekly .", "With Vittorini in 1959, he became co-editor of , a cultural journal devoted to literature in the modern industrial age, a position he held until 1966.Despite severe restrictions in the US against foreigners holding communist views, Calvino was allowed to visit the United States, where he stayed six months from 1959 to 1960 (four of which he spent in New York), after an invitation by the Ford Foundation.", "Calvino was particularly impressed by the \"New World\": \"Naturally I visited the South and also California, but I always felt a New Yorker.", "My city is New York.\"", "The letters he wrote to Einaudi describing this visit to the United States were first published as \"American Diary 1959–1960\" in ''Hermit in Paris'' in 2003.In 1962 Calvino met Argentinian translator Esther Judith Singer (\"Chichita\") and married her in 1964 in Havana, during a trip in which he visited his birthplace and was introduced to Ernesto \"Che\" Guevara.", "On 15 October 1967, a few days after Guevara's death, Calvino wrote a tribute to him that was published in Cuba in 1968, and in Italy thirty years later.", "He and his wife settled in Rome in via Monte Brianzo where their daughter, Giovanna, was born in 1965.Once again working for Einaudi, Calvino began publishing some of his \"Cosmicomics\" in , a literary magazine.===Later life and work===Vittorini's death in 1966 greatly affected Calvino.", "He went through what he called an \"intellectual depression\", which the writer himself described as an important passage in his life: \"I ceased to be young.", "Perhaps it's a metabolic process, something that comes with age, I'd been young for a long time, perhaps too long, suddenly I felt that I had to begin my old age, yes, old age, perhaps with the hope of prolonging it by beginning it early.", "\"Amid the atmosphere that would evolve into 1968's cultural revolution (the French May), he and his family moved to Paris in 1967, taking up residence in a villa in the Square de Châtillon.", "Nicknamed , Calvino was invited by Raymond Queneau in 1968 to join the Oulipo () group of experimental writers where he met Roland Barthes and Georges Perec, who would influence his later work.", "That same year, he turned down the Viareggio Prize for (''Time and the Hunter'') on the grounds that it was an award given by \"institutions emptied of meaning\".", "He accepted, however, both the Asti Prize and the Feltrinelli Prize for his writing in 1970 and 1972, respectively.", "In two autobiographical essays published in 1962 and 1970, Calvino described himself as \"atheist\" and his outlook as \"non-religious\".Calvino had more significant contact with the academic world, notably at the Sorbonne (with Barthes) and the University of Urbino.", "His literary interests spanned multiple periods, genres, and languages, including Honoré de Balzac, Ludovico Ariosto, Dante, Ignatius of Loyola, Cervantes, Shakespeare, Cyrano de Bergerac, and Giacomo Leopardi.", "Between 1972 and 1973, Calvino published two short stories, \"The Name, the Nose\" and the Oulipo-inspired \"The Burning of the Abominable House\", in the Italian edition of ''Playboy''.", "He also became a regular contributor to the Italian newspaper .", "During this period, Calvino spent his summer vacations in a house constructed in the pinewood of Roccamare, in Castiglione della Pescaia, Tuscany.In 1975, Calvino was made an Honorary Member of the American Academy.", "Awarded the Austrian State Prize for European Literature in 1976, he visited Mexico, Japan, and the United States, where he gave a series of lectures in several American cities.", "After his mother died in 1978 at the age of 92, Calvino sold Villa Meridiana, the family home in San Remo.", "Two years later, he moved to Rome in Piazza Campo Marzio near the Pantheon and began editing the work of Tommaso Landolfi for Rizzoli.", "Awarded the French in 1981, he also accepted the role of jury president for the 38th Venice Film Festival.During the summer of 1985, Calvino prepared a series of texts on literature for the Charles Eliot Norton Lectures to be delivered at Harvard University in the fall.", "On 6 September, he was admitted to the hospital of Santa Maria della Scala in Siena (now a museum) where he died during the night between 18 and 19 September of a cerebral haemorrhage.", "His lecture notes were published posthumously in Italian in 1988 and in English as ''Six Memos for the Next Millennium'' in 1993." ], [ "Authors he helped publish", "* Mario Rigoni Stern* Gianni Celati* Andrea De Carlo* Daniele Del Giudice* Leonardo Sciascia" ], [ "Selected publications", "A selected bibliography of Calvino's writings follows, listing the works that have been published in English translation, along with a few major untranslated works.", "More exhaustive bibliographies can be found in Martin McLaughlin's ''Italo Calvino'' and Beno Weiss's ''Understanding Italo Calvino''.===Fiction=== Title Originalpublication Englishtranslation Translator===Fiction collections=== Title Originalpublication Englishtranslation Translator===Essays and other writings=== Title Originalpublication Englishtranslation Translator===Autobiographical works=== Title Originalpublication Englishtranslation Translator===Libretti=== Title Originalperformance===Translations=== Original TitleTranslated title Original Author Originalpublication Translatedpublication" ], [ "Selected filmography", "* ''Boccaccio '70'', 1962 (co-wrote screenplay of \"Renzo e Luciano\" segment directed by Mario Monicelli)* ''L'Amore difficile'', 1963 (wrote \"L'avventura di un soldato\" segment directed by Nino Manfredi)* ''Tiko and the Shark'', 1964 (co-wrote screenplay directed by Folco Quilici)" ], [ "Film and television adaptations", "* ''The Nonexistent Knight'' by Pino Zac, 1969 (Italian animated film based on the novel)* ''Amores dificiles'' by Ana Luisa Ligouri, 1983 (13' Mexican short)* ''L'Aventure d'une baigneuse'' by Philippe Donzelot, 1991 (14' French short based on ''The Adventure of a Bather'' in ''Difficult Loves'' )* ''Fantaghirò'' by Lamberto Bava, 1991 (TV adaptation based on ''Fanta-Ghirò the Beautiful'' in ''Italian Folktales'')* ''Palookaville'' by Alan Taylor, 1995 (American film based on ''Theft in a Cake Shop'', ''Desire in November'', and ''Transit Bed'')*''Solidarity'' by Nancy Kiang, 2006 (10' American short)* ''Conscience'' by Yu-Hsiu Camille Chen, 2009 (10' Australian short)* \"La Luna\" by Enrico Casarosa, 2011 (American short loosely based off ''\"''The Distance of the Moon\" from ''Cosmicomics.'')" ], [ "Films on Calvino", "* Damian Pettigrew, , 2012.Co-produced by Arte France, Italy's Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali, and the National Film Board of Canada, the feature-length docufiction stars Neri Marcorè as the Italian writer alongside distinguished literary critic Pietro Citati.", "The film also uses in-depth interviews conducted at Calvino's Rome residence a year before his death in 1985 and rare footage from RAI, INA , and BBC television archives.", "The 52-minute French version titled, (\"Being Italo Calvino\"), was broadcast by Arte France on 19 December 2012 and Sky Arte (Italy) on 14 October 2013." ], [ "Legacy", "The , an Italian curriculum school in Moscow, Russia, is named after him.", "A crater on the planet Mercury, Calvino, and a main-belt asteroid, ''22370 Italocalvino'', are also named after him.", "''Salt Hill Journal'' and University of Louisville award annually the Italo Calvino Prize \"for a work of fiction written in the fabulist experimental style of Italo Calvino\".", "Kai Nieminen (b.", "1953) wrote his flute concerto (2001) based on the story of Mr. Palomar.", "The text was written to the dedicatee, Patrick Gallois." ], [ "Awards", "* 1946 – l'Unità Prize (shared with Marcello Venturi) for the short story, ''Minefield'' ()* 1947 – Riccione Prize for ''The Path to the Nest of Spiders''* 1952 – Saint-Vincent Prize* 1957 – Viareggio Prize for ''The Baron in the Trees''* 1959 – Bagutta Prize* 1960 – Salento Prize for ''Our Ancestors''* 1963 – International Charles Veillon Prize for ''The Watcher''* 1970 – Asti Prize* 1972 – Feltrinelli Prize for ''Invisible Cities''* 1976 – Austrian State Prize for European Literature* 1981 – Legion of Honour* 1982 – World Fantasy Award – Life Achievement" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Sources", "===Primary sources===*Calvino, Italo.", "''Adam, One Afternoon'' (trans.", "Archibald Colquhoun, Peggy Wright).", "London: Minerva, 1992.*—.", "''The Castle of Crossed Destinies'' (trans.", "William Weaver).", "London: Secker & Warburg, 1977*—.", "''Cosmicomics'' (trans.", "William Weaver).", "London: Picador, 1993.*—.", "''The Crow Comes Last'' (''Ultimo viene il corvo'').", "Turin: Einaudi, 1949.*—.", "''Difficult Loves.", "Smog.", "A Plunge into Real Estate'' (trans.", "William Weaver, Donald Selwyn Carne-Ross).", "London: Picador, 1985.*—.", "''Hermit in Paris'' (trans.", "Martin McLaughlin).", "London: Jonathan Cape, 2003.*—.", "''If on a winter's night a traveller'' (trans.", "William Weaver).", "London: Vintage, 1998.*—.", "''Invisible Cities'' (trans.", "William Weaver).", "London: Secker & Warburg, 1974.*—.", "''Italian Fables'' (trans.", "Louis Brigante).", "New York: Collier, 1961.", "(50 tales)*—.", "''Italian Folk Tales'' (trans.", "Sylvia Mulcahy).", "London: J.M.", "Dent & Sons, 1975.", "(24 tales)*—.", "''Italian Folktales'' (trans.", "George Martin).", "Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1980.", "(complete 200 tales)*—.", "''Marcovaldo or the Seasons in the City'' (trans.", "William Weaver).", "London: Minerva, 1993.*—.", "''Mr.", "Palomar'' (trans.", "William Weaver).", "London: Vintage, 1999.*—.", "''Our Ancestors'' (trans.", "A. Colquhoun).", "London: Vintage, 1998.*—.", "''The Path to the Nest of Spiders'' (trans.", "Archibald Colquhoun).", "Boston: Beacon, 1957.*—.", "''The Path to the Spiders' Nests'' (trans.", "A. Colquhoun, revised by Martin McLaughlin).", "London: Jonathan Cape, 1993.*—.", "''t zero'' (trans.", "William Weaver).", "New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1969.*—.", "''The Road to San Giovanni'' (trans.", "Tim Parks).", "New York: Vintage International, 1993.*—.", "''Six Memos for the Next Millennium'' (trans.", "Patrick Creagh).", "New York: Vintage International, 1993.*—.", "''The Watcher and Other Stories'' (trans.", "William Weaver).", "New York: Harcourt, Brace & Company, 1971.===Secondary sources===* Barenghi, Mario, and Bruno Falcetto.", "''Romanzi e racconti di Italo Calvino''.", "Milano: Mondadori, 1991.", "* Bernardini Napoletano, Francesca.", "''I segni nuovi di Italo Calvino''.", "Rome: Bulzoni, 1977.", "* Bonura, Giuseppe.", "''Invito alla lettura di Calvino''.", "Milan: U. Mursia, 1972.", "* Calvino, Italo.", "''Uno scrittore pomeridiano: Intervista sull'arte della narrativa'' a cura di William Weaver e Damian Pettigrew con un ricordo di Pietro Citati.", "Rome: minimum fax, 2003..* Corti, Maria.", "'Intervista: Italo Calvino' in ''Autografo 2'' (October 1985): 47–53.", "* Di Carlo, Franco.", "''Come leggere I nostri antenati''.", "Milan: U. Mursia, 1958.", "(1998 ).", "* McLaughlin, Martin.", "''Italo Calvino''.", "Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998.(pb.", ").", "* Weiss, Beno.", "''Understanding Italo Calvino''.", "Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1993..* Anderson, Helen Victoria.", "''Historical and detective fiction in Italy 1950-2006 : Calvino, Malerba and Mancinelli''.", "Oxford University, 2010.=== Online sources ===* Italo Calvino at Emory University Online Resources and Links* Outside the Town of Malbork A Site for Italo Calvino* The Words that Failed Calvino on Che Guevara*http://atlantecalvino.unige.ch/ vizualisation of Calvino's work by" ], [ "Further reading", "'''General'''*Benussi, Cristina (1989).", "''Introduzione a Calvino''.", "Rome: Laterza.", "* Bartoloni, Paolo (2003).", "''Interstitial Writing: Calvino, Caproni, Sereni and Svevo''.", "Leicester: Troubador.", "* Bloom, Harold (ed.)(2002).", "''Bloom's Major Short Story Writers: Italo Calvino''.", "Broomall, Pennsylvania: Chelsea House.", "* Bolongaro, Eugenio (2003). ''", "Italo Calvino and the Compass of Literature''.", "Toronto: University of Toronto Press.", "* Cannon, JoAnn (1981).", "''Italo Calvino: Writer and Critic''.", "Ravenna: Longo Press.", "* Carter III, Albert Howard (1987).", "''Italo Calvino: Metamorphoses of Fantasy.''", "Ann Arbor, Michigan: UMI Research Press.", "* Chubb, Stephen (1997).", "''I, Writer, I, Reader: the Concept of the Self in the Fiction of Italo Calvino''.", "Leicester: Troubador.", "* Gabriele, Tomassina (1994).", "''Italo Calvino: Eros and Language''.", "Teaneck, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press.", "* Jeannet, Angela M. (2000) ''Under the Radiant Sun and the Crescent Moon''.", "Toronto: University of Toronto Press.", "* Markey, Constance (1999).", "''Italo Calvino.", "A Journey Toward Postmodernism''.", "Gainesville: Florida University Press.", "* —.", "Interview.", "\"Italo Calvino: The Contemporary Fabulist\" in ''Italian Quarterly'', 23 (spring 1982): 77–85.", "* Pilz, Kerstin (2005).", "''Mapping Complexity: Literature and Science in the Works of Italo Calvino''.", "Leicester: Troubador." ], [ "External links", "* Italo Calvino at Emory University On-Line Resources and Links* * * ;Excerpts, essays, artwork* The Distance of the Moon read by Liev Schreiber in 2013* If on a winter's night a traveler First chapter excerpts* Chapter 8 of ''Cosmicomics''* Calvino on Myth* Calvino on Che Guevara* In Calvino veritas Essays on Calvino" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Intercontinental ballistic missile" ], [ "Introduction", "Peacekeeper missile launched from a siloMinuteman III launch from Vandenberg Space Force Base, California, United States of America on 9 February 2023.An '''intercontinental ballistic missile''' ('''ICBM''') is a ballistic missile with a range greater than , primarily designed for nuclear weapons delivery (delivering one or more thermonuclear warheads).", "Conventional, chemical, and biological weapons can also be delivered with varying effectiveness, but have never been deployed on ICBMs.", "Most modern designs support multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle (MIRVs), allowing a single missile to carry several warheads, each of which can strike a different target.", "The United States, Russia, China, France, India, the United Kingdom, Israel, and North Korea are the only countries known to have operational ICBMs.Early ICBMs had limited precision, which made them suitable for use only against the largest targets, such as cities.", "They were seen as a \"safe\" basing option, one that would keep the deterrent force close to home where it would be difficult to attack.", "Attacks against military targets (especially hardened ones) demanded the use of a more precise, manned bomber.", "Second- and third-generation designs (such as the LGM-118 Peacekeeper) dramatically improved accuracy to the point where even the smallest point targets can be successfully attacked.ICBMs are differentiated by having greater range and speed than other ballistic missiles: intermediate-range ballistic missiles (IRBMs), medium-range ballistic missiles (MRBMs), short-range ballistic missiles (SRBMs) and tactical ballistic missile" ], [ "History", "=== World War II ===Primary views of an R-7 Semyorka, the world's first ICBM and satellite launch vehicleThe first practical design for an ICBM grew out of Nazi Germany's V-2 rocket program.", "The liquid-fueled V-2, designed by Wernher von Braun and his team, was then widely used by Nazi Germany from mid-1944 until March 1945 to bomb British and Belgian cities, particularly Antwerp and London.Under ''Projekt Amerika,'' von Braun's team developed the A9/10 ICBM, intended for use in bombing New York and other American cities.", "Initially intended to be guided by radio, it was changed to be a piloted craft after the failure of Operation Elster.", "The second stage of the A9/A10 rocket was tested a few times in January and February 1945.After the war, the US executed Operation Paperclip, which took von Braun and hundreds of other leading Nazi scientists to the United States to develop IRBMs, ICBMs, and launchers for the US Army.This technology was predicted by US General of the Army Hap Arnold, who wrote in 1943:=== Cold War ===After World War II, the Americans and the Soviets started rocket research programs based on the V-2 and other German wartime designs.", "Each branch of the US military started its own programs, leading to considerable duplication of effort.", "In the Soviet Union, rocket research was centrally organized although several teams worked on different designs.In the Soviet Union, early development was focused on missiles able to attack European targets.", "That changed in 1953, when Sergei Korolyov was directed to start development of a true ICBM able to deliver newly developed hydrogen bombs.", "Given steady funding throughout, the R-7 developed with some speed.", "The first launch took place on 15 May 1957 and led to an unintended crash from the site.", "The first successful test followed on 21 August 1957; the R-7 flew over and became the world's first ICBM.", "The first strategic-missile unit became operational on 9 February 1959 at Plesetsk in north-west Russia.It was the same R-7 launch vehicle that placed the first artificial satellite in space, Sputnik, on 4 October 1957.The first human spaceflight in history was accomplished on a derivative of R-7, Vostok, on 12 April 1961, by Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin.", "A heavily modernized version of the R-7 is still used as the launch vehicle for the Soviet/Russian Soyuz spacecraft, marking more than 60 years of operational history of Sergei Korolyov's original rocket design.An SM-65 Atlas, the first US ICBM, first launched in 1957The US initiated ICBM research in 1946 with the RTV-A-2 Hiroc project.", "This was a three-stage effort with the ICBM development not starting until the third stage.", "However, funding was cut in 1948 after only three partially successful launches of the second stage design, that was used to test variations of the V-2 design.", "With overwhelming air superiority and truly intercontinental bombers, the newly formed US Air Force did not take the problem of ICBM development seriously.", "Things changed in 1953 with the Soviet testing of their first thermonuclear weapon, but it was not until 1954 that the Atlas missile program was given the highest national priority.", "The Atlas A first flew on 11 June 1957; the flight lasted only about 24 seconds before the rocket exploded.", "The first successful flight of an Atlas missile to full range occurred 28 November 1958.The first armed version of the Atlas, the Atlas D, was declared operational in January 1959 at Vandenberg, although it had not yet flown.", "The first test flight was carried out on 9 July 1959, and the missile was accepted for service on 1 September.", "The Titan I was another US multistage ICBM, with a successful launch February 5, 1959, with Titan I A3.Unlike the Atlas, the Titan I was a two-stage missile, rather than three.", "The Titan was larger, yet lighter, than the Atlas.", "Due to the improvements in engine technology and guidance systems the Titan I overtook the Atlas.The R-7 and Atlas each required a large launch facility, making them vulnerable to attack, and could not be kept in a ready state.", "Failure rates were very high throughout the early years of ICBM technology.", "Human spaceflight programs (Vostok, Mercury, Voskhod, Gemini, etc.)", "served as a highly visible means of demonstrating confidence in reliability, with successes translating directly to national defense implications.", "The US was well behind the Soviets in the Space Race and so US President John F. Kennedy increased the stakes with the Apollo program, which used Saturn rocket technology that had been funded by President Dwight D. Eisenhower.Atlas and Titan ICBM launches, cumulative by month with failures highlighted (pink), showing how NASA's use of ICBM boosters for Projects Mercury and Gemini (blue) served as a visible demonstration of reliability at a time when failure rates had been substantial.These early ICBMs also formed the basis of many space launch systems.", "Examples include R-7, Atlas, Redstone, Titan, and Proton, which was derived from the earlier ICBMs but never deployed as an ICBM.", "The Eisenhower administration supported the development of solid-fueled missiles such as the LGM-30 Minuteman, Polaris and Skybolt.", "Modern ICBMs tend to be smaller than their ancestors, due to increased accuracy and smaller and lighter warheads, and use solid fuels, making them less useful as orbital launch vehicles.The Western view of the deployment of these systems was governed by the strategic theory of mutual assured destruction.", "In the 1950s and 1960s, development began on anti-ballistic missile systems by both the Americans and Soviets.", "Such systems were restricted by the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.", "The first successful ABM test was conducted by the Soviets in 1961, which later deployed a fully operational system defending Moscow in the 1970s (see Moscow ABM system).The 1972 SALT treaty froze the number of ICBM launchers of both the Americans and the Soviets at existing levels and allowed new submarine-based SLBM launchers only if an equal number of land-based ICBM launchers were dismantled.", "Subsequent talks, called SALT II, were held from 1972 to 1979 and actually reduced the number of nuclear warheads held by the US and Soviets.", "SALT II was never ratified by the US Senate, but its terms were honored by both sides until 1986, when the Reagan administration \"withdrew\" after it had accused the Soviets of violating the pact.In the 1980s, President Ronald Reagan launched the Strategic Defense Initiative as well as the MX and Midgetman ICBM programs.China developed a minimal independent nuclear deterrent entering its own cold war after an ideological split with the Soviet Union beginning in the early 1960s.", "After first testing a domestic built nuclear weapon in 1964, it went on to develop various warheads and missiles.", "Beginning in the early 1970s, the liquid fuelled DF-5 ICBM was developed and used as a satellite launch vehicle in 1975.The DF-5, with a range of —long enough to strike the Western United States and the Soviet Union—was silo deployed, with the first pair in service by 1981 and possibly twenty missiles in service by the late 1990s.", "China also deployed the JL-1 Medium-range ballistic missile with a reach of aboard the ultimately unsuccessful type 92 submarine.=== Post–Cold War ===Deployment history of land-based ICBM, 1959–2014In 1991, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed in the START I treaty to reduce their deployed ICBMs and attributed warheads., all five of the nations with permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council have fully operational long-range ballistic missile systems; Russia, the United States, and China also have land-based ICBMs (the US missiles are silo-based, while China and Russia have both silo and road-mobile (DF-31, RT-2PM2 Topol-M missiles).Israel is believed to have deployed a road mobile nuclear ICBM, the Jericho III, which entered service in 2008; an upgraded version is in development.India successfully test fired Agni V, with a strike range of more than on 19 April 2012, claiming entry into the ICBM club.", "The missile's actual range is speculated by foreign researchers to be up to with India having downplayed its capabilities to avoid causing concern to other countries.", "On 15 December 2022, first night trial of Agni-V was successfully carried out by SFC from Abdul Kalam Island, Odisha.", "The missile is now 20 percent lighter because the use of composite materials rather than steel material.", "The range has been increased to 7,000 km.By 2012 there was speculation by some intelligence agencies that North Korea is developing an ICBM.", "North Korea successfully put a satellite into space on 12 December 2012 using the Unha-3 rocket.", "The United States claimed that the launch was in fact a way to test an ICBM.", "(See Timeline of first orbital launches by country.)", "In early July 2017, North Korea claimed for the first time to have tested successfully an ICBM capable of carrying a large thermonuclear warhead.In July 2014, China announced the development of its newest generation of ICBM, the Dongfeng-41 (DF-41), which has a range of , capable of reaching the United States, and which analysts believe is capable of being outfitted with MIRV technology.Most countries in the early stages of developing ICBMs have used liquid propellants, with the known exceptions being the Indian Agni-V, the planned but cancelled South African RSA-4 ICBM, and the now in service Israeli Jericho III.The RS-28 Sarmat (Russian: РС-28 Сармат; NATO reporting name: SATAN 2), is a Russian liquid-fueled, MIRV-equipped, super-heavy thermonuclear armed intercontinental ballistic missile in development by the Makeyev Rocket Design Bureau from 2009, intended to replace the previous R-36 missile.", "Its large payload would allow for up to 10 heavy warheads or 15 lighter ones or up to 24 hypersonic glide vehicles Yu-74, or a combination of warheads and massive amounts of countermeasures designed to defeat anti-missile systems; it was announced by the Russian military as a response to the US Prompt Global Strike.In July 2023, North Korea fired a suspected intercontinental ballistic missile that was expected to land short of Japanese waters.", "The launch follows North Korea's threat to retaliate against the US for alleged spy plane incursions." ], [ "Flight phases", "The following flight phases can be distinguished:# Boost phase, which can last from 3 to 5 minutes.", "It is shorter for a solid-fuel rocket than for a liquid-propellant rocket.", "Depending on the trajectory chosen, typical burnout speed is , up to .", "The altitude of the missile at the end of this phase is typically .# Midcourse phase, which lasts approx.", "25 minutes, is sub-orbital spaceflight with the flightpath being a part of an ellipse with a vertical major axis.", "The apogee (halfway through the midcourse phase) is at an altitude of approximately .", "The semi-major axis is between and the projection of the flightpath on the Earth's surface is close to a great circle, though slightly displaced due to earth rotation during the time of flight.", "In this phase, the missile may release several independent warheads and penetration aids, such as metallic-coated balloons, aluminum chaff, and full-scale warhead decoys.# Reentry/Terminal phase, which lasts two minutes starting at an altitude of .", "At the end of this phase, the missile's payload will impact the target, with impact at a speed of up to (for early ICBMs less than ); see also maneuverable reentry vehicle.ICBMs usually use the trajectory which optimizes range for a given amount of payload (the ''minimum-energy trajectory''); an alternative is a depressed trajectory, which allows less payload, shorter flight time, and has a much lower apogee." ], [ "Modern ICBMs", "Trident II D5 nuclear missile system, capable of carrying multiple nuclear warheads up to Modern ICBMs typically carry multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (''MIRVs''), each of which carries a separate nuclear warhead, allowing a single missile to hit multiple targets.", "MIRV was an outgrowth of the rapidly shrinking size and weight of modern warheads and the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties (SALT I and SALT II), which imposed limitations on the number of launch vehicles.", "It has also proved to be an \"easy answer\" to proposed deployments of anti-ballistic missile (ABM) systems: It is far less expensive to add more warheads to an existing missile system than to build an ABM system capable of shooting down the additional warheads; hence, most ABM system proposals have been judged to be impractical.", "The first operational ABM systems were deployed in the United States during the 1970s.", "The Safeguard ABM facility, located in North Dakota, was operational from 1975 to 1976.The Soviets deployed their ABM-1 Galosh system around Moscow in the 1970s, which remains in service.", "Israel deployed a national ABM system based on the Arrow missile in 1998, but it is mainly designed to intercept shorter-ranged theater ballistic missiles, not ICBMs.", "The Alaska-based United States national missile defense system attained initial operational capability in 2004.ICBMs can be deployed from transporter erector launchers (TEL), such as the Russian RT-2PM2 Topol-MICBMs can be deployed from multiple platforms:* In missile silos, which offer some protection from military attack (including, the designers hope, some protection from a nuclear first strike)* On submarines: submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs); most or all SLBMs have the long range of ICBMs (as opposed to IRBMs)* On heavy trucks: this applies to one version of the Topol which may be deployed from a self-propelled mobile launcher, capable of moving through roadless terrain, and launching a missile from any point along its route* Mobile launchers on rails; this applies, for example, to РТ-23УТТХ \"Молодец\" (RT-23UTTH \"Molodets\" – SS-24 \"Scalpel\")The last three kinds are mobile and therefore hard to find.During storage, one of the most important features of the missile is its serviceability.", "One of the key features of the first computer-controlled ICBM, the Minuteman missile, was that it could quickly and easily use its computer to test itself.Artist's concept of an SS-24 deployed on railwayAfter launch, a booster pushes the missile and then falls away.", "Most modern boosters are Solid-propellant rocket motors, which can be stored easily for long periods of time.", "Early missiles used liquid-fueled rocket motors.", "Many liquid-fueled ICBMs could not be kept fueled at all times as the cryogenic fuel liquid oxygen boiled off and caused ice formation, and therefore fueling the rocket was necessary before launch.", "This procedure was a source of significant operational delay and might allow the missiles to be destroyed by enemy counterparts before they could be used.", "To resolve this problem Nazi Germany invented the missile silo that protected the missile from Strategic Bombing and also hid fueling operations underground.Although Soviet/Russia preferred ICBM designs that use hypergolic liquid fuels that can be stored at room temperature for more than a few years.Once the booster falls away, the remaining \"bus\" releases several warheads, each of which continues on its own unpowered ballistic trajectory, much like an artillery shell or cannonball.", "The warhead is encased in a cone-shaped reentry vehicle and is difficult to detect in this phase of flight as there is no rocket exhaust or other emissions to mark its position to defenders.", "The high speeds of the warheads make them difficult to intercept and allow for little warning, striking targets many thousands of kilometers away from the launch site (and due to the possible locations of the submarines: anywhere in the world) within approximately 30 minutes.Many authorities say that missiles also release aluminized balloons, electronic noisemakers, and other items intended to confuse interception devices and radars.As the nuclear warhead reenters the Earth's atmosphere its high-speed causes compression of the air, leading to a dramatic rise in temperature which would destroy it if it were not shielded in some way.", "As a result, warhead components are contained within an aluminium honeycomb substructure, sheathed in a pyrolytic carbon-epoxy synthetic resin composite material heat shield.", "Warheads are also often radiation-hardened (to protect against nuclear armed ABMs or the nearby detonation of friendly warheads), one neutron-resistant material developed for this purpose in the UK is three-dimensional quartz phenolic.Circular error probable is crucial, because halving the circular error probable decreases the needed warhead energy by a factor of four.", "Accuracy is limited by the accuracy of the navigation system and the available geodetic information.Strategic missile systems are thought to use custom integrated circuits designed to calculate navigational differential equations thousands to millions of FLOPS in order to reduce navigational errors caused by calculation alone.", "These circuits are usually a network of binary addition circuits that continually recalculate the missile's position.", "The inputs to the navigation circuit are set by a general-purpose computer according to a navigational input schedule loaded into the missile before launch.One particular weapon developed by the Soviet Unionthe Fractional Orbital Bombardment Systemhad a partial orbital trajectory, and unlike most ICBMs its target could not be deduced from its orbital flight path.", "It was decommissioned in compliance with arms control agreements, which address the maximum range of ICBMs and prohibit orbital or fractional-orbital weapons.", "However, according to reports, Russia is working on the new Sarmat ICBM which leverages Fractional Orbital Bombardment concepts to use a Southern polar approach instead of flying over the northern polar regions.", "Using that approach, it is theorized, avoids the American missile defense batteries in California and Alaska.New development of ICBM technology are ICBMs able to carry hypersonic glide vehicles as a payload such as RS-28 Sarmat." ], [ "Specific ICBMs", "=== Land-based ICBMs ===Peacekeeper missile launched from a siloPeacekeeper re-entry vehicles at the Kwajalein Atoll.", "All eight fired from only one missile.", "Each line, if its warhead were live, represents the potential explosive power of about 300 kilotons of TNT, about nineteen times larger than the detonation of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima.India's Agni-V ICBM launched from Abdul Kalam Island Type Minimum range (km) Maximum range (km) Country LGM-30 Minuteman III 14,000 United States RS-28 Sarmat 18,000 Russia RT-2UTTH \"Topol M\" (SS-27) 11,000 Russia RS-24 \"Yars\" (SS-29) 11,000 Russia RS-26 Rubezh 6,000 12,600 Russia UR-100N 10,000 Soviet Union/Russia R-36 (SS-18) 10,200 16,000 Soviet Union/Russia DF-4 5,500 7,000 China DF-31 7,200 11,200 China DF-5 5,000 9,000 China DF-41 12,000 15,000 China Hwasong-14 6,700 10,000 North Korea Hwasong-15 13,000 North Korea Hwasong-16 13,000 North Korea Hwasong-17 15,000 North Korea Hwasong-18 15,000 North KoreaAgni-V 7,000 10,000 IndiaJericho III 11,500 Israel LGM-35 Sentinel United States Agni-VI 8,000 12,000 IndiaSurya 12,000 16,000 India LGM-30F Minuteman II 11,265 United States LGM-30A/B Minuteman I 10,186 United States LGM-118 Peacekeeper 14,000 United States Titan II (SM-68B, LGM-25C) 16,000 United States Titan I (SM-68, HGM-25A) 11,300 United States SM-65 Atlas (SM-65, CGM-16) 10,138 United States MGM-134 Midgetman 11,000 United States RTV-A-2 Hiroc 2,400 8,000 United States RT-2 10,186 Soviet Union RT-23 Molodets 11,000 Soviet Union/Russia RT-21 Temp 2S 10,500 Soviet Union R-9 Desna 16,000 Soviet Union R-16 13,000 Soviet Union R-26 12,000 Soviet Union MR-UR-100 Sotka 1,000 10,320 Soviet Union/Russia UR-100 10,600 Soviet Union UR-200 12,000 Soviet Union RT-20P 11,000 Soviet Union R-7 Semyorka 8,000 8,800 Soviet Union Hwasong-13 1,500 12,000 North KoreaRussia, the United States, China, North Korea, India and Israel are the only countries currently known to possess land-based ICBMs.Minuteman III ICBM test launch from Vandenberg Air Force Base, United StatesThe United States currently operates 405 ICBMs in three USAF bases.", "The only model deployed is LGM-30G Minuteman-III.", "All previous USAF Minuteman II missiles were destroyed in accordance with START II, and their launch silos have been sealed or sold to the public.", "The powerful MIRV-capable Peacekeeper missiles were phased out in 2005.R-36M (SS-18 Satan), the largest ICBM in history, with a throw weight of 8,800 kgThe Russian Strategic Rocket Forces have 286 ICBMs able to deliver 958 nuclear warheads: 46 silo-based R-36M2 (SS-18), 30 silo-based UR-100N (SS-19), 36 mobile RT-2PM \"Topol\" (SS-25), 60 silo-based RT-2UTTH \"Topol M\" (SS-27), 18 mobile RT-2UTTH \"Topol M\" (SS-27), 84 mobile RS-24 \"Yars\" (SS-29), and 12 silo-based RS-24 \"Yars\" (SS-29).China has developed several long-range ICBMs, like the DF-31.The Dongfeng 5 or DF-5 is a 3-stage liquid fuel ICBM and has an estimated range of 13,000 kilometers.", "The DF-5 had its first flight in 1971 and was in operational service 10 years later.", "One of the downsides of the missile was that it took between 30 and 60 minutes to fuel.", "The Dong Feng 31 (a.k.a.", "CSS-10) is a medium-range, three-stage, solid-propellant intercontinental ballistic missile, and is a land-based variant of the submarine-launched JL-2.The DF-41 or CSS-X-10 can carry up to 10 nuclear warheads, which are MIRVs and has a range of approximately .", "The DF-41 deployed underground in Xinjiang, Qinghai, Gansu and Inner Mongolia.", "The mysterious underground subway ICBM carrier systems are called the \"Underground Great Wall Project\".Israel is believed to have deployed a road mobile nuclear ICBM, the Jericho III, which entered service in 2008.It is possible for the missile to be equipped with a single nuclear warhead or up to three MIRV warheads.", "It is believed to be based on the Shavit space launch vehicle and is estimated to have a range of .", "In November 2011 Israel tested an ICBM believed to be an upgraded version of the Jericho III.India has a series of ballistic missiles called Agni.", "On 19 April 2012, India successfully test fired its first Agni-V, a three-stage solid fueled missile, with a strike range of more than .", "Agni-V during its first test flight Missile was test-fired for the second time on 15 September 2013.On 31 January 2015, India conducted a third successful test flight of the Agni-V from the Abdul Kalam Island facility.", "The test used a canisterised version of the missile, mounted over a Tata truck.", "On 15 December 2022, first night trial of Agni-V was successfully carried out by SFC from Abdul Kalam Island, Odisha.", "The missile is now 20 percent lighter because the use of composite materials rather than steel material.", "The range has been increased to 7,000 km.=== Submarine-launched ICBMs === Type Minimum range (km) Maximum range (km) CountryUGM-133 Trident II (D5) 12,000 United States United KingdomRSM-54 R-29RMU \"Sineva\" 11,500 RussiaRSM-54 R-29RMU2 \"Layner\" 8,300 12,000 RussiaRSM-56 R-30 \"Bulava\" 8,000 9,300 RussiaM51 8,000 10,000 FranceJL-2 7,400 8,000 ChinaJL-3 10,000 12,000 ChinaK-5 5,000 IndiaK-6 8,000 12,000 IndiaM45 6,000 FranceUGM-96 Trident I (C-4) 12,000 United StatesRSM-40 R-29 \"Vysota\" 7,700 Soviet Union/RussiaRSM-50 R-29R \"Vysota\" 6,500 Soviet Union/RussiaRSM-52 R-39 \"Rif\" 8,300 Soviet Union/RussiaRSM-54 R-29RM \"Shtil\" 8,300 Soviet Union/Russia" ], [ "Missile defense", "An anti-ballistic missile is a missile which can be deployed to counter an incoming nuclear or non-nuclear ICBM.", "ICBMs can be intercepted in three regions of their trajectory: boost phase, mid-course phase or terminal phase.", "The United States, Russia, India, France, Israel, and China have now developed anti-ballistic missile systems, of which the Russian A-135 anti-ballistic missile system, the American Ground-Based Midcourse Defense, the Indian Prithvi Defence Vehicle Mark-II and the Israeli Arrow 3 are the only systems having the capability to intercept and shoot down ICBMs carrying nuclear, chemical, biological, or conventional warheads." ], [ "See also", "* Bernard Schriever* DEFCON* Dense Pack* Emergency Action Message* High-alert nuclear weapon* ICBM address* List of states with nuclear weapons* Nuclear disarmament* Nuclear navy* Nuclear warfare* Submarine* Throw-weight* Universal Rocket* Project Koussar - alleged Iran ICBM program" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* J. K. Golovanov, M., \"Korolev: Facts and myths\", Nauka, 1994, .", "* \"Rockets and people\" – B. E. Chertok, M: \"mechanical engineering\", 1999..* \"Testing of rocket and space technology – the business of my life\" Events and facts – A.I.", "Ostashev, Korolyov, 2001.Bibliography 1996–2004* \"Nesterenko\" series Lives of great people – Authors: Gregory Sukhina A., Ivkin, Vladimir Ivanovich, publishing house \"Young guard\" in 2015, ." ], [ "External links", "* Missile Threat A Project of the Center for Strategic and International Studies" ] ]
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[ [ "Irish traditional music session" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Irish traditional music sessions''' are mostly informal gatherings at which people play Irish traditional music.", "The Irish language word for \"session\" is ''seisiún''.", "This article discusses tune-playing, although \"session\" can also refer to a singing session or a mixed session (tunes and songs).Barry Foy's ''Field Guide to the Irish Music Session'' defines a session as:...a gathering of Irish traditional musicians for the purpose of celebrating their common interest in the music by playing it together in a relaxed, informal setting, while in the process generally beefing up the mystical cultural mantra that hums along uninterruptedly beneath all manifestations of Irishness worldwide." ], [ "Social and cultural aspects", "Irish music enthusiasts gather at a pub to play and drink beerThe general session scheme is that someone starts a tune, and those who know it join in.", "Good session etiquette requires not playing if one does not know the tune (or at least quietly playing an accompaniment part) and waiting until a tune one knows comes along.", "In an \"open\" session, anyone who is able to play Irish music is welcome.", "Most often there are more-or-less recognized session leaders; sometimes there are no leaders.", "At times a song will be sung or a slow air played by a single musician between sets." ], [ "Locations and times", "A Dublin pub session Sessions are usually held in public houses or taverns.", "A pub owner might have one or two musicians paid to come regularly in order for the session to have a base.", "These musicians can perform during any gaps during the day or evening when no other performers are there and wish to play.", "Sunday afternoons and weekday nights (especially Tuesday and Wednesday) are common times for sessions to be scheduled, on the theory that these are the least likely times for dances and concerts to be held, and therefore the times that professional musicians will be most able to show up.Sessions can be held in homes or at various public places in addition to pubs; often at a festival sessions will be got together in the beer tent or in the vendor's booth of a music-loving craftsperson or dealer.", "When a particularly large musical event \"takes over\" an entire village, spontaneous sessions may erupt on the street corners.", "Sessions may also take place occasionally at wakes.", "House sessions are not as common now as they were in the past.", "In her book ''Peig'', Peig Sayers notes that when she was young they often attended sessions at people's houses, in a practice called 'bothántiocht'." ], [ "See also", "* List of All-Ireland Fleadh champions* Irish traditional music* Pub session" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Ice" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ice''' is water that is frozen into a solid state, typically forming at or below temperatures of 0 °C, 32 °F, or 273.15 K. As a naturally occurring crystalline inorganic solid with an ordered structure, ice is considered to be a mineral.", "Depending on the presence of impurities such as particles of soil or bubbles of air, it can appear transparent or a more or less opaque bluish-white color.In the Solar System, ice is abundant and occurs naturally from as close to the Sun as Mercury to as far away as the Oort cloud objects.", "Beyond the Solar System, it occurs as interstellar ice.", "It is abundant on Earth's surfaceparticularly in the polar regions and above the snow lineand, as a common form of precipitation and deposition, plays a key role in Earth's water cycle and climate.", "It falls as snowflakes and hail or occurs as frost, icicles or ice spikes and aggregates from snow as glaciers and ice sheets.Ice exhibits at least nineteen phases (packing geometries), depending on temperature and pressure.", "When water is cooled rapidly (quenching), up to three types of amorphous ice can form depending on its history of pressure and temperature.", "When cooled slowly, correlated proton tunneling occurs below (, ) giving rise to macroscopic quantum phenomena.", "Virtually all ice on Earth's surface and in its atmosphere is of a hexagonal crystalline structure denoted as ice Ih (spoken as \"ice one h\") with minute traces of cubic ice, denoted as ice Ic and, more recently found, Ice VII inclusions in diamonds.", "The most common phase transition to ice Ih occurs when liquid water is cooled below (, ) at standard atmospheric pressure.", "It may also be deposited directly by water vapor, as happens in the formation of frost.", "The transition from ice to water is melting and from ice directly to water vapor is sublimation.Ice is used in a variety of ways, including for cooling, for winter sports, and ice sculpting." ], [ "Physical properties", "The three-dimensional crystal structure of HO ice Ih (c) is composed of bases of HO ice molecules (b) located on lattice points within the two-dimensional hexagonal space lattice (a).Ice possesses a regular crystalline structure based on the molecule of water, which consists of a single oxygen atom covalently bonded to two hydrogen atoms, or H–O–H.", "However, many of the physical properties of water and ice are controlled by the formation of hydrogen bonds between adjacent oxygen and hydrogen atoms; while it is a weak bond, it is nonetheless critical in controlling the structure of both water and ice.An unusual property of water is that its solid form—ice frozen at atmospheric pressure—is approximately 8.3% less dense than its liquid form; this is equivalent to a volumetric expansion of 9%.", "The density of ice is 0.9167–0.9168 g/cm3 at 0 °C and standard atmospheric pressure (101,325 Pa), whereas water has a density of 0.9998–0.999863 g/cm3 at the same temperature and pressure.", "Liquid water is densest, essentially 1.00 g/cm3, at 4 °C and begins to lose its density as the water molecules begin to form the hexagonal crystals of ice as the freezing point is reached.", "This is due to hydrogen bonding dominating the intermolecular forces, which results in a packing of molecules less compact in the solid.", "Density of ice increases slightly with decreasing temperature and has a value of 0.9340 g/cm3 at −180 °C (93 K).When water freezes, it increases in volume (about 9% for fresh water).", "The effect of expansion during freezing can be dramatic, and ice expansion is a basic cause of freeze-thaw weathering of rock in nature and damage to building foundations and roadways from frost heaving.", "It is also a common cause of the flooding of houses when water pipes burst due to the pressure of expanding water when it freezes.The result of this process is that ice (in its most common form) floats on liquid water, which is an important feature in Earth's biosphere.", "It has been argued that without this property, natural bodies of water would freeze, in some cases permanently, from the bottom up, resulting in a loss of bottom-dependent animal and plant life in fresh and sea water.", "Sufficiently thin ice sheets allow light to pass through while protecting the underside from short-term weather extremes such as wind chill.", "This creates a sheltered environment for bacterial and algal colonies.", "When sea water freezes, the ice is riddled with brine-filled channels which sustain sympagic organisms such as bacteria, algae, copepods and annelids, which in turn provide food for animals such as krill and specialised fish like the bald notothen, fed upon in turn by larger animals such as emperor penguins and minke whales.When ice melts, it absorbs as much energy as it would take to heat an equivalent mass of water by 80 °C.", "During the melting process, the temperature remains constant at 0 °C.", "While melting, any energy added breaks the hydrogen bonds between ice (water) molecules.", "Energy becomes available to increase the thermal energy (temperature) only after enough hydrogen bonds are broken that the ice can be considered liquid water.", "The amount of energy consumed in breaking hydrogen bonds in the transition from ice to water is known as the ''heat of fusion''.As with water, ice absorbs light at the red end of the spectrum preferentially as the result of an overtone of an oxygen–hydrogen (O–H) bond stretch.", "Compared with water, this absorption is shifted toward slightly lower energies.", "Thus, ice appears blue, with a slightly greener tint than liquid water.", "Since absorption is cumulative, the color effect intensifies with increasing thickness or if internal reflections cause the light to take a longer path through the ice.Other colors can appear in the presence of light absorbing impurities, where the impurity is dictating the color rather than the ice itself.", "For instance, icebergs containing impurities (e.g., sediments, algae, air bubbles) can appear brown, grey or green.Because ice in natural environments is usually close to its melting temperature, its hardness shows pronounced temperature variations.", "At its melting point, ice has a Mohs hardness of 2 or less, but the hardness increases to about 4 at a temperature of and to 6 at a temperature of , the vaporization point of solid carbon dioxide (dry ice).===Phases===Pressure dependence of ice meltingIce may be any one of the, as of 2021, nineteen known solid crystalline phases of water, or in an amorphous solid state at various densities.Most liquids under increased pressure freeze at ''higher'' temperatures because the pressure helps to hold the molecules together.", "However, the strong hydrogen bonds in water make it different: for some pressures higher than , water freezes at a temperature ''below'' 0 °C, as shown in the phase diagram below.", "The melting of ice under high pressures is thought to contribute to the movement of glaciers.Ice, water, and water vapour can coexist at the triple point, which is exactly at a pressure of 611.657 Pa.", "The kelvin was defined as of the difference between this triple point and absolute zero, though this definition changed in May 2019.Unlike most other solids, ice is difficult to superheat.", "In an experiment, ice at −3 °C was superheated to about 17 °C for about 250 picoseconds.Subjected to higher pressures and varying temperatures, ice can form in nineteen separate known crystalline phases.", "With care, at least fifteen of these phases (one of the known exceptions being ice X) can be recovered at ambient pressure and low temperature in metastable form.", "The types are differentiated by their crystalline structure, proton ordering, and density.", "There are also two metastable phases of ice under pressure, both fully hydrogen-disordered; these are IV and XII.", "Ice XII was discovered in 1996.In 2006, XIII and XIV were discovered.", "Ices XI, XIII, and XIV are hydrogen-ordered forms of ices I, V, and XII respectively.", "In 2009, ice XV was found at extremely high pressures and −143 °C.", "At even higher pressures, ice is predicted to become a metal; this has been variously estimated to occur at 1.55 TPa or 5.62 TPa.As well as crystalline forms, solid water can exist in amorphous states as amorphous solid water (ASW) of varying densities.", "Water in the interstellar medium is dominated by amorphous ice, making it likely the most common form of water in the universe.", "Low-density ASW (LDA), also known as hyperquenched glassy water, may be responsible for noctilucent clouds on Earth and is usually formed by deposition of water vapor in cold or vacuum conditions.", "High-density ASW (HDA) is formed by compression of ordinary ice I or LDA at GPa pressures.", "Very-high-density ASW (VHDA) is HDA slightly warmed to 160 K under 1–2 GPa pressures.In outer space, hexagonal crystalline ice (the predominant form found on Earth) is extremely rare.", "Amorphous ice is more common; however, hexagonal crystalline ice can be formed by volcanic action.", "Ice from a theorized superionic water may possess two crystalline structures.", "At pressures in excess of such ''superionic ice'' would take on a body-centered cubic structure.", "However, at pressures in excess of the structure may shift to a more stable face-centered cubic lattice.", "It is speculated that superionic ice could compose the interior of ice giants such as Uranus and Neptune.Log-lin pressure-temperature phase diagram of water.", "The Roman numerals correspond to some ice phases listed below.An alternative formulation of the phase diagram for certain ices and other phases of water Phase Characteristics Amorphous ice Amorphous ice is ice lacking crystal structure.", "Amorphous ice exists in four forms: low-density (LDA) formed at atmospheric pressure, or below, medium-density (MDA), high-density (HDA) and very-high-density amorphous ice (VHDA), forming at higher pressures.", "LDA forms by extremely quick cooling of liquid water (\"hyperquenched glassy water\", HGW), by depositing water vapour on very cold substrates (\"amorphous solid water\", ASW) or by heating high density forms of ice at ambient pressure (\"LDA\").", "Recently, a medium-density amorphous form (\"MDA\") has been shown to exist, created by ball-milling ice I at low temperatures.", "Ice I Normal hexagonal crystalline ice.", "Virtually all ice in the biosphere is ice I, with the exception only of a small amount of ice I.", "Ice I A metastable cubic crystalline variant of ice.", "The oxygen atoms are arranged in a diamond structure.", "It is produced at temperatures between 130 and 220 K, and can exist up to 240 K, when it transforms into ice I.", "It may occasionally be present in the upper atmosphere.", "More recently, it has been shown that many samples which were described as cubic ice were actually stacking disordered ice with trigonal symmetry.", "The first samples of ice I with cubic symmetry (i.e.", "cubic ice) were only reported in 2020.Ice II A rhombohedral crystalline form with highly ordered structure.", "Formed from ice I by compressing it at temperature of 190–210 K. When heated, it undergoes transformation to ice III.", "Ice III A tetragonal crystalline ice, formed by cooling water down to 250 K at 300 MPa.", "Least dense of the high-pressure phases.", "Denser than water.", "Ice IV A metastable rhombohedral phase.", "It can be formed by heating high-density amorphous ice slowly at a pressure of 810 MPa.", "It does not form easily without a nucleating agent.", "Ice V A monoclinic crystalline phase.", "Formed by cooling water to 253 K at 500 MPa.", "Most complicated structure of all the phases.", "Ice VI A tetragonal crystalline phase.", "Formed by cooling water to 270 K at 1.1 GPa.", "Exhibits Debye relaxation.", "Ice VII A cubic phase.", "The hydrogen atoms' positions are disordered.", "Exhibits Debye relaxation.", "The hydrogen bonds form two interpenetrating lattices.Ice VIIForms at around 5 GPa, when Ice VII becomes tetragonal.", "Ice VIII A more ordered version of ice VII, where the hydrogen atoms assume fixed positions.", "It is formed from ice VII, by cooling it below at 2.1 GPa.", "Ice IX A tetragonal phase.", "Formed gradually from ice III by cooling it from 208 K to 165 K, stable below 140 K and pressures between 200 MPa and 400 MPa.", "It has density of 1.16 g/cm, slightly higher than ordinary ice.", "Ice X Proton-ordered symmetric ice.", "Forms at pressures around 70 GPa, or perhaps as low as 30 GPa.", "Ice XI An orthorhombic, low-temperature equilibrium form of hexagonal ice.", "It is ferroelectric.", "Ice XI is considered the most stable configuration of ice I.", "Ice XII A tetragonal, metastable, dense crystalline phase.", "It is observed in the phase space of ice V and ice VI.", "It can be prepared by heating high-density amorphous ice from 77 K to about 183 K at 810 MPa.", "It has a density of 1.3 g·cm at 127 K (i.e., approximately 1.3 times denser than water).", "Ice XIII A monoclinic crystalline phase.", "Formed by cooling water to below 130 K at 500 MPa.", "The proton-ordered form of ice V. Ice XIV An orthorhombic crystalline phase.", "Formed below 118 K at 1.2 GPa.", "The proton-ordered form of ice XII.", "Ice XV A proton-ordered form of ice VI formed by cooling water to around 80–108 K at 1.1 GPa.", "Ice XVI The least dense crystalline form of water, topologically equivalent to the empty structure of sII clathrate hydrates.", "Square ice Square ice crystals form at room temperature when squeezed between two layers of graphene.", "The material was a new crystalline phase of ice when it was first reported in 2014.The research derived from the earlier discovery that water vapor and liquid water could pass through laminated sheets of graphene oxide, unlike smaller molecules such as helium.", "The effect is thought to be driven by the van der Waals force, which may involve more than 10,000 atmospheres of pressure.", "Ice XVII A porous hexagonal crystalline phase with helical channels, with density near that of ice XVI.", "Formed by placing hydrogen-filled ice in a vacuum and increasing the temperature until the hydrogen molecules escape.", "Ice XVIII A form of water also known as superionic water or superionic ice in which oxygen ions develop a crystalline structure while hydrogen ions move freely.", "Ice XIX Another phase related to ice VI formed by cooling water to around 100 K at approximately 2 GPa.===Friction properties===New YorkThe low coefficient of friction (\"slipperiness\") of ice has been attributed to the pressure of an object coming into contact with the ice, melting a thin layer of the ice and allowing the object to glide across the surface.", "For example, the blade of an ice skate, upon exerting pressure on the ice, would melt a thin layer, providing lubrication between the ice and the blade.", "This explanation, called \"pressure melting\", originated in the 19th century.", "However, it does not account for skating on ice temperatures lower than , which is often skated upon.", "Also, the effect of pressure melting is too small to account for the reduced friction as commonly experienced.A second theory describing the coefficient of friction of ice suggested that ice molecules at the interface cannot properly bond with the molecules of the mass of ice beneath (and thus are free to move like molecules of liquid water).", "These molecules remain in a semi-liquid state, providing lubrication regardless of pressure against the ice exerted by any object.", "However, the significance of this hypothesis is disputed by experiments showing a high coefficient of friction for ice using atomic force microscopy.A third theory is \"friction heating\", which suggests that friction of the material is the cause of the ice layer melting.", "However, this theory does not sufficiently explain why ice is slippery when standing still even at below-zero temperatures.A comprehensive theory of ice friction takes into account all the above-mentioned friction mechanisms.", "This model allows quantitative estimation of the friction coefficient of ice against various materials as a function of temperature and sliding speed.", "In typical conditions related to winter sports and tires of a vehicle on ice, melting of a thin ice layer due to the frictional heating is the primary reason for the slipperiness.", "The mechanism controlling the frictional properties of ice is still an active area of scientific study." ], [ "Natural formation", "Feather ice on the plateau near Alta, Norway.", "The crystals form at temperatures below −30 °C (−22 °F).The term that collectively describes all of the parts of the Earth's surface where water is in frozen form is the ''cryosphere.''", "Ice is an important component of the global climate, particularly in regard to the water cycle.", "Glaciers and snowpacks are an important storage mechanism for fresh water; over time, they may sublimate or melt.", "Snowmelt is an important source of seasonal fresh water.", "The World Meteorological Organization defines several kinds of ice depending on origin, size, shape, influence and so on.", "Clathrate hydrates are forms of ice that contain gas molecules trapped within its crystal lattice.===On the oceans===Ice that is found at sea may be in the form of drift ice floating in the water, fast ice fixed to a shoreline or anchor ice if attached to the sea bottom.", "Ice which calves (breaks off) from an ice shelf or glacier may become an iceberg.", "Sea ice can be forced together by currents and winds to form pressure ridges up to tall.", "Navigation through areas of sea ice occurs in openings called \"polynyas\" or \"leads\" or requires the use of a special ship called an \"icebreaker\".===On land and structures===Ice on deciduous tree after freezing rainIce on land ranges from the largest type called an \"ice sheet\" to smaller ice caps and ice fields to glaciers and ice streams to the snow line and snow fields.Aufeis is layered ice that forms in Arctic and subarctic stream valleys.", "Ice, frozen in the stream bed, blocks normal groundwater discharge, and causes the local water table to rise, resulting in water discharge on top of the frozen layer.", "This water then freezes, causing the water table to rise further and repeat the cycle.", "The result is a stratified ice deposit, often several meters thick.Freezing rain is a type of winter storm called an ice storm where rain falls and then freezes producing a glaze of ice.", "Ice can also form icicles, similar to stalactites in appearance, or stalagmite-like forms as water drips and re-freezes.The term \"ice dam\" has three meanings (others discussed below).", "On structures, an ice dam is the buildup of ice on a sloped roof which stops melt water from draining properly and can cause damage from water leaks in buildings.===On rivers and streams===A small frozen rivuletIce which forms on moving water tends to be less uniform and stable than ice which forms on calm water.", "Ice jams (sometimes called \"ice dams\"), when broken chunks of ice pile up, are the greatest ice hazard on rivers.", "Ice jams can cause flooding, damage structures in or near the river, and damage vessels on the river.", "Ice jams can cause some hydropower industrial facilities to completely shut down.", "An ice dam is a blockage from the movement of a glacier which may produce a proglacial lake.", "Heavy ice flows in rivers can also damage vessels and require the use of an icebreaker to keep navigation possible.Ice discs are circular formations of ice surrounded by water in a river.Pancake ice is a formation of ice generally created in areas with less calm conditions.===On lakes===Ice forms on calm water from the shores, a thin layer spreading across the surface, and then downward.", "Ice on lakes is generally four types: primary, secondary, superimposed and agglomerate.", "Primary ice forms first.", "Secondary ice forms below the primary ice in a direction parallel to the direction of the heat flow.", "Superimposed ice forms on top of the ice surface from rain or water which seeps up through cracks in the ice which often settles when loaded with snow.Shelf ice occurs when floating pieces of ice are driven by the wind piling up on the windward shore.Candle ice is a form of rotten ice that develops in columns perpendicular to the surface of a lake.An ice shove occurs when ice movement, caused by ice expansion and/or wind action, occurs to the extent that ice pushes onto the shores of lakes, often displacing sediment that makes up the shoreline.===In the air===Ice formation on exterior of vehicle windshield====Rime====Rime is a type of ice formed on cold objects when drops of water crystallize on them.", "This can be observed in foggy weather, when the temperature drops during the night.", "Soft rime contains a high proportion of trapped air, making it appear white rather than transparent, and giving it a density about one quarter of that of pure ice.", "Hard rime is comparatively dense.===Pellets===An accumulation of ice pelletsIce pellets are a form of precipitation consisting of small, translucent balls of ice.", "This form of precipitation is also referred to as \"sleet\" by the United States National Weather Service.", "(In British English \"sleet\" refers to a mixture of rain and snow.)", "Ice pellets are usually smaller than hailstones.", "They often bounce when they hit the ground, and generally do not freeze into a solid mass unless mixed with freezing rain.", "The METAR code for ice pellets is ''PL''.Ice pellets form when a layer of above-freezing air is located between above the ground, with sub-freezing air both above and below it.", "This causes the partial or complete melting of any snowflakes falling through the warm layer.", "As they fall back into the sub-freezing layer closer to the surface, they re-freeze into ice pellets.", "However, if the sub-freezing layer beneath the warm layer is too small, the precipitation will not have time to re-freeze, and freezing rain will be the result at the surface.", "A temperature profile showing a warm layer above the ground is most likely to be found in advance of a warm front during the cold season, but can occasionally be found behind a passing cold front.====Hail====A large hailstone, about in diameterLike other precipitation, hail forms in storm clouds when supercooled water droplets freeze on contact with condensation nuclei, such as dust or dirt.", "The storm's updraft blows the hailstones to the upper part of the cloud.", "The updraft dissipates and the hailstones fall down, back into the updraft, and are lifted up again.", "Hail has a diameter of or more.", "Within METAR code, GR is used to indicate larger hail, of a diameter of at least and GS for smaller.", "Stones of , and are the most frequently reported hail sizes in North America.", "Hailstones can grow to and weigh more than .", "In large hailstones, latent heat released by further freezing may melt the outer shell of the hailstone.", "The hailstone then may undergo 'wet growth', where the liquid outer shell collects other smaller hailstones.", "The hailstone gains an ice layer and grows increasingly larger with each ascent.", "Once a hailstone becomes too heavy to be supported by the storm's updraft, it falls from the cloud.Hail forms in strong thunderstorm clouds, particularly those with intense updrafts, high liquid water content, great vertical extent, large water droplets, and where a good portion of the cloud layer is below freezing .", "Hail-producing clouds are often identifiable by their green coloration.", "The growth rate is maximized at about , and becomes vanishingly small much below as supercooled water droplets become rare.", "For this reason, hail is most common within continental interiors of the mid-latitudes, as hail formation is considerably more likely when the freezing level is below the altitude of .", "Entrainment of dry air into strong thunderstorms over continents can increase the frequency of hail by promoting evaporational cooling which lowers the freezing level of thunderstorm clouds giving hail a larger volume to grow in.", "Accordingly, hail is actually less common in the tropics despite a much higher frequency of thunderstorms than in the mid-latitudes because the atmosphere over the tropics tends to be warmer over a much greater depth.", "Hail in the tropics occurs mainly at higher elevations.====Snow====Snowflakes by Wilson Bentley, 1902Snow crystals form when tiny supercooled cloud droplets (about 10 μm in diameter) freeze.", "These droplets are able to remain liquid at temperatures lower than , because to freeze, a few molecules in the droplet need to get together by chance to form an arrangement similar to that in an ice lattice; then the droplet freezes around this \"nucleus\".", "Experiments show that this \"homogeneous\" nucleation of cloud droplets only occurs at temperatures lower than .", "In warmer clouds an aerosol particle or \"ice nucleus\" must be present in (or in contact with) the droplet to act as a nucleus.", "Our understanding of what particles make efficient ice nuclei is poor – what we do know is they are very rare compared to that cloud condensation nuclei on which liquid droplets form.", "Clays, desert dust and biological particles may be effective, although to what extent is unclear.", "Artificial nuclei are used in cloud seeding.", "The droplet then grows by condensation of water vapor onto the ice surfaces.====Diamond dust====So-called \"diamond dust\", also known as ice needles or ice crystals, forms at temperatures approaching due to air with slightly higher moisture from aloft mixing with colder, surface-based air.", "The METAR identifier for diamond dust within international hourly weather reports is ''IC''." ], [ "Ablation", "Ablation of ice refers to both its melting and its dissolution.The melting of ice means entails the breaking of hydrogen bonds between the water molecules.", "The ordering of the molecules in the solid breaks down to a less ordered state and the solid melts to become a liquid.", "This is achieved by increasing the internal energy of the ice beyond the melting point.", "When ice melts it absorbs as much energy as would be required to heat an equivalent amount of water by 80 °C.", "While melting, the temperature of the ice surface remains constant at 0 °C.", "The rate of the melting process depends on the efficiency of the energy exchange process.", "An ice surface in fresh water melts solely by free convection with a rate that depends linearly on the water temperature, ''T''∞, when ''T''∞ is less than 3.98 °C, and superlinearly when ''T''∞ is equal to or greater than 3.98 °C, with the rate being proportional to (T∞ − 3.98 °C)''α'', with ''α'' =  for ''T''∞ much greater than 8 °C, and α =  for in between temperatures ''T''∞.In salty ambient conditions, dissolution rather than melting often causes the ablation of ice.", "For example, the temperature of the Arctic Ocean is generally below the melting point of ablating sea ice.", "The phase transition from solid to liquid is achieved by mixing salt and water molecules, similar to the dissolution of sugar in water, even though the water temperature is far below the melting point of the sugar.", "Thus the dissolution rate is limited by salt transport whereas melting can occur at much higher rates that are characteristic for heat transport." ], [ "Role in human activities", "Humans have used ice for cooling and food preservation for centuries, relying on harvesting natural ice in various forms and then transitioning to the mechanical production of the material.", "Ice also presents a challenge to transportation in various forms and a setting for winter sports.===Cooling===Ice has long been valued as a means of cooling.", "In 400 BC Iran, Persian engineers had already mastered the technique of storing ice in the middle of summer in the desert.", "The ice was brought in from ice pools or during the winters from nearby mountains in bulk amounts, and stored in specially designed, naturally cooled ''refrigerators'', called yakhchal (meaning ''ice storage'').", "This was a large underground space (up to 5000 m3) that had thick walls (at least two meters at the base) made of a special mortar called ''sarooj'', composed of sand, clay, egg whites, lime, goat hair, and ash in specific proportions, and which was known to be resistant to heat transfer.", "This mixture was thought to be completely water impenetrable.", "The space often had access to a qanat, and often contained a system of windcatchers which could easily bring temperatures inside the space down to frigid levels on summer days.", "The ice was used to chill treats for royalty.====Harvesting====Gwrych Castle, North Wales, with 18 towers, one of which is called the 'Ice Tower' designed specifically to store ice, the construction of the tower was completed in 1822.Harvesting ice on Lake St. Clair in Michigan, c. 1905There were thriving industries in 16th–17th century England whereby low-lying areas along the Thames Estuary were flooded during the winter, and ice harvested in carts and stored inter-seasonally in insulated wooden houses as a provision to an icehouse often located in large country houses, and widely used to keep fish fresh when caught in distant waters.", "This was allegedly copied by an Englishman who had seen the same activity in China.", "Ice was imported into England from Norway on a considerable scale as early as 1823.In the United States, the first cargo of ice was sent from New York City to Charleston, South Carolina, in 1799, and by the first half of the 19th century, ice harvesting had become a big business.", "Frederic Tudor, who became known as the \"Ice King\", worked on developing better insulation products for long distance shipments of ice, especially to the tropics; this became known as the ice trade.Between 1812 and 1822, under Lloyd Hesketh Bamford Hesketh's instruction, Gwrych Castle was built with 18 large towers, one of those towers is called the 'Ice Tower'.", "Its sole purpose was to store Ice.", "Trieste sent ice to Egypt, Corfu, and Zante; Switzerland, to France; and Germany sometimes was supplied from Bavarian lakes.", "The Hungarian Parliament building used ice harvested in the winter from Lake Balaton for air conditioning.Ice houses were used to store ice formed in the winter, to make ice available all year long, and an early type of refrigerator known as an icebox was cooled using a block of ice placed inside it.", "In many cities, it was not unusual to have a regular ice delivery service during the summer.", "The advent of artificial refrigeration technology has since made delivery of ice obsolete.Ice is still harvested for ice and snow sculpture events.", "For example, a swing saw is used to get ice for the Harbin International Ice and Snow Sculpture Festival each year from the frozen surface of the Songhua River.===Artificial production===The earliest known written process to artificially make ice is by the 13th-century writings of Arab historian Ibn Abu Usaybia in his book ''Kitab Uyun al-anba fi tabaqat-al-atibba'' concerning medicine in which Ibn Abu Usaybi’a attributes the process to an even older author, Ibn Bakhtawayhi, of whom nothing is known.====Mechanical production====Layout of a late 19th-century ice factoryIce blocks selling on Indian Street, Kolkata, West Bengal, IndiaIce is now produced on an industrial scale, for uses including food storage and processing, chemical manufacturing, concrete mixing and curing, and consumer or packaged ice.", "Most commercial icemakers produce three basic types of fragmentary ice: flake, tubular and plate, using a variety of techniques.", "Large batch ice makers can produce up to 75 tons of ice per day.", "In 2002, there were 426 commercial ice-making companies in the United States, with a combined value of shipments of $595,487,000.Home refrigerators can also make ice with a built in icemaker, which will typically make ice cubes or crushed ice.", "Stand-alone icemaker units that make ice cubes are often called ice machines.===Transportation===Ice can present challenges to safe transportation on land, sea and in the air.====Land travel====Loss of control on ice by an articulated busIce forming on roads is a dangerous winter hazard.", "Black ice is very difficult to see, because it lacks the expected frosty surface.", "Whenever there is freezing rain or snow which occurs at a temperature near the melting point, it is common for ice to build up on the windows of vehicles.", "Driving safely requires the removal of the ice build-up.", "Ice scrapers are tools designed to break the ice free and clear the windows, though removing the ice can be a long and laborious process.Far enough below the freezing point, a thin layer of ice crystals can form on the inside surface of windows.", "This usually happens when a vehicle has been left alone after being driven for a while, but can happen while driving, if the outside temperature is low enough.", "Moisture from the driver's breath is the source of water for the crystals.", "It is troublesome to remove this form of ice, so people often open their windows slightly when the vehicle is parked in order to let the moisture dissipate, and it is now common for cars to have rear-window defrosters to solve the problem.", "A similar problem can happen in homes, which is one reason why many colder regions require double-pane windows for insulation.When the outdoor temperature stays below freezing for extended periods, very thick layers of ice can form on lakes and other bodies of water, although places with flowing water require much colder temperatures.", "The ice can become thick enough to build ice roads for automobiles and trucks.", "Doing this safely requires a thickness of at least .====Water-borne travel====Channel through ice for ship traffic on Lake Huron with ice breakers in backgroundFor ships, ice presents two distinct hazards.", "First, spray and freezing rain can produce an ice build-up on the superstructure of a vessel sufficient to make it unstable, and to require it to be hacked off or melted with steam hoses.", "Second, icebergs – large masses of ice floating in water (typically created when glaciers reach the sea) – can be dangerous if struck by a ship when underway.", "Icebergs have been responsible for the sinking of many ships, the most famous being the ''Titanic''.", "For harbors near the poles, being ice-free, ideally all year long, is an important advantage.", "Examples are Murmansk (Russia), Petsamo (Russia, formerly Finland), and Vardø (Norway).", "Harbors which are not ice-free are opened up using icebreakers.====Air travel====black pneumatic bootFor aircraft, ice can cause a number of dangers.", "As an aircraft climbs, it passes through air layers of different temperature and humidity, some of which may be conducive to ice formation.", "If ice forms on the wings or control surfaces, this may adversely affect the flying qualities of the aircraft.", "During the first non-stop flight across the Atlantic, the British aviators Captain John Alcock and Lieutenant Arthur Whitten Brown encountered such icing conditions – Brown left the cockpit and climbed onto the wing several times to remove ice which was covering the engine air intakes of the Vickers Vimy aircraft they were flying.One vulnerability effected by icing that is associated with reciprocating internal combustion engines is the carburetor.", "As air is sucked through the carburetor into the engine, the local air pressure is lowered, which causes adiabatic cooling.", "Thus, in humid near-freezing conditions, the carburetor will be colder, and tend to ice up.", "This will block the supply of air to the engine, and cause it to fail.", "For this reason, aircraft reciprocating engines with carburetors are provided with carburetor air intake heaters.", "The increasing use of fuel injection—which does not require carburetors—has made \"carb icing\" less of an issue for reciprocating engines.Jet engines do not experience carb icing, but recent evidence indicates that they can be slowed, stopped, or damaged by internal icing in certain types of atmospheric conditions much more easily than previously believed.", "In most cases, the engines can be quickly restarted and flights are not endangered, but research continues to determine the exact conditions which produce this type of icing, and find the best methods to prevent, or reverse it, in flight.===Recreation and sports===''Skating fun'' by 17th century Dutch painter Hendrick AvercampIce also plays a central role in winter recreation and in many sports such as ice skating, tour skating, ice hockey, bandy, ice fishing, ice climbing, curling, broomball and sled racing on bobsled, luge and skeleton.", "Many of the different sports played on ice get international attention every four years during the Winter Olympic Games.A sort of sailboat on blades gives rise to ice yachting.", "Another sport is ice racing, where drivers must speed on lake ice, while also controlling the skid of their vehicle (similar in some ways to dirt track racing).", "The sport has even been modified for ice rinks.===Other uses======= As thermal ballast ====* Ice is used to cool and preserve food in iceboxes.", "*Ice cubes or crushed ice can be used to cool drinks.", "As the ice melts, it absorbs heat and keeps the drink near .", "* Ice can be used as part of an air conditioning system, using battery- or solar-powered fans to blow hot air over the ice.", "This is especially useful during heat waves when power is out and standard (electrically powered) air conditioners do not work.", "* Ice can be used (like other cold packs) to reduce swelling (by decreasing blood flow) and pain by pressing it against an area of the body.==== As structural material ====Ice pier during 1983 cargo operations.", "McMurdo Station, Antarctica.", "* Engineers used the substantial strength of pack ice when they constructed Antarctica's first floating ice pier in 1973.Such ice piers are used during cargo operations to load and offload ships.", "Fleet operations personnel make the floating pier during the winter.", "They build upon naturally occurring frozen seawater in McMurdo Sound until the dock reaches a depth of about .", "Ice piers have a lifespan of three to five years.An ice-made dining room of the Kemi's SnowCastle ice hotel in Finland* Structures and ice sculptures are built out of large chunks of ice or by spraying water The structures are mostly ornamental (as in the case with ice castles), and not practical for long-term habitation.", "Ice hotels exist on a seasonal basis in a few cold areas.", "Igloos are another example of a temporary structure, made primarily from snow.", "* In cold climates, roads are regularly prepared on iced-over lakes and archipelago areas.", "Temporarily, even a railroad has been built on ice.", "* During World War II, Project Habbakuk was an Allied programme which investigated the use of pykrete (wood fibers mixed with ice) as a possible material for warships, especially aircraft carriers, due to the ease with which a vessel immune to torpedoes, and a large deck, could be constructed by ice.", "A small-scale prototype was built, but the need for such a vessel in the war was removed prior to building it in full-scale.", "* Ice has even been used as the material for a variety of musical instruments, for example by percussionist Terje Isungset." ], [ "Non-water", "The solid phases of several other volatile substances are also referred to as ''ices''; generally a volatile is classed as an ice if its melting point lies above or around 100 K. The best known example is dry ice, the solid form of carbon dioxide.A \"magnetic analogue\" of ice is also realized in some insulating magnetic materials in which the magnetic moments mimic the position of protons in water ice and obey energetic constraints similar to the Bernal-Fowler ice rules arising from the geometrical frustration of the proton configuration in water ice.", "These materials are called spin ice." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Webmineral listing for Ice* MinDat.org listing and location data for Ice* Estimating the bearing capacity of ice* High-temperature, high-pressure ice* The Surprisingly Cool History of Ice" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ionic bonding" ], [ "Introduction", "Sodium and fluorine atoms undergoing a redox reaction to form sodium ions and fluoride ions.", "Sodium loses its outer electron to give it a stable electron configuration, and this electron enters the fluorine atom exothermically.", "The oppositely charged ions – typically a great many of them – are then attracted to each other to form solid sodium fluoride.", "'''Ionic bonding''' is a type of chemical bonding that involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, or between two atoms with sharply different electronegativities, and is the primary interaction occurring in ionic compounds.", "It is one of the main types of bonding, along with covalent bonding and metallic bonding.", "Ions are atoms (or groups of atoms) with an electrostatic charge.", "Atoms that gain electrons make negatively charged ions (called anions).", "Atoms that lose electrons make positively charged ions (called cations).", "This transfer of electrons is known as '''electrovalence''' in contrast to covalence.", "In the simplest case, the cation is a metal atom and the anion is a nonmetal atom, but these ions can be more complex, e.g.", "molecular ions like or .", "In simpler words, an ionic bond results from the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal to obtain a full valence shell for both atoms.", "''Clean'' ionic bonding — in which one atom or molecule completely transfers an electron to another — cannot exist: all ionic compounds have some degree of covalent bonding or electron sharing.", "Thus, the term \"ionic bonding\" is given when the ionic character is greater than the covalent character – that is, a bond in which there is a large difference in electronegativity between the two atoms, causing the bonding to be more polar (ionic) than in covalent bonding where electrons are shared more equally.", "Bonds with partially ionic and partially covalent characters are called polar covalent bonds.Ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten or in solution, typically not when solid.", "Ionic compounds generally have a high melting point, depending on the charge of the ions they consist of.", "The higher the charges the stronger the cohesive forces and the higher the melting point.", "They also tend to be soluble in water; the stronger the cohesive forces, the lower the solubility." ], [ "Overview", "Atoms that have an almost full or almost empty valence shell tend to be very reactive.", "Strongly electronegative atoms (such as halogens) often have only one or two empty electron states in their valence shell, and frequently bond with other atoms or gain electrons to form anions.", "Weakly electronegative atoms (such as alkali metals) have relatively few valence electrons, which can easily be lost to strongly electronegative atoms.", "As a result, weakly electronegative atoms tend to distort their electron cloud and form cations.=== Properties of ionic bonds ===* They are considered to be among the '''strongest''' of all types of chemical bonds.", "This often causes ionic compounds to be very stable.", "* Ionic bonds have '''high bond energy'''.", "Bond energy is the mean amount of energy required to break the bond in the gaseous state.", "* Most ionic compounds exist in the form of a '''crystal structure''', in which the ions occupy the corners of the crystal.", "Such a structure is called a crystal lattice.", "* Ionic compounds '''lose their crystal lattice structure''' and break up into ions when dissolved in water or any other polar solvent.", "This process is called solvation.", "The presence of these free ions makes aqueous ionic compound solutions good conductors of electricity.", "The same occurs when the compounds are heated above their melting point in a process known as melting." ], [ "Formation", "Ionic bonding can result from a redox reaction when atoms of an element (usually metal), whose ionization energy is low, give some of their electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration.", "In doing so, cations are formed.", "An atom of another element (usually nonmetal) with greater electron affinity accepts one or more electrons to attain a stable electron configuration, and after accepting electrons an atom becomes an anion.", "Typically, the stable electron configuration is one of the noble gases for elements in the s-block and the p-block, and particular stable electron configurations for d-block and f-block elements.", "The electrostatic attraction between the anions and cations leads to the formation of a solid with a crystallographic lattice in which the ions are stacked in an alternating fashion.", "In such a lattice, it is usually not possible to distinguish discrete molecular units, so that the compounds formed are not molecular.", "However, the ions themselves can be complex and form molecular ions like the acetate anion or the ammonium cation.Representation of ionic bonding between lithium and fluorine to form lithium fluoride.", "Lithium has a low ionization energy and readily gives up its lone valence electron to a fluorine atom, which has a positive electron affinity and accepts the electron that was donated by the lithium atom.", "The end-result is that lithium is isoelectronic with helium and fluorine is isoelectronic with neon.", "Electrostatic interaction occurs between the two resulting ions, but typically aggregation is not limited to two of them.", "Instead, aggregation into a whole lattice held together by ionic bonding is the result.", "For example, common table salt is sodium chloride.", "When sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) are combined, the sodium atoms each lose an electron, forming cations (Na+), and the chlorine atoms each gain an electron to form anions (Cl−).", "These ions are then attracted to each other in a 1:1 ratio to form sodium chloride (NaCl).", ": Na + Cl → Na+ + Cl− → NaCl However, to maintain charge neutrality, strict ratios between anions and cations are observed so that ionic compounds, in general, obey the rules of stoichiometry despite not being molecular compounds.", "For compounds that are transitional to the alloys and possess mixed ionic and metallic bonding, this may not be the case anymore.", "Many sulfides, e.g., do form non-stoichiometric compounds.Many ionic compounds are referred to as '''salts''' as they can also be formed by the neutralization reaction of an Arrhenius base like NaOH with an Arrhenius acid like HCl: NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2OThe salt NaCl is then said to consist of the acid rest Cl− and the base rest Na+.The removal of electrons to form the cation is endothermic, raising the system's overall energy.", "There may also be energy changes associated with breaking of existing bonds or the addition of more than one electron to form anions.", "However, the action of the anion's accepting the cation's valence electrons and the subsequent attraction of the ions to each other releases (lattice) energy and, thus, lowers the overall energy of the system.Ionic bonding will occur only if the overall energy change for the reaction is favorable.", "In general, the reaction is exothermic, but, e.g., the formation of mercuric oxide (HgO) is endothermic.", "The charge of the resulting ions is a major factor in the strength of ionic bonding, e.g.", "a salt C+A− is held together by electrostatic forces roughly four times weaker than C2+A2− according to Coulomb's law, where C and A represent a generic cation and anion respectively.", "The sizes of the ions and the particular packing of the lattice are ignored in this rather simplistic argument." ], [ "Structures", "In the rock salt lattice, each sodium ion (purple sphere) has an electrostatic interaction with its eight nearest-neighbour chloride ions (green spheres)Ionic compounds in the solid state form lattice structures.", "The two principal factors in determining the form of the lattice are the relative charges of the ions and their relative sizes.", "Some structures are adopted by a number of compounds; for example, the structure of the rock salt sodium chloride is also adopted by many alkali halides, and binary oxides such as magnesium oxide.", "Pauling's rules provide guidelines for predicting and rationalizing the crystal structures of ionic crystals" ], [ "Strength of the bonding", "For a solid crystalline ionic compound the enthalpy change in forming the solid from gaseous ions is termed the lattice energy.", "The experimental value for the lattice energy can be determined using the Born–Haber cycle.", "It can also be calculated (predicted) using the Born–Landé equation as the sum of the electrostatic potential energy, calculated by summing interactions between cations and anions, and a short-range repulsive potential energy term.", "The electrostatic potential can be expressed in terms of the interionic separation and a constant (Madelung constant) that takes account of the geometry of the crystal.", "The further away from the nucleus the weaker the shield.", "The Born–Landé equation gives a reasonable fit to the lattice energy of, e.g., sodium chloride, where the calculated (predicted) value is −756 kJ/mol, which compares to −787 kJ/mol using the Born–Haber cycle.", "In aqueous solution the binding strength can be described by the Bjerrum or Fuoss equation as function of the ion charges, rather independent of the nature of the ions such as polarizability or size.", "The strength of salt bridges is most often evaluated by measurements of equilibria between molecules containing cationic and anionic sites, most often in solution.", "Equilibrium constants in water indicate additive free energy contributions for each salt bridge.", "Another method for the identification of hydrogen bonds also in complicated molecules is crystallography, sometimes also NMR-spectroscopy.The attractive forces defining the strength of ionic bonding can be modeled by Coulomb's Law.", "Ionic bond strengths are typically (cited ranges vary) between 170 and 1500 kJ/mol." ], [ "Polarization power effects", "Ions in crystal lattices of purely ionic compounds are spherical; however, if the positive ion is small and/or highly charged, it will distort the electron cloud of the negative ion, an effect summarised in Fajans' rules.", "This polarization of the negative ion leads to a build-up of extra charge density between the two nuclei, that is, to partial covalency.", "Larger negative ions are more easily polarized, but the effect is usually important only when positive ions with charges of 3+ (e.g., Al3+) are involved.", "However, 2+ ions (Be2+) or even 1+ (Li+) show some polarizing power because their sizes are so small (e.g., LiI is ionic but has some covalent bonding present).", "Note that this is not the ionic polarization effect that refers to displacement of ions in the lattice due to the application of an electric field." ], [ "Comparison with covalent bonding", "In ionic bonding, the atoms are bound by attraction of oppositely charged ions, whereas, in covalent bonding, atoms are bound by sharing electrons to attain stable electron configurations.", "In covalent bonding, the molecular geometry around each atom is determined by valence shell electron pair repulsion VSEPR rules, whereas, in ionic materials, the geometry follows maximum packing rules.", "One could say that covalent bonding is more ''directional'' in the sense that the energy penalty for not adhering to the optimum bond angles is large, whereas ionic bonding has no such penalty.", "There are no shared electron pairs to repel each other, the ions should simply be packed as efficiently as possible.", "This often leads to much higher coordination numbers.", "In NaCl, each ion has 6 bonds and all bond angles are 90°.", "In CsCl the coordination number is 8.By comparison carbon typically has a maximum of four bonds.Purely ionic bonding cannot exist, as the proximity of the entities involved in the bonding allows some degree of sharing electron density between them.", "Therefore, all ionic bonding has some covalent character.", "Thus, bonding is considered ionic where the ionic character is greater than the covalent character.", "The larger the difference in electronegativity between the two types of atoms involved in the bonding, the more ionic (polar) it is.", "Bonds with partially ionic and partially covalent character are called polar covalent bonds.", "For example, Na–Cl and Mg–O interactions have a few percent covalency, while Si–O bonds are usually ~50% ionic and ~50% covalent.", "Pauling estimated that an electronegativity difference of 1.7 (on the Pauling scale) corresponds to 50% ionic character, so that a difference greater than 1.7 corresponds to a bond which is predominantly ionic.Ionic character in covalent bonds can be directly measured for atoms having quadrupolar nuclei (2H, 14N, 81,79Br, 35,37Cl or 127I).", "These nuclei are generally objects of NQR nuclear quadrupole resonance and NMR nuclear magnetic resonance studies.", "Interactions between the nuclear quadrupole moments ''Q'' and the electric field gradients (EFG) are characterized via the nuclear quadrupole coupling constants:QCC = where the ''eq''zz term corresponds to the principal component of the EFG tensor and ''e'' is the elementary charge.", "In turn, the electric field gradient opens the way to description of bonding modes in molecules when the QCC values are accurately determined by NMR or NQR methods.", "In general, when ionic bonding occurs in the solid (or liquid) state, it is not possible to talk about a single \"ionic bond\" between two individual atoms, because the cohesive forces that keep the lattice together are of a more collective nature.", "This is quite different in the case of covalent bonding, where we can often speak of a distinct bond localized between two particular atoms.", "However, even if ionic bonding is combined with some covalency, the result is ''not'' necessarily discrete bonds of a localized character.", "In such cases, the resulting bonding often requires description in terms of a band structure consisting of gigantic molecular orbitals spanning the entire crystal.", "Thus, the bonding in the solid often retains its collective rather than localized nature.", "When the difference in electronegativity is decreased, the bonding may then lead to a semiconductor, a semimetal or eventually a metallic conductor with metallic bonding." ], [ "See also", "*Coulomb's law*Salt bridge (protein and supramolecular)*Ionic potential*Linear combination of atomic orbitals*Hybridization*Chemical polarity*Ioliomics*Electron configuration*Aufbau principle*Quantum numbers**Azimuthal quantum number**Principal quantum number**Magnetic quantum number**Spin quantum number" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Ionic bonding tutorial* Video on ionic bonding" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "IBF (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "*'''IBF''', or International Boxing Federation, is one of several boxing organisations.", "'''IBF''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Businesses", "*International Banking Facility, a legal entity of a US bank*Irish Banking Federation, a banking representative body in Ireland*''International Broadcasting Facilities'', a film and music Electronic Press Kit company in London" ], [ "Sports", "* International Bandy Federation, former name of Federation of International Bandy (FIB), the international governing body for bandy* International Badminton Federation, former name of Badminton World Federation (BWF), the international governing body for badminton* International Bowling Federation*Iran Basketball Federation, a basketball league in Iran" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Immune system" ], [ "Introduction", "A scanning electron microscope image of a single neutrophil (yellow/right), engulfing anthrax bacteria (orange/left) – scale bar is 5 µm (false color)The '''immune system''' is a network of biological systems that protects an organism from diseases.", "It detects and responds to a wide variety of pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, as well as cancer cells and objects such as wood splinters, distinguishing them from the organism's own healthy tissue.", "Many species have two major subsystems of the immune system.", "The innate immune system provides a preconfigured response to broad groups of situations and stimuli.", "The adaptive immune system provides a tailored response to each stimulus by learning to recognize molecules it has previously encountered.", "Both use molecules and cells to perform their functions.Nearly all organisms have some kind of immune system.", "Bacteria have a rudimentary immune system in the form of enzymes that protect against viral infections.", "Other basic immune mechanisms evolved in ancient plants and animals and remain in their modern descendants.", "These mechanisms include phagocytosis, antimicrobial peptides called defensins, and the complement system.", "Jawed vertebrates, including humans, have even more sophisticated defense mechanisms, including the ability to adapt to recognize pathogens more efficiently.", "Adaptive (or acquired) immunity creates an immunological memory leading to an enhanced response to subsequent encounters with that same pathogen.", "This process of acquired immunity is the basis of vaccination.Dysfunction of the immune system can cause autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases and cancer.", "Immunodeficiency occurs when the immune system is less active than normal, resulting in recurring and life-threatening infections.", "In humans, immunodeficiency can be the result of a genetic disease such as severe combined immunodeficiency, acquired conditions such as HIV/AIDS, or the use of immunosuppressive medication.", "Autoimmunity results from a hyperactive immune system attacking normal tissues as if they were foreign organisms.", "Common autoimmune diseases include Hashimoto's thyroiditis, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes mellitus type 1, and systemic lupus erythematosus.", "Immunology covers the study of all aspects of the immune system." ], [ "Layered defense", "The immune system protects its host from infection with layered defenses of increasing specificity.", "Physical barriers prevent pathogens such as bacteria and viruses from entering the organism.", "If a pathogen breaches these barriers, the innate immune system provides an immediate, but non-specific response.", "Innate immune systems are found in all animals.", "If pathogens successfully evade the innate response, vertebrates possess a second layer of protection, the adaptive immune system, which is activated by the innate response.", "Here, the immune system adapts its response during an infection to improve its recognition of the pathogen.", "This improved response is then retained after the pathogen has been eliminated, in the form of an immunological memory, and allows the adaptive immune system to mount faster and stronger attacks each time this pathogen is encountered.+ '''Components of the immune system''' Innate immune system Adaptive immune system Response is non-specific Pathogen and antigen specific response Exposure leads to immediate maximal response Lag time between exposure and maximal response Cell-mediated and humoral components Cell-mediated and humoral components No immunological memory Exposure leads to immunological memory Found in nearly all forms of lifeFound only in jawed vertebratesBoth innate and adaptive immunity depend on the ability of the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self molecules.", "In immunology, ''self'' molecules are components of an organism's body that can be distinguished from foreign substances by the immune system.", "Conversely, ''non-self'' molecules are those recognized as foreign molecules.", "One class of non-self molecules are called antigens (originally named for being ''anti''body ''gen''erators) and are defined as substances that bind to specific immune receptors and elicit an immune response." ], [ "Surface barriers", "Several barriers protect organisms from infection, including mechanical, chemical, and biological barriers.", "The waxy cuticle of most leaves, the exoskeleton of insects, the shells and membranes of externally deposited eggs, and skin are examples of mechanical barriers that are the first line of defense against infection.", "Organisms cannot be completely sealed from their environments, so systems act to protect body openings such as the lungs, intestines, and the genitourinary tract.", "In the lungs, coughing and sneezing mechanically eject pathogens and other irritants from the respiratory tract.", "The flushing action of tears and urine also mechanically expels pathogens, while mucus secreted by the respiratory and gastrointestinal tract serves to trap and entangle microorganisms.Chemical barriers also protect against infection.", "The skin and respiratory tract secrete antimicrobial peptides such as the β-defensins.", "Enzymes such as lysozyme and phospholipase A2 in saliva, tears, and breast milk are also antibacterials.", "Vaginal secretions serve as a chemical barrier following menarche, when they become slightly acidic, while semen contains defensins and zinc to kill pathogens.", "In the stomach, gastric acid serves as a chemical defense against ingested pathogens.Within the genitourinary and gastrointestinal tracts, commensal flora serve as biological barriers by competing with pathogenic bacteria for food and space and, in some cases, changing the conditions in their environment, such as pH or available iron.", "As a result, the probability that pathogens will reach sufficient numbers to cause illness is reduced." ], [ "Innate immune system", "Microorganisms or toxins that successfully enter an organism encounter the cells and mechanisms of the innate immune system.", "The innate response is usually triggered when microbes are identified by pattern recognition receptors, which recognize components that are conserved among broad groups of microorganisms, or when damaged, injured or stressed cells send out alarm signals, many of which are recognized by the same receptors as those that recognize pathogens.", "Innate immune defenses are non-specific, meaning these systems respond to pathogens in a generic way.", "This system does not confer long-lasting immunity against a pathogen.", "The innate immune system is the dominant system of host defense in most organisms, and the only one in plants.===Immune sensing===Cells in the innate immune system use pattern recognition receptors to recognize molecular structures that are produced by pathogens.", "They are proteins expressed, mainly, by cells of the innate immune system, such as dendritic cells, macrophages, monocytes, neutrophils and epithelial cells to identify two classes of molecules: pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), which are associated with microbial pathogens, and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), which are associated with components of host's cells that are released during cell damage or cell death.Recognition of extracellular or endosomal PAMPs is mediated by transmembrane proteins known as toll-like receptors (TLRs).", "TLRs share a typical structural motif, the leucine rich repeats (LRRs), which give them a curved shape.", "Toll-like receptors were first discovered in ''Drosophila'' and trigger the synthesis and secretion of cytokines and activation of other host defense programs that are necessary for both innate or adaptive immune responses.", "Ten toll-like receptors have been described in humans.Cells in the innate immune system have pattern recognition receptors, which detect infection or cell damage, inside.", "Three major classes of these \"cytosolic\" receptors are NOD–like receptors, RIG (retinoic acid-inducible gene)-like receptors, and cytosolic DNA sensors.=== Innate immune cells ===A scanning electron microscope image of normal circulating human blood.", "One can see red blood cells, several knobby white blood cells including lymphocytes, a monocyte, a neutrophil, and many small disc-shaped platelets.Some leukocytes (white blood cells) act like independent, single-celled organisms and are the second arm of the innate immune system.", "The innate leukocytes include the \"professional\" phagocytes (macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells).", "These cells identify and eliminate pathogens, either by attacking larger pathogens through contact or by engulfing and then killing microorganisms.", "The other cells involved in the innate response include innate lymphoid cells, mast cells, eosinophils, basophils, and natural killer cells.Phagocytosis is an important feature of cellular innate immunity performed by cells called phagocytes that engulf pathogens or particles.", "Phagocytes generally patrol the body searching for pathogens, but can be called to specific locations by cytokines.", "Once a pathogen has been engulfed by a phagocyte, it becomes trapped in an intracellular vesicle called a phagosome, which subsequently fuses with another vesicle called a lysosome to form a phagolysosome.", "The pathogen is killed by the activity of digestive enzymes or following a respiratory burst that releases free radicals into the phagolysosome.", "Phagocytosis evolved as a means of acquiring nutrients, but this role was extended in phagocytes to include engulfment of pathogens as a defense mechanism.", "Phagocytosis probably represents the oldest form of host defense, as phagocytes have been identified in both vertebrate and invertebrate animals.Neutrophils and macrophages are phagocytes that travel throughout the body in pursuit of invading pathogens.", "Neutrophils are normally found in the bloodstream and are the most abundant type of phagocyte, representing 50% to 60% of total circulating leukocytes.", "During the acute phase of inflammation, neutrophils migrate toward the site of inflammation in a process called chemotaxis, and are usually the first cells to arrive at the scene of infection.", "Macrophages are versatile cells that reside within tissues and produce an array of chemicals including enzymes, complement proteins, and cytokines, while they can also act as scavengers that rid the body of worn-out cells and other debris, and as antigen-presenting cells (APCs) that activate the adaptive immune system.Dendritic cells are phagocytes in tissues that are in contact with the external environment; therefore, they are located mainly in the skin, nose, lungs, stomach, and intestines.", "They are named for their resemblance to neuronal dendrites, as both have many spine-like projections.", "Dendritic cells serve as a link between the bodily tissues and the innate and adaptive immune systems, as they present antigens to T cells, one of the key cell types of the adaptive immune system.Granulocytes are leukocytes that have granules in their cytoplasm.", "In this category are neutrophils, mast cells, basophils, and eosinophils.", "Mast cells reside in connective tissues and mucous membranes, and regulate the inflammatory response.", "They are most often associated with allergy and anaphylaxis.", "Basophils and eosinophils are related to neutrophils.", "They secrete chemical mediators that are involved in defending against parasites and play a role in allergic reactions, such as asthma.Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are a group of innate immune cells that are derived from common lymphoid progenitor and belong to the lymphoid lineage.", "These cells are defined by absence of antigen specific B or T cell receptor (TCR) because of the lack of recombination activating gene.", "ILCs do not express myeloid or dendritic cell markers.Natural killer cells (NK cells) are lymphocytes and a component of the innate immune system which does not directly attack invading microbes.", "Rather, NK cells destroy compromised host cells, such as tumor cells or virus-infected cells, recognizing such cells by a condition known as \"missing self.\"", "This term describes cells with low levels of a cell-surface marker called MHC I (major histocompatibility complex)—a situation that can arise in viral infections of host cells.", "Normal body cells are not recognized and attacked by NK cells because they express intact self MHC antigens.", "Those MHC antigens are recognized by killer cell immunoglobulin receptors which essentially put the brakes on NK cells.=== Inflammation ===Inflammation is one of the first responses of the immune system to infection.", "The symptoms of inflammation are redness, swelling, heat, and pain, which are caused by increased blood flow into tissue.", "Inflammation is produced by eicosanoids and cytokines, which are released by injured or infected cells.", "Eicosanoids include prostaglandins that produce fever and the dilation of blood vessels associated with inflammation, and leukotrienes that attract certain white blood cells (leukocytes).", "Common cytokines include interleukins that are responsible for communication between white blood cells; chemokines that promote chemotaxis; and interferons that have anti-viral effects, such as shutting down protein synthesis in the host cell.", "Growth factors and cytotoxic factors may also be released.", "These cytokines and other chemicals recruit immune cells to the site of infection and promote healing of any damaged tissue following the removal of pathogens.", "The pattern-recognition receptors called inflammasomes are multiprotein complexes (consisting of an NLR, the adaptor protein ASC, and the effector molecule pro-caspase-1) that form in response to cytosolic PAMPs and DAMPs, whose function is to generate active forms of the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18.=== Humoral defenses ===The complement system is a biochemical cascade that attacks the surfaces of foreign cells.", "It contains over 20 different proteins and is named for its ability to \"complement\" the killing of pathogens by antibodies.", "Complement is the major humoral component of the innate immune response.", "Many species have complement systems, including non-mammals like plants, fish, and some invertebrates.", "In humans, this response is activated by complement binding to antibodies that have attached to these microbes or the binding of complement proteins to carbohydrates on the surfaces of microbes.", "This recognition signal triggers a rapid killing response.", "The speed of the response is a result of signal amplification that occurs after sequential proteolytic activation of complement molecules, which are also proteases.", "After complement proteins initially bind to the microbe, they activate their protease activity, which in turn activates other complement proteases, and so on.", "This produces a catalytic cascade that amplifies the initial signal by controlled positive feedback.", "The cascade results in the production of peptides that attract immune cells, increase vascular permeability, and opsonize (coat) the surface of a pathogen, marking it for destruction.", "This deposition of complement can also kill cells directly by disrupting their plasma membrane via the formation of a membrane attack complex." ], [ "Adaptive immune system", "Overview of the processes involved in the primary immune responseThe adaptive immune system evolved in early vertebrates and allows for a stronger immune response as well as immunological memory, where each pathogen is \"remembered\" by a signature antigen.", "The adaptive immune response is antigen-specific and requires the recognition of specific \"non-self\" antigens during a process called antigen presentation.", "Antigen specificity allows for the generation of responses that are tailored to specific pathogens or pathogen-infected cells.", "The ability to mount these tailored responses is maintained in the body by \"memory cells\".", "Should a pathogen infect the body more than once, these specific memory cells are used to quickly eliminate it.===Recognition of antigen===The cells of the adaptive immune system are special types of leukocytes, called lymphocytes.", "B cells and T cells are the major types of lymphocytes and are derived from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow.", "B cells are involved in the humoral immune response, whereas T cells are involved in cell-mediated immune response.", "Killer T cells only recognize antigens coupled to Class I MHC molecules, while helper T cells and regulatory T cells only recognize antigens coupled to Class II MHC molecules.", "These two mechanisms of antigen presentation reflect the different roles of the two types of T cell.", "A third, minor subtype are the γδ T cells that recognize intact antigens that are not bound to MHC receptors.", "The double-positive T cells are exposed to a wide variety of self-antigens in the thymus, in which iodine is necessary for its thymus development and activity.", "In contrast, the B cell antigen-specific receptor is an antibody molecule on the B cell surface and recognizes native (unprocessed) antigen without any need for antigen processing.", "Such antigens may be large molecules found on the surfaces of pathogens, but can also be small haptens (such as penicillin) attached to carrier molecule.", "Each lineage of B cell expresses a different antibody, so the complete set of B cell antigen receptors represent all the antibodies that the body can manufacture.", "When B or T cells encounter their related antigens they multiply and many \"clones\" of the cells are produced that target the same antigen.", "This is called clonal selection.===Antigen presentation to T lymphocytes===Both B cells and T cells carry receptor molecules that recognize specific targets.", "T cells recognize a \"non-self\" target, such as a pathogen, only after antigens (small fragments of the pathogen) have been processed and presented in combination with a \"self\" receptor called a major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule.===Cell mediated immunity===There are two major subtypes of T cells: the killer T cell and the helper T cell.", "In addition there are regulatory T cells which have a role in modulating immune response.==== Killer T cells ====Killer T cells are a sub-group of T cells that kill cells that are infected with viruses (and other pathogens), or are otherwise damaged or dysfunctional.", "As with B cells, each type of T cell recognizes a different antigen.", "Killer T cells are activated when their T-cell receptor binds to this specific antigen in a complex with the MHC Class I receptor of another cell.", "Recognition of this MHC:antigen complex is aided by a co-receptor on the T cell, called CD8.The T cell then travels throughout the body in search of cells where the MHC I receptors bear this antigen.", "When an activated T cell contacts such cells, it releases cytotoxins, such as perforin, which form pores in the target cell's plasma membrane, allowing ions, water and toxins to enter.", "The entry of another toxin called granulysin (a protease) induces the target cell to undergo apoptosis.", "T cell killing of host cells is particularly important in preventing the replication of viruses.", "T cell activation is tightly controlled and generally requires a very strong MHC/antigen activation signal, or additional activation signals provided by \"helper\" T cells (see below).==== Helper T cells ====Helper T cells regulate both the innate and adaptive immune responses and help determine which immune responses the body makes to a particular pathogen.", "These cells have no cytotoxic activity and do not kill infected cells or clear pathogens directly.", "They instead control the immune response by directing other cells to perform these tasks.Helper T cells express T cell receptors that recognize antigen bound to Class II MHC molecules.", "The MHC:antigen complex is also recognized by the helper cell's CD4 co-receptor, which recruits molecules inside the T cell (such as Lck) that are responsible for the T cell's activation.", "Helper T cells have a weaker association with the MHC:antigen complex than observed for killer T cells, meaning many receptors (around 200–300) on the helper T cell must be bound by an MHC:antigen to activate the helper cell, while killer T cells can be activated by engagement of a single MHC:antigen molecule.", "Helper T cell activation also requires longer duration of engagement with an antigen-presenting cell.", "The activation of a resting helper T cell causes it to release cytokines that influence the activity of many cell types.", "Cytokine signals produced by helper T cells enhance the microbicidal function of macrophages and the activity of killer T cells.", "In addition, helper T cell activation causes an upregulation of molecules expressed on the T cell's surface, such as CD40 ligand (also called CD154), which provide extra stimulatory signals typically required to activate antibody-producing B cells.==== Gamma delta T cells ====Gamma delta T cells (γδ T cells) possess an alternative T-cell receptor (TCR) as opposed to CD4+ and CD8+ (αβ) T cells and share the characteristics of helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells and NK cells.", "The conditions that produce responses from γδ T cells are not fully understood.", "Like other 'unconventional' T cell subsets bearing invariant TCRs, such as CD1d-restricted natural killer T cells, γδ T cells straddle the border between innate and adaptive immunity.", "On one hand, γδ T cells are a component of adaptive immunity as they rearrange TCR genes to produce receptor diversity and can also develop a memory phenotype.", "On the other hand, the various subsets are also part of the innate immune system, as restricted TCR or NK receptors may be used as pattern recognition receptors.", "For example, large numbers of human Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells respond within hours to common molecules produced by microbes, and highly restricted Vδ1+ T cells in epithelia respond to stressed epithelial cells.===Humoral immune response===An antibody is made up of two heavy chains and two light chains.", "The unique variable region allows an antibody to recognize its matching antigen.A B cell identifies pathogens when antibodies on its surface bind to a specific foreign antigen.", "This antigen/antibody complex is taken up by the B cell and processed by proteolysis into peptides.", "The B cell then displays these antigenic peptides on its surface MHC class II molecules.", "This combination of MHC and antigen attracts a matching helper T cell, which releases lymphokines and activates the B cell.", "As the activated B cell then begins to divide, its offspring (plasma cells) secrete millions of copies of the antibody that recognizes this antigen.", "These antibodies circulate in blood plasma and lymph, bind to pathogens expressing the antigen and mark them for destruction by complement activation or for uptake and destruction by phagocytes.", "Antibodies can also neutralize challenges directly, by binding to bacterial toxins or by interfering with the receptors that viruses and bacteria use to infect cells.Newborn infants have no prior exposure to microbes and are particularly vulnerable to infection.", "Several layers of passive protection are provided by the mother.", "During pregnancy, a particular type of antibody, called IgG, is transported from mother to baby directly through the placenta, so human babies have high levels of antibodies even at birth, with the same range of antigen specificities as their mother.", "Breast milk or colostrum also contains antibodies that are transferred to the gut of the infant and protect against bacterial infections until the newborn can synthesize its own antibodies.", "This is passive immunity because the fetus does not actually make any memory cells or antibodies—it only borrows them.", "This passive immunity is usually short-term, lasting from a few days up to several months.", "In medicine, protective passive immunity can also be transferred artificially from one individual to another.=== Immunological memory ===When B cells and T cells are activated and begin to replicate, some of their offspring become long-lived memory cells.", "Throughout the lifetime of an animal, these memory cells remember each specific pathogen encountered and can mount a strong response if the pathogen is detected again.", "T-cells recognize pathogens by small protein-based infection signals, called antigens, that bind to directly to T-cell surface receptors.", "B-cells use the protein, immunoglobulin, to recognize pathogens by their antigens.", "This is \"adaptive\" because it occurs during the lifetime of an individual as an adaptation to infection with that pathogen and prepares the immune system for future challenges.", "Immunological memory can be in the form of either passive short-term memory or active long-term memory." ], [ "Physiological regulation", "The time-course of an immune response begins with the initial pathogen encounter, (or initial vaccination) and leads to the formation and maintenance of active immunological memory.The immune system is involved in many aspects of physiological regulation in the body.", "The immune system interacts intimately with other systems, such as the endocrine and the nervous systems.", "The immune system also plays a crucial role in embryogenesis (development of the embryo), as well as in tissue repair and regeneration.=== Hormones ===Hormones can act as immunomodulators, altering the sensitivity of the immune system.", "For example, female sex hormones are known immunostimulators of both adaptive and innate immune responses.", "Some autoimmune diseases such as lupus erythematosus strike women preferentially, and their onset often coincides with puberty.", "By contrast, male sex hormones such as testosterone seem to be immunosuppressive.", "Other hormones appear to regulate the immune system as well, most notably prolactin, growth hormone and vitamin D.===Vitamin D===Although cellular studies indicate that vitamin D has receptors and probable functions in the immune system, there is no clinical evidence to prove that vitamin D deficiency increases the risk for immune diseases or vitamin D supplementation lowers immune disease risk.", "A 2011 United States Institute of Medicine report stated that \"outcomes related to ... immune functioning and autoimmune disorders, and infections ... could not be linked reliably with calcium or vitamin D intake and were often conflicting.", "\"=== Sleep and rest ===The immune system is affected by sleep and rest, and sleep deprivation is detrimental to immune function.", "Complex feedback loops involving cytokines, such as interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor-α produced in response to infection, appear to also play a role in the regulation of non-rapid eye movement (REM) sleep.", "Thus the immune response to infection may result in changes to the sleep cycle, including an increase in slow-wave sleep relative to REM sleep.In people with sleep deprivation, active immunizations may have a diminished effect and may result in lower antibody production, and a lower immune response, than would be noted in a well-rested individual.", "Additionally, proteins such as NFIL3, which have been shown to be closely intertwined with both T-cell differentiation and circadian rhythms, can be affected through the disturbance of natural light and dark cycles through instances of sleep deprivation.", "These disruptions can lead to an increase in chronic conditions such as heart disease, chronic pain, and asthma.In addition to the negative consequences of sleep deprivation, sleep and the intertwined circadian system have been shown to have strong regulatory effects on immunological functions affecting both innate and adaptive immunity.", "First, during the early slow-wave-sleep stage, a sudden drop in blood levels of cortisol, epinephrine, and norepinephrine causes increased blood levels of the hormones leptin, pituitary growth hormone, and prolactin.", "These signals induce a pro-inflammatory state through the production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1, interleukin-12, TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma.", "These cytokines then stimulate immune functions such as immune cell activation, proliferation, and differentiation.", "During this time of a slowly evolving adaptive immune response, there is a peak in undifferentiated or less differentiated cells, like naïve and central memory T cells.", "In addition to these effects, the milieu of hormones produced at this time (leptin, pituitary growth hormone, and prolactin) supports the interactions between APCs and T-cells, a shift of the Th1/Th2 cytokine balance towards one that supports Th1, an increase in overall Th cell proliferation, and naïve T cell migration to lymph nodes.", "This is also thought to support the formation of long-lasting immune memory through the initiation of Th1 immune responses.During wake periods, differentiated effector cells, such as cytotoxic natural killer cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes, peak to elicit an effective response against any intruding pathogens.", "Anti-inflammatory molecules, such as cortisol and catecholamines, also peak during awake active times.", "Inflammation would cause serious cognitive and physical impairments if it were to occur during wake times, and inflammation may occur during sleep times due to the presence of melatonin.", "Inflammation causes a great deal of oxidative stress and the presence of melatonin during sleep times could actively counteract free radical production during this time.===Physical exercise===Physical exercise has a positive effect on the immune system and depending on the frequency and intensity, the pathogenic effects of diseases caused by bacteria and viruses are moderated.", "Immediately after intense exercise there is a transient immunodepression, where the number of circulating lymphocytes decreases and antibody production declines.", "This may give rise to a window of opportunity for infection and reactivation of latent virus infections, but the evidence is inconclusive.====Changes at the cellular level ====Giemsa-stained blood filmDuring exercise there is an increase in circulating white blood cells of all types.", "This is caused by the frictional force of blood flowing on the endothelial cell surface and catecholamines affecting β-adrenergic receptors (βARs).", "The number of neutrophils in the blood increases and remains raised for up to six hours and immature forms are present.", "Although the increase in neutrophils (\"neutrophilia\") is similar to that seen during bacterial infections, after exercise the cell population returns to normal by around 24 hours.The number of circulating lymphocytes (mainly natural killer cells) decreases during intense exercise but returns to normal after 4 to 6 hours.", "Although up to 2% of the cells die most migrate from the blood to the tissues, mainly the intestines and lungs, where pathogens are most likely to be encountered.Some monocytes leave the blood circulation and migrate to the muscles where they differentiate and become macrophages.", "These cells differentiate into two types: proliferative macrophages, which are responsible for increasing the number of stem cells and restorative macrophages, which are involved their maturing to muscle cells.=== Repair and regeneration ===The immune system, particularly the innate component, plays a decisive role in tissue repair after an insult.", "Key actors include macrophages and neutrophils, but other cellular actors, including γδ T cells, innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), and regulatory T cells (Tregs), are also important.", "The plasticity of immune cells and the balance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory signals are crucial aspects of efficient tissue repair.", "Immune components and pathways are involved in regeneration as well, for example in amphibians such as in axolotl limb regeneration.", "According to one hypothesis, organisms that can regenerate (''e.g.", "'', axolotls) could be less immunocompetent than organisms that cannot regenerate." ], [ "Disorders of human immunity", "Failures of host defense occur and fall into three broad categories: immunodeficiencies, autoimmunity, and hypersensitivities.=== Immunodeficiencies ===Immunodeficiencies occur when one or more of the components of the immune system are inactive.", "The ability of the immune system to respond to pathogens is diminished in both the young and the elderly, with immune responses beginning to decline at around 50 years of age due to immunosenescence.", "In developed countries, obesity, alcoholism, and drug use are common causes of poor immune function, while malnutrition is the most common cause of immunodeficiency in developing countries.", "Diets lacking sufficient protein are associated with impaired cell-mediated immunity, complement activity, phagocyte function, IgA antibody concentrations, and cytokine production.", "Additionally, the loss of the thymus at an early age through genetic mutation or surgical removal results in severe immunodeficiency and a high susceptibility to infection.", "Immunodeficiencies can also be inherited or 'acquired'.", "Severe combined immunodeficiency is a rare genetic disorder characterized by the disturbed development of functional T cells and B cells caused by numerous genetic mutations.", "Chronic granulomatous disease, where phagocytes have a reduced ability to destroy pathogens, is an example of an inherited, or congenital, immunodeficiency.", "AIDS and some types of cancer cause acquired immunodeficiency.=== Autoimmunity ===Joints of a hand swollen and deformed by alt=See captionOveractive immune responses form the other end of immune dysfunction, particularly the autoimmune diseases.", "Here, the immune system fails to properly distinguish between self and non-self, and attacks part of the body.", "Under normal circumstances, many T cells and antibodies react with \"self\" peptides.", "One of the functions of specialized cells (located in the thymus and bone marrow) is to present young lymphocytes with self antigens produced throughout the body and to eliminate those cells that recognize self-antigens, preventing autoimmunity.", "Common autoimmune diseases include Hashimoto's thyroiditis, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes mellitus type 1, and systemic lupus erythematosus.=== Hypersensitivity ===Hypersensitivity is an immune response that damages the body's own tissues.", "It is divided into four classes (Type I – IV) based on the mechanisms involved and the time course of the hypersensitive reaction.", "Type I hypersensitivity is an immediate or anaphylactic reaction, often associated with allergy.", "Symptoms can range from mild discomfort to death.", "Type I hypersensitivity is mediated by IgE, which triggers degranulation of mast cells and basophils when cross-linked by antigen.Type II hypersensitivity occurs when antibodies bind to antigens on the individual's own cells, marking them for destruction.", "This is also called antibody-dependent (or cytotoxic) hypersensitivity, and is mediated by IgG and IgM antibodies.", "Immune complexes (aggregations of antigens, complement proteins, and IgG and IgM antibodies) deposited in various tissues trigger Type III hypersensitivity reactions.", "Type IV hypersensitivity (also known as cell-mediated or ''delayed type hypersensitivity'') usually takes between two and three days to develop.", "Type IV reactions are involved in many autoimmune and infectious diseases, but may also involve contact dermatitis.", "These reactions are mediated by T cells, monocytes, and macrophages.=== Idiopathic inflammation ===Inflammation is one of the first responses of the immune system to infection, but it can appear without known cause.Inflammation is produced by eicosanoids and cytokines, which are released by injured or infected cells.", "Eicosanoids include prostaglandins that produce fever and the dilation of blood vessels associated with inflammation, and leukotrienes that attract certain white blood cells (leukocytes).", "Common cytokines include interleukins that are responsible for communication between white blood cells; chemokines that promote chemotaxis; and interferons that have anti-viral effects, such as shutting down protein synthesis in the host cell.", "Growth factors and cytotoxic factors may also be released.", "These cytokines and other chemicals recruit immune cells to the site of infection and promote healing of any damaged tissue following the removal of pathogens." ], [ "Manipulation in medicine", "Skeletal structural formula of the immunosuppressive drug dexamethasoneThe immune response can be manipulated to suppress unwanted responses resulting from autoimmunity, allergy, and transplant rejection, and to stimulate protective responses against pathogens that largely elude the immune system (see immunization) or cancer.=== Immunosuppression ===Immunosuppressive drugs are used to control autoimmune disorders or inflammation when excessive tissue damage occurs, and to prevent rejection after an organ transplant.Anti-inflammatory drugs are often used to control the effects of inflammation.", "Glucocorticoids are the most powerful of these drugs and can have many undesirable side effects, such as central obesity, hyperglycemia, and osteoporosis.", "Their use is tightly controlled.", "Lower doses of anti-inflammatory drugs are often used in conjunction with cytotoxic or immunosuppressive drugs such as methotrexate or azathioprine.Cytotoxic drugs inhibit the immune response by killing dividing cells such as activated T cells.", "This killing is indiscriminate and other constantly dividing cells and their organs are affected, which causes toxic side effects.", "Immunosuppressive drugs such as cyclosporin prevent T cells from responding to signals correctly by inhibiting signal transduction pathways.=== Immunostimulation ===Claims made by marketers of various products and alternative health providers, such as chiropractors, homeopaths, and acupuncturists to be able to stimulate or \"boost\" the immune system generally lack meaningful explanation and evidence of effectiveness.===Vaccination===alt= A child receiving drops of polio vaccine in her mouthLong-term ''active'' memory is acquired following infection by activation of B and T cells.", "Active immunity can also be generated artificially, through vaccination.", "The principle behind vaccination (also called immunization) is to introduce an antigen from a pathogen to stimulate the immune system and develop specific immunity against that particular pathogen without causing disease associated with that organism.", "This deliberate induction of an immune response is successful because it exploits the natural specificity of the immune system, as well as its inducibility.", "With infectious disease remaining one of the leading causes of death in the human population, vaccination represents the most effective manipulation of the immune system mankind has developed.Many vaccines are based on acellular components of micro-organisms, including harmless toxin components.", "Since many antigens derived from acellular vaccines do not strongly induce the adaptive response, most bacterial vaccines are provided with additional adjuvants that activate the antigen-presenting cells of the innate immune system and maximize immunogenicity.=== Tumor immunology ===Another important role of the immune system is to identify and eliminate tumors.", "This is called '''immune surveillance'''.", "The ''transformed cells'' of tumors express antigens that are not found on normal cells.", "To the immune system, these antigens appear foreign, and their presence causes immune cells to attack the transformed tumor cells.", "The antigens expressed by tumors have several sources; some are derived from oncogenic viruses like human papillomavirus, which causes cancer of the cervix, vulva, vagina, penis, anus, mouth, and throat, while others are the organism's own proteins that occur at low levels in normal cells but reach high levels in tumor cells.", "One example is an enzyme called tyrosinase that, when expressed at high levels, transforms certain skin cells (for example, melanocytes) into tumors called melanomas.", "A third possible source of tumor antigens are proteins normally important for regulating cell growth and survival, that commonly mutate into cancer inducing molecules called oncogenes.Macrophages have identified a cancer cell (the large, spiky mass).", "Upon fusing with the cancer cell, the macrophages (smaller white cells) inject toxins that kill the tumor cell.", "Immunotherapy for the treatment of cancer is an active area of medical research.The main response of the immune system to tumors is to destroy the abnormal cells using killer T cells, sometimes with the assistance of helper T cells.", "Tumor antigens are presented on MHC class I molecules in a similar way to viral antigens.", "This allows killer T cells to recognize the tumor cell as abnormal.", "NK cells also kill tumorous cells in a similar way, especially if the tumor cells have fewer MHC class I molecules on their surface than normal; this is a common phenomenon with tumors.", "Sometimes antibodies are generated against tumor cells allowing for their destruction by the complement system.Some tumors evade the immune system and go on to become cancers.", "Tumor cells often have a reduced number of MHC class I molecules on their surface, thus avoiding detection by killer T cells.", "Some tumor cells also release products that inhibit the immune response; for example by secreting the cytokine TGF-β, which suppresses the activity of macrophages and lymphocytes.", "In addition, immunological tolerance may develop against tumor antigens, so the immune system no longer attacks the tumor cells.Paradoxically, macrophages can promote tumor growth when tumor cells send out cytokines that attract macrophages, which then generate cytokines and growth factors such as tumor-necrosis factor alpha that nurture tumor development or promote stem-cell-like plasticity.", "In addition, a combination of hypoxia in the tumor and a cytokine produced by macrophages induces tumor cells to decrease production of a protein that blocks metastasis and thereby assists spread of cancer cells.", "Anti-tumor M1 macrophages are recruited in early phases to tumor development but are progressively differentiated to M2 with pro-tumor effect, an immunosuppressor switch.", "The hypoxia reduces the cytokine production for the anti-tumor response and progressively macrophages acquire pro-tumor M2 functions driven by the tumor microenvironment, including IL-4 and IL-10.Cancer immunotherapy covers the medical ways to stimulate the immune system to attack cancer tumors.=== Predicting immunogenicity ===Some drugs can cause a neutralizing immune response, meaning that the immune system produces neutralizing antibodies that counteract the action of the drugs, particularly if the drugs are administered repeatedly, or in larger doses.", "This limits the effectiveness of drugs based on larger peptides and proteins (which are typically larger than 6000 Da).", "In some cases, the drug itself is not immunogenic, but may be co-administered with an immunogenic compound, as is sometimes the case for Taxol.", "Computational methods have been developed to predict the immunogenicity of peptides and proteins, which are particularly useful in designing therapeutic antibodies, assessing likely virulence of mutations in viral coat particles, and validation of proposed peptide-based drug treatments.", "Early techniques relied mainly on the observation that hydrophilic amino acids are overrepresented in epitope regions than hydrophobic amino acids; however, more recent developments rely on machine learning techniques using databases of existing known epitopes, usually on well-studied virus proteins, as a training set.", "A publicly accessible database has been established for the cataloguing of epitopes from pathogens known to be recognizable by B cells.", "The emerging field of bioinformatics-based studies of immunogenicity is referred to as ''immunoinformatics''.", "Immunoproteomics is the study of large sets of proteins (proteomics) involved in the immune response." ], [ "Evolution and other mechanisms", "===Evolution of the immune system===It is likely that a multicomponent, adaptive immune system arose with the first vertebrates, as invertebrates do not generate lymphocytes or an antibody-based humoral response.", "Immune systems evolved in deuterostomes as shown in the cladogram.Many species, however, use mechanisms that appear to be precursors of these aspects of vertebrate immunity.", "Immune systems appear even in the structurally simplest forms of life, with bacteria using a unique defense mechanism, called the restriction modification system to protect themselves from viral pathogens, called bacteriophages.", "Prokaryotes (bacteria and archea) also possess acquired immunity, through a system that uses CRISPR sequences to retain fragments of the genomes of phage that they have come into contact with in the past, which allows them to block virus replication through a form of RNA interference.", "Prokaryotes also possess other defense mechanisms.", "Offensive elements of the immune systems are also present in unicellular eukaryotes, but studies of their roles in defense are few.Pattern recognition receptors are proteins used by nearly all organisms to identify molecules associated with pathogens.", "Antimicrobial peptides called defensins are an evolutionarily conserved component of the innate immune response found in all animals and plants, and represent the main form of invertebrate systemic immunity.", "The complement system and phagocytic cells are also used by most forms of invertebrate life.", "Ribonucleases and the RNA interference pathway are conserved across all eukaryotes, and are thought to play a role in the immune response to viruses.Unlike animals, plants lack phagocytic cells, but many plant immune responses involve systemic chemical signals that are sent through a plant.", "Individual plant cells respond to molecules associated with pathogens known as pathogen-associated molecular patterns or PAMPs.", "When a part of a plant becomes infected, the plant produces a localized hypersensitive response, whereby cells at the site of infection undergo rapid apoptosis to prevent the spread of the disease to other parts of the plant.", "Systemic acquired resistance is a type of defensive response used by plants that renders the entire plant resistant to a particular infectious agent.", "RNA silencing mechanisms are particularly important in this systemic response as they can block virus replication.===Alternative adaptive immune system ===Evolution of the adaptive immune system occurred in an ancestor of the jawed vertebrates.", "Many of the classical molecules of the adaptive immune system (for example, immunoglobulins and T-cell receptors) exist only in jawed vertebrates.", "A distinct lymphocyte-derived molecule has been discovered in primitive jawless vertebrates, such as the lamprey and hagfish.", "These animals possess a large array of molecules called Variable lymphocyte receptors (VLRs) that, like the antigen receptors of jawed vertebrates, are produced from only a small number (one or two) of genes.", "These molecules are believed to bind pathogenic antigens in a similar way to antibodies, and with the same degree of specificity.=== Manipulation by pathogens ===The success of any pathogen depends on its ability to elude host immune responses.", "Therefore, pathogens evolved several methods that allow them to successfully infect a host, while evading detection or destruction by the immune system.", "Bacteria often overcome physical barriers by secreting enzymes that digest the barrier, for example, by using a type II secretion system.", "Alternatively, using a type III secretion system, they may insert a hollow tube into the host cell, providing a direct route for proteins to move from the pathogen to the host.", "These proteins are often used to shut down host defenses.An evasion strategy used by several pathogens to avoid the innate immune system is to hide within the cells of their host (also called intracellular pathogenesis).", "Here, a pathogen spends most of its life-cycle inside host cells, where it is shielded from direct contact with immune cells, antibodies and complement.", "Some examples of intracellular pathogens include viruses, the food poisoning bacterium ''Salmonella'' and the eukaryotic parasites that cause malaria (''Plasmodium spp.'')", "and leishmaniasis (''Leishmania spp.'').", "Other bacteria, such as ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'', live inside a protective capsule that prevents lysis by complement.", "Many pathogens secrete compounds that diminish or misdirect the host's immune response.", "Some bacteria form biofilms to protect themselves from the cells and proteins of the immune system.", "Such biofilms are present in many successful infections, such as the chronic ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'' and ''Burkholderia cenocepacia'' infections characteristic of cystic fibrosis.", "Other bacteria generate surface proteins that bind to antibodies, rendering them ineffective; examples include ''Streptococcus'' (protein G), ''Staphylococcus aureus'' (protein A), and ''Peptostreptococcus magnus'' (protein L).The mechanisms used to evade the adaptive immune system are more complicated.", "The simplest approach is to rapidly change non-essential epitopes (amino acids and/or sugars) on the surface of the pathogen, while keeping essential epitopes concealed.", "This is called antigenic variation.", "An example is HIV, which mutates rapidly, so the proteins on its viral envelope that are essential for entry into its host target cell are constantly changing.", "These frequent changes in antigens may explain the failures of vaccines directed at this virus.", "The parasite ''Trypanosoma brucei'' uses a similar strategy, constantly switching one type of surface protein for another, allowing it to stay one step ahead of the antibody response.", "Masking antigens with host molecules is another common strategy for avoiding detection by the immune system.", "In HIV, the envelope that covers the virion is formed from the outermost membrane of the host cell; such \"self-cloaked\" viruses make it difficult for the immune system to identify them as \"non-self\" structures." ], [ "History of immunology", "Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915) was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1908 for his contributions to immunology.Immunology is a science that examines the structure and function of the immune system.", "It originates from medicine and early studies on the causes of immunity to disease.", "The earliest known reference to immunity was during the plague of Athens in 430 BC.", "Thucydides noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time.", "In the 18th century, Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis experimented with scorpion venom and observed that certain dogs and mice were immune to this venom.", "In the 10th century, Persian physician al-Razi (also known as Rhazes) wrote the first recorded theory of acquired immunity, noting that a smallpox bout protected its survivors from future infections.", "Although he explained the immunity in terms of \"excess moisture\" being expelled from the blood—therefore preventing a second occurrence of the disease—this theory explained many observations about smallpox known during this time.These and other observations of acquired immunity were later exploited by Louis Pasteur in his development of vaccination and his proposed germ theory of disease.", "Pasteur's theory was in direct opposition to contemporary theories of disease, such as the miasma theory.", "It was not until Robert Koch's 1891 proofs, for which he was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1905, that microorganisms were confirmed as the cause of infectious disease.", "Viruses were confirmed as human pathogens in 1901, with the discovery of the yellow fever virus by Walter Reed.Immunology made a great advance towards the end of the 19th century, through rapid developments in the study of humoral immunity and cellular immunity.", "Particularly important was the work of Paul Ehrlich, who proposed the side-chain theory to explain the specificity of the antigen-antibody reaction; his contributions to the understanding of humoral immunity were recognized by the award of a joint Nobel Prize in 1908, along with the founder of cellular immunology, Elie Metchnikoff.", "In 1974, Niels Kaj Jerne developed the immune network theory; he shared a Nobel Prize in 1984 with Georges J. F. Köhler and César Milstein for theories related to the immune system." ], [ "See also", "* Fc receptor* Immunostimulator* List of distinct cell types in the adult human body* Neuroimmune system* Original antigenic sin – when the immune system uses immunological memory upon encountering a slightly different pathogen * Plant disease resistance* Polyclonal response* Tumor antigens" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* (The book's sources are only online.)", "A popular science explanation of the immune system." ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Immunology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Immunology''' is a branch of biology and medicine that covers the study of immune systems in all organisms.Immunology charts, measures, and contextualizes the physiological functioning of the immune system in states of both health and diseases; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders (such as autoimmune diseases, hypersensitivities, immune deficiency, and transplant rejection); and the physical, chemical, and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system ''in vitro'', ''in situ'', and ''in vivo''.", "Immunology has applications in numerous disciplines of medicine, particularly in the fields of organ transplantation, oncology, rheumatology, virology, bacteriology, parasitology, psychiatry, and dermatology.The term was coined by Russian biologist Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, who advanced studies on immunology and received the Nobel Prize for his work in 1908 with Paul Ehrlich \"in recognition of their work on immunity\".", "He pinned small thorns into starfish larvae and noticed unusual cells surrounding the thorns.", "This was the active response of the body trying to maintain its integrity.", "It was Mechnikov who first observed the phenomenon of phagocytosis, in which the body defends itself against a foreign body.", "Ehrlich accustomed mice to the poisons ricin and abrin.", "After feeding them with small but increasing dosages of ricin he ascertained that they had become \"ricin-proof\".", "Ehrlich interpreted this as immunization and observed that it was abruptly initiated after a few days and was still in existence after several months.Prior to the designation of immunity, from the etymological root , which is Latin for 'exempt', early physicians characterized organs that would later be proven as essential components of the immune system.", "The important lymphoid organs of the immune system are the thymus, bone marrow, and chief lymphatic tissues such as spleen, tonsils, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, adenoids, and liver.", "However, many components of the immune system are cellular in nature, and not associated with specific organs, but rather embedded or circulating in various tissues located throughout the body." ], [ "Classical immunology", "Classical immunology ties in with the fields of epidemiology and medicine.", "It studies the relationship between the body systems, pathogens, and immunity.", "The earliest written mention of immunity can be traced back to the plague of Athens in 430 BCE.", "Thucydides noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time.", "Many other ancient societies have references to this phenomenon, but it was not until the 19th and 20th centuries before the concept developed into scientific theory.The study of the molecular and cellular components that comprise the immune system, including their function and interaction, is the central science of immunology.", "The immune system has been divided into a more primitive innate immune system and, in vertebrates, an acquired or adaptive immune system.", "The latter is further divided into humoral (or antibody) and cell-mediated components.The immune system has the capability of self and non-self-recognition.", "An antigen is a substance that ignites the immune response.", "The cells involved in recognizing the antigen are Lymphocytes.", "Once they recognize, they secrete antibodies.", "Antibodies are proteins that neutralize the disease-causing microorganisms.", "Antibodies do not directly kill pathogens, but instead, identify antigens as targets for destruction by other immune cells such as phagocytes or NK cells.The (antibody) response is defined as the interaction between antibodies and antigens.", "Antibodies are specific proteins released from a certain class of immune cells known as B lymphocytes, while antigens are defined as anything that elicits the generation of antibodies ('''anti'''body '''gen'''erators).", "Immunology rests on an understanding of the properties of these two biological entities and the cellular response to both.It is now getting clear that the immune responses contribute to the development of many common disorders not traditionally viewed as immunologic, including metabolic, cardiovascular, cancer, and neurodegenerative conditions like Alzheimer's disease.", "Besides, there are direct implications of the immune system in the infectious diseases (tuberculosis, malaria, hepatitis, pneumonia, dysentery, and helminth infestations) as well.", "Hence, research in the field of immunology is of prime importance for the advancements in the fields of modern medicine, biomedical research, and biotechnology.Immunological research continues to become more specialized, pursuing non-classical models of immunity and functions of cells, organs and systems not previously associated with the immune system (Yemeserach 2010)." ], [ "Diagnostic immunology", "The specificity of the bond between antibody and antigen has made the antibody an excellent tool for the detection of substances by a variety of diagnostic techniques.", "Antibodies specific for a desired antigen can be conjugated with an isotopic (radio) or fluorescent label or with a color-forming enzyme in order to detect it.", "However, the similarity between some antigens can lead to false positives and other errors in such tests by antibodies cross-reacting with antigens that are not exact matches." ], [ "Immunotherapy", "The use of immune system components or antigens to treat a disease or disorder is known as immunotherapy.", "Immunotherapy is most commonly used to treat allergies, autoimmune disorders such as Crohn's disease, Hashimoto's thyroiditis and rheumatoid arthritis, and certain cancers.", "Immunotherapy is also often used for patients who are immunosuppressed (such as those with HIV) and people with other immune deficiencies.This includes regulating factors such as IL-2, IL-10, GM-CSF B, IFN-α." ], [ "Clinical immunology", "Clinical immunology is the study of diseases caused by disorders of the immune system (failure, aberrant action, and malignant growth of the cellular elements of the system).", "It also involves diseases of other systems, where immune reactions play a part in the pathology and clinical features.The diseases caused by disorders of the immune system fall into two broad categories:* immunodeficiency, in which parts of the immune system fail to provide an adequate response (examples include chronic granulomatous disease and primary immune diseases);* autoimmunity, in which the immune system attacks its own host's body (examples include systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, Hashimoto's disease and myasthenia gravis).Other immune system disorders include various hypersensitivities (such as in asthma and other allergies) that respond inappropriately to otherwise harmless compounds.The most well-known disease that affects the immune system itself is AIDS, an immunodeficiency characterized by the suppression of CD4+ (\"helper\") T cells, dendritic cells and macrophages by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).Clinical immunologists also study ways to prevent the immune system's attempts to destroy allografts (transplant rejection).Clinical immunology and allergy is usually a subspecialty of internal medicine or pediatrics.", "Fellows in Clinical Immunology are typically exposed to many of the different aspects of the specialty and treat allergic conditions, primary immunodeficiencies and systemic autoimmune and autoinflammatory conditions.", "As part of their training fellows may do additional rotations in rheumatology, pulmonology, otorhinolaryngology, dermatology and the immunologic lab.===Clinical and pathology immunology===When health conditions worsen to emergency status, portions of immune system organs, including the thymus, spleen, bone marrow, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic tissues, can be surgically excised for examination while patients are still alive." ], [ "Theoretical immunology", "Immunology is strongly experimental in everyday practice but is also characterized by an ongoing theoretical attitude.", "Many theories have been suggested in immunology from the end of the nineteenth century up to the present time.", "The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century saw a battle between \"cellular\" and \"humoral\" theories of immunity.", "According to the cellular theory of immunity, represented in particular by Elie Metchnikoff, it was cells – more precisely, phagocytes – that were responsible for immune responses.", "In contrast, the humoral theory of immunity, held by Robert Koch and Emil von Behring, among others, stated that the active immune agents were soluble components (molecules) found in the organism's \"humors\" rather than its cells.In the mid-1950s, Macfarlane Burnet, inspired by a suggestion made by Niels Jerne, formulated the clonal selection theory (CST) of immunity.", "On the basis of CST, Burnet developed a theory of how an immune response is triggered according to the self/nonself distinction: \"self\" constituents (constituents of the body) do not trigger destructive immune responses, while \"nonself\" entities (e.g., pathogens, an allograft) trigger a destructive immune response.", "The theory was later modified to reflect new discoveries regarding histocompatibility or the complex \"two-signal\" activation of T cells.", "The self/nonself theory of immunity and the self/nonself vocabulary have been criticized, but remain very influential.More recently, several theoretical frameworks have been suggested in immunology, including \"autopoietic\" views, \"cognitive immune\" views, the \"danger model\" (or \"danger theory\"), and the \"discontinuity\" theory.", "The danger model, suggested by Polly Matzinger and colleagues, has been very influential, arousing many comments and discussions." ], [ "Developmental immunology", "The body's capability to react to antigens depends on a person's age, antigen type, maternal factors and the area where the antigen is presented.", "Neonates are said to be in a state of physiological immunodeficiency, because both their innate and adaptive immunological responses are greatly suppressed.", "Once born, a child's immune system responds favorably to protein antigens while not as well to glycoproteins and polysaccharides.", "In fact, many of the infections acquired by neonates are caused by low virulence organisms like ''Staphylococcus'' and ''Pseudomonas''.", "In neonates, opsonic activity and the ability to activate the complement cascade is very limited.", "For example, the mean level of C3 in a newborn is approximately 65% of that found in the adult.", "Phagocytic activity is also greatly impaired in newborns.", "This is due to lower opsonic activity, as well as diminished up-regulation of integrin and selectin receptors, which limit the ability of neutrophils to interact with adhesion molecules in the endothelium.", "Their monocytes are slow and have a reduced ATP production, which also limits the newborn's phagocytic activity.", "Although, the number of total lymphocytes is significantly higher than in adults, the cellular and humoral immunity is also impaired.", "Antigen-presenting cells in newborns have a reduced capability to activate T cells.", "Also, T cells of a newborn proliferate poorly and produce very small amounts of cytokines like IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-12, and IFN-g which limits their capacity to activate the humoral response as well as the phagocitic activity of macrophage.", "B cells develop early during gestation but are not fully active.Artist's impression of monocytesMaternal factors also play a role in the body's immune response.", "At birth, most of the immunoglobulin present is maternal IgG.", "These antibodies are transferred from the placenta to the fetus using the FcRn (neonatal Fc receptor).", "Because IgM, IgD, IgE and IgA do not cross the placenta, they are almost undetectable at birth.", "Some IgA is provided by breast milk.", "These passively-acquired antibodies can protect the newborn for up to 18 months, but their response is usually short-lived and of low affinity.", "These antibodies can also produce a negative response.", "If a child is exposed to the antibody for a particular antigen before being exposed to the antigen itself then the child will produce a dampened response.", "Passively acquired maternal antibodies can suppress the antibody response to active immunization.", "Similarly, the response of T-cells to vaccination differs in children compared to adults, and vaccines that induce Th1 responses in adults do not readily elicit these same responses in neonates.", "Between six and nine months after birth, a child's immune system begins to respond more strongly to glycoproteins, but there is usually no marked improvement in their response to polysaccharides until they are at least one year old.", "This can be the reason for distinct time frames found in vaccination schedules.During adolescence, the human body undergoes various physical, physiological and immunological changes triggered and mediated by hormones, of which the most significant in females is 17-β-estradiol (an estrogen) and, in males, is testosterone.", "Estradiol usually begins to act around the age of 10 and testosterone some months later.", "There is evidence that these steroids not only act directly on the primary and secondary sexual characteristics but also have an effect on the development and regulation of the immune system, including an increased risk in developing pubescent and post-pubescent autoimmunity.", "There is also some evidence that cell surface receptors on B cells and macrophages may detect sex hormones in the system.The female sex hormone 17-β-estradiol has been shown to regulate the level of immunological response, while some male androgens such as testosterone seem to suppress the stress response to infection.", "Other androgens, however, such as DHEA, increase immune response.", "As in females, the male sex hormones seem to have more control of the immune system during puberty and post-puberty than during the rest of a male's adult life.Physical changes during puberty such as thymic involution also affect immunological response." ], [ "Ecoimmunology and behavioural immunity", "Ecoimmunology, or ecological immunology, explores the relationship between the immune system of an organism and its social, biotic and abiotic environment.More recent ecoimmunological research has focused on host pathogen defences traditionally considered \"non-immunological\", such as pathogen avoidance, self-medication, symbiont-mediated defenses, and fecundity trade-offs.", "Behavioural immunity, a phrase coined by Mark Schaller, specifically refers to psychological pathogen avoidance drivers, such as disgust aroused by stimuli encountered around pathogen-infected individuals, such as the smell of vomit.", "More broadly, \"behavioural\" ecological immunity has been demonstrated in multiple species.", "For example, the Monarch butterfly often lays its eggs on certain toxic milkweed species when infected with parasites.", "These toxins reduce parasite growth in the offspring of the infected Monarch.", "However, when uninfected Monarch butterflies are forced to feed only on these toxic plants, they suffer a fitness cost as reduced lifespan relative to other uninfected Monarch butterflies.", "This indicates that laying eggs on toxic plants is a costly behaviour in Monarchs which has probably evolved to reduce the severity of parasite infection.Symbiont-mediated defenses are also heritable across host generations, despite a non-genetic direct basis for the transmission.", "Aphids, for example, rely on several different symbionts for defense from key parasites, and can vertically transmit their symbionts from parent to offspring.", "Therefore, a symbiont that successfully confers protection from a parasite is more likely to be passed to the host offspring, allowing coevolution with parasites attacking the host in a way similar to traditional immunity.The preserved immune tissues of extinct species, such as the thylacine (''Thylacine cynocephalus''), can also provide insights into their biology." ], [ "Cancer immunology", "The study of the interaction of the immune system with cancer cells can lead to diagnostic tests and therapies with which to find and fight cancer.", "The immunology concerned with physiological reaction characteristic of the immune state." ], [ "Reproductive immunology", "This area of the immunology is devoted to the study of immunological aspects of the reproductive process including fetus acceptance.", "The term has also been used by fertility clinics to address fertility problems, recurrent miscarriages, premature deliveries and dangerous complications such as pre-eclampsia." ], [ "See also", "* List of immunologists* Immunomics* ''International Reviews of Immunology''* Outline of immunology* History of immunology* Osteoimmunology" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** American Association of Immunologists* British Society for Immunology* Federation of Clinical Immunology Societies" ] ]
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[ [ "IPA" ], [ "Introduction", "'''IPA''' commonly refers to:* India pale ale, a style of beer* International Phonetic Alphabet, a system of phonetic notation* Isopropyl alcohol, a chemical compound'''IPA''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Organizations", "===International===* Insolvency Practitioners Association, of the UK and Ireland* Institute of Public Administration (disambiguation)* International Permafrost Association* International Phonetic Association, behind the International Phonetic Alphabet* International Play Association* International Police Association* International Polka Association* International Presentation Association, network of Presentation Sisters* International Psychoanalytical Association* International Publishers Association, representing book and journal publishing===Australia===* Institute of Public Accountants* Institute of Public Affairs===India===* Indian Pharmacist Association* Indian Polo Association===United Kingdom===* Infrastructure and Projects Authority* Institute of Practitioners in Advertising* Involvement and Participation Association, for employee involvement in the workplace===United States===* Independence Party of America* Independent Pilots Association* Independent practice association, of physicians* Innovations for Poverty Action* Innovative Products of America, a tool manufacturer* Institute for Propaganda Analysis* Island Pacific Academy, Hawaii===Other===* Independent Psychiatric Association of Russia* Institute of Public Affairs, Poland* Instituto Superior Autónomo de Estudos Politécnicos, Portugal" ], [ "Science", "* 3-Indolepropionic acid, a biological substance* ''Ipa'' (spider), a genus of spiders" ], [ "Technology", "* .ipa, extension for Apple iOS applications* \"Identity, Policy, and Audit\", as in FreeIPA* Intermediate power amplifier of a radio transmitter" ], [ "Other uses", "* Important Plant Areas, a UK programme* Indigenous Protected Area, Australia* Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance, EU funding programme* Interpretative phenomenological analysis to psychological qualitative research* Investigatory Powers Act 2016, a piece of UK legislation" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ice beer" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ice beer''' is a beer that has undergone some degree of freezing during production.", "These beers generally have a higher alcohol content, and lower price relative to it.The process of \"icing\" beer involves lowering the temperature until ice crystals form.", "Since ethanol has a much lower freezing point (-114 °C; -173.2 °F) than water (0 °C; 32 °F), when the ice is removed the alcohol concentration of the beer increases.", "The process is known as fractional freezing or freeze distillation." ], [ "History", "Eisbock beer (12% alcohol) created via freeze distillation of doppelbock beer.", "Barrels of beer were originally left outdoors to partially freeze, then the ice removed.Ice beer was developed by brewing a strong, dark lager, then freezing the beer and removing some of the ice.", "This concentrates the aroma and taste of the beer, and also raises the alcoholic strength of the finished beer.", "This produces a beer with 12 to 15 per cent alcohol.", "In North America, water would be added to lower the alcohol level.Eisbock was introduced to Canada in 1989 by the microbrewery Niagara Falls Brewing Company.", "The brewers started with a strong dark lager (15.3 degrees Plato/1.061 original gravity, 6% alcohol by volume), then used the traditional method of freezing and removing ice to concentrate aroma and flavours while increasing the alcoholic strength to 8% ABV.", "Niagara Falls Eisbock was released annually as a seasonal winter beer; each year the label would feature a different historic view of nearby Niagara Falls in winter.", "This continued each year until the company was sold in 1994.Despite this precedent, the large Canadian brewer Molson (now part of Molson Coors) claimed to have made the first ice beer in North America when it introduced ''Canadian Ice'' in April 1993.However, Molson's main competitor in Canada, Labatt (now part of Anheuser-Busch InBev), claimed to have patented the ice beer process earlier.", "When Labatt introduced an ice beer in August 1993, capturing a 10% market share in Canada, this instigated the so-called \"Ice Beer Wars\" of the 1990s.Labatt had patented a specific method for making ice beer in 1997, 1998 and 2000, \"A process for chill-treating, which is exemplified by a process for preparing a fermented malt beverage wherein brewing materials are mashed with water and the resulting mash is heated and wort separated therefrom.", "The wort is boiled cooled and fermented, and the beer is subjected to a finishing stage, which includes aging, to produce the final beverage.", "The improvement comprises subjecting the beer to a cold stage comprising rapidly cooling the beer to a temperature of about its freezing point in such a manner that ice crystals are formed therein in only minimal amounts.", "The resulting cooled beer is then mixed for a short period of time with a beer slurry containing ice crystals, without any appreciable collateral increase in the amount of ice crystals in the resulting mixture.", "Finally, the so-treated beer is extracted from the mixture.", "\"Miller acquired the U.S. marketing and distribution rights to Molson's products, and first introduced the Molson product in the United States in August 1993 as ''Molson Ice''.", "Miller also introduced the ''Icehouse'' brand under the ''Plank Road Brewery'' brand name shortly thereafter, and it is still sold nationwide.Anheuser-Busch introduced ''Bud Ice'' (5.5% ABV) in 1994, and it remains one of the country's top selling ice beers.", "''Bud Ice'' has a somewhat lower alcohol content than most other ice beer brands.", "In 1995, Anheuser-Busch also introduced two other major brands: ''Busch Ice'' (5.9% ABV, introduced 1995) and ''Natural Ice'' (also 5.9% ABV, also introduced in 1995).", "''Natural Ice'' is the No.", "1 selling ice beer brand in the United States; its low price makes it very popular on college campuses all over the country.", "Keystone Ice, a value-based subdivision of Coors, also produces a 5.9% ABV brew labeled ''Keystone Ice''.Common ice beer brands in Canada in 2017, with approximately 5.5 to 6 per cent alcohol content, include Carling Ice, Molson Keystone Ice, Molson's Black Ice, Busch Ice, Old Milwaukee Ice, Brick's Laker Ice and Labatt Ice.", "There is a Labatt Maximum Ice too, with 7.1 per cent alcohol." ], [ "Characteristics and regulation", "The ice beers are typically known for their high alcohol-to-price ratio.", "In some areas, a substantial number of ice beer products are considered to often be bought by \"street drunks,\" and are prohibited for sale.", "For example, most of the products that are explicitly listed as prohibited in the beer and malt liquor category in the Seattle area are ice beers." ], [ "See also", "* Applejack (drink)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Identity element" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, an '''identity element''' or '''neutral element''' of a binary operation is an element that leaves unchanged every element when the operation is applied.", "For example, 0 is an identity element of the addition of real numbers.", "This concept is used in algebraic structures such as groups and rings.", "The term ''identity element'' is often shortened to ''identity'' (as in the case of additive identity and multiplicative identity) when there is no possibility of confusion, but the identity implicitly depends on the binary operation it is associated with." ], [ "Definitions", "Let be a set  equipped with a binary operation ∗.", "Then an element  of  is called a if for all  in , and a if for all  in .", "If is both a left identity and a right identity, then it is called a '''''', or simply an ''''''.An identity with respect to addition is called an (often denoted as 0) and an identity with respect to multiplication is called a '''''' (often denoted as 1).", "These need not be ordinary addition and multiplication—as the underlying operation could be rather arbitrary.", "In the case of a group for example, the identity element is sometimes simply denoted by the symbol .", "The distinction between additive and multiplicative identity is used most often for sets that support both binary operations, such as rings, integral domains, and fields.", "The multiplicative identity is often called '''''' in the latter context (a ring with unity).", "This should not be confused with a unit in ring theory, which is any element having a multiplicative inverse.", "By its own definition, unity itself is necessarily a unit." ], [ "Examples", " Set Operation Identity Real numbers + (addition) 0 · (multiplication) 1 Complex numbers + (addition) 0· (multiplication) 1 Positive integers Least common multiple 1 Non-negative integers Greatest common divisor 0 (under most definitions of GCD) Vectors Vector addition Zero vector -by- matrices Matrix addition Zero matrix -by- square matrices Matrix multiplication ''I''''n'' (identity matrix) -by- matrices ○ (Hadamard product) (matrix of ones) All functions from a set, , to itself ∘ (function composition) Identity function All distributions on a group,  ∗ (convolution) (Dirac delta) Extended real numbers Minimum/infimum +∞ Maximum/supremum −∞ Subsets of a set  ∩ (intersection) ∪ (union) ∅ (empty set) Strings, lists Concatenation Empty string, empty list A Boolean algebra ∧ (logical and) ⊤ (truth) ↔ (logical biconditional) ⊤ (truth) ∨ (logical or) ⊥ (falsity) ⊕ (exclusive or) ⊥ (falsity) Knots Knot sum Unknot Compact surfaces # (connected sum) ''S''2 Groups Direct product Trivial group Two elements, ∗ defined by and Both and are left identities, but there is no right identity and no two-sided identity Homogeneous relations on a set ''X'' Relative product Identity relation Relational algebra Natural join (⋈) The unique relation degree zero and cardinality one" ], [ "Properties", "In the example ''S'' = {''e,f''} with the equalities given, ''S'' is a semigroup.", "It demonstrates the possibility for to have several left identities.", "In fact, every element can be a left identity.", "In a similar manner, there can be several right identities.", "But if there is both a right identity and a left identity, then they must be equal, resulting in a single two-sided identity.", "To see this, note that if is a left identity and is a right identity, then .", "In particular, there can never be more than one two-sided identity: if there were two, say and , then would have to be equal to both and .It is also quite possible for to have ''no'' identity element, such as the case of even integers under the multiplication operation.", "Another common example is the cross product of vectors, where the absence of an identity element is related to the fact that the direction of any nonzero cross product is always orthogonal to any element multiplied.", "That is, it is not possible to obtain a non-zero vector in the same direction as the original.", "Yet another example of structure without identity element involves the additive semigroup of positive natural numbers." ], [ "See also", "* Absorbing element* Additive inverse* Generalized inverse* Identity (equation)* Identity function* Inverse element* Monoid* Pseudo-ring* Quasigroup* Unital (disambiguation)" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* M. Kilp, U. Knauer, A.V.", "Mikhalev, ''Monoids, Acts and Categories with Applications to Wreath Products and Graphs'', De Gruyter Expositions in Mathematics vol.", "29, Walter de Gruyter, 2000, , p. 14–15" ] ]
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[ [ "Instrumental" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''instrumental''' or '''instrumental song''' is music normally without any vocals, although it might include some inarticulate vocals, such as shouted backup vocals in a big band setting.", "Through semantic widening, a broader sense of the word song may refer to instrumentals.", "The music is primarily or exclusively produced using musical instruments.", "An instrumental can exist in music notation, after it is written by a composer; in the mind of the composer (especially in cases where the composer themselves will perform the piece, as in the case of a blues solo guitarist or a folk music fiddle player); as a piece that is performed live by a single instrumentalist or a musical ensemble, which could range in components from a duo or trio to a large big band, concert band or orchestra.In a song that is otherwise sung, a section that is not sung but which is played by instruments can be called an '''instrumental interlude''', or, if it occurs at the beginning of the song, before the singer starts to sing, an instrumental introduction.", "If the instrumental section highlights the skill, musicality, and often the virtuosity of a particular performer (or group of performers), the section may be called a \"solo\" (e.g., the guitar solo that is a key section of heavy metal music and hard rock songs).", "If the instruments are percussion instruments, the interlude can be called a percussion interlude or \"percussion break\".", "These interludes are a form of break in the song." ], [ "In popular music", "Example from Free Music Archive, Steve Combs & Delta Is - \"Theme Q\",bass, drum, guitar, keyboard,4 min 53 s In commercial popular music, instrumental tracks are sometimes renderings, remixes of a corresponding release that features vocals, but they may also be compositions originally conceived without vocals.", "One example of a genre in which both vocal/instrumental and solely instrumental songs are produced is blues.", "A blues band often uses mostly songs that have lyrics that are sung, but during the band's show, they may also perform instrumental songs which only include electric guitar, harmonica, upright bass/electric bass and drum kit." ], [ "Number-one instrumentals", " Title Artist Country Reached number-one\"Frenesi\"Artie ShawUS1940\"Song of the Volga Boatmen\"Glenn MillerUS1941Piano Concerto in B FlatFreddy MartinUS1941\"A String of Pearls\"Glenn MillerUS1942\"Moonlight Cocktail\"Glenn MillerUS1942\"Heartaches\"Ted WeemsUS1947\"Twelfth Street Rag\"Pee Wee HuntUS1948\"Blue Tango\"Leroy AndersonUS1952\"The Song from Moulin Rouge\"MantovaniUK1953\"\"Eddie CalvertUK1954\"Let's Have Another Party\"Winifred AtwellUK1954\"Cherry Pink (and Apple Blossom White)\"Pérez PradoUK1955\"Cherry Pink (and Apple Blossom White)\"Pérez PradoUS1955\"Cherry Pink (and Apple Blossom White)\"Eddie CalvertUK1955\"Cherry Pink (and Apple Blossom White)\"Pérez PradoGermany1955\"Autumn Leaves\"Roger WilliamsUS1955\"\"Nelson RiddleUS1956\"The Poor People of Paris\"Les BaxterUS1956\"The Poor People of Paris\"Winifred AtwellUK1956\"Moonglow and Theme from ''Picnic''\"Morris StoloffUS1956\"Tequila\"The ChampsUS1958\"Patricia\"Pérez PradoUS1958\"Patricia\"Pérez PradoGermany1958\"Hoots Mon\"Lord Rockingham's XIUK1958\"Side Saddle\"Russ ConwayUK1959\"The Happy Organ\"Dave \"Baby\" CortezUS1959\"Roulette\"Russ ConwayUK1959\"Sleep Walk\"Santo & JohnnyUS1959\"Theme from ''A Summer Place''\"Percy FaithUS1960\"Apache\"The ShadowsUK1960\"Wonderland by Night\"Bert KaempfertUS1961\"Calcutta\"Lawrence WelkUS1961\"On the Rebound\"Floyd CramerUK1961\"Kon-Tiki\"The ShadowsUK1961\"Mexico\"Bob MooreGermany1962\"Wonderful Land\"The ShadowsUK1962\"Nut Rocker\"B. Bumble and the StingersUK1962\"Stranger on the Shore\"Acker BilkUS/UK1962\"The Stripper\"David RoseUS1962\"Telstar\"The TornadosUK1962\"Telstar\"The TornadosUS1962\"Dance On!", "\"The ShadowsUK1963\"Diamonds\"Jet Harris and Tony MeehanUK1963\"Telstar\"The TornadosFrance1963\"Foot Tapper\"The ShadowsUK1963\"\"Nini RossoGermany1965\"A Taste of Honey\"Herb Alpert & The Tijuana BrassUS1965\"Love is Blue\"Paul MauriatUS1968\"The Good, the Bad and the Ugly\"Hugo MontenegroUS1968\"Grazing in the Grass\"Hugh MasekelaUS1968\"The Good, the Bad and the Ugly\"Hugo Montenegro, his Orchestra and ChorusUK1968\"Albatross\"Fleetwood MacUK1969\"Love Theme from ''Romeo and Juliet''\"Henry ManciniUS1969\"Amazing Grace\"Royal Scots Dragoon GuardsUK1972\"Popcorn\"Hot ButterFrance1972\"Mouldy Old Dough\"Lieutenant PigeonUK1972\"Frankenstein\"The Edgar Winter GroupUS1973\"Eye Level\"Simon Park OrchestraUK1973\"Love's Theme\"The Love Unlimited OrchestraUS1974\"TSOP (The Sound of Philadelphia)\"MFSB featuring The Three DegreesUS1974\"Pick Up the Pieces\"Average White BandUS1975\"The Hustle\"Van McCoy and the Soul City SymphonyUS1975\"Fly, Robin, Fly\"Silver ConventionUS1975\"Theme from ''S.W.A.T.", "''\"Rhythm HeritageUS1976\"A Fifth of Beethoven\"Walter MurphyUS1976\"Gonna Fly Now\"Bill ContiUS1977\"Star Wars Theme/Cantina Band\"MecoUS1977\"Rise\"Herb AlpertUS1979\"One Step Beyond\"MadnessFrance1980\"Chariots of Fire\"VangelisUS1982\"''Miami Vice'' Theme\"Jan HammerUS1985\"Song of Ocarina\"Jean-Philippe Audin and Diego ModenaFrance1992\"Doop\"DoopUK1994\"The X-Files\"Mark SnowFrance1996\"Flat Beat\"Mr. OizoUK1999\"Bromance\"Tim Berg (Avicii)Belgium (Flanders)2010\"Harlem Shake\"BaauerAustralia/New Zealand2013\"Harlem Shake\"BaauerUS2013\"Animals\"Martin GarrixBelgium (Flanders)2013\"Animals\"Martin GarrixBelgium (Wallonia)2013\"Animals\"Martin GarrixScotland/UK2013" ], [ "Borderline cases", "Some recordings which include brief or non-musical use of the human voice are typically considered instrumentals.", "Examples include songs with the following:* Short verbal interjections (as in \"Tequila\", \"Topsy\", \"Wipe Out\", \"The Hustle\", or \"Bentley's Gonna Sort You Out\")* Repetitive nonsense words (e.g., \"la la...\" (as in \"Calcutta\") or \"Woo Hoo\")* Non-musical spoken passages in the background of the track (e.g., \"To Live Is to Die\" by Metallica or \"Wasteland\" by Chelsea Grin)* Wordless vocal effects, such as drones (e.g., \"Rockit\" or \"Flying\")* Vocal percussion, such as beatbox B-sides on rap singles* Yelling (e.g.", "\"Cry for a Shadow\")* Yodeling (e.g., \"Hocus Pocus\")* Whistling (e.g., \"I Was Kaiser Bill's Batman\" or \"Colonel Bogey March\")* Spoken statements at the end of the track (e.g., \"God Bless the Children of the Beast\" by Mötley Crüe or \"For the Love of God\" by Steve Vai)* Non-musical vocal recordings taken from other media (e.g., \"Vampires\" by Godsmack)* Field recordings which may or may not contain non-lyrical words (e.g., many songs by Godspeed You!", "Black Emperor and other post-rock bands)Songs including actual musical—rhythmic, melodic, and lyrical—vocals might still be categorized as instrumentals if the vocals appear only as a short part of an extended piece (e.g., \"Unchained Melody\" (Les Baxter), \"Batman Theme\", \"TSOP (The Sound of Philadelphia)\", \"Pick Up the Pieces\", \"The Hustle\", \"Fly, Robin, Fly\", \"Get Up and Boogie\", \"Do It Any Way You Wanna\", and \"Gonna Fly Now\"), though this definition is loose and subjective.Falling just outside of that definition is \"Theme from ''Shaft''\" by Isaac Hayes.", "\"Better Off Alone\", which began as an instrumental by DJ Jurgen, had vocals by Judith Pronk, who would become a seminal part of Alice Deejay, added in later releases of the track." ], [ "See also", "* A cappella, vocal music or singing without instrumental accompaniment* Backing track, a pre-recorded music that singers sing along to or a karaoke without vocals* Beautiful music* Easy listening* Instrumental hip hop* Instrumental rock* Medley* List of rock instrumentals* Post-rock* Smooth jazz" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Regular icosahedron" ], [ "Introduction", "In geometry, the '''regular icosahedron''' (or simply ''icosahedron'') is convex polyhedron that can be constructed from pentagonal antiprism by attaching two pentagonal pyramids with regular faces to each of its pentagonal faces, or by putting points onto the cube.", "The resulting polyhedron has 20 equilateral triangles as its faces, 30 edges, and 12 vertices.", "It is an example of the Platonic solid and of the deltahedron.", "The icosahedral graph represents the skeleton of a regular icosahedron.Many polyhedrons are constructed from the regular icosahedron.", "For example, most of the Kepler–Poinsot polyhedron is constructed by faceting.", "Some of the Johnson solids can be constructed by removing the pentagonal pyramids.", "The regular icosahedron has many relations with other Platonic solids, one of them is the regular dodecahedron as its dual polyhedron and has the historical background on the comparison mensuration.", "It also has many relations with other polytopes.The appearance of regular icosahedron can be found in nature, such as the virus with icosahedral-shaped shells and radiolarians.", "Other applications of the regular icosahedron are the usage of its net in cartography, twenty-sided dice in both ancient times and Role-playing games." ], [ "Construction", "The regular icosahedron can be constructed like other gyroelongated bipyramids, started from a pentagonal antiprism by attaching two pentagonal pyramids with regular faces to each of its faces.", "These pyramids cover the pentagonal faces, replacing them with five equilateral triangles, such that the resulting polyhedron has 20 equilateral triangles as its faces.", "This process construction is known as the gyroelongation, so the resulting polyhedron is also called '''gyroelongated pentagonal bipyramid'''..Three mutually perpendicular golden ratio rectangles, with edges connecting their corners, form a regular icosahedron.Another way to construct it is by putting two points on each surface of a cube.", "In each face, draw a segment line between the midpoints of two opposite edges and locate two points with the golden ratio distance from each midpoint.", "These twelve vertices describe the three mutually perpendicular planes, with edges drawn between each of them.", "Because of the constructions above, the regular icosahedron is Platonic solid, a family of polyhedra with regular faces.", "A polyhedron with only equilateral triangles as faces is called a deltahedron.", "There are only eight different convex deltahedra, one of which is the regular icosahedron.One possible system of Cartesian coordinate for the vertices of a regular icosahedron, giving the edge length 2, is:where denotes the golden ratio." ], [ "Properties", "=== Mensuration ===3D model of a regular icosahedronThe insphere of a convex polyhedron is a sphere inside the polyhedron, touching every its face.", "The circumsphere of a convex polyhedron is a sphere that contains the polyhedron and touches every edge.", "The midsphere of a convex polyhedron is a sphere tangent to its every edge.", "Therefore, given that the edge length of a regular icosahedron, the radius of insphere (inradius) , the radius of circumsphere (circumradius) , and the radius of midsphere (midradius) are, respectively:The surface area of polyhedra is the sum of its every face.", "Therefore, the surface area of regular icosahedra equals the area of 20 equilateral triangles.", "The volume of a regular icosahedron is obtained by calculating the volume of all pyramids with the base of triangular faces and the height with the distance from a triangular face's centroid to the center inside the regular icosahedron, the circumradius of a regular icosahedron.A problem dating back to the ancient Greeks is determining which of two shapes has a larger volume, an icosahedron inscribed in a sphere, or a dodecahedron inscribed in the same sphere.", "The problem was solved by Hero, Pappus, and Fibonacci, among others.", "Apollonius of Perga discovered the curious result that the ratio of volumes of these two shapes is the same as the ratio of their surface areas.", "Both volumes have formulas involving the golden ratio, but taken to different powers.", "As it turns out, the icosahedron occupies less of the sphere's volume (60.54%) than the dodecahedron (66.49%).The dihedral angle of a regular icosahedron can be calculated by adding the angle of pentagonal pyramids with regular faces and a pentagonal antiprism.", "The dihedral angle of a pentagonal antiprism and pentagonal pyramid between two adjacent triangular faces are approximately .", "The dihedral angle of a pentagonal antiprism between pentagon-to-triangle is , and the dihedral angle of a pentagonal pyramid between the same faces is .", "Therefore, for the regular icosahedron, the dihedral angle between two adjacent triangles, on the edge where the pentagonal pyramid and pentagonal antiprism are attached is .=== Symmetry ===Full Icosahedral symmetry has 15 mirror planes (seen as cyan great circles on this sphere) meeting at order angles, dividing a sphere into 120 triangle fundamental domains.", "There are 6 5-fold axes (blue), 10 3-fold axes (red), and 15 2-fold axes (magenta).", "The vertices of the regular icosahedron exist at the 5-fold rotation axis points.The rotational symmetry group of the regular icosahedron is isomorphic to the alternating group on five letters.", "This non-abelian simple group is the only non-trivial normal subgroup of the symmetric group on five letters.", "Since the Galois group of the general quintic equation is isomorphic to the symmetric group on five letters, and this normal subgroup is simple and non-abelian, the general quintic equation does not have a solution in radicals.", "The proof of the Abel–Ruffini theorem uses this simple fact, and Felix Klein wrote a book that made use of the theory of icosahedral symmetries to derive an analytical solution to the general quintic equation.The full symmetry group of the icosahedron (including reflections) is known as the full icosahedral group.", "It is isomorphic to the product of the rotational symmetry group and the group of size two, which is generated by the reflection through the center of the icosahedron." ], [ "Icosahedral graph", "Icosahedral graphAll of the Platonic graph, including '''icosahedral graph''', are polyhedral graph.", "This means that they are planar graphs, graphs that can be drawn in the plane without crossing its edges; and they are 3-vertex-connected, meaning that the removal of any two of its vertices leaves a connected subgraph.", "According to Steinitz theorem, the icosahedral graph endowed with these heretofore properties represents the skeleton of a regular icosahedron.The icosahedral graph is Hamiltonian, meaning that any vertex that passes through another one is exactly once in a cycleway." ], [ "Related polyhedra", "=== In other Platonic solids ===Aside from comparing the mensuration between the regular icosahedron and regular dodecahedron, they are dual to each other.", "An icosahedron can be inscribed in a dodecahedron by placing its vertices at the face centers of the dodecahedron, and vice versa.An icosahedron can be inscribed in an octahedron by placing its 12 vertices on the 12 edges of the octahedron such that they divide each edge into its two golden sections.", "Because the golden sections are unequal, there are five different ways to do this consistently, so five disjoint icosahedra can be inscribed in each octahedron.An icosahedron of edge length can be inscribed in a unit-edge-length cube by placing six of its edges (3 orthogonal opposite pairs) on the square faces of the cube, centered on the face centers and parallel or perpendicular to the square's edges.", "Because there are five times as many icosahedron edges as cube faces, there are five ways to do this consistently, so five disjoint icosahedra can be inscribed in each cube.", "The edge lengths of the cube and the inscribed icosahedron are in the golden ratio.=== Stellation ===The icosahedron has a large number of stellations.", "stated 59 stellations were identified for the regular icosahedron.", "The first form is the icosahedron itself.", "One is a regular Kepler–Poinsot polyhedron.", "Three are regular compound polyhedra.+ 21 of 59 stellations200pxThe faces of the icosahedron extended outwards as planes intersect, defining regions in space as shown by this stellation diagram of the intersections in a single plane.50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50px50px=== Facetings ===The small stellated dodecahedron, great dodecahedron, and great icosahedron are three facetings of the regular icosahedron.", "They share the same vertex arrangement.", "They all have 30 edges.", "The regular icosahedron and great dodecahedron share the same edge arrangement but differ in faces (triangles vs pentagons), as do the small stellated dodecahedron and great icosahedron (pentagrams vs triangles).=== Diminishment ===The Johnson solids are the polyhedron whose all of their faces are regular, but not uniform.", "This means they do not include the Archimedean solids, Catalan solids, prisms, and antiprisms.", "Some of them are constructed involving the removal of the part of a regular icosahedron, a process known as ''diminishment''.", "They are gyroelongated pentagonal pyramid, metabidiminished icosahedron, and tridiminished icosahedron, which remove one, two, and three pentagonal pyramids from the icosahedron, respectively.", "The similar dissected regular icosahedron has 2 adjacent vertices diminished, leaving two trapezoidal faces, and a bifastigium has 2 opposite sets of vertices removed and 4 trapezoidal faces.=== Relations to the 600-cell and other 4-polytopes ===The icosahedron is the dimensional analogue of the 600-cell, a regular 4-dimensional polytope.", "The 600-cell has icosahedral cross sections of two sizes, and each of its 120 vertices is an icosahedral pyramid; the icosahedron is the vertex figure of the 600-cell.The unit-radius 600-cell has tetrahedral cells of edge length , 20 of which meet at each vertex to form an icosahedral pyramid (a 4-pyramid with an icosahedron as its base).", "Thus the 600-cell contains 120 icosahedra of edge length .", "The 600-cell also contains unit-edge-length cubes and unit-edge-length octahedra as interior features formed by its unit-length chords.", "In the unit-radius 120-cell (another regular 4-polytope which is both the dual of the 600-cell and a compound of 5 600-cells) we find all three kinds of inscribed icosahedra (in a dodecahedron, in an octahedron, and in a cube).A semiregular 4-polytope, the snub 24-cell, has icosahedral cells.=== Relations to other uniform polytopes ===As has been mentioned above, the regular icosahedron is unique among the Platonic solids in possessing a dihedral angle is approximately .", "Thus, just as hexagons have angles not less than 120° and cannot be used as the faces of a convex regular polyhedron because such a construction would not meet the requirement that at least three faces meet at a vertex and leave a positive defect for folding in three dimensions, icosahedra cannot be used as the cells of a convex regular polychoron because, similarly, at least three cells must meet at an edge and leave a positive defect for folding in four dimensions (in general for a convex polytope in ''n'' dimensions, at least three facets must meet at a peak and leave a positive defect for folding in ''n''-space).", "However, when combined with suitable cells having smaller dihedral angles, icosahedra can be used as cells in semi-regular polychora (for example the snub 24-cell), just as hexagons can be used as faces in semi-regular polyhedra (for example the truncated icosahedron).", "Finally, non-convex polytopes do not carry the same strict requirements as convex polytopes, and icosahedra are indeed the cells of the icosahedral 120-cell, one of the ten non-convex regular polychora.There are distortions of the icosahedron that, while no longer regular, are nevertheless vertex-uniform.", "These are invariant under the same rotations as the tetrahedron, and are somewhat analogous to the snub cube and snub dodecahedron, including some forms which are chiral and some with Th-symmetry, i.e.", "have different planes of symmetry from the tetrahedron.=== Relation to the 6-cube and rhombic triacontahedron ===thumbThe icosahedron can be projected to 3D from the 6D 6-demicube using the same basis vectors that form the hull of the Rhombic triacontahedron from the 6-cube.", "Shown here including the inner 20 vertices which are not connected by the 30 outer hull edges of 6D norm length .", "The inner vertices form a dodecahedron.The 3D projection basis vectors u,v,w used are:" ], [ "Applications and its natural form", "Dice are the common objects with the different polyhedron, one of them is the regular icosahedron.", "This twenty-sided dice was found in many ancient times.", "One example is the dice from the Ptolemaic of Egypt, which was later the Greek letters inscribed on the faces in the period of Greece and Roman.", "Another example was found in the treasure of Tipu Sultan, which was made out of golden and with the numbers written on each face.", "In several roleplaying games, such as ''Dungeons & Dragons'', the twenty-sided die (labeled as d20) is commonly used in determining success or failure of an action.", "This die is in the form of a regular icosahedron.", "It may be numbered from \"0\" to \"9\" twice, in which form it usually serves as a ten-sided die (d10); most modern versions are labeled from \"1\" to \"20\".", "''Scattergories'' is another board game, where the player names the categories in the card with given the set time.", "The naming of such categories is initially with the letters contained in every twenty-sided dice.The regular icosahedron may also appear in many fields of biology.", "In virology, herpes virus have icosahedral shells.", "The outer protein shell of HIV is enclosed in a regular icosahedron, as is the head of a typical myovirus.", "Several species of radiolarians discovered by Ernst Haeckel, described its shells as the like-shaped various regular polyhedra; one of which is ''Circogonia icosahedra'', whose skeleton is shaped like a regular icosahedron.The closo-carboranes are chemical compounds with shape very close to icosahedron.", "Icosahedral twinning also occurs in crystals, especially nanoparticles.", "Many borides and allotropes of boron contain boron B12 icosahedron as a basic structure unit.Dymaxion map, created by the net of a regular icosahedronIn cartography, R. Buckminster Fuller used the net of a regular icosahedron to create a map known as Dymaxion map, by subdividing the net into triangles, followed by calculating the grid on the Earth's surface, and transferring the results from the sphere to the polyhedron.", "This projection was created during the time that Fuller realized that the Greenland is smaller than the South America." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * See here for an online book.", "* * * * * * , translated from * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*** K.J.M.", "MacLean, A Geometric Analysis of the Five Platonic Solids and Other Semi-Regular Polyhedra* Virtual Reality Polyhedra The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra* Tulane.edu A discussion of viral structure and the icosahedron* Origami Polyhedra – Models made with Modular Origami* Video of icosahedral mirror sculpture* Principle of virus architecture" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Industrial archaeology of Dartmoor" ], [ "Introduction", "The remains of the wheelpit at Huntingdon mine on southern DartmoorThe '''industrial archaeology of Dartmoor''' covers a number of the industries which have, over the ages, taken place on Dartmoor, and the remaining evidence surrounding them.", "Currently only three industries are economically significant, yet all three will inevitably leave their own traces on the moor: china clay mining, farming and tourism.A good general guide to the commercial activities on Dartmoor at the end of the 19th century is William Crossing's ''The Dartmoor Worker''." ], [ "Mining", "The Wheal Betsy engine houseIn former times, lead, silver, tin and copper were mined extensively on Dartmoor.", "The most obvious evidence of mining to the casual visitor to Dartmoor are the remains of the old engine-house at Wheal Betsy which is alongside the A386 road between Tavistock and Okehampton.", "The word ''Wheal'' has a particular meaning in Devon and Cornwall being either a tin or a copper mine, however in the case of Wheal Betsy it was principally lead and silver which were mined.Once widely practised by many miners across the moor, by the early 1900s only a few tinners remained, and mining had almost completely ceased twenty years later.", "Some of the more significant mines were Eylesbarrow, Knock Mine, Vitifer Mine and Hexworthy Mine.", "The last active mine in the Dartmoor area was Great Rock Mine, which shut down in 1969.One of the granite quarries near Haytor" ], [ "Quarrying", "Dartmoor granite has been used in many Devon and Cornish buildings.", "The prison at Princetown was built from granite taken from Walkhampton Common.", "When the horse tramroad from Plymouth to Princetown was completed in 1823, large quantities of granite were more easily transported.There were three major granite quarries on the moor: Haytor, Foggintor and Merrivale.", "The granite quarries around Haytor were the source of the stone used in several famous structures, including the New London Bridge, completed in 1831.This granite was transported from the moor via the Haytor Granite Tramway, stretches of which are still visible.The extensive quarries at Foggintor provided granite for the construction of London's Nelson's Column in the early 1840s, and New Scotland Yard was faced with granite from the quarry at Merrivale.", "Merrivale Quarry continued excavating and working its own granite until the 1970s, producing gravestones and agricultural rollers.", "Work at Merrivale continued until the 1990s, for the last 20 years imported stone such as gabbro from Norway and Italian marble was dressed and polished.", "The unusual pink granite at Great Trowlesworthy Tor was also quarried, and there were many other small granite quarries dotted around the moor.", "Various metamorphic rocks were also quarried in the metamorphic aureole around the edge of the moor, most notably at Meldon." ], [ "Gunpowder factory", "One of the incorporating mills at PowdermillsIn 1844 a factory for making gunpowder was built on the open moor, not far from Postbridge.", "Gunpowder was needed for the tin mines and granite quarries then in operation on the moor.", "The buildings were widely spaced from one another for safety and the mechanical power for grinding (\"incorporating\") the powder was derived from waterwheels driven by a leat.Now known as \"Powdermills\" or \"Powder Mills\", there are extensive remains of this factory still visible.", "Two chimneys still stand and the walls of the two sturdily-built incorporating mills with central waterwheels survive well: they were built with substantial walls but flimsy roofs so that in the event of an explosion, the force of the blast would be directed safely upwards.", "The ruins of a number of ancillary buildings also survive.", "A proving mortar—a type of small cannon used to gauge the strength of the gunpowder—used by the factory still lies by the side of the road to the nearby pottery." ], [ "Peat-cutting", "Peat-cutting for fuel occurred at some locations on Dartmoor until certainly the 1970s, usually for personal use.", "The right of Dartmoor commoners to cut peat for fuel is known as ''turbary''.", "These rights were conferred a long time ago, pre-dating most written records.", "The area once known as the ''Turbary of Alberysheved'' between the River Teign and the headwaters of the River Bovey is mentioned in the Perambulation of the Forest of Dartmoor of 1240 (by 1609 the name of the area had changed to Turf Hill).An attempt was made to commercialise the cutting of peat in 1901 at Rattle Brook Head, however this quickly failed." ], [ "Warrens", "From at least the 13th century until early in the 20th, rabbits were kept on a commercial scale, both for their flesh and their fur.", "Documentary evidence for this exists in place names such as Trowlesworthy Warren (mentioned in a document dated 1272) and Warren House Inn.", "The physical evidence, in the form of pillow mounds is also plentiful, for example there are 50 pillow mounds at Legis Tor Warren.", "The sophistication of the warreners is shown by the existence of vermin traps that were placed near the warrens to capture weasels and stoats attempting to get at the rabbits.The significance of the term ''warren'' nowadays is not what it once was.", "In the Middle Ages it was a privileged place, and the creatures of the warren were protected by the king 'for his princely delight and pleasure'.The subject of warrening on Dartmoor was addressed in Eden Phillpotts' story ''The River''." ], [ "Farming", "Farming has been practised on Dartmoor since time immemorial.", "The dry-stone walls which separate fields and mark boundaries give an idea of the extent to which the landscape has been shaped by farming.", "There is little or no arable farming within the moor, mostly being given over to livestock farming on account of the thin and rocky soil.", "Some Dartmoor farms are remote in the extreme." ], [ "See also", "*Dartmoor tin-mining*Warren House Inn" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Idempotence" ], [ "Introduction", "''On''/''Off'' buttons of a train's destination sign control panel.", "Pressing the ''On'' button (green) is an idempotent operation, since it has the same effect whether done once or multiple times.", "Likewise, pressing ''Off'' is idempotent.", "'''Idempotence''' (, ) is the property of certain operations in mathematics and computer science whereby they can be applied multiple times without changing the result beyond the initial application.", "The concept of idempotence arises in a number of places in abstract algebra (in particular, in the theory of projectors and closure operators) and functional programming (in which it is connected to the property of referential transparency).The term was introduced by American mathematician Benjamin Peirce in 1870 in the context of elements of algebras that remain invariant when raised to a positive integer power, and literally means \"(the quality of having) the same power\", from + ''potence'' (same + power)." ], [ "Definition", "An element of a set equipped with a binary operator is said to be ''idempotent'' under if: .The ''binary operation'' is said to be ''idempotent'' if: ." ], [ "Examples", "* In the monoid of the natural numbers with multiplication, only 0 and 1 are idempotent.", "Indeed, and .", "* In the monoid +) of the natural numbers with addition, only 0 is idempotent.", "Indeed, .", "* In a magma , an identity element or an absorbing element , if it exists, is idempotent.", "Indeed, and .", "* In a group , the identity element is the only idempotent element.", "Indeed, if is an element of such that , then and finally by multiplying on the left by the inverse element of .", "* In the monoids and of the power set of the set with set union and set intersection respectively, and are idempotent.", "Indeed, , and .", "* In the monoids and of the Boolean domain with logical disjunction and logical conjunction respectively, and are idempotent.", "Indeed, , and .", "* In a GCD domain (for instance in ), the operations of GCD and LCM are idempotent.", "* In a Boolean ring, multiplication is idempotent.", "* In a Tropical semiring, addition is idempotent.", "* In a ring of quadratic matrices, the determinant of an idempotent matrix is either 0 or 1.If the determinant is 1, the matrix necessarily is the identity matrix.===Idempotent functions===In the monoid of the functions from a set to itself (see set exponentiation) with function composition , idempotent elements are the functions such that , that is such that (in other words, the image of each element is a fixed point of ).", "For example:* the absolute value is idempotent.", "Indeed, , that is ;* constant functions are idempotent;* the identity function is idempotent;* the floor, ceiling and fractional part functions are idempotent;* the real part function of a complex number, is idempotent.", "* the subgroup generated function from the power set of a group to itself is idempotent;* the convex hull function from the power set of an affine space over the reals to itself is idempotent;* the closure and interior functions of the power set of a topological space to itself are idempotent;* the Kleene star and Kleene plus functions of the power set of a monoid to itself are idempotent;* the idempotent endomorphisms of a vector space are its projections.If the set has elements, we can partition it into chosen fixed points and non-fixed points under , and then is the number of different idempotent functions.", "Hence, taking into account all possible partitions,: is the total number of possible idempotent functions on the set.", "The integer sequence of the number of idempotent functions as given by the sum above for ''n'' = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, ... starts with 1, 1, 3, 10, 41, 196, 1057, 6322, 41393, ... .Neither the property of being idempotent nor that of being not is preserved under function composition.", "As an example for the former, mod 3 and are both idempotent, but is not, although happens to be.", "As an example for the latter, the negation function on the Boolean domain is not idempotent, but is.", "Similarly, unary negation of real numbers is not idempotent, but is.", "In both cases, the composition is simply the identity function, which is idempotent." ], [ "Computer science meaning", "In computer science, the term ''idempotence'' may have a different meaning depending on the context in which it is applied:* in imperative programming, a subroutine with side effects is idempotent if multiple calls to the subroutine have the same effect on the system state as a single call, in other words if the function from the system state space to itself associated with the subroutine is idempotent in the mathematical sense given in the definition;* in functional programming, a pure function is idempotent if it is idempotent in the mathematical sense given in the definition.This is a very useful property in many situations, as it means that an operation can be repeated or retried as often as necessary without causing unintended effects.", "With non-idempotent operations, the algorithm may have to keep track of whether the operation was already performed or not.=== Computer science examples ===A function looking up a customer's name and address in a database is typically idempotent, since this will not cause the database to change.", "Similarly, a request for changing a customer's address to XYZ is typically idempotent, because the final address will be the same no matter how many times the request is submitted.", "However, a customer request for placing an order is typically not idempotent since multiple requests will lead to multiple orders being placed.", "A request for canceling a particular order is idempotent because no matter how many requests are made the order remains canceled.A sequence of idempotent subroutines where at least one subroutine is different from the others, however, is not necessarily idempotent if a later subroutine in the sequence changes a value that an earlier subroutine depends on—''idempotence is not closed under sequential composition''.", "For example, suppose the initial value of a variable is 3 and there is a subroutine sequence that reads the variable, then changes it to 5, and then reads it again.", "Each step in the sequence is idempotent: both steps reading the variable have no side effects and the step changing the variable to 5 will always have the same effect no matter how many times it is executed.", "Nonetheless, executing the entire sequence once produces the output (3, 5), but executing it a second time produces the output (5, 5), so the sequence is not idempotent.int x = 3;void read() { printf(\"%d\\n\", x); }void change() { x = 5; }void sequence() { read(); change(); read(); }int main() { sequence(); // prints \"3\\n5\\n\" sequence(); // prints \"5\\n5\\n\" return 0;}In the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), idempotence and safety are the major attributes that separate HTTP methods.", "Of the major HTTP methods, GET, PUT, and DELETE should be implemented in an idempotent manner according to the standard, but POST doesn't need to be.", "GET retrieves the state of a resource; PUT updates the state of a resource; and DELETE deletes a resource.", "As in the example above, reading data usually has no side effects, so it is idempotent (in fact ''nullipotent'').", "Updating and deleting a given data are each usually idempotent as long as the request uniquely identifies the resource and only that resource again in the future.", "PUT and DELETE with unique identifiers reduce to the simple case of assignment to a variable of either a value or the null-value, respectively, and are idempotent for the same reason; the end result is always the same as the result of the initial execution, even if the response differs.Violation of the unique identification requirement in storage or deletion typically causes violation of idempotence.", "For example, storing or deleting a given set of content without specifying a unique identifier: POST requests, which do not need to be idempotent, often do not contain unique identifiers, so the creation of the identifier is delegated to the receiving system which then creates a corresponding new record.", "Similarly, PUT and DELETE requests with nonspecific criteria may result in different outcomes depending on the state of the system - for example, a request to delete the most recent record.", "In each case, subsequent executions will further modify the state of the system, so they are not idempotent.In event stream processing, idempotence refers to the ability of a system to produce the same outcome, even if the same file, event or message is received more than once.In a load–store architecture, instructions that might possibly cause a page fault are idempotent.", "So if a page fault occurs, the operating system can load the page from disk and then simply re-execute the faulted instruction.", "In a processor where such instructions are not idempotent, dealing with page faults is much more complex.When reformatting output, pretty-printing is expected to be idempotent.", "In other words, if the output is already \"pretty\", there should be nothing to do for the pretty-printer.In service-oriented architecture (SOA), a multiple-step orchestration process composed entirely of idempotent steps can be replayed without side-effects if any part of that process fails.Many operations that are idempotent often have ways to \"resume\" a process if it is interrupted ways that finish much faster than starting all over from the beginning.", "For example, resuming a file transfer, synchronizing files, creating a software build, installing an application and all of its dependencies with a package manager, etc." ], [ "Applied examples", "A typical crosswalk button is an example of an idempotent systemApplied examples that many people could encounter in their day-to-day lives include elevator call buttons and crosswalk buttons.", "The initial activation of the button moves the system into a requesting state, until the request is satisfied.", "Subsequent activations of the button between the initial activation and the request being satisfied have no effect, unless the system is designed to adjust the time for satisfying the request based on the number of activations." ], [ "See also", "* Biordered set* Closure operator* Fixed point (mathematics)* Idempotent of a code* Idempotent analysis* Idempotent matrix* Idempotent relation a generalization of idempotence to binary relations* Idempotent (ring theory)* Involution (mathematics)* Iterated function* List of matrices* Nilpotent* Pure function* Referential transparency" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* \" idempotent\" at the Free On-line Dictionary of Computing** * *** p. 443* Peirce, Benjamin.", "''Linear Associative Algebra'' 1870.", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ithaca, New York" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ithaca''' () is a city in and the county seat of Tompkins County, New York, United States.", "Situated on the southern shore of Cayuga Lake in the Finger Lakes region of New York, Ithaca is the largest community in the Ithaca metropolitan statistical area.", "It is named after the Greek island of Ithaca.A college town, Ithaca is home to Cornell University, an Ivy League university routinely ranked among the world's best universities, and Ithaca College.", "Nearby in Dryden, New York is Tompkins Cortland Community College (TC3).", "These three colleges bring thousands of students to the area, who increase Ithaca's seasonal population during the school year.", "As of 2020, the city's population was 32,108." ], [ "History", "=== Early history ===Cascadilla Creek gorgePerspective map of Ithaca published in 1882Native Americans lived in this area for thousands of years.", "When reached by Europeans, this area was controlled by the Cayuga tribe of Indians, one of the Five Nations of the ''Haudenosaunee'' or Iroquois League.", "Jesuit missionaries from New France (Quebec) are said to have had a mission to convert the Cayuga as early as 1657.Saponi and Tutelo peoples, Siouan-speaking tribes, later occupied lands at the south end of Cayuga Lake.", "Dependent tributaries of the Cayuga, they had been permitted to settle on the tribe's hunting lands at the south end of Cayuga Lake, as well as in Pony (originally Sapony) Hollow of what is known as present-day Newfield, New York.", "Remnants of these tribes had been forced from Virginia and North Carolina by tribal conflicts and European colonial settlement.", "Similarly, the Tuscarora people, an Iroquoian-speaking tribe from the Carolinas, migrated after defeat in the Yamasee War; they settled with the Oneida people and became the sixth nation of the Haudenosaunee, with chiefs stating the migration was complete in 1722.During the American Revolutionary War, four of the then six Iroquois nations helped the British attempt to crush the revolution, although bands made decisions on fighting in a highly decentralized way.", "Conflict with the rebel colonists was fierce throughout the Mohawk Valley and western New York.", "In retaliation for conflicts to the east and resentment at the way in which the Iroquois made war, the 1779 Sullivan Expedition was conducted against the Iroquois in the west of the state, destroying more than 40 villages and stored winter crops and forcing their retreat from the area.", "It destroyed the Tutelo village of Coregonal, located near what is now the junction of state routes 13 and 13A just south of the Ithaca city limits.", "Most Iroquois were forced from the state after the Revolutionary War, but some remnants remained.", "The state sold off the former Iroquois lands to stimulate development and settlement by non-indigenous Americans; lands were also granted as payment to veterans of the war.Within the current boundaries of Ithaca, Native Americans maintained a temporary hunting camp at the base of Cascadilla Gorge.", "In 1788, eleven men from Kingston, New York, came to the area with two Delaware people (Lenape) guides, to explore what they considered wilderness.", "The following year Jacob Yaple, Isaac Dumond, and Peter Hinepaw returned with their families and constructed log cabins.", "That same year Abraham Bloodgood of Albany obtained a patent from the state for 1,400 acres, which included all of the present downtown west of Tioga Street.", "In 1790, the federal government and state began an official program to grant land in the area, known as the Central New York Military Tract, as payment for service to the American soldiers of the Revolutionary War, as the government was cash poor.", "Most local land titles trace back to these Revolutionary war grants.", "However, the Bloodgood tract was not part of the state bounties to veterans.", "It was granted originally to a member of the state militia, Martinus Zielie, as a bounty under a different law for recruiting men to enlist in the Continental Army.=== Partition of Military Tract ===As part of this process, the Central New York Military Tract, which included northern Tompkins County, was surveyed under the direction of Simeon De Witt, Bloodgood's son-in-law and the Surveyor General of New York.", "Simeon commissioned his first cousin, Moses De Witt (after whom DeWitt, New York, Is named) to survey the area around the south end of Cayuga Lake.", "Both Simeon and Moses were first cousins of DeWitt Clinton through his mother, Mary De Witt, who married James Clinton, brother of Governor George Clinton.", "The Commissioners of Lands of New York State (chairman Gov.", "George Clinton) met in 1790.The Military Tract township in which Ithaca is located was named the Town of Ulysses.", "A few years later De Witt moved to Ithaca, then called variously \"The Flats,\" \"The City,\" or \"Sodom\"; he renamed it for the Greek island home of Ulysses in the spirit of the multitude of settlement names in the region derived from classical literature, such as Aurelius, Ovid, and especially of Ulysses, New York, the town that contained Ithaca at the time.Around 1791, De Witt surveyed what is now the downtown area into lots and sold them at modest prices.", "That same year John Yaple built a grist mill on Cascadilla Creek.", "The first frame house was erected in 1800 by Abram Markle.", "In 1804, the village had a postmaster and, in 1805, a tavern.=== Growth ===State Street in Ithaca, c. 1901Ithaca Gun Company's Annie Oakley gun, 1916Ithaca became a transshipping point for salt from curing beds near Salina, New York, to buyers south and east.", "This prompted construction in 1810 of the Owego Turnpike.", "When the War of 1812 cut off access to Nova Scotia gypsum, used for fertilizer, Ithaca became the center of trade in Cayuga gypsum.", "The Cayuga Steamboat Company was organized in 1819 and, in 1820, launched the first steamboat on Cayuga Lake, the ''Enterprise.''", "In 1821, the village was incorporated at the same time the Town of Ithaca was organized and separated from the parent Town of Ulysses.", "In 1834, the Ithaca and Owego Railroad's first (horse-drawn) train began service, connecting traffic on the east–west Erie Canal (completed in 1825) with the Susquehanna River to the south to expand the trade network.With the depression of 1837, the Ithaca and Owego Railroad was re-organized as the Cayuga and Susquehanna Railroad.", "It was re-engineered with switchbacks downhill into Ithaca in the late 1840s.", "In the late 20th century, a short section of its abandoned right-of-way in the City and Town of Ithaca was used for the South Hill Recreation Way.However, easier early railroad routes were constructed that bypassed Ithaca, such as that of the Syracuse, Binghamton & New York (1854).", "In the decade following the Civil War, railroads were built from Ithaca to the surrounding points of Auburn; Geneva; Cayuga; Cortland; Elmira, New York and Athens, Pennsylvania, mainly with financing from Ezra Cornell.", "These were all branch-lines, as the geography of the city, on a steep hill by the lake, had prevented it from being directly connected to a major transportation artery.", "Several decades later, when the Lehigh Valley Railroad built its main, double-track freight line from Van Etten Junction to Geneva (and on to Buffalo, New York), opened in 1892, it bypassed Ithaca and Auburn to the west (running via Burdett and eastern Schuyler County on easier grades), as the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad had also done with its own, new Binghamton-Buffalo mainline extension to the south and west, via Owego, Waverly, Bath and Dansville, in 1882.Two of three daily New York-Buffalo round-trip passenger trains served Ithaca on the older, original LV \"Ithaca Branch\" between Van Etten Junction and Geneva, until discontinuance of the \"Black Diamond\" daylight train, on May 11, 1959.On May 25, 1959, the overnight \"Maple Leaf\" train was shifted back to the Ithaca Branch from the main line via Burdett, and operated on this route until the LV discontinued this last passenger service on February 4, 1961.In the late 19th century, more industry developed in Ithaca.", "In 1883, William Henry Baker and his partners started the Ithaca Gun Company, making shotguns.", "The original factory was located in the Fall Creek neighborhood of the city, on a slope later known as Gun Hill, where the nearby waterfall supplied the main source of energy for the plant.", "The company became an icon in the hunting and shooting world, its shotguns famous for their fine decorative work.", "Wooden gunstocks with knots or other imperfections were donated to the high school woodworking shop to be made into lamps.", "John Philip Sousa and trick-shooter Annie Oakley favored Ithaca guns.", "In 1937, the company began producing the Ithaca 37, based on a 1915 patent by noted firearms designer John Browning.", "Its 12-gauge shotguns were the standard used for decades by the New York City Police Department and Los Angeles Police Department.In 1885, Ithaca Children's Home was established on West Seneca Street.", "The orphanage had two programs at the time: a residential home for both orphaned and destitute children, and a day nursery.", "The village established its first trolley in 1887.Ithaca developed as a small manufacturing and retail center and was incorporated as a city in 1888.The largest industrial company in the area was Morse Chain, elements of which were absorbed into Emerson Power Transmission on South Hill and Borg Warner Automotive in Lansing, New York.Ithaca claims to be the birthplace of the ice cream sundae, created in 1892 when fountain shop owner Chester Platt \"served his local priest vanilla ice cream covered in cherry syrup with a dark candied cherry on top.", "The priest suggested the dessert be named after the day, Sunday—although the spelling was later changed out of fear some would find it offensive.\"", "The local Unitarian church, where the priest, Rev.", "John Scott, preached, has an annual \"Sundae Sunday\" every September in commemoration.", "Ithaca's claim has long been disputed by Two Rivers, Wisconsin.", "Also in 1892, the Ithaca Kitty became one of the first mass-produced stuffed animal toys in the United States.In 1903, a typhoid epidemic resulting from poor sanitation infrastructure devastated the city.", "Not having access to unpolluted water was one suspicion to the cause of the outbreak because \"refuse and the contents of the early sewer system dumped directly into the inlet\".", "One out of ten citizens fell ill or died.", "Local residents lost fifty-one people to the illness that year, but there was “an average of thirty-nine cases each year” for the consecutive ten years following.Wharton Studio productionIn 1900, Cornell anatomy professor G. S. Moler made an early movie using frame-by-frame technology.", "For ''The Skeleton Dance,'' he took single-frame photos of a human skeleton in varying positions, giving the illusion of a dancing skeleton.", "During the early 20th century, Ithaca was an important center in the silent film industry.", "These films often featured the local natural scenery.", "Many of these films were the work of Leopold Wharton and his brother Theodore; The Wharton Studio was on the site of what is now Stewart Park.The Star Theatre on East Seneca Street was built in 1911 and became the most popular vaudeville venue in the region.", "Wharton movies were also filmed and shown there.", "After the film industry centralized in Hollywood, production in Ithaca effectively ceased.", "Few of the silent films made in Ithaca have been preserved.After World War II, the Langmuir Research Labs of General Electric developed as a major employer; the defense industry continued to expand.", "GE's headquarters were in Schenectady, New York, to the northeast in the Mohawk Valley.Although Ithaca has a history of Ku Klux Klan activity, including a cross-burning in 1923 and 1924, \"the peak years of Klan activity in Ithaca were 1923-1925\" and it represented only a fraction of the population.", "Ithaca is known for its political activism regarding civil rights and environmental issues.", "“Martin Luther King Jr. came to speak twice in Ithaca, in 1960 and 1961”.", "The annual Ithaca Festival, which often takes place on the Ithaca Commons or Stewart Park, frequently centers around themes promoting \"a political statement into a cultural and festive event”=== Recent history ===Ithaca Commons west entrance at Cayuga StreetFor decades, the Ithaca Gun Company tested their shotguns behind the plant on Lake Street; the shot fell into the Fall Creek gorge at the base of Ithaca Falls.", "Lead accumulated in the soil in and around the factory and gorge.", "A major lead clean-up effort sponsored by the United States Superfund took place from 2002 to 2004, managed through the Environmental Protection Agency.", "The old Ithaca Gun building has been dismantled.", "It was scheduled to be replaced by the development of an apartment complex on the cleaned land.The former Morse Chain company factory on South Hill, now owned by Emerson Power Transmission, was the site of extensive groundwater and soil contamination from its industrial operations.", "Emerson Power Transmission has been working with the state and South Hill residents to determine the extent and danger of the contamination and aid in cleanup.In 2004, Gayraud Townsend, a 20-year-old senior in Cornell's School of Industrial and Labor Relations, was sworn in as alderman of the city council: the first black male to be elected to the council and the youngest African American to be elected to office in the United States.", "He served his full term and has mentored other student politicians.", "In 2011 Cornell Class of 2009 graduate Svante Myrick was elected as the youngest mayor of the city of Ithaca." ], [ "Geography and climate", "Hemlock Gorge along Fall Creek before emptying into Beebe Lake on Cornell's campus=== Geography ===The valley in which Cayuga Lake is located is long and narrow with a north–south orientation.", "Ithaca is located at the southern end (the \"head\") of the lake, but the valley continues to the southwest behind the city.", "Originally a river valley, it was deepened and widened by the action of Pleistocene ice sheets over the last several hundred thousand years.These ice sheets gouged the land crosswise to preexisting streams, producing hanging valleys.", "Once the last ice sheets receded — around twenty or thirty thousand years ago — these streams cut deep into the steep hillsides, forming the many distinctive gorges, rapids, and waterfalls seen in the region; examples include Fall and Cascadilla Creeks in Ithaca, and nearby Buttermilk Falls, Enfield Gorge, and Taughannock Falls.", "Cayuga Lake is the most recent lake in a long series of lakes which developed as the ice retreated northward.", "The lake drains to the north, and was formed behind a dam of glacial debris called a moraine.Rock in the region is predominantly Devonian shale and sandstone.", "North of Ithaca, it is relatively fossil rich.", "The world-renowned fossils found in this area can be examined at the Museum of the Earth.", "Glacial erratics can also be found in the area.Ithaca was founded on flat land just south of the lake — land that formed in fairly recent geological times when silt filled the southern end of the lake.", "The city ultimately spread to the adjacent hillsides, which rise several hundred feet above the central flats: East Hill, West Hill, and South Hill.", "The Cornell campus is loosely bounded to the north and south by Fall and Cascadilla Creeks, respectively.The natural vegetation of the Ithaca area is northern temperate broadleaf forest.", "It is dominated by deciduous trees, including maple, sycamore, black walnut, birch, and oak; coniferous trees include white pine, Norway spruce, and eastern hemlock.", "The city of Ithaca has a rich diversity of tree plantings, with over 190 species, including cherry, southern magnolia, and ginkgo.", "In addition to visual beauty, this species diversification helps reduce the impact of arboreal epidemics, such as that caused by the emerald ash borer.=== Climate ===According to the Köppen climate classification method, Ithaca experiences a warm-summer humid continental climate, also known as a hemiboreal climate (''Dfb'').", "Summers are warm but brief, and it is cool-to-cold the rest of the year, with long, snowy winters; an average of of snow falls per year.", "In addition, frost may occur any time of year except mid-summer.Winter is typically characterized by freezing temperatures, cloudy skies and light-to-moderate snows, with some heavier falls; the largest snowfall in one day was on February 14, 1914.But the season is also variable; there can be short mild periods with some rain, but also outbreaks of frigid air with night temperatures down to or lower.", "Summers usually bring sunshine, along with moderate heat and humidity, but also frequent afternoon thunderstorms.", "Nights are pleasant and sometimes cool.", "Occasionally, there can be heatwaves, with temperatures rising into the to range, but they tend to be brief.The average date of the first freeze is October 5, and the average date of the last freeze is May 15, giving Ithaca a growing season of 141 days.", "The average date of the first and last snowfalls are November 12 and April 7, respectively.", "The hardiness zone is between 5b and 6a.", "Extreme temperatures range from as recently as February 2, 1961, up to on July 9, 1936.The valley flatland has slightly cooler weather in winter, and occasionally Ithaca residents experience simultaneous snow on the hills and rain in the valley.", "The phenomenon of mixed precipitation (rain, wind, and snow), common in the late fall and early spring, is known tongue-in-cheek as ''ithacation'' to many of the local residents.Due to the microclimates created by the impact of the lakes, the region surrounding Ithaca (Finger Lakes American Viticultural Area) experiences a short but adequate growing season for winemaking similar to the Rhine Valley wine district of Germany.", "As such, the region is home to many wineries." ], [ "Demographics", "Ithaca is the principal city of the Ithaca-Cortland Combined Statistical Area, which includes the Ithaca Metropolitan Statistical Area (Tompkins County) and the Cortland Micropolitan Statistical Area (Cortland County), which had a combined population of 145,100 at the 2000 census.As of the census of 2000, there were 29,287 people, 10,287 households, and 2,962 families residing in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 10,736 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city was 73.97% White, 13.65% Asian, 6.71% Black or African American, 0.39% Native American, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 1.86% from other races, and 3.36% from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.31% of the population.There were 10,287 households, out of which 14.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 19.0% were married couples living together, 7.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 71.2% were non-families.", "43.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.13 and the average family size was 2.81.In the city, the population was spread out, with 9.2% under the age of 18, 53.8% from 18 to 24, 20.1% from 25 to 44, 10.6% from 45 to 64, and 6.3% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 22 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 102.6 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.2 males.The median income for a household in the city was $21,441, and the median income for a family was $42,304.Males had a median income of $29,562 versus $27,828 for females.", "The per capita income for the city was $13,408.About 13.2% of individuals and 4.2% of families were below the poverty line.=== Greater Ithaca ===Location of the Ithaca-Cortland census designated area and its components: The term \"Greater Ithaca\" encompasses both the City and Town of Ithaca, as well as several smaller settled places within or adjacent to the Town:'''Municipalities'''* Village of Groton* Village of Lansing* the southern part of the Town of Lansing* Village of Cayuga Heights* Hamlet of Forest Home* Hamlet of South Hill'''Census-designated places'''* East Ithaca* Northeast Ithaca* Northwest Ithaca" ], [ "Local government", "Ithaca City Hall at 108 East Green StreetThere are two governmental entities in the area: the Town of Ithaca and the City of Ithaca.", "The Town of Ithaca is one of the nine towns comprising Tompkins County.", "The City of Ithaca is surrounded by, but legally independent of, the Town.The City of Ithaca has a mayor–council government.", "The charter of the City of Ithaca provides for a full-time mayor and city judge, each independent and elected at-large.", "Since 1995, the mayor has been elected to a four-year term, and since 1989, the city judge has been elected to a six-year term.Since 1983, the city has been divided into five wards.", "Each elects two representatives to the city council, known as the Common Council, for staggered four-year terms.", "In March 2015, the Common Council unanimously adopted a resolution recognizing freedom from domestic violence as a fundamental human right.", "In September 2023, the Common Council unanimously passed an extensive local ordinance to \"protect, defend and shield transgender individuals\".Since students won the right to vote where they attend colleges, some have become more active in local politics.", "In 2004, Gayraud Townsend, a 20-year-old senior in Cornell's School of Industrial and Labor Relations, was sworn in as alderman of the city council, representing the fourth Ward.", "He was the first black male to be elected to the council and was then the youngest African American to be elected to office in the United States.", "In 2011, Cornell graduate Svante Myrick was elected Mayor of the City of Ithaca, becoming the youngest mayor in the city's history.In December, 2005, the City and Town governments began discussing opportunities for increased government consolidation, including the possibility of joining the two into a single entity.", "This topic had been previously discussed in 1963 and 1969.Cayuga Heights, a village adjacent to the city on its northeast, voted against annexation into the city of Ithaca in 1954.=== Politics ===+Mayoral election resultsYearDemocraticRepublicanIndependent 1975 '''Edward Conley''' 61% Anne Jones 38% 1977 '''Edward Conley''' 54% Vincent Giordano 46% 1979 '''Raymond Bordoni''' 30% William Shaw 27% 1981 John Gutenberger 47% '''William Shaw''' 53% 1983 '''John Gutenberger''' 58% William Shaw 42% 1985 '''John Gutenberger''' 68% Charlotte Stone 32% 1987 '''John Gutenberger''' 72% Reuben Weiner 28% 1989 '''Benjamin Nichols''' 52% Jean Cookingham 48% 1991 '''Benjamin Nichols''' 53% Mark Finkelstein 47% 1995 Benjamin Nichols 48% '''Alan Cohen''' 51% 1999 Daniel Hoffman 46% '''Alan Cohen''' 54% 2003 '''Carolyn Peterson''' 61% John Saul 27% 2007 '''Carolyn Peterson''' 98% 2011 '''Svante Myrick''' 54% Janis Kelly 7% Wade Wykstra 25% 2015 '''Svante Myrick''' 89% 2019 '''Svante Myrick''' 76% Adam Levine 23%Politically, the majority of the city's voters (many of them students) have supported liberalism and the Democratic Party.", "A November 2004 study by ePodunk lists it as New York's most liberal city.", "This contrasts with the more conservative leanings of the generally rural Upstate New York region; the city's voters are also more liberal than those in the rest of Tompkins County.", "In 2008, Barack Obama, running against New York State's US Senator Hillary Clinton, won Tompkins County in the Democratic Presidential Primary, the only county that he won in New York State.", "Obama won Tompkins County (including Ithaca) by a wide margin of 41% over his opponent John McCain in the November 2008 election.=== Sister city ===Ithaca is a sister city of:* Eldoret, Kenya" ], [ "Education", "Sage Chapel at Cornell University===Colleges===Ithaca is a major educational center in Central New York.", "The two major post-secondary educational institutions located in Ithaca were each founded in the late nineteenth century.", "In 1865, Ezra Cornell founded Cornell University, which overlooks the town from East Hill.", "It was opened as a coeducational institution.", "Women first enrolled in 1870.Ezra Cornell also established a public library for the city.", "Ithaca College was founded as the Ithaca Conservatory of Music in 1892.Ithaca College was originally located in the downtown area but relocated to South Hill in the 1960s.", "In 2018, there were 23,600 students enrolled at Cornell and 6,700 at Ithaca College.", "Tompkins Cortland Community College is located in the neighboring town of Dryden, and has an extension center in downtown Ithaca.", "Empire State College offers non-traditional college courses to adults in downtown Ithaca.===Public schools===The Ithaca City School District, based in Ithaca, encompasses the city and its surrounding area and enrolls about 5,500 K-12 students in eight elementary schools (roughly one for every neighborhood), two middle schools (Boynton and Dewitt), Ithaca High School and the Lehman Alternative Community School, a combined middle and high school.", "Several private elementary and secondary schools are located in the Ithaca area, including the Roman Catholic Immaculate Conception School, the Cascadilla School, the New Roots Charter School, the Elizabeth Ann Clune Montessori School, the Namaste Montessori School (in the Trumansburg area) and the Ithaca Waldorf School.", "Ithaca has two networks for supporting its home-schooling families: Loving Education At Home (LEAH) and the Northern Light Learning Center (NLLC).", "TST BOCES is located in Tompkins County.===Library===Tompkins County Public LibraryThe Tompkins County Public Library, located at 101 East Green Street, serves as the public library for Tompkins County and is the Central Library for the Finger Lakes Library System.", "The library serves over 38,000 registered borrowers and contains nearly 260,000 items in its circulating collection, and circulates about 800,000 items annually." ], [ "Economy", "Ithaca Farmer's market at Steamboat LandingThe economy of Ithaca is based on education and further supported by agriculture, technology and tourism.", "As of 2006, Ithaca has continued to have one of the few expanding economies in New York State outside New York City.", "It draws commuters for work from the neighboring rural counties of Cortland, Tioga, and Schuyler, as well as from the more urbanized Chemung County.Ithaca has tried to maintain its traditional downtown shopping area with its pedestrian orientation; this includes the Ithaca Commons pedestrian mall and Center Ithaca, a small mixed-use complex built at the end of the urban renewal era.", "Another commercial center, Collegetown, is located next to the Cornell campus.", "It features a number of restaurants, shops and bars, and an increasing number of high-rise apartments.", "It is primarily frequented by Cornell University students.Ithaca has many of the businesses characteristic of small American university towns: bookstores, art-house cinemas, craft stores and vegetarian-friendly restaurants.", "The collective Moosewood Restaurant, founded in 1973, published a number of vegetarian cookbooks.", "''Bon Appetit'' magazine ranked it among the thirteen most influential restaurants of the 20th century.", "Ithaca has many local restaurants and chains, both in the city and town, with a range of ethnic foods and has been regarded as having more restaurants per capita than New York City.", "It has become a destination and residence for retirees.The Ithaca Farmers Market, a cooperative with 150 vendors who live within 30 miles of Ithaca, first opened for business on Saturdays in 1973.It is located at Steamboat Landing, where steamboats from Cayuga Lake used to dock.The South Hills Business Campus originally opened in 1957 as the regional headquarters of the National Cash Register Company.", "Running three full factory shifts, NCR was a major employer.", "Although it was sold in 1991 to American Telephone and Telegraph and later acquired by Cognitive TPG, it remains a major tenant of the South Hill Business Campus, which is now owned by a group of private investors.===Agriculture===Ithaca, home to the Cornell University College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, has a deep connection to Central New York's farming and dairy industries.", "About 60 small farms are located in the greater Ithaca/Trumansburg area, including a number of research farms managed by the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station.", "Cornell's Dairy Research Facility is a center of research and support for New York's large and growing milk and yogurt industries." ], [ "Media", "The ''Ithaca Journal'' was founded in 1815 and is a morning daily newspaper that has been owned by Gannett since 1912.The ''Ithaca Voice'' is a nonprofit digital news site with a mission to improve civic and political understanding in Ithaca and Tompkins County.", "The ''Ithaca Times'' is a free alternative weekly newspaper that's published every Wednesday.", "The ''Cornell Daily Sun'' is also published in Ithaca, operating since 1880.Other media outlets include the online magazine ''14850.com''.Ithaca is home to several radio stations:* WICB 91.7 FM is a non-commercial, student-run station owned by Ithaca College.", "* WPIE 1160 AM/107.1 FM \"ESPN Ithaca\" is a sports talk station locally owned by Taughannock Media.", "* WQNY \"Q-Country\" 103.7 FM, owned by The Cayuga Radio Group, a subsidiary of Saga Communications, Inc.* WINO 88.1 FM, Ithaca Community Radio, has a studio and offices in the Clinton House, and also broadcasts at 91.9 FM in Watkins Glen.", "* WVBR-FM 93.5 FM/105.5 FM, affiliated with Cornell University, is a student-owned and operated commercial station with music, sports including Cornell hockey, and community members hosting specialty programming.", "* WYXL \"Lite Rock\" 97.3 FM* News/talk WHCU 870 AM* Progressive talk WNYY 1470 AM* Classic rock \"I-100\" WIII 99.9 FMPublic radio:* WSQG 90.9 FM, WSKG-FM's Ithaca frequency, provides NPR and classical music programming.", "* WITH 90.1 FM is the local translator for public radio and AAA station WRUR-FM in Rochester.Other FM stations include: Saga's \"98.7 The Vine\", a low-powered translator station; WFIZ \"Z95.5\", airing a top-40 (CHR) format; contemporary Christian music station WCII 88.9; and classic rock \"The Wall\" WLLW 99.3 and 96.3, based in Seneca Falls with a transmitter in Ithaca." ], [ "Culture", "Clinton House, a 19th-century building in downtown IthacaFounded in 1983, the Sciencenter is a non-profit hands-on science museum, accredited by the American Alliance of Museums (AAM).", "It is a member of the Association of Science-Technology Centers (ASTC) and Association of Children's Museums (ACM).The Museum of the Earth is a natural history museum created in 2003 by the Paleontological Research Institution (PRI).", "The PRI was founded in Ithaca in 1932 and is the publisher of the oldest journal of paleontology in the western hemisphere.", "Exhibits cover the 4.5-billion-year history of the earth in an accessible manner, including interactive displays.", "As of 2004, the PRI is now formally affiliated with Cornell.The Cayuga Nature Center occupies the site of the 1914 Cayuga Preventorium, a facility for children with tuberculosis; treatment of what was then considered an incurable disease was based on rest and good nutrition.", "In 1981, the Cayuga Nature Center was incorporated as an independent, private, non-profit educational organization, offering environmental education to local school districts.", "In 2011, the PRI merged with the Cayuga Nature Center, making it a sister organization to the Museum of the Earth.The Cornell Lab of Ornithology is located in the Imogene Powers Johnson Center for Birds and Biodiversity.", "The Lab's Visitors' Center and observation areas are open to the public.", "Displays include a surround-sound theater, object-theater presentation, sound studio and informational kiosks featuring bird sounds and information.The Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art houses one of the finest collections of art in upstate New York.", "Special exhibitions are mounted each year, plus selections from a global permanent collection, which is displayed on six public floors.", "The collection includes art from throughout Asia, Africa, Europe, the Americas, graphic arts, medallic art and Tiffany glass, ranging from the ancient to the contemporary.The Center for the Arts at Ithaca, Inc., operates the \"Hangar Theatre\".", "Opened in 1975 in a renovated municipal airport hangar, the Hangar hosts a summer season and brings a range of theatre to regional audiences including students, producing a school tour and Artists-in-the-Schools programs.Ithaca is also the home to Kitchen Theatre Company, a non-profit professional company with a theatre on West State Street, and Civic Ensemble, a creative collaborative ensemble staging emerging playwrights' work and community-based original productions.Ithaca is noted for its annual community celebration, The Ithaca Festival.", "Ithaca also hosts one of the largest used-book sales in the United States.The Constance Saltonstall Foundation for the Arts supports New York State artists and writers through two key programs: free stipend-supported, juried residencies and a self-directed, non-juried, low-cost retreats.", "Saltonstall was founded in 1995 and is located eight miles outside Ithaca.", "Between 1996 and 2008, the Saltonstall Foundation provided grants to individual artists and writers from central and western New York counties.", "Saltonstall hosts Open House events for the public to meet the current artists and writers at the residency and to learn about the foundation.Founded in 1992, the Namgyal Monastery in Ithaca is the North American seat of the Dalai Lama's Namgyal Monastery.The city and town also sponsor The Apple Festival in the fall, the Chili Fest in February, the Finger Lakes International Dragon Boat Festival in July, Porchfest in late September and the Ithaca Brew Fest in Stewart Park in September.Ithaca has also pioneered the Ithaca Health Fund, a popular cooperative health insurance.", "Ithaca is home to Ithaca Hours, one of the first local currency systems in the United States.", "It was developed by Paul Glover.=== Music ===Ithaca is the home of the Cayuga Chamber Orchestra.The Cornell Concert Series has been hosting musicians and ensembles of international stature since 1903.For its initial 84 years, the series featured Western classical artists exclusively.", "In 1987, however, the series broke with tradition to present Ravi Shankar and has since grown to encompass a broader spectrum of the world's great music.", "Now, it balances a mix of Western classical music, traditions from around the world, jazz, and new music in these genres.", "In a single season, Cornell Concert Series presents performers ranging from the Leipzig Tomanerchor and Danish Quartet to Simon Shaheen, Vida Guitar Quartet, and Eighth Blackbird.The School of Music at Ithaca College was founded in 1892 by William Egbert as a music conservatory on Buffalo Street.", "Among the degree programs offered are those in Performance, Theory, Music Education and Composition.", "Since 1941, the School of Music has been accredited by the National Association of Schools of Music.Ithaca's Suzuki school, Ithaca Talent Education, provides musical training for children of all ages and also teacher training for undergraduate and graduate-level students.", "The Community School of Music and Art uses an extensive scholarship system to offer classes and lessons to any student, regardless of age, background, economic status or artistic ability.A number of musicians call Ithaca home, most notably Samite of Uganda, The Burns Sisters, The Horse Flies, Johnny Dowd, Mary Lorson, cellist Hank Roberts, Anna Coogan, John Brown's Body, Kurt Riley, X Ambassadors, and Alex Kresovich.", "Old-time music is a staple, and folk music is featured weekly on WVBR-FM's ''Bound for Glory'', North America's longest-running live folk concert broadcast.", "The Finger Lakes GrassRoots Festival of Music and Dance, hosted by local band Donna the Buffalo, is held annually during the third week in July in the nearby village of Trumansburg, with more than 60 local, national and international acts.Ithaca is the center of a thriving live music scene, featuring more than 200 groups playing most genres of American popular and world music, the predominant genres being folk, rock, blues, jazz, country, lo-fi and reggae.", "There are more than 80 live music venues within a 40-mile radius of the city, including cafes, pubs, clubs and concert halls." ], [ "Transportation", "In 2009, the Ithaca metropolitan statistical area (MSA) ranked as the highest in the United States for the percentage of commuters who walked to work (15.1 percent).", "In 2013, the Ithaca MSA ranked as the second-lowest in the United States for percentage of commuters who traveled by private vehicle (68.7 percent).", "During the same year, 17.5 percent of commuters in the Ithaca MSA walked to work.=== Roads ===A TCAT busRoute 13 in Ithaca as photographed for an image included on the Voyager Golden RecordIthaca is in the rural Finger Lakes region about northwest of New York City; the nearest larger cities, Binghamton and Syracuse, are an hour's drive away by car, Rochester and Scranton are two hours, Buffalo and Albany are three.", "New York City, Philadelphia, Toronto, and Ottawa are approximately four hours away.Ithaca lies at over a half-hour's drive from any interstate highway, and all car trips to Ithaca involve some driving on two-lane state rural highways.", "The city is at the convergence of many regional two-lane state highways: Routes 13, 13A, 34, 79, 89, 96, 96B and 366.These are usually not congested except in Ithaca proper.", "However, Route 79 between the I-81 access at Whitney Point and Ithaca receives a significant amount of Ithaca-bound congestion right before Ithaca's colleges reopen after breaks.In July 2008, a non-profit called Ithaca Carshare began a carsharing service in Ithaca.", "Ithaca Carshare has a fleet of vehicles shared by over 1500 members as of July, 2015 and has become a popular service among both city residents and the college communities.", "Vehicles are located throughout Ithaca downtown and at the two major institutions.", "With Ithaca Carshare as the first locally-run carsharing organization in New York State, others have since launched in Buffalo, Albany, and Syracuse.Rideshare services to promote carpooling and vanpooling are operated by ZIMRIDE and VRIDE.", "A community mobility education program, Way2Go, is operated by Cornell Cooperative Extension of Tompkins County.", "Way2Go's website provides consumer information and videos.", "Way2Go works collaboratively to help people save money, stress less, go green and improve mobility options.", "The 2-1-1 Tompkins/Cortland Help line connects people with services, including transportation, in the community, by telephone and web on a 24/7 basis.", "The information and referral service is operated by the Human Services Coalition of Tompkins County, Inc.", "Together, 2-1-1 Information and Referral and Way2Go are a one-call, one-click resource designed to mobility services information for Ithaca and throughout Tompkins County.As a growing urban area, Ithaca is facing steady increases in levels of vehicular traffic on the city grid and on the state highways.", "Outlying areas have limited bus service, and many people consider a car essential.", "However, many consider Ithaca a walkable and bikeable community.", "One positive trend for the health of downtown Ithaca is the new wave of increasing urban density in and around the Ithaca Commons.", "Because the downtown area is the region's central business district, dense mixed-use development that includes housing may increase the proportion of people who can walk to work and recreation and mitigate the likely-increased pressure on already-busy roads as Ithaca grows.", "The downtown area is also the area best-served by frequent public transportation.", "Still, traffic congestion around the Commons is likely to progressively increase.=== Bus ===There is frequent intercity bus service by Greyhound Lines, New York Trailways, OurBus, FlixBus, and Shortline (Coach USA), particularly to Binghamton and New York City, with limited service to Rochester, Buffalo and Syracuse, and (via connections in Binghamton) to Utica and Albany.", "OurBus also provides limited holiday services to Allentown, Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, and Washington, DC.", "Cornell University runs a premium campus-to-campus bus between its Ithaca campus and its medical school in Manhattan, New York City which is open to the public.", "Starting in September, 2019, intercity buses serving Ithaca operate from the downtown bus stop at 131 East Green Street, as the former Greyhound bus station on West State Street closed due to staff retirement and building maintenance issues.However, OurBus now picks up and drops off on Seneca Street, near the downtown Starbucks and Hilton Garden Inn.Ithaca is the center of an extensive bus public transportation network.", "Tompkins Consolidated Area Transit, Inc. (TCAT, Inc.) is a not-for-profit corporation that provides public transportation for Tompkins County, New York.", "TCAT was reorganized as a non-profit corporation in 2004 and is primarily supported locally by Cornell University, the City of Ithaca and Tompkins County.", "TCAT's ridership increased from 2.7 million in 2004 to 4.4 million in 2013.TCAT operates 34 routes, many running seven days a week.", "It has frequent service to downtown, Cornell University, Ithaca College, and the Shops at Ithaca Mall in the Town of Lansing, but less-frequent service to many residential and rural areas, including Trumansburg and Newfield.", "Chemung County Transit (C-TRAN) runs weekday commuter service from Chemung County to Ithaca.", "Cortland Transit runs commuter service to Cornell University.", "Tioga County Public Transit operated three routes to Ithaca and Cornell, but ceased operations on November 30, 2014.GADABOUT Transportation Services, Inc. provides demand-response paratransit service for seniors over 60 and people with disabilities.", "Ithaca Dispatch provides local and regional taxi service.", "In addition, Ithaca Airline Limousine and IthaCar Service connect to the local airports.=== Airports ===Ithaca Tompkins International Airport viewed from a taxiing planeIthaca is served by Ithaca Tompkins International Airport, located about three miles to the northeast of the city center.", "In late 2019, the airport completed a major $34.8 million renovation which included a larger terminal with additional passenger gates and jet bridges, expanded passenger amenities and a customs facility that enables it to receive international charter and private flights.American Airlines pulled out of Ithaca on September 7, 2022, citing pilot shortages.", "Delta Connection provides service to and from John F. Kennedy International Airport, operated by its commuter partner Endeavor Air, using the Bombardier CRJ200 commuter-jet.", "United Express offers daily flights to its hub at Newark Liberty Airport, operated by its commuter partner GoJet Airlines, using the two-class Bombardier CRJ550 commuter-jet.=== Railways ===Lehigh Valley Railroad station, built in 1898, has been refurbished and is now a Chemung Canal Trust Company bank branchInto the mid-twentieth century, it was possible to reach Ithaca by passenger rail.", "At least two trains per day serviced Ithaca along either the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad (until March 31, 1942) or the Lehigh Valley Railroad.", "The trip took \"about seven hours\" from New York City, \"about eight hours\" from Philadelphia, and \"about three hours\" from Buffalo.", "There has been no passenger rail service since February 4, 1961.From the 1870s-on, there were trains to Buffalo via Geneva, New York; to New York City via Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania (both Lehigh Valley Railroad); to Hoboken, New Jersey, with a train-change in Owego and a routing via Binghamton and Scranton, Pennsylvania (DL&W); and to the US northeast via Cortland, New York (Lehigh Valley Railroad).", "The Lehigh Valley's top New York City-Ithaca-Buffalo passenger train, the daylight ''Black Diamond,'' was optimistically publicized as 'The Handsomest Train in the World', perhaps to compensate for its roundabout route to New York City (south to Waverly, New York; southeast to Wilkes-Barre and Easton, Pennsylvania; then east across New Jersey).", "It was named after the railroad's largest commodity, anthracite coal, and made its last run on May 11, 1959.Until March 31, 1942, the Lackawanna Railroad operated two shuttle trains a day between Ithaca and Owego, where passengers could transfer to trains to Buffalo and Chicago to the west and eastbound to Binghamton, Scranton, Pennsylvania and Hoboken, New Jersey: across the Hudson River from New York City.", "Until September 15, 1958, the Lackawanna maintained Syracuse-Binghamton service through nearby Cortland, to the east.", "Until May 11, 1959, two Lehigh Valley trains a day made both westbound and eastbound stops in Ithaca.", "The last passenger train making stops in Ithaca was the Lehigh Valley's overnight ''Maple Leaf,'' discontinued on February 4, 1961.A streetcar passes Eddy Gate, the main entrance to Cornell University at the time.Within Ithaca, electric railways ran along Stewart Avenue and Eddy Street.", "Ithaca was the fourth community in New York state with a street railway; streetcars ran from 1887 until the summer of 1935.A Norfolk Southern Railway locomotiveOn December 8, 2018, the Ithaca Central Railroad, a Watco subsidiary, took over operation via lease of the Norfolk Southern Ithaca Secondary line from Sayre, Pennsylvania to the Cargill Salt mine site on the eastern shore of Cayuga Lake, near Myers Point.", "Unit coal trains carrying bituminous coal were delivered to the Ithaca Central at Sayre by Norfolk Southern for less than eight months afterward, traveling to the Ridge site of the Cayuga Operating Company: a coal-burning power plant (known as Milliken Station during NYSEG ownership).", "Unit trains of coal are now gone, as the power plant closed on August 29, 2019, when it ran out of coal, and was officially retired in October, 2019.", "(As of 2022, there are ambitious, proposed plans to convert its brownfield site into a major data center.)", "The main rail freight traffic is now salt from the Cargill salt mine farther north.", "The Norfolk Southern tracks, headed north on the former Lehigh Valley Auburn and Ithaca Branch, include a distinctive section in Ithaca that runs along the side of Fulton St. (NY13 southbound), although not in the street itself." ], [ "Points of interest", "* Buttermilk Falls State Park* Carl Sagan's Grave* Cayuga Nature Center* Cornell Botanic Gardens* Cornell University* EcoVillage at Ithaca* Finger Lakes Trail* Ithaca College* Ithaca Commons* Ithaca Dog Park* Ithaca Falls* Ithaca Farmers Market* Paleontological Research Institution's Museum of the Earth* Robert H. Treman State Park* Sagan Planet Walk* Sapsucker Woods Sanctuary* Sciencenter* Stewart Park* Taughannock Falls State ParkWaterfallIthacaNY.jpg|The falls of Buttermilk Falls State ParkF.R.", "Newman Arboretum, Cornell University.jpg|F.R.", "Newman Arboretum, Cornell UniversityHdr-Ithacafalls2.jpgIthacaDiner.jpgBW-IthacaAlley.jpg" ], [ "Notable people" ], [ "Reputation", "In addition to its liberal politics, Ithaca is commonly listed among the most culturally liberal of American small cities.", "The ''Utne Reader'' named Ithaca \"America's most enlightened town\" in 1997.According to ePodunk's Gay Index, Ithaca has a score of 231, versus a national average score of 100.Like many small college towns, Ithaca has also received accolades for having a high overall quality of life.", "In 2004, ''Cities Ranked and Rated'' named Ithaca the best \"emerging city\" to live in the United States.", "In 2006, the Internet realty website \"Relocate America\" named Ithaca the fourth-best city in the country to relocate to.", "In July, 2006, Ithaca was listed as one of the \"12 Hippest Hometowns for Vegetarians\" by ''VegNews Magazine'' and chosen by ''Mother Earth News'' as one of the \"12 Great Places You've Never Heard Of.", "\"In 2012, the city was listed among the 10 best places to retire in the U.S. by U.S. News.Ithaca was also ranked 13th among America's Best College Towns by ''Travel + Leisure'' in 2013 and ranked as the #1 Best College Town in America in the American Institute for Economic Research's 2013–2014 College Destination Index.", "Ithaca was also named fourth-smartest city in 2015.In its earliest years, during the frontier days, what is now Ithaca was briefly known by the names \"The Flats\" and \"Sodom,\" the name of the Biblical city of sin, due to its reputation as a town of \"notorious immorality\": a place of horse racing, gambling, profanity, Sabbath-breaking and readily-available liquor.", "These names did not last long; Simeon De Witt renamed the town Ithaca (for Odysseus' home island) in the early 19th century, though nearby Robert H. Treman State Park still contains Lucifer Falls.", "Today, Ithaca is primarily known for its growing wineries and microbreweries, live music, colleges and small dairy farms." ], [ "See also", "* Ezra Cornell* List of Registered Historic Places in New York" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ivy League" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Ivy League''' is an American collegiate athletic conference, comprising eight private research universities in the Northeastern United States.", "The term ''Ivy League'' is typically used outside sports to refer to the eight schools as a group of elite colleges with connotations of academic excellence, selectivity in admissions, and social elitism.", "Its members are Brown University, Columbia University, Cornell University, Dartmouth College, Harvard University, Princeton University, University of Pennsylvania, and Yale University.", "The conference headquarters are in Princeton, New Jersey.The term was used as early as 1933; it became official only after the formation of the athletic conference in 1954.All of the \"Ivies\" except Cornell were founded during the colonial period; they are seven of the nine colonial colleges, those chartered before the American Revolution, and (except for Cornell and Brown) they maintained all-male colleges (at least for undergraduates or in some programs) until the 1950s, 60s, 70s, and 80s.", "The other two colonial colleges, Rutgers University and the College of William & Mary, became public institutions." ], [ "Overview", "The flags of all eight Ivy League universities fly over Columbia University's Wien Stadium in ManhattanIvy League schools are some of the most prestigious universities in the world.", "All eight universities place in the top 18 of the 2024 ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' National Universities ranking.", "''U.S.", "News'' has named a member of the Ivy League as the best national university every year since 2001: , Princeton eleven times, Harvard twice, and the two schools tied for first five times.", "In the 2022–2023 ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' Best Global University Ranking, five Ivies rank in the top 20: Harvard (#1), Columbia (#7), Yale (#11), Penn (#15), and Princeton (#16)—ranks that ''U.S.", "News'' says are based on \"indicators that measure their academic research performance and their global and regional reputations.\"", "All eight Ivy League schools are members of the Association of American Universities, the most prestigious alliance of American research universities.Undergraduate enrollments range from about 4,500 to about 15,000, larger than most liberal arts colleges and smaller than most state university systems.", "Total enrollment, which includes graduate students, ranges from approximately 6,600 at Dartmouth to over 20,000 at Columbia, Cornell, Harvard, and Penn.", "Ivy League financial endowments range from Brown's $6.9 billion to Harvard's $53.2 billion, the largest financial endowment of any academic institution in the world.The Ivy League is similar to other groups of universities in other countries, such as Oxbridge in England, the C9 League in China, and the Imperial Universities in Japan." ], [ "Members", "Ivy League universities have some of the largest university financial endowments in the world, allowing the universities to provide abundant resources for their academic programs, financial aid, and research endeavors.", "As of 2021, Harvard University had an endowment of $53.2 billion, the largest of any educational institution.", "Each university attracts millions of dollars in annual research funding from both the federal government and private sources.===Current schools===InstitutionLocationUndergraduatesPostgraduatesEndowmentAcademic staffYear foundedSchool MascotsColors Brown University Providence, Rhode Island $6.5 billion Bears Columbia University New York, New York $13.3 billion Lions Cornell University Ithaca, New York $9.8 billion Big Red Dartmouth College Hanover, New Hampshire $8.1 billion 943 Big Green Harvard University Cambridge, Massachusetts $50.9 billion Crimson University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pennsylvania $20.7 billion Quakers Princeton University Princeton, New Jersey $35.8 billion Tigers Yale University New Haven, Connecticut $42.3 billion Bulldogs ===Former affiliate members===Before the 2000s, many of the Ivy League championships for men's and women's cross country, indoor and outdoor track & field, and swimming & diving were formatted as invitationals that many schools across the eastern United States would attend.", "In other sports such as fencing, wrestling, men's and women's ice hockey, and men's and women's rowing, all of the Ivy League schools were members of other single-sport conferences and the top performing Ivy League team would be crowned the champion.The United States Military Academy and the United States Naval Academy were members of the Ivy League in many sports and were crowned as Ivy League champions while competing with Ivy League teams.", "Both schools ended up departing from the conference in the early 2000s to align with their current conference, the Patriot League." ], [ "History", "===Year founded===InstitutionFounded asFoundedCharteredFirst instructionFounding affiliationHarvard University''New College''163616501642Nonsectarian, founded by Calvinist CongregationalistsYale University''Collegiate School''170117011702Calvinist (Congregationalist)Princeton University''College of New Jersey''174617461747Nonsectarian, founded by Calvinist PresbyteriansColumbia University''King's College''175417541754Church of EnglandUniversity of Pennsylvania''College of Philadelphia''1740 or 1749 or 175517551755Nonsectarian, founded by Church of England/Methodist membersBrown University''College in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations''176417641765Baptist, founding charter promises \"no religious tests\" and \"full liberty of conscience\"Dartmouth College176917691769Calvinist (Congregationalist)Cornell University186518651868Nonsectarian:'''Note:''' Six of the eight Ivy League universities consider their founding dates to be simply the date that they received their charters and thus became legal corporations with the authority to grant academic degrees.", "Harvard University uses the date that the legislature of the Massachusetts Bay Colony formally allocated funds for the creation of a college.", "Harvard was chartered in 1650, although classes had been conducted for approximately a decade by then.", "The University of Pennsylvania initially considered its founding date to be 1750; this is the year which appears on the first iteration of the university seal.", "Later in Penn's early history, the university changed its officially recognized founding date to 1749, which was used for all of the nineteenth century, including a centennial celebration in 1849.In 1899, Penn's board of trustees formally adopted a third founding date of 1740, in response to a petition from Penn's General Alumni Society.", "Penn was chartered in 1755, the same year collegiate classes began.", "\"Religious affiliation\" refers to financial sponsorship, formal association with, and promotion by, a religious denomination.", "All of the schools in the Ivy League are private and not currently associated with any religion.=== Origin of the name ===Map of the eight Ivy League universities\"Planting the ivy\" was a customary class day ceremony at many colleges in the 1800s.", "In 1893, an alumnus told ''The Harvard Crimson'', \"In 1850, class day was placed upon the University Calendar.", "... the custom of planting the ivy, while the ivy oration was delivered, arose about this time.\"", "At Penn, graduating seniors started the custom of planting ivy at a university building each spring in 1873 and that practice was formally designated as \"Ivy Day\" in 1874.Ivy planting ceremonies are recorded at Yale, Simmons College, and Bryn Mawr College among other schools.", "Princeton's \"Ivy Club\" was founded in 1879.The first usage of ''Ivy'' in reference to a group of colleges is from sportswriter Stanley Woodward (1895–1965).The first known instance of the term ''Ivy League'' appeared in ''The Christian Science Monitor'' on February 7, 1935.Several sportswriters and other journalists used the term shortly later to refer to the older colleges, those along the northeastern seaboard of the United States, chiefly the nine institutions with origins dating from the colonial era, together with the United States Military Academy (West Point), the United States Naval Academy, and a few others.", "These schools were known for their long-standing traditions in intercollegiate athletics, often being the first schools to participate in such activities.", "At this time, however, none of these institutions made efforts to form an athletic league.A common folk etymology attributes the name to the Roman numeral for four (IV), asserting that there was such a sports league originally with four members.", "The ''Morris Dictionary of Word and Phrase Origins'' helped to perpetuate this belief.", "The supposed \"IV League\" was formed over a century ago and consisted of Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and a fourth school that varies depending on who is telling the story.", "However, it is clear that Harvard, Princeton, Columbia, and Yale met on November 23, 1876, at the so-called Massasoit Convention to decide on uniform rules for the emerging game of American football, which rapidly spread.===Pre-Ivy League===Seven out of the eight Ivy League schools are Colonial Colleges: institutions of higher education founded prior to the American Revolution.", "Cornell, the exception to this commonality, was founded immediately after the American Civil War.", "These seven colleges served as the primary institutions of higher learning in British America's Northern and Middle Colonies.", "During the colonial era, the schools' faculties and founding boards were largely drawn from other Ivy League institutions.", "Also represented were British graduates from the University of Cambridge, the University of Oxford, the University of St. Andrews, and the University of Edinburgh.The influence of these institutions on the founding of other colleges and universities is notable.", "This included the Southern public college movement which blossomed in the decades surrounding the turn of the 19th century when Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia established what became the flagship universities of their respective states.", "In 1801, a majority of the first board of trustees for what became the University of South Carolina were Princeton alumni.", "They appointed Jonathan Maxcy, a Brown graduate, as the university's first president.", "Thomas Cooper, an Oxford alumnus and University of Pennsylvania faculty member, became the second president of the South Carolina college.", "The founders of the University of California came from Yale, hence Berkeley's colors are Yale Blue and California Gold.", "Cornell served as a model for Stanford University and, in 1891, provided Stanford with its first president.A plurality of the Ivy League schools have identifiable Protestant roots.", "Harvard, Yale, and Dartmouth all held early associations with the Congregationalists.", "Princeton was financed by New Light Presbyterians, though originally led by a Congregationalist.", "Brown was founded by Baptists, though the university's charter stipulated that students should enjoy \"full liberty of conscience.\"", "Columbia was founded by Anglicans, who composed 10 of the college's first 15 presidents.", "Penn and Cornell were officially nonsectarian, though Protestants were well represented in their respective founding.", "In the early nineteenth century, the specific purpose of training Calvinist ministers was handed off to theological seminaries, but a denominational tone and religious traditions including compulsory chapel often lasted well into the twentieth century.", "\"Ivy League\" is sometimes used as a way of referring to an elite class, even though institutions such as Cornell University were among the first in the United States to reject racial and gender discrimination in their admissions policies.", "This dates back to at least 1935.Novels and memoirs attest this sense, as a social elite; to some degree independent of the actual schools.===History of the athletic league=======19th and early 20th centuries====Yale University's four-oared crew team, posing with the 1876 Centennial Regatta trophy.The first formal athletic league involving eventual Ivy League schools (or any US colleges, for that matter) was created in 1870 with the formation of the Rowing Association of American Colleges.", "The RAAC hosted a de facto national championship in rowing during the period 1870–1894.Harvard vs Yale program from 1875 in game played using rules of rugbyThe first Harvard vs Yale rugby football contest was held in 1875, two years after the inaugural Princeton–Yale rugby football contest.", "Harvard athlete Nathaniel Curtis challenged Yale's captain, William Arnold to a rugby-style game.Program for the \"Foot Ball Match\", Harvard v Yale, the first intercollegiate game.", "It is considered the first rugby game between Ivy League teams.", "The game was played at Hamilton Park, a venue in New Haven, Connecticut (located at the intersection of Whalley Avenue and West Park Avenue).", "The two teams played with 15 players (rugby) on a side instead of 11 (soccer) as Yale would have preferred.In 1881, Penn, Harvard College, Haverford College, Princeton College (then known as College of New Jersey), and Columbia College formed The Intercollegiate Cricket Association, which Cornell University later joined.", "Penn won The Intercollegiate Cricket Association championship (the ''de facto'' national championship) 23 times (18 solo, 3 shared with Haverford and Harvard, 1 shared with Haverford and Cornell, and 1 shared with just Haverford) during the 44 years that The Intercollegiate Cricket Association existed (1881 through 1924).In 1895, Cornell, Columbia, and Penn founded the Intercollegiate Rowing Association, which remains the oldest collegiate athletic organizing body in the US.", "To this day, the IRA Championship Regatta determines the national champion in rowing and all of the Ivies are regularly invited to compete.A basketball league was later created in 1902, when Columbia, Cornell, Harvard, Yale, and Princeton formed the Eastern Intercollegiate Basketball League; they were later joined by Penn and Dartmouth.In 1906, the organization that eventually became the National Collegiate Athletic Association was formed, primarily to formalize rules for the emerging sport of football.", "But of the 39 original member colleges in the NCAA, only two of them (Dartmouth and Penn) later became Ivies.", "In February 1903, intercollegiate wrestling began when Yale accepted a challenge from Columbia, published in the Yale News.", "The dual meet took place prior to a basketball game hosted by Columbia and resulted in a tie.Two years later, Penn and Princeton also added wrestling teams, leading to the formation of the student-run Intercollegiate Wrestling Association, now the Eastern Intercollegiate Wrestling Association (EIWA), the first and oldest collegiate wrestling league in the US.A sketch of the Yale versus Princeton baseball game on May 30, 1882Though schools now in Ivy League (such as Yale and Columbia) played against each other in the 1880s, it was not until 1930 that Columbia, Cornell, Dartmouth, Penn, Princeton and Yale formed the Eastern Intercollegiate Baseball League; they were later joined by Harvard, Brown, Army and Navy.", "Before the formal establishment of the Ivy League, there was an \"unwritten and unspoken agreement among certain Eastern colleges on athletic relations\".", "The earliest reference to the \"Ivy colleges\" came in 1933, when Stanley Woodward of the ''New York Herald Tribune'' used it to refer to the eight current members plus Army.", "In 1935, the Associated Press reported on an example of collaboration between the schools:Despite such collaboration, the universities did not seem to consider the formation of the league as imminent.", "Romeyn Berry, Cornell's manager of athletics, reported the situation in January 1936 as follows:Within a year of this statement and having held month-long discussions about the proposal, on December 3, 1936, the idea of \"the formation of an Ivy League\" gained enough traction among the undergraduate bodies of the universities that the ''Columbia Daily Spectator'', ''The Cornell Daily Sun'', ''The Dartmouth'', ''The Harvard Crimson'', ''The Daily Pennsylvanian'', ''The Daily Princetonian'' and the ''Yale Daily News'' would simultaneously run an editorial entitled \"Now Is the Time\", encouraging the seven universities to form the league in an effort to preserve the ideals of athletics.", "Part of the editorial read as follows:The Ivies have been competing in sports as long as intercollegiate sports have existed in the United States.", "Rowing teams from Harvard and Yale met in the first sporting event held between students of two U.S. colleges on Lake Winnipesaukee, New Hampshire, on August 3, 1852.Harvard's team, \"The Oneida\", won the race and was presented with trophy black walnut oars from then-presidential nominee General Franklin Pierce.", "The proposal did not succeed—on January 11, 1937, the athletic authorities at the schools rejected the \"possibility of a heptagonal league in football such as these institutions maintain in basketball, baseball and track.\"", "However, they noted that the league \"has such promising possibilities that it may not be dismissed and must be the subject of further consideration.", "\"====Integration of athletic competition in the ''Ivy League''====W.E.", "White (seated second from right) may have been the first African-American to play major league baseballThe integration of athletics followed a similar pattern to the overall integration of the Ivy League's in the 19th and early 20th century.", "There was no active policy that would discriminate against incorporating Black student athletes into the athletic coalition.", "Harvard has the earliest record of breaking the color barrier in athletics after recruiting William Henry Lewis to their football team in 1892.Dartmouth followed suit, with Black athletes integrating onto their football teams in 1904.Brown integrated their football team shortly after, in 1916.Cornell would follow suit in 1937.The University of Pennsylvania men's track team was the 1907 IC4A point winner.", "Left to right: Guy Haskins, R.C.", "Folwell, T.R.", "Moffitt, John Baxter Taylor, Jr., the first black athlete in the U.S. to win a gold medal in the Olympics, Nathaniel Cartmell, and J.D.", "Whitham (seated)Penn had black students on their track and field team as early as 1903 (John Baxter Taylor, Jr., the first black athlete in the U.S. to win a gold medal in the Olympics) and a black student was named captain of the track team in 1918.Columbia's track and field team would be integrated in 1934.Basketball would become integrated at Yale in 1926, at Princeton in 1947.====Post-World War II====In 1945 the presidents of the eight schools signed the first ''Ivy Group Agreement'', which set academic, financial, and athletic standards for the football teams.", "The principles established reiterated those put forward in the Harvard-Yale-Princeton presidents' Agreement of 1916.The Ivy Group Agreement established the core tenet that an applicant's ability to play on a team would not influence admissions decisions:In 1954, the presidents extended the Ivy Group Agreement to all intercollegiate sports, effective with the 1955–56 basketball season.", "This is generally reckoned as the formal formation of the Ivy League.", "As part of the transition, Brown, the only Ivy that had not joined the EIBL, did so for the 1954–55 season.", "A year later, the Ivy League absorbed the EIBL.", "The Ivy League claims the EIBL's history as its own.", "Through the EIBL, it is the oldest basketball conference in Division I.Radcliffe College, one of the Seven Sisters, fully integrated with Harvard in 1999.As late as the 1960s many of the Ivy League universities' undergraduate programs remained open only to men, with Cornell the only one to have been coeducational from its founding (1865) and Columbia being the last (1983) to become coeducational.", "Before they became coeducational, many of the Ivy schools maintained extensive social ties with nearby Seven Sisters women's colleges, including weekend visits, dances and parties inviting Ivy and Seven Sisters students to mingle.", "This was the case not only at Barnard College and Radcliffe College, which are adjacent to Columbia and Harvard, but at more distant institutions as well.", "The movie ''Animal House'' includes a satiric version of the formerly common visits by Dartmouth men to Massachusetts to meet Smith and Mount Holyoke women, a drive of more than two hours.", "As noted by Irene Harwarth, Mindi Maline, and Elizabeth DeBra, \"The 'Seven Sisters' was the name given to Barnard, Smith, Mount Holyoke, Vassar, Bryn Mawr, Wellesley, and Radcliffe, because of their parallel to the Ivy League men's colleges.", "\"In 1982 the Ivy League considered adding two members, with Army, Navy, and Northwestern as the most likely candidates; if it had done so, the league could probably have avoided being moved into the recently created Division I-AA (now Division I FCS) for football.", "In 1983, following the admission of women to Columbia College, Columbia University and Barnard College entered into an athletic consortium agreement by which students from both schools compete together on Columbia University women's athletic teams, which replaced the women's teams previously sponsored by Barnard.rowing team in the annual Harvard–Yale Regatta, 2007When Army and Navy departed the Eastern Intercollegiate Baseball League in 1992, nearly all intercollegiate competition involving the eight schools became united under the Ivy League banner.", "The two major exceptions are wrestling, with the Ivies that sponsor wrestling—all except Dartmouth and Yale—members of the EIWA and hockey, with the Ivies that sponsor hockey—all except Penn and Columbia—members of ECAC Hockey.The Ivy League was the first athletic conference to respond to the COVID-19 pandemic by shutting down all athletic competition in March 2020, leaving many Spring schedules unfinished.", "The Fall 2020 schedule was canceled in July, and winter sports were canceled before Thanksgiving.", "Of the 357 men's basketball teams in Division I, only ten did not play; the Ivy League made up eight of those ten.", "By giving up its automatic qualifying bid to March Madness, the Ivy League forfeited at least $280,000 in NCAA basketball funds.", "As a consequence of the pandemic, an unprecedented number of student athletes in the Ivy League either transferred to other schools, or temporarily unenrolled in hopes of maintaining their eligibility to play post-pandemic.", "Some Ivy alumni expressed displeasure with the League's position.", "In February 2021 it was reported that Yale declined a multi-million dollar offer from alum Joseph Tsai to create a sequestered \"bubble\" for the lacrosse team.", "The league announced in a May 2021 joint statement that \"regular athletic competition\" would resume \"across all sports\" in fall 2021.Following the Black Lives Matter protests in 2020, the Ivy League Conference committed itself to uphold \"diversity, equity, and inclusion,\" to combat racism and homophobia.", "At Brown, Columbia, Cornell, Dartmouth, Harvard, and Princeton there are Black Student Athlete groups and other affinity groups that are dedicated to ensuring their organizations are committed to anti-racism and anti-homophobia.", "In 2023, two former Brown University basketball players sued the Ivy League alleging that by denying athletic scholarships, the 1954 \"Ivy League Agreement\" is anticompetititive and violates antitrust laws.", "The lawsuit claims that the agreement constitutes price-fixing in violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, and in effect raises the cost of Ivy League education for student athletes." ], [ "Academics", "===Admissions===+ Admission statistics (Class of 2025) Applicants Admission rates '''Brown''' 46,568 5.4% '''Columbia''' 60,551 3.7% '''Cornell''' 67,380 8.7% '''Dartmouth''' 28,357 6.2% '''Harvard''' 57,435 3.4% '''Penn''' 56,333 5.7% '''Princeton''' 37,601 4.0% '''Yale''' 46,905 4.6%Nassau Hall (1756) at Princeton The Ivy League schools are highly selective, with all schools reporting acceptance rates at or below approximately 10% at all of the universities.", "For the class of 2025, six of the eight schools reported acceptance rates below 6%.", "Admitted students come from around the world, although those from the Northeastern United States make up a significant proportion of students.In 2021, all eight Ivy League schools recorded record high numbers of applications and record low acceptance rates.", "Year over year increases in the number of applicants ranged from a 14.5% increase at Princeton to a 51% increase at Columbia.There have been arguments that Ivy League schools discriminate against Asian-American candidates.", "For example, in August 2020, the US Justice Department argued that Yale University discriminated against Asian-American candidates on the basis of their race, a charge the university denied.", "Harvard was subject to a similar challenge in 2019 from an Asian American student group, with regard to which a federal judge found Harvard to be in compliance with constitutional requirements.", "The student group has since appealed that decision, and the appeal is still pending as of August 2020.===Prestige===University Hall (1770) at Brown UniversityMembers of the League have been highly ranked by various university rankings.", "All of the Ivy League schools are consistently ranked within the top 20 national universities by the ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' Best Colleges Ranking.Further, Ivy League members have produced many Nobel laureates and winners of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences.", "Another measure is endowment size per student.+ National academic rankings University(in alphabetical order) Forbes(2023) USNWR(2024) WSJ/THE(2022) '''Brown'''159 (tie)6 '''Columbia'''612 (tie)16 '''Cornell'''1212 (tie)11 '''Dartmouth'''1618 (tie)13 '''Harvard'''93 (tie)1 '''Penn'''8612 '''Princeton'''118 '''Yale'''254+ Endowment per studentUniversityPer Full Time StudentPrinceton University$3,407,138.28Yale University$2,304,579.36Harvard University$1,648,721.12Dartmouth College$914,895.11University of Pennsylvania $625,888.21Brown University$444,503.04Columbia University$399,993.63Cornell University$284,715.92===Collaboration===Collaboration between the member schools is illustrated by the student-led Ivy Council that meets in the fall and spring of each year, with representatives from every Ivy League school.", "The governing body of the Ivy League is the Council of Ivy Group presidents, composed of each university president.", "During meetings, the presidents discuss common procedures and initiatives for their universities.The universities collaborate academically through the IvyPlus Exchange Scholar Program, which allows students to cross-register at one of the Ivies or another eligible school such as Berkeley, Chicago, MIT, and Stanford." ], [ "History of diversity", "=== Racial segregation and integration ===Ivy League institutions have a complex history of racial segregation, and, eventually, integration.", "All of the universities in the Ivy League besides Cornell University were chartered during the American era of slavery.", "In 2003, Brown University was the first of the Ivies to take accountability for their historic ties to slavery and the transatlantic slave trade.", "Following Brown, other Ivy League universities formed committees to examine their ties to slavery, and found various institutional relationships to slavery.", "Yale University, for example, used profits from slave traders and owners to fund its first scholarships, libraries, and faculty positions.", "To date, some of Yale's residential colleges are named after slave traders and supporters.", "The investigations at Harvard, Princeton, Columbia, and the University of Pennsylvania all found that, in the century following their charters, enslaved Black people lived on campus to care for students, professors, or the universities' presidents.", "Notably, Princeton's first nine presidents were slave owners, and in 1766, a slave auction reportedly took place on Princeton's campus.", "A small number of Black people did attend Ivy League institutions as students during their early years.", "These early students, however, were not always granted degrees.", "For example, some Black students were recorded studying privately with the Princeton University president as early as 1774, but no Black students received Princeton degrees until the middle of the twentieth century.", "Jonathan and Philip Gayienquitioga, two brothers of the Mohawk People, were the first people of color to enroll at Penn in 1755 after being recruited by Benjamin Franklin to attend the Academy of Philadelphia (then part of Penn), but there is no evidence that either earned a degree as the first native American to graduate Penn did not occur until 1847, when Robert Daniel Ross (a member of the Cherokee Nation) graduated with a degree from Penn's medical school.==== 19th and early 20th centuries ====In 1900, W. E. B.", "Du Bois oversaw and edited ''The College-bred Negro''.", "a study on Black integration in colleges and universities that found a combined total of 52 Black students had graduated from Ivy League schools in their collective histories.", "Since no official policies prohibited schools in the Ivy League from admitting students of color each university in the League had different policies regarding the admission of Black students.", "Dartmouth's first Black student graduated in 1828, while Princeton would only admit their first Black student under the V-12 Navy College Training Program in the 1940s.Early Black student admits to Ivy League universities were controversial and often faced backlash.", "Dartmouth initially denied its first Black graduate, Edward Mitchell, supposedly to avoid \"offending students\".", "Dartmouth students protested this decision, leading to Mitchell's admission in 1824.Richard Henry Green was awarded an MD degree by Dartmouth College in 1864.Harvard admitted its first Black student, Beverly Garnett Williams, in 1847.News of his admission incited protests by Harvard students and faculty.", "Williams died before the academic year began, however, and never matriculated.", "Richard Theodore Greener was the first African American to receive a Harvard degree in 1870.Between 1890 and 1940, an average of three Black men enrolled at Harvard per year.", "In 1923, Harvard's Board of Overseers overruled University President Abbot Lawrence's ban on Black students living in dorms, announcing that all freshmen would be permitted to live in dorms regardless of race, but upheld that “men of the white and colored races shall not be compelled to live and eat together.\"", "Brown seems to have refused admission to Black students outright prior to the Civil War.", "Abolitionist Elizabeth Buffum Chase wrote in her book ''Anti Slavery Reminiscences'' about \"a lad of rare excellence and attainments who was refused an examination for admission by the authorities of Brown University on account of the color of his skin.\"", "Inman Page was the first Black student to graduate from Brown in 1877, and was class speaker.William Adger, James Brister, and Nathan Francis Mossell were the first Black students enrolled at Penn in 1879.Brister graduated from the School of Dental Medicine (Penn Dental) in 1881 as the first African American to earn a degree from Penn, while Adger was the first African American to graduate from the college in 1883.Columbia University has claimed that four Black students earned University degrees between 1875 and 1900, though their names are apparently unknown.Yale's Edward Bouchet, was the first Black person (a) elected to Phi Beta Kappa in the US in 1874 and (b) to earn a Ph.D. from any American university, completing his dissertation in physics in 1876.Bouchet was thought to have been the first African-American graduate of Yale, but research publicized in 2014 reported that Yale awarded a Black man, Richard Henry Green, a bachelor of arts degree in 1857.Cornell seemed the most inclusive of the Ivy Leagues at its inception, with admission open to any race and gender.", "University co-founder Andrew Dickson White wrote in1874 that the school had ''\"''no colored students...at present but shall be very glad to receive any who are prepared to enter...if even one offered himself and passed the examinations, we should receive him even if all our five hundred white students were to ask for dismissal on that account.\"", "In 1890, Charles Chauveau Cook and Jane Eleanor Datcher were the first Black students awarded four-year undergraduate Cornell degrees.", "Despite this, Black students faced legal and social segregation in the town of Ithaca, New York.", "In 1905, Black students reported being denied housing while attending Cornell.Princeton University, sometimes referred to as the \"Southern-most Ivy\", was the last to integrate.", "In Du Bois' ''The College-bred Negro'' (1900)'','' a Princeton representative is quoted: \"We have never had any colored students here, though there is nothing in the University statutes to prevent their admission.", "It is possible, however, in view of our proximity to the South and the large number of southern students here, that Negro students would find Princeton less comfortable than some other institutions.\"", "Notably, in 1939, Princeton revoked admittance to Black student Bruce Wright upon his arrival on campus, when Director of Admission Radcliffe Heermance noticed Wright's race.", "When a disappointed Wright wrote Heermance requesting an explanation, Heermance responded:\"I cannot conscientiously advise a colored student to apply for admission to Princeton simply because I do not think that he would be happy in this environment.", "There are no colored students in the University and a member of your race might feel very much alone...My personal experience would enforce my advice to any colored student that he would be happier in an environment of others of his race, and that he would adjust himself far more easily to the life of a New England college or university, or one of the large state universities than he would to a residential college of this particular type.", "\"The few early Black students admitted to Ivy League universities were often from wealthy Caribbean families.", "Barriers preventing African American students from attending Ivy League universities included the universities' policies, poor recruitment, tuition costs, and the lack of secondary education opportunities in a racially segregated country.", "More Black students attended Ivy League graduate and professional schools than their undergraduate programs.", "By the middle of the 20th century, only 54 Black men and women had graduated with a Bachelor degree from Ivy League universities.==== Late 20th century ====By the middle of the 20th century, some Ivy League students and alumni were advocating for increased racial integration efforts.", "These efforts were met with mixed reactions from the schools themselves.", "Without a goal for integration shared by the institutions as a collective, each school increased racial diversity at different rates, with Dartmouth having 120 Black undergraduates in the class of 1945 and Princeton having a cumulative total of fewer than 100 Black undergraduates by 1967.The V-12 Navy College Training Program in 1942 effectively forced all eight Ivy institutions to increase Black student enrollment.", "At Princeton University, the Black students in this program were the first ever granted bachelor's degrees by the University.The 1954 Supreme Court decision in ''Brown v. Board of Education'' did not require private universities like those in the Ivy League to abide by the ruling.", "It wasn't until the Court's 1976 decision in ''Runyon v. McCrary'' that private institutions became legally prohibited from discriminating on the basis of race.", "By the early 1960s, however, some admissions offices in the Ivy League began to make concerted efforts to increase their number of Black applicants, rolling out initiatives that actively sought Black talent from high schools.", "Efforts for racial integration at Ivy League institutions relied on the support of student organizations, faculty-led initiatives, and third-party organizations like the National Scholarship Service and Fund for Negro Students to seek prospective Black applicants.", "These efforts also prompted internal University action, such as the creation of Cornell's Committee on Special Educational Projects (COSEP), an organization aimed to recruit and support Black students.", "By 1965, however, Black students still were only 2% of admitted students across all the Ivies.Prior to the 1960s, the majority of Ivy League universities explicitly prohibited the admission of women, instead forming partnerships with nearby women's colleges.", "As such, Black women were not able to attend Ivy League universities until they changed their policies.", "Lillian Lincoln Lambert was the first Black woman to receive a degree from Harvard University after graduating with a master's degree from Harvard Business School in 1969.Lincoln Lambert was also a founding member of Harvard's African American Student Union, which according to her, actively recruited Black students and created \"a space where Black students could find not only support but resources for everything from barber shops that cut Black hair to churches.", "\"As Black student populations grew at Ivy League schools, on-campus activism saw an increase during the civil rights movement.", "In 1969, students in Cornell's Afro-American Society led an armed occupation of Willard Straight Hall to protest the university's racist policies and “its slow progress in establishing a Black studies program.” In the same year, students associated with Yale's New Left organization, Students for a Democratic Society, worked closely with the New Haven Black Panthers to lead sit-ins and protests that advocated for the admission of more students of color and the establishment of an African American studies department.", "At Brown University, identity-based student organizations such as the United African People and the African American Society called for an increase to the number of Black faculty and increased attention to the needs of Black students.", "Demonstrations at Harvard and Columbia took the form of occupations and non-violent sit-ins that were often subject to forceful removal by local police called by University administrators.", "Activism at Dartmouth took a different shape during this time period, as students would use demonstrations that were happening at other Ivies and colleges around the country, to effectively position their demands for progress within the prospect of taking actions similar to those happening elsewhere.==== 21st century ====Continuing the trajectory of the late 20th century, the number of Black students on Ivy League campuses has continued to increase in the 21st century.", "From 2006 to 2018, there was an approximated 50% increase in the admission of Black students into entering classes, growing from 1,110 to 1,663.As of 2018, the Ivy League universities unanimously supported Harvard University's “race-conscious admissions” model.", "Harvard University representatives credited this form of affirmative action as one of the factors increasing campus diversity.In 2014 case ''Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action'', — the Supreme Court upheld Michigan's ban on affirmative action for public institutions and in 2016 in''Fisher v. University of Texas II'', the court upheld the university's limited use of race in admissions decisions because the university showed it had a clear goal of limited scope without other workable race-neutral means to achieve it.However, in 2023 — ''Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College'', the United States Supreme Court overruled the decades old decisions''Regents of University of California v. Bakke'' and ''Grutter v. Bollinger'' and other cases mentioned above in this paragraph but disallowing non-individualized racial preferences in admissions for civilian universities.", "In essence, the court interpreted the Fourteenth Amendment as not permitting Harvard's “race-conscious admissions” as the court decision now forbids the consideration of race in higher education admissions.Institutions in favor of Harvard's model argue that in addition to academic excellence they also aim to form a diverse student body, while individuals that argue against the model state that it is discriminatory against certain applicants.The growing Black student population in Ivy League universities in the early 2000s was accompanied by an increase in the number of Black faculty at these institutions, though rates of change among faculty have been slower and inconsistent.", "In 2005, 588– or about 3.9%– of the Ivies' 14,831 full-time faculty members were Black.", "This proportion decreased to 3.4% in 2015.Notably, in 2001, Ruth J. Simmons became the president of Brown University, making her the first and only Black president of an Ivy League institution.The 21st century saw the continuation of demonstrations by Ivy League students revolving around race.", "Many of these demonstrations have sought to continue the work of their 20th century predecessors by advocating for increased admission and support of Black students.", "In light of the ''Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College'' Supreme Court case, students from Yale and Harvard joined other universities in protesting in defense of race-conscious admissions policies.Likewise, Black students from Ivy League institutions continue to protest for the betterment of Black students' lives on campus and beyond.", "Following Michael Brown's death in 2014, students across the Ivies formed the Black Ivy Coalition, which included members from all eight institutions and aimed to combat anti-Black racism.", "Individual Ivy League universities also formed their own advocacy organizations and movements as a direct response to instances of anti-Black violence.", "After the murder of Michael Brown, Princeton University students formed the Black Justice League, which in 2015, occupied Nassau Hall and presented a list of demands to university administrators.", "Similarly, in 2017, Cornell students made demands to their administration protesting the assault of a Black student.", "Led by Black Students United, the demands included banning the Psi Upsilon fraternity for hate crimes, implementing implicit bias training, and introducing policies to increase the number of Black students at the university.Student demonstrations have also focused on sparking change beyond Ivy League campuses.", "Following the Black Lives Matter protests in 2020, Harvard's Black Law Students Association, beyond calling for more Black faculty, critical race theory curriculum, and protection for student protestors, also called on the university to divest from prisons and denounce state-sanctioned violence.In response to racially charged incidents across the country and prompting from student activists, Ivy League universities have removed and renamed campus landmarks.", "In response to the 2016 Black Lives Matter protests, Cornell renamed their botanical gardens, previously called the \"Cornell Plantations,\" to the \"Cornell Botanical Gardens.\"", "In 2018, Brown renamed one of its largest academic and administrative buildings after its first black graduates, Inman E. Page and Ethel Tremaine Robinson.", "In response to the murder of George Floyd in 2020, Princeton University removed Woodrow Wilson's name from a residential college and the School of Public and International Affairs because of his “racist thinking and policies.”===Fashion and lifestyle===rowing team.", "Rowing is often associated with traditional upper class New England cultureDifferent fashion trends and styles have emerged from Ivy League campuses over time, and fashion trends such as Ivy League and preppy are styles often associated with the Ivy League and its culture.Ivy League style is a style of men's dress, popular during the late 1950s, believed to have originated on Ivy League campuses.", "The clothing stores J.", "Press and Brooks Brothers represent perhaps the quintessential Ivy League dress manner.", "The Ivy League style is said to be the predecessor to the preppy style of dress.Preppy fashion started around 1912 to the late 1940s and 1950s as the Ivy League style of dress.", "J.", "Press represents the quintessential preppy clothing brand, stemming from the collegiate traditions that shaped the preppy subculture.", "In the mid-twentieth century J.", "Press and Brooks Brothers, both being pioneers in preppy fashion, had stores on Ivy League school campuses, including Harvard, Yale, and Princeton.Some typical preppy styles also reflect traditional upper class New England leisure activities, such as equestrian, sailing or yachting, hunting, fencing, rowing, lacrosse, tennis, golf, and rugby.", "Longtime New England outdoor outfitters, such as L.L.", "Bean, became part of conventional preppy style.", "This can be seen in sport stripes and colors, equestrian clothing, plaid shirts, field jackets and nautical-themed accessories.", "Vacationing in Palm Beach, Florida, long popular with the East Coast upper class, led to the emergence of bright colors combinations in leisure wear seen in some brands such as Lilly Pulitzer.", "By the 1980s, other brands such as Lacoste, Izod and Dooney & Bourke became associated with preppy style.Though the Ivy League style is most commonly associated with the white, male elites that historically made up Ivy League campuses, the style was quickly popularized among Black communities during the civil rights era.", "Reinterpretations of this style by African-American men in the 1950s and 1960s combined the preppy Ivy League style with other popular Black styles of dress.", "This led to the emergence of a new style of dress, the Black Ivy style.Today, Ivy League styles continue to be popular on Ivy League campuses, throughout the U.S., and abroad, and are oftentimes labeled as \"Classic American style\" or \"Traditional American style\".===Social elitism===A cartoon portrait of the stereotypical Columbia man, 1902The Ivy League is often associated with the upper class White Anglo-Saxon Protestant community of the Northeast, Old money, or more generally, the American upper middle and upper classes.", "Although most Ivy League students come from upper-middle and upper-class families, the student body has become increasingly more economically and ethnically diverse.", "The universities provide significant financial aid to help increase the enrollment of lower income and middle class students.", "Several reports suggest, however, that the proportion of students from less-affluent families remains low.Phrases such as \"Ivy League snobbery\" are ubiquitous in nonfiction and fiction writing of the early and mid-twentieth century.", "A Louis Auchincloss character dreads \"the aridity of snobbery which he knew infected the Ivy League colleges\".", "A business writer, warning in 2001 against discriminatory hiring, presented a cautionary example of an attitude to avoid (the bracketed phrase is his):The phrase ''Ivy League'' historically has been perceived as connected not only with academic excellence but also with social elitism.", "In 1936, sportswriter John Kieran noted that student editors at Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Princeton, Cornell, Dartmouth, and Penn were advocating the formation of an athletic association.", "In urging them to consider \"Army and Navy and Georgetown and Fordham and Syracuse and Brown and Pitt\" as candidates for membership, he exhorted:Aspects of Ivy stereotyping were illustrated during the 1988 presidential election, when George H. W. Bush (Yale '48) derided Michael Dukakis (graduate of Harvard Law School) for having \"foreign-policy views born in Harvard Yard's boutique.\"", "''New York Times'' columnist Maureen Dowd asked \"Wasn't this a case of the pot calling the kettle elite?\"", "Bush explained, however, that, unlike Harvard, Yale's reputation was \"so diffuse, there isn't a symbol, I don't think, in the Yale situation, any symbolism in it.", "... Harvard boutique to me has the connotation of liberalism and elitism\" and said ''Harvard'' in his remark was intended to represent \"a philosophical enclave\" and not a statement about class.", "Columnist Russell Baker opined that \"Voters inclined to loathe and fear elite Ivy League schools rarely make fine distinctions between Yale and Harvard.", "All they know is that both are full of rich, fancy, stuck-up and possibly dangerous intellectuals who never sit down to supper in their undershirt no matter how hot the weather gets.\"", "Still, the next five consecutive presidents all attended Ivy League schools for at least part of their education—George H. W. Bush (Yale undergrad), Bill Clinton (Yale Law School), George W. Bush (Yale undergrad, Harvard Business School), Barack Obama (Columbia undergrad, Harvard Law School), and Donald Trump (Penn undergrad).=== U.S. presidents in the Ivy League ===Franklin Delano Roosevelt, third from left, top row, with his Harvard class in 1904Of the 45 persons who have served as President of the United States, 16 have graduated from an Ivy League university.", "Of them, eight have degrees from Harvard, five from Yale, three from Columbia, two from Princeton and one from Penn.", "Twelve presidents have earned Ivy undergraduate degrees.", "Four of these were transfer students: Woodrow Wilson transferred from Davidson College, Barack Obama transferred from Occidental College, Donald Trump transferred from Fordham University, and John F. Kennedy transferred from Princeton to Harvard.", "John Adams was the first president to graduate from college, graduating from Harvard in 1755.President School(s) Graduation year John AdamsHarvard University1755 James MadisonPrinceton University1771 John Quincy AdamsHarvard University1787 William Henry HarrisonUniversity of Pennsylvania(withdrew, class of 1793) Rutherford B. HayesHarvard Law School1845 Theodore RooseveltHarvard UniversityColumbia Law School1880(withdrew, class of 1882) William Howard TaftYale University1878 Woodrow WilsonPrinceton University 1879 Franklin D. RooseveltHarvard UniversityColumbia Law School1903(withdrew, class of 1907) John F. KennedyPrinceton UniversityHarvard University(withdrew)1940 Gerald FordYale Law School1941 George H. W. BushYale University1948 Bill ClintonYale Law School1973 George W. BushYale UniversityHarvard Business School19681975 Barack ObamaColumbia UniversityHarvard Law School19831991 Donald TrumpUniversity of Pennsylvania1968" ], [ "Student demographics", "===Race and ethnicity===+ '''Racial and ethnic background (2020)''' College Asian Black Hispanic (of any race) Non-Hispanic White Other/International Two or more races Unknown '''Brown''' 16% 7% 10% 39% 18% 5% 4% '''Columbia''' 13% 5% 8% 31% 35% 3% 4% '''Cornell''' 17% 6% 11% 34% 22% 4% 6% '''Dartmouth''' 14% 5% 9% 48% 17% 5% 3% '''Harvard''' 14% 7% 9% 40% 23% 4% 3% '''Penn''' 18% 7% 8% 40% 20% 4% 3% '''Princeton''' 19% 6% 9% 35% 23% 5% 3% '''Yale''' 16% 7% 11% 39% 21% 5% 1% '''United States''' 6% 14% 19% 59% 2% 3% —===Geographic distribution===Students of the Ivy League largely hail from the Northeast, largely from the New York City, Boston, and Philadelphia areas.", "As all eight Ivy League universities are within the Northeast, most graduates end up working and residing in the Northeast after graduation.", "An unscientific survey of Harvard seniors from the Class of 2013 found that 42% hailed from the Northeast and 55% overall were planning on working and residing in the Northeast.", "Boston and New York City are traditionally where many Ivy League graduates end up living.===Socioeconomics and social class===+ Family income of students (2013) College Median Top 1% Top 10% Top 20% Bottom 20% '''Brown''' $204,200 19% 60% 70% 4.1% '''Columbia''' $150,900 13% 48% 62% 5.1% '''Cornell''' $151,600 10% 48% 64% 3.8% '''Dartmouth''' $200,400 21% 58% 69% 2.6% '''Harvard''' $168,800 15% 53% 67% 4.5% '''Penn''' $195,500 19% 45% 58% 3.3% '''Princeton''' $186,100 17% 58% 72% 2.2% '''Yale''' $192,600 19% 57% 69% 2.1%alt=Students of the Ivy League, both graduate and undergraduate, come primarily from upper middle and upper class families.", "In recent years, however, the universities have looked towards increasing socioeconomic and class diversity, by providing greater financial aid packages to applicants from lower, working, and lower middle class American families.In 2013, a Harvard Crimson writer estimated that 46% of Harvard undergraduate students came from families in the top 3.8% of all American households (i.e., over $200,000 annual income).", "In 2012, the bottom 25% of the American income distribution accounted for only 3–4% of students at Brown, a figure that had remained unchanged since 1992.In 2014, 69% of incoming freshmen students at Yale College came from families with annual incomes of over $120,000, putting most Yale College students in the upper-middle and upper classes.", "(The median household income in the U.S. in 2013 was $52,700.", ")In the 2011–2012 academic year, students qualifying for Pell Grants (federally funded scholarships on the basis of need) constituted 20% at Harvard, 18% at Cornell, 17% at Penn, 16% at Columbia, 15% at Dartmouth and Brown, 14% at Yale, and 12% at Princeton.", "Nationally, 35% of American university students qualify for a Pell Grant.=== Graduation rates ===+Graduation rate by race/ethnicity (2022)CollegeAmerican Indian orAlaska NativeAsianBlackHispanic(of any race )Native Hawaiian orOther Pacific IslanderNon-Hispanic WhiteTwo or moreracesUnknown'''Brown'''57%96%95%95% -97%98%96%'''Columbia'''83%98%95%98%50%98%95%100%'''Cornell'''73%96%90%90%75%95%95%94%'''Dartmouth'''96%96%82%93%100%95%93%83%'''Harvard'''75%98%96%97% -97%98%100%'''Penn'''100%97%96%95% -96%99%98%'''Princeton'''100%99%95%99%100%99%96%94%'''Yale'''100%99%95%95% -97%97%100%" ], [ "Faculty demographics", "=== Race and ethnicity ===+ '''Racial and ethnic background (2021/2022)''' College Asian Black Hispanic (of any race) Non-Hispanic White '''Native American,''''''Native Alaskan or''''''Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander''' Two or more races Unknown\"Under Represented Minorities\" &\"Historically Underrepresented Groups\" '''Brown''' - - - 86% - -13% '''Columbia''' 19% - - 63% - - 3%12% '''Cornell''' 12% ''8%'' ''(Combined''''with Black)'' 72% - - 7% - '''Dartmouth''' 9% 4% 6% 80% 1% 2% - - '''Harvard''' 12% 4% 3% 79% .1% 1% - - '''Penn''' ''17%'' 4% 5% 71% ''(Combined with Asian)'' 1% .7% - '''Princeton''' 11% 4% 3% 78% 0% 0% 4% - '''Yale''' 21% 5% 5% 62% - 1% 6% -" ], [ "Competition and athletics", "The Yale Bowl during a football game against CornellIvy champions are recognized in sixteen men's and sixteen women's sports.", "In some sports, Ivy teams actually compete as members of another league, the Ivy championship being decided by isolating the members' records in play against each other; for example, the six league members who participate in ice hockey do so as members of ECAC Hockey, but an Ivy champion is extrapolated each year.", "In one sport, rowing, the Ivies recognize team champions for each sex in both heavyweight and lightweight divisions.", "While the Intercollegiate Rowing Association governs all four sex- and bodyweight-based divisions of rowing, the only one that is sanctioned by the NCAA is women's heavyweight.", "The Ivy League was the last Division I basketball conference to institute a conference postseason tournament; the first tournaments for men and women were held at the end of the 2016–17 season.", "The tournaments only award the Ivy League automatic bids for the NCAA Division I Men's and Women's Basketball Tournaments; the official conference championships continue to be awarded based solely on regular-season results.", "Before the 2016–17 season, the automatic bids were based solely on regular-season record, with a one-game playoff (or series of one-game playoffs if more than two teams were tied) held to determine the automatic bid.", "The Ivy League is one of only two Division I conferences which award their official basketball championships solely on regular-season results; the other is the Southeastern Conference.", "Since its inception, an Ivy League school has yet to win either the men's or women's Division I NCAA basketball tournament.Brown plays Columbia in basketball, 2020On average, each Ivy school has more than 35 varsity teams.", "All eight are in the top 20 for number of sports offered for both men and women among Division I schools.", "Unlike most Division I athletic conferences, the Ivy League prohibits the granting of athletic scholarships; all scholarships awarded are need-based (financial aid).", "In addition, the Ivies have a rigid policy against redshirting, even for medical reasons; an athlete loses a year of eligibility for every year enrolled at an Ivy institution.", "Additionally, the Ivies prohibit graduate students from participating in intercollegiate athletics, even if they have remaining athletic eligibility.", "The only exception to the ban on graduate students was that seniors graduating in 2021 were allowed to play at their current institutions as graduate students in 2021–22.This was a one-time-only response to the Ivies shutting down most intercollegiate athletics in 2020–21 due to COVID-19.Ivy League teams' non-league games are often against the members of the Patriot League, which have similar academic standards and athletic scholarship policies (although unlike the Ivies, the Patriot League allows both redshirting and play by eligible graduate students).In the time before recruiting for college sports became dominated by those offering athletic scholarships and lowered academic standards for athletes, the Ivy League was successful in many sports relative to other universities in the country.", "In particular, Princeton won 26 recognized national championships in college football (last in 1935), and Yale won 18 (last in 1927).", "Both of these totals are considerably higher than those of other historically strong programs such as Alabama, which has won 15, Notre Dame, which claims 11 but is credited by many sources with 13, and USC, which has won 11.Yale, whose coach Walter Camp was the \"Father of American Football,\" held on to its place as the all-time wins leader in college football throughout the entire 20th century, but was finally passed by Michigan on November 10, 2001.Harvard, Yale, Princeton and Penn each have over a dozen former scholar-athletes enshrined in the College Football Hall of Fame.", "Currently Dartmouth holds the record for most Ivy League football titles, with 18, followed closely by Harvard and Penn, each with 17 titles.", "In addition, the Ivy League has produced Super Bowl winners Kevin Boothe (Cornell), two-time Pro Bowler Zak DeOssie (Brown), Sean Morey (Brown), All-Pro selection Matt Birk (Harvard), Calvin Hill (Yale), Derrick Harmon (Cornell) and 1999 \"Mr.", "Irrelevant\" Jim Finn (Penn).Penn (left) plays Cornell (right), 2019Beginning with the 1982 football season, the Ivy League has competed in Division I-AA (renamed FCS The Ivy League teams are eligible for the FCS tournament held to determine the national champion, and the league champion is eligible for an automatic bid (and any other team may qualify for an at-large selection) from the NCAA.", "However, since its inception in 1956, the Ivy League has not played any postseason games due to concerns about the extended December schedule's effects on academics.", "(The last postseason game for a member was , the 1934 Rose Bowl, won by For this reason, any Ivy League team invited to the FCS playoffs turns down the bid.", "The Ivy League plays a strict 10-game schedule, compared to other FCS members' schedules of 11 (or, in some seasons, 12) regular season games, plus post-season, which expanded in 2013 to five rounds with 24 teams, with a bye week for the top eight teams.", "Football is the only sport in which the Ivy League declines to compete for a national title.In addition to varsity football, Penn and Cornell also field teams in the 9-team Collegiate Sprint Football League, in which all players must weigh 178 pounds or less.", "With Princeton canceling its program in 2016, Penn is the last remaining founding members of the league from its 1934 debut, and Cornell is the next-oldest, joining in 1937.Yale and Columbia previously fielded teams in the league but no longer do so.===Teams===+ '''Teams in Ivy League competition'''Sport Men's Women'sBaseballBasketball88Cross-country88Fencing67Field hockey|8FootballGolf87Ice hockey66Lacrosse78Rowing 77Soccer88Softball|8Squash88Swimming and diving88Tennis88Track and field (indoor)88Track and field (outdoor)88Volleyball|8Wrestling===Men's sponsored sports by school=== School Baseball Basketball Cross Country Fencing Football Golf Lacrosse Rowing Soccer Squash Swimming & Diving Tennis Track & Field(Indoor) Track & Field(Outdoor) Total Ivy League Sports Brown 10 Columbia 13 Cornell 13 Dartmouth 13 Harvard 14 Penn 14 Princeton 14 Yale 13Totals 8 8 8 5 8 7 7 6 8 7 8 8 8 8 104====Men's varsity sports not sponsored by the Ivy League==== School Crew Ice Hockey1 Polo Sailing Skiing Volleyball Water Polo Wrestling2 Brown Independent ECAC Hockey No Independent No No CWPA EIWA Columbia No No No No No No No EIWA Cornell No ECAC Hockey Independent No No No No EIWA Dartmouth No ECAC Hockey No Independent Independent No No No Harvard No ECAC Hockey No Independent Independent EIVA CWPA EIWA Penn No No No No No No No EIWA Princeton No ECAC Hockey No No No EIVA CWPA EIWA Yale Independent ECAC Hockey No Independent No No No NoNotes:1: Though the Ivy League lists ice hockey as a sponsored sport, all six ice hockey playing Ivy League schools participate as members of ECAC Hockey.2: Though the Ivy League lists wrestling as a sponsored sport, all six Ivy League schools with wrestling teams currently participate as members of the Eastern Intercollegiate Wrestling Association.", "On December 19, 2023, the Ivy League announced that the inaugural Ivy League Tournament will be instituted for the 2024-25 season, ending over a century of affiliation with EIWA.", "The winner of the ILT will receive Automatic Qualification to the NCAA tournament.===Women's sponsored sports by school=== School Basketball Cross Country Fencing Field Hockey Golf Lacrosse Rowing Soccer Softball Squash Swimming & Diving Tennis Track & Field(Indoor) Track & Field(Outdoor) Volleyball Total Ivy League Sports Brown 12 Columbia 15 Cornell 14 Dartmouth 14 Harvard 15 Penn 15 Princeton 15 Yale 15Totals 8 8 7 8 6 8 7 8 8 7 8 8 8 8 8 115====Women's varsity sports not sponsored by the Ivy League==== School Archery Crew Equestrian Gymnastics Ice Hockey1 Polo Rugby2 Sailing Skiing Water Polo Brown No Independent Independent Independent ECAC Hockey No Independent Independent No CWPA Columbia Independent No No No No No No No No No Cornell No No Independent Independent ECAC Hockey Independent No Independent No No Dartmouth No No Independent No ECAC Hockey No Independent Independent Independent No Harvard No No No No ECAC Hockey No Independent Independent Independent CWPA Penn No No No Independent No No No No No No Princeton No No No No ECAC Hockey No Independent No No CWPA Yale No No No Independent ECAC Hockey No No Independent No NoNotes:1: Though the Ivy League lists ice hockey as a sponsored sport, all six ice hockey playing Ivy League schools participate as members of ECAC Hockey.2.The Ivy League is home to some of the oldest college rugby teams in the United States.", "Although none of the men's teams and half of the women's teams are not \"varsity\" sports, they all compete against each other as part of the Ivy Rugby Conference in addition to their own local conferences.", "Four of the women's teams (Brown, Dartmouth, Harvard, and Princeton) play as part of the NCAA emerging sport category.===Historical results===+ Total championships won (1956–2017)InstitutionIvy League championshipsNCAA team championshipsPrinceton University Tigers47612Harvard University Crimson4154Cornell University Big Red2315University of Pennsylvania Quakers2103Yale University Bulldogs2023Dartmouth College Big Green1403Brown University Bears1237Columbia University Lions10511The table above includes the number of team championships won from the beginning of official Ivy League competition (1956–57 academic year) through 2016–17.Princeton and Harvard have on occasion won ten or more Ivy League titles in a year, an achievement accomplished 10 times by Harvard and 24 times by Princeton, including a conference-record 15 championships in 2010–11.Only once has one of the other six schools earned more than eight titles in a single academic year (Cornell with nine in 2005–06).", "In the 38 academic years beginning 1979–80, Princeton has averaged 10 championships per year, one-third of the conference total of 33 sponsored sports.In the 12 academic years beginning 2005–06 Princeton has won championships in 31 different sports, all except wrestling and men's tennis.===Rivalries===lacrosse rivalsPerformance of a Greek play at Harvard Stadium in 1903Rivalries run deep in the Ivy League.", "For instance, Princeton and Penn are longstanding men's basketball rivals; \"Puck Frinceton\" T-shirts are worn by Quaker fans at games.", "In only 11 instances in the history of Ivy League basketball, and in only seven seasons since Yale's 1962 title, has neither Penn nor Princeton won at least a share of the Ivy League title in basketball, with Princeton champion or co-champion 26 times and Penn 25 times.", "Penn has won 21 outright, Princeton 19 outright.", "Princeton has been a co-champion 7 times, sharing 4 of those titles with Penn (these 4 seasons represent the only times Penn has been co-champion).", "In addition to their athletic rivalry, both Princeton and UPenn also have a connection to the Ivy Day tradition.", "Ivy Day is a traditional ceremony that takes place in the spring, where seniors don caps and gowns and march through campus carrying ivy chains, which are symbolic of the ivy-covered walls of their schools.", "While Ivy Day is not unique to Princeton and Penn, the two schools do have a particularly strong connection to the tradition.Harvard won its first title of either variety in 2011, losing a dramatic play-off game to Princeton for the NCAA tournament bid, then rebounded to win outright championships in 2012, 2013, and 2014.Harvard also won the 2013 Great Alaska Shootout, defeating TCU to become the only Ivy League school to win the now-defunct tournament.Rivalries exist between other Ivy league teams in other sports, including Cornell and Harvard in hockey, Harvard and Princeton in swimming, and Harvard and Penn in football (Penn and Harvard have won 28 Ivy League Football Championships since 1982, Penn-16; Harvard-12).", "During that time Penn has had 8 undefeated Ivy League Football Championships and Harvard has had 6 undefeated Ivy League Football Championships.", "In men's lacrosse, Cornell and Princeton are perennial rivals, and they are two of three Ivy League teams to have won the NCAA tournament.", "In 2009, the Big Red and Tigers met for their 70th game in the NCAA tournament.", "No team other than Harvard or Princeton has won the men's swimming conference title outright since 1972, although Yale, Columbia, and Cornell have shared the title with Harvard and Princeton during this time.", "Similarly, no program other than Princeton and Harvard has won the women's swimming championship since Brown's 1999 title.", "Princeton or Cornell has won every indoor and outdoor track and field championship, both men's and women's, every year since 2002–03, with one exception (Columbia women won the indoor championship in 2012).", "Harvard and Yale are football and crew rivals although the competition has become unbalanced; Harvard has won all but one of the last 15 football games and all but one of the last 13 crew races.The Ingalls Rink, Yale's primary hockey facility====Intra-conference football rivalries====TeamsNameTrophyFirst metGames playedSeries recordColumbia-CornellEmpire State BowlEmpire Cup1889103 games36–64–3Cornell-DartmouthNoneNone1900103 games41–61–1Cornell-PennNoneTrustee's Cup1893122 games46–71–5Dartmouth-HarvardNoneNone1882123 games47–71–5Dartmouth-PrincetonNoneSawhorse Dollar1897100 games50–46–4Harvard-PennNoneNone188190 games49–39–2Harvard-PrincetonNoneNone1877112 games57–48–7Harvard-YaleThe GameNone1875132 games59–65–8Penn-PrincetonNoneNone1876111 games67–43–1Princeton-YaleNoneNone1873138 games52–76–10The Yale–Princeton series is the nation's second-longest by games played, exceeded only by \"The Rivalry\" between Lehigh and Lafayette, which began later in 1884 but included two or three games in each of 17 early seasons.", "For the first three decades of the Yale-Princeton rivalry, the two played their season-ending game at a neutral site, usually New York City, and with one exception (1890: Harvard), the winner of the game also won at least a share of the national championship that year, covering the period 1869 through 1903.This phenomenon of a finale contest at a neutral site for the national title created a social occasion for the society elite of the metropolitan area akin to a Super Bowl in the era prior to the establishment of the NFL in 1920.These football games were also financially profitable for the two universities, so much that they began to play baseball games in New York City as well, drawing record crowds for that sport also, largely from the same social demographic.", "In a period when the only professional team sports were fledgling baseball leagues, these high-profile early contests between Princeton and Yale played a role in popularizing spectator sports, demonstrating their financial potential and raising public awareness of Ivy universities at a time when few people attended college.====Extra-conference football rivalries====TeamsNameTrophyFirst metGames playedSeries recordBrown-Rhode IslandNoneGovernor's Cup190998 games70–26–2Columbia-FordhamNoneLiberty Cup189024 games12–12–0Cornell-ColgateNoneNone189695 games48–44–3Dartmouth-New HampshireGranite BowlGranite Bowl Trophy190137 games17–18–2Harvard-Holy CrossNoneNone190467 games41–24–2Penn-LafayetteNoneNone188290 games63–23–4Penn-LehighNoneNone188556 games43–13Princeton-RutgersNoneNone186971 games53–17–1Yale-ArmyNoneNone189345 games22–16–8Yale-ConnecticutNoneNone194849 games32–17" ], [ "Championships", "===NCAA team championships===This list, which is current through January 8, 2018, includes NCAA championships and women's AIAW championships (one each for Yale and Dartmouth and five for Cornell).", "Excluded from this list are all other national championships earned outside the scope of NCAA competition, including football titles and retroactive Helms Foundation titles.", "School Total Men Women Co-ed NicknameYale University292630BulldogsPrinceton University241941TigersColumbia University141103LionsHarvard University10721CrimsonBrown University7070BearsCornell University10550Big RedDartmouth College5113Big GreenUniversity of Pennsylvania4310Quakers" ], [ "Athletic facilities", " Brown Stadium 1925Pizzitola Sports Center|1989Murray Stadium 1959Meehan Auditorium 1961Stevenson Field 1979 Robert K. Kraft Field at Lawrence A. Wien Stadium|1984Levien Gymnasium 1974Robertson Field at Satow Stadium|1923 ''Non-hockey school''Commisso Soccer Stadium 1985 Schoellkopf Field 1915Newman Arena 1990Hoy Field 1922Lynah Rink 1957Charles F. Berman Field|2000 Memorial Field|1923Leede Arena 1986Red Rolfe Field at Biondi Park 2008Thompson Arena 1975Burnham Field 2007 Harvard Stadium 1903Lavietes Pavilion 1926Joseph J. O'Donnell Field 1898Bright Hockey Center 1956Jordan Field |2010 Franklin Field 1895The Palestra 1927Meiklejohn Stadium 2000Class of 1923 Arena 19722002 Princeton Stadium 1998Jadwin Gymnasium 1969Bill Clarke Field 1961Hobey Baker Memorial Rink 1923Roberts Stadium|2008 Yale Bowl 1914John J. Lee Amphitheater|1932Yale Field 1927Ingalls Rink 1958Reese Stadium 1981" ], [ "Other ivies", "The term ''Ivy'' is sometimes used to connote a positive comparison to or an association with the Ivy League, often along academic lines.", "The term has been used to describe the Little Ivies, a grouping of small liberal arts colleges in the Northeastern United States.", "Other common uses include the Public Ivies, the Hidden Ivies, the Southern Ivies, and the Black Ivies.=== Ivy Plus ===The term ''Ivy Plus'' is sometimes used to refer to the original eight institutions (in this context '''the Ancient Eight''') plus several other schools for purposes of alumni associations, university consortia, or endowment comparisons.", "In his book ''Untangling the Ivy League'', Zawel writes, \"The inclusion of non–Ivy League schools under this term is commonplace for some schools and extremely rare for others.", "Among these other schools, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Stanford University are almost always included.", "The University of Chicago and Duke University are often included as well.\"", "The term ''IvyPlus'' also refers to a formal exchange scholar program that includes all the Ivy League schools as well as Berkeley, Chicago, MIT, and Stanford." ], [ "See also", "* Big Three—an athletic rivalry between Harvard, Yale, and Princeton.", "* List of Ivy League medical schools—schools of the Ivy League universities that offer medical education.", "* List of Ivy League law schools—schools of the Ivy League universities that offer various law degrees.", "* List of Ivy League business schools—schools of the Ivy League universities that offer various business degrees, especially the MBA.", "* List of Ivy League public policy schools—schools of the Ivy League universities that offer public policy or public administration degrees.", "* Seven Sisters—seven liberal arts colleges previously open to only women with historical affiliations to the Ivy League.", "* Public Ivy—public colleges & universities that are perceived to provide an education equal to the Ivy League.", "* Black Ivy League—informal list of private historically black colleges & universities that have historically been seen as the African American equivalent to the Ivy League* Little Ivies—private liberal arts colleges that historically have had the same social prestige and similar large financial endowments as the Ivy league ." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Ithaca Hours" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Ithaca HOUR''' was a local currency used in Ithaca, New York, though it is now no longer in circulation.", "It was one of the longest-running local currency systems, and inspired other similar systems in Madison, Wisconsin; Santa Barbara, California;Corvallis, Oregon; and a proposed system in the Lehigh Valley, Pennsylvania.", "One Ithaca HOUR was valued at US$10 and was generally recommended to be used as payment for one hour's work, although the rate is negotiable." ], [ "The currency", "Ithaca HOURS were not backed by national currency and cannot be freely converted to national currency, although some businesses did agree to buy them.HOURS were printed on high-quality paper and used faint graphics that would be difficult to reproduce.", "Each bill was stamped with a serial number, to discourage counterfeiting.In 2002, a one-tenth hour bill was introduced, partly due to the encouragement and funding from Alternatives Federal Credit Union and feedback from retailers who complained about the awkwardness of only having larger denominations with which to work; the bills bear the signatures of both HOURS president Steve Burke and the president of AFCU.Ithaca HOUR notes began to fall into disuse for several reasons.", "First, the founder of the system, Paul Glover, moved out of the area.", "While in Ithaca, Glover had acted as an evangelist and networker for HOURS, helping spread their use and helping businesses find ways to spend HOURS they had received.", "Secondly, the use of HOURS declined as a result of the general shift away from cash transactions towards electronic transfers with debit or credit cards.", "Glover emphasized that every local currency needs at least one full-time networker to \"promote, facilitate and troubleshoot\" currency circulation." ], [ "Origin", "Ithaca HOURS were started by Paul Glover in November 1991.The system has historical roots in scrip and alternative and local currencies that proliferated in America during the Great Depression.While doing research into local economics during 1989, Glover had seen an \"Hour\" note issued by 19th century British industrialist Robert Owen to his workers for spending at his company store.", "After Ithaca HOURS began, Glover discovered that Owen's Hours were based on Josiah Warren's \"Time Store\" notes of 1827.In May 1991, local student Patrice Jennings interviewed Glover about the Ithaca LETS enterprise.", "This conversation strongly reinforced his interest in trade systems.", "Jennings's research on the Ithaca LETS and its failure was integral to the development of the HOUR currency; conversations between Jennings and Glover helped ensure that HOURS used knowledge of what had not worked with the LETS system.Within a few days, Glover had designs for the HOUR and Half HOUR notes.", "He established that each HOUR would be worth the equivalent of $10, which was about the average hourly amount that workers earned in surrounding Tompkins County, although the exact rate of exchange for any given transaction was to be decided by the parties themselves.", "At GreenStar Cooperative Market, a local food co-op, Glover approached Gary Fine, a local massage therapist, with photocopied samples.", "Fine became the first person to sign a list formally agreeing to accept HOURS in exchange for services.", "Soon after, Jim Rohrrsen, the proprietor of a local toy store, became the first retailer to sign-up to accept Ithaca HOURS in exchange for merchandise.When the system was first started, 90 people agreed to accept HOURS as pay for their services.", "They all agreed to accept HOURS despite the lack of a business plan or guarantee.", "Glover then began to ask for small donations to help pay for printing HOURS.Fine Line Printing completed the first run of 1,500 HOURS and 1,500 Half HOURS in October 1991.These notes, the first modern local currency, were nearly twice as large as later printings of Ithaca HOURS.", "Because they didn't fit well in people's wallets, almost all of the original notes have been removed from circulation.The first issue of Ithaca Money was printed at Our Press, a printing shop in Chenango Bridge, New York, on October 16, 1991.The next day Glover issued 10 HOURS to Ithaca Hours, the organization he founded to run the system, as the first of four reimbursements for the cost of printing HOURS.", "The day after that, October 18, 1991, 382 HOURS were disbursed and prepared for mailing to the first 93 pioneers.On October 19, 1991, Glover bought a samosa from Catherine Martinez at the Farmers' Market with Half HOUR #751—the first use of an HOUR.", "Several other Market vendors enrolled that day.", "During the next years more than a thousand individuals enrolled to accept HOURS, plus 500 businesses.Stacks of the Ithaca Money newspaper were distributed all over town with an invitation to \"join the fun.", "\"A Barter Potluck was held at GIAC on November 12, 1991, the first of many monthly gatherings where food and skills were exchanged, acquaintances made, and friendships renewed." ], [ "Management and philosophy", "In 1996, Glover was running the Ithaca Hours system from his home, and the system had an advisory board and a governing board called the \"Barter Potluck\".", "The board and Glover put forth the idea that economic interactions should be based on harmony rather than on more Hobbesian forms of competition.", "In one interview, Glover stated that \"There's a growing movement called \"ecological economics\" and Ithaca HOURS is part of that cosmos.", "Last year I wrote an article which discusses moving us toward the provision of food, fuel, clothing, housing, transportation, and other necessities in ways which are healing of nature, or which are less depleting at least and which bring people together on the basis of their shared pride, not arrogance.\"", "Thus one underlying principle of the local currency movement is to create \"fair trade\" with a minimum of conflict or exploitation of either people or natural resources.The advisory board incorporated the Ithaca HOUR system as Ithaca Hours, Inc. in October 1998, and hosted the first elections for Board of Directors in March 1999.The first Board of Directors included Monica Hargraves, Dan Cogan, Margaret McCasland, Erica Van Etten, Greg Spence Wolf, Bob LeRoy, LeGrace Benson, Wally Woods, Jennifer Elges, and Donald Stephenson.", "In May 1999 Glover turned the administration of Ithaca HOURS over to the newly elected Board of Directors.", "Glover has continued to support Ithaca Hours through community outreach to present, most notably through the Ithaca Health Fund (now incorporated as partof the Ithaca Health Alliance) and Ithaca Community News.The current Board of Directors, 2014–2015, includes Erik Lehmann (chair), Danielle Klock, and Bob LeRoy." ], [ "Economic development", "Several million dollars value of HOURS have been traded since 1991 among thousands of residents and over 500 area businesses, including the Cayuga Medical Center, Alternatives Federal Credit Union, the public library, many local farmers, movie theatres, restaurants, healers, plumbers, carpenters, electricians, and landlords.One of the primary functions of the Ithaca Hours system is to promote local economic development.", "Businesses who receive Hours must spend them on local goods and services, thus building a network of inter-supporting local businesses.", "While non-local businesses are welcome to accept Hours, those businesses need to spend them on local goods and services to be economically sustainable.In their mission to promote local economic development, the Board of Directors also makes interest-free loans of Ithaca HOURS to local businesses and grants to local non-profit organizations." ], [ "See also", "* Local currency* List of community currencies in the United States* Labour voucher* Time-based currency* Wörgl, Silvio Gesell" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official Ithaca Hours Website * Paul Glover's Website* E F Schumacher Society Local Currency website* Brief History of Local Currencies* Community Currency Online Magazine" ] ]
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[ [ "Interstellar cloud" ], [ "Introduction", "A small part of the emission nebula NGC 6357.It glows with the characteristic red of an H II region.An '''Interstellar Cloud''' is generally an accumulation of gas, plasma, and dust in our and other galaxies.", "Put differently, an interstellar cloud is a denser-than-average region of the interstellar medium, the matter and radiation that exists in the space between the star systems in a galaxy.", "Depending on the density, size, and temperature of a given cloud, its hydrogen can be neutral, making an H I region; ionized, or plasma making it an H II region; or molecular, which are referred to simply as molecular clouds, or sometime dense clouds.", "Neutral and ionized clouds are sometimes also called ''diffuse clouds''.", "An interstellar cloud is formed by the gas and dust particles from a red giant in its later life." ], [ "Chemical compositions", "The chemical composition of interstellar clouds is determined by studying electromagnetic radiation that they emanate, and we receive – from radio waves through visible light, to gamma rays on the electromagnetic spectrum – that we receive from them.", "Large radio telescopes scan the intensity in the sky of particular frequencies of electromagnetic radiation, which are characteristic of certain molecules' spectra.", "Some interstellar clouds are cold and tend to give out electromagnetic radiation of large wavelengths.", "A map of the abundance of these molecules can be made, enabling an understanding of the varying composition of the clouds.", "In hot clouds, there are often ions of many elements, whose spectra can be seen in visible and ultraviolet light.Radio telescopes can also scan over the frequencies from one point in the map, recording the intensities of each type of molecule.", "Peaks of frequencies mean that an abundance of that molecule or atom is present in the cloud.", "The height of the peak is proportional to the relative percentage that it makes up." ], [ "Unexpected chemicals detected in interstellar clouds", "View inside the Lagoon Nebula.Until recently, the rates of reactions in interstellar clouds were expected to be very slow, with minimal products being produced due to the low temperature and density of the clouds.", "However, organic molecules were observed in the spectra that scientists would not have expected to find under these conditions, such as formaldehyde, methanol, and vinyl alcohol.", "The reactions needed to create such substances are familiar to scientists only at the much higher temperatures and pressures of earth and earth-based laboratories.", "The fact that they were found indicates that these chemical reactions in interstellar clouds take place faster than suspected, likely in gas-phase reactions unfamiliar to organic chemistry as observed on earth.", "These reactions are studied in the CRESU experiment.Interstellar clouds also provide a medium to study the presence and proportions of metals in space.", "The presence and ratios of these elements may help develop theories on the means of their production, especially when their proportions are inconsistent with those expected to arise from stars as a result of fusion and thereby suggest alternate means, such as cosmic ray spallation." ], [ "High-velocity cloud", "Reflection nebula IRAS 10082-5647 observed by the Hubble Space Telescope.These interstellar clouds possess a velocity higher than can be explained by the rotation of the Milky Way.", "By definition, these clouds must have a vlsr greater than 90 km s−1, where vlsr is the local standard rest velocity.", "They are detected primarily in the 21 cm line of neutral hydrogen, and typically have a lower portion of heavy elements than is normal for interstellar clouds in the Milky Way.Theories intended to explain these unusual clouds include materials left over from the formation of the galaxy, or tidally-displaced matter drawn away from other galaxies or members of the Local Group.", "An example of the latter is the Magellanic Stream.", "To narrow down the origin of these clouds, a better understanding of their distances and metallicity is needed.High-velocity clouds are identified with an HVC prefix, as with HVC 127-41-330." ], [ "See also", "* List of molecules in interstellar space* Nebula* Interplanetary medium – interplanetary dust* Interstellar medium – interstellar dust* Intergalactic medium – Intergalactic dust* Local Interstellar Cloud* G-Cloud" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* High Velocity Cloud — The Swinburne Astronomy Online (SAO) encyclopedia." ] ]
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[ [ "Imhotep" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Imhotep''' (; \"(the one who) comes in peace\"; ) was an Egyptian chancellor to the Pharaoh Djoser, possible architect of Djoser's step pyramid, and high priest of the sun god Ra at Heliopolis.", "Very little is known of Imhotep as a historical figure, but in the 3,000 years following his death, he was gradually glorified and deified.Traditions from long after Imhotep's death treated him as a great author of wisdom texts and especially as a physician.", "No text from his lifetime mentions these capacities and no text mentions his name in the first 1,200 years following his death.", "Apart from the three short contemporary inscriptions that establish him as chancellor to the Pharaoh, the first text to reference Imhotep dates to the time of Amenhotep III ().", "It is addressed to the owner of a tomb and reads:It appears that this libation to Imhotep was done regularly, as they are attested on papyri associated with statues of Imhotep until the Late Period ().", "Wildung (1977) explains the origin of this cult as a slow evolution of intellectuals' memory of Imhotep, from his death onward.", "Gardiner finds the cult of Imhotep during the New Kingdom () sufficiently distinct from the usual offerings made to other commoners that the epithet \"demigod\" is likely justified to describe his veneration.The first references to the healing abilities of Imhotep occur from the Thirtieth Dynasty () onward, some 2,200 years after his death.Imhotep is among the few non-royal Egyptians who were deified after their deaths, and until the 21st century, he was one of nearly a dozen non-royals to achieve this status.", "The center of his cult was in Memphis.", "The location of his tomb remains unknown, despite efforts to find it.", "The consensus is that it is hidden somewhere at Saqqara." ], [ "Historicity", "Imhotep's historicity is confirmed by two contemporary inscriptions made during his lifetime on the base or pedestal of one of Djoser's statues and also by a graffito on the enclosure wall surrounding Sekhemkhet's unfinished step pyramid.", "The latter inscription suggests that Imhotep outlived Djoser by a few years and went on to serve in the construction of Pharaoh Sekhemkhet's pyramid, which was abandoned due to this ruler's brief reign.===Architecture and engineering===Imhotep was one of the chief officials of the Pharaoh Djoser.", "Concurring with much later legends, Egyptologists credit him with the design and construction of the Pyramid of Djoser, a step pyramid at Saqqara built during the 3rd Dynasty.", "He may also have been responsible for the first known use of stone columns to support a building.", "Despite these later attestations, the pharaonic Egyptians themselves never credited Imhotep as the designer of the stepped pyramid, nor with the invention of stone architecture." ], [ "Deification", "===God of medicine===Two thousand years after his death, Imhotep's status had risen to that of a god of medicine and healing.", "Eventually, Imhotep was equated with Thoth, the god of architecture, mathematics, and medicine, and patron of scribes: Imhotep's cult was merged with that of his own former tutelary god.He was revered in the region of Thebes as the \"brother\" of Amenhotep, son of Hapu – another deified architect – in the temples dedicated to Thoth.", "Because of his association with health, the Greeks equated Imhotep with Asklepios, their own god of health who also was a deified mortal.According to myth, Imhotep's mother was a mortal named Kheredu-ankh, she too being eventually revered as a demi-goddess as the daughter of Banebdjedet.", "Alternatively, since Imhotep was known as the \"Son of Ptah\", his mother was sometimes claimed to be Sekhmet, the patron of Upper Egypt whose consort was Ptah.===Post-Alexander period===The Upper Egyptian Famine Stela, which dates from the Ptolemaic period (305–30 BC), bears an inscription containing a legend about a famine lasting seven years during the reign of Djoser.", "Imhotep is credited with having been instrumental in ending it.", "One of his priests explained the connection between the god Khnum and the rise of the Nile to the Pharaoh, who then had a dream in which the Nile god spoke to him, promising to end the drought.A demotic papyrus from the temple of Tebtunis, dating to the 2nd century AD, preserves a long story about Imhotep.", "The Pharaoh Djoser plays a prominent role in the story, which also mentions Imhotep's family; his father the god Ptah, his mother Khereduankh, and his younger sister Renpetneferet.", "At one point Djoser desires Renpetneferet, and Imhotep disguises himself and tries to rescue her.", "The text also refers to the royal tomb of Djoser.", "Part of the legend includes an anachronistic battle between the Old Kingdom and the Assyrian armies where Imhotep fights an Assyrian sorceress in a duel of magic.As an instigator of Egyptian culture, Imhotep's idealized image lasted well into the Roman period.", "In the Ptolemaic period, the Egyptian priest and historian Manetho credited him with inventing the method of a stone-dressed building during Djoser's reign, although he was not the first to actually build with stone.", "Stonewalling, flooring, lintels, and jambs had appeared sporadically during the Archaic Period, even though it is true that a building the size of the step pyramid made entirely out of stone had never before been constructed.", "Before Djoser, Pharaohs were buried in mastaba tombs.===Medicine===Egyptologist James Peter Allen states that \"The Greeks equated him with their own god of medicine, Asklepios, although ironically, there is no evidence that Imhotep himself was a physician.", "\"In his Pulitzer-prize winning “biography” of cancer – ''The Emperor of All Maladies'' – Siddhartha Mukherjee cites the oldest identified written diagnosis of cancer to Imhotep.", "Unfortunately, the therapy Imhotep laconically prescribed for it would be equally recognizable for millennia: “There is none”." ], [ "In popular culture", "Ernest Board: An invocation to I-em-hetep, the Egyptian deity of medicine, Imhotep is the antagonistic title character of Universal's 1932 film ''The Mummy'', its 1999 remake, and that film's 2001 sequel.Imhotep was also portrayed in the television show ''Stargate SG1'' as being a false god and an alien known as a Goa’uld.Imhotep was portrayed as the protagonist of the Japanese manga series ''Im: Great Priest Imhotep'' written and illustrated by Makoto Morishita.Imhotep can be recruited as a Great Engineer in Civilization VI." ], [ "See also", "* Imhotep Museum* History of ancient Egypt* Ancient Egyptian architecture* Ancient Egyptian medicine* List of Egyptian Architects" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "** * * * * : * *:" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Ictinus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ictinus''' (; , ''Iktinos'') was an architect active in the mid 5th century BC.", "Ancient sources identify Ictinus and Callicrates as co-architects of the Parthenon.", "He co-wrote a book on the project – which is now lost – in collaboration with Carpion.Pausanias identifies Ictinus as architect of the Temple of Apollo at Bassae.", "That temple was Doric on the exterior, Ionic on the interior, and incorporated a Corinthian column, the earliest known, at the center rear of the cella.", "Sources also identify Ictinus as architect of the Telesterion at Eleusis, a gigantic hall used in the Eleusinian Mysteries.Pericles also commissioned Ictinus to design the Telesterion (Hall of mystery) at Eleusis, but his involvement was terminated when Pericles fell from power.", "Three other architects took over instead.", "It seems likely that Ictinus's reputation was harmed by his links with the fallen ruler, as he is singled out for condemnation by Aristophanes in his play ''The Birds'', dated to around 414 BC.", "It depicts the royal kite or ''ictinus'' – a play on the architect's name – not as a noble bird of prey but as a scavenger stealing sacrifices from the gods and money from men.", "As no other classical author describes the bird in this fashion, Aristophanes likely intended it to be a dig at the architect.The artist Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres painted a scene showing Ictinus together with the lyric poet Pindar.", "The painting is known as ''Pindar and Ictinus'' and is exhibited at the National Gallery, London." ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*Plutarch, ''Pericles'' 13" ] ]
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[ [ "Isidore of Miletus" ], [ "Introduction", "Roof figure by Ludwig Simek at the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna (Museumsstraße)The vaults in the Hagia Sophia, originally designed by Isidore of Miletus.", "'''Isidore of Miletus''' (; Medieval Greek pronunciation: ; ) was one of the two main Byzantine Greek mathematician, physicist and architects (Anthemius of Tralles was the other) that Emperor Justinian I commissioned to design the cathedral Hagia Sophia in Constantinople from 532 to 537.He was born .", "The creation of an important compilation of Archimedes' works has been attributed to him.", "The spurious Book XV from Euclid's Elements has been partly attributed to Isidore of Miletus." ], [ "Biography", "Exterior of the Hagia Sophia, 2013Interior panorama of the Hagia Sophia, the patriarchal basilica designed by Isidore.", "The influence of Archimedes' solid geometry works, which Isidore was the first to compile, is evident (annotated image).Isidore of Miletus was a renowned scientist and mathematician before Emperor Justinian I hired him.", "Isidorus taught stereometry and physics at the universities, first of Alexandria then of Constantinople, and wrote a commentary on an older treatise on vaulting.", "Eutocius together with Isidore studied Archimedes' work.", "Isidore is also renowned for producing the first comprehensive compilation of Archimedes' work, the Archimedes palimpsest survived to the present.=== Teachings and writings ===A majority of Isidore's preserved work are his edits and commentaries on older Greek mathematical texts.", "For example, Isidore is known to have revised and checked some of Archimedes' works and also Book XV of Euclid's elements.That being said, claims from Alan Cameron have been made about a hypothetical \"School of Isidore\".", "Between his work on architectural exploits, Isidore taught about math and geometry of the time.", "The School of Isidore is supported more by the presence of his teaching's in much of his students (such as Eutocious) works rather than his own writings.", "In an edit of the fifteenth book of Euclid's ''Elements,'' for instance, the editor quotes Isidore, but then proceeds to explain that Isidore did not publish much of his work himself.", "Instead, he taught, and once he himself could understand the material, did not see a need to write it down.", "It is because of this that Cameron claims that Isidore helped to revitalize interest in ancient mathematicians in Constantinople and Alexandria circa 510.In addition to editing the works of others Isidore is known to have written his own commentary on Hero of Alexandria's \"On Vaulting\", which discussed aspects of vault construction and design in relation to geometry.", "While this commentary is lost Eutocius makes mention of it in his own writings.", "It is when referring to this work that Eutocius credits Isidore with designing a special compass for the purpose of drawing parabolas.", "Isidore's invention allowed for the drawing of parabolas with a greater level accuracy than that of which many previous methods were capable.", "From Eutocius (or his copyist) it is believed that one notable use for Isidores invention was to visually solve the problem of doubling the volume of a cube.", "This was said to be done by drawing two parabolas and finding the point where they intersect.", "In addition to their mathematical applications, Isidore is believed to have highlighted the uses of applying the use of parabolas to the construction of vaults.===Hagia Sophia===Emperor Justinian I appointed his architects to rebuild the Hagia Sophia following his victory over protesters within the capital city of the Roman Empire, Constantinople.", "The first basilica was completed in 360 and remodelled from 404 to 415, but had been damaged in 532 in the course of the Nika Riot, “The temple of Sophia, the baths of Zeuxippus, and the imperial courtyard from the Propylaia all the way to the so-called House of Ares were burned up and destroyed, as were both of the great porticoes that lead to the forum that is named after Constantine, houses of prosperous people, and a great deal of other properties.”The rival factions of Constantinople populace, the Blues and the Greens, opposed each other in the chariot races at the Hippodrome and often resorted to violence.", "During the Nika Riot, more than thirty thousand people were killed.", "Emperor Justinian I ensured that his new structure would not be burned down, like its predecessors, by commissioning architects that would build the church mainly out of stone, rather than wood, “He compacted it of baked brick and mortar, and in many places bound it together with iron, but made no use of wood, so that the church should no longer prove combustible.” The construction of the Hagia Sophia began so fast after the riots were quelled that many think that Justinian had his architects begin planning it before the riots even stopped.Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles originally planned on a main hall of the Hagia Sophia that measured 70 by 75 metres (230 x 250 ft), making it the largest church in Constantinople, but the original dome was nearly 6 metres (20 ft) lower than it was constructed, “Justinian suppressed these riots and took the opportunity of marking his victory by erecting in 532-7 the new Hagia Sophia, one of the largest, most lavish, and most expensive buildings of all time.”Although Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles were not formally educated in architecture, they were scientists who could organize the logistics of drawing thousands of labourers and unprecedented loads of rare raw materials from around the Roman Empire to construct the Hagia Sophia for Emperor Justinian I. Isidore and Anthemius obtained stone from as far away as Egypt, Syria, and Libya, and columns from several temples in Rome.", "The finished product was built in admirable form for the Roman Emperor, “All of these elements marvellously fitted together in mid-air, suspended from one another and reposing only on the parts adjacent to them, produce a unified and most remarkable harmony in the work, and yet do not allow the spectators to rest their gaze upon any one of them for a length of time.” It is believed that Isidore did much of the work on the domes of the Hagia Sophia due to his extensive work on vaults, and his commentary, \"On Vaulting\".The Hagia Sophia architects innovatively combined the longitudinal structure of a Roman basilica and the central plan of a drum-supported dome, in order to withstand the high magnitude earthquakes of the Marmara Region, “However, in May 558, little more than 20 years after the Church’s dedication, following the earthquakes of August 553 and December 557, parts of the central dome and its supporting structure system collapsed.” The Hagia Sophia was repeatedly cracked by earthquakes and was quickly repaired.", "Isidore of Miletus’ nephew, Isidore the Younger, introduced the new dome design that can be viewed in the Hagia Sophia in present-day Istanbul, Turkey.", "Originally the dome was constructed without ribs, but achieved its present-day construction with ribs when Isidore the Younger repaired the church.After a great earthquake in 989 ruined the dome of Hagia Sophia, the Byzantine officials summoned Trdat the Architect to Byzantium to organize repairs.", "The restored dome was completed by 994." ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * Cameron, Alan (Spring 1990).", "''Isidore of Miletus and Hypatia: On the Editing of Mathematical Texts'' (Volume 31, Issue 1).", "Cambridge: Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies.", "* Martines, Giangiacomo (2014).", "\"Isidore's Compass: A Scholium by Eutocius on Hero's Treatise On Vaulting\".", "''Nuncius: Journal of the Material and Visual History of Science:'' 279-311* Podles, Mary Elizabeth (May 2021).", "\"A Thousand Words Hagia Sophia, Church of the Holy Wisdom\".", "''Touchstone: A Journal of Mere Christianity.''", "* Cavendish, Richard (December 2013).", "\"Church of Hagia Sophia reconsecrated\".", "''History Today.''" ] ]
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[ [ "International Atomic Energy Agency" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''International Atomic Energy Agency''' ('''IAEA''') is an intergovernmental organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to inhibit its use for any military purpose, including nuclear weapons.", "It was established in 1957 as an autonomous organization within the United Nations system; though governed by its own founding treaty, the organization reports to both the General Assembly and the Security Council of the United Nations, and is headquartered at the UN Office at Vienna, Austria.The IAEA was created in response to growing international concern toward nuclear weapons, especially amid rising tensions between the foremost nuclear powers, the United States and the Soviet Union.", "U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower's \"Atoms for Peace\" speech, which called for the creation of an international organization to monitor the global proliferation of nuclear resources and technology, is credited with catalyzing the formation of the IAEA, whose treaty came into force on 29 July 1957 upon U.S. ratification.The IAEA serves as an intergovernmental forum for scientific and technical cooperation on the peaceful use of nuclear technology and nuclear power worldwide.", "It maintains several programs that encourage the development of peaceful applications of nuclear energy, science, and technology; provide international safeguards against misuse of nuclear technology and nuclear materials; and promote and implement nuclear safety (including radiation protection) and nuclear security standards.", "The organization also conducts research in nuclear science and provides technical support and training in nuclear technology to countries worldwide, particularly in the developing world.Following the ratification of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons in 1968, all non-nuclear powers are required to negotiate a safeguards agreement with the IAEA, which is given the authority to monitor nuclear programs and to inspect nuclear facilities.", "In 2005, the IAEA and its administrative head, Director General Mohamed ElBaradei, were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize \"for their efforts to prevent nuclear energy from being used for military purposes and to ensure that nuclear energy for peaceful purposes is used in the safest possible way\"." ], [ "Missions", "Vienna International Center, location of IAEA HeadquartersThe IAEA is generally described as having three main missions:* '''Peaceful uses''': Promoting the peaceful uses of nuclear energy by its member states,* '''Safeguards''': Implementing safeguards to verify that nuclear energy is not used for military purposes, and* '''Nuclear safety''': Promoting high standards for nuclear safety.===Peaceful uses===According to Article II of the IAEA Statute, the objectives of the IAEA are \"to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world\" and to \"ensure ... that assistance provided by it or at its request or under its supervision or control is not used in such a way as to further any military purpose.\"", "Its primary functions in this area, according to Article III, are to encourage research and development, to secure or provide materials, services, equipment, and facilities for Member States, and to foster the exchange of scientific and technical information and training.Three of the IAEA's six departments are principally charged with promoting the peaceful uses of nuclear energy.", "The Department of Nuclear Energy focuses on providing advice and services to Member States on nuclear power and the nuclear fuel cycle.", "The Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications focuses on the use of non-power nuclear and isotope techniques to help IAEA Member States in the areas of water, energy, health, biodiversity, and agriculture.", "The Department of Technical Cooperation provides direct assistance to IAEA Member States, through national, regional, and inter-regional projects through training, expert missions, scientific exchanges, and provision of equipment.===Safeguards===Article II of the IAEA Statute defines the Agency's twin objectives as promoting peaceful uses of atomic energy and \", so far as it is able, that assistance provided by it or at its request or under its supervision or control is not used in such a way as to further any military purpose.\"", "To do this, the IAEA is authorized in Article III.A.5 of the Statute \"to establish and administer safeguards designed to ensure that special fissionable and other materials, services, equipment, facilities, and information made available by the Agency or at its request or under its supervision or control are not used in such a way as to further any military purpose; and to apply safeguards, at the request of the parties, to any bilateral or multilateral arrangement, or at the request of a State, to any of that State's activities in the field of atomic energy.", "\"The Department of Safeguards is responsible for carrying out this mission, through technical measures designed to verify the correctness and completeness of states' nuclear declarations.===Nuclear safety===International policy relationships in radiological protectionThe IAEA classifies safety as one of its top three priorities.", "It spends 8.9 percent of its 352 million-euro ($469 million) regular budget in 2011 on making plants secure from accidents.", "Its resources are used on the other two priorities: technical co-operation and preventing nuclear weapons proliferation.The IAEA itself says that, beginning in 1986, in response to the nuclear reactor explosion and disaster near Chernobyl, Ukraine, the IAEA redoubled its efforts in the field of nuclear safety.", "The IAEA says that the same happened after the Fukushima disaster in Fukushima, Japan.In June 2011, the IAEA chief said he had \"broad support for his plan to strengthen international safety checks on nuclear power plants to help avoid any repeat of Japan's Fukushima crisis\".", "Peer-reviewed safety checks on reactors worldwide, organized by the IAEA, have been proposed." ], [ "History", "The inspection team, led by Director-General Rafael Grossi, Head of the Department of Nuclear Safety and Security Lydie Evrard and Head of the Department of Safeguards Massimo Aparo, that on 1 September 2022 started IAEA's first inspection of a nuclear plant in a war zone, at Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant in UkraineIn 1953, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower proposed the creation of an international body to both regulate and promote the peaceful use of atomic power (nuclear power), in his Atoms for Peace address to the UN General Assembly.", "In September 1954, the United States proposed to the General Assembly the creation of an international agency to take control of fissile material, which could be used either for nuclear power or for nuclear weapons.", "This agency would establish a kind of \"nuclear bank\".The United States also called for an international scientific conference on all of the peaceful aspects of nuclear power.", "By November 1954, it had become clear that the Soviet Union would reject any international custody of fissile material if the United States did not agree to disarmament first, but that a ''clearinghouse'' for nuclear transactions might be possible.", "From 8 to 20 August 1955, the United Nations held the International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy in Geneva, Switzerland.", "In October 1957, a Conference on the IAEA Statute was held at the Headquarters of the United Nations to approve the founding document for the IAEA, which was negotiated in 1955–1957 by a group of twelve countries.", "The Statute of the IAEA was approved on 23 October 1956 and came into force on 29 July 1957.Former US Congressman W. Sterling Cole served as the IAEA's first Director-General from 1957 to 1961.Cole served only one term, after which the IAEA was headed by two Swedes for nearly four decades: the scientist Sigvard Eklund held the job from 1961 to 1981, followed by former Swedish Foreign Minister Hans Blix, who served from 1981 to 1997.Blix was succeeded as Director General by Mohamed ElBaradei of Egypt, who served until November 2009.Beginning in 1986, in response to the nuclear reactor explosion and disaster near Chernobyl, Ukraine, the IAEA increased its efforts in the field of nuclear safety.", "The same happened after the 2011 Fukushima disaster in Fukushima, Japan.Both the IAEA and its then Director General, ElBaradei, were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2005.In his acceptance speech in Oslo, ElBaradei stated that only one percent of the money spent on developing new weapons would be enough to feed the entire world, and that, if we hope to escape self-destruction, then nuclear weapons should have no place in our collective conscience, and no role in our security.On 2 July 2009, Yukiya Amano of Japan was elected as the Director General for the IAEA, defeating Abdul Samad Minty of South Africa and Luis E. Echávarri of Spain.", "On 3 July 2009, the Board of Governors voted to appoint Yukiya Amano \"by acclamation\", and IAEA General Conference in September 2009 approved.", "He took office on 1 December 2009.After Amano's death, his Chief of Coordination Cornel Feruta of Romania was named Acting Director General.On 2 August 2019, Rafael Grossi was presented as the Argentine candidate to become the Director General of IAEA.", "On 28 October 2019, the IAEA Board of Governors held its first vote to elect the new Director General, but none of the candidates secured the two-thirds majority (23 votes) in the 35-member IAEA Board of Governors that was needed to be elected.", "The next day, 29 October, the second voting round was held, and Grossi won 24 votes.", "He assumed office on 3 December 2019.Following a special meeting of the IAEA General Conference to approve his appointment, on 3 December Grossi became the first Latin American to head the Agency.During the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Grossi visited Ukraine multiple times as part of the ongoing efforts to help prevent a nuclear accident during the war.", "He warned against any complacency towards the dangers that the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant, Europe’s largest nuclear power plant, was facing.", "The plant has come under fire multiple times during the war." ], [ "Structure and function", "===General===A laboratory technician at the IAEA's Plant Breeding Unit in Seibersdorf checking on a phial containing a young banana plantThe IAEA's mission is guided by the interests and needs of Member States, strategic plans, and the vision embodied in the IAEA Statute (see below).", "Three main pillars – or areas of work – underpin the IAEA's mission: Safety and Security; Science and Technology; and Safeguards and Verification.The IAEA as an autonomous organization is not under the direct control of the UN, but the IAEA does report to both the UN General Assembly and Security Council.", "Unlike most other specialized international agencies, the IAEA does much of its work with the Security Council, and not with the United Nations Economic and Social Council.", "The structure and functions of the IAEA are defined by its founding document, the IAEA Statute (see below).", "The IAEA has three main bodies: the Board of Governors, the General Conference, and the Secretariat.The IAEA exists to pursue the \"safe, secure and peaceful uses of nuclear sciences and technology\" (Pillars 2005).", "The IAEA executes this mission with three main functions: the inspection of existing nuclear facilities to ensure their peaceful use, providing information and developing standards to ensure the safety and security of nuclear facilities, and as a hub for the various fields of science involved in the peaceful applications of nuclear technology.The IAEA recognizes knowledge as the nuclear energy industry's most valuable asset and resource, without which the industry cannot operate safely and economically.", "Following the IAEA General Conference since 2002 resolutions the Nuclear Knowledge Management, a formal program was established to address Member States' priorities in the 21st century.In 2004, the IAEA developed a Programme of Action for Cancer Therapy (PACT).", "PACT responds to the needs of developing countries to establish, to improve, or to expand radiotherapy treatment programs.", "The IAEA is raising money to help efforts by its Member States to save lives and reduce the suffering of cancer victims.The IAEA has established programs to help developing countries in planning to build systematically the capability to manage a nuclear power program, including the Integrated Nuclear Infrastructure Group, which has carried out Integrated Nuclear Infrastructure Review missions in Indonesia, Jordan, Thailand and Vietnam.", "The IAEA reports that roughly 60 countries are considering how to include nuclear power in their energy plans.To enhance the sharing of information and experience among IAEA Member States concerning the seismic safety of nuclear facilities, in 2008 the IAEA established the International Seismic Safety Centre.", "This centre is establishing safety standards and providing for their application in relation to site selection, site evaluation and seismic design.The IAEA has its headquarters in Vienna, Austria.", "The IAEA has two \"Regional Safeguards Offices\" which are located in Toronto, Canada, and in Tokyo, Japan.", "The IAEA also has two liaison offices which are located in New York City, United States, and in Geneva, Switzerland.", "In addition, the IAEA has laboratories and research centers located in Seibersdorf, Austria, in Monaco and in Trieste, Italy.===Board of Governors===\"UNO City\" another name for the Vienna office complex in which is located IAEA HeadquartersThe Board of Governors is one of two policy-making bodies of the IAEA.", "The Board consists of 22 member states elected by the General Conference, and at least 10 member states nominated by the outgoing Board.", "The outgoing Board designates the ten members who are the most advanced in atomic energy technology, plus the most advanced members from any of the following areas that are not represented by the first ten: North America, Latin America, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, Africa, Middle East, and South Asia, South East Asia, the Pacific, and the Far East.", "These members are designated for one year terms.", "The General Conference elects 22 members from the remaining nations to two-year terms.", "Eleven are elected each year.", "The 22 elected members must also represent a stipulated geographic diversity.The Board, in its five-yearly meetings, is responsible for making most of the policies of the IAEA.", "The Board makes recommendations to the General Conference on IAEA activities and budget, is responsible for publishing IAEA standards and appoints the Director-General subject to General Conference approval.", "Board members each receive one vote.", "Budget matters require a two-thirds majority.", "All other matters require only a simple majority.", "The simple majority also has the power to stipulate issues that will thereafter require a two-thirds majority.", "Two-thirds of all Board members must be present to call a vote.", "The Board elects its own chairman.===General Conference===The General Conference is made up of all 178 member states.", "It meets once a year, typically in September, to approve the actions and budgets passed on from the Board of Governors.", "The General Conference also approves the nominee for Director General and requests reports from the Board on issues in question (Statute).", "Each member receives one vote.", "Issues of budget, Statute amendment and suspension of a member's privileges require a two-thirds majority and all other issues require a simple majority.", "Similar to the Board, the General Conference can, by simple majority, designate issues to require a two-thirds majority.", "The General Conference elects a President at each annual meeting to facilitate an effective meeting.", "The President only serves for the duration of the session (Statute).The main function of the General Conference is to serve as a forum for debate on current issues and policies.", "Any of the other IAEA organs, the Director-General, the Board and member states can table issues to be discussed by the General Conference (IAEA Primer).", "This function of the General Conference is almost identical to the General Assembly of the United Nations.===Secretariat===The Secretariat is the professional and general service staff of the IAEA.", "The Secretariat is headed by the Director General.", "The Director General is responsible for enforcement of the actions passed by the Board of Governors and the General Conference.", "The Director General is selected by the Board and approved by the General Conference for renewable four-year terms.", "The Director General oversees six departments that do the actual work in carrying out the policies of the IAEA: Nuclear Energy, Nuclear Safety and Security, Nuclear Sciences and Applications, Safeguards, Technical Cooperation, and Management.The IAEA budget is in two parts.", "The regular budget funds most activities of the IAEA and is assessed to each member nation (€344 million in 2014).", "The Technical Cooperation Fund is funded by voluntary contributions with a general target in the US$90 million range.===Criticism===IAEA experts at Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Unit 4In 2011, Russian nuclear accident specialist Iouli Andreev was critical of the response to Fukushima, and says that the IAEA did not learn from the 1986 Chernobyl disaster.", "He has accused the IAEA and corporations of \"wilfully ignoring lessons from the world's worst nuclear accident 25 years ago to protect the industry's expansion\".", "The IAEA's role \"as an advocate for nuclear power has made it a target for protests\".The journal ''Nature'' has reported that the IAEA response to the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in Japan was \"sluggish and sometimes confusing\", drawing calls for the agency to \"take a more proactive role in nuclear safety\".", "But nuclear experts say that the agency's complicated mandate and the constraints imposed by its member states mean that reforms will not happen quickly or easily, although its INES \"emergency scale is very likely to be revisited\" given the confusing way in which it was used in Japan.Some scientists say that the Fukushima nuclear accidents have revealed that the nuclear industry lacks sufficient oversight, leading to renewed calls to redefine the mandate of the IAEA so that it can better police nuclear power plants worldwide.", "There are several problems with the IAEA says Najmedin Meshkati of University of Southern California:It recommends safety standards, but member states are not required to comply; it promotes nuclear energy, but it also monitors nuclear use; it is the sole global organisation overseeing the nuclear energy industry, yet it is also weighed down by checking compliance with the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).In 2011, the journal ''Nature'' reported that the International Atomic Energy Agency should be strengthened to make independent assessments of nuclear safety and that \"the public would be better served by an IAEA more able to deliver frank and independent assessments of nuclear crises as they unfold\"." ], [ "Membership", "The process of joining the IAEA is fairly simple.", "Normally, a State would notify the Director General of its desire to join, and the Director would submit the application to the Board for consideration.", "If the Board recommends approval, and the General Conference approves the application for membership, the State must then submit its instrument of acceptance of the IAEA Statute to the United States, which functions as the depositary Government for the IAEA Statute.", "The State is considered a member when its acceptance letter is deposited.", "The United States then informs the IAEA, which notifies other IAEA Member States.", "Signature and ratification of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) are not preconditions for membership in the IAEA.The IAEA has 178 member states.", "Most UN members and the Holy See are Member States of the IAEA.Four states have withdrawn from the IAEA.", "North Korea was a Member State from 1974 to 1994, but withdrew after the Board of Governors found it in non-compliance with its safeguards agreement and suspended most technical co-operation.", "Nicaragua became a member in 1957, withdrew its membership in 1970, and rejoined in 1977, Honduras joined in 1957, withdrew in 1967, and rejoined in 2003, while Cambodia joined in 1958, withdrew in 2003, and rejoined in 2009." ], [ "Regional Cooperative Agreements", "There are four regional cooperative areas within IAEA, that share information, and organize conferences within their regions:===AFRA===The African Regional Cooperative Agreement for Research, Development and Training Related to Nuclear Science and Technology (AFRA):===ARASIA===Cooperative Agreement for Arab States in Asia for Research, Development and Training related to Nuclear Science and Technology (ARASIA):===RCA===Regional Cooperative Agreement for Research, Development and Training Related to Nuclear Science and Technology for Asia and the Pacific (RCA):===ARCAL===Mutation Breeding and Efficiency Enhancing Techniques for Resistance to Banana Fusarium Wilt TR4, 2022Cooperation Agreement for the Promotion of Nuclear Science and Technology in Latin America and the Caribbean (ARCAL):" ], [ "List of directors general", "+ Name Nationality Duration Duration (years)W. Sterling Cole American 1 December 1957 – 30 November 19614Sigvard Eklund Swedish 1 December 1961 – 30 November 198120Hans Blix Swedish 1 December 1981 – 30 November 199716Mohamed ElBaradei Egyptian 1 December 1997 – 30 November 200912Yukiya Amano Japanese 1 December 2009 – 18 July 20199Cornel Feruță (Acting) Romanian 25 July 2019 – 2 December 2019 0.33Rafael Grossi Argentine 3 December 2019 – present" ], [ "Publications", "Typically issued in July each year, the IAEA Annual Report summarizes and highlights developments over the past year in major areas of the Agency's work.", "It includes a summary of major issues, activities, and achievements, and status tables and graphs related to safeguards, safety, and science and technology." ], [ "See also", "* European Organization for Nuclear Research* Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism* IAEA Areas* Institute of Nuclear Materials Management* International Energy Agency* International Renewable Energy Agency* International Radiation Protection Association* International reaction to the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster* Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents* List of states with nuclear weapons* Nuclear ambiguity* Nuclear Energy Agency* OPANAL* Proliferation Security Initiative* United Nations Atomic Energy Commission (UNAEC)* World Association of Nuclear Operators* World Nuclear Association" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Works cited===* Board of Governors rules* IAEA Primer* Pillars of nuclear cooperation 2005* Radiation Protection of Patients" ], [ "Further reading", "* Adamson, Matthew.", "\"Showcasing the international atom: the IAEA Bulletin as a visual science diplomacy instrument, 1958–1962.\"", "''British Journal for the History of Science'' (2023): 1-19.", "* Fischer, David.", "''History of the international atomic energy agency.", "The first forty years'' (1.International Atomic Energy Agency, 1997) online.", "* Holloway, David.", "\"The Soviet Union and the creation of the International Atomic Energy Agency.\"", "''Cold War History'' 16.2 (2016): 177-193.", "* Roehrlich, Elisabeth.", "\"The Cold War, the developing world, and the creation of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 1953–1957.\"", "''Cold War History'' 16.2 (2016): 195-212.", "* Roehrlich, Elisabeth.", "''Inspectors for peace: A history of the International Atomic Energy Agency'' (JHU Press, 2022); full text online in Project MUSE; see also online excerpt* Scheinman, Lawrence.", "''The international atomic energy agency and world nuclear order'' (Routledge, 2016) online.", "* Stoessinger, John G. \"The International Atomic Energy Agency: The First Phase.\"", "''International Organization'' 13.3 (1959): 394-411." ], [ "External links", "* International Atomic Energy Agency Official Website* NUCLEUS – The IAEA Nuclear Knowledge and Information Portal* * IAEA annual Staff Association Ball* Agreement on the Privileges and Immunities of the International Atomic Energy Agency, 1 July 1959* IAEA Department of Technical Cooperation website* Programme of Action for Cancer Therapy (PACT) – Comprehensive Cancer Control Information and Fighting Cancer in Developing Countries* International Nuclear Library Network (INLN)* The Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project or NPIHP is a global network of individuals and institutions engaged in the study of international nuclear history through archival documents, oral history interviews and other empirical sources.", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "International Civil Aviation Organization" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''International Civil Aviation Organization''' ('''ICAO''' ) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that coordinates the principles and techniques of international air navigation, and fosters the planning and development of international air transport to ensure safe and orderly growth.", "The ICAO headquarters are located in the Quartier international de Montréal of Montreal, Quebec, Canada.The ICAO Council adopts standards and recommended practices concerning air navigation, its infrastructure, flight inspection, prevention of unlawful interference, and facilitation of border-crossing procedures for international civil aviation.", "ICAO defines the protocols for air accident investigation that are followed by transport safety authorities in countries signatory to the Convention on International Civil Aviation.The Air Navigation Commission (ANC) is the technical body within ICAO.", "The commission is composed of 19 commissioners, nominated by the ICAO's contracting states and appointed by the ICAO Council.", "Commissioners serve as independent experts, who although nominated by their states, do not serve as state or political representatives.", "International Standards and Recommended Practices are developed under the direction of the ANC through the formal process of ICAO Panels.", "Once approved by the commission, standards are sent to the council, the political body of ICAO, for consultation and coordination with the member states before final adoption.ICAO is distinct from other international air transport organizations, particularly because it alone is vested with international authority (among signatory states): other organizations include the International Air Transport Association (IATA), a trade association representing airlines; the Civil Air Navigation Services Organization (CANSO), an organization for Air navigation service providers (ANSPs); and the Airports Council International, a trade association of airport authorities." ], [ "History", "===20th century===The forerunner to ICAO was the '''International Commission for Air Navigation''' (ICAN).", "It held its first convention in 1903 in Berlin, Germany, but no agreements were reached among the eight countries that attended.", "At the second convention in 1906, also held in Berlin, twenty-seven countries attended.", "The third convention, held in London in 1912, allocated the first radio callsigns for use by aircraft.", "ICAN continued to operate until 1945.The Convention on International Civil Aviation, also known as the Chicago Convention, in Chicago, was signed by 52 countries on 7 December 1944.Under its terms, a '''Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization''' was to be established, to be replaced in turn by a permanent organization when twenty-six countries ratified the convention.", "PICAO began operating on 6 June 1945, replacing ICAN.", "The 26th country ratified the convention on 5 March 1947 and, consequently, PICAO was disestablished on 4 April 1947 and replaced by ICAO, which began operations the same day.", "In October 1947, ICAO became an agency of the United Nations under its Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).===21st century===In April 2013, Qatar offered to serve as the new permanent seat of the Organization.", "Qatar promised to construct a massive new headquarters for ICAO and to cover all moving expenses, stating that Montreal \"was too far from Europe and Asia\", \"had cold winters\", was hard to attend due to the Canadian government's slow issuance of visas, and that the taxes imposed on ICAO by Canada were too high.", "According to ''The Globe and Mail'', Qatar's invitation was at least partly motivated by the pro-Israel foreign policy of Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper.", "Approximately a month later, Qatar withdrew its bid after a separate proposal to the ICAO's governing council to move the ICAO triennial conference to Doha was defeated by a vote of 22–14.====Taiwan controversy====In January 2020, ICAO blocked several Twitter users, including think-tank analysts, U.S. Congressional staff, and journalists, who mentioned Taiwan in tweets related to ICAO.", "Many of the tweets were related to the COVID-19 pandemic and Taiwan's exclusion from ICAO safety and health bulletins due to pressure from China.", "In response, ICAO issued a tweet stating that publishers of \"irrelevant, compromising and offensive material\" would be \"precluded\".", "Since that action, the organization has followed a policy of blocking anyone asking about it.", "The United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs harshly criticized ICAO's perceived failure to uphold principles of fairness, inclusion, and transparency by silencing non-disruptive opposing voices.", "Senator Marco Rubio also criticized the move.", "The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Taiwan) (MOFA) and Taiwanese legislators criticized the move with MOFA head Jaushieh Joseph Wu tweeting in support of those blocked.In January 2020, Anthony Philbin, chief of communications of the ICAO Secretary General, rejected criticism of ICAO's handling of the situation, saying, \"We felt we were completely warranted in taking the steps we did to defend the integrity of the information and discussions our followers should reasonably expect from our feeds.\"", "In exchanges with International Flight Network, Philbin refused to acknowledge the existence of Taiwan.On 1 February 2020, the United States Department of State issued a press release heavily criticizing ICAO's actions, characterizing them as \"outrageous, unacceptable, and not befitting of a UN organization.\"" ], [ "Statute", "The 9th edition of the Convention on International Civil Aviation includes modifications from years 1948 up to 2006.ICAO refers to its current edition of the convention as the ''Statute'' and designates it as ICAO Document 7300/9.The convention has 19 Annexes that are listed by title in the article Convention on International Civil Aviation." ], [ "Membership", "International Civil Aviation Organization member states, there are 193 ICAO members, consisting of 192 of the 193 UN members (all but Liechtenstein, which lacks an international airport), plus the Cook Islands.Despite Liechtenstein not being a direct party to ICAO, its government delegated Switzerland to enter into the treaty on its behalf, and the treaty applies in the territory of Liechtenstein.===Exclusion of Taiwan===The Republic of China was a founding member of ICAO.", "Following its retreat to Taiwan, it was eventually replaced by the People's Republic of China as the legal representative of China in 1971.In 2013, Taiwan was for the first time invited to attend the ICAO Assembly, at its 38th session, as a guest under the name of “Chinese Taipei.” , it has not been invited to participate again, due to renewed PRC pressure.", "The host government, Canada, supports Taiwan's inclusion in ICAO.", "Support also comes from Canada's commercial sector with the president of the Air Transport Association of Canada saying in 2019 that \"It's about safety in aviation so from a strictly operational and non-political point of view, I believe Taiwan should be there.\"" ], [ "Council", "The ICAO's council chamber in July 2013The ICAO Council is elected by the Assembly every three years and consists of 36 members elected in three groups.", "The present council was elected in October 2022.The structure of the present Council is as follows: Group I (Chief Importance) Group II (Large Contributions) Group III (Geographic Representations)* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Air Navigation Commission", "Meeting room of ICAO's Air Navigation Commission in July 2013The Air Navigation Commission (ANC) is the ICAO Council technical executive body in charge of 17 of the 19 Annexes to the Chicago Convention.", "ANC develops and recommend ICAO minimal standards that are related to these Annexes.", "To review and/or finalize the ongoing developments the commission meets for three sessions per year.", "Each session normally considers a number of documents being developments of ANC expert Panels.", "The ANC is composed of nineteen commissioners nominated by ICAO States in various aviation domains.", "However, legally these commissioners do not represent the interest of their State or any particular State or region.", "They have to conduct independently in the interest of the entire international civil aviation community.", "Additionally, several other representatives from ICAO States and up to eight members from the civil aviation industry may be invited to take part in ANC meetings as observers." ], [ "Standards", "ICAO also standardizes certain functions for use in the airline industry, such as the Aeronautical Message Handling System (AMHS).", "This makes it a standards organization.Each country should have an accessible Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP), based on standards defined by ICAO, containing information essential to air navigation.", "Countries are required to update their AIP manuals every 28 days and so provide definitive regulations, procedures and information for each country about airspace and airports.", "ICAO's standards also dictate that temporary hazards to aircraft must be regularly published using NOTAMs.ICAO defines an International Standard Atmosphere (also known as ICAO Standard Atmosphere), a model of the standard variation of pressure, temperature, density, and viscosity with altitude in the Earth's atmosphere.", "This is useful in calibrating instruments and designing aircraft.", "The standardized pressure is also used in calibrating instruments in-flight, particularly above the transition altitude.ICAO is active in infrastructure management, including communication, navigation and surveillance / air traffic management (CNS/ATM) systems, which employ digital technologies (like satellite systems with various levels of automation) in order to maintain a seamless global air traffic management system.=== Passport standards ===ICAO has published standards for machine-readable passports.", "Machine-readable passports have an area where some of the information otherwise written in textual form is also written as strings of alphanumeric characters, printed in a manner suitable for optical character recognition, which enables border controllers and other law enforcement agents to process such passports more quickly without having to enter the information manually into a computer.", "ICAO's technical standard for machine-readable passports is contained in Document 9303 ''Machine Readable Travel Documents''.A more recent standard covers biometric passports.", "These contain biometrics to authenticate the identity of travellers.", "The passport's critical information is stored on a tiny RFID computer chip, much like information stored on smart cards.", "Like some smart cards, the passport book design calls for an embedded contactless chip that is able to hold digital signature data to ensure the integrity of the passport and the biometric data.=== Aerodrome reference code ===+Aerodrome reference code Number Field length 1 < 2 3 4 ≥ +Aerodrome reference code Letter Wingspan Main gear span Airbus Boeing Others A < < BN-2 Islander, Tecnam P2012 B CRJ 100/200/700, Embraer ERJ, Saab 340, EMB 120 C A220, A320 family B717, B727, B737 ATR 42/72, CRJ900/1000, Dash 8, Embraer E-Jet D A300/A310 B707, B757, B767 DC-10/MD-11, IL-86, L-1011 E A330/A340, A350 B747, B777, B787 IL-96 F A380 B747-8 Antonov An-124 Ruslan" ], [ "Registered codes", "Both ICAO and IATA have their own airport and airline code systems.=== Airport codes===ICAO uses 4-letter airport codes (vs. IATA's 3-letter codes).", "The ICAO code is based on the region and country of the airport—for example, Charles de Gaulle Airport has an ICAO code of LFPG, where ''L'' indicates Southern Europe, ''F'', France, ''PG'', Paris de Gaulle, while Orly Airport has the code LFPO (the 3rd letter sometimes refers to the particular flight information region (FIR) or the last two may be arbitrary).", "In most parts of the world, ICAO and IATA codes are unrelated; for example, Charles de Gaulle Airport has an IATA code of CDG.", "However, the location prefix for the continental United States is ''K'', and ICAO codes are usually the IATA code with this prefix.", "For example, the ICAO code for Los Angeles International Airport is KLAX.", "Canada follows a similar pattern, where a prefix of ''C'' is usually added to an IATA code to create the ICAO code.", "For example, Calgary International Airport is YYC or CYYC.", "(In contrast, airports in Hawaii are in the Pacific region and so have ICAO codes that start with ''PH''; Kona International Airport's code is PHKO.", "Similarly, airports in Alaska have ICAO codes that start with ''PA''.", "Merrill Field, for instance is PAMR.)", "Not all airports are assigned codes in both systems; for example, airports that do not have airline service do not need an IATA code.=== Airline codes ===ICAO also assigns three-letter airline codes versus the more-familiar two-letter IATA codes—for example, ''UAL'' vs. ''UA'' for United Airlines.", "ICAO also provides telephony designators to aircraft operators worldwide, a one- or two-word designator used on the radio, usually, but not always, similar to the aircraft operator name.", "For example, the identifier for Japan Airlines International is ''JAL'' and the designator is ''Japan Air'', but Aer Lingus is ''EIN'' and ''Shamrock''.", "Thus, a Japan Airlines flight numbered 111 would be written as \"JAL111\" and pronounced \"Japan Air One One One\" on the radio, while a similarly numbered Aer Lingus would be written as \"EIN111\" and pronounced \"Shamrock One One One\".", "In the US, FAA practices require the digits of the flight number to be spoken in group format (\"Japan Air One Eleven\" in the above example) while individual digits are used for the aircraft tail number used for unscheduled civil flights.=== Aircraft registrations ===ICAO maintains the standards for aircraft registration, known as tail numbers, including the alphanumeric codes that identify the country of registration.", "For example, airplanes registered in the United States have tail numbers starting with ''N'', and airplanes registered in Bahrain have tail numbers starting with ''A9C''.=== Aircraft type designators ===ICAO is also responsible for issuing two to four character alphanumeric aircraft type designators for those aircraft types which are most commonly provided with air traffic service.", "These codes provide an abbreviated aircraft type identification, typically used in flight plans.", "For example, the Boeing 747-100, -200 and -300 are given the type designators ''B741'', ''B742'' and ''B743'' respectively." ], [ "International System of Unit", "Since 2010, ICAO recommends a unification of units of measurement within aviation based on the International System of Units (SI), using:* Kilometres per hour (km/h) for speed during travel.", "* Metres per second (m/s) for wind speed during landing.", "* Kilometres (km) for distance.", "* Metres (m) for elevation.Non-SI units have been permitted for temporary use since 1979, but a termination date has not yet been established, which would complete metrication of worldwide aviation, and the following units are still in widespread use within commercial aviation:* Knots (kn) for speed.", "* Nautical mile (NM) for distance.", "* Foot (ft) for elevation.Inches of mercury are used in Japan and North America to measure pressure, although sometimes METAR at Japanese airports show only hPa.Aviation in Russia and China currently use km/h for reporting airspeed, and many present-day European glider planes also indicate airspeed in kilometres per hour.", "China and North Korea use metres for reporting altitude when communicating with pilots.", "Russia also formerly used metres exclusively for reporting altitude, but in 2011 changed to feet for high altitude flight.", "From February 2017, Russian airspace started transitioning to reporting altitude in feet only.", "Runway lengths are now commonly given in metres worldwide, except in North America where feet are commonly used.The following table summarizes units commonly used in flight and ground operations and their recommended replacement.", "A full list of recommended units can be found in annex 5 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation.+Table of units commonly used in aviation Measurement Recommended Current de facto Comment Airspeed and ground speed km/h kn Mach is sometimes instead used for high altitude flight.", "Distance (ground) km nmi Distance in km has widespread use in European gliders.", "Flight level m ft Metres are used by China, Mongolia, North Korea, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, and formerly Russia.", "From 2017, Russian airspace has transitioned from metres to feet.", "Runway length m m or ft Feet are still used for runway lengths in North America.", "Wind speed m/s kn Until 2010 ICAO recommended km/h for reporting wind speed on runways.", "Metres per second is used by Russian and Chinese airports.", "Rate of climb m/s ft/min, kn, m/s Lift and sink rate is measured using a variometer.", "Temperature °C °C Celsius is used for aviation weather reporting globally.", "Fahrenheit (°F) maybe used for displaying, controlling, and documenting system temperatures (HVAC, engine) on older North American aircraft.", "Liquid precipitation mm in Atmospheric pressure hPa inHg, mbar, hPa Hectopascals are mostly used in aviation worldwide, while inches of mercury are used in Japan and North America.", "One hectopascal is equal to one millibar.", "Visibility m ft, mi, m Reported in metres for most of the world.", "Visibility over 5000 m may be given in kilometres.", "Canadian, American, and Mexican airports use statute miles, or feet when reporting laser measurements.", "Cloud height m ft Time UTC UTC Tank capacity L kg, lb, UK gallon, US gallon, L Used for fuel tank capacity of an aircraft.", "Unit varies depending on the gauges fitted to the aircraft.", "The most common current unit is kilograms.", "Volume m3 m3 Used for general volume capacity.", "Mass kg lb, tonne, long ton, short ton, kg Used for cargo capacity, fuel capacity, gross mass, payload.", "Tonne may also be used for gross mass and payload.", "Tons are often used informally during flight planning to gauge approximate weights.", "Ton then usually either refers to the tonne, or the long ton or short ton which differ from the tonne by about 2% and 10% respectively.", "Attitude deg Measured with an attitude indicator, and are always presented in degrees.", "(Sensors, data and calculations may however use a mix of degrees and radians, as many scientists and engineers prefer to work with radians.)", "Turn and slip deg/s, min/tr A common turn rate for commercial aircraft is 3 degrees per second, which is often translated to (the inverse unit) 2 minutes per turn.", "Heading compass points Measured with a heading indicator.", "Altitude, elevation, height." ], [ "Regions and regional offices", "ICAO has a headquarters, seven regional offices, and one regional sub-office:* Headquarters – Montreal, Quebec, Canada* Asia and Pacific (APAC) – Bangkok, Thailand; Sub-office – Beijing, China* Eastern and Southern African (ESAF) – Nairobi, Kenya* Europe and North Atlantic (EUR/NAT) – Paris, France* Middle East (MID) – Cairo, Egypt* North American, Central American and Caribbean (NACC) – Mexico City, Mexico* South American (SAM) – Lima, Peru* Western and Central African (WACAF) – Dakar, Senegal" ], [ "Leadership", "=== List of secretaries general === Secretary Country of nationality Term Juan Carlos Salazar Gómez From August 2021 Fang Liu 2015–August 2021 Raymond Benjamin 2009–2015 Taïeb Chérif 2003–2009 Renato Claudio Costa Pereira 1997–2003 Philippe Rochat 1991–1997 Shivinder Singh Sidhu 1988–1991 Yves Lambert 1976–1988 Assad Kotaite 1970–1976 Bernardus Tielman Twigt 1964–1970 Ronald MacAllister Macdonnell 1959–1964 Carl Ljungberg 1952–1959 Albert Roper 1944–1951=== List of council presidents ===Roberto Kobeh González, ICAO president from 2006 to 2013, in 2007 President Country of nationality Term Salvatore Sciacchitano Italy 2020–present Olumuyiwa Benard Aliu Nigeria 2013–2019 Roberto Kobeh Gonzalez Mexico 2006–2013 Assad Kotaite Lebanon 1976–2006 Walter Binaghi Argentina 1957–1976 Edward Pearson Warner United States 1947–1957" ], [ "Environment", "Emissions from international aviation are specifically excluded from the targets agreed under the Kyoto Protocol.", "Instead, the Protocol invites developed countries to pursue the limitation or reduction of emissions through the International Civil Aviation Organization.", "ICAO's environmental committee continues to consider the potential for using market-based measures such as trading and charging, but this work is unlikely to lead to global action.", "It is currently developing guidance for states who wish to include aviation in an emissions trading scheme (ETS) to meet their Kyoto commitments, and for airlines who wish to participate voluntarily in a trading scheme.Emissions from domestic aviation are included within the Kyoto targets agreed by countries.", "This has led to some national policies such as fuel and emission taxes for domestic air travel in the Netherlands and Norway, respectively.", "Although some countries tax the fuel used by domestic aviation, there is no duty on kerosene used on international flights.ICAO is currently opposed to the inclusion of aviation in the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS).", "The EU, however, is pressing ahead with its plans to include aviation.ICAO has been called \"flawed and biased in favour of the industry\" by Jo Dardenne, the manager for aviation at Transport & Environment.===Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation===On 6 October 2016, the ICAO finalized an agreement among its 191 member nations to address the more than of carbon dioxide emitted annually by international passenger and cargo flights.", "The agreement will use an offsetting scheme called CORSIA (the Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation) under which forestry and other carbon-reducing activities are directly funded, amounting to about 2% of annual revenues for the sector.", "Rules against 'double counting' should ensure that existing forest protection efforts are not recycled.", "The scheme does not take effect until 2021 and will be voluntary until 2027, but many countries, including the US and China, have promised to begin at its 2020 inception date.", "Under the agreement, the global aviation emissions target is a 50% reduction by 2050 relative to 2005.NGO reaction to the deal was mixed.The agreement has critics.", "It is not aligned with the 2015 Paris climate agreement, which set the objective of restricting global warming to 1.5 to 2 °C.", "A late draft of the agreement would have required the air transport industry to assess its share of global carbon budgeting to meet that objective, but the text was removed in the agreed version.", "CORSIA will regulate only about 25 percent of aviation's international emissions, since it grandfathers all emissions below the 2020 level, allowing unregulated growth until then.", "Only 65 nations will participate in the initial voluntary period, not including significant emitters Russia, India and perhaps Brazil.", "The agreement does not cover domestic emissions, which are 40% of the global industry's overall emissions.", "One observer of the ICAO convention made this summary: although another critic called it \"a timid step in the right direction.", "\"=== Air quality===Emissions limits for aircraft engines are defined by the Annex 16, Volume 2 of the ICAO Technology Standards, they include standards for Hydrocarbons, Carbon monoxide, NOx, Smoke and Particulate Matter for Local Air Quality near airports, below .The first ICAO emissions regulation was adopted in 1981, and more stringent NOx standards were subsequently adopted: CAEP/2 in 1993, CAEP/4 in 1999, CAEP/6 in 2005 and CAEP/8 in 2011.Higher bypass ratios, lean burn and Rich Quick Quench Lean combustor design can reduce NOx emissions." ], [ "Investigations of air disasters", "Most air accident investigations are carried out by an agency of a country that is associated in some way with the accident.", "For example, the Air Accidents Investigation Branch conducts accident investigations on behalf of the British Government.", "ICAO has conducted four investigations involving air disasters, of which two were passenger airliners shot down while in international flight over hostile territory.# Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 114 which was shot down on 21 February 1973 by Israeli F-4 jets over the Sinai Peninsula during a period of tension that led to the Arab-Israeli Yom Kippur War killing 108 people.# Korean Air Lines Flight 007, which was shot down on 1 September 1983 by a Soviet Su-15 interceptor near Moneron Island just west of Sakhalin Island during a period of heightened Cold War tension killing all 269 people on board including U.S. Representative Larry McDonald.# UTA Flight 772, which was destroyed by a bomb on 19 September 1989 above the Sahara Desert in Niger, en route from N'Djamena, Chad, to Paris, France.", "The explosion caused the aircraft to break up, killing all 156 passengers and 15 crew members, including the wife of U.S.", "Ambassador Robert L. Pugh.", "Investigators determined that a bomb placed in the cargo hold by Chadian rebels backed by Libya was responsible for the explosion.", "A French court convicted ''in absentia'' six Libyans of planning and implementing the attack.#The 1996 shootdown of Brothers to the Rescue aircraft on 24 February 1996, when two civilian aircraft operating north of Cuba were shot down by two jets of the Cuban Air Force.", "The Cuban military alleged that aircraft operated by the group Brothers to the Rescue had scattered propaganda leaflets onto Cuba prior to the incident, and issued orders that such aircraft be shot down.", "All four crew members aboard the two aircraft were killed, whilst a third aircraft managed to escape and return to the American mainland." ], [ "Drone regulations and registration", "ICAO is looking at having a singular ledger for drone registration to help law enforcement globally.", "Currently, ICAO is responsible for creating drone regulations across the globe, and it is expected that it will only maintain the registry.", "This activity is seen as a forerunner to global regulations on flying drones under the auspices of the ICAO.ICAO currently maintains the 'UAS Regulation Portal' for various countries to list their country's UAS regulations and also review the best practices from across the globe." ], [ "See also", "* Airline codes (includes ICAO codes)* (FAI)* Freedoms of the air* ICAO airport code* International Maritime Organization* Kenneth Macdonald Beaumont* List of aircraft manufacturers by ICAO name" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official website of the International Civil Aviation Organization* Convention on International Civil Aviation – Document 7300* ECCAIRS 4.2.8 Data Definition Standard – Location Indicators by State, 17 Sep 2010 * ICAO Aircraft and Manufacturer Codes – Document 8643* The Postal History of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)* ICAO Will Mute Mics At Mention of Taiwan: Paraguay Official" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "International Maritime Organization" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''International Maritime Organization''' ('''IMO'''; ; ) is a specialised agency of the United Nations responsible for regulating shipping.", "The IMO was established following agreement at a UN conference held in Geneva in 1948 and the IMO came into existence ten years later, meeting for the first time on 17 March 1958.Headquartered in London, United Kingdom, IMO currently has 175 Member States and three Associate Members.The IMO's primary purpose is to develop and maintain a comprehensive regulatory framework for shipping and its remit today includes maritime safety, environmental concerns, legal matters, technical co-operation, maritime security and the efficiency of shipping.", "IMO is governed by an assembly of members which meets every two years.", "Its finance and organization is administered by a council of 40 members elected from the assembly.", "The work of IMO is conducted through five committees and these are supported by technical subcommittees.", "Other UN organisations may observe the proceedings of the IMO.", "Observer status is granted to qualified non-governmental organisations.IMO is supported by a permanent secretariat of employees who are representative of the organisation's members.", "The secretariat is composed of a Secretary-General who is periodically elected by the assembly, and various divisions such as those for marine safety, environmental protection and a conference section." ], [ "History", "The headquarters of the IMO are located on Albert Embankment, Lambeth, London.IMO was established in 1948 following a UN conference in Geneva to bring the regulation of the safety of shipping into an international framework.", "Hitherto such international conventions had been initiated piecemeal, notably the Safety of Life at Sea Convention (SOLAS), first adopted in 1914 following the ''Titanic'' disaster.", "Under the name of the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO), IMO's first task was to update the SOLAS convention; the resulting 1960 convention was subsequently recast and updated in 1974 and it is that convention that has been subsequently modified and updated to adapt to changes in safety requirements and technology.Since 1978, every last Thursday of September has been celebrated as World Maritime Day.", "The day that coincides with the establishment of the International Maritime Organisation in 1958.When IMCO began its operations in 1959 certain other pre-existing conventions were brought under its aegis, most notable the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil (OILPOL) 1954.In January 1959, IMO began to maintain and promote the 1954 OILPOL Convention.", "Under the guidance of IMO, the convention was amended in 1962, 1969, and 1971.The first meetings of the newly formed IMCO were held in London in 1959.As oil trade and industry developed, many people in the industry began to recognise a need for further improvements in regards to oil pollution prevention at sea.", "This became increasingly apparent in 1967, when the tanker ''Torrey Canyon'' spilled 120,000 tons of crude oil when it ran aground entering the English Channel The ''Torrey Canyon'' grounding was the largest oil pollution incident recorded up to that time.", "This incident prompted a series of new conventions.Current Secretary-General Kitack Lim (left), with predecessor Secretaries-General O'Neill, Mitropoulos and SekimizuIMO held an emergency session of its council to deal with the need to readdress regulations pertaining to maritime pollution.", "In 1969, the IMO Assembly decided to host an international gathering in 1973 dedicated to this issue.", "The goal at hand was to develop an international agreement for controlling general environmental contamination by ships when out at sea.", "During the next few years IMO brought to the forefront a series of measures designed to prevent large ship accidents and to minimise their effects.", "It also detailed how to deal with the environmental threat caused by routine ship duties such as the cleaning of oil cargo tanks or the disposal of engine room wastes.", "By tonnage, the aforementioned was a bigger problem than accidental pollution.", "The most significant development to come out of this conference was the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973.It covers not only accidental and operational oil pollution but also different types of pollution by chemicals, goods in packaged form, sewage, garbage and air pollution.", "The original MARPOL was signed on 17 February 1973, but did not come into force due to lack of ratifications.", "The current convention is a combination of 1973 Convention and the 1978 Protocol.", "It entered into force on 2 October 1983.As of January 2018, 156 states, representing 99.42 per cent of the world's shipping tonnage, are signatories to the MARPOL convention.As well as updates to MARPOL and SOLAS, the IMO facilitated several updated international maritime conventions in the mid to late 20th century, including the International Convention on Load Lines in 1966 (replacing an earlier 1930 Convention), the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea in 1972 (also replacing an earlier set of rules) and the STCW Convention in 1978.In 1975, the assembly of the IMO decided that future conventions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) and other IMO instruments should use SI units only.", "As such, sea transportation is one of few industrial areas that still commonly uses non-metric units such as the nautical mile (nmi) for distance and knots (kn) for speed or velocity.In 1982, IMCO was renamed as the International Maritime Organization (IMO).", "Throughout its existence, the IMO has continued to produce new and updated conventions across a wide range of maritime issues covering not only safety of life and marine pollution but also encompassing safe navigation, search and rescue, wreck removal, tonnage measurement, liability and compensation, ship recycling, the training and certification of seafarers, and piracy.", "More recently SOLAS has been amended to bring an increased focus on maritime security through the International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code.", "The IMO has also increased its focus on smoke emissions from ships.", "In 1983, the IMO established the World Maritime University in Malmö, Sweden and also facilitated the adoption of the IGC Code.", "In 1991, the IMO facilitated the adoption of the International Grain Code.In December 2002, new amendments to the 1974 SOLAS Convention were enacted by the IMO.", "These amendments gave rise to the International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code, which went into effect on 1 July 2004.The concept of the code is to provide layered and redundant defences against smuggling, terrorism, piracy, stowaways, etc.", "The ISPS Code required most ships and port facilities engaged in international trade to establish and maintain strict security procedures as specified in ship and port specific Ship Security Plans and Port Facility Security Plans." ], [ "Headquarters", "Queen Elizabeth II and model of Queen Mary 2 in the lobby of the IMO Headquarters buildingThe IMO headquarters are located in a large purpose-built building facing the River Thames on the Albert Embankment, in Lambeth, London.", "The organisation moved into its new headquarters in late 1982, with the building being officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 17 May 1983.The architects of the building were Douglass Marriott, Worby & Robinson.", "The front of the building is dominated by a seven-metre high, ten-tonne bronze sculpture of the bow of a ship, with a lone seafarer maintaining a look-out.", "The previous headquarters of IMO were at 101 Piccadilly (now the home of the Embassy of Japan), prior to that at 22 Berners Street in Fitzrovia and originally in Chancery Lane." ], [ "Structure", "The IMO consists of an Assembly, a Council and five main Committees.", "The organization is led by a Secretary-General.", "A number of Sub-Committees support the work of the main technical committees.===Governance of IMO===The International Maritime Organization wall honouring former Secretary-GeneralsThe governing body of the International Maritime Organization is the Assembly which meets every two years.", "In between Assembly sessions a Council, consisting of 40 Member States elected by the Assembly, acts as the governing body.", "The technical work of the International Maritime Organization is carried out by a series of Committees.", "The Secretariat consists of some 300 international civil servants headed by a Secretary-General.The current Secretary-General is Arsenio Dominguez who took office for a four year term on 1 January 2024, having been elected in July 2023.The previous Secretary-General was Kitack Lim from South Korea elected for a four-year term at the 114th session of the IMO Council in June 2015 and at the 29th session of the IMO's Assembly in November 2015.His mandate started on 1 January 2016.At the 31st session of the Assembly in 2019 he was re-appointed for a second term, ending on 31 December 2023.NameCountryTerm Ove Nielsen Denmark 1959-1961 William Graham United Kingdom 1961-1963 Jean Roullier France 1964-1967 Colin Goad United Kingdom 1968-1973 Chandrika Prasad Srivastava India 1974-1989 William A. O'Neil Canada 1990-2003 Efthymios Mitropoulos Greece 2004-2011 Koji Sekimizu Japan 2012-2015 Kitack Lim South Korea 2016–2023 Arsenio Dominguez Panama 2024-===Technical committees===An image of the main hall assembly chamber, where the MSC and MEPC committees of the International Maritime Organization meet each year.The technical work of the International Maritime Organisation is carried out by five principal Committees.", "These include:* The Maritime Safety Committee (MSC)* The Marine environment Protection Committee (MEPC)* The Legal Committee* The Technical Cooperation Committee, for capacity building* The Facilitation Committee, to simplify the documentation and formalities required in international shipping.====Maritime Safety Committee====It is regulated in the Article 28(a) of the Convention on the IMO:The main Plenary Hall of the IMO, where the Maritime Safety Committee meets.The Maritime Safety Committee is the most senior of these and is the main Technical Committee; it oversees the work of its nine sub-committees and initiates new topics.", "One broad topic it deals with is the effect of the human element on casualties; this work has been put to all of the sub-committees, but meanwhile, the Maritime Safety Committee has developed a code for the management of ships which will ensure that agreed operational procedures are in place and followed by the ship and shore-side staff.====Sub-Committees====The MSC and MEPC are assisted in their work by a number of sub-committees which are open to all Member States.", "The committees are:* Sub-Committee on Human Element, Training and Watchkeeping (HTW)* Sub-Committee on Implementation of IMO Instruments (III)* Sub-Committee on Navigation, Communications and Search and Rescue (NCSR)* Sub-Committee on Pollution Prevention and Response (PPR)* Sub-Committee on Ship Design and Construction (SDC)* Sub-Committee on Ship Systems and Equipment (SSE)* Sub-Committee on Carriage of Cargoes and Containers (CCC).The names of the IMO sub-committees were changed in 2013.Prior to 2013 there were nine Sub-Committees as follows:* Bulk Liquids and Gases (BLG)* Carriage of Dangerous Goods, Solid Cargoes and Containers(DSC)* Fire Protection (FP)* Radio-communications and Search and Rescue (COMSAR)* Safety of Navigation (NAV)* Ship Design and Equipment (DE)* Stability and Load Lines and Fishing Vessels Safety (SLF)* Standards of Training and Watchkeeping (STW)* Flag State Implementation (FSI)" ], [ "Membership", "International Maritime Organization as of 2022: To become a member of the IMO, a state ratifies a multilateral treaty known as the Convention on the International Maritime Organization.", "As of 2020, there are 175 member states of the IMO, which includes 174 of the UN member states plus the Cook Islands.", "The first state to ratify the convention was Canada in 1948.The three most recent members to join were Armenia and Nauru (which became IMO members in January and May 2018, respectively) and Botswana (which joined the IMO in October 2021).These are the current members with the year they joined:* (1993)* (1963)* (1977)* (1986)* (1953)* (2018)* (1952)* (1975)* (1995)* (1976)* (1976)* (1976)* (1970)* (2016)* (1951)* (1990)* (1980)* (1987)* (1993)* (2021)* (1963)* (1984)* (1960)* (1976)* (1961)* (1961)* (1948)* (1972)* (1973)* (1974)* (2001)* (1975)* (2008)* (1981)* (1960)* (1992)* (1966)* (1973)* (1993)* (1986)* (1973)* (1959)* (1979)* (1979)* (1953)* (1956)* (1958)* (1981)* (1972)* (1993)* (1992)* (1975)* (1983)* (1959)* (1952)* (1976)* (1979)* (1993)* (1959)* (1959)* (1958)* (1998)* (1983)* (1975)* (1977)* (1980)* (1953)* (1954)* (1970)* (1960)* (1959)* (1961)* (1958)* (1973)* (1951)* (1952)* (1957)* (1976)* (1958)* (1973)* (1994)* (1973)* (2003)* (1960)* (1993)* (1966)* (1959)* (1970)* (1995)* (1991)* (1961)* (1989)* (1971)* (1967)* (1966)* (1998)* (1961)* (1978)* (1954)* (1989)* (1996)* (2006)* (1962)* (1979)* (1951)* (1994)* (2018)* (1979)* (1949)* (1960)* (1982)* (1962)* (1993)* (1958)* (1974)* (1958)* (2011)* (1958)* (1976)* (1993)* (1968)* (1964)* (1960)* (1976)* (1977)* (1962)* (2001)* (1965)* (1958)* (2001)* (1980)* (1981)* (1996)* (2002)* (1990)* (1969)* (1960)* (2000)* (1978)* (1973)* (1966)* (1993)* (1993)* (1988)* (1978)* (1995)* (1962)* (1972)* (1974)* (1976)* (1959)* (1955)* (1963)* (1974)* (1973)* (2005)* (1983)* (2000)* (1965)* (1963)* (1958)* (1993)* (2004)* (2009)* (1994)* (1980)* (1949)* (1950)* (1968)* (1986)* (1975)* (1984)* (1979)* (2014)* (2005)The three associate members of the IMO are the Faroe Islands, Hong Kong and Macao.In 1961, the territories of Sabah and Sarawak, which had been included through the participation of United Kingdom, became joint associate members.", "In 1963 they became part of Malaysia.Most UN member states that are not members of IMO are landlocked countries.", "These include Afghanistan, Andorra, Bhutan, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, Eswatini, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Lesotho, Liechtenstein, Mali, Niger, Rwanda, South Sudan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.", "The Federated States of Micronesia, an island-nation in the Pacific Ocean, is also a non-member.", "Taiwan is neither a member of the IMO nor of the UN, although it has a major shipping industry." ], [ "Legal instruments", "IMO is the source of approximately 60 legal instruments that guide the regulatory development of its member states to improve safety at sea, facilitate trade among seafaring states and protect the maritime environment.", "The most well known is the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), as well as International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL).", "Others include the International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds (IOPC).", "It also functions as a depository of yet to be ratified treaties, such as the International Convention on Liability and Compensation for Damage in Connection with the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances by Sea, 1996 (HNS Convention) and Nairobi International Convention of Removal of Wrecks (2007).IMO regularly enacts regulations, which are broadly enforced by national and local maritime authorities in member countries, such as the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREG).", "The IMO has also enacted a Port State Control (PSC) authority, allowing domestic maritime authorities such as coast guards to inspect foreign-flag ships calling at ports of the many port states.", "Memoranda of Understanding (protocols) were signed by some countries unifying Port State Control procedures among the signatories.Conventions, Codes and Regulations:*MARPOL Convention**Marpol Annex I*SOLAS Convention**IMDG Code**ISM Code**ISPS Code**Polar Code**IGF Code**IGC Code*STCW Convention*International Code of Signals*International Ballast Water Management Convention*International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (CLC Convention)*International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue (SAR Convention)*International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation (OPRC)*HNS Convention*International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREG)*International Convention on Load Lines (CLL)*International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage (FUND92)*Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation (SUA Convention)*International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships (AFS Convention)*The Casualty Investigation Code - enacted through Resolution MSC.255(84), of 16 May 2008.The full title is ''Code of the International Standards and Recommended Practices for a Safety Investigation into a Marine casualty or Marine Incident''.The IMO is also responsible for publishing the International Code of Signals for use between merchant and naval vessels." ], [ "Current priorities", "Recent initiatives at the IMO have included amendments to SOLAS, which among other things, included upgraded fire protection standards on passenger ships, the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW) which establishes basic requirements on training, certification and watchkeeping for seafarers and to the Convention on the Prevention of Maritime Pollution (MARPOL 73/78), which required double hulls on all tankers.IMO has harmonised information available to seafarers and shore-side traffic services called e-Navigation.", "An e-Navigation strategy was ratified in 2005, and an implementation plan was developed through three IMO sub-committees.", "The plan was completed by 2014 and implemented in November of that year.", "IMO has also served as a key partner and enabler of US international and interagency efforts to establish maritime domain awareness.===Environmental issues===The IMO has a role in tackling international climate change.", "The First Intersessional Meeting of IMO's Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo, Norway (23–27 June 2008), tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping, and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves, for further consideration by IMO's Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC).", "The IMO participated in the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris seeking to establish itself as the \"appropriate international body to address greenhouse gas emissions from ships engaged in international trade\".", "Nonetheless, there has been widespread criticism of the IMO's relative inaction since the conclusion of the Paris conference, with the initial data-gathering step of a three-stage process to reduce maritime greenhouse emissions expected to last until 2020.In 2018, the Initial IMO Strategy on the reduction of GHG emissions from ships was adopted.", "In 2021, ''The New York Times'' wrote that the IMO \"has repeatedly delayed and watered down climate regulations\".The IMO has also taken action to mitigate the global effects of ballast water and sediment discharge, through the 2004 Ballast Water Management Convention, which entered into force in September 2017.In December 2023 the IMO adopted a resolution targeting \"dark fleet\" tankers that form a risk by undertaking illegal and unsafe activities at sea.", "primarily working for Iran and Russia to breach international sanctions, the tankers, many of which are elderly and unreliable, often undertake mid ocean transfers in an attempt to evade sanctions.", "The resolution calls upon flag states to “adhere to measures which lawfully prohibit or regulate” the transfer of cargoes at sea, known as STS operations.===Fishing safety===The IMO Cape Town Agreement is an international International Maritime Organization legal instrument established in 2012, that sets out minimum safety requirements for fishing vessels of 24 metres in length and over or equivalent in gross tons.", "The Agreement is not yet in force but the IMO is encouraging more member States to ratify the Agreement." ], [ "See also", "* Active Shipbuilding Experts' Federation* IMO ship identification number* International Hydrographic Organization* International Maritime Law Institute* International Maritime Rescue Federation* United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea* Standard Marine Communication Phrases developed by the IMO, to improve safety at sea* NAVAREA" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* International Maritime Organization* International Maritime Organization | Flickr page" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "International Labour Organization" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''International Labour Organization''' ('''ILO''') is a United Nations agency whose mandate is to advance social and economic justice by setting international labour standards.", "Founded in October 1919 under the League of Nations, it is one of the first and oldest specialised agencies of the UN.", "The ILO has 187 member states: 186 out of 193 UN member states plus the Cook Islands.", "It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, with around 40 field offices around the world, and employs some 3,381 staff across 107 nations, of whom 1,698 work in technical cooperation programmes and projects.The ILO's standards are aimed at ensuring accessible, productive, and sustainable work worldwide in conditions of freedom, equity, security and dignity.", "They are set forth in 189 conventions and treaties, of which eight are classified as fundamental according to the 1998 Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work; together they protect freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining, the elimination of forced or compulsory labour, the abolition of child labour, and the elimination of discrimination in respect of employment and occupation.", "The ILO is a major contributor to international labour law.Within the UN system the organization has a unique tripartite structure: all standards, policies, and programmes require discussion and approval from the representatives of governments, employers, and workers.", "This framework is maintained in the ILO's three main bodies: The International Labour Conference, which meets annually to formulate international labour standards; the Governing Body, which serves as the executive council and decides the agency's policy and budget; and the International Labour Office, the permanent secretariat that administers the organization and implements activities.", "The secretariat is led by the Director-General, Gilbert Houngbo of Togo, who was elected by the Governing Body in 2022.In 1969, the ILO received the Nobel Peace Prize for improving fraternity and peace among nations, pursuing decent work and justice for workers, and providing technical assistance to other developing nations.", "In 2019, the organization convened the Global Commission on the Future of Work, whose report made ten recommendations for governments to meet the challenges of the 21st century labour environment; these include a universal labour guarantee, social protection from birth to old age and an entitlement to lifelong learning.", "With its focus on international development, it is a member of the United Nations Development Group, a coalition of UN organizations aimed at helping meet the Sustainable Development Goals." ], [ "Governance, organization, and membership", "ILO headquarters in Geneva, SwitzerlandUnlike other United Nations specialized agencies, the International Labour Organization (ILO) has a tripartite governing structure that brings together governments, employers, and workers of 187 member States, to set labour standards, develop policies and devise programmes promoting decent work for all women and men.", "The structure is intended to ensure the views of all three groups are reflected in ILO labour standards, policies, and programmes, though governments have twice as many representatives as the other two groups." ], [ "Governing body", "The Governing Body is the executive body of the International Labour Organization.", "It meets three times a year, in March, June and November.", "It takes decisions on ILO policy, decides the agenda of the International Labour Conference, adopts the draft Programme and Budget of the Organization for submission to the Conference, elects the Director-General, requests information from the member states concerning labour matters, appoints commissions of inquiry and supervises the work of the International Labour Office.The Governing Body is composed of 56 titular members (28 governments, 14 employers and 14 workers) and 66 deputy members (28 governments, 19 employers and 19 workers).Ten of the titular government seats are permanently held by States of chief industrial importance: Brazil, China, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom and the United States.", "The other Government members are elected by the Conference every three years (the last elections were held in June 2021).", "The Employer and Worker members are elected in their individual capacity.India assumed the Chairpersonship of the Governing Body of International Labour Organization in 2020.Apurva Chandra, Secretary (Labour and Employment) has been elected as the Chairperson of the Governing Body of the ILO for the period October 2020-June 2021." ], [ "Director-General", "On 25 March 2022 Gilbert Fossoun Houngbo was elected Director-General of ILO.", "On 1 October 2022 he succeeded Guy Ryder, who was elected by the ILO Governing Body in October 2012, and re-elected for a second five-year-term in November 2016.He will be the organization's first African Director-General.", "The list of the Directors-General of ILO since its establishment in 1919 is as follows:NameCountryTerm Albert Thomas 1919–1932 Harold Butler 1932–1938 John G. Winant 1939–1941 Edward J. Phelan 1941–1948 David A. Morse 1948–1970 Clarence Wilfred Jenks 1970–1973 Francis Blanchard 1974–1989 Michel Hansenne 1989–1999 Juan Somavía 1999–2012 Guy Ryder 2012–2022 Gilbert Houngbo 2022–present" ], [ "International Labour Conference", "Once a year, the ILO organises the International Labour Conference (ILC) in Geneva to set the broad policies of the ILO, including conventions and recommendations.", "Also known as the \"international parliament of labour\", the conference makes decisions about the ILO's general policy, work programme and budget and also elects the Governing Body.The first conference took place in 1919: see Interwar period below.Each member state is represented by a delegation composed of two government delegates, an employer delegate, a worker delegate.", "All of them have individual voting rights and all votes are equal, regardless of the population of the delegate's member State.", "The employer and worker delegates are normally chosen in agreement with the most representative national organizations of employers and workers.", "Usually, the workers and employers' delegates coordinate their voting.", "All delegates have the same rights and are not required to vote in blocs.Delegates can attend with advisers and substitute delegates, and all have the same rights: they can express themselves freely and vote as they wish.", "This diversity of viewpoints does not prevent decisions from being adopted by very large majorities or unanimously.Heads of State and prime ministers also participate in the Conference.", "International organizations, both governmental and others, also attend but as observers.The 109th session of the International Labour Conference was delayed from 2020 to May 2021 and was held online because of the COVID-19 pandemic.", "The first meeting was on 20 May 2021 in Geneva for the election of its officers.", "Further sittings were held in June, November and December.", "The 110th session took place from 27 May to 11 June 2022.The 111th session of the International Labour Conference took place in June 2023." ], [ "Membership", "International Labour Organization flagThe ILO has 187 state members.", "186 of the 193 member states of the United Nations plus the Cook Islands are members of the ILO.", "The UN member states which are not members of the ILO are Andorra, Bhutan, Liechtenstein, Micronesia, Monaco, Nauru, and North Korea.The ILO constitution permits any member of the UN to become a member of the ILO.", "To gain membership, a nation must inform the director-general that it accepts all the obligations of the ILO constitution.", "Other states can be admitted by a two-thirds vote of all delegates, including a two-thirds vote of government delegates, at any ILO General Conference.", "The Cook Islands, a non-UN state, joined in June 2015.Members of the ILO under the League of Nations automatically became members when the organization's new constitution came into effect after World War II." ], [ "Position within the UN", "The ILO is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN).", "As with other UN specialized agencies (or programmes) working on international development, the ILO is also a member of the United Nations Development Group." ], [ "Normative function", "===Conventions===Through July 2018, the ILO had adopted 189 conventions.", "If these conventions are ratified by enough governments, they come in force.", "However, ILO conventions are considered international labour standards regardless of ratification.", "When a convention comes into force, it creates a legal obligation for ratifying nations to apply its provisions.Every year the International Labour Conference's Committee on the Application of Standards examines a number of alleged breaches of international labour standards.", "Governments are required to submit reports detailing their compliance with the obligations of the conventions they have ratified.", "Conventions that have not been ratified by member states have the same legal force as recommendations.In 1998, the 86th International Labour Conference adopted the ''Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work''.", "This declaration contains four fundamental policies:* The right of workers to associate freely and bargain collectively* The end of forced and compulsory labour* The end of child labour* The end of unfair discrimination among workersThe ILO asserts that its members have an obligation to work towards fully respecting these principles, embodied in relevant ILO conventions.", "The ILO conventions that embody the fundamental principles have now been ratified by most member states.===Protocols===This device is employed for making conventions more flexible or for amplifying obligations by amending or adding provisions on different points.Protocols are always linked to Convention, even though they are international treaties they do not exist on their own.", "As with Conventions, Protocols can be ratified.===Recommendations===Recommendations do not have the binding force of conventions and are not subject to ratification.", "Recommendations may be adopted at the same time as conventions to supplement the latter with additional or more detailed provisions.", "In other cases recommendations may be adopted separately and may address issues separate from particular conventions." ], [ "History", "===Origins===While the ILO was established as an agency of the League of Nations following World War I, its founders had made great strides in social thought and action before 1919.The core members all knew one another from earlier private professional and ideological networks, in which they exchanged knowledge, experiences, and ideas on social policy.", "Pre-war \"epistemic communities\", such as the International Association for Labour Legislation (IALL), founded in 1900, and political networks, such as the socialist Second International, were a decisive factor in the institutionalization of international labour politics.In the post-World War I euphoria, the idea of a \"makeable society\" was an important catalyst behind the social engineering of the ILO architects.", "As a new discipline, international labour law became a useful instrument for putting social reforms into practice.", "The utopian ideals of the founding members—social justice and the right to decent work—were changed by diplomatic and political compromises made at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, showing the ILO's balance between idealism and pragmatism.Over the course of the First World War, the international labour movement proposed a comprehensive programme of protection for the working classes, conceived as compensation for labour's support during the war.", "Post-war reconstruction and the protection of labour unions occupied the attention of many nations during and immediately after World War I.", "In Great Britain, the Whitley Commission, a subcommittee of the Reconstruction Commission, recommended in its July 1918 Final Report that \"industrial councils\" be established throughout the world.", "The British Labour Party had issued its own reconstruction programme in the document titled ''Labour and the New Social Order''.", "In February 1918, the third Inter-Allied Labour and Socialist Conference (representing delegates from Great Britain, France, Belgium and Italy) issued its report, advocating an international labour rights body, an end to secret diplomacy, and other goals.", "And in December 1918, the American Federation of Labor (AFL) issued its own distinctively apolitical report, which called for the achievement of numerous incremental improvements via the collective bargaining process.====IFTU Bern Conference====As the war drew to a close, two competing visions for the post-war world emerged.", "The first was offered by the International Federation of Trade Unions (IFTU), which called for a meeting in Bern, Switzerland, in July 1919.The Bern meeting would consider both the future of the IFTU and the various proposals which had been made in the previous few years.", "The IFTU also proposed including delegates from the Central Powers as equals.", "Samuel Gompers, president of the AFL, boycotted the meeting, wanting the Central Powers delegates in a subservient role as an admission of guilt for their countries' role in bringing about war.", "Instead, Gompers favoured a meeting in Paris which would consider President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points only as a platform.", "Despite the American boycott, the Bern meeting went ahead as scheduled.", "In its final report, the Bern Conference demanded an end to wage labour and the establishment of socialism.", "If these ends could not be immediately achieved, then an international body attached to the League of Nations should enact and enforce legislation to protect workers and trade unions.====Commission on International Labour Legislation====Meanwhile, the Paris Peace Conference sought to dampen public support for communism.", "Subsequently, the Allied Powers agreed that clauses should be inserted into the emerging peace treaty protecting labour unions and workers' rights, and that an international labour body be established to help guide international labour relations in the future.", "The advisory Commission on International Labour Legislation was established by the Peace Conference to draft these proposals.", "The Commission met for the first time on 1 February 1919, and Gompers was elected as the chairman.Albert Thomas, 1918Two competing proposals for an international body emerged during the Commission's meetings.", "The British proposed establishing an international parliament to enact labour laws which each member of the League would be required to implement.", "Each nation would have two delegates to the parliament, one each from labour and management.", "An international labour office would collect statistics on labour issues and enforce the new international laws.", "Philosophically opposed to the concept of an international parliament and convinced that international standards would lower the few protections achieved in the United States, Gompers proposed that the international labour body be authorized only to make recommendations and that enforcement be left up to the League of Nations.", "Despite vigorous opposition from the British, the American proposal was adopted.Gompers also set the agenda for the draft charter protecting workers' rights.", "The Americans made 10 proposals.", "Three were adopted without change: That labour should not be treated as a commodity; that all workers had the right to a wage sufficient to live on; and that women should receive equal pay for equal work.", "A proposal protecting the freedom of speech, press, assembly, and association was amended to include only freedom of association.", "A proposed ban on the international shipment of goods made by children under the age of 16 was amended to ban goods made by children under the age of 14.A proposal to require an eight-hour work day was amended to require the eight-hour work day ''or'' the 40-hour work week (an exception was made for countries where productivity was low).", "Four other American proposals were rejected.", "Meanwhile, international delegates proposed three additional clauses, which were adopted: One or more days for weekly rest; equality of laws for foreign workers; and regular and frequent inspection of factory conditions.The Commission issued its final report on 4 March 1919, and the Peace Conference adopted it without amendment on 11 April.", "The report became Part XIII of the Treaty of Versailles.===Interwar period===Greenwood, Ernest H. (of the United States – Deputy secretary general of the conference) / Secretary General: Harold B. Butler (Great Britain) / Deputy Secretaries General: Ernest H. Greenwood (United States) / Guido Pardo (Italy) /Legal Adviser: Manley 0.Hudson (United States) / with staff of the first International Labour Conference, in Washington, D.C., in 1919, in front of the Pan American Union BuildingThe first annual International Labour Conference (ILC) began on 29 October 1919 at the Pan American Union Building in Washington, D.C. and adopted the first six International Labour Conventions, which dealt with hours of work in industry, unemployment, maternity protection, night work for women, minimum age, and night work for young persons in industry.", "The prominent French socialist Albert Thomas became its first director-general.Despite open disappointment and sharp critique, the revived International Federation of Trade Unions (IFTU) quickly adapted itself to this mechanism.", "The IFTU increasingly oriented its international activities around the lobby work of the ILO.At the time of establishment, the U.S. government was not a member of ILO, as the US Senate rejected the covenant of the League of Nations, and the United States could not join any of its agencies.", "Following the election of Franklin Delano Roosevelt to the U.S. presidency, the new administration made renewed efforts to join the ILO without league membership.", "On 19 June 1934, the U.S. Congress passed a joint resolution authorizing the president to join ILO without joining the League of Nations as a whole.", "On 22 June 1934, the ILO adopted a resolution inviting the U.S. government to join the organization.", "On 20 August 1934, the U.S. government responded positively and took its seat at the ILO.=== Wartime and the United Nations ===During the Second World War, when Switzerland was surrounded by German troops, ILO director John G. Winant made the decision to leave Geneva.", "In August 1940, the government of Canada officially invited the ILO to be housed at McGill University in Montreal.", "Forty staff members were transferred to the temporary offices and continued to work from McGill until 1948.The ILO became the first specialized agency of the United Nations system after the demise of the League in 1946.Its constitution, as amended, includes the Declaration of Philadelphia (1944) on the aims and purposes of the organization.===Cold War era===R.", "Rao, the Deputy Director General of ILO with Wilopo, the then-Indonesian labor minister, 15 March 1950Beginning in the late 1950s the organization was under pressure to make provisions for the potential membership of ex-colonies which had become independent; in the Director General's report of 1963 the needs of the potential new members were first recognized.", "The tensions produced by these changes in the world environment negatively affected the established politics within the organization and they were the precursor to the eventual problems of the organization with the USAIn July 1970, the United States withdrew 50% of its financial support to the ILO following the appointment of an assistant director-general from the Soviet Union.", "This appointment (by the ILO's British director-general, C. Wilfred Jenks) drew particular criticism from AFL–CIO president George Meany and from New Jersey Assemblyman John E. Rooney.", "However, the funds were eventually paid.Ratifications of 1976 Tripartite Consultation ConventionOn 12 June 1975, the ILO voted to grant the Palestinian Liberation Organization observer status at its meetings.", "Representatives of the United States and Israel walked out of the meeting.", "The U.S. House of Representatives subsequently decided to withhold funds.", "The United States gave notice of full withdrawal on 6 November 1975, stating that the organization had become politicized.", "The United States also suggested that representation from communist countries was not truly \"tripartite\"—including government, workers, and employers—because of the structure of these economies.", "The withdrawal became effective on 1 November 1977.The United States returned to the organization in 1980 after extracting some concession from the organization.", "It was partly responsible for the ILO's shift away from a human rights approach and towards support for the Washington Consensus.", "Economist Guy Standing wrote \"the ILO quietly ceased to be an international body attempting to redress structural inequality and became one promoting employment equity\".In 1981, the government of Poland declared martial law.", "It interrupted the activities of Solidarność detained many of its leaders and members.", "The ILO Committee on Freedom of Association filed a complaint against Poland at the 1982 International Labour Conference.", "A Commission of Inquiry established to investigate found Poland had violated ILO Conventions No.", "87 on freedom of association and No.", "98 on trade union rights, which the country had ratified in 1957.The ILO and many other countries and organizations put pressure on the Polish government, which finally gave legal status to Solidarność in 1989.During that same year, there was a roundtable discussion between the government and Solidarnoc which agreed on terms of relegalization of the organization under ILO principles.", "The government also agreed to hold the first free elections in Poland since the Second World War." ], [ "Offices", "===ILO headquarters===WTOThe ILO is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland.", "In its first months of existence in 1919, it offices were located in London, only to move to Geneva in the summer 1920.The first seat in Geneva was on the Pregny hill in the ''Ariana'' estate, in the building that used to host the Thudicum boarding school and currently the headquarters of the International Committee of the Red Cross.", "As the office grew, the Office relocated to a purpose-built headquarters by the shores of lake Leman, designed by Georges Epitaux and inaugurated in 1926 (currently the sear of the World Trade Organization).", "During the Second World War the Office was temporarily relocated to McGill University in Montreal, Canada.", "The current seat of the ILO's headquarters is located on the Pregny hill, not far from its initial seat.", "The building, a biconcave rectangular block designed by Eugène Beaudoin, Pier Luigi Nervi and Alberto Camenzind, was purpose-built between 1969–1974 in a severe rationalist style and, at the time of construction, constituted the largest administrative building in Switzerland.===Regional offices===* Regional Office for Africa, in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire* Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, in Bangkok, Thailand* Regional Office for Europe and Central Asia, in Geneva, Switzerland* Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, in Lima, Peru* Regional Office for the Arab States, in Beirut, Lebanon===Sub-regional offices===Called \"Decent Work Technical Support Teams (DWT)\", they provide technical support to the work of a number of countries under their area of competence.ILO office in Santiago, Chile* DWT for North Africa, in Cairo, Egypt* DWT for West Africa, in Dakar, Senegal* DWT for Eastern and Southern Africa, in Pretoria, South Africa* DWT for Central Africa, in Yaoundé, Cameroon* DWT for the Arab States, in Beirut, Lebanon* DWT for South Asia, in New Delhi, India* DWT for East and South-East Asia and the Pacific, in Bangkok, Thailand* DWT for Central and Eastern Europe, in Budapest, Hungary* DWT for Eastern Europe and Central Asia, in Moscow, Russia* DWT for the Andean Countries, in Lima, Peru* DWT for the Caribbean Countries, in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago* DWT for Central American Countries, in San José, Costa Rica* DWT for Countries of the South Cone of Latin America, in Santiago, Chile===Country and liaison offices===* In Africa: Abidjan, Abuja, Addis Ababa, Algiers, Antananarivo, Cairo, Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Harare, Kinshasa, Lusaka, Pretoria, Yaoundé* In the Arab States: Beirut, Doha, Jerusalem* In Asia and the Pacific: Bangkok, Beijing, Colombo, Dhaka, Hanoi, Islamabad, Jakarta, Kabul, Kathmandu, Manila, New Delhi, Suva, Tokyo, Yangon* In Europe and Central Asia: Ankara, Berlin, Brussels, Budapest, Lisbon, Madrid, Moscow, Paris, Rome* In the Americas: Brasilia, Buenos Aires, Mexico City, New York, Lima, Port-of-Spain, San José, Santiago, Washington" ], [ "Programmes", "===Labour statistics===The ILO is a major provider of labour statistics.", "Labour statistics are an important tool for its member states to monitor their progress toward improving labour standards.", "As part of their statistical work, ILO maintains several databases.", "This database covers 11 major data series for over 200 countries.", "In addition, ILO publishes a number of compilations of labour statistics, such as the Key Indicators of Labour Markets (KILM).", "KILM covers 20 main indicators on labour participation rates, employment, unemployment, educational attainment, labour cost, and economic performance.", "Many of these indicators have been prepared by other organizations.", "For example, the Division of International Labour Comparisons of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics prepares the hourly compensation in manufacturing indicator.The U.S. Department of Labor also publishes a yearly report containing a ''List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor'' issued by the Bureau of International Labor Affairs.", "The December 2014 updated edition of the report listed a total of 74 countries and 136 goods.===Training and teaching units===The International Training Centre of the International Labour Organization (ITCILO) is based in Turin, Italy.", "Together with the University of Turin Department of Law, the ITC offers training for ILO officers and secretariat members, as well as offering educational programmes.", "The ITC offers more than 450 training and educational programmes and projects every year for some 11,000 people around the world.For instance, the ITCILO offers a Master of Laws programme in management of development, which aims specialize professionals in the field of cooperation and development.===Child labour===These young boys are among the millions of children in child labour worldwide.", "They work at a brickyard in Antsirabe, Madagascar.The term ''child labour'' is often defined as work that deprives children of their childhood, potential, dignity, and is harmful to their physical and mental development.", "''Child labour'' refers to work that is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful to children.", "Further, it can involve interfering with their schooling by depriving them of the opportunity to attend school, obliging them to leave school prematurely, or requiring them to attempt to combine school attendance with excessively long and heavy work.In its most extreme forms, child labour involves children being enslaved, separated from their families, exposed to serious hazards and illnesses and left to fend for themselves on the streets of large cities – often at a very early age.", "Whether or not particular forms of \"work\" can be called ''child labour'' depends on the child's age, the type and hours of work performed, the conditions under which it is performed and the objectives pursued by individual countries.", "The answer varies from country to country, as well as among sectors within countries.====ILO's response to child labour====1973 Minimum Age Convention, and the minimum ages they have designated: purple, 14 years; green, 15 years; blue, 16 yearsThe ILO's International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) was created in 1992 with the overall goal of the progressive elimination of child labour, which was to be achieved through strengthening the capacity of countries to deal with the problem and promoting a worldwide movement to combat child labour.", "The IPEC currently has operations in 88 countries, with an annual expenditure on technical cooperation projects that reached over US$61 million in 2008.It is the largest programme of its kind globally and the biggest single operational programme of the ILO.The number and range of the IPEC's partners have expanded over the years and now include employers' and workers' organizations, other international and government agencies, private businesses, community-based organizations, NGOs, the media, parliamentarians, the judiciary, universities, religious groups and children and their families.The IPEC's work to eliminate child labour is an important facet of the ILO's Decent Work Agenda.", "Child labour prevents children from acquiring the skills and education they need for a better future.The ILO also hosts a Global Conference on the Elimination of Child Labour every four years.", "The most recent conference was held in Durban, South Africa from 15 to 20 May 2022.====Exceptions in indigenous communities====Because of different cultural views involving labour, the ILO developed a series of culturally sensitive mandates, including convention Nos.", "169, 107, 138, and 182, to protect indigenous culture, traditions, and identities.", "Convention Nos.", "138 and 182 lead in the fight against child labour, while Nos.", "107 and 169 promote the rights of indigenous and tribal peoples and protect their right to define their own developmental priorities.In many indigenous communities, parents believe that children learn important life lessons through the act of work and through the participation in daily life.", "Working is seen as a learning process preparing children of the future tasks they will eventually have to do as an adult.", "It is a belief that the family's and child well-being and survival is a shared responsibility between members of the whole family.", "They also see work as an intrinsic part of their child's developmental process.", "While these attitudes toward child work remain, many children and parents from indigenous communities still highly value education.===Special Action Programme to Combat Forced Labor===The Special Action Programme to Combat Forced Labour (SAP-FL) was created in November 2001 \"to tackle the elimination of all forms of forced or compulsory labour, one of its foremost concerns, through both technical assistance and promotional means.\"", "SAP-FL has developed indicators of forced labour practices and published survey reports on forced labour.===Global forum meetings===The ILO organises regular international tripartite gatherings and global dialogue fora on issues of interest to specific sectors of business and employment, for example on supply chain safety in the packing of containers for global shipping (2011), and on employment conditions in early childhood education (2012)." ], [ "Issues", "===Forced labour===Krychów forced labour camp 1940 (Krowie Bagno)The ILO has considered the fight against forced labour to be one of its main priorities.", "During the interwar years, the issue was mainly considered a colonial phenomenon, and the ILO's concern was to establish minimum standards protecting the inhabitants of colonies from the worst abuses committed by economic interests.", "After 1945, the goal became to set a uniform and universal standard, determined by the higher awareness gained during World War II of politically and economically motivated systems of forced labour, but debates were hampered by the Cold War and by exemptions claimed by colonial powers.", "Since the 1960s, declarations of labour standards as a component of human rights have been weakened by government of postcolonial countries claiming a need to exercise extraordinary powers over labour in their role as emergency regimes promoting rapid economic development.Ratifications of the ILO's 1930 Forced Labour Convention, with non-ratifiers shown in redIn June 1998, the International Labour Conference adopted a Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work and its follow-up that obligates member states to respect, promote and realize freedom of association and the right to collective bargaining, the elimination of all forms of forced or compulsory labour, the effective abolition of child labour, and the elimination of discrimination in respect of employment and occupation.With the adoption of the declaration, the ILO created the InFocus Programme on Promoting the Declaration which is responsible for the reporting processes and technical cooperation activities associated with the declaration; and it carries out awareness raising, advocacy and knowledge functions.In November 2001, following the publication of the InFocus Programme's first global report on forced labour, the ILO's governing body created a special action programme to combat forced labour (SAP-FL), as part of broader efforts to promote the 1998 Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work and its follow-up.Ratifications of the ILO's 1957 Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, with non-ratifiers shown in redSince its inception, the SAP-FL has focused on raising global awareness of forced labour in its different forms, and mobilizing action against its manifestation.", "Several thematic and country-specific studies and surveys have since been undertaken, on such diverse aspects of forced labour as bonded labour, human trafficking, forced domestic work, rural servitude, and forced prisoner labour.In 2013, the SAP-FL was integrated into the ILO's Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work Branch (FUNDAMENTALS) bringing together the fight against forced and child labour and working in the context of Alliance 8.7.One major tool to fight forced labour was the adoption of the ILO Forced Labour Protocol by the International Labour Conference in 2014.It was ratified for the second time in 2015 and on 9 November 2016 it entered into force.", "The new protocol brings the existing ILO Convention 29 on Forced Labour, adopted in 1930, into the modern era to address practices such as human trafficking.", "The accompanying Recommendation 203 provides technical guidance on its implementation.In 2015, the ILO launched a global campaign to end modern slavery, in partnership with the International Organization of Employers (IOE) and the International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC).", "The 50 for Freedom campaign aims to mobilize public support and encourage countries to ratify the ILO's Forced Labour Protocol.===Minimum wage law===To protect the right of labours for fixing minimum wage, ILO has created Minimum Wage-Fixing Machinery Convention, 1928, Minimum Wage Fixing Machinery (Agriculture) Convention, 1951 and Minimum Wage Fixing Convention, 1970 as minimum wage law.=== Commercialized sex ======= 'White Slavery' ====Before the creation of the ILO in 1919, legislation and preconceived notions about commercialized sex already existed around the globe.", "The first example of this legislation was passed by the British parliament in 1885 in response to local citizens in Britain who demanded parliament abolish \"white slavery\" and raise the age of consent for girls.", "The term 'white slavery' was used in the 19th century to describe girls and women who had been racialised as \"White\" but nevertheless taken advantage of by professional seducers who manipulated them into becoming prostitutes.", "After the turn of the twentieth century, the focus of laws in England shifted to protecting the country's borders from the supposed threat of foreign girls.", "The Alien Acts of 1905 focused on preventing Jewish immigration, but it created the foundation for future legislation that would be used to crack down on foreign prostitutes.", "This law enhanced British power to repatriate foreign women suspected of prostitution.==== Inter-War Period ====From the moment its creation in the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, the ILO has been concerned with the controversial issue of commercial sex.", "Prior to the creation of the ILO and League of Nations, the issue of sex work had been exclusively under the jurisdiction of the state, now, the ILO and League of Nations believed the issue transcended borders and within their jurisdiction.", "In the early twentieth, commercialized sex was considered both immoral and criminal activity.", "Initially, the ILO strongly believed prostitution was linked to vulnerable single working women emigrating to other nations without being under the paternal supervision of a man.", "After the widespread destruction caused by World War I, the ILO saw prostitution as spreading contagion requiring regulation.", "Under the leadership of the French socialist Albert Thomas, the ILO created a medical division whose primary focus was on male sailors whose lives were viewed as \"nomadic\" and \"promiscuous,\" which made these men susceptible to infection of STD's.", "After the conclusion of the Genoa maritime conference in 1920, the ILO proclaimed itself as the critical leader of the prevention and treatment of STD's in sailors.", "In the interwar years, the ILO also sought to protect female workers in dangers trades, but delegates to ILO Conferences did not consider the sex trade to be \"work,\" which was conceived of as industrial labor.", "The ILO believed that if women worked industrial jobs, this would be a deterrent from them living immoral lives.", "In order to make these industrial jobs more attractive, the ILO promoted better wages and safer working conditions, both intended to prevent women from falling victim to the temptation of the sex trades.==== Postwar Period ====After the surrender of the Japanese military and the end of World War II, a new inter-governmental governing body, the United Nations, was formed, while the ILO continued to be the primary international body governing labor.", "Following the creation of the United Nations, the ILO took a back seat to the newly formed organization on the issue of commercialized sex.The UN Commission on the Status of Women called for abolishing both sex trafficking and prostitution.", "Socialist countries proclaimed they had eliminated the issue of prostitution through the economic empowerment of their citizens.", "This claim linked prostitution to economic causes.", "In the 1950s, the UN Economic and Social Council and the International Police Organization sought to end any activity that resembled slavery, classifying sex trafficking and prostitution as criminal rather than labor issues.", "These new initiatives by the United Nations would lead to later debates at the World Conference on Women in Mexico City during International Women's Year in 1975.Coming out of the Conference in Mexico City, delegates pleaded with governments all over the globe to take action to prevent the forced prostitution of both women and children.===== Post 1975 Conference =====Beginning in 1976, the ILO and other organizations began to examine the working and living conditions of rural women in Third World countries.", "One example the ILO investigated was the \"go-go\" bars and the growing phenomenon of \"hired wives\" in Thailand, which both thrived because the development of U.S. military bases in the region.", "In the late 1970s, the ILO established the \"Programme on Rural Women,\" which investigated the involvement of young masseuses in the sex trade in Bangkok.", "As part of this investigation, Pasuk Phongpaichit, a Thai doctor who received their degree from Cambridge University, interviewed fifty masseuses and explored why these rural women were migrating from the countryside to Bangkok and why they chose to become prostitutes.", "Phongpaichit also investigated the women's experiences after migrating and the impact on the women's families after leaving the countryside.", "This report exposed the wide income gap between rural and urban families and emphasized economic motives.", "It was critical because it was the first time in the history of the ILO or any of its branches that prostitution was described as a form of labor.", "In the decades that followed, the increase in sexual tourism and the exploding AIDS epidemic strengthened ILO interest in the commercial sex trade.", "An ILO Senior Specialist on Women Workers' Questions for Asia and the Pacific, Lin Lim, published another study directly influenced by Phongpaichit's findings.", "Lim's study detailed the different social and economic factors that directly contributed to the growth of the sex industry in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand.", "The findings emphasized the economic reasons for and advantages of entering into the commercial sex trade, including increased wages, flexibility between work and home life and the ability to migrate.", "The authors of this report argued the sex industry should be recognized as a legitimate economic sector.", "It would take another decade until the ILO discussed commercialized sex, this time, it would be under the shadow of the exploding AIDS epidemic.===HIV/AIDS===The International Labour Organization (ILO) is the lead UN-agency on HIV workplace policies and programmes and private sector mobilization.", "ILOAIDS is the branch of the ILO dedicated to this issue.The ILO has been involved with the HIV response since 1998, attempting to prevent potentially devastating impact on labour and productivity and that it says can be an enormous burden for working people, their families and communities.", "In June 2001, the ILO's governing body adopted a pioneering code of practice on HIV/AIDS and the world of work, which was launched during a special session of the UN General Assembly.The same year, ILO became a cosponsor of the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS).In 2010, the 99th International Labour Conference adopted the ILO's recommendation concerning HIV and AIDS and the world of work, 2010 (No.", "200), the first international labour standard on HIV and AIDS.", "The recommendation lays out a comprehensive set of principles to protect the rights of HIV-positive workers and their families, while scaling up prevention in the workplace.", "Working under the theme of ''Preventing HIV, Protecting Human Rights at Work'', ILOAIDS undertakes a range of policy advisory, research and technical support functions in the area of HIV and AIDS and the world of work.", "The ILO also works on promoting social protection as a means of reducing vulnerability to HIV and mitigating its impact on those living with or affected by HIV.ILOAIDS ran a \"Getting to Zero\" campaign to arrive at zero new infections, zero AIDS-related deaths and zero-discrimination by 2015.Building on this campaign, ILOAIDS is executing a programme of voluntary and confidential counselling and testing at work, known as VCT@WORK.===Migrant workers===As the word \"migrant\" suggests, migrant workers refer to those who moves from one country to another to do their job.", "For the rights of migrant workers, the first ILC adopted a recommendation on equality and coordination, and the ILO has adopted conventions, including Migrant Workers (Supplementary Provisions) Convention, 1975 and United Nations Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families in 1990.===Domestic workers===Domestic workers are those who perform a variety of tasks for and in other peoples' homes.", "For example, they may cook, clean the house, and look after children.", "Yet they are often the ones with the least consideration, excluded from labour and social protection.", "This is mainly due to the fact that women have traditionally carried out the tasks without pay.", "For the rights and decent work of domestic workers including migrant domestic workers, ILO has adopted the Convention on Domestic Workers on 16 June 2011.===ILO and globalization===Seeking a process of globalization that is inclusive, democratically governed and provides opportunities and tangible benefits for all countries and people.", "The World Commission on the Social Dimension of Globalization was established by the ILO's governing body in February 2002 at the initiative of the director-general in response to the fact that there did not appear to be a space within the multilateral system that would cover adequately and comprehensively the social dimension of the various aspects of globalization.", "The World Commission Report, A Fair Globalization: Creating Opportunities for All, is the first attempt at structured dialogue among representatives of constituencies with different interests and opinions on the social dimension of globalization.===Future of work===The ILO launched the Future of Work Initiative in order to gain understanding on the transformations that occur in the world of work and thus be able to develop ways of responding to these challenges.", "The initiative begun in 2016 by gathering the views of government representatives, workers, employers, academics and other relevant figures around the world.", "About 110 countries participated in dialogues at the regional and national level.", "These dialogues were structured around \"four centenary conversations: work and society, decent jobs for all, the organization of work and production, and the governance of work.\"", "The second step took place in 2017 with the establishment of the Global Commission on the Future of Work dealing with the same \"four centenary conversations\".", "A report was published for the 2019 Centenary International Labour Conference.", "ILO also assessed the impact of technological disruptions on employments worldwide.", "The agency was worried about the global economic and health impact of technology, like industrial and process automation, artificial intelligence (AI), Robots and robotic process of automation on human labour and was increasingly being considered by commentators, but in widely divergent ways.", "Among the salient views technology was going to bring less work, make workers redundant or end work by replacing the human labour.", "The other fold of view was technological creativity and abundant opportunities for economy boosts.", "In the modern era, technology has changed the way we think, design, and deploy the system solutions, but no doubt there are threats to human jobs.", "Paul Schulte (Director of the Education and Information Division, and Co-Manager of the Nanotechnology Research Center, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control) and D. P. Sharma, (International Consultant, Information Technology and Scientist) clearly articulated such disruptions and warned that it will be worse than ever before if appropriate, timely actions are not taken.", "They said that human generation needs to reinvent in terms of competitive accuracy, speed, capacity and honesty.", "Machines are more honest than human labours and pose a crystal clear threat to this generation.", "The science and technology have no reverse gear and accepting the challenge \"Human vs. Machine\" is the only remedy for survival.The ILO has also looked at the transition to a green economy, and the impact thereof on employment.", "It came to the conclusion a shift to a greener economy could create 24 million new jobs globally by 2030, if the right policies are put in place.", "Also, if a transition to a green economy were not to take place, 72 million full-time jobs may be lost by 2030 due to heat stress, and temperature increases will lead to shorter available work hours, particularly in agriculture" ], [ "See also", "* Administrative Tribunal of the International Labour Organization* Centre William Rappard, first permanent home of the ILO on the north bank of Lake Geneva* Labour is not a commodity*League of Nations archives* Seoul Declaration on Safety and Health at Work, 2008* Social clause, the integration of seven core ILO labour rights conventions into trade agreements*Total Digital Access to the League of Nations Archives Project (LONTAD)* United Nations Global Compact, 1999–2000, encouraging businesses to adopt sustainable and socially responsible policies" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Alcock, A.", "''History of the International Labour Organization'' (London, 1971)* * Chisholm, A.", "''Labour's Magna Charta: A Critical Study of the Labour Clauses of the Peace Treaty and of the Draft Conventions and Recommendations of the Washington International Labour Conference'' (London, 1925)* Dufty, N.F.", "\"Organizational Growth and Goal Structure: The Case of the ILO,\" ''International Organization'' 1972 Vol.", "26, pp 479–498 in JSTOR* Endres, A.; Fleming, G. ''International Organizations and the Analysis of Economic Policy, 1919–1950'' (Cambridge, 2002)* Evans, A.A. ''My Life as an International Civil Servant in the International Labour Organization'' (Geneva, 1995)* Ewing, K. ''Britain and the ILO'' (London, 1994)* Fried, John H. E. \"Relations Between the United Nations and the International Labor Organization,\" ''American Political Science Review'', Vol.", "41, No.", "5 (October 1947), pp.", "963–977 in JSTOR* Galenson, Walter.", "''The International Labor Organization: An American View'' (Madison, 1981)* Ghebali, Victor-Yves.", "\"The International Labour Organisation : A Case Study on the Evolution of U.N. Specialised Agencies\" ''Dordrecht, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers'', (1989)* Guthrie, Jason.", "\"The international labor organization and the social politics of development, 1938–1969.\"", "(PhD Dissertation, University of Maryland, 2015).", "* Haas, Ernst B.", "\"Beyond the nation-state: functionalism and international organization\" ''Colchester, ECPR Press'', (2008)* Heldal, H. \"Norway in the International Labour Organization, 1919–1939\" ''Scandinavian Journal of History'' 1996 Vol.", "21, pp 255–283,* Imber, M.F.", "''The USA, ILO, UNESCO and IAEA: politicization and withdrawal in the Specialized Agencies'' (1989)* Johnston, G.A.", "''The International Labour Organization: Its Work for Social and Economic Progress'' (London, 1970)* McGaughey, E. 'The International Labour Organization's Next Century: Economic Democracy, and the Undemocratic Third' (2021) 32(2) King's Law Journal 287, and on SSRN * Manwaring, J.", "''International Labour Organization: A Canadian View'' (Ottawa, 1986)* Morse, David.", "''The Origin and Evolution of the ILO and its Role in the World Community'' (Ithaca, 1969)* Morse, David.", "\"International Labour Organization – Nobel Lecture: ILO and the Social Infrastructure of Peace\"* Ostrower, Gary B.", "\"The American decision to join the international labor organization\", ''Labor History'', Volume 16, Issue 4 Autumn 1975, pp 495–504 The U.S. joined in 1934* Silva, Vicente.", "\"The ILO and the future of work: The politics of global labour policy\".", "Global Social Policy.", "March 2021.https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/14680181211004853* VanDaele, Jasmien.", "\"The International Labour Organization (ILO) In Past and Present Research,\" ''International Review of Social History'' 2008 53(3): 485–511, historiography" ], [ "External links", "* * The International Training Centre of the ILO* Nobel Peace Prize 1969 for the ILO* with the Nobel Lecture 11 December 1969 ''ILO and the Social Infrastructure of Peace''* Contains electronic copies of ILO reports published from 1919 onwards* YouTube channel" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "IMO" ], [ "Introduction", "'''IMO''' or '''Imo''' may refer to:" ], [ "Maritime", "* International Maritime Organization** IMO number, a unique identity number issued to seacraft (pattern \"1234567\")* SS ''Imo'', a 1889 ship involved in the Halifax Explosion" ], [ "Meteorology", "* International Meteorological Organization* Icelandic Meteorological Office" ], [ "Other", "* Irish Medical Organisation, the main organisation representing doctors in Ireland* Intelligent Medical Objects, a privately held company specializing in medical vocabularies* Isomaltooligosaccharide, a mixture of short-chain carbohydrates which has a digestion-resistant property* Idiopathic Massive Osteolysis, a name for Gorham's disease, a rare bone disease* International Mathematical Olympiad* International Meteor Organization* Imo State, Nigeria* imo.im, a video calling and instant messaging app* IMO (in my opinion), an Internet slang expression" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "International English" ], [ "Introduction", "'''International English''' is the concept of using the English language as a global means of communication similar to an international auxiliary language, and often refers to the movement towards an international standard for the language.", "Related and sometimes synonymous terms include: '''Global English''', '''World English''', '''Common English''', '''Continental English''', '''General English''', and '''Engas''' (English as associate language).", "Sometimes, these terms refer to the actuality of the situation, where English is spoken and used in numerous dialects around the world.", "These terms may acknowledge the diversity and varieties of English spoken throughout the world.Sometimes however, these related terms refer to a desired standardisation (i.e., Standard English), but there is no consensus on the path to this goal.", "There have been many proposals for making International English more accessible to people from different nationalities; Basic English is an example, but it failed to make progress.", "More recently, there have been proposals for English as a lingua franca (ELF) in which non-native speakers take a highly active role in the development of the language." ], [ "Historical context", "The modern concept of \"International English\" does not exist in isolation, but is the product of centuries of development of the English language.The English language evolved in England, from a set of West Germanic dialects spoken by the Angles and Saxons, who arrived from continental Europe in the 5th century.", "Those dialects became known as ''Englisc'' (literally \"Anglish\"), the language today referred to as Anglo-Saxon or Old English (the language of the poem ''Beowulf'').", "However, less than a quarter of the vocabulary of Modern English is derived from the shared ancestry with other West Germanic languages because of extensive borrowings from Norse, Norman, Latin, and other languages.", "It was during the Viking invasions of the Anglo-Saxon period that Old English was influenced by contact with Norse, a group of North Germanic dialects spoken by the Vikings, who came to control a large region in the North of England known as the Danelaw.", "Vocabulary items entering English from Norse (including the pronouns ''they'' and ''them'') are thus attributable to the on-again-off-again Viking occupation of Northern England during the centuries prior to the Norman Conquest (see, e.g., Canute the Great).", "Soon after the Norman Conquest of 1066, the ''Englisc'' language ceased being a literary language (see, e.g., Ormulum) and was replaced by Anglo-Norman as the written language of England.", "During the Norman Period, English absorbed a significant component of French vocabulary (approximately one-third of the vocabulary of Modern English).", "With this new vocabulary, additional vocabulary borrowed from Latin (with Greek, another approximately one-third of Modern English vocabulary, though some borrowings from Latin and Greek date from later periods), a simplified grammar, and use of the orthographic conventions of French instead of Old English orthography, the language became Middle English (the language of Chaucer).", "The \"difficulty\" of English as a written language thus began in the High Middle Ages, when French orthographic conventions were used to spell a language whose original, more suitable orthography had been forgotten after centuries of nonuse.", "During the late medieval period, King Henry V of England (lived 1387–1422) ordered the use of the English of his day in proceedings before him and before the government bureaucracies.", "That led to the development of Chancery English, a standardised form used in the government bureaucracy.", "(The use of so-called Law French in English courts continued through the Renaissance, however.", ")The emergence of English as a language of Wales results from the incorporation of Wales into England and also dates from approximately this time period.", "Soon afterward, the development of printing by Caxton and others accelerated the development of a standardised form of English.", "Following a change in vowel pronunciation that marks the transition of English from the medieval to the Renaissance period, the language of the Chancery and Caxton became Early Modern English (the language of Shakespeare's day) and with relatively moderate changes eventually developed into the English language of today.", "Scots, as spoken in the lowlands and along the east coast of Scotland, developed largely independent of Modern English, and is based on the Northern dialects of Anglo-Saxon, particularly Northumbrian, which also serve as the basis of Northern English dialects such as those of Yorkshire and Newcastle upon Tyne.", "Northumbria was within the Danelaw and therefore experienced greater influence from Norse than did the Southern dialects.", "As the political influence of London grew, the Chancery version of the language developed into a written standard across Great Britain, further progressing in the modern period as Scotland became united with England as a result of the Acts of Union of 1707.English was introduced to Ireland twice—a medieval introduction that led to the development of the now-extinct Yola dialect, and a modern introduction in which Hiberno-English largely replaced Irish as the most widely spoken language during the 19th century, following the Act of Union of 1800.Received Pronunciation (RP) is generally viewed as a 19th-century development and is not reflected in North American English dialects (except the affected Transatlantic accent), which are based on 18th-century English.The establishment of the first permanent English-speaking colony in North America in 1607 was a major step towards the globalisation of the language.", "British English was only partially standardised when the American colonies were established.", "Isolated from each other by the Atlantic Ocean, the dialects in England and the colonies began evolving independently.The British colonisation of Australia starting in 1788 brought the English language to Oceania.", "By the 19th century, the standardisation of British English was more settled than it had been in the previous century, and this relatively well-established English was brought to Africa, Asia and New Zealand.", "It developed both as the language of English-speaking settlers from Britain and Ireland, and as the administrative language imposed on speakers of other languages in the various parts of the British Empire.", "The first form can be seen in New Zealand English, and the latter in Indian English.", "In Europe, English received a more central role particularly since 1919, when the Treaty of Versailles was composed not only in French, the common language of diplomacy at the time, but, under special request from American president Woodrow Wilson, also in English – a major milestone in the globalisation of English.The English-speaking regions of Canada and the Caribbean are caught between historical connections with the UK and the Commonwealth and geographical and economic connections with the U.S.", "In some things they tend to follow British standards, whereas in others, especially commercial, they follow the U.S. standard." ], [ "English as a global language", "Braj Kachru divides the use of English into three concentric circles.The ''inner circle'' is the traditional base of English and includes countries such as the United Kingdom and Ireland and the anglophone populations of the former British colonies of the United States, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Canada, and various islands of the Caribbean, Indian Ocean, and Pacific Ocean.In the ''outer circle'' are those countries where English has official or historical importance (\"special significance\").", "This includes most of the countries of the Commonwealth of Nations (the former British Empire), including populous countries such as India, Pakistan, and Nigeria; and others, such as the Philippines, under the sphere of influence of English-speaking countries.", "English in this circle is used for official purposes such as in business, news broadcasts, schools, and air traffic.", "Some countries in this circle have made English their national language.", "Here English may serve as a useful lingua franca between ethnic and language groups.", "Higher education, the legislature and judiciary, national commerce, and so on, may all be carried out predominantly in English.The ''expanding circle'' refers to those countries where English has no official role, but is nonetheless important for certain functions, e.g., international business and tourism.", "By the twenty-first century, non-native English speakers have come to outnumber native speakers by a factor of three, according to the British Council.", "Darius Degher, a professor at Malmö University in Sweden, uses the term ''decentered English'' to describe this shift, along with attendant changes in what is considered important to English users and learners.", "The Scandinavian language area as well as the Netherlands have a near complete bilingualism between their native languages and English as a foreign second language.", "Elsewhere in Europe, although not universally, English knowledge is still rather common among non-native speakers.", "In many cases this leads to accents derived from the native languages altering pronunciations of the spoken English in these countries.Research on English as a lingua franca in the sense of \"English in the Expanding Circle\" is comparatively recent.", "Linguists who have been active in this field are Jennifer Jenkins, Barbara Seidlhofer, Christiane Meierkord and Joachim Grzega." ], [ "English as a lingua franca in foreign language teaching", "English as an additional language (EAL) is usually based on the standards of either American English or British English as well as incorporating foreign terms.", "English as an international language (EIL) is EAL with emphasis on learning different major dialect forms; in particular, it aims to equip students with the linguistic tools to communicate internationally.", "Roger Nunn considers different types of competence in relation to the teaching of English as an International Language, arguing that linguistic competence has yet to be adequately addressed in recent considerations of EIL.Several models of \"simplified English\" have been suggested for teaching English as a foreign language:*Basic English, developed by Charles Kay Ogden (and later also I.", "A. Richards) in the 1930s; a recent revival has been initiated by Bill Templer*Threshold Level English, developed by van Ek and Alexander*Globish, developed by Jean-Paul Nerrière*Basic Global English, developed by Joachim GrzegaFurthermore, Randolph Quirk and Gabriele Stein thought about a Nuclear English, which, however, has never been fully developed.With reference to the term \"Globish\", Robert McCrum has used this to mean \"English as global language\".", "Jean-Paul Nerriere uses it for a constructed language.===Basic Global English===Basic Global English, or BGE, is a concept of global English initiated by German linguist Joachim Grzega.", "It evolved from the idea of creating a type of English that can be learned more easily than regular British or American English and that serves as a tool for successful global communication.", "BGE is guided by creating \"empathy and tolerance\" between speakers in a global context.", "This applies to the context of global communication, where different speakers with different mother tongues come together.", "BGE aims to develop this competence as quickly as possible.English language teaching is almost always related to a corresponding culture, e. g., learners either deal with American English and therefore with American culture, or British English and therefore with British culture.", "Basic Global English seeks to solve this problem by creating one collective version of English.", "Additionally, its advocates promote it as a system suited for self-teaching as well as classroom teaching.BGE is based on 20 elementary grammar rules that provide a certain degree of variation.", "For example, regular as well as irregular formed verbs are accepted.", "Pronunciation rules are not as strict as in British or American English, so there is a certain degree of variation for the learners.", "Exceptions that cannot be used are pronunciations that would be harmful to mutual understanding and therefore minimize the success of communication.Basic Global English is based on a 750-word vocabulary.", "Additionally, every learner has to acquire the knowledge of 250 additional words.", "These words can be chosen freely, according to the specific needs and interests of the learner.BGE provides not only basic language skills, but also so called \"Basic Politeness Strategies\".", "These include creating a positive atmosphere, accepting an offer with \"Yes, please\" or refusing with \"No, thank you\", and small talk topics to choose and to avoid.Basic Global English has been tested in two elementary schools in Germany.", "For the practical test of BGE, 12 lessons covered half of a school year.", "After the BGE teaching, students could answer questions about themselves, their family, their hobbies etc.", "Additionally they could form questions themselves about the same topics.", "Besides that, they also learned the numbers from 1 to 31 and vocabulary including things in their school bag and in their classroom.", "The students as well as the parents had a positive impression of the project." ], [ "Varying concepts", "=== Universality and flexibility ===International English sometimes refers to English as it is actually being used and developed in the world; as a language owned not just by native speakers, but by all those who come to use it.Basically, it covers the English language at large, often (but not always or necessarily) implicitly seen as standard.", "It is certainly also commonly used in connection with the acquisition, use, and study of English as the world's lingua franca ('TEIL: Teaching English as an International Language'), and especially when the language is considered as a whole in contrast with ''British English'', ''American English'', ''South African English'', and the like.", "— McArthur (2002, p. 444–445)It especially means English words and phrases generally understood throughout the English-speaking world as opposed to localisms.", "The importance of non-native English language skills can be recognized behind the long-standing joke that the international language of science and technology is broken English.=== Neutrality ===International English reaches toward cultural neutrality.", "This has a practical use:What could be better than a type of English that saves you from having to re-edit publications for individual regional markets!", "Teachers and learners of English as a second language also find it an attractive idea—both often concerned that their English should be neutral, without American or British or Canadian or Australian coloring.", "Any regional variety of English has a set of political, social and cultural connotations attached to it, even the so-called 'standard' forms.The development of International English often centres on academic and scientific communities, where formal English usage is prevalent, and creative use of the language is at a minimum.", "This formal International English allows entry into Western culture as a whole and Western cultural values in general.=== Opposition ===The continued growth of the English language itself is seen by authors such as Alistair Pennycook as a kind of cultural imperialism, whether it is English in one form or English in two slightly different forms.Robert Phillipson argues against the possibility of such neutrality in his ''Linguistic Imperialism'' (1992).", "Learners who wish to use purportedly correct English are in fact faced with the dual standard of American English and British English, and other less known standard Englishes (including Australian, Scottish and Canadian).Edward Trimnell, author of ''Why You Need a Foreign Language & How to Learn One'' (2005) argues that the international version of English is only adequate for communicating basic ideas.", "For complex discussions and business/technical situations, English is not an adequate communication tool for non-native speakers of the language.", "Trimnell also asserts that native English-speakers have become \"dependent on the language skills of others\" by placing their faith in international English.=== Appropriation theory ===Some reject both what they call \"linguistic imperialism\" and David Crystal's theory of the neutrality of English.", "They argue that the phenomenon of the global spread of English is better understood in the framework of appropriation (e.g., Spichtinger 2000), that is, English used for local purposes around the world.", "Demonstrators in non-English speaking countries often use signs in English to convey their demands to TV-audiences around the globe, for example.In English-language teaching, Bobda shows how Cameroon has moved away from a mono-cultural, Anglo-centered way of teaching English and has gradually appropriated teaching material to a Cameroonian context.", "This includes non-Western topics, such as the rule of Emirs, traditional medicine, and polygamy (1997:225).", "Kramsch and Sullivan (1996) describe how Western methodology and textbooks have been appropriated to suit local Vietnamese culture.", "The Pakistani textbook \"Primary Stage English\" includes lessons such as ''Pakistan My Country'', ''Our Flag'', and ''Our Great Leader'' (Malik 1993: 5,6,7), which might sound jingoistic to Western ears.", "Within the native culture, however, establishing a connection between English Language Teaching (ELT), patriotism, and Muslim faith is seen as one of the aims of ELT.", "The Punjab Textbook Board openly states: \"The board ... takes care, through these books to inoculate in the students a love of the Islamic values and awareness to guard the ideological frontiers of your the students home lands.\"", "(Punjab Text Book Board 1997).=== Many Englishes ===Many difficult choices must be made if further standardization of English is pursued.", "These include whether to adopt a current standard or move towards a more neutral, but artificial one.", "A true International English might supplant both current American and British English as a variety of English for international communication, leaving these as local dialects, or would rise from a merger of General American and standard British English with admixture of other varieties of English and would generally replace all these varieties of English.We may, in due course, all need to be in control of two standard Englishes—the one which gives us our national and local identity, and the other which puts us in touch with the rest of the human race.", "In effect, we may all need to become bilingual in our own language.", "— David Crystal (1988: p. 265)This is the situation long faced by many users of English who possess a \"non-standard\" dialect of English as their birth tongue but have also learned to write (and perhaps also speak) a more standard dialect.", "(This phenomenon is known in linguistics as ''diglossia''.)", "Many academics often publish material in journals requiring different varieties of English and change style and spellings as necessary without great difficulty.As far as spelling is concerned, the differences between American and British usage became noticeable due to the first influential lexicographers (dictionary writers) on each side of the Atlantic.", "Samuel Johnson's dictionary of 1755 greatly favoured Norman-influenced spellings such as ''centre'' and ''colour''; on the other hand, Noah Webster's first guide to American spelling, published in 1783, preferred spellings like ''center'' and the Latinate ''color''.", "The difference in strategy and philosophy of Johnson and Webster are largely responsible for the main division in English spelling that exists today.", "However, these differences are extremely minor.", "Spelling is but a small part of the differences between dialects of English, and may not even reflect dialect differences at all (except in phonetically spelled dialogue).", "International English refers to much more than an agreed spelling pattern.=== Dual standard ===Two approaches to International English are the individualistic and inclusive approach and the new dialect approach.The individualistic approach gives control to individual authors to write and spell as they wish (within purported standard conventions) and to accept the validity of differences.", "The ''Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English'', published in 1999, is a descriptive study of both American and British English in which each chapter follows individual spelling conventions according to the preference of the main editor of that chapter.The new dialect approach appears in ''The Cambridge Guide to English Usage'' (Peters, 2004), which attempts to avoid any language bias and accordingly uses an idiosyncratic international spelling system of mixed American and British forms." ], [ "Qualifications", "Standardised testing in International English for non-native English language speakers has existed for a while.", "Learners can use their local dialect of English so it does not matter if they use British or American spelling.", "The International English Language Testing System (IELTS) is recognised in countries such as the USA, the UK, Canada, Australia and New Zealand and is the world's most popular English language test for higher education and immigration.", "Other options are the International Certificate (PTE General) and Cambridge English Qualifications which are also recognised globally and can be used as evidence of a required standard of English." ], [ "See also", "* African English* Business English* Commonwealth English* English as a second or foreign language* English for specific purposes* English-medium education* Esperanto* Euro English* International auxiliary language* Linguistic imperialism* Translanguaging" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Acar, A.", "(2006). \"", "Models, Norms and Goals for English as an International Language Pedagogy and Task Based Language Teaching and Learning.", "\", The Asian EFL Journal, Volume 8.Issue 3, Article 9.", "* Albu, Rodica (2005).", "\"Using English(es).", "Introduction to the Study of Present-day English Varieties & Terminological Glossary\", 3rd edition.", "Iasi: Demiurg.", "*Berger, Lutz, Joachim Grzega, and Christian Spannagel, eds.", "Lernen durch Lehren im Fokus: Berichte von LdL-Einsteigern und LdL-Experten: epubli, 2011.Print.", "* Biber, Douglas; Johansson, Stig; Leech, Geoffrey; Conrad, Susan; Finnegan, Edward (1999).", "''Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English.''", "Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education.", ".", "* Bobda, Augustin Simo (1997) \"Sociocultural Constraints in EFL Teaching in Cameroon.\"", "In: Pütz, Martin (ed.)", "The cultural Context in Foreign Language Teaching.", "Frankfurt a.M.: Lang.", "221–240.", "* Bosso, Rino (2018).", "“ First steps in exploring computer-mediated English as a lingua franca”.", "In Martin-Rubió, Xavier (ed.).", "Contextualising English as a lingua franca: from data to insights.", "Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars, 10–35.", "* Crystal, David (1988).", "''The English Language''.", "London: Penguin.", ".", "* ————— (1997).", "''English as a Global Language.''", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", ".", "* Erling, Elizabeth J.", "(2000).", "\"International/Global/World English: Is a Consensus Possible?", "\", Postgraduate Conference Proceedings, The University of Edinburgh, Department of Applied Linguistics.", "(Postscript.", ")*Grzega, Joachim (2005), \"Reflection on Concepts of English for Europe: British English, American English, Euro-English, Global English\", ''Journal for EuroLinguistiX'' 2: 44–64* Grzega, Joachim (2005), “Towards Global English via Basic Global English (BGE): Socioeconomic and Pedagogic Ideas for a European and Global Language (with Didactic Examples for Native Speakers of German)\", ''Journal for EuroLinguistiX'' 2: 65–164.", "(For ''Basic Global English'' see also the press releases accessible at the Basic Global English website)* Grzega, Joachim.", "\"Developing More Than Just Linguistic Competence: The Model LdL for Teaching Foreign Languages (with a Note on Basic Global English)\".", "Humanising Language Teaching 8.5 (2006).", "* Grzega, Joachim.", "“Globish and Basic Global English (BGE): Two Alternatives for a Rapid Acquisition of Communicative Competence in a Globalized World?” Journal for EuroLinguistiX 3 (2006): 1–13.", "* Grzega, Joachim.", "“LdL im Englischunterricht an Grund- und Hauptschulen.” Lernen durch Lehren im Fokus: Berichte von LdL-Einsteigern und LdL-Experten.", "Ed.", "Lutz Berger, Joachim Grzega, and Christian Spannagel: epubli, 2011.39–46.Print.", "* Grzega, Joachim.", "“Towards Global English Via Basic Global English (BGE): Socioeconomic and Pedagogic Ideas for a European and Global Language (with Didactic Examples for Native Speakers of German).” Journal for EuroLinguistiX 2 (2005): 65–164.", "* Grzega, Joachim.", "\"‘We will abstain from eating any kind of food at the hotel’: On Analyzing and Teaching Pragmatic and Other Aspects of English as a Global Language.” Linguistik Online 70 (2015): 61-110.", "* Grzega, Joachim, and Marion Schöner.", "“Basic Global English (BGE) as a Way for Children to Acquire Global Communicative Competence: Report on Elementary School Project.” Journal for EuroLinguistiX 4 (2007): 5–18.", "* Grzega, Joachim and Sandra Stenzenberger (2011), \"Teaching Adults Intercultural Communication Skills with Basic Global English (BGE)\".", "In: Journal for EuroLinguistiX 8: 34-131.", "* House, Juliane (2002), “Pragmatic Competence in Lingua Franca English”, in: Knapp, Karlfried / Meierkord, Christiane (eds.", "), ''Lingua Franca Communication'', 245–267, Frankfurt (Main): Peter Lang.", "* Jenkins, Jennifer (2003), ''World Englishes'', London: Routledge.", "* Kachru, Braj (1985), \"Standards, Codification and Sociolinguistic Realism\", in: Quirk, Randolph (ed.", "), ''English in the World'', 11–34, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", "* Kachru, Braj (1986).", "''The Alchemy of English: The Spread, Functions, and Models of Non-native Englishes.''", "Chicago: University of Illinois Press.", ".", "* Klaire Kramsch and Patricia Sullivan (1996) \"Appropriate Pedagogy\".", "ELT Journal 50/3 199–212.", "* Malik, S.A. Primary Stage English (1993).", "Lahore: Tario Brothers.", "* McArthur, T. (Oxford, 1992) \"The Oxford Companion to the English Language,\" Oxford University Press, * ————— (2001).", "\"World English and World Englishes: Trends, tensions, varieties, and standards\", ''Language Teaching'' Vol.", "34, issue 1.Available in PDF format at Cambridge: Language Teaching: Sample article and Learning and Teacher Support Centre: McArthur.", "* ————— (2002).", "''Oxford Guide to World English''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "hardback, paperback.", "* Mechan-Schmidt, Frances.", "\"Basic Instincts: Frances Mechan-Schmidt discovers a new teaching method that reduces English to just a thousand words.\"", "''The Linguist'' 48.2 (2009): 18–19.Print.", "* Meierkord, Christiane (1996), ''Englisch als Medium der interkulturellen Kommunikation: Untersuchungen zum non-native/non-native-speakers-Diskurs'', Frankfurt (Main) etc.", ": Lang.", "*Nerrière, Jean-Paul and Hon, David (2009), ''Globish The World Over'', IGI, Paris.", "*Nerrière in Globish (Video)*Ogden, Charles K. (1934), ''The System of Basic English'', New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co.*Paredes, Xoán M. and da Silva Mendes, S. (2002).", "\"The Geography of Languages: a strictly geopolitical issue?", "The case of 'international English'\", Chimera 17:104–112, University College Cork, Ireland (PDF)* Peters, Pam (2004).", "''The Cambridge Guide to English Usage''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", ".", "* Phillipson, Robert (1992).", "''Linguistic Imperialism.''", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", ".", "*Quirk, Randolph (1981), “International Communication and the Concept of Nuclear English”, in: Smith, Larry E.", "(ed.", "), ''English for Cross-Cultural Communication'', 151–165, London: Macmillan.", "*Seidlhofer, Barbara (2004), “Research Perspectives on Teaching English as a Lingua Franca”, ''Annual Review of Applied Linguistics'' 24: 209–239.", "* Spichtinger, David (2000).", "\"The Spread of English and its Appropriation.\"", "Diplomarbeit zur Erlangung des Magistergrades der Philosophie eingereicht an der Geisteswissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität Wien.", "(PDF.)", "Retrieved June 6, 2007.", "*Sharifian, Farzad (ed.)(2009).", "English as an International Language: Perspectives and pedagogical issues.", "Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.", "*Stein, Gabriele (1979), “Nuclear English: Reflections on the Structure of Its Vocabulary”, ''Poetica'' (Tokyo) 10: 64–76.", "*van Ek, J.A.", "/ Alexander, L.G.", "(1980), ''Threshold Level English'', Oxford: Pergamon.", "* Templer, Bill (2005), “Towards a People's English: Back to BASIC in EIL” , ''Humanising Language Teaching'' September 2005." ], [ "External links", "* '' What Global Language?''", "2000 ''The Atlantic'' article on the globalization of English" ] ]
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[ [ "International African Institute" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''International African Institute''' ('''IAI''') was founded (as the '''International Institute of African Languages and Cultures''' - '''IIALC''') in 1926 in London for the study of African languages.", "Frederick Lugard was the first chairman (1926 to his death in 1945); Diedrich Hermann Westermann (1926 to 1939) and Maurice Delafosse (1926) were the initial co-directors.Since 1928, the IAI has published a quarterly journal, ''Africa''.", "For some years during the 1950s and 1960s, the assistant editor was the novelist Barbara Pym.The IAI's mission is \"to promote the education of the public in the study of Africa and its languages and cultures\".", "Its operations includes seminars, journals, monographs, edited volumes and stimulating scholarship within Africa." ], [ "Publications", "The IAI has been involved in scholarly publishing since 1927.Scholars whose work has been published by the institute include Emmanuel K. Akyeampong, Samir Amin, Karin Barber, Alex de Waal, Patrick Chabal, Mary Douglas, E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Jack Goody, Jane Guyer, Monica Hunter, Bronislaw Malinowski, Z. K. Matthews, D. A. Masolo, Achille Mbembe, Thomas Mofolo, John Middleton, Simon Ottenberg, J. D. Y. Peel, Mamphela Ramphele, Isaac Schapera, Monica Wilson and V. Y. Mudimbe.IAI publications fall into a number of series, notably '''International African Library''' and '''International African Seminars'''.", "The International African Library is published from volume 41 (2011) by Cambridge University Press; Volumes 7–40 are available from Edinburgh University Press.", ", there are 49 volumes." ], [ "Archives", "The archives of the International African Institute are held at the Archives Division of the Library of the London School of Economics.", "An online catalogue of these papers is available." ], [ "History", "===Africa alphabet===In 1928, the IAI (then IIALC) published an \"Africa Alphabet\" to facilitate standardization of Latin-based writing systems for African languages.===Prize for African-language literature, 1929–50===From April 1929 to 1950, the IAI offered prizes for works of literature in African languages.===List of chairmen===* 1926–1945: Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard; first chairman* 1945–1949: Francis Rodd, 2nd Baron Rennell* 1949–1957: Sir John Waddington" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* IAI website." ] ]
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[ [ "Insulin-like growth factor" ], [ "Introduction", "3GF1 insulin-like growth factormacromolecular structureThe '''insulin-like growth factors''' ('''IGFs''') are proteins with high sequence similarity to insulin.", "IGFs are part of a complex system that cells use to communicate with their physiologic environment.", "This complex system (often referred to as the IGF \"axis\") consists of two cell-surface receptors (IGF1R and IGF2R), two ligands (IGF-1 and IGF-2), a family of seven high-affinity IGF-binding proteins (IGFBP1 to IGFBP7), as well as associated IGFBP degrading enzymes, referred to collectively as proteases." ], [ "IGF1/GH axis", "The IGF \"axis\" is also commonly referred to as the Growth Hormone/IGF-1 Axis.", "Insulin-like growth factor 1 (commonly referred to as IGF-1 or at times using Roman numerals as IGF-I) is mainly secreted by the liver as a result of stimulation by growth hormone (GH).", "IGF-1 is important for both the regulation of normal physiology, as well as a number of pathological states, including cancer.", "The IGF axis has been shown to play roles in the promotion of cell proliferation and the inhibition of cell death (apoptosis).", "Insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF-2, at times IGF-II) is thought to be a primary growth factor required for early development while IGF-1 expression is required for achieving maximal growth.", "Gene knockout studies in mice have confirmed this, though other animals are likely to regulate the expression of these genes in distinct ways.", "While IGF-2 may be primarily fetal in action it is also essential for development and function of organs such as the brain, liver, and kidney.Factors that are thought to cause variation in the levels of GH and IGF-1 in the circulation include an individual's genetic make-up, the time of day, age, sex, exercise status, stress levels, nutrition level, body mass index (BMI), disease state, race, estrogen status, and xenobiotic intake.IGF-1 has an involvement in regulating neural development including neurogenesis, myelination, synaptogenesis, and dendritic branching and neuroprotection after neuronal damage.", "Increased serum levels of IGF-I in children have been associated with higher IQ.IGF-1 shapes the development of the cochlea through controlling apoptosis.", "Its deficit can cause hearing loss.", "Serum level of it also underlies a correlation between short height and reduced hearing abilities particularly around 3–5 years of age, and at age 18 (late puberty)." ], [ "IGF receptors", "The IGFs are known to bind the IGF-1 receptor, the insulin receptor, the IGF-2 receptor, the insulin-related receptor and possibly other receptors.", "The IGF-1 receptor is the \"physiological\" receptor.", "IGF-1 binds to it at significantly higher affinity than it binds the insulin receptor.", "Like the insulin receptor, the IGF-1 receptor is a receptor tyrosine kinase—meaning the receptor signals by causing the addition of a phosphate molecule on particular tyrosines.", "The IGF-2 receptor only binds IGF-2 and acts as a \"clearance receptor\"—it activates no intracellular signaling pathways, functioning only as an IGF-2 sequestering agent and preventing IGF-2 signaling." ], [ "Organs and tissues affected by IGF-1", "Since many distinct tissue types express the IGF-1 receptor, IGF-1's effects are diverse.", "It acts as a neurotrophic factor, inducing the survival of neurons.", "It may catalyse skeletal muscle hypertrophy, by inducing protein synthesis, and by blocking muscle atrophy.", "It is protective for cartilage cells, and is associated with activation of osteocytes, and thus may be an anabolic factor for bone.", "Since at high concentrations it is capable of activating the insulin receptor, it can also complement for the effects of insulin.", "Receptors for IGF-1 are found in vascular smooth muscle, while typical receptors for insulin are not found in vascular smooth muscle." ], [ "IGF-binding proteins", "IGF-1 and IGF-2 are regulated by a family of proteins known as the IGF-binding proteins.", "These proteins help to modulate IGF action in complex ways that involve both inhibiting IGF action by preventing binding to the IGF-1 receptor as well as promoting IGF action possibly through aiding in delivery to the receptor and increasing IGF half-life.", "Currently, there are seven characterized IGF Binding Proteins (IGFBP1 to IGFBP7).", "There is currently significant data suggesting that IGFBPs play important roles in addition to their ability to regulate IGFs.IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 are GH dependent, whereas IGFBP-1 is insulin regulated.IGFBP-1 production from the liver is significantly elevated during insulinopenia while serum levels of bioactive IGF-1 is increased by insulin." ], [ "Diseases affected by IGF", "Studies of recent interest show that the Insulin/IGF axis play an important role in aging.", "Nematodes, fruit-flies, and other organisms have an increased life span when the gene equivalent to the mammalian insulin is knocked out.", "It is somewhat difficult to relate this finding to the mammals, however, because in the smaller organism there are many genes (at least 37 in the nematode ''Caenorhabditis elegans'') that are \"insulin-like\" or \"IGF-1-like\", whereas in the mammals insulin-like proteins comprise only seven members (insulin, IGFs, relaxins, EPIL, and relaxin-like factor).", "The human insulin-like genes have apparently distinct roles with some but less crosstalk presumably because there are multiple insulin-receptor-like proteins in humans.", "Simpler organisms typically have fewer receptors; for example, only one insulin-like receptor exists in the nematode ''C.", "elegans''.", "Additionally, ''C.", "elegans'' do not have specialized organs such as the (Islets of Langerhans), which sense insulin in response to glucose homeostasis.", "Moreover, IGF1 affects lifespan in nematodes by causing dauer formation, a developmental stage of ''C.", "elegans'' larva.", "There is no mammalian correlate.", "Therefore, it is an open question as to whether either IGF-1 or insulin in the mammal may perturb aging, although there is the suggestion that dietary restriction phenomena may be related.Other studies are beginning to uncover the important role the IGFs play in diseases such as cancer and diabetes, showing for instance that IGF-1 stimulates growth of both prostate and breast cancer cells.", "Researchers are not in complete agreement about the degree of cancer risk that IGF-1 poses." ], [ "See also", "* Growth hormone treatment* HGH controversies* Insulin/IGF/Relaxin family" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Idiot" ], [ "Introduction", "''The Idiot'' by Evert Larock (1892)An '''idiot''', in modern use, is a stupid or foolish person.", "'Idiot' was formerly a technical term in legal and psychiatric contexts for some kinds of profound intellectual disability where the mental age is two years or less, and the person cannot guard themself against common physical dangers.", "The term was gradually replaced by 'profound mental retardation', which has since been replaced by other terms.", "Along with terms like moron, imbecile, retard and cretin, its use to describe people with mental disabilities is considered archaic and offensive.", "Moral idiocy refers to a moral disability." ], [ "Etymology", "The word \"idiot\" comes from the Greek noun ''idiōtēs'' 'a private person, individual' (as opposed to the state), 'a private citizen' (as opposed to someone with a political office), 'a common man', 'a person lacking professional skill, layman', later 'unskilled', 'ignorant', derived from the adjective ''idios'' 'personal' (not public, not shared).", "In Latin, ''idiota'' was borrowed in the meaning 'uneducated', 'ignorant', 'common', and in Late Latin came to mean 'crude, illiterate, ignorant'.", "In French, it kept the meaning of 'illiterate', 'ignorant', and added the meaning 'stupid' in the 13th century.", "In English, it added the meaning 'mentally deficient' in the 14th century.Many political commentators, starting as early as 1856, have interpreted the word \"idiot\" as reflecting the Ancient Athenians' attitudes to civic participation and private life, combining the ancient meaning of 'private citizen' with the modern meaning 'fool' to conclude that the Greeks used the word to say that it is selfish and foolish not to participate in public life.b.", "''The Sanitary Era'' '''6''':117:12 (October 1892), New York, p. 210c.", "Bouck White, ''The Free City: A Book of Neighborhood'', 1919, p. 53d.", "John Robertson Macarthur, ''Ancient Greece in Modern America'', 1943, p. 195e.", "f. But this is not how the Greeks used the word.It is certainly true that the Greeks valued civic participation and criticized non-participation.", "Thucydides quotes Pericles' Funeral Oration as saying: \"we regard... him who takes no part in these public duties not as unambitious but as useless\" ().", "However, neither he nor any other ancient author uses the word \"idiot\" to describe non-participants, or in a derogatory sense; its most common use was simply a private citizen or amateur as opposed to a government official, professional, or expert.", "The derogatory sense came centuries later, and was unrelated to the political meaning." ], [ "Disability and early classification and nomenclature", "In 19th- and early 20th-century medicine and psychology, an \"idiot\" was a person with a very profound intellectual disability, being diagnosed with \"idiocy\".", "In the early 1900s, Dr. Henry H. Goddard proposed a classification system for intellectual disability based on the Binet-Simon concept of mental age.", "Individuals with the lowest mental age level (less than three years) were identified as ''idiots''; ''imbeciles'' had a mental age of three to seven years, and ''morons'' had a mental age of seven to ten years.", "The term \"idiot\" was used to refer to people having an IQ below 30 IQ, or intelligence quotient, was originally determined by dividing a person's mental age, as determined by standardized tests, by their actual age.", "The concept of mental age has fallen into disfavor, though, and IQ is now determined on the basis of statistical distributions.In the obsolete medical classification (ICD-9, 1977), these people were said to have \"profound mental retardation\" or \"profound mental subnormality\" with IQ under 20." ], [ "Regional law", "=== United States ===Until 2007, the California Penal Code Section 26 stated that \"Idiots\" were one of six types of people who are not capable of committing crimes.", "In 2007 the code was amended to read \"persons who are mentally incapacitated.\"", "In 2008, Iowa voters passed a measure replacing \"idiot, or insane person\" in the State's constitution with \"person adjudged mentally incompetent.", "\"In the constitution of several U.S. states, \"idiots\" do not have the right to vote:* Kentucky Section 145* Mississippi Article 12, Section 241* Ohio Article V, Section 6The constitution of the state of Arkansas was amended in the general election of 2008 to, among other things, repeal a provision (Article 3, Section 5) which had until its repeal prohibited \"idiots or insane persons\" from voting." ], [ "In literature", "A few authors have used \"idiot\" characters in novels, plays and poetry.", "Often these characters are used to highlight or indicate something else (allegory).", "Examples of such usage are William Faulkner's ''The Sound and the Fury'', Daphne du Maurier's ''Rebecca'' and William Wordsworth's ''The Idiot Boy''.", "Idiot characters in literature are often confused with or subsumed within mad or lunatic characters.", "The most common intersection between these two categories of mental impairment occurs in the polemic surrounding Edmund from William Shakespeare's ''King Lear''.In Fyodor Dostoevsky's novel ''The Idiot'' the title refers to the central character Prince Myshkin, a man whose innocence, kindness and humility, combined with his occasional epileptic symptoms, cause many in the corrupt, egoistic culture around him to mistakenly assume that he lacks intelligence.", "In ''The Antichrist'', Nietzsche applies the word 'idiot' to Jesus in a comparable fashion, almost certainly in an allusion to Dostoevsky's use of the word: \"One has to regret that no Dostoevsky lived in the neighbourhood of this most interesting ''décadent''; I mean someone who could feel the thrilling fascination of such a combination of the sublime, the sick and the childish.", "\"(§ 29, partially quoted here, contains three words that were suppressed by Nietzsche's sister when she published The Antichrist in 1895.The words are: 'das Wort Idiot,' translated here as 'the word idiot'.", "They were not made public until 1931, by Josef Hofmiller.", "H.L.", "Mencken's 1920 translation does not contain these words.)" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* *" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]
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[ [ "Islamism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Islamism''' (also often called political Islam) is a religio-political ideology.", "The advocates of Islamism, also known as \"al-Islamiyyun\", are dedicated to realizing their ideological interpretation of Islam within the context of the state or society.", "The majority of them are affiliated with Islamic institutions or social mobilization movements, often designated as \"al-harakat al-Islamiyyah.\"", "Islamists emphasize the implementation of ''sharia'', pan-Islamic political unity, the creation of Islamic states, (eventually unified), and rejection of non-Muslim influences—particularly Western or universal economic, military, political, social, or cultural.In its original formulation, Islamism described an ideology seeking to revive Islam to its past assertiveness and glory, purifying it of foreign elements, reasserting its role into \"social and political as well as personal life\"; and in particular \"reordering government and society in accordance with laws prescribed by Islam\" (i.e.", "Sharia).", "According to at least one observer (author Robin Wright), Islamist movements have \"arguably altered the Middle East more than any trend since the modern states gained independence\", redefining \"politics and even borders\".Central and prominent figures in 20th-century Islamism include Sayyid Rashid Riḍā, Hassan al-Banna (founder of the Muslim Brotherhood), Sayyid Qutb, Abul A'la Maududi, Ruhollah Khomeini (founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran), Hassan Al-Turabi.", "Syrian Sunni cleric Muhammad Rashid Riḍā, a fervent opponent of Westernization, Zionism and nationalism, advocated Sunni internationalism through revolutionary restoration of a pan-Islamic Caliphate to politically unite the Muslim World.", "Riḍā was a strong exponent of Islamic vanguardism, the belief that Muslim community should be guided by clerical elites (''ulema'') who steered the efforts for religious education and Islamic revival.", "Riḍā's Salafi-Arabist synthesis and Islamist ideals greatly influenced his disciples like Hasan al-Banna, an Egyptian schoolteacher who founded the Muslim Brotherhood movement, and Hajji Amin al-Husayni, the anti-Zionist Grand Mufti of Jerusalem.Al-Banna and Maududi called for a \"reformist\" strategy to re-Islamizing society through grassroots social and political activism.", "Other Islamists (Al-Turabi) are proponents of a \"revolutionary\" strategy of Islamizing society through exercise of state power, or (Sayyid Qutb) for combining grassroots Islamization with armed revolution.", "The term has been applied to non-state reform movements, political parties, militias and revolutionary groups.", "At least one author (Graham E. Fuller) has argued for a broader notion of Islamism as a form of identity politics, involving \"support for Muslim identity, authenticity, broader regionalism, revivalism, and revitalization of the community.\"", "Islamists themselves prefer terms such as \"Islamic movement\", or \"Islamic activism\" to \"Islamism\", objecting to the insinuation that Islamism is anything other than Islam renewed and revived.", "In public and academic contexts, the term \"Islamism\" has been criticized as having been given connotations of violence, extremism, and violations of human rights, by the Western mass media, leading to Islamophobia and stereotyping.Following the Arab Spring, many post-Islamist currents became heavily involved in democratic politics, while others spawned \"the most aggressive and ambitious Islamist militia\" to date, such as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL)." ], [ "Terminology", "Originally the term ''Islamism'' was simply used to mean the religion of Islam, not an ideology or movement.", "It first appeared in the English language as ''Islamismus'' in 1696, and as ''Islamism'' in 1712.The term appears in the U.S. Supreme Court decision in ''In Re Ross'' (1891).", "By the turn of the twentieth century the shorter and purely Arabic term \"Islam\" had begun to displace it, and by 1938, when Orientalist scholars completed ''The Encyclopaedia of Islam'', ''Islamism'' seems to have virtually disappeared from English usage.", "The term remained \"practically absent from the vocabulary\" of scholars, writers or journalists until the Iranian Islamic Revolution of 1978–79, which brought Ayatollah Khomeini's concept of \"Islamic government\" to Iran.This new usage appeared without taking into consideration how the term ''Islamist'' '''(m.", "sing.", ":''' ''Islami'', '''pl.", "nom/acc:''' ''Islamiyyun'', '''gen.'''", "''Islamiyyin;'' '''f.", "sing/pl:''' ''Islamiyyah'') was already being used in traditional Arabic scholarship in a theological sense as in relating to the religion of Islam, not a political ideology.", "In heresiographical, theological and historical works, such as al-Ash'ari's well-known encyclopaedia ''Maqālāt al-Islāmiyyīn'' (''The Opinions of The Islamists''), an Islamist refers to any person who attributes himself to Islam without affirming nor negating that attribution.", "If used consistently, it is for impartiality, but if used in reference to a certain person or group in particular without others, it implies that the author is either unsure whether to affirm or negate their attribution to Islam, or trying to insinuate his disapproval of the attribution without controversy.", "In contrast, referring to a person as a Muslim or a Kafir implies an explicit affirmation or a negation of that person's attribution to Islam.", "In order to evade the problem resulting from the confusion between the Western and Arabic usage of the term Islamist, Arab journalists invented the term ''Islamawi'' (''Islamian'') instead of ''Islami'' (''Islamist'') in reference to the politicists, which is nonetheless sometimes criticized as being ungrammatical.===Definitions===Islamism has been defined as:* \"the belief that Islam should guide social and political as well as personal life\" (Sheri Berman);* the belief that Islam should influence political systems (Cambridge English Dictionary);* \"the Islamic ideology that guides society as a whole and that teaches law must be in conformity with the Islamic sharia\", (W. E. Shepard);* a combination of two pre-existing trends ** movements to revive the faith, weakened by \"foreign influence, political opportunism, moral laxity, and the forgetting of sacred texts\";** the more recent movement against imperialism/colonialism, morphed into a more simple anti-Westernism; formerly embraced by leftists and nationalists but whose supporters have turned to Islam.", "* a form of \"religionized politics\" and an instance of religious fundamentalism that imagines an Islamic community claiming global hegemony for its values (Bassam Tibi);* \"political movement that favors reordering government and society in accordance with laws prescribed by Islam\" (Associated Press stylebook);* a political ideology which seeks to enforce Islamic precepts and norms as generally applicable rules for people's conduct; and whose adherents seek a state based on Islamic values and laws (sharia) and rejecting Western guiding principles, such as freedom of opinion, freedom of the press, artistic freedom and freedom of religion (Thomas Volk);* a broad set of political ideologies that utilize and draw inspiration from Islamic symbols and traditions in pursuit of a sociopolitical objective—also called \"political Islam\" (Britannica);* \"... has become shorthand for 'Muslims we don't like.'\"", "(Council on American–Islamic Relations—in complaint about AP's earlier definition of Islamist); **In \"Western popular discourse generally uses 'Islamism' when discussing the negative or 'that-which-is-bad' in Muslim communities.", "The signifier, 'Islam,' on the other hand, is reserved for the positive or neutral.\"", "(David Belt).", "* a movement so broad and flexible it reaches out to \"everything to everyone\" in Islam, making it \"unsustainable\" (Tarek Osman);** an alternative social provider to the poor masses;** an angry platform for the disillusioned young;** a loud trumpet-call announcing \"a return to the pure religion\" to those seeking an identity;** a \"progressive, moderate religious platform\" for the affluent and liberal;** ... and at the extremes, a violent vehicle for rejectionists and radicals.", "* an Islamic \"movement that seeks cultural differentiation from the West and reconnection with the pre-colonial symbolic universe\", (François Burgat);* \"the active assertion and promotion of beliefs, prescriptions, laws or policies that are held to be Islamic in character,\" (International Crisis Group);* a movement of \"Muslims who draw upon the belief, symbols, and language of Islam to inspire, shape, and animate political activity;\" which may contain moderate, tolerant, peaceful activists or those who \"preach intolerance and espouse violence\", (Robert H. Pelletreau);* \"All who seek to Islamize their environment, whether in relation to their lives in society, their family circumstances, or the workplace ...\", (Roy Olivier).===Relationship between Islam and Islamism===Islamists simply believe that their movement is either a corrected version or a revival of Islam, but others believe that Islamism is a modern deviation from Islam which should either be denounced or dismissed.A writer for the International Crisis Group maintains that \"the conception of 'political Islam'\" is a creation of Americans to explain the Iranian Islamic Revolution, ignoring the fact that (according to the writer) Islam is by definition political.", "In fact it is quietist/non-political Islam, not Islamism, that requires explanation, which the author gives—calling it an historical fluke of the \"short-lived era of the heyday of secular Arab nationalism between 1945 and 1970\".Hayri Abaza argues that the failure to distinguish Islam from Islamism leads many in the West to equate the two; they think that by supporting illiberal Islamic (Islamist) regimes, they are being respectful of Islam, to the detriment of those who seek to separate religion from politics.Another source distinguishes Islamist from Islamic by emphasizing the fact that Islam \"refers to a religion and culture in existence over a millennium\", whereas Islamism \"is a political/religious phenomenon linked to the great events of the 20th century\".", "Islamists have, at least at times, defined themselves as \"Islamiyyoun/Islamists\" to differentiate themselves from \"Muslimun/Muslims\".", "Daniel Pipes describes Islamism as a modern ideology that owes more to European utopian political ideologies and \"isms\" than to the traditional Islamic religion.According to Salman Sayyid, \"Islamism is not a replacement of Islam akin to the way it could be argued that communism and fascism are secularized substitutes for Christianity.\"", "Rather, it is \"a constellation of political projects that seek to position Islam in the centre of any social order\"." ], [ "Ideology", "===Islamic revival===The modern revival of Islamic devotion and the attraction to things Islamic can be traced to several events.By the end of World War I, most Muslim states were seen to be dominated by the Christian-leaning Western states.", "Explanations offered were: that the claims of Islam were false and the Christian or post-Christian West had finally come up with another system that was superior; or Islam had failed through not being true to itself.", "The second explanation being preferred by Muslims, a redoubling of faith and devotion by the faithful was called for to reverse this tide.The connection between the lack of an Islamic spirit and the lack of victory was underscored by the disastrous defeat of Arab nationalist-led armies fighting Israel under the slogan \"Land, Sea and Air\" in the 1967 Six-Day War, compared to the (perceived) near-victory of the Yom Kippur War six years later.", "In that war the military's slogan was \"God is Great\".Along with the Yom Kippur War came the Arab oil embargo where the (Muslim) Persian Gulf oil-producing states' dramatic decision to cut back on production and quadruple the price of oil, made the terms oil, Arabs and Islam synonymous with power throughout the world, and especially in the Muslim world's public imagination.", "Many Muslims believe as Saudi Prince Saud al Faisal did that the hundreds of billions of dollars in wealth obtained from the Persian Gulf's huge oil deposits were nothing less than a gift from God to the Islamic faithful.As the Islamic revival gained momentum, governments such as Egypt's, which had previously repressed (and was still continuing to repress) Islamists, joined the bandwagon.", "They banned alcohol and flooded the airwaves with religious programming, giving the movement even more exposure.=== Restoration of the Caliphate ===Al-Manār'' magazine, the most popular 20th century Islamic journal that called for the restoration of CaliphateThe abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey on 1 November 1922 ended the Ottoman Empire, which had lasted since 1299.On 11 November 1922, at the Conference of Lausanne, the sovereignty of the Grand National Assembly exercised by the Government in Angora (now Ankara) over Turkey was recognized.", "The last sultan, Mehmed VI, departed the Ottoman capital, Constantinople (now Istanbul), on 17 November 1922.The legal position was solidified with the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne on 24 July 1923.In March 1924, the Caliphate was abolished legally by the Turkish National Assembly, marking the end of Ottoman influence.", "This shocked the Sunni clerical world, and many felt the need to present Islam not as a traditional religion but as an innovative socio-political ideology of a modern nation-state.The reaction to new realities of the modern world gave birth to Islamist ideologues like Rashid Rida and Abul A'la Maududi and organizations such as Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and Majlis-e-Ahrar-ul-Islam in India.", "Rashid Rida, a prominent Syrian-born Salafi theologian based in Egypt, was known as a revivalist of Hadith studies in Sunni seminaries and a pioneering theoretician of Islamism in the modern age.", "During 1922–1923, Rida published a series of articles in seminal ''Al-Manar'' magazine titled \"''The Caliphate or the Supreme Imamate''\".", "In this highly influential treatise, Rida advocates for the restoration of Caliphate guided by Islamic jurists and proposes gradualist measures of education, reformation and purification through the efforts of ''Salafiyya'' reform movements across the globe.Sayyid Rashid Rida had visited India in 1912 and was impressed by the Deoband and Nadwatul Ulama seminaries.", "These seminaries carried the legacy of Sayyid Ahmad Shahid and his pre-modern Islamic emirate.", "In British India, the Khilafat movement (1919–24) following World War I led by Shaukat Ali, Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Abul Kalam Azad came to exemplify South Asian Muslims' aspirations for Caliphate.===Anti-Westernization===Salafi-Islamist protest against the anti-Islamic film ''Innocence of Muslims'' in Sydney, 15 September 2012.The protesters carry signs reading \"Behead all those who insult the Prophet\" and \"Our dead are in Paradise.", "Your dead are in HELL!", "\"Muslim alienation from Western ways, including its political ways.", "* The memory in Muslim societies of the many centuries of \"cultural and institutional success\" of Islamic civilization that have created an \"intense resistance to an alternative 'civilizational order'\", such as Western civilization.", "* The proximity of the core of the Muslim world to Europe and Christendom where it first conquered and then was conquered.", "Iberia in the eighth century, the Crusades which began in the eleventh century, then for centuries the Ottoman Empire, were all fields of war between Europe and Islam.", ":In the words of Bernard Lewis::For almost a thousand years, from the first Moorish landing in Spain to the second Turkish siege of Vienna, Europe was under constant threat from Islam.", "In the early centuries it was a double threat—not only of invasion and conquest, but also of conversion and assimilation.", "All but the easternmost provinces of the Islamic realm had been taken from Christian rulers, and the vast majority of the first Muslims west of Iran and Arabia were converts from Christianity ... Their loss was sorely felt and it heightened the fear that a similar fate was in store for Europe.", ":The Islamic world felt its own anger and resentment at the much more recent technological superiority of westerners who,:are the perpetual teachers; we, the perpetual students.", "Generation after generation, this asymmetry has generated an inferiority complex, forever exacerbated by the fact that their innovations progress at a faster pace than we can absorb them.", "...", "The best tool to reverse the inferiority complex to a superiority complex ... Islam would give the whole culture a sense of dignity.", ":For Islamists, the primary threat of the West is cultural rather than political or economic.", "Cultural dependency robs one of faith and identity and thus destroys Islam and the Islamic community (''ummah'') far more effectively than political rule.", "* Whatever unity religious Muslims and the capitalist west felt in the face of a common atheist Communist enemy disappeared with the end of the Cold War and the end of the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan.=== Strength of identity politics ===Protests against Basuki Tjahaja Purnama, Christian governor of Jakarta, 2 December 2016Islamism is described by Graham E. Fuller as part of identity politics, specifically the religiously oriented nationalism that emerged in the Third World in the 1970s: \"resurgent Hinduism in India, Religious Zionism in Israel, militant Buddhism in Sri Lanka, resurgent Sikh nationalism in the Punjab, 'Liberation Theology' of Catholicism in Latin America, and Islamism in the Muslim world.", "\"=== Silencing and weakening of leftist opponents ===By the late 1960s, non-Soviet Muslim-majority countries had won their independence and they tended to fall into one of the two cold-war blocs - with \"Nasser's Egypt, Baathist Syria and Iraq, Muammar el-Qaddafi's Libya, Algeria under Ahmed Ben Bella and Houari Boumedienne, Southern Yemen, and Sukarno's Indonesia\" aligned with Moscow.", "Aware of the close attachment of the population with Islam, \"school books of the 1960s in these countries \"went out of their way to impress upon children that socialism was simply Islam properly understood.", "\"Olivier Roy writes that the \"failure of the 'Arab socialist' model ... left room for new protest ideologies to emerge in deconstructed societies ...\" Gilles Kepel notes that when a collapse in oil prices led to widespread violent and destructive rioting by the urban poor in Algeria in 1988, what might have appeared to be a natural opening for the left, was instead the beginning of major victories for the Islamist Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) party.", "The reason being the corruption and economic malfunction of the policies of the Third World socialist ruling party (FNL) had \"largely discredited\" the \"vocabulary of socialism\".In the post-colonial era, many Muslim-majority states such as Indonesia, Egypt, Syria, and Iraq, were ruled by authoritarian regimes which were often continuously dominated by the same individuals or their cadres for decades.", "Simultaneously, the military played a significant part in the government decisions in many of these states (the outsized role played by the military could be seen also in democratic Turkey).The authoritarian regimes, backed by military support, took extra measures to silence leftist opposition forces, often with the help of foreign powers.", "Silencing of leftist opposition deprived the masses a channel to express their economic grievances and frustration toward the lack of democratic processes.", "As a result, in the post-Cold War era, civil society-based Islamist movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood were the only organizations capable to provide avenues of protest.The dynamic was repeated after the states had gone through a democratic transition.", "In Indonesia, some secular political parties have contributed to the enactment of religious bylaws in order to counter the popularity of Islamist oppositions.", "In Egypt, during the short period of the democratic experiment, Muslim Brotherhood seized the momentum by being the most cohesive political movement among the opposition." ], [ "Influence", "Few observers contest the immense influence of Islamism within the Muslim world.", "Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, political movements based on the liberal ideology of free expression and democratic rule have led the opposition in other parts of the world such as Latin America, Eastern Europe and many parts of Asia; however \"the simple fact is that political Islam currently reigns circa 2002-3 as the most powerful ideological force across the Muslim world today\".The strength of Islamism also draws from the strength of religiosity in general in the Muslim world.", "Compared to other societies around the globe, \"what is striking about the Islamic world is that ... it seems to have been the least penetrated by irreligion\".", "Where other peoples may look to the physical or social sciences for answers in areas which their ancestors regarded as best left to scripture, in the Muslim world, religion has become more encompassing, not less, as \"in the last few decades, it has been the fundamentalists who have increasingly represented the cutting edge\" of Muslim culture.Writing in 2009, German journalist Sonja Zekri described Islamists in Egypt and other Muslim countries as \"extremely influential.", "...", "They determine how one dresses, what one eats.", "In these areas, they are incredibly successful.", "...", "Even if the Islamists never come to power, they have transformed their countries.\"", "Political Islamists were described as \"competing in the democratic public square in places like Turkey, Tunisia, Malaysia and Indonesia\"." ], [ "Types", "Islamism is not a united movement and takes different forms and spans a wide range of strategies and tactics towards the powers in place—\"destruction, opposition, collaboration, indifference\"—not because (or not just because) of differences of opinions, but because it varies as circumstances change.p.", "54Moderate and reformist Islamists who accept and work within the democratic process include parties like the Tunisian Ennahda Movement.", "Jamaat-e-Islami of Pakistan is basically a socio-political and \"vanguard party\" working with in Pakistan's Democratic political process, but has also gained political influence through military coup d'états in the past.", "Other Islamist groups like Hezbollah in Lebanon and Hamas in Palestine participate in the democratic and political process as well as armed attacks by their powerful paramilitary wings.", "Jihadist organizations like al-Qaeda and the Egyptian Islamic Jihad, and groups such as the Taliban, entirely reject democracy, seeing it as a form of ''kufr'' (disbelief) calling for offensive jihad on a religious basis.Another major division within Islamism is between what Graham E. Fuller has described as the conservative \"guardians of the tradition\" (Salafis, such as those in the Wahhabi movement) and the revolutionary \"vanguard of change and Islamic reform\" centered around the Muslim Brotherhood.", "Olivier Roy argues that \"Sunni pan-Islamism underwent a remarkable shift in the second half of the 20th century\" when the Muslim Brotherhood movement and its focus on Islamisation of pan-Arabism was eclipsed by the Salafi movement with its emphasis on \"sharia rather than the building of Islamic institutions\".", "Following the Arab Spring (starting in 2011), Roy has described Islamism as \"increasingly interdependent\" with democracy in much of the Arab Muslim world, such that \"neither can now survive without the other.\"", "While Islamist political culture itself may not be democratic, Islamists need democratic elections to maintain their legitimacy.", "At the same time, their popularity is such that no government can call itself democratic that excludes mainstream Islamist groups.Arguing distinctions between \"radical/moderate\" or \"violent/peaceful\" Islamism were \"simplistic\", circa 2017, scholar Morten Valbjørn put forth these \"much more sophisticated typologies\" of Islamism:===Moderate and reformist Islamism===Throughout the 80s and 90s, major moderate Islamist movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood and the Ennahda were excluded from democratic political participation.", "At least in part for that reason, Islamists attempted to overthrow the government in the Algerian Civil War (1991–2002) and waged a terror campaign in Egypt in the 90s.", "These attempts were crushed and in the 21st century, Islamists turned increasingly to non-violent methods, and \"moderate Islamists\" now make up the majority of the contemporary Islamist movements.Among some Islamists, Democracy has been harmonized with Islam by means of ''Shura'' (consultation).", "The tradition of consultation by the ruler being considered Sunnah of the prophet Muhammad, (''Majlis-ash-Shura'' being a common name for legislative bodies in Islamic countries).Among the varying goals, strategies, and outcomes of \"moderate Islamist movements\" are a formal abandonment of their original vision of implementing ''sharia'' (also termed Post-Islamism) -- done by the Ennahda Movement of Tunisia, and Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) of Indonesia.", "Others, such as the National Congress of Sudan, have implemented the sharia with support from wealthy, conservative states (primarily Saudi Arabia).According to one theory -- \"inclusion-moderation\"—the interdependence of political outcome with strategy means that the more moderate the Islamists become, the more likely they are to be politically included (or unsuppressed); and the more accommodating the government is, the less \"extreme\" Islamists become.", "A prototype of harmonizing Islamist principles within the modern state framework was the \"Turkish model\", based on the apparent success of the rule of the Turkish Justice and Development Party (AKP) led by Recep Tayyip Erdoğan.", "Turkish model, however, came \"unstuck\" after a purge and violations of democratic principles by the Erdoğan regime.", "Critics of the concept — which include both Islamists who reject democracy and anti-Islamists — hold that Islamist aspirations are fundamentally incompatible with the democratic principles.===Salafi movement===The contemporary Salafi movement is sometimes described as a variety of Islamism and sometimes as a different school of Islam, such as a \"phase between fundamentalism and Islamism\".Originally a reformist movement of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abdul, and Rashid Rida, that rejected maraboutism (Sufism), the established schools of fiqh, and demanded individual interpretation (''ijtihad'') of the Quran and Sunnah; it evolved into a movement embracing the conservative doctrines of the medieval Hanbali theologian Ibn Taymiyyah.", "While all salafi believe Islam covers every aspect of life, that sharia law must be implemented completely and that the Caliphate must be recreated to rule the Muslim world, they differ in strategies and priorities, which generally fall into three groups: * The \"quietist\" school advocates Islamization through preaching, educating the masses on sharia and \"purification\" of religious practices and ignoring government.", "* Activist (or ''haraki'') Salafi activism encourages political participation—opposing government loans with interest or normalization of relations with Israel, etc.", "As of 2013, this school makes up the majority of Salafism.", "Salafist political parties in the Muslim world include Hizb al-Nour in Egypt, the Al Islah Party of Yemen and Al Asalah of Bahrain.", "* Salafi jihadism, (see below) is inspired by the ideology of Sayyid Qutb (Qutbism, see below), and sees secular institutions as an enemy of Islam, advocating revolution in order to pave the way for the establishment of a new Caliphate.====Wahhabism====One of the antecedents of the contemporary Salafi movement is Wahhabism, an 18th-century reform movement from the Arabia founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab.", "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, gave his ''bay'ah'' (pledge of allegiance to a ruler/commander), to the House of Saud, the rulers of Saudi Arabia, and so have almost all Wahhabi since, (small numbers have become Salafi Jihadist or other dissidents).", "Obedience to a ruler precluding any political activism (short of an advisor whispering advice to the ruler), there are few Wahhabi Islamists, at least in Saudi Arabia.Wahhabism and Salafism more or less merged by the 1960s in Saudi Arabia, and together they benefited from $100s of billions in state-sponsored worldwide propagation of conservative Islam financed by Saudi petroleum exports, (a phenomenon often dubbed as Petro-Islam).", "(This financing has contributed indirectly to the upsurge of Salafi Jihadism.", ")===Militant Islamism/Jihadism=======Qutbism====Qutbism refers to the Jihadist ideology formulated by Sayyid Qutb, (an influential figure of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt during the 50s and 60s).", "Qutbism argued that not only was sharia essential for Islam, but that since it was not in force, Islam did not really exist in the Muslim world, which was in ''Jahiliyya'' (the state of pre-Islamic ignorance).", "To remedy this situation he urged a two-pronged attack of 1) preaching to convert, and 2) jihad to forcibly eliminate the \"structures\" of ''Jahiliyya''.", "Defensive jihad against ''Jahiliyya'' Muslim governments would not be enough.", "\"Truth and falsehood cannot coexist on this earth\", so offensive Jihad was needed to eliminate ''Jahiliyya'' not only from the Islamic homeland but from the face of the Earth.", "In addition, vigilance against Western and Jewish conspiracies against Islam would-be needed.Although Qutb was executed before he could fully spell out his ideology, his ideas were disseminated and expanded on by the later generations, among them Abdullah Yusuf Azzam and Ayman Al-Zawahiri, who was a student of Qutb's brother Muhammad Qutb and later became a mentor of Osama bin Laden.", "Al-Zawahiri helped to pass on stories of \"the purity of Qutb's character\" and persecution he suffered, and played an extensive role in the normalization of offensive Jihad among followers of Qutb.====Salafi Jihadism====Salafi Jihadism or revolutionary Salafism emerged prominent during the 80s when Osama bin Laden and thousands of other militant Muslims came from around the Muslim world to help fight the Soviet Union after it invaded Afghanistan.", "Local Afghan Muslims had declared jihad against the Soviets (mujahideen) and were aided with financial, logistical and military support by Saudi Arabia and the United States, but after Soviet forces left Afghanistan, this funding and interest by America and Saudi ceased.", "The international volunteers, (originally organized by Abdullah Azzam), were triumphant in victory, away from the moderating influence of home and family, among the radicalized influence of other militants.", "Wanting to capitalize on financial, logistical and military network that had been developed they sought to continue waging jihad elsewhere.", "Their new targets, however, included the United States—funder of the mujahideen but \"perceived as the greatest enemy of the faith\"; and governments of majority-Muslims countries—perceived of as apostates from Islam.Salafist-jihadist ideology combined the literal and traditional interpretations of scripture of Salafists, with the promotion and fighting of jihad against military and civilian targets in the pursuit of the establishment of an Islamic state and eventually a new Caliphate.Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) in Raqqa, Syria, 2014Other characteristics of the movement include the formal process of taking ''bay'ah'' (oath of allegiance) to the leader (''amir''), which is inspired by Hadiths and early Muslim practice and included in Wahhabi teaching; and the concepts of \"near enemy\" (governments of majority-Muslims countries) and \"far enemy\" (United States and other Western countries).", "(The term \"near enemy\" was coined by Mohammed Abdul-Salam Farag who led the assassination of Anwar al-Sadat with Egyptian Islamic Jihad (EIJ) in 1981.)", "The \"far enemy\" was introduced and formally declared under attack by al-Qaeda in 1996.The ideology saw its rise during the 90s when the Muslim world experienced numerous geopolitical crisis, notably the Algerian Civil War (1991–2002), Bosnian War (1992–1995), and the First Chechen War (1994–1996).", "Within these conflicts, political Islam often acted as a mobilizing factor for the local belligerents, who demanded financial, logistical and military support from al-Qaeda, in the exchange for active proliferation of the ideology.", "After the 1998 bombings of US embassies, September 11 attacks (2001), the US-led invasion of Afghanistan (2001) and Iraq (2003), Salafi Jihadism lost its momentum, being devastated by the US counterterrorism operations, culminating in bin Laden's death in 2011.After the Arab Spring (2011) and subsequent Syrian Civil War (2011–present), the remnants of al-Qaeda franchise in Iraq restored their capacity, rapidly developing into the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, spreading its influence throughout the conflict zones of MENA region and the globe.", "Salafi Jihadism makes up a minority of the contemporary Islamist movements.===Shi'i Islamism===Although most of the research and reporting about Islamism or political Islam has been focused on Sunni Islamist movements,Islamism exists in Twelver Shia Islam (the second largest branch of Islam that makes up approximately 10% of all Muslims.).", "Islamist Shi'ism, also known as Shi'i Islamism, is primarily but not exclusively associated with the thought of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, with the Islamist Revolution he led, Islamic Republic of Iran that he founded, and the religious-political activities and resources of the republic.Compared to the \"Types\" of Islamism mentioned above, Khomeinism differs from Wahhabism (which does not consider Shi'ism truly Islamic), Salafism (both orthodox or Jihadi—Shi'a do not consider some of the most prominent salaf worthy of emulation), reformist Islamism (the Islamic Republic executed more than 3,400 political dissidents between June 1981 and March 1982 in the process of consolidating power).Khomeini and his followers helped translate the works of Maududi and Qutb into Persian and were influenced by them, but their views differed from them and other Sunni Islamists in being \"more leftist and more clerical\": *more leftist in the propaganda campaign leading up to the revolution, emphasizing exploitation of the poor by the rich and of Muslims by imperialism; *more clerical in the new post-revolutionary state, where clerics were in control of the levers of power (the Supreme Leader, Guardian Council, etc., under the concept of Velayat-e Faqih.", ").Khomeini was a \"radical\" Islamist, like Qutb and unlike Maudidi.", "He believed that foreigners, Jews and their agents were conspiring \"to keep us backward, to keep us in our present miserable state\".", "Those who call themselves Muslims but were secular and Westernizing, were not just corrupt or misguided, but \"agents\" of the Western governments, helping to \"plunder\" Muslim lands as part of a long-term conspiracy against Islam.", "Only the rule of an Islamic jurist, administering Sharia law, stood between this abomination and justice, and could not wait for peaceful, gradual transition.", "It is the duty of Muslims to \"destroy\" \"all traces\" of any other sort of government other than true Islamic governance because these are \"systems of unbelief\".", "\"Troublesome\" groups that cause \"corruption in Muslim society,\" and damage \"Islam and the Islamic state\" are to be eliminated just as the Prophet Muhammad eliminated the Jews of Bani Qurayza.", "Islamic revolution to install \"the form of government willed by Islam\" will not end with one Islamic state in Iran.", "Once this government comes \"into being, none of the governments now existing in the world\" will \"be able to resist it;\" they will \"all capitulate\".====Ruling Islamic Jurist====Khomeini's form of Islamism was particularly unique in the world because it completely swept the old regime away, created a new regime with a new constitution, new institutions and a new concept of governance (the ''Velayat-e Faqih'').", "A historical event, it changed militant Islam from a topic of limited impact and interest to a topic that few either inside or outside the Muslim world were unaware of.", "As he originally described it in lectures to his students, the system of \"Islamic Government\" was one where the leading Islamic jurist would enforce sharia law—law which \"has absolute authority over all individuals and the Islamic government\".", "The jurist would not be elected, and no legislature would be needed since divine law called for rule by jurist and \"there is not a single topic in human life for which Islam has not provided instruction and established a norm\".", "Without this system, injustice, corruption, waste, exploitation and sin would reign, and Islam would decay.", "This plan was disclosed to his students and the religious community but not widely publicized.", "The constitution of the Islamic Republic written after the revolution did include a legislature and president, but supervising the entire government was a \"Supreme Leader\"/guardian jurist.Islamist Shi'ism has been crucial to the development of worldwide Islamism, because the Iranian regime attempted to export its revolution.", "Although, the Islamist ideology was originally imported from Muslim Brotherhood, Iranian relations between the Muslim Brotherhood and Islamic Republic of Iran deteriorated due to its involvement in the Syrian civil war.", "However, the majority Usuli Shi'ism rejects the idea of an Islamist State in the period of Occultation of the Hidden Imam.====Shi'ism and Iran====Twelver Shia Muslim live mainly in a half dozen or so countries scattered around the Middle East and South Asia.The Islamic Republic of Iran has become \"the de facto leader\" of the Shi'i world by virtue of being the largest Shia-majority state, having a long history of national cohesion and Shia-rule, being the site of the first and \"only true\" Islamist revolution (see History section below), and having the financial resources of a major petroleum exporter.", "Iran's influence has spread into a cultural-geographic area of \"Irano-Arab Shiism\", establishing Iranian regional power, supporting \"Shia militias and parties beyond its borders\", intertwining assistance to fellow Shi'a with \"Iranization\" of them.Shi'i Islamism in Iran has been influenced by the Sunni Islamists and their organizations, particularly Sayyid Rashid Rida, Hassan al-Banna (founder of the Muslim Brotherhood organization), Sayyid Qutb, Abul A'la Maududi, but has also been described as \"distinct\" from Sunni Muslim Brotherhood Islamism, \"more leftist and more clerical\", with its own historical influencers:====Historical figures====*Sheikh Fazlullah Nouri, a cleric of the Qajar dynasty court and the leader of the anti-constitutionalists during the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1911, who declared the new constitution contrary to sharia law.", "* Navvab Safavi, a religious student who founded the ''Fada'iyan-e Islam'', seeking to purify Islam in Iran by killing off 'corrupting individuals', i.e.", "certain leading intellectual and political figures (including both a former and current prime minister).", "After the group was crushed by the government, surviving members reportedly chose Ayatollah Khomeini as a new spiritual leader.", "* Ali Shariati, a non-cleric \"socialist Shi'i\" who absorbed Marxist ideas in France and had considerable influence on young Iranians through his preaching that Imam Hussein was not just a holy figure but the original oppressed one (''muzloun''), and his killer, the Sunni Umayyad Caliphate, the \"analog\" of the modern Iranian people's \"oppression by the shah\".", "* Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr, a Shi'i Islamic scholar in Iraq who critiqued Marxism, socialism and capitalism and helped lead Shi'i opposition to Saddam Hussein's Baath regime before being executed by them.", "* Mahmoud Taleghani, an ayatollah and contemporary of Khomeini, was more leftist, more tolerant and more sympathetic to democracy, but less influential, though he still had a substantial following.", "Was deposed from revolutionary leadership after warning of a \"return to despotism\" by the revolutionary leadership." ], [ "Explanations for the growth and popularity of Islamism", "===Sociological, economic and political ===Some Western political scientists see the unchanging socio-economic condition in the Muslim world as a major factor.", "Olivier Roy believes \"the socioeconomic realities that sustained the Islamist wave are still here and are not going to change: poverty, uprootedness, crises in values and identities, the decay of the educational systems, the North-South opposition, and the problem of immigrant integration into the host societies\".====Charitable work====Islamist movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood, \"are well known for providing shelters, educational assistance, free or low cost medical clinics, housing assistance to students from out of town, student advisory groups, facilitation of inexpensive mass marriage ceremonies to avoid prohibitively costly dowry demands, legal assistance, sports facilities, and women's groups.\"", "All this compares very favourably against incompetent, inefficient, or neglectful governments whose commitment to social justice is limited to rhetoric.====Economic stagnation====The Arab world—the original heart of the Muslim world—has been afflicted with economic stagnation.", "For example, it has been estimated that in the mid-1990s the exports of Finland, a country of five million, exceeded those of the entire Arab world of 260 million, excluding oil revenue.====Sociology of rural migration==== Demographic transition (caused by the gap in time between the lowering of death rates from medical advances and the lowering of fertility rates), leads to population growth beyond the ability of housing, employment, public transit, sewer and water to provide.", "Combined with economic stagnation, urban agglomerations have been created in Cairo, Istanbul, Tehran, Karachi, Dhaka, and Jakarta, each with well over 12 million citizens, millions of them young and unemployed or underemployed.", "Such a demographic, alienated from the westernized ways of the urban elite, but uprooted from the comforts and more passive traditions of the villages they came from, is understandably favourably disposed to an Islamic system promising a better world—an ideology providing an \"emotionally familiar basis for group identity, solidarity, and exclusion; an acceptable basis for legitimacy and authority; an immediately intelligible formulation of principles for both a critique of the present and a program for the future.\"", "One American anthropologist in Iran in the early 1970s (before the revolution), when comparing a \"stable village with a new urban slum\", discovered that where \"the villagers took religion with a grain of salt and even ridiculed visiting preachers\", the slum dwellers—all recently dispossessed peasants -- \"used religion as a substitute for their lost communities, oriented social life around the mosque, and accepted with zeal the teachings of the local mullah\".Gilles Kepel also notes that Islamist uprisings in Iran and Algeria, though a decade apart, coincided with the large numbers of youth who were \"the first generation taught en masse to read and write and had been separated from their own rural, illiterate progenitors by a cultural gulf that radical Islamist ideology could exploit\".", "Their \"rural, illiterate\" parents were too settled in tradition to be interested in Islamism and their children \"more likely to call into question the utopian dreams of the 1970s generation\", but they embraced revolutionary political Islam.", "Olivier Roy also asserts \"it is not by chance that the Iranian Revolution took place the very year the proportion of city-dweller in Iran passed the 50% mark\".", "and offers statistics in support for other countries (in 1990 Algeria, housing was so crowded that there was an average of eight inhabitants to a room, and 80% of youth aged 16 to 29 still lived with their parents).", "\"The old clan or ethnic solidarities, the clout of the elders, and family control are fading little by little in the face of changes in the social structure ...\"This theory implies that a decline in illiteracy and rural emigration will mean a decline in Islamism." ], [ "Geopolitics", "===State-sponsorship=======Saudi Arabia====Starting in the mid-1970s the Islamic resurgence was funded by an abundance of money from Saudi Arabian oil exports.", "The tens of billions of dollars in \"petro-Islam\" largesse obtained from the recently heightened price of oil funded an estimated \"90% of the expenses of the entire faith.", "\"Throughout the Muslim world, religious institutions for people both young and old, from children's madrassas to high-level scholarships received Saudi funding,\"books, scholarships, fellowships, and mosques\" (for example, \"more than 1500 mosques were built and paid for with money obtained from public Saudi funds over the last 50 years\"), along with training in the Kingdom for the preachers and teachers who went on to teach and work at these universities, schools, mosques, etc.The funding was also used to reward journalists and academics who followed the Saudis' strict interpretation of Islam; and satellite campuses were built around Egypt for Al-Azhar University, the world's oldest and most influential Islamic university.The interpretation of Islam promoted by this funding was the strict, conservative Saudi-based Wahhabism or Salafism.", "In its harshest form it preached that Muslims should not only \"always oppose\" infidels \"in every way,\" but \"hate them for their religion ... for Allah's sake,\" that democracy \"is responsible for all the horrible wars of the 20th century,\" that Shia and other non-Wahhabi Muslims were infidels, etc.", "While this effort has by no means converted all, or even most Muslims to the Wahhabist interpretation of Islam, it has done much to overwhelm more moderate local interpretations, and has set the Saudi-interpretation of Islam as the \"gold standard\" of religion in minds of some or many Muslims.==== Qatar ====Though the much smaller Qatar could not provide the same level of funding as Saudi Arabia, it was also a petroleum exporter and also sponsored Islamist groups.", "Qatar backed the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt even after the 2013 overthrow of the MB regime of Mohamed Morsi, with Qatar ruler Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani denouncing the coup.", "In June 2016, Mohamed Morsi was sentenced to life for passing state secrets to Qatar.Qatar has also backed Islamist factions in Libya, Syria and Yemen.In Libya, Qatar supported Islamists with tens of millions of dollars in aid, military training and \"more than 20,000 tons of weapons\", both before and after the 2011 fall of Muammar Gaddafi.Hamas, in Palestine, has received considerable financial support as well as diplomatic help.====Western support of Islamism during the Cold War====President Ronald Reagan at the White House in 1983.During the Cold War, particularly during the 1950s, during the 1960s, and during most of the 1970s, the U.S. and other countries in the Western Bloc occasionally attempted to take advantage of the rise of Islamic religiousity by directing it against secular leftist/communist/nationalist insurgents/adversaries, particularly against the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc states, whose ideology was not just secular but anti-religious.In 1957, U.S. President Eisenhower and senior U.S. foreign policy officials, agreed on a policy of using the communists' lack of religion against them: \"We should do everything possible to stress the 'holy war' aspect\" that has currency in the Middle East.During the 1970s and sometimes later, this aid sometimes went to fledgling Islamists and Islamist groups that later came to be seen as dangerous enemies.", "The US spent billions of dollars to aid the mujahideen Muslim Afghanistan enemies of the Soviet Union, and non-Afghan veterans of the war (such as Osama bin Laden) returned home with their prestige, \"experience, ideology, and weapons\", and had considerable impact.Although it is a strong opponent of Israel's existence, Hamas, officially founded in 1987, traces its origins back to institutions and clerics which were supported by Israel in the 1970s and 1980s.", "Israel tolerated and supported Islamist movements in Gaza, with figures like Ahmed Yassin, as Israel perceived them preferable to the secular and then more powerful al-Fatah with the PLO.Egyptian President Anwar Sadatwhose policies included opening Egypt to Western investment (''infitah''); transferring Egypt's allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States; and making peace with Israel—released Islamists from prison and welcomed home exiles in tacit exchange for political support in his struggle against leftists.", "His \"encouraging of the emergence of the Islamist movement\" was said to have been \"imitated by many other Muslim leaders in the years that followed.\"", "This \"gentlemen's agreement\" between Sadat and Islamists broke down in 1975 but not before Islamists came to completely dominate university student unions.", "Sadat was later assassinated and a formidable insurgency was formed in Egypt in the 1990s.", "The French government has also been reported to have promoted Islamist preachers \"in the hope of channeling Muslim energies into zones of piety and charity.\"" ], [ "History", "Olivier Roy dates the beginning of the Islamism movement \"more or less in 1940\", and its development proceeding \"over half a century\".===Preceding movements===Some Islamic revivalist movements and leaders which pre-date Islamism but share some characteristics with it include:* Ahmad Sirhindi (~1564–1624) was largely responsible for the purification, reassertion and revival  of conservative orthodox Sunni Islam in India during Islam's second millennium.", "* Ibn Taymiyyah, a Syrian Islamic jurist during the 13th and 14th centuries argued against the practices such as the celebration of Muhammad's birthday, and seeking assistance at the grave of the Prophet.", "* Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab, the founder of Wahhabism, advocated doing away with the later religious accretions like worship at graves.", "* Shah Waliullah of India was a forerunner of reformist Islamists like Muhammad Abduh, Muhammad Iqbal and Muhammad Asad in his belief that there was \"a constant need for new ijtihad as the Muslim community progressed.", "* Sayyid Ahmad Barelvi was a disciple and successor of Shah Waliullah's son who led a jihadist movement and attempted to create an Islamic state based on the enforcement of Islamic law.", "* the Deobandi movement, founded after the defeat of the Indian Rebellion, around 1867, led to the establishment of thousands of conservative Islamic schools or madrasahs throughout modern-day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.===Early history===The end of the 19th century saw the dismemberment of most of the Muslim Ottoman Empire by non-Muslim European colonial powers, despite the empire's spending massive sums on Western civilian and military technology to try to modernize and compete with the encroaching European powers.", "In the process the Ottomans went deep into debt to these powers.Preaching Islamic alternatives to this humiliating decline were Jamal ad-din al-Afghani (1837–97), Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905) and Rashid Rida (1865–1935).", "Abduh's student Rida is widely regarded as one of the \"ideological forefathers\" of contemporary Islamist movement, and along with early Salafiyya Hassan al-Banna,and Mustafa al-Siba’i, preached that a truly Islamic society would follow sharia law, reject taqlid, (the blind imitation of earlier authorities), restore the Caliphate.==== Sayyid Rashid Rida ====Sayyid Muhammad Rashid Rida (; 23 September 1865 – 22 August 1935).Syrian-Egyptian Islamic cleric Muhammad Rashid Rida was one of the earliest 20th-century Sunni scholars to articulate the modern concept of an Islamic state, influencing the Muslim Brotherhood and other Sunni Islamist movements.", "In his influential book ''al-Khilafa aw al-Imama al-'Uzma'' (\"''The Caliphate or the Grand Imamate''\"); Rida explained that that societies that properly obeyed ''Sharia'' would be successful alternatives to the disorder and injustice of both capitalism and socialism.This society would be ruled by a Caliphate; the ruling Caliph (''Khalifa'') governing through ''shura'' (consultation), and applying Sharia (Islamic laws) in partnership with Islamic juristic clergy, who would use ''Ijtihad'' to update ''fiqh'' by evaluating scripture.", "With the ''Khilafa'' providing true Islamic governance, Islamic civilization would be revitalised, the political and legal independence of the Muslim ''umma'' (community of Muslim believers) would be restored, and the heretical influences of Sufism would be cleansed from Islam.", "This doctrine would become the blueprint of future Islamist movements.====Muhammad Iqbal====Muhammad Iqbal was a philosopher, poet and politician in British India, widely regarded as having inspired the Islamic Nationalism and Pakistan Movement in British India.Iqbal expressed fears of secularism and secular nationalism weakening the spiritual foundations of Islam and Muslim society, and of India's Hindu-majority population crowding out Muslim heritage, culture and political influence.", "In 1930, Iqbal outlined a vision of an independent state for Muslim-majority provinces in northwestern India which inspired the Pakistan movement.He also promoted pan-Islamic unity in his travels to Egypt, Afghanistan, Palestine and Syria.His ideas later influenced many reformist Islamists, e.g., Muhammad Asad, Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi and Ali Shariati.====Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi====Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi was an important early twentieth-century figure in the Islamic revival in India, and then after independence from Britain, in Pakistan.", "Maududi was an Islamist ideologue and Hanafi Sunni scholar active in Hyderabad Deccan and later in Pakistan.", "Maududi was born to a clerical family and got his early education at home.", "At the age of eleven, he was admitted to a public school in Aurangabad.", "In 1919, he joined the Khilafat Movement and got closer to the scholars of Deoband.", "He commenced the ''dars-i nizami'' education under supervision of Deobandi seminary at the Fatihpuri mosque in Delhi.", "Trained as a lawyer he worked as a journalist, and gained a wide audience with his books (translated into many languages) which placed Islam in a modern context.", "His writings had a profound impact on Sayyid Qutb.", "Maududi also founded the Jamaat-e-Islami party in 1941 and remained its leader until 1972.In 1925, he wrote a book on Jihad, ''al-Jihad fil-Islam'' (), that can be regarded as his first contribution to Islamism.", "Maududi believed that Muslim society could not be Islamic without Sharia (influencing Qutb and Khomeini), and the establishment of an Islamic state to enforce it.", "The state would be based on the principles of: ''tawhid'' (unity of God), ''risala'' (prophethood) and ''khilafa'' (caliphate).", "Maududi was uninterested in violent revolution or populist policies such as those of the Iranian Revolution, but sought gradual change in the hearts and minds of individuals from the top of society downward through an educational process or ''da'wah''.", "Maududi believed that Islam was all-encompassing: \"Everything in the universe is 'Muslim' for it obeys God by submission to His laws.\"", "\"The man who denies God is called Kafir (concealer) because he conceals by his disbelief what is inherent in his nature and embalmed in his own soul.", "\"====Muslim Brotherhood====Hasan al-BannaRoughly contemporaneous with Maududi was the founding of the Muslim Brotherhood in Ismailiyah, Egypt in 1928 by Hassan al Banna.", "His was arguably the first, largest and most influential modern Islamic political/religious organization.", "Under the motto \"the Qur'an is our constitution,\"it sought Islamic revival through preaching and also by providing basic community services including schools, mosques, and workshops.", "Like Maududi, Al Banna believed in the necessity of government rule based on Shariah law implemented gradually and by persuasion, and of eliminating all Western imperialist influence in the Muslim world.Some elements of the Brotherhood, did engage in violence, assassinating Egypt's premier Mahmud Fami Naqrashi, in 1948.MB founder Al-Banna was assassinated in retaliation three months later.", "The Brotherhood has suffered periodic repression in Egypt and has been banned several times, in 1948 and several years later following confrontations with Egyptian president Gamal Abdul Nasser, who jailed thousands of members for several years.The Brotherhood expanded to many other countries, particularly in the Arab world.", "In Egypt, despite periodic repression—for many years it wasdescribed as \"semi-legal\"—it was the only opposition group in Egypt able to field candidates during elections.", "In the 2011–12 Egyptian parliamentary election, the political parties identified as \"Islamist\" (the Brotherhood's Freedom and Justice Party, Salafi Al-Nour Party and liberal Islamist Al-Wasat Party) won 75% of the total seats.", "Mohamed Morsi, the candidate of the Muslim Brotherhood's party, was the first democratically elected president of Egypt.", "However, he was deposed during the 2013 Egyptian coup d'état, after mass protests against what were perceived as undemocratic moves by him.", "Today, the Muslim Brotherhood is designated as a terrorist organization by Bahrain, Russia, Syria, Egypt, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.====Sayyid Qutb (1906–1966)====Sayyid QutbQutb, a leading member of the Muslim Brotherhood movement, is considered by some (Fawaz A. Gerges) to be \"the founding father and leading theoretician\" of modern jihadists, such as Osama bin Laden.", "He was executed for allegedly participating in a presidential assassination plot in 1966.Maududi's political ideas influenced Sayyid Qutb.", "Like Maududi, he believed Sharia was crucial to Islam, so the restoration of its full enforcement was vital to the world.", "Since Sharia had not been fully enforced for centuries, Islam had \"been extinct for a few centuries\".", "Qutb preached that Muslims must engage in a two-pronged attack of converting individuals through preaching Islam peacefully but also using \"physical power and jihad\".", "Force was necessary because \"those who have usurped the authority of God\" would not give up their power through friendly persuasion.Like Khomeini, whom he influenced he believed the West was engaged in a vicious centuries long war against Islam.=== Six-Day War (1967) ===The quick and decisive defeat of the armies of several Arab states by one small non-Muslim country during the Six-Day War constituted a pivotal event in the Arab Muslim world.", "The defeat along with economic stagnation in the defeated countries, was blamed on the secular Arab nationalism of the ruling regimes.", "A steep and steady decline in the popularity and credibility of secular, socialist and nationalist politics ensued.", "Ba'athism, Arab socialism, and Arab nationalism suffered, and different democratic and anti-democratic Islamist movements inspired by Maududi and Sayyid Qutb gained ground.=== Iranian Revolution (1978–1979) ===Ayatollah Ruhollah KhomeiniThe first modern \"Islamist state\" (with the possible exception of Zia's Pakistan) was established among the Shia of Iran.", "In a major shock to the rest of the world, Muslim and non-Muslim, a revolution led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini overthrew the secular, oil-rich, well-armed, pro-American monarchy of Shah Muhammad Reza Pahlavi.", "The revolution was an \"indisputable sea change\"; Islamism had been a topic of limited impact and interest before 1979, but after the revolution, \"nobody within the Muslim world or outside it\" remained unaware of militant Islam.Enthusiasm for the Iranian revolution in the Muslim world could be intense; and there were many reasons for optimism among Islamists outside Iran.", "Khomeini was implementing Islamic law.", "He was interested in Pan-Islamic (and pan-Islamist) unity and made efforts to \"bridge the gap\" between Shiites and Sunnis, declaring \"it permissible for Shiites to pray behind Sunni imams\", and forbidding Shiites from \"criticizing the Caliphs who preceded Ali\" (revered by Sunnis but not Shia).", "The Islamic Republic also downplayed Shia rituals (such as the Day of Ashura), and shrines Before the Revolution, Khomeini acolytes (such as today's Supreme Leader of Iran, Ali Khamenei), translated and championed the works of the Muslim Brotherhood jihadist theorist, Sayyid Qutb, and other Sunni Islamists/revivalists.This campaign did not survive his death however.", "As previously submissive Shia (usually minorities) became more assertive, Sunnis saw mostly \"Shia mischief\" and a challenge to Sunni dominance.", "\"What followed was a Sunni-versus-Shia contest for dominance, and it grew intense.\"", "Animosity between the two sects in Iran and its neighbors is systemic as of 2014, with thousands killed from sectarian fighting in Iraq and Pakistan.", "Also tarnishing the revolution's image have been \"purges, executions, and atrocities\", and periodic and increasingly widespread domestic unrest and protest by young Iranians.Among the \"most important by-products of the Iranian revolution” (according to Mehrzad Boroujerdi as of 2014) include “the emergence of Hezbollah in Lebanon, the moral boost provided to Shia forces in Iraq, the regional cold war against Saudi Arabia and Israel, lending an Islamic flavour to the anti-imperialist, anti-American sentiment in the Middle East, and inadvertently widening the Sunni-Shia cleavage\".", "The Islamic Republic has also maintained its hold on power in Iran in spite of US economic sanctions, and has created or assisted like-minded Shia terrorist groups in Iraq (SCIRI) and Lebanon (Hezbollah) (two Muslim countries that also have a large percentage of Shiites).The campaign to overthrow the shah led by Khomeini had had a strong class flavor (Khomeini preached that the shah was widening the gap between rich and poor; condemning the working class to a life of poverty, misery, and drudgery, etc.", "); and the \"pro-rural and pro-poor\" approach has led to almost universal access to electricity and clean water, but critics of the regime complain of promises made and not kept: the “sons of the revolution’s leaders and the business class that decides to work within the rules of the regime ... flaunt their wealth, driving luxury sportscars around Tehran, posting Instagram pictures of their ski trips and beach trips around the world, all while the poor and the middle class are struggling to survive or maintain the appearance of a dignified life” (according to Shadi Mokhtari).", "One commitment made (to his followers if not the Iranian public) that has been kept is Guardianship by the Islamic jurist.", "But Rather than strengthening Islam and eliminating secular values and practices, the \"regime has ruined the Iranian people’s belief in religion\" (\"anonymous expert\").=== Grand Mosque seizure (1979) ===The strength of the Islamist movement was manifest in an event which might have seemed sure to turn Muslim public opinion against fundamentalism, but did just the opposite.", "In 1979 the Grand Mosque in Mecca Saudi Arabia was seized by an armed fundamentalist group and held for over a week.", "Scores were killed, including many pilgrim bystanders in a gross violation of one of the most holy sites in Islam (and one where arms and violence are strictly forbidden).Instead of prompting a backlash against the movement that inspired the attackers, however, Saudi Arabia, already very conservative, responded by shoring up its fundamentalist credentials with even more Islamic restrictions.", "Crackdowns followed on everything from shopkeepers who did not close for prayer and newspapers that published pictures of women, to the selling of dolls, teddy bears (images of animate objects are considered haraam), and dog food (dogs are considered unclean).In other Muslim countries, blame for and wrath against the seizure was directed not against fundamentalists, but against Islamic fundamentalism's foremost geopolitical enemy—the United States.", "Ayatollah Khomeini sparked attacks on American embassies when he announced: \"It is not beyond guessing that this is the work of criminal American imperialism and international Zionism\", despite the fact that the object of the fundamentalists' revolt was the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, America's major ally in the region.", "Anti-American demonstrations followed in the Philippines, Turkey, Bangladesh, India, the UAE, Pakistan, and Kuwait.", "The US Embassy in Libya was burned by protesters chanting pro-Khomeini slogans and the embassy in Islamabad, Pakistan was burned to the ground.=== Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979–1989) ===Hezb-i Islami, 1986In 1979, the Soviet Union deployed its 40th Army into Afghanistan, attempting to suppress an Islamic rebellion against an allied Marxist regime in the Afghan Civil War.", "The conflict, pitting indigenous impoverished Muslims (mujahideen) against an anti-religious superpower, galvanized thousands of Muslims around the world to send aid and sometimes to go themselves to fight for their faith.", "Leading this pan-Islamic effort was Palestinian 'alim Abdullah Yusuf Azzam.", "While the military effectiveness of these \"Afghan Arabs\" was marginal, an estimated 16,000 to 35,000 Muslim volunteers came from around the world to fight in Afghanistan.When the Soviet Union abandoned the Marxist Najibullah regime and withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989 (the regime finally fell in 1992), the victory was seen by many Muslims as the triumph of Islamic faith over superior military power and technology that could be duplicated elsewhere.The jihadists gained legitimacy and prestige from their triumph both within the militant community and among ordinary Muslims, as well as the confidence to carry their jihad to other countries where they believed Muslims required assistance.The collapse of the Soviet Union itself, in 1991, was seen by many Islamists, including Bin Laden, as the defeat of a superpower at the hands of Islam.", "Concerning the $6 billion in aid given by the US and Pakistan's military training and intelligence support to the mujahideen, bin Laden wrote: \"The US has no mentionable role\" in \"the collapse of the Soviet Union... rather the credit goes to God and the ''mujahidin''\" of Afghanistan.Jihadist leaders Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri became fierce critics of Saudi monarchy for opening American military bases in the Gulf region=== Persian Gulf War (1990–1991) ===Another factor in the early 1990s that worked to radicalize the Islamist movement was the Gulf War, which brought several hundred thousand US and allied non-Muslim military personnel to Saudi Arabian soil to put an end to Saddam Hussein's occupation of Kuwait.", "Prior to 1990 Saudi Arabia played an important role in restraining the many Islamist groups that received its aid.", "But when Saddam, secularist and Ba'athist dictator of neighboring Iraq, attacked Kuwait (his enemy in the war), western troops came to protect the Saudi monarchy.", "Islamists accused the Saudi regime of being a puppet of the west.These attacks resonated with conservative Muslims and the problem did not go away with Saddam's defeat either, since American troops remained stationed in the kingdom, and a de facto cooperation with the Palestinian-Israeli peace process developed.", "Saudi Arabia attempted to compensate for its loss of prestige among these groups by repressing those domestic Islamists who attacked it (bin Laden being a prime example), and increasing aid to Islamic groups (Islamist madrassas around the world and even aiding some violent Islamist groups) that did not, but its pre-war influence on behalf of moderation was greatly reduced.", "One result of this was a campaign of attacks on government officials and tourists in Egypt, a bloody civil war in Algeria and Osama bin Laden's terror attacks climaxing in the 9/11 attack.===Social and cultural triumph in the 2000's ===By the beginning of the twenty first century, \"the word secular, a label proudly worn\" in the 1960s and 70s was \"shunned\" and \"used to besmirch\" political foes in Egypt and the rest of the Muslim world.", "Islamists surpassed the small secular opposition parties in terms of \"doggedness, courage,\" \"risk-taking\" or \"organizational skills\".", "As of 2002,In the Middle East and Pakistan, religious discourse dominates societies, the airwaves, and thinking about the world.", "Radical mosques have proliferated throughout Egypt.", "Book stores are dominated by works with religious themes ...", "The demand for sharia, the belief that their governments are unfaithful to Islam and that Islam is the answer to all problems, and the certainty that the West has declared war on Islam; these are the themes that dominate public discussion.", "Islamists may not control parliaments or government palaces, but they have occupied the popular imagination.Opinion polls in a variety of Islamic countries showed that significant majorities opposed groups like ISIS, but also wanted religion to play a greater role in public life.=== \"Post-Islamism\" ===By 2020, approximately 40 years after the Islamic overthrow of the Shah of Iran and the seizure of the Grand Mosque by extremists, a number of observers (Olivier Roy, Mustafa Akyol, Nader Hashemi) detected a decline in the vigor and popularity of Islamism.", "Islamism had been an idealized/utopian concept to compare with the grim reality of the status quo, but in more than four decades it had failed to establish a \"concrete and viable blueprint for society\" despite repeated efforts (Olivier Roy); and instead had left a less than inspiring track record of its impact on the world (Nader Hashemi).", "Consequently,in addition to the trend towards moderation by Islamist or formerly Islamist parties (such as PKS of Indonesia, AKP of Turkey, and PAS of Malaysia) mentioned above, there has been a social/religious and sometimes political backlash against Islamist rule in countries like Turkey, Iran, and Sudan (Mustafa Akyol).Writing in 2020, Mustafa Akyol argues there has been a strong reaction by many Muslims against political Islam, including a weakening of religious faith—the very thing Islamism was intended to strengthen.", "He suggests this backlash against Islamism among Muslim youth has come from all the \"terrible things\" that have happened in the Arab world in the twenty first century \"in the name of Islam\"—such as the \"sectarian civil wars in Syria, Iraq and Yemen\".Polls taken by Arab Barometer in six Arab countries — Algeria, Egypt, Tunisia, Jordan, Iraq and Libya — found \"Arabs are losing faith in religious parties and leaders.\"", "In 2018–19, in all six countries, fewer than 20% of those asked whether they trusted Islamist parties answered in the affirmative.", "That percentage had fallen (in all six countries) from when the same question was asked in 2012–14.Mosque attendance also declined more than 10 points on average, and the share of those Arabs describing themselves as \"not religious\" went from 8% in 2013 to 13% in 2018–19.In Syria, Sham al-Ali reports \"Rising apostasy among Syrian youths\".Writing in 2021, Nader Hashemi notes that in Iraq, Sudan, Tunisia, Egypt, Gaza, Jordan and other places were Islamist parties have come to power or campaigned to, \"one general theme stands.", "The popular prestige of political Islam has been tarnished by its experience with state power.", "\"In Iran, hardline Ayatollah Mohammad-Taqi Mesbah Yazdi has complained, \"Iranians are evading religious teachings and turning to secularism.", "\"Even Islamist terrorism was in decline and tended \"to be local\" rather than pan-Islamic.", "As of 2021, Al-Qaeda consisted of \"a bunch of militias\" with no effective central command (Fareed Zakaria)." ], [ "Rise of Islamism by country" ], [ "Response", "===Criticism===Islamism, or elements of Islamism, have been criticized on numerous grounds, including repression of free expression and individual rights, rigidity, hypocrisy, anti-semitism, misinterpreting the Quran and Sunnah, lack of true understanding of and innovations to Islam (bid'ah) -- notwithstanding proclaimed opposition to any such innovation by Islamists.===Counter-response===The U.S. government has engaged in efforts to counter militant Islamism (Jihadism), since 2001.These efforts were centred in the U.S. around public diplomacy programmes conducted by the State Department.", "There have been calls to create an independent agency in the U.S. with a specific mission of undermining Jihadism.", "Christian Whiton, an official in the George W. Bush administration, called for a new agency focused on the nonviolent practice of \"political warfare\" aimed at undermining the ideology.", "U.S. Defense Secretary Robert Gates called for establishing something similar to the defunct U.S. Information Agency, which was charged with undermining the communist ideology during the Cold War." ], [ "Parties and organizations" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ======Citations===" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Books===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *Valentine, Simon Ross, Force and Fanaticism: Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia and Beyond, (2015), London/New York, Hurst & Co.* * * * * * ===Journals===* * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Instructional theory" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''instructional theory''' is \"a theory that offers explicit guidance on how to better help people learn and develop.\"", "It provides insights about what is likely to happen and why with respect to different kinds of teaching and learning activities while helping indicate approaches for their evaluation.", "Instructional designers focus on how to best structure material and instructional behavior to facilitate learning." ], [ "Development", "Originating in the United States in the late 1970s, ''instructional theory'' is influenced by three basic theories in educational thought: behaviorism, the theory that helps us understand how people conform to predetermined standards; cognitivism, the theory that learning occurs through mental associations; and constructivism, the theory explores the value of human activity as a critical function of gaining knowledge.", "Instructional theory is heavily influenced by the 1956 work of Benjamin Bloom, a University of Chicago professor, and the results of his Taxonomy of Education Objectives—one of the first modern codifications of the learning process.", "One of the first instructional theorists was Robert M. Gagne, who in 1965 published ''Conditions of Learning'' for the Florida State University's Department of Educational Research." ], [ "Definition", "Instructional theory is different than learning theory.", "A learning theory ''describes'' how learning takes place, and an instructional theory ''prescribes'' how to better help people learn.", "Learning theories often inform instructional theory, and three general theoretical stances take part in this influence: behaviorism (learning as response acquisition), cognitivism (learning as knowledge acquisition), and constructivism (learning as knowledge construction).", "Instructional theory helps us create conditions that increases the probability of learning.", "Its goal is understanding the instructional system and to improve the process of instruction." ], [ "Overview", "Instructional theories identify what instruction or teaching should be like.", "It outlines strategies that an educator may adopt to achieve the learning objectives.", "Instructional theories are adapted based on the educational content and more importantly the learning style of the students.", "They are used as teaching guidelines/tools by teachers/trainers to facilitate learning.", "Instructional theories encompass different instructional methods, models and strategies.David Merrill's First Principles of Instruction discusses universal methods of instruction, situational methods and core ideas of the post-industrial paradigm of instruction.", "'''Universal Methods of Instruction:'''* Task-Centered Principle - instruction should use a progression of increasingly complex whole tasks.", "* Demonstration Principle - instruction should guide learners through a skill and engage peer discussion/demonstration.", "* Application Principle - instruction should provide intrinsic or corrective feedback and engage peer-collaboration.", "* Activation Principle - instruction should build upon prior knowledge and encourage learners to acquire a structure for organizing new knowledge.", "* Integration Principle - instruction should engage learners in peer-critiques and synthesizing newly acquired knowledge.", "'''Situational Methods:'''based on different approaches to instruction* Role play* Synectics* Mastery learning* Direct instruction* Discussion* Conflict resolution* Peer learning* Experiential learning* Problem-based learning* Simulation-based learningbased on different learning outcomes:* Knowledge* Comprehension* Application* Analysis* Synthesis* Evaluation* Affective development* Integrated learning'''Core ideas for the Post-industrial Paradigm of Instruction:'''* Learner centered vs. teacher centered instruction – with respect to the focus, instruction can be based on the capability and style of the learner or the teacher.", "* Learning by doing vs. teacher presenting – Students often learn more by doing rather than simply listening to instructions given by the teacher.", "* Attainment based vs. time based progress – The instruction can either be based on the focus on the mastery of the concept or the time spent on learning the concept.", "* Customized vs. standardized instruction – The instruction can be different for different learners or the instruction can be given in general to the entire classroom* Criterion referenced vs. norm referenced instruction – Instruction related to different types of evaluations.", "* Collaborative vs. individual instruction – Instruction can be for a team of students or individual students.", "* Enjoyable vs. unpleasant instructions – Instructions can create a pleasant learning experience or a negative one (often to enforce discipline).", "Teachers must take care to ensure positive experiences.Four tasks of Instructional theory:* Knowledge selection* Knowledge sequence* Interaction management* Setting of interaction environment" ], [ "Critiques", "Paulo Freire's work appears to critique instructional approaches that adhere to the knowledge acquisition stance, and his work ''Pedagogy of the Oppressed'' has had a broad influence over a generation of American educators with his critique of various \"banking\" models of education and analysis of the teacher-student relationship.Freire explains, \"Narration (with the teacher as narrator) leads the students to memorize mechanically the narrated content.", "Worse yet, it turns them into \"containers\", into \"receptacles\" to be \"filled\" by the teacher.", "The more completely she fills the receptacles, the better a teacher she is.", "The more meekly the receptacles permit themselves to be filled, the better students they are.\"", "In this way he explains educator creates an act of depositing knowledge in a student.", "The student thus becomes a repository of knowledge.", "Freire explains that this system that diminishes creativity and knowledge suffers.", "Knowledge, according to Freire, comes about only through the learner by inquiry and pursuing the subjects in the world and through interpersonal interaction.Freire further states, \"In the banking concept of education, knowledge is a gift bestowed by those who consider themselves knowledgeable upon those whom they consider to know nothing.", "Projecting an absolute ignorance onto others, a characteristic of the ideology of oppression, negates education and knowledge as processes of inquiry.", "The teacher presents himself to his students as their necessary opposite; by considering their ignorance absolute, he justifies his own existence.", "The students, alienated like the slave in the Hegelian dialectic, accept their ignorance as justifying the teacher's existence—but, unlike the slave, they never discover that they educate the teacher.", "\"Freire then offered an alternative stance and wrote, \"The raison d'etre of libertarian education, on the other hand, lies in its drive towards reconciliation.", "Education must begin with the solution of the teacher-student contradiction, by reconciling the poles of the contradiction so that both are simultaneously teachers and students.", "\"In the article, \"A process for the critical analysis of instructional theory\", the authors use an ontology-building process to review and analyze concepts across different instructional theories.", "Here are their findings:* Concepts exist in theoretical writing that theorists do not address directly.", "* These tacit concepts, which supply the ontological categories, enable a more detailed comparison of theories beyond specific terminologies.", "* Divergences between theories can be concealed behind common terms used by different theorists.", "* A false sense of understanding often arises from a cursory, uncritical reading of the theories.", "* Discontinuities and gaps are revealed within the theoretical literature when the tacit concepts are elicited." ], [ "See also", "* (the use of electronic educational technology is also called e-learning)**** was developed during WWII and is still in use around the world***" ], [ "References", "Linking Premise to Practice: An Instructional Theory-Strategy Model Approach By: Bowden, Randall.", "Journal of College Teaching & Learning, v5 n3 p69-76 Mar 2008* Paulo Freire, ''Pedagogy of the Oppressed''.", "." ] ]
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[ [ "Infusoria" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Infusoria''' is a word used to describe various freshwater microorganisms, including ciliates, copepods, euglenoids, planktonic crustaceans, protozoa, unicellular algae and small invertebrates.", "Some authors (e.g., Bütschli) have used the term as a synonym for Ciliophora.", "In modern, formal classifications, the term is considered obsolete; the microorganisms previously and colloquially referred to as Infusoria are mostly assigned to the kingdom Protista.In other contexts, the term is used to define various aquatic microorganisms found in decomposing matter." ], [ "Aquarium use", "Certain microorganisms, including cyclops and daphnia (among others), are sold as a supplemental fish food.", "Some fish stores or pet shops may have these infusoria available for live purchase, but typically they are sold in frozen cubes—for example, by the Japan-based fish food brand Hikari.", "Still, some advanced aquarists, with especially large collections of fish, will breed and cultivate their own supplies of the microorganisms.Infusoria are especially used by aquarists and fish breeders to feed fish fry; because of their small sizes, infusoria can be used to rear newly-hatched offspring of many common (and also less common) aquarium species.", "Many average home aquaria are unable to naturally supply sufficient infusoria for fish-rearing, so hobbyists may create and maintain their own cultures, either through utilizing their own existing aquarium water or by using one of the many commercial cultures available.", "Infusoria can be cultured at-home by soaking any decomposing vegetative matter, such as papaya or cucumber peels, in a jar of aged (i.e., chlorine-free) water, preferably from an existing aquarium setup.", "The culture starts to proliferate in two to three days, depending on temperature and light received.", "The water first turns cloudy because of a rise in levels of bacteria, but clears up once the infusoria consume them.", "At this point, the infusoria are usually visible to the naked eye as small, white motile specks.", "They can be easily fed to fish with the use of a large turkey-baster or by gently scooping with a very fine net.", "Additionally, the water in which the infusoria are kept in can be changed periodically, even one to two times per week, by draining and replacing up to 50% of the volume of water (for hygienic and maintenance purposes)." ], [ "See also", "* Animalcules" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Ratcliff, Marc J.", "(2009).", "The Emergence of the Systematics of Infusoria.", "In: ''The Quest for the Invisible: Microscopy in the Enlightenment''.", "Aldershot: Ashgate.", "infusoria dieses first identified in 18th sentury in 1773 by o.f.mular(zoologist)" ], [ "External links", "* Types of Protozoans and video* Pond Life Identification Kit" ] ]
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[ [ "ISO/IEC 8859-1" ], [ "Introduction", "'''ISO/IEC 8859-1:1998''', ''Information technology — 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets — Part 1: Latin alphabet No.", "1'', is part of the ISO/IEC 8859 series of ASCII-based standard character encodings, first edition published in 1987.ISO/IEC 8859-1 encodes what it refers to as \"Latin alphabet no.", "1\", consisting of 191 characters from the Latin script.", "This character-encoding scheme is used throughout the Americas, Western Europe, Oceania, and much of Africa.", "It is the basis for some popular 8-bit character sets and the first two blocks of characters in Unicode.ISO-8859-1 was (according to the standard, at least) the default encoding of documents delivered via HTTP with a MIME type beginning with .", ", 1.3% of all (and 14 of the top 1000) web sites use .", "It is the most ''declared'' single-byte character encoding, but as Web browsers and the HTML5 standard interpret them as the superset Windows-1252, these documents may include characters from that set.Depending on the country or language, use (on websites at least) can be much higher than the global average, e.g.", "(including Windows-1252), for Brazil according to website use, use is at 3.8%, and in Germany at 3.2%.ISO-8859-1 was the default encoding of the values of certain descriptive HTTP headers, and defined the repertoire of characters allowed in HTML 3.2 documents, and is specified by many other standards.", "It's rarely assumed to be the encoding of text in operating systems (while it was very common in the past), though if an 8-bit encoding is used then its superset encoding Windows-1252 is most likely to be used, on Microsoft Windows if there is no byte order mark (BOM); this is only gradually being changed to UTF-8.", "'''ISO-8859-1''' is the IANA preferred name for this standard when supplemented with the C0 and C1 control codes from ISO/IEC 6429.The following other aliases are registered: '''iso-ir-100''', '''csISOLatin1''', '''latin1''', '''l1''', '''IBM819'''.", "'''Code page 28591''' a.k.a.", "'''Windows-28591''' is used for it in Windows.", "IBM calls it '''code page 819''' or '''CP819''' (CCSID 819).", "Oracle calls it '''WE8ISO8859P1'''." ], [ "Coverage", "Each character is encoded as a single eight-bit code value.", "These code values can be used in almost any data interchange system to communicate in the following languages (while it may exclude correct quotation marks such as for many languages including German and Icelandic):=== Modern languages with complete coverage ===;Notes=== Languages with incomplete coverage ===ISO-8859-1 was commonly used for certain languages, even though it lacks characters used by these languages.", "In most cases, only a few letters are missing or they are rarely used, and they can be replaced with characters that are in ISO-8859-1 using some form of typographic approximation.", "The following table lists such languages.", "Language Missing characters Typical workaround Supported by Catalan Ŀ, ŀ (deprecated) L·, l· Danish Ǿ, ǿ (the accent is optional and ǿ is very rare) Ø, ø or øe Dutch IJ, ij (debatable); j́ in emphasized words like \"blíj́f\" digraphs IJ, ij or ÿ; blíjf Estonian, Finnish Š, š, Ž, ž (only present in loanwords) Sh, sh, Zh, zh ISO-8859-15, Windows-1252 French Œ, œ, and the very rare Ÿ digraphs OE, oe; Y or Ý ISO-8859-15, Windows-1252 German ẞ (capital ß, used only in all capitals) digraph SS or SZ Hungarian Ő, ő, Ű, ű Ö, ö, Ü, ü Õ, õ, Û, û (the characters replaced in ) ISO-8859-2, Windows-1250 Irish (traditional orthography) Ḃ, ḃ, Ċ, ċ, Ḋ, ḋ, Ḟ, ḟ, Ġ, ġ, Ṁ, ṁ, Ṗ, ṗ, Ṡ, ṡ, Ṫ, ṫ Bh, bh, Ch, ch, Dh, dh, Fh, fh, Gh, gh, Mh, mh, Ph, ph, Sh, sh, Th, th ISO-8859-14 Welsh Ẁ, ẁ, Ẃ, ẃ, Ŵ, ŵ, Ẅ, ẅ, Ỳ, ỳ, Ŷ, ŷ, Ÿ W, w, Y, y, Ý, ý ISO-8859-14The letter ''ÿ'', which appears in French only very rarely, mainly in city names such as L'Haÿ-les-Roses and never at the beginning of words, is included only in lowercase form.", "The slot corresponding to its uppercase form is occupied by the lowercase letter ''ß'' from the German language, which did not have an uppercase form at the time when the standard was created.=== Quotation marks ===For some languages listed above, the correct typographical quotation marks are missing, as only , , and are included.", "Also, this scheme does not provide for oriented (6- or 9-shaped) single or double quotation marks.", "Some fonts will display the spacing grave accent (0x60) and the apostrophe (0x27) as a matching pair of oriented single quotation marks (see ), but this is not considered part of the modern standard." ], [ "History", "ISO 8859-1 was based on the Multinational Character Set (MCS) used by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) in the popular VT220 terminal in 1983.It was developed within the European Computer Manufacturers Association (ECMA), and published in March 1985 as ECMA-94, by which name it is still sometimes known.", "The second edition of ECMA-94 (June 1986) also included ISO 8859-2, ISO 8859-3, and ISO 8859-4 as part of the specification.The original draft of ISO 8859-1 placed French ''Œ'' and ''œ'' at code points 215 (0xD7) and 247 (0xF7), as in the MCS.", "However, the delegate from France, being neither a linguist nor a typographer, falsely stated that these are not independent French letters on their own, but mere ligatures (like ''fi'' or ''fl''), supported by the delegate team from Bull Publishing Company, who regularly did not print French with ''Œ/œ'' in their house style at the time.", "An anglophone delegate from Canada insisted on retaining ''Œ/œ'' but was rebuffed by the French delegate and the team from Bull.", "These code points were soon filled with × and ÷ under the suggestion of the German delegation.", "Support for French was further reduced when it was again falsely stated that the letter ''ÿ'' is \"not French\", resulting in the absence of the capital ''Ÿ''.", "In fact, the letter ''ÿ'' is found in a number of French proper names, and the capital letter has been used in dictionaries and encyclopedias.", "These characters were added to ISO/IEC 8859-15:1999.BraSCII matches the original draft.In 1985, Commodore adopted ECMA-94 for its new AmigaOS operating system.", "The Seikosha MP-1300AI impact dot-matrix printer, used with the Amiga 1000, included this encoding.In 1990, the very first version of Unicode used the code points of ISO-8859-1 as the first 256 Unicode code points.In 1992, the IANA registered the character map '''ISO_8859-1:1987''', more commonly known by its preferred MIME name of '''ISO-8859-1''' (note the extra hyphen over ISO 8859-1), a superset of ISO 8859-1, for use on the Internet.", "This map assigns the C0 and C1 control codes to the unassigned code values thus provides for 256 characters via every possible 8-bit value." ], [ "Code page layout" ], [ "Similar character sets", "=== ISO/IEC 8859-15 ===ISO/IEC 8859-15 was developed in 1999, as an update of ISO/IEC 8859-1.It provides some characters for French and Finnish text and the euro sign, which are missing from ISO/IEC 8859-1.This required the removal of some infrequently used characters from ISO/IEC 8859-1, including fraction symbols and letter-free diacritics: , , , , , , , and .", "Ironically, three of the newly added characters (, , and ) had already been present in DEC's 1983 Multinational Character Set (MCS), the predecessor to ISO/IEC 8859-1 (1987).", "Since their original code points were now reused for other purposes, the characters had to be reintroduced under different, less logical code points.ISO-IR-204, a more minor modification, had been registered in 1998, altering ISO-8859-1 by replacing the universal currency sign (¤) with the euro sign (the same substitution made by ISO-8859-15).=== Windows-1252 ===The popular Windows-1252 character set adds all the missing characters provided by ISO/IEC 8859-15, plus a number of typographic symbols, by replacing the rarely used C1 controls in the range 128 to 159 (hex 80 to 9F).", "It is very common to mislabel Windows-1252 text as being in ISO-8859-1.A common result was that all the quotes and apostrophes (produced by \"smart quotes\" in word-processing software) were replaced with question marks or boxes on non-Windows operating systems, making text difficult to read.", "Many Web browsers and e-mail clients will interpret ISO-8859-1 control codes as Windows-1252 characters, and that behavior was later standardized in HTML5.=== Mac Roman ===The Apple Macintosh computer introduced a character encoding called Mac Roman in 1984.It was meant to be suitable for Western European desktop publishing.", "It is a superset of ASCII, and has most of the characters that are in ISO-8859-1 and all the extra characters from Windows-1252, but in a totally different arrangement.", "The few printable characters that are in ISO/IEC 8859-1, but not in this set, are often a source of trouble when editing text on Web sites using older Macintosh browsers, including the last version of Internet Explorer for Mac.=== Other ===DOS has code page 850, which has all printable characters that ISO-8859-1 has, albeit in a totally different arrangement, plus the most widely used graphic characters from code page 437.Between 1989 and 2015, Hewlett-Packard used another superset of ISO-8859-1 on many of their calculators.", "This proprietary character set was sometimes referred to simply as \"ECMA-94\" as well.", "HP also has code page 1053, which adds the medium shade (▒, U+2592) at 0x7F.Several EBCDIC code pages were purposely designed to have the same set of characters as ISO-8859-1, to allow easy conversion between them." ], [ "See also", "* Latin script in Unicode* Unicode* Universal Coded Character Set** European Unicode subset (DIN 91379) * UTF-8* Windows code pages* ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* ISO/IEC 8859-1:1998* ISO/IEC FDIS 8859-1:1998 — 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 1: Latin alphabet No.", "1 ''(draft dated February 12, 1998, published April 15, 1998)''* Standard ECMA-94: 8-Bit Single Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets — Latin Alphabets No.", "1 to No.", "4 ''2nd edition (June 1986)''* ISO-IR 100 Right-Hand Part of Latin Alphabet No.1 ''(February 1, 1986)''* The Letter Database*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "ISO/IEC 8859" ], [ "Introduction", "'''ISO/IEC 8859''' is a joint ISO and IEC series of standards for 8-bit character encodings.", "The series of standards consists of numbered parts, such as ISO/IEC 8859-1, ISO/IEC 8859-2, etc.", "There are 15 parts, excluding the abandoned ISO/IEC 8859-12.The ISO working group maintaining this series of standards has been disbanded.ISO/IEC 8859 parts 1, 2, 3, and 4 were originally Ecma International standard '''ECMA-94'''." ], [ "Introduction", "While the bit patterns of the 95 printable ASCII characters are sufficient to exchange information in modern English, most other languages that use Latin alphabets need additional symbols not covered by ASCII.", "ISO/IEC 8859 sought to remedy this problem by utilizing the eighth bit in an 8-bit byte to allow positions for another 96 printable characters.", "Early encodings were limited to 7 bits because of restrictions of some data transmission protocols, and partially for historical reasons.", "However, more characters were needed than could fit in a single 8-bit character encoding, so several mappings were developed, including at least ten suitable for various Latin alphabets.The ISO/IEC 8859 standard parts only define printable characters, although they explicitly set apart the byte ranges 0x00–1F and 0x7F–9F as \"combinations that do not represent graphic characters\" (i.e.", "which are reserved for use as control characters) in accordance with ISO/IEC 4873; they were designed to be used in conjunction with a separate standard defining the control functions associated with these bytes, such as ISO 6429 or ISO 6630.To this end a series of encodings registered with the IANA add the C0 control set (control characters mapped to bytes 0 to 31) from ISO 646 and the C1 control set (control characters mapped to bytes 128 to 159) from ISO 6429, resulting in full 8-bit character maps with most, if not all, bytes assigned.", "These sets have ISO-8859-''n'' as their preferred MIME name or, in cases where a preferred MIME name is not specified, their canonical name.", "Many people use the terms ISO/IEC 8859-''n'' and ISO-8859-''n'' interchangeably.", "ISO/IEC 8859-11 did not get such a charset assigned, presumably because it was almost identical to TIS 620." ], [ "Characters", "The ISO/IEC 8859 standard is designed for reliable information exchange, not typography; the standard omits symbols needed for high-quality typography, such as optional ligatures, curly quotation marks, dashes, etc.", "As a result, high-quality typesetting systems often use proprietary or idiosyncratic extensions on top of the ASCII and ISO/IEC 8859 standards, or use Unicode instead.An inexact rule based on practical experience states that if a character or symbol was not already part of a widely used data-processing character set and was also not usually provided on typewriter keyboards for a national language, it did not get in.", "Hence the directional double quotation marks ''«'' and ''»'' used for some European languages were included, but not the directional double quotation marks ''“'' and ''”'' used for English and some other languages.French did not get its ''œ'' and ''Œ'' ligatures because they could be typed as 'oe'.", "Likewise, ''Ÿ'', needed for all-caps text, was dropped as well.", "Albeit under different codepoints, these three characters were later reintroduced with ISO/IEC 8859-15 in 1999, which also introduced the new euro sign character €.", "Likewise Dutch did not get the ''ij'' and ''IJ'' letters, because Dutch speakers had become used to typing these as two letters instead.Romanian did not initially get its ''Ș''/''ș'' and ''Ț''/''ț'' (with comma) letters, because these letters were initially unified with ''Ş''/''ş'' and ''Ţ''/''ţ'' (with cedilla) by the Unicode Consortium, considering the shapes with comma beneath to be glyph variants of the shapes with cedilla.", "However, the letters with explicit comma below were later added to the Unicode standard and are also in ISO/IEC 8859-16.Most of the ISO/IEC 8859 encodings provide diacritic marks required for various European languages using the Latin script.", "Others provide non-Latin alphabets: Greek, Cyrillic, Hebrew, Arabic and Thai.", "Most of the encodings contain only spacing characters, although the Thai, Hebrew, and Arabic ones do also contain combining characters.The standard makes no provision for the scripts of East Asian languages (''CJK''), as their ideographic writing systems require many thousands of code points.", "Although it uses Latin based characters, Vietnamese does not fit into 96 positions (without using combining diacritics such as in Windows-1258) either.", "Each Japanese syllabic alphabet (hiragana or katakana, see Kana) would fit, as in JIS X 0201, but like several other alphabets of the world they are not encoded in the ISO/IEC 8859 system." ], [ "The parts of ISO/IEC 8859", "ISO/IEC 8859 is divided into the following parts: Part Name Revisions Other standards Description Part 1 ''Latin-1''''Western European'' 1987, 1998 ECMA-94 (1985, 1986) Perhaps the most widely used part of ISO/IEC 8859, covering most Western European languages: Danish (partial), Dutch (partial), English, Faeroese, Finnish (partial), French (partial), German, Icelandic, Irish, Italian, Norwegian, Portuguese, Rhaeto-Romanic, Scottish Gaelic, Spanish, Catalan, and Swedish.", "Languages from other parts of the world are also covered, including: Eastern European Albanian, Southeast Asian Indonesian, as well as the African languages Afrikaans and Swahili.A modification of DEC MCS; the first (1985) standard version at the ECMA level lacked the times sign and division obelus, which were added the next year.", "The missing euro sign and capital ''Ÿ'' are in the revised version ISO/IEC 8859-15 (see below).", "The corresponding IANA character set is ISO-8859-1.Part 2 ''Latin-2'' ''Central European'' 1987, 1999 ECMA-94 (1986) Supports those Central and Eastern European languages that use the Latin alphabet, including Bosnian, Polish, Croatian, Czech, Slovak, Slovene, Serbian, and Hungarian.", "The missing euro sign can be found in version ISO/IEC 8859-16.Part 3 ''Latin-3''''South European'' 1988, 1999 Turkish, Maltese, and Esperanto.", "Largely superseded by ISO/IEC 8859-9 for Turkish.", "Part 4 ''Latin-4''''North European'' 1988, 1998 Estonian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Greenlandic, and Sami.", "Part 5 ''Latin/Cyrillic'' 1988, 1999 ECMA-113 (1988, 1999) Covers mostly Slavic languages that use a Cyrillic alphabet, including Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Russian, Serbian, and Ukrainian (partial).", "Part 6 ''Latin/Arabic'' 1987, 1999 Covers the most common Arabic language characters.", "Does not support other languages using the Arabic script.", "Needs to be BiDi and cursive joining processed for display.", "Part 7 ''Latin/Greek'' 1987, 2003 Covers the modern Greek language (monotonic orthography).", "Can also be used for Ancient Greek written without accents or in monotonic orthography, but lacks the diacritics for polytonic orthography.", "These were introduced with Unicode.", "Updated 2003 to add the euro sign, drachma sign and spacing ypogegrammeni.", "Part 8 ''Latin/Hebrew'' 1988, 1999 Covers the modern Hebrew alphabet as used in Israel.", "In practice two different encodings exist, logical order (needs to be BiDi processed for display) and visual (left-to-right) order (in effect, after bidi processing and line breaking).", "Updated 1999 to add and .", "Updated at national standard level in 2002 to add euro and shekel signs and more bidirectional format effectors; the 2002 additions were never incorporated back into the ISO standard version.", "Part 9 ''Latin-5''''Turkish'' 1989, 1999 Largely the same as ISO/IEC 8859-1, replacing the rarely used Icelandic letters with Turkish ones.", "Part 10 ''Latin-6'' ''Nordic'' 1992, 1998 ECMA-144 (1990, 1992, 2000) A rearrangement of Latin-4.Considered more useful for Nordic languages.", "Baltic languages use Latin-4 more.", "Part 11 ''Latin/Thai'' 2001 TIS-620 (1986, 1990) Contains characters needed for the Thai language.", "First revision established in 1986 at national standard level as TIS 620.Elevated to ISO standard status as a part of ISO 8859 in 2001, with the addition of a non-breaking space.", "Part 12 ''Latin/Devanagari'' N/A - The work in making a part of 8859 for Devanagari was officially abandoned in 1997.ISCII and Unicode/ISO/IEC 10646 cover Devanagari.", "Part 13 ''Latin-7'' ''Baltic Rim'' 1998 - Added some characters for Baltic languages which were missing from Latin-4 and Latin-6.Related to the earlier-published Windows-1257.Part 14 ''Latin-8'' ''Celtic'' 1998 - Covers Celtic languages such as Gaelic and the Breton language.", "Welsh letters correspond to the earlier (1994) ISO-IR-182.Part 15 ''Latin-9'' 1999 - A revision of 8859-1 that removes some little-used symbols, replacing them with the euro sign ''€'' and the letters ''Š'', ''š'', ''Ž'', ''ž'', ''Œ'', ''œ'', and ''Ÿ'', which completes the coverage of French, Finnish and Estonian.", "Part 16 ''Latin-10'' ''South-Eastern European'' 2001 SR 14111 (1998) Intended for Albanian, Croatian, Hungarian, Italian, Polish, Romanian and Slovene, but also Finnish, French, German and Irish Gaelic (new orthography).", "The focus lies more on letters than symbols.", "The currency sign is replaced with the euro sign.Each part of ISO/IEC 8859 is designed to support languages that often borrow from each other, so the characters needed by each language are usually accommodated by a single part.", "However, there are some characters and language combinations that are not accommodated without transcriptions.", "Efforts were made to make conversions as smooth as possible.", "For example, German has all of its seven special characters at the same positions in all Latin variants (1–4, 9, 10, 13–16), and in many positions the characters only differ in the diacritics between the sets.", "In particular, variants 1–4 were designed jointly, and have the property that every encoded character appears either at a given position or not at all.===Table===+Comparison of the various parts (1–16) of ISO/IEC 8859BinaryOctDecHex1234567891011131415161010 0000240160A0Non-breaking space (NBSP)1010 0001241161A1¡ĄĦĄЁ ‘ ¡Ąก”Ḃ¡Ą1010 0010242162A2¢˘ĸЂ ’¢Ēข¢ḃ¢ą1010 0011243163A3£Ł£ŖЃ £Ģฃ£Ł1010 0100 244164A4¤Є¤€¤Īค¤Ċ€1010 0101245165A5¥Ľ ĨЅ ₯¥Ĩฅ„ċ¥„1010 0110246166A6¦ŚĤĻІ ¦Ķฆ¦ḊŠ1010 0111247167A7§Ї §ง§1010 1000250168A8¨Ј ¨ĻจØẀš1010 1001251169A9©ŠİŠЉ ©Đฉ©1010 1010252170AAªŞĒЊ ͺתŠชŖẂªȘ1010 1011253171AB«ŤĞĢЋ «Ŧซ«ḋ«1010 1100254172AC¬ŹĴŦЌ،¬Žฌ¬Ỳ¬Ź1010 1101255173ADSoft hyphen (SHY)ญSHY1010 1110256174AE®Ž ŽЎ  ®Ūฎ®ź1010 1111257175AF¯Ż¯Џ ―¯ŊฏÆŸ¯Ż1011 0000260176B0°А °ฐ°Ḟ°1011 0001261177B1±ąħąБ ±ąฑ±ḟ±1011 0010262178B2²˛²˛В ²ēฒ²Ġ²Č1011 0011263179B3³ł³ŗГ ³ģณ³ġ³ł1011 0100264180B4´Д ΄´īด“ṀŽ1011 0101265181B5µľµĩЕ ΅µĩตµṁµ”1011 0110266182B6¶śĥļЖ Ά¶ķถ¶1011 0111267183B7·ˇ·ˇЗ ·ท·Ṗ·1011 1000270184B8¸И Έ¸ļธøẁž1011 1001271185B9¹šıšЙ Ή¹đน¹ṗ¹č1011 1010272186BAºşēК Ί÷ºšบŗẃºș1011 1011273187BB»ťğģЛ؛»ŧป»Ṡ»1011 1100274188BC¼źĵŧМ Ό¼žผ¼ỳŒ1011 1101275189BD½˝½ŊН ½―ฝ½Ẅœ1011 1110276190BE¾ž žО Ύ¾ūพ¾ẅŸ1011 1111277191BF¿żŋП؟Ώ ¿ŋฟæṡ¿ż1100 0000300192C0ÀŔÀĀР ΐ ÀĀภĄÀ1100 0001301193C1ÁСءΑ ÁมĮÁ1100 0010302194C2ÂТآΒ ÂยĀÂ1100 0011303195C3ÃĂ ÃУأΓ ÃรĆÃĂ1100 0100304196C4ÄФؤΔ ÄฤÄ1100 0101305197C5ÅĹĊÅХإΕ ÅลÅĆ1100 0110306198C6ÆĆĈÆЦئΖ ÆฦĘÆ1100 0111307199C7ÇĮЧاΗ ÇĮวĒÇ1100 1000310200C8ÈČÈČШبΘ ÈČศČÈ1100 1001311201C9ÉЩةΙ ÉษÉ1100 1010312202CAÊĘÊĘЪتΚ ÊĘสŹÊ1100 1011313203CBËЫثΛ ËหĖË1100 1100314204CCÌĚÌĖЬجΜ ÌĖฬĢÌ1100 1101315205CDÍЭحΝ ÍอĶÍ1100 1110316206CEÎЮخΞ ÎฮĪÎ1100 1111317207CFÏĎÏĪЯدΟ ÏฯĻÏBinaryOctDecHex1234567891011131415161101 0000320208D0ÐĐ ĐаذΠ ĞÐะŠŴÐ1101 0001321209D1ÑŃÑŅбرΡ ÑŅัŃÑŃ1101 0010322210D2ÒŇÒŌвز  ÒŌาŅÒ1101 0011323211D3ÓĶгسΣ ÓำÓ1101 0100324212D4ÔдشΤ ÔิŌÔ1101 0101325213D5ÕŐĠÕеصΥ ÕีÕŐ1101 0110326214D6ÖжضΦ ÖึÖ1101 0111327215D7×зطΧ ×Ũื×Ṫ׌1101 1000330216D8ØŘĜØиظΨ ØุŲØŰ1101 1001331217D9ÙŮÙŲйعΩ ÙŲูŁÙ1101 1010332218DAÚкغΪ ÚฺŚÚ1101 1011333219DBÛŰÛл Ϋ Û ŪÛ1101 1100334220DCÜм ά Ü Ü1101 1101335221DDÝŬŨн έ İÝ ŻÝĘ1101 1110336222DEÞŢŜŪо ή ŞÞ ŽŶÞȚ1101 1111337223DFßп ί‗ß฿ß1110 0000340224E0àŕàāрـΰאàāเąà1110 0001341225E1áсفαבáแįá1110 0010342226E2âтقβגâโāâ1110 0011343227E3ãă ãуكγדãใćãă1110 0100344228E4äфلδהäไä1110 0101345229E5åĺċåхمεוåๅåć1110 0110346230E6æćĉæцنζזæๆęæ1110 0111347231E7çįчهηחçį็ēç1110 1000350232E8èčèčшوθטèč่čè1110 1001351233E9éщىιיé้é1110 1010352234EAêęêęъيκךêę๊źê1110 1011353235EBëыًλכë๋ėë1110 1100354236ECìěìėьٌμלìė์ģì1110 1101355237EDíэٍνםíํķí1110 1110356238EEîюَξמî๎īî1110 1111357239EFïďïīяُοןï๏ļï1111 0000360240F0ðđ đِπנğð๐šŵðđ1111 0001361241F1ñńñņёّρסñņ๑ńñń1111 0010362242F2òňòōђْςעòō๒ņò1111 0011363243F3óķѓ σףó๓ó1111 0100364244F4ôє τפô๔ōô1111 0101365245F5õőġõѕ υץõ๕õő1111 0110366246F6öі φצö๖ö1111 0111367247F7÷ї χק÷ũ๗÷ṫ÷ś1111 1000370248F8øřĝøј ψרø๘ųøű1111 1001371249F9ùůùųљ ωשùų๙łù1111 1010372250FAúњ ϊתú๚śú1111 1011373251FBûűûћ ϋ û๛ūû1111 1100374252FCüќ ό ü ü1111 1101375253FDýŭũ§ ύLRMıý żýę1111 1110376254FEþţŝūў ώRLMşþ žŷþț1111 1111377255FFÿ˙џ   ÿĸ ’ÿBinaryOctDecHex123456789101113141516unassigned code points.new additions in ISO/IEC 8859-7:2003 and ISO/IEC 8859-8:1999 versions, previously unassigned." ], [ "Relationship to Unicode and the UCS", "Since 1991, the Unicode Consortium has been working with ISO and IEC to develop the Unicode Standard and ISO/IEC 10646: the Universal Character Set (UCS) in tandem.", "Newer editions of ISO/IEC 8859 express characters in terms of their Unicode/UCS names and the ''U+nnnn'' notation, effectively causing each part of ISO/IEC 8859 to be a Unicode/UCS character encoding scheme that maps a very small subset of the UCS to single 8-bit bytes.", "The first 256 characters in Unicode and the UCS are identical to those in ISO/IEC-8859-1 (Latin-1).Single-byte character sets including the parts of ISO/IEC 8859 and derivatives of them were favoured throughout the 1990s, having the advantages of being well-established and more easily implemented in software: the equation of one byte to one character is simple and adequate for most single-language applications, and there are no combining characters or variant forms.", "As Unicode-enabled operating systems became more widespread, ISO/IEC 8859 and other legacy encodings became less popular.", "While remnants of ISO 8859 and single-byte character models remain entrenched in many operating systems, programming languages, data storage systems, networking applications, display hardware, and end-user application software, most modern computing applications use Unicode internally, and rely on conversion tables to map to and from other encodings, when necessary." ], [ "Current status", "The ISO/IEC 8859 standard was maintained by ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1, Subcommittee 2, Working Group 3 (ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2/WG 3).", "In June 2004, WG 3 disbanded, and maintenance duties were transferred to SC 2.The standard is not currently being updated, as the Subcommittee's only remaining working group, WG 2, is concentrating on development of Unicode's Universal Coded Character Set.The WHATWG Encoding Standard, which specifies the character encodings permitted in HTML5 which compliant browsers must support, includes most parts of ISO/IEC 8859, except for parts 1, 9 and 11, which are instead interpreted as Windows-1252, Windows-1254 and Windows-874 respectively.", "Authors of new pages and the designers of new protocols are instructed to use UTF-8 instead." ], [ "See also", "* List of computer character sets* Number Forms* RPL character set (an ISO/IEC 8859-1 superset on HP calculators, referred to as \"ECMA-94\" as well)* DEC Multinational Character Set (MCS)* DEC National Replacement Character Set (NRCS)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Published versions of each part of ISO/IEC 8859 are available, for a fee, from the ISO catalogue site and from the IEC Webstore.", "* PDF versions of the final drafts of some parts of ISO/IEC 8859 as submitted to the ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2/WG 3 for review & publication are available at the WG 3 web site:** ISO/IEC 8859-1:1998 - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 1: Latin alphabet No.", "1 ''(draft dated February 12, 1998, published April 15, 1998)''** ISO/IEC 8859-4:1998 - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 4: Latin alphabet No.", "4 ''(draft dated February 12, 1998, published July 1, 1998)''** ISO/IEC 8859-7:1999 - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 7: Latin/Greek alphabet ''(draft dated June 10, 1999; superseded by ISO/IEC 8859-7:2003, published October 10, 2003)''** ISO/IEC 8859-10:1998 - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 10: Latin alphabet No.", "6 ''(draft dated February 12, 1998, published July 15, 1998)''** ISO/IEC 8859-11:1999 - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 11: Latin/Thai character set ''(draft dated June 22, 1999; superseded by ISO/IEC 8859-11:2001, published 15 December 2001)''** ISO/IEC 8859-13:1998 - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 13: Latin alphabet No.", "7 ''(draft dated April 15, 1998, published October 15, 1998)''** ISO/IEC 8859-15:1998 - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 15: Latin alphabet No.", "9 ''(draft dated August 1, 1997; superseded by ISO/IEC 8859-15:1999, published March 15, 1999)''** ISO/IEC 8859-16:2000 - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 16: Latin alphabet No.", "10 ''(draft dated November 15, 1999; superseded by ISO/IEC 8859-16:2001, published July 15, 2001)''* ECMA standards, which in intent correspond exactly to the ISO/IEC 8859 character set standards, can be found at:** Standard ECMA-94: 8-Bit Single Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin Alphabets No.", "1 to No.", "4 ''2nd edition (June 1986)''** Standard ECMA-113: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin/Cyrillic Alphabet ''3rd edition (December 1999)''** Standard ECMA-114: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin/Arabic Alphabet ''2nd edition (December 2000)''** Standard ECMA-118: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin/Greek Alphabet ''(December 1986)''** Standard ECMA-121: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin/Hebrew Alphabet ''2nd edition (December 2000)''** Standard ECMA-128: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin Alphabet No.", "5 ''2nd edition (December 1999)''** Standard ECMA-144: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Character Sets - Latin Alphabet No.", "6 ''3rd edition (December 2000)''* ISO/IEC 8859-1 to Unicode mapping tables as plain text files are at the Unicode FTP site.", "* Informal descriptions and code charts for most ISO/IEC 8859 standards are available in ISO/IEC 8859 Alphabet Soup (Mirror)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Infrared" ], [ "Introduction", "false-color image of two people taken in long-wavelength infrared (body-temperature thermal) radiation.This pseudocolor infrared space telescope image has blue, green, and red corresponding to wavelengths of 3.4, 4.6, and 12 μm, respectively.", "'''Infrared''' ('''IR'''; sometimes called '''infrared light''') is electromagnetic radiation (EMR) in the spectral band lower than that of visible light and higher than that of microwaves.", "In other words, the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum is where infrared transitions to visible light; that is, IR invisible to the human eye.", "IR is generally understood to encompass wavelengths from around 750 nm to 1000 μm (frequencies of 400 THz to 300 GHz).", "IR is commonly divided between longer-wavelength thermal IR, emitted from terrestrial sources, and shorter-wavelength IR or near-IR, part of the solar spectrum.", "Longer IR wavelengths (30–100 μm) are sometimes included as part of the terahertz radiation band.", "Almost all black-body radiation from objects near room temperature is at the IR band.", "As a form of electromagnetic radiation, IR carries energy and momentum, exerts radiation pressure, and has properties corresponding to both those of a wave and of a particle, the photon.It was long known that fires emit invisible heat; in 1681 the pioneering experimenter Edme Mariotte showed that glass, though transparent to sunlight, obstructed radiant heat.", "In 1800 the astronomer Sir William Herschel discovered that infrared radiation is a type of invisible radiation in the spectrum lower in energy than red light, by means of its effect on a thermometer.", "Slightly more than half of the energy from the Sun was eventually found, through Herschel's studies, to arrive on Earth in the form of infrared.", "The balance between absorbed and emitted infrared radiation has an important effect on Earth's climate.Infrared radiation is emitted or absorbed by molecules when changing rotational-vibrational movements.", "It excites vibrational modes in a molecule through a change in the dipole moment, making it a useful frequency range for study of these energy states for molecules of the proper symmetry.", "Infrared spectroscopy examines absorption and transmission of photons in the infrared range.Infrared radiation is used in industrial, scientific, military, commercial, and medical applications.", "Night-vision devices using active near-infrared illumination allow people or animals to be observed without the observer being detected.", "Infrared astronomy uses sensor-equipped telescopes to penetrate dusty regions of space such as molecular clouds, to detect objects such as planets, and to view highly red-shifted objects from the early days of the universe.", "Infrared thermal-imaging cameras are used to detect heat loss in insulated systems, to observe changing blood flow in the skin, to assist firefighting, and to detect the overheating of electrical components.Military and civilian applications include target acquisition, surveillance, night vision, homing, and tracking.", "Humans at normal body temperature radiate chiefly at wavelengths around 10 μm.", "Non-military uses include thermal efficiency analysis, environmental monitoring, industrial facility inspections, detection of grow-ops, remote temperature sensing, short-range wireless communication, spectroscopy, and weather forecasting." ], [ "Definition and relationship to the electromagnetic spectrum", "There is no universally accepted definition of the range of infrared radiation.", "Typically, it is taken to extend from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nm to 1 mm.", "This range of wavelengths corresponds to a frequency range of approximately 430 THz down to 300 GHz.", "Beyond infrared is the microwave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.", "Increasingly, terahertz radiation is counted as part of the microwave band, not infrared, moving the band edge of infrared to 0.1 mm (3 THz).+ Light comparison Name Wavelength Frequency (Hz) Photon energy (eV) Gamma ray less than 10 pm more than 30 EHz more than 124 keV X-ray 10 pm – 10 nm 30 PHz – 30 EHz 124 keV – 124 eV Ultraviolet 10 nm – 400 nm 750 THz – 30 PHz 124 eV – 3.3 eV Visible 400 nm – 700 nm 430 THz – 750 THz 3.3 eV – 1.7 eV '''Infrared''' 700 nm – 1 mm 300 GHz – 430 THz 1.7 eV – 1.24 meV Microwave 1 mm – 1 meter 300 MHz – 300 GHz 1.24 meV – 1.24 μeV Radio 1 meter and more 300 MHz and below 1.24 μeV and below" ], [ "Nature", "Sunlight, at an effective temperature of 5,780 K (5,510 °C, 9,940 °F), is composed of near-thermal-spectrum radiation that is slightly more than half infrared.", "At zenith, sunlight provides an irradiance of just over 1 kW per square meter at sea level.", "Of this energy, 527 W is infrared radiation, 445 W is visible light, and 32 W is ultraviolet radiation.", "Nearly all the infrared radiation in sunlight is near infrared, shorter than 4 μm.On the surface of Earth, at far lower temperatures than the surface of the Sun, some thermal radiation consists of infrared in the mid-infrared region, much longer than in sunlight.", "Black-body, or thermal, radiation is continuous: it radiates at all wavelengths.", "Of these natural thermal radiation processes, only lightning and natural fires are hot enough to produce much visible energy, and fires produce far more infrared than visible-light energy.==Regions==In general, objects emit infrared radiation across a spectrum of wavelengths, but sometimes only a limited region of the spectrum is of interest because sensors usually collect radiation only within a specific bandwidth.", "Thermal infrared radiation also has a maximum emission wavelength, which is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of object, in accordance with Wien's displacement law.", "The infrared band is often subdivided into smaller sections, although how the IR spectrum is thereby divided varies between different areas in which IR is employed.===Visible limit===Infrared radiation is generally considered to begin with wavelengths longer than visible by the human eye.", "There is no hard wavelength limit to what is visible, as the eye's sensitivity decreases rapidly but smoothly, for wavelengths exceeding about 700 nm.", "Therefore wavelengths just longer than that can be seen if they are sufficiently bright, though they may still be classified as infrared according to usual definitions.", "Light from a near-IR laser may thus appear dim red and can present a hazard since it may actually be quite bright.", "And even IR at wavelengths up to 1,050 nm from pulsed lasers can be seen by humans under certain conditions.=== Commonly used subdivision scheme ===A commonly used subdivision scheme is: Division name Abbreviation Wavelength Frequency Photon energy Temperature Characteristics Near-infraredNIR, IR-A ''DIN'' 0.75–1.4 μm 214–400 THz 886–1,653 meV Goes up to the wavelength of the first water absorption band, and commonly used in fiber optic telecommunication because of low attenuation losses in the SiO2 glass (silica) medium.", "Image intensifiers are sensitive to this area of the spectrum; examples include night vision devices such as night vision goggles.", "Near-infrared spectroscopy is another common application.", "Short-wavelength infrared SWIR, IR-B ''DIN'' 1.4–3 μm 100–214 THz 413–886 meV Water absorption increases significantly at 1,450 nm.", "The 1,530 to 1,560 nm range is the dominant spectral region for long-distance telecommunications (see transmission windows).", "Mid-wavelength infraredMWIR, IR-C ''DIN''; MidIR.", "Also called intermediate infrared (IIR) 3–8 μm 37–100 THz 155–413 meV In guided missile technology the 3–5 μm portion of this band is the atmospheric window in which the seekers of passive IR 'heat seeking' missiles are designed to work, homing on to the Infrared signature of the target aircraft, typically the jet engine exhaust plume.", "This region is also known as thermal infrared.", "Long-wavelength infrared LWIR, IR-C ''DIN'' 8–15 μm 20–37 THz 83–155 meV The \"thermal imaging\" region, in which sensors can obtain a completely passive image of objects only slightly higher in temperature than room temperature – for example, the human body – based on thermal emissions only and requiring no illumination such as the sun, moon, or infrared illuminator.", "This region is also called the \"thermal infrared\".", "Far-infrared FIR 15–1,000 μm 0.3–20 THz 1.2–83 meV (see also far-infrared laser and far-infrared)NIR and SWIR together is sometimes called \"reflected infrared\", whereas MWIR and LWIR is sometimes referred to as \"thermal infrared\".===CIE division scheme===The International Commission on Illumination (CIE) recommended the division of infrared radiation into the following three bands:AbbreviationWavelengthFrequency IR-A 780 nm – 1,400 nm(0.78 μm – 1.4 μm) 215 THz – 430 THz IR-B 1,400 nm – 3,000 nm(1.4 μm – 3 μm) 100 THz – 215 THz IR-C 3,000 nm – 1 mm(3 μm – 1,000 μm) 300 GHz – 100 THz===ISO 20473 scheme===ISO 20473 specifies the following scheme: Designation Abbreviation Wavelength Near-Infrared NIR 0.78–3 μm Mid-Infrared MIR 3–50 μm Far-Infrared FIR 50–1,000 μm===Astronomy division scheme===Astronomers typically divide the infrared spectrum as follows: Designation Abbreviation Wavelength Near-Infrared NIR 0.7 to 2.5 μm Mid-Infrared MIR 3 to 25 μm Far-Infrared FIR above 25 μm.These divisions are not precise and can vary depending on the publication.", "The three regions are used for observation of different temperature ranges, and hence different environments in space.The most common photometric system used in astronomy allocates capital letters to different spectral regions according to filters used; I, J, H, and K cover the near-infrared wavelengths; L, M, N, and Q refer to the mid-infrared region.", "These letters are commonly understood in reference to atmospheric windows and appear, for instance, in the titles of many papers.===Sensor response division scheme===Plot of atmospheric transmittance in part of the infrared regionA third scheme divides up the band based on the response of various detectors:* Near-infrared: from 0.7 to 1.0 μm (from the approximate end of the response of the human eye to that of silicon).", "* Short-wave infrared: 1.0 to 3 μm (from the cut-off of silicon to that of the MWIR atmospheric window).", "InGaAs covers to about 1.8 μm; the less sensitive lead salts cover this region.", "Cryogenically cooled MCT detectors can cover the region of 1.0–2.5μm.", "* Mid-wave infrared: 3 to 5 μm (defined by the atmospheric window and covered by indium antimonide, InSb and mercury cadmium telluride, HgCdTe, and partially by lead selenide, PbSe).", "* Long-wave infrared: 8 to 12, or 7 to 14 μm (this is the atmospheric window covered by HgCdTe and microbolometers).", "* Very-long wave infrared (VLWIR) (12 to about 30 μm, covered by doped silicon).Near-infrared is the region closest in wavelength to the radiation detectable by the human eye.", "mid- and far-infrared are progressively further from the visible spectrum.", "Other definitions follow different physical mechanisms (emission peaks, vs. bands, water absorption) and the newest follow technical reasons (the common silicon detectors are sensitive to about 1,050 nm, while InGaAs's sensitivity starts around 950 nm and ends between 1,700 and 2,600 nm, depending on the specific configuration).", "No international standards for these specifications are currently available.The onset of infrared is defined (according to different standards) at various values typically between 700 nm and 800 nm, but the boundary between visible and infrared light is not precisely defined.", "The human eye is markedly less sensitive to light above 700 nm wavelength, so longer wavelengths make insignificant contributions to scenes illuminated by common light sources.", "Particularly intense near-IR light (e.g., from lasers, LEDs or bright daylight with the visible light filtered out) can be detected up to approximately 780 nm, and will be perceived as red light.", "Intense light sources providing wavelengths as long as 1,050 nm can be seen as a dull red glow, causing some difficulty in near-IR illumination of scenes in the dark (usually this practical problem is solved by indirect illumination).", "Leaves are particularly bright in the near IR, and if all visible light leaks from around an IR-filter are blocked, and the eye is given a moment to adjust to the extremely dim image coming through a visually opaque IR-passing photographic filter, it is possible to see the Wood effect that consists of IR-glowing foliage.===Telecommunication bands===In optical communications, the part of the infrared spectrum that is used is divided into seven bands based on availability of light sources, transmitting/absorbing materials (fibers), and detectors:BandDescriptorWavelength rangeO bandOriginal1,260–1,360 nmE bandExtended1,360–1,460 nmS bandShort wavelength1,460–1,530 nmC bandConventional1,530–1,565 nmL bandLong wavelength1,565–1,625 nmU bandUltralong wavelength1,625–1,675 nmThe C-band is the dominant band for long-distance telecommunication networks.", "The S and L bands are based on less well established technology, and are not as widely deployed." ], [ "Heat", "Materials with higher emissivity appear closer to their true temperature than materials that reflect more of their different-temperature surroundings.", "In this thermal image, the more reflective ceramic cylinder, reflecting the cooler surroundings, appears to be colder than its cubic container (made of more emissive silicon carbide), while in fact, they have the same temperature.Infrared radiation is popularly known as \"heat radiation\", but light and electromagnetic waves of any frequency will heat surfaces that absorb them.", "Infrared light from the Sun accounts for 49% of the heating of Earth, with the rest being caused by visible light that is absorbed then re-radiated at longer wavelengths.", "Visible light or ultraviolet-emitting lasers can char paper and incandescently hot objects emit visible radiation.", "Objects at room temperature will emit radiation concentrated mostly in the 8 to 25 μm band, but this is not distinct from the emission of visible light by incandescent objects and ultraviolet by even hotter objects (see black body and Wien's displacement law).Heat is energy in transit that flows due to a temperature difference.", "Unlike heat transmitted by thermal conduction or thermal convection, thermal radiation can propagate through a vacuum.", "Thermal radiation is characterized by a particular spectrum of many wavelengths that are associated with emission from an object, due to the vibration of its molecules at a given temperature.", "Thermal radiation can be emitted from objects at any wavelength, and at very high temperatures such radiation is associated with spectra far above the infrared, extending into visible, ultraviolet, and even X-ray regions (e.g.", "the solar corona).", "Thus, the popular association of infrared radiation with thermal radiation is only a coincidence based on typical (comparatively low) temperatures often found near the surface of planet Earth.The concept of emissivity is important in understanding the infrared emissions of objects.", "This is a property of a surface that describes how its thermal emissions deviate from the ideal of a black body.", "To further explain, two objects at the same physical temperature may not show the same infrared image if they have differing emissivity.", "For example, for any pre-set emissivity value, objects with higher emissivity will appear hotter, and those with a lower emissivity will appear cooler (assuming, as is often the case, that the surrounding environment is cooler than the objects being viewed).", "When an object has less than perfect emissivity, it obtains properties of reflectivity and/or transparency, and so the temperature of the surrounding environment is partially reflected by and/or transmitted through the object.", "If the object were in a hotter environment, then a lower emissivity object at the same temperature would likely appear to be hotter than a more emissive one.", "For that reason, incorrect selection of emissivity and not accounting for environmental temperatures will give inaccurate results when using infrared cameras and pyrometers." ], [ "Applications", "===Night vision===Active-infrared night vision: the camera illuminates the scene at infrared wavelengths invisible to the human eye.", "Despite a dark back-lit scene, active-infrared night vision delivers identifying details, as seen on the display monitor.", "Infrared is used in night vision equipment when there is insufficient visible light to see.", "Night vision devices operate through a process involving the conversion of ambient light photons into electrons that are then amplified by a chemical and electrical process and then converted back into visible light.", "Infrared light sources can be used to augment the available ambient light for conversion by night vision devices, increasing in-the-dark visibility without actually using a visible light source.The use of infrared light and night vision devices should not be confused with thermal imaging, which creates images based on differences in surface temperature by detecting infrared radiation (heat) that emanates from objects and their surrounding environment.===Thermography===Thermography helped to determine the temperature profile of the Space Shuttle thermal protection system during re-entry.Infrared radiation can be used to remotely determine the temperature of objects (if the emissivity is known).", "This is termed thermography, or in the case of very hot objects in the NIR or visible it is termed pyrometry.", "Thermography (thermal imaging) is mainly used in military and industrial applications but the technology is reaching the public market in the form of infrared cameras on cars due to greatly reduced production costs.Thermographic cameras detect radiation in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum (roughly 9,000–14,000 nm or 9–14 μm) and produce images of that radiation.", "Since infrared radiation is emitted by all objects based on their temperatures, according to the black-body radiation law, thermography makes it possible to \"see\" one's environment with or without visible illumination.", "The amount of radiation emitted by an object increases with temperature, therefore thermography allows one to see variations in temperature (hence the name).===Hyperspectral imaging===emission measurement, an outdoor scan in winter conditions, ambient temperature −15 °C, image produced with a Specim LWIR hyperspectral imager.", "Relative radiance spectra from various targets in the image are shown with arrows.", "The infrared spectra of the different objects such as the watch clasp have clearly distinctive characteristics.", "The contrast level indicates the temperature of the object.Infrared light from the LED of a remote control as recorded by a digital cameraA hyperspectral image is a \"picture\" containing continuous spectrum through a wide spectral range at each pixel.", "Hyperspectral imaging is gaining importance in the field of applied spectroscopy particularly with NIR, SWIR, MWIR, and LWIR spectral regions.", "Typical applications include biological, mineralogical, defence, and industrial measurements.Thermal infrared hyperspectral imaging can be similarly performed using a thermographic camera, with the fundamental difference that each pixel contains a full LWIR spectrum.", "Consequently, chemical identification of the object can be performed without a need for an external light source such as the Sun or the Moon.", "Such cameras are typically applied for geological measurements, outdoor surveillance and UAV applications.===Other imaging===In infrared photography, infrared filters are used to capture the near-infrared spectrum.", "Digital cameras often use infrared blockers.", "Cheaper digital cameras and camera phones have less effective filters and can view intense near-infrared, appearing as a bright purple-white color.", "This is especially pronounced when taking pictures of subjects near IR-bright areas (such as near a lamp), where the resulting infrared interference can wash out the image.", "There is also a technique called 'T-ray' imaging, which is imaging using far-infrared or terahertz radiation.", "Lack of bright sources can make terahertz photography more challenging than most other infrared imaging techniques.", "Recently T-ray imaging has been of considerable interest due to a number of new developments such as terahertz time-domain spectroscopy.Reflected light photograph in various infrared spectra to illustrate the appearance as the wavelength of light changes.===Tracking===Infrared tracking, also known as infrared homing, refers to a passive missile guidance system, which uses the emission from a target of electromagnetic radiation in the infrared part of the spectrum to track it.", "Missiles that use infrared seeking are often referred to as \"heat-seekers\" since infrared (IR) is just below the visible spectrum of light in frequency and is radiated strongly by hot bodies.", "Many objects such as people, vehicle engines, and aircraft generate and retain heat, and as such, are especially visible in the infrared wavelengths of light compared to objects in the background.===Heating===Infrared hair dryer for hair salons, c. 2010sInfrared radiation can be used as a deliberate heating source.", "For example, it is used in infrared saunas to heat the occupants.", "It may also be used in other heating applications, such as to remove ice from the wings of aircraft (de-icing).", "Infrared radiation is used in cooking, known as broiling or grilling.", "One energy advantage is that the IR energy heats only opaque objects, such as food, rather than the air around them.Infrared heating is also becoming more popular in industrial manufacturing processes, e.g.", "curing of coatings, forming of plastics, annealing, plastic welding, and print drying.", "In these applications, infrared heaters replace convection ovens and contact heating.===Cooling===A variety of technologies or proposed technologies take advantage of infrared emissions to cool buildings or other systems.", "The LWIR (8–15 μm) region is especially useful since some radiation at these wavelengths can escape into space through the atmosphere's infrared window.", "This is how passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) surfaces are able to achieve sub-ambient cooling temperatures under direct solar intensity, enhancing terrestrial heat flow to outer space with zero energy consumption or pollution.", "PDRC surfaces minimize shortwave solar reflectance to lessen heat gain while maintaining strong longwave infrared (LWIR) thermal radiation heat transfer.", "When imagined on a worldwide scale, this cooling method has been proposed as a way to slow and even reverse global warming, with some estimates proposing a global surface area coverage of 1-2% to balance global heat fluxes.===Communications===IR data transmission is also employed in short-range communication among computer peripherals and personal digital assistants.", "These devices usually conform to standards published by IrDA, the Infrared Data Association.", "Remote controls and IrDA devices use infrared light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to emit infrared radiation that may be concentrated by a lens into a beam that the user aims at the detector.", "The beam is modulated, i.e.", "switched on and off, according to a code which the receiver interprets.", "Usually very near-IR is used (below 800 nm) for practical reasons.", "This wavelength is efficiently detected by inexpensive silicon photodiodes, which the receiver uses to convert the detected radiation to an electric current.", "That electrical signal is passed through a high-pass filter which retains the rapid pulsations due to the IR transmitter but filters out slowly changing infrared radiation from ambient light.", "Infrared communications are useful for indoor use in areas of high population density.", "IR does not penetrate walls and so does not interfere with other devices in adjoining rooms.", "Infrared is the most common way for remote controls to command appliances.Infrared remote control protocols like RC-5, SIRC, are used to communicate with infrared.Free space optical communication using infrared lasers can be a relatively inexpensive way to install a communications link in an urban area operating at up to 4 gigabit/s, compared to the cost of burying fiber optic cable, except for the radiation damage.", "\"Since the eye cannot detect IR, blinking or closing the eyes to help prevent or reduce damage may not happen.", "\"Infrared lasers are used to provide the light for optical fiber communications systems.", "Infrared light with a wavelength around 1,330 nm (least dispersion) or 1,550 nm (best transmission) are the best choices for standard silica fibers.IR data transmission of encoded audio versions of printed signs is being researched as an aid for visually impaired people through the RIAS (Remote Infrared Audible Signage) project.Transmitting IR data from one device to another is sometimes referred to as beaming.===Spectroscopy===Infrared vibrational spectroscopy (see also near-infrared spectroscopy) is a technique that can be used to identify molecules by analysis of their constituent bonds.", "Each chemical bond in a molecule vibrates at a frequency characteristic of that bond.", "A group of atoms in a molecule (e.g., CH2) may have multiple modes of oscillation caused by the stretching and bending motions of the group as a whole.", "If an oscillation leads to a change in dipole in the molecule then it will absorb a photon that has the same frequency.", "The vibrational frequencies of most molecules correspond to the frequencies of infrared light.", "Typically, the technique is used to study organic compounds using light radiation from the mid-infrared, 4,000–400 cm−1.A spectrum of all the frequencies of absorption in a sample is recorded.", "This can be used to gain information about the sample composition in terms of chemical groups present and also its purity (for example, a wet sample will show a broad O-H absorption around 3200 cm−1).", "The unit for expressing radiation in this application, cm−1, is the spectroscopic wavenumber.", "It is the frequency divided by the speed of light in vacuum.===Thin film metrology===In the semiconductor industry, infrared light can be used to characterize materials such as thin films and periodic trench structures.", "By measuring the reflectance of light from the surface of a semiconductor wafer, the index of refraction (n) and the extinction Coefficient (k) can be determined via the Forouhi–Bloomer dispersion equations.", "The reflectance from the infrared light can also be used to determine the critical dimension, depth, and sidewall angle of high aspect ratio trench structures.===Meteorology===IR satellite picture of cumulonimbus clouds over the Great Plains of the United States.Weather satellites equipped with scanning radiometers produce thermal or infrared images, which can then enable a trained analyst to determine cloud heights and types, to calculate land and surface water temperatures, and to locate ocean surface features.", "The scanning is typically in the range 10.3–12.5 μm (IR4 and IR5 channels).Clouds with high and cold tops, such as cyclones or cumulonimbus clouds, are often displayed as red or black, lower warmer clouds such as stratus or stratocumulus are displayed as blue or grey, with intermediate clouds shaded accordingly.", "Hot land surfaces are shown as dark-grey or black.", "One disadvantage of infrared imagery is that low cloud such as stratus or fog can have a temperature similar to the surrounding land or sea surface and does not show up.", "However, using the difference in brightness of the IR4 channel (10.3–11.5 μm) and the near-infrared channel (1.58–1.64 μm), low cloud can be distinguished, producing a ''fog'' satellite picture.", "The main advantage of infrared is that images can be produced at night, allowing a continuous sequence of weather to be studied.These infrared pictures can depict ocean eddies or vortices and map currents such as the Gulf Stream, which are valuable to the shipping industry.", "Fishermen and farmers are interested in knowing land and water temperatures to protect their crops against frost or increase their catch from the sea.", "Even El Niño phenomena can be spotted.", "Using color-digitized techniques, the gray-shaded thermal images can be converted to color for easier identification of desired information.The main water vapour channel at 6.40 to 7.08 μm can be imaged by some weather satellites and shows the amount of moisture in the atmosphere.===Climatology===The greenhouse effect with molecules of methane, water, and carbon dioxide re-radiating solar heatIn the field of climatology, atmospheric infrared radiation is monitored to detect trends in the energy exchange between the Earth and the atmosphere.", "These trends provide information on long-term changes in Earth's climate.", "It is one of the primary parameters studied in research into global warming, together with solar radiation.A pyrgeometer is utilized in this field of research to perform continuous outdoor measurements.", "This is a broadband infrared radiometer with sensitivity for infrared radiation between approximately 4.5 μm and 50 μm.===Astronomy===Beta Pictoris with its planet Beta Pictoris b, the light-blue dot off-center, as seen in infrared.", "It combines two images, the inner disc is at 3.6 μm.Astronomers observe objects in the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum using optical components, including mirrors, lenses and solid state digital detectors.", "For this reason it is classified as part of optical astronomy.", "To form an image, the components of an infrared telescope need to be carefully shielded from heat sources, and the detectors are chilled using liquid helium.The sensitivity of Earth-based infrared telescopes is significantly limited by water vapor in the atmosphere, which absorbs a portion of the infrared radiation arriving from space outside of selected atmospheric windows.", "This limitation can be partially alleviated by placing the telescope observatory at a high altitude, or by carrying the telescope aloft with a balloon or an aircraft.", "Space telescopes do not suffer from this handicap, and so outer space is considered the ideal location for infrared astronomy.The infrared portion of the spectrum has several useful benefits for astronomers.", "Cold, dark molecular clouds of gas and dust in our galaxy will glow with radiated heat as they are irradiated by imbedded stars.", "Infrared can also be used to detect protostars before they begin to emit visible light.", "Stars emit a smaller portion of their energy in the infrared spectrum, so nearby cool objects such as planets can be more readily detected.", "(In the visible light spectrum, the glare from the star will drown out the reflected light from a planet.", ")Infrared light is also useful for observing the cores of active galaxies, which are often cloaked in gas and dust.", "Distant galaxies with a high redshift will have the peak portion of their spectrum shifted toward longer wavelengths, so they are more readily observed in the infrared.===Cleaning===Infrared cleaning is a technique used by some motion picture film scanners, film scanners and flatbed scanners to reduce or remove the effect of dust and scratches upon the finished scan.", "It works by collecting an additional infrared channel from the scan at the same position and resolution as the three visible color channels (red, green, and blue).", "The infrared channel, in combination with the other channels, is used to detect the location of scratches and dust.", "Once located, those defects can be corrected by scaling or replaced by inpainting.===Art conservation and analysis===An infrared reflectogram of ''Mona Lisa'' by Leonardo da Vinciupright=0.9Infrared reflectography can be applied to paintings to reveal underlying layers in a non-destructive manner, in particular the artist's underdrawing or outline drawn as a guide.", "Art conservators use the technique to examine how the visible layers of paint differ from the underdrawing or layers in between (such alterations are called pentimenti when made by the original artist).", "This is very useful information in deciding whether a painting is the prime version by the original artist or a copy, and whether it has been altered by over-enthusiastic restoration work.", "In general, the more pentimenti, the more likely a painting is to be the prime version.", "It also gives useful insights into working practices.", "Reflectography often reveals the artist's use of carbon black, which shows up well in reflectograms, as long as it has not also been used in the ground underlying the whole painting.Recent progress in the design of infrared-sensitive cameras makes it possible to discover and depict not only underpaintings and pentimenti, but entire paintings that were later overpainted by the artist.", "Notable examples are Picasso's ''Woman Ironing'' and ''Blue Room'', where in both cases a portrait of a man has been made visible under the painting as it is known today.Similar uses of infrared are made by conservators and scientists on various types of objects, especially very old written documents such as the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Roman works in the Villa of the Papyri, and the Silk Road texts found in the Dunhuang Caves.", "Carbon black used in ink can show up extremely well.===Biological systems===Thermographic image of a snake eating a mouseThe pit viper has a pair of infrared sensory pits on its head.", "There is uncertainty regarding the exact thermal sensitivity of this biological infrared detection system.Other organisms that have thermoreceptive organs are pythons (family Pythonidae), some boas (family Boidae), the Common Vampire Bat (''Desmodus rotundus''), a variety of jewel beetles (''Melanophila acuminata''), darkly pigmented butterflies (''Pachliopta aristolochiae'' and ''Troides rhadamantus plateni''), and possibly blood-sucking bugs (''Triatoma infestans'').Some fungi like ''Venturia inaequalis'' require near-infrared light for ejection.Although near-infrared vision (780–1,000 nm) has long been deemed impossible due to noise in visual pigments, sensation of near-infrared light was reported in the common carp and in three cichlid species.", "Fish use NIR to capture prey and for phototactic swimming orientation.", "NIR sensation in fish may be relevant under poor lighting conditions during twilight and in turbid surface waters.===Photobiomodulation===Near-infrared light, or photobiomodulation, is used for treatment of chemotherapy-induced oral ulceration as well as wound healing.", "There is some work relating to anti-herpes virus treatment.", "Research projects include work on central nervous system healing effects via cytochrome c oxidase upregulation and other possible mechanisms.===Health hazards===Strong infrared radiation in certain industry high-heat settings may be hazardous to the eyes, resulting in damage or blindness to the user.", "Since the radiation is invisible, special IR-proof goggles must be worn in such places." ], [ "Scientific history", "The discovery of infrared radiation is ascribed to William Herschel, the astronomer, in the early 19th century.", "Herschel published his results in 1800 before the Royal Society of London.", "Herschel used a prism to refract light from the sun and detected the infrared, beyond the red part of the spectrum, through an increase in the temperature recorded on a thermometer.", "He was surprised at the result and called them \"Calorific Rays\".", "The term \"infrared\" did not appear until late 19th century.", "An earlier experiment in 1790 by Marc-Auguste Pictet demonstrated the reflection and focusing of radiant heat via mirrors in the absence of visible light.Other important dates include:Infrared radiation was discovered in 1800 by William Herschel.", "* 1830: Leopoldo Nobili made the first thermopile IR detector.", "* 1840: John Herschel produces the first thermal image, called a thermogram.", "* 1860: Gustav Kirchhoff formulated the blackbody theorem .", "* 1873: Willoughby Smith discovered the photoconductivity of selenium.", "* 1878: Samuel Pierpont Langley invents the first bolometer, a device which is able to measure small temperature fluctuations, and thus the power of far infrared sources.", "* 1879: Stefan–Boltzmann law formulated empirically that the power radiated by a blackbody is proportional to ''T''4.", "* 1880s and 1890s: Lord Rayleigh and Wilhelm Wien solved part of the blackbody equation, but both solutions diverged in parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.", "This problem was called the \"ultraviolet catastrophe and infrared catastrophe\".", "* 1892: Willem Henri Julius published infrared spectra of 20 organic compounds measured with a bolometer in units of angular displacement.", "* 1901: Max Planck published the blackbody equation and theorem.", "He solved the problem by quantizing the allowable energy transitions.", "* 1905: Albert Einstein developed the theory of the photoelectric effect.", "* 1905–1908: William Coblentz published infrared spectra in units of wavelength (micrometers) for several chemical compounds in ''Investigations of Infra-Red Spectra''.", "* 1917: Theodore Case developed the thallous sulfide detector, which helped produce the first infrared search and track device able to detect aircraft at a range of one mile (1.6 km).", "* 1935: Lead salts – early missile guidance in World War II.", "* 1938: Yeou Ta predicted that the pyroelectric effect could be used to detect infrared radiation.", "* 1945: The Zielgerät 1229 \"Vampir\" infrared weapon system was introduced as the first portable infrared device for military applications.", "* 1952: Heinrich Welker grew synthetic InSb crystals.", "* 1950s and 1960s: Nomenclature and radiometric units defined by Fred Nicodemenus, G. J. Zissis and R. Clark; Robert Clark Jones defined ''D''*.", "* 1958: W. D. Lawson (Royal Radar Establishment in Malvern) discovered IR detection properties of Mercury cadmium telluride (HgCdTe).", "* 1958: Falcon and Sidewinder missiles were developed using infrared technology.", "* 1960s: Paul Kruse and his colleagues at Honeywell Research Center demonstrate the use of HgCdTe as an effective compound for infrared detection.", "* 1962: J. Cooper demonstrated pyroelectric detection.", "* 1964: W. G. Evans discovered infrared thermoreceptors in a pyrophile beetle.", "* 1965: First IR handbook; first commercial imagers (Barnes, Agema (now part of FLIR Systems Inc.)); Richard Hudson's landmark text; F4 TRAM FLIR by Hughes; phenomenology pioneered by Fred Simmons and A. T. Stair; U.S. Army's night vision lab formed (now Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate (NVESD)), and Rachets develops detection, recognition and identification modeling there.", "* 1970: Willard Boyle and George E. Smith proposed CCD at Bell Labs for picture phone.", "* 1973: Common module program started by NVESD.", "* 1978: Infrared imaging astronomy came of age, observatories planned, IRTF on Mauna Kea opened; 32 × 32 and 64 × 64 arrays produced using InSb, HgCdTe and other materials.", "* 2013: On 14 February, researchers developed a neural implant that gives rats the ability to sense infrared light, which for the first time provides living creatures with new abilities, instead of simply replacing or augmenting existing abilities." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Infrared: A Historical Perspective (Omega Engineering)* Infrared Data Association, a standards organization for infrared data interconnection* SIRC Protocol * How to build a USB infrared receiver to control PC's remotely* Infrared Waves: detailed explanation of infrared light.", "(NASA)* Herschel's original paper from 1800 announcing the discovery of infrared light* The thermographic's library, collection of thermogram* Infrared reflectography in analysis of paintings at ColourLex* Molly Faries, Techniques and Applications – Analytical Capabilities of Infrared Reflectography: An Art Historian s Perspective, in Scientific Examination of Art: Modern Techniques in Conservation and Analysis, Sackler NAS Colloquium, 2005" ] ]
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[ [ "Icosidodecahedron" ], [ "Introduction", "3D model of an icosidodecahedronIn geometry, an '''icosidodecahedron''' is a polyhedron with twenty (''icosi'') triangular faces and twelve (''dodeca'') pentagonal faces.", "An icosidodecahedron has 30 identical vertices, with two triangles and two pentagons meeting at each, and 60 identical edges, each separating a triangle from a pentagon.", "As such it is one of the Archimedean solids and more particularly, a quasiregular polyhedron." ], [ "Geometry", "An icosidodecahedron has icosahedral symmetry, and its first stellation is the compound of a dodecahedron and its dual icosahedron, with the vertices of the icosidodecahedron located at the midpoints of the edges of either.Its dual polyhedron is the rhombic triacontahedron.", "An icosidodecahedron can be split along any of six planes to form a pair of pentagonal rotundae, which belong among the Johnson solids.The icosidodecahedron can be considered a ''pentagonal gyrobirotunda'', as a combination of two rotundae (compare pentagonal orthobirotunda, one of the Johnson solids).", "In this form its symmetry is D5d, 10,2+, (2*5), order 20.The wire-frame figure of the icosidodecahedron consists of six flat regular decagons, meeting in pairs at each of the 30 vertices.The icosidodecahedron has 6 central decagons.", "Projected into a sphere, they define 6 great circles.", "Buckminster Fuller used these 6 great circles, along with 15 and 10 others in two other polyhedra to define his 31 great circles of the spherical icosahedron." ], [ "Cartesian coordinates", "Convenient Cartesian coordinates for the vertices of an icosidodecahedron with unit edges are given by the even permutations of:*(0, 0, ±''φ'')*(±, ±, ±)where ''φ'' is the golden ratio, .The long radius (center to vertex) of the icosidodecahedron is in the golden ratio to its edge length; thus its radius is ''φ'' if its edge length is 1, and its edge length is if its radius is 1.Only a few uniform polytopes have this property, including the four-dimensional 600-cell, the three-dimensional icosidodecahedron, and the two-dimensional decagon.", "(The icosidodecahedron is the equatorial cross section of the 600-cell, and the decagon is the equatorial cross section of the icosidodecahedron.)", "These '''radially golden''' polytopes can be constructed, with their radii, from golden triangles which meet at the center, each contributing two radii and an edge." ], [ "Orthogonal projections", "The icosidodecahedron has four special orthogonal projections, centered on a vertex, an edge, a triangular face, and a pentagonal face.", "The last two correspond to the A2 and H2 Coxeter planes.+ Orthogonal projectionsCentered byVertexEdgeFaceTriangleFacePentagonSolid120px120px120pxWireframe120px120px120px120pxProjectivesymmetry22610Dual120px120px120px120px" ], [ "Surface area and volume", "The surface area ''A'' and the volume ''V'' of the icosidodecahedron of edge length ''a'' are::" ], [ "Spherical tiling", "The icosidodecahedron can also be represented as a spherical tiling, and projected onto the plane via a stereographic projection.", "This projection is conformal, preserving angles but not areas or lengths.", "Straight lines on the sphere are projected as circular arcs on the plane.160px160pxPentagon-centered160pxTriangle-centeredOrthographic projectionStereographic projections Orthographic projections 193px 193px 193px 2-fold, 3-fold and 5-fold symmetry axes" ], [ "Related polytopes", "The icosidodecahedron is a rectified dodecahedron and also a rectified icosahedron, existing as the full-edge truncation between these regular solids.The icosidodecahedron contains 12 pentagons of the dodecahedron and 20 triangles of the icosahedron:The icosidodecahedron exists in a sequence of symmetries of quasiregular polyhedra and tilings with vertex configurations (3.", "''n'')2, progressing from tilings of the sphere to the Euclidean plane and into the hyperbolic plane.", "With orbifold notation symmetry of *''n''32 all of these tilings are wythoff construction within a fundamental domain of symmetry, with generator points at the right angle corner of the domain.=== Dissection ===The icosidodecahedron is related to the Johnson solid called a pentagonal orthobirotunda created by two pentagonal rotundae connected as mirror images.", "The ''icosidodecahedron'' can therefore be called a ''pentagonal gyrobirotunda'' with the gyration between top and bottom halves.320px(Dissection)100pxIcosidodecahedron(''pentagonal gyrobirotunda'')100pxPentagonal orthobirotunda100pxPentagonal rotunda=== Related polyhedra ===A topological icosidodecahedron in truncated cube, inserting 6 vertices in center of octagons, and dissecting them into 2 pentagons and 2 triangles.The truncated cube can be turned into an icosidodecahedron by dividing the octagons into two pentagons and two triangles.", "It has pyritohedral symmetry.Eight uniform star polyhedra share the same vertex arrangement.", "Of these, two also share the same edge arrangement: the small icosihemidodecahedron (having the triangular faces in common), and the small dodecahemidodecahedron (having the pentagonal faces in common).", "The vertex arrangement is also shared with the compounds of five octahedra and of five tetrahemihexahedra.100pxIcosidodecahedron100pxSmall icosihemidodecahedron100pxSmall dodecahemidodecahedron100pxGreat icosidodecahedron100pxGreat dodecahemidodecahedron100pxGreat icosihemidodecahedron100pxDodecadodecahedron100pxSmall dodecahemicosahedron100pxGreat dodecahemicosahedron100pxCompound of five octahedra100pxCompound of five tetrahemihexahedra=== Related polychora ===In four-dimensional geometry the '''icosidodecahedron''' appears in the regular 600-cell as the equatorial slice that belongs to the vertex-first passage of the 600-cell through 3D space.", "In other words: the 30 vertices of the 600-cell which lie at arc distances of 90 degrees on its circumscribed hypersphere from a pair of opposite vertices, are the vertices of an icosidodecahedron.", "The wire frame figure of the 600-cell consists of 72 flat regular decagons.", "Six of these are the equatorial decagons to a pair of opposite vertices.", "They are precisely the six decagons which form the wire frame figure of the icosidodecahedron.If a 600-cell is stereographically projected to 3-space about any vertex and all points are normalised, the geodesics upon which edges fall comprise the icosidodecahedron's barycentric subdivision." ], [ "Icosidodecahedral graph", "In the mathematical field of graph theory, a '''icosidodecahedral graph''' is the graph of vertices and edges of the icosidodecahedron, one of the Archimedean solids.", "It has 30 vertices and 60 edges, and is a quartic graph Archimedean graph." ], [ "Icosidodecahedra in nature", "The Hoberman sphere is an icosidodecahedron.Icosidodecahedra can be found in all eukaryotic cells, including human cells, as Sec13/31 COPII coat-protein formations.", "== Trivia == In Star Trek universe, the Vulcan game of logic Kal-Toh has the goal of creating a shape with two nested holographic icosidodecahedra joined at the midpoints of their segments." ], [ "See also", "*Cuboctahedron*Great truncated icosidodecahedron*Icosahedron*Rhombicosidodecahedron*Truncated icosidodecahedron" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* (Section 3-9)*" ], [ "External links", "*** Editable printable net of an icosidodecahedron with interactive 3D view* The Uniform Polyhedra* Virtual Reality Polyhedra The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "ISO 8601" ], [ "Introduction", "'''ISO 8601''' is an international standard covering the worldwide exchange and communication of date and time-related data.", "It is maintained by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and was first published in 1988, with updates in 1991, 2000, 2004, and 2019, and an amendment in 2022.The standard provides a well-defined, unambiguous method of representing calendar dates and times in worldwide communications, especially to avoid misinterpreting numeric dates and times when such data is transferred between countries with different conventions for writing numeric dates and times.ISO 8601 applies to these representations and formats: ''dates'', in the Gregorian calendar (including the proleptic Gregorian calendar); ''times'', based on the 24-hour timekeeping system, with optional UTC offset; ''time intervals''; and combinations thereof.", "The standard does not assign specific meaning to any element of the dates/times represented: the meaning of any element depends on the context of its use.", "Dates and times represented cannot use words that do not have a specified numerical meaning within the standard (thus excluding names of years in the Chinese calendar), or that do not use computer characters (excludes images or sounds).In representations that adhere to the ISO 8601 ''interchange standard'', dates and times are arranged such that the greatest temporal term (typically a year) is placed at the left and each successively lesser term is placed to the right of the previous term.", "Representations must be written in a combination of Arabic numerals and the specific computer characters (such as \"\", \":\", \"T\", \"W\", \"Z\") that are assigned specific meanings within the standard; that is, such commonplace descriptors of dates (or parts of dates) as \"January\", \"Thursday\", or \"New Year's Day\" are not allowed in interchange representations within the standard." ], [ "History", "The first edition of the ISO 8601 standard was published as ''ISO 8601:1988'' in 1988.It unified and replaced a number of older ISO standards on various aspects of date and time notation: ISO 2014, ISO 2015, ISO 2711, ISO 3307, and ISO 4031.It has been superseded by a second edition ''ISO 8601:2000'' in 2000, by a third edition ''ISO 8601:2004'' published on 1 December 2004, and withdrawn and revised by ''ISO 8601-1:2019'' and ''ISO 8601-2:2019'' on 25 February 2019.ISO 8601 was prepared by, and is under the direct responsibility of, ISO Technical Committee TC 154.ISO 2014, though superseded, is the standard that originally introduced the all-numeric date notation in most-to-least-significant order .", "The ISO week numbering system was introduced in ISO 2015, and the identification of days by ordinal dates was originally defined in ISO 2711.Issued in February 2019, the fourth revision of the standard ISO 8601-1:2019 represents slightly updated contents of the previous ISO 8601:2004 standard, whereas the new ISO 8601-2:2019 defines various extensions such as uncertainties or parts of the Extended Date/Time Format (EDTF).An amendment was published in October 2022 featuring minor technical clarifications and attempts to remove ambiguities in definitions.", "The most significant change, however, was the reintroduction of the \"24:00:00\" format to refer to the instant at the ''end'' of a calendar day.+ History of published editions and amendments Name Description ISO 8601:1988 Data elements and interchange formats — Information interchange — Representation of dates and times ISO 8601:1988/COR 1:1991 Data elements and interchange formats — Information interchange — Representation of dates and times — Technical Corrigendum 1 ISO 8601:2000 Data elements and interchange formats — Information interchange — Representation of dates and times ISO 8601:2004 Data elements and interchange formats — Information interchange — Representation of dates and times ISO 8601-1:2019 Date and time — Representations for information interchange — Part 1: Basic rules ISO 8601-2:2019 Date and time — Representations for information interchange — Part 2: Extensions ISO 8601-1:2019/Amd 1:2022 Date and time — Representations for information interchange — Part 1: Basic rules — Amendment 1: Technical corrections" ], [ "General principles", "*Date and time values are ordered from the largest to smallest unit of time: year, month (or week), day, hour, minute, second, and fraction of second.", "The lexicographical order of the representation thus corresponds to chronological order, except for date representations involving negative years or time offset.", "This allows dates to be naturally sorted by, for example, file systems.", "*Each date and time value has a fixed number of digits that must be padded with leading zeros.", "*Representations can be done in one of two formatsa ''basic format'' with a minimal number of separators or an ''extended format'' with separators added to enhance human readability.", "The standard notes that \"The basic format should be avoided in plain text.\"", "The separator used between date values (year, month, week, and day) is the hyphen, while the colon is used as the separator between time values (hours, minutes, and seconds).", "For example, the 6th day of the 1st month of the year 2009 may be written as in the extended format or simply as \"20090106\" in the basic format without ambiguity.", "* For reduced precision, any number of values may be dropped from any of the date and time representations, but in the order from the least to the most significant.", "For example, \"2004-05\" is a valid ISO 8601 date, which indicates May (the fifth month) 2004.This format will never represent the 5th day of an unspecified month in 2004, nor will it represent a time-span extending from 2004 into 2005.", "*If necessary for a particular application, the standard supports the addition of a decimal fraction to the smallest time value in the representation." ], [ "Dates", "The standard uses the Gregorian calendar, which \"serves as an international standard for civil use.", "\"ISO 8601:2004 fixes a reference calendar date to the Gregorian calendar of 20 May 1875 as the date the (Metre Convention) was signed in Paris (the explicit reference date was removed in ISO 8601-1:2019).", "However, ISO calendar dates before the convention are still compatible with the Gregorian calendar all the way back to the official introduction of the Gregorian calendar on 15 October 1582.Earlier dates, in the proleptic Gregorian calendar, may be used by mutual agreement of the partners exchanging information.", "The standard states that every date must be consecutive, so usage of the Julian calendar would be contrary to the standard (because at the switchover date, the dates would not be consecutive).===Years=== YYYY ±YYYYYISO 8601 prescribes, as a minimum, a four-digit year YYYY to avoid the year 2000 problem.", "It therefore represents years from 0000 to 9999, year 0000 being equal to 1 BC and all others AD, similar to astronomical year numbering.", "However, years before 1583 (the first full year following the introduction of the Gregorian calendar) are not automatically allowed by the standard.", "Instead, the standard states that \"values in the range 0000 through 1582 shall only be used by mutual agreement of the partners in information interchange\".To represent years before 0000 or after 9999, the standard also permits the expansion of the year representation but only by prior agreement between the sender and the receiver.", "An expanded year representation ±YYYYY must have an agreed-upon number of extra year digits beyond the four-digit minimum, and it must be prefixed with a + or − sign instead of the more common AD/BC (or CE/BCE) notation; by convention 1 BC is labelled +0000, 2 BC is labeled −0001, and so on.===Calendar dates=== ''or'' YYYYMMDD (''but not'' YYYYMM) '''Only allowed in the (now superseded) 2000 version:''' ''or'' YYMMDD ''or'' -YYMM ''or'' --MMDD Calendar date representations are in the form shown in the adjacent box.", "YYYY indicates a four-digit year, 0000 through 9999.MM indicates a two-digit month of the year, 01 through 12.DD indicates a two-digit day of that month, 01 through 31.For example, \"5 April 1981\" may be represented as either in the ''extended format'' or \"19810405\" in the ''basic format''.The standard also allows for calendar dates to be written with reduced precision.", "For example, one may write to mean \"1981 April\".", "One may simply write \"1981\" to refer to that year, \"198\" to refer to the decade from 1980 to 1989 inclusive, or \"19\" to refer to the century from 1900 to 1999 inclusive.", "Although the standard allows both the and YYYYMMDD formats for complete calendar date representations, if the day DD is omitted then only the format is allowed.", "By disallowing dates of the form YYYYMM, the standard avoids confusion with the truncated representation YYMMDD (still often used).", "The 2000 version also allowed writing the truncation to mean \"April 5\" but the 2004 version does not allow omitting the year when a month is present.Examples:* 7 January 2000 can be written as \"2000-01-07\" or \"20000107\"===Week dates=== YYYY-Www ''or'' YYYYWww YYYY-Www-D ''or'' YYYYWwwDWeek date representations are in the formats as shown in the adjacent box.", "YYYY indicates the ''ISO week-numbering year'' which is slightly different from the traditional Gregorian calendar year (see below).", "Www is the ''week number'' prefixed by the letter ''W'', from W01 through W53.D is the ''weekday number'', from 1 through 7, beginning with Monday and ending with Sunday.There are several mutually equivalent and compatible descriptions of week 01:* the week with the first business day in the starting year (considering that Saturdays, Sundays and 1 January are non-working days),* the week with the starting year's first Thursday in it (the formal ISO definition),* the week with 4 January in it,* the first week with the majority (four or more) of its days in the starting year, and* the week starting with the Monday in the period 29 December - 4 January.As a consequence, if 1 January is on a Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday or Thursday, it is in week 01.If 1 January is on a Friday, Saturday or Sunday, it is in week 52 or 53 of the previous year (there is no week 00).", "28 December is always in the last week of its year.The week number can be described by counting the Thursdays: week 12 contains the 12th Thursday of the year.The ''ISO week-numbering year'' starts at the first day (Monday) of week 01 and ends at the Sunday before the new ISO year (hence without overlap or gap).", "It consists of 52 or 53 full weeks.", "The first ISO week of a year may have up to three days that are actually in the Gregorian calendar year that is ending; if three, they are Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday.", "Similarly, the last ISO week of a year may have up to three days that are actually in the Gregorian calendar year that is starting; if three, they are Friday, Saturday, and Sunday.", "The Thursday of each ISO week is always in the Gregorian calendar year denoted by the ISO week-numbering year.Examples:* is written \"\"* is written \"\"===Ordinal dates=== YYYY-DDD ''or'' YYYYDDDAn ''ordinal date'' is an ordinal format for the multiples of a day elapsed since the start of year.It is represented as \"YYYY-DDD\" (or YYYYDDD), where YYYY indicates a year and DDD is the \"day of year\", from 001 through 365 (366 in leap years).", "For example, is the same as .This simple form is preferable for occasions when the arbitrary nature of week and month definitions are more of an impediment than an aid, for instance, when comparing dates from different calendars.", "This format is used with simple hardware systems that have a need for a date system, but where including full calendar calculation software may be a significant nuisance.", "This system is sometimes referred to as \"Julian Date\", but this can cause confusion with the astronomical Julian day, a sequential count of the number of days since day 0 beginning Greenwich noon, Julian proleptic calendar (or noon on ISO date which uses the Gregorian proleptic calendar with a year 0000)." ], [ "Times", "Thh:mm:ss.sss''or''Thhmmss.sss Thh:mm:ss ''or'' Thhmmss Thh:mm.mmm ''or'' Thhmm.mmm Thh:mm ''or'' Thhmm Thh.hhh Thh '''In unambiguous contexts*'''hh:mm:ss.sss''or''hhmmss.sss* hh:mm:ss ''or'' hhmmss* hh:mm ''or'' hhmm* hh* * Unambiguous here because they are in the ''Times'' section of this Wikipedia article.ISO 8601 uses the 24-hour clock system.", "As of ISO 8601-1:2019, the ''basic format'' is Thhmmss and the ''extended format'' is Thh:mm:ss.", "Earlier versions omitted the T (representing time) in both formats.", "*hh refers to a zero-padded hour between 00 and 24.", "*mm refers to a zero-padded minute between 00 and 59.", "*ss refers to a zero-padded second between 00 and 60 (where 60 is only used to denote an added leap second).So a time might appear as either \"T134730\" in the ''basic format'' or \"T13:47:30\" in the ''extended format''.", "ISO 8601-1:2019 allows the T to be omitted in the extended format, as in \"13:47:30\", but only allows the T to be omitted in the basic format when there is no risk of confusion with date expressions.Either the seconds, or the minutes and seconds, may be omitted from the basic or extended time formats for greater brevity but decreased precision; the resulting reduced precision time formats are:*Thhmm in ''basic format'' or Thh:mm in ''extended format'', when seconds are omitted.", "*Thh, when both seconds and minutes are omitted.As of ISO 8601-1:2019/Amd 1:2022, \"00:00:00\" may be used to refer to ''midnight'' corresponding to the instant at the beginning of a calendar day; and \"24:00:00\" to refer to midnight corresponding to the instant at the end of a calendar day.", "ISO 8601-1:2019 as originally published removed \"24:00:00\" as a representation for the end of day although it had been permitted in earlier versions of the standard.A decimal fraction may be added to the lowest order time element present in any of these representations.", "A decimal mark, either a comma or a dot on the baseline, is used as a separator between the time element and its fraction.", "(Following ISO 80000-1 according to ISO 8601:1-2019, it does not stipulate a preference except within International Standards, but with a preference for a comma according to ISO 8601:2004.", ")For example, to denote \"14 hours, 30 and one half minutes\", do not include a seconds figure; represent it as \"14:30,5\", \"T1430,5\", \"14:30.5\", or \"T1430.5\".There is no limit on the number of decimal places for the decimal fraction.", "However, the number of decimal places needs to be agreed to by the communicating parties.", "For example, in Microsoft SQL Server, the precision of a decimal fraction is 3 for a DATETIME, i.e., \"yyyy-mm-ddThh:mm:ss.mmm\".===Time zone designators=== Z ±hh:mm ±hhmm ±hhTime zones in ISO 8601 are represented as local time (with the location unspecified), as UTC, or as an offset from UTC.====Local time (unqualified)====If no UTC relation information is given with a time representation, the time is assumed to be in local time.", "While it ''may'' be safe to assume local time when communicating in the same time zone, it is ambiguous when used in communicating across different time zones.", "Even within a single geographic time zone, some local times will be ambiguous if the region observes daylight saving time.", "It is usually preferable to indicate a time zone (zone designator) using the standard's notation.====Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)====If the time is in UTC, add a ''Z'' directly after the time without a space.", "''Z'' is the zone designator for the zero UTC offset.", "\"09:30 UTC\" is therefore represented as \"09:30Z\" or \"T0930Z\".", "\"14:45:15 UTC\" would be \"14:45:15Z\" or \"T144515Z\".The ''Z'' suffix in the ISO 8601 time representation is sometimes referred to as \"Zulu time\" or \"Zulu meridian\" because the same letter is used to designate the Zulu time zone.", "However the ACP 121 standard that defines the list of military time zones makes no mention of UTC and derives the \"Zulu time\" from the Greenwich Mean Time which was formerly used as the international civil time standard.", "GMT is no longer precisely defined by the scientific community and can refer to either UTC or UT1 depending on context.====Time offsets from UTC====The UTC offset is appended directly to the time instead of \"Z\" suffix above; other nautical time zone letters are not used.", "The offset is applied to UTC to get the civil time in the designated time zone in the format '±hh:mm', '±hhmm', or '±hh'.A negative UTC offset describes a time zone west of the prime meridian where the civil time is behind UTC.", "So the zone designation for New York (on standard time) would be \"−05:00\",\"−0500\", or \"−05\".Conversely, a positive UTC offset describes a time zone east of the prime meridian where the civil time is ahead of UTC.", "So the zone designation for Cairo will be \"+02:00\",\"+0200\", or \"+02\".A time zone where the civil time coincides with UTC is always designated as positive, though the offset is zero (see related specifications below).", "So the zone designation for London (on standard time) would be \"+00:00\", \"+0000\", or \"+00\".=====Additional examples=====* \"−10:00\" for Honolulu* \"−06:00\" for Chicago on standard time, or Denver on daylight saving time* \"+01:00\" for London on British Summer Time* \"+04:00\" for Dubai* \"+05:30\" for MumbaiSee List of UTC offsets for other UTC offsets.=====Other time offset specifications=====It is not permitted to state a zero value time offset with a negative sign, as \"−00:00\", \"−0000\", or \"−00\".", "The section dictating sign usage states that a plus sign must be used for a positive or zero value, and a minus sign for a negative value.", "A plus-minus-sign () may also be used if it is available.", "Contrary to this rule, RFC 3339, which is otherwise a profile of ISO 8601, permits the use of \"−00\" with the same denotation as \"+00\" but a differing connotation: an unknown UTC offset.To represent a negative offset, ISO 8601 specifies using a minus sign ().", "If the interchange character set is limited and does not have a minus sign character, then the hyphen-minus should be used, ().", "ASCII does not have a minus sign, so its hyphen-minus character (code 4510) would be used.", "If the character set has a minus sign, such as in Unicode, then that character should be used.", "The HTML character entity invocation for is &minus;.ISO 8601-2:2019 allows for general durations for time offsets.", "For example, more precision can be added to the time offset with the format '" ], [ "Combined date and time representations", " TA single point in time can be represented by concatenating a complete date expression, the letter ''\"T\"'' as a delimiter, and a valid time expression.", "For example, .", "In ISO 8601:2004 it was permitted to omit the ''\"T\"'' character by mutual agreement as in , but this provision was removed in ISO 8601-1:2019.Separating date and time parts with other characters such as space is not allowed in ISO 8601, but allowed in its profile RFC 3339.If a time zone designator is required, it follows the combined date and time.", "For example, or .Either basic or extended formats may be used, but both date and time must use the same format.", "The date expression may be calendar, week, or ordinal, and must use a complete representation.", "The time may be represented using a specified reduced precision format." ], [ "Durations", " PnYnMnDTnHnMnS PnW PTDurations define the amount of intervening time in a time interval and are represented by the format PnYnMnDTnHnMnS or PnW as shown on the aside.", "In these representations, the n is replaced by the value for each of the date and time elements that follow the n. Leading zeros are not required, but the maximum number of digits for each element should be agreed to by the communicating parties.", "The capital letters ''P'', ''Y'', ''M'', ''W'', ''D'', ''T'', ''H'', ''M'', and ''S'' are designators for each of the date and time elements and are not replaced.", "*''P'' is the duration designator (for ''period'') placed at the start of the duration representation.", "**''Y'' is the year designator that follows the value for the number of calendar years.", "**''M'' is the month designator that follows the value for the number of calendar months.", "**''W'' is the week designator that follows the value for the number of weeks.", "**''D'' is the day designator that follows the value for the number of calendar days.", "*''T'' is the time designator that precedes the time components of the representation.", "**''H'' is the hour designator that follows the value for the number of hours.", "**''M'' is the minute designator that follows the value for the number of minutes.", "**''S'' is the second designator that follows the value for the number of seconds.For example, \"P3Y6M4DT12H30M5S\" represents a duration of \"three years, six months, four days, twelve hours, thirty minutes, and five seconds\".Date and time elements including their designator may be omitted if their value is zero, and lower-order elements may also be omitted for reduced precision.", "For example, \"P23DT23H\" and \"P4Y\" are both acceptable duration representations.", "However, at least one element must be present, thus \"P\" is not a valid representation for a duration of 0 seconds.", "\"PT0S\" or \"P0D\", however, are both valid and represent the same duration.To resolve ambiguity, \"P1M\" is a one-month duration and \"PT1M\" is a one-minute duration (note the time designator, T, that precedes the time value).", "The smallest value used may also have a decimal fraction, as in \"P0.5Y\" to indicate half a year.", "This decimal fraction may be specified with either a comma or a full stop, as in \"P0,5Y\" or \"P0.5Y\".", "The standard does not prohibit date and time values in a duration representation from exceeding their \"carry over points\" except as noted below.", "Thus, \"PT36H\" could be used as well as \"P1DT12H\" for representing the same duration.", "But keep in mind that \"PT36H\" is not the same as \"P1DT12H\" when switching from or to Daylight saving time.Alternatively, a format for duration based on combined date and time representations may be used by agreement between the communicating parties either in the basic format PYYYYMMDDThhmmss or in the extended format .", "For example, the first duration shown above would be .", "However, individual date and time values cannot exceed their moduli (e.g.", "a value of 13 for the month or 25 for the hour would not be permissible).The standard describes a duration as part of time intervals, which are discussed in the next section.", "The duration format on its own is ambiguous regarding the total number of days in a calendar year and calendar month.", "The number of seconds in a calendar day is also ambiguous because of leap seconds.", "For example \"P1M\" on its own could be 28, 29, 30, or 31 days.", "There is no ambiguity when used in a time interval.", "Using example \"P2M\" duration of two calendar months:* interval 2003-02-15T00:00:00Z/P2M ends two calendar months later at 2003-04-15T00:00:00Z which is 59 days later* interval 2003-07-15T00:00:00Z/P2M ends two calendar months later at 2003-09-15T00:00:00Z which is 62 days laterThe duration format (or a subset thereof) is widely used independent of time intervals, as with the Java 8 Duration class which supports a subset of the duration format." ], [ "Time intervals", " / / / A time interval is the intervening time between two time points.", "The amount of intervening time is expressed by a duration (as described in the previous section).", "The two time points (start and end) are expressed by either a combined date and time representation or just a date representation.There are four ways to express a time interval:#Start and end, such as \"2007-03-01T13:00:00Z/2008-05-11T15:30:00Z\"#Start and duration, such as \"2007-03-01T13:00:00Z/P1Y2M10DT2H30M\"#Duration and end, such as \"P1Y2M10DT2H30M/2008-05-11T15:30:00Z\"#Duration only, such as \"P1Y2M10DT2H30M\", with additional context informationOf these, the first three require two values separated by an ''interval designator'' which is usually a solidus (more commonly referred to as a forward slash \"/\").", "Section 3.2.6 of ISO 8601-1:2019 notes that \"A solidus may be replaced by a double hyphen \"--\" by mutual agreement of the communicating partners\", and previous versions used notations like \"2000--2002\".", "Use of a double hyphen instead of a solidus allows inclusion in computer filenames; in common operating systems, a solidus is a reserved character and is not allowed in a filename.For / expressions, if any elements are missing from the end value, they are assumed to be the same as for the start value including the time zone.", "This feature of the standard allows for concise representations of time intervals.", "For example, the date of a two-hour meeting including the start and finish times could be simply shown as \"2007-12-14T13:30/15:30\", where \"/15:30\" implies \"/2007-12-14T15:30\" (the same date as the start), or the beginning and end dates of a monthly billing period as \"2008-02-15/03-14\", where \"/03-14\" implies \"/2008-03-14\" (the same year as the start).If greater precision is desirable to represent the time interval, then more time elements can be added to the representation.", "An interval denoted can start at any time on and end at any time on , whereas includes the start and end times.To explicitly include all of the start and end dates, the interval would be represented as .===Repeating intervals=== Rn/ R/Repeating intervals are specified in clause \"4.5 Recurring time interval\".", "They are formed by adding \"Rn/\" to the beginning of an interval expression, where ''R'' is used as the letter itself and n is replaced by the number of repetitions.", "Leaving out the value for n or specifying a value of -1, means an unbounded number of repetitions.", "A value of 0 for n means the interval is not repeated.If the interval specifies the start (forms 1 and 2 above), then this is the start of the repeating interval.", "If the interval specifies the end but not the start (form 3 above), then this is the end of the repeating interval.", "For example, to repeat the interval of \"P1Y2M10DT2H30M\" five times starting at , use ." ], [ "{{anchor|Truncated representations}}Truncated representations (deprecated)", "ISO 8601:2000 allowed truncation (by agreement), where leading components of a date or time are omitted.", "Notably, this allowed two-digit years to be used as well as the ambiguous formats YY-MM-DD and YYMMDD.", "This provision was removed in ISO 8601:2004.+ Some Truncated Representations (last valid in ISO 8601:2000) Type Basic format Basic example Extended format Extended example A specific date in the implied century YYMMDD 851026 YY-MM-DD 85-10-26 A specific year and month in the implied century -YYMM -8510 -YY-MM -85-10 A specific year in the implied century -YY -85 A specific day of a month in the implied year --MMDD --1026 --MM-DD --10-26 A specific month in the implied year --MM --10 A specific day in the implied month ---DD ---26 A specific year and ordinal day in the implied century YYDDD 85299 YY-DDD 85-299 A specific ordinal day in the implied year -DDD -299 A specific year and week in the implied decade -YWww -5W43 -Y-Www -5-W43 A specific week and day in the implied year -WwwD -W436 -Www-D -W43-6 A specific day in the implied week -W-D -W-6 A specific minute and second of the implied hour -mmss -3456 -mm:ss -34:56 A specific second of the implied minute -ss -56 A specific minute and decimal fraction of the implied hour -mm,m -34,9 The first and seventh examples given above omit the leading - for century.", "Other formats have one leading - per omitted century, year, month, week, hour and minute as necessary to disambiguate the format." ], [ "Standardised extensions", "ISO 8601-2:2019 defines a set of standardised extensions to the ISO 8601 date and time formats.", "; Extended Date/Time Format (EDTF): The EDTF is given as an example of a profile of ISO 8601.Some of its features are::* Uncertain and approximate qualifiers, '?'", "and '~', as well as their combined used, '%'; they can be applied to the whole date or to individual components.", ":* Time intervals with an open (unbounded) end or an unknown end.", ":* Exponential and significant figure notation in years.", ":* Special \"month\" values indicating sub-year groupings such as seasons and quarters.", ":* Syntax for serializing a list of dates.", ": The EDTF features are described in the \"Date and Time Extensions\" section of ISO 8601-2:2019.; Repeat rules for recurring time intervals: ISO 8601-2:2019 also defines a format to constrain repeating intervals based on syntax from iCalendar." ], [ "Usage", "On the Internet, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) uses the IETF standard based on ISO 8601 in defining a profile of the standard that restricts the supported date and time formats to reduce the chance of error and the complexity of software.", "The very simple specification is based on a draft of the mentioned below.ISO 8601 is referenced by several specifications, but the full range of options of ISO 8601 is not always used.", "For example, the various electronic program guide standards for TV, digital radio, etc.", "use several forms to describe points in time and durations.", "The ID3 audio meta-data specification also makes use of a subset of ISO 8601.The X.690 encoding standard's GeneralizedTime makes use of another subset of ISO 8601.=== Commerce ===As of 2006, the ISO week date appears in its basic form on major brand commercial packaging in the United States.", "Its appearance depended on the particular packaging, canning, or bottling plant more than any particular brand.", "The format is particularly useful for quality assurance, so that production errors can be readily traced.=== RFCs ===IETF RFC 3339 defines a profile of ISO 8601 for use in Internet protocols and standards.", "It explicitly excludes durations and dates before the common era.", "The more complex formats such as week numbers and ordinal days are not permitted.", "deviates from ISO 8601 in allowing a zero time zone offset to be specified as \"-00:00\", which ISO 8601 forbids.", "intends \"-00:00\" to carry the connotation that it is not stating a preferred time zone, whereas the conforming \"+00:00\" or any non-zero offset connotes that the offset being used is preferred.", "This convention regarding \"-00:00\" is derived from earlier RFCs, such as RFC 2822 which uses it for timestamps in email headers.", "made no claim that any part of its timestamp format conforms to ISO 8601, and so was free to use this convention without conflict.=== Adoption as national standards === Australia AS/NZS ISO 8601.1:2021, AS/NZS ISO 8601.2:2021 (replaced AS ISO 8601-2007) Austria ÖNORM ISO 8601 (replaced ÖNORM EN 28601) Belgium NBN EN 28601 (1993) Brazil NBR 5892:2019 Canada CAN/CSA-Z234.4-89 (R2007) Colombia NTC 1034:2014 Source ICONTEC (This standard is identical to ISO 8601:2004) China GB/T 7408-2005 Czech Republic ČSN ISO 8601 (replaced ČSN EN 28601) (Obsolete as of 2019.No standard was given in exchange.)", "Denmark DS/ISO 8601:2005 (replaced DS/EN 28601) Estonia EVS 8:2008; EVS-ISO 8601:2011 European Norm EN ISO 8601, EN 28601:1992 (cancelled 7 October 2011) Finland SFS-EN 28601 France NF Z69-200; NF EN 28601:1993-06-01 (cancelled) Germany DIN ISO 8601:2006-09 (replaced DIN EN 28601:1993-02); related: DIN 5008:2011-04 (replaced DIN 5008:2005-05, DIN 5008:2001-11, DIN 5008:1996-05) Greece ELOT EN 28601 Hungary MSZ ISO 8601:2003 Iceland IST EN 28601:1992 (obsolete) India IS 7900:2001 Ireland IS/EN 28601:1993 Italy UNI EN 28601 (1993) Japan JIS X 0301:2002 Korea, Republic of KS X ISO 8601 Lithuania LST ISO 8601:2006 (replaced LST ISO 8601:1997) Luxembourg ITM-EN 28601 Mexico NMX-CH-150-IMNC-1999 Netherlands NEN ISO 8601, NEN EN 28601 (1994), NEN 2772 New Zealand AS/NZS ISO 8601.1:2021, AS/NZS ISO 8601.2:2021 Norway NS-ISO 8601 Poland PN-EN 28601:2002 (Obsolete as of 2008.No standard was given in exchange.)", "Portugal NP EN 28601 Russia ГОСТ ИСО 8601-2001 (current), ГОСТ 7.64-90 (obsolete) South Africa SANS 8601:2009 Spain UNE EN 28601:1995 Sweden SS-ISO 8601-1:2022, contains the official English version of ISO 8601-1:2019.", "(Approved 2022-05-13, replaces SS-ISO 8601:2011, edition 2) Switzerland SN ISO 8601:2005-08 (replaced SN-EN 28601:1994) Taiwan CNS 7648 Thailand TIS 1111:2535 (1992) Turkey TS ISO 8601-1 and TS ISO 8601-2 (Accepted from 2021-02-15) Ukraine ДСТУ ISO 8601:2010 United Kingdom BS ISO 8601:2004, BS EN 28601 (1989-06-30) United States ANSI INCITS 30-1997 (R2008) and NIST FIPS PUB 4-2 Vietnam TCVN 6398-1:1998" ], [ "See also", "*Astronomical year numbering*Date and time representation by country* Date format by country* Horology* ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates on Wikiversity" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "External links", "* ISO's catalog entry for ISO 8601:2004* The latest prototype of ISO 8601-1 (ISO/TC 154 N)* The latest prototype of ISO 8601-2 (ISO/TC 154 N)* Use international date format (ISO) – Quality Web Tips The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)** ISO 8601 summary by Markus Kuhn** The Mathematics of the ISO 8601 Calendar* W3C Specification about UTC Date and Time, based on ISO 8601:1988* RFC 3339 vs ISO 8601 — Venn diagram illustrating the difference between the two standards.", "* * '''Implementation overview'''* ISO 8601 Implementation Around The World" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Isa" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Isa''' or '''ISA''' may refer to:" ], [ "Places", "* Isa, Amur Oblast, Russia* Isa, Kagoshima, Japan* Isa, Nigeria* Isa District, Kagoshima, former district in Japan* Isa Town, middle class town located in Bahrain* Mount Isa, Queensland, Australia* Mount Isa Airport, IATA airport code \"ISA\"* Isa (river), a river in Belarus" ], [ "People", "* Īsā, the name of Jesus in Islam* Isa (name), an Arabic name corresponding to Jesus in English* Isa, stage name of Lee Chae-young, member of K-Pop group STAYC* Isa, female given name, short for Isabel or similar names beginning with Isa- such as Isadora* Isa Maud Ilsen (1868–1937), Canadian-American music therapist, nurse, lecturer* Isa Tengblad (born 1998), Swedish singer using the mononym Isa" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "===Fictional entities===* ISA (''Days of Our Lives''), spy agency in TV series* Isa the iguana, in TV series ''Dora the Explorer''*Interplanetary Strategic Alliance (ISA), military alliance in videogame saga ''Killzone''===Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media===* ''Isa'' (Enslaved album), 2004* Isa (Zaz album), 2021* ''Isa'' (film), a 2014 television film* Isa, a dance in music of the Canary Islands" ], [ "Computing", "* Industry Standard Architecture, a PC computer bus standard* Instruction set architecture, the specification for data types, registers, instructions, etc.", "for a given computer hardware architecture* Is-a, a relationship between abstractions in programming* Internet Security and Acceleration, a network router, firewall, antivirus program, VPN server and web cache from Microsoft Corporation" ], [ "Education", "* Indian Squash Academy, Chennai, India* Independent Schools Association (Australia), mainly for sports* Independent Schools Association (UK), organisation for independent schools in the United Kingdom* Iniciativa de Salud de las Americas, Spanish name for Health Initiative of the Americas* Institute for the Study of the Americas, University of London, England* Instituto Superior de Agronomia, an agronomy faculty in Lisbon, Portugal* Instituto Superior de Arte, an art school in Havana, Cuba* International School Amsterdam, the Netherlands* International School Augsburg* International School of Aleppo, Syria* International School of Athens, Greece* International School of the Americas, San Antonio, Texas* International Studies Association* Islamic Saudi Academy" ], [ "Finance", "* Income share agreement, a borrowing agreement sometimes used for tuition loans in the United States* Individual savings account, class of retail investment arrangement available in the United Kingdom* International Standards on Auditing, professional standards for the auditing of financial information.", "* Israel Securities Authority, Israel's national securities regulator" ], [ "Government", "* Independent Safeguarding Authority, former UK child protection agency* Intelligence Services Act 1994, UK* Intelligence Support Activity, of the US Army* Internal Security Agency, secret service and counter-espionage agency in Poland* International Seabed Authority, for mineral-related activities* International Searching Authority, for patents* International Solar Alliance* Interoperability Solutions for European Public Administrations, EU* Invention Secrecy Act of the United States government* Iranian Space Agency* Israel Security Agency or Shin Bet, Israel* Israel Space Agency* Israel State Archives, the national archive of Israel* Italian Space Agency" ], [ "Organizations and brands", "* Industry Super Australia, the peak body for Industry superannuation funds in Australia* Information Systems Associates FZE, an aviation software house* Innovative Software Applications, a company taken over by Sorcim in 1982* International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations* International Seabed Authority* International Socialist Alternative, an international association of Trotskyist political parties.", "* International Society of Arboriculture, a non-profit botanical organization* International Society of Automation, a non-profit professional organization for engineers, technicians, and students* International Sociological Association* International Soling Association* International Surfing Association, the world governing authority for the sport of surfing* Irish Sailing Association, the governing body for sailing in Ireland* International Slackline Association" ], [ "Science", "* Isosaccharinic acid, a six-carbon sugar acid* Intrinsic sympatheticomimetic activity, a term used with beta blockers that are partial agonists* Infectious salmon anemia, a viral disease of salmon* International Standard Atmosphere, an atmospheric model of the Earth* International Seismological Association, former name of the ''International Association of Seismology and Physics of the Earth's Interior (IASPEI)''" ], [ "Entomology", "* Isa (moth), a genera of moths." ], [ "Other uses", "* Intelligent speed adaptation, systems to automatically enforce vehicle speed limits* International Symbol of Access, blue and white wheelchair symbol* ISA Brown, type of chicken* Ideological state apparatus, a theory by Louis Althusser" ], [ "See also", "* Internal Security Act (disambiguation)* Isaz, the \"I\" rune in the Scandinavian runic alphabet* Issa (disambiguation)* Isha (disambiguation)* ESA (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "International Seabed Authority" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''International Seabed Authority''' ('''ISA''') () is a Kingston, Jamaica-based intergovernmental body of 167 member states and the European Union established under the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and its 1994 Agreement on Implementation.", "The ISA's dual mission is to authorize and control development of mineral related operations in the international seabed considered the \"common heritage of all mankind\" and also protect the ecosystem of the seabed, ocean floor and subsoil in \"The Area\" beyond national jurisdiction.", "The ISA is to safeguard the international deep sea, the waters below 200 meters or 656 feet, where photosynthesis is hampered by inadequate light.", "Governing approximately half of the total area of the world's oceans, the ISA is to exercise oversight of activities that might threaten biological diversity and harm the marine environment.", "The Authority operates as an autonomous international organization with its own Assembly, Council and Secretariat.Since the ISA's inception in 1994, the Authority has approved over two dozen ocean floor mining exploration contracts in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans, with the majority of contracts for exploration in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone between Hawaii and Mexico, where polymetallic nodules contain copper, cobalt and other minerals used to power electric batteries.", "To date, the Authority has not authorized any commercial mining contracts as it deliberates over regulations amid global calls for a moratorium on deep sea mining.", "Scientists and environmentalists warn such mining could wreak havoc on the ocean as a carbon sink home to rare and diverse species.", "The ISA is funded by UNCLOS members and mining contractors and led by Secretary-General Michael Lodge, a British barrister who oversees a 47-member administrative body and has come under criticism for close ties to the mining industry and support for deep sea robotic exploration to develop renewable energy." ], [ "Origin", "The Authority held its inaugural meeting in its host country, Jamaica, on 16 November 1994, the day the Convention came into force.", "The articles governing the Authority have been made \"noting the political and economic changes, including market-oriented approaches, affecting the implementation\" of the convention.", "The Authority obtained its observer status to the United Nations in October 1996.The Authority has 167 members and the European Union, composed of all parties to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.", "The Authority operates by contracting with private and public corporations and other entities authorizing them to explore, and potentially exploit, specified areas on the deep seabed for mineral resources, such as cobalt, nickel and manganese.=== \"Common Heritage of All Mankind\" ===Under UNCLOS, Part XI, Section 2.", "\"The Area and its resources are the common heritage of mankind.\"", "As a result, ISA must ensure that activities in the Area are undertaken only for peaceful purposes and for the benefit of all humankind, with economic benefits shared equitably and special consideration given to the needs of developing nations.=== Governance and operations ===Along with a Secretary-General, two principal organs establish the policies and govern the work of the Authority: the Assembly, in which all UNCLOS parties are represented, and a 36-member Council elected by the Assembly.==== Secretary-General ====The Assembly elects a Secretary-General to serve a four-year term as the ISA's chief administrative officer, oversee Authority staff and issue an annual report to the Assembly.", "The Secretary-General is prohibited from holding a financial interest in any mining operations authorized by the Authority.In July 2016, the Assembly of the Authority elected Michael Lodge of the United Kingdom, for a four-year term as Secretary-General beginning 1 January 2017.He succeeds Nii Allotey Odunton of Ghana, who had served two consecutive four-year terms since 2008.==== Assembly ====The Assembly, which consists of all members of the Authority, elects the 36-member Council, as well as the Secretary-General from among candidates the Council recommends.", "The Assembly also has the power to approve or reject the council's recommendations for the following: rules and regulations governing seabed mining, distribution of financial benefits accrued from authorized mining and the Authority's annual budget.==== Council ====The 36-member Council, elected by the Assembly, authorizes contracts with governments and private corporations to explore and mine the international seabed and sets rules and procedures, subject to the Assembly's approval, for ISA governance.", "The council also nominates a Secretary-General, who then must be elected by the full Assembly to serve a four-year term.", "The ISA's annual plenary sessions, which usually last two weeks, are held in Kingston.==== Advisory bodies ====Also established is a 30-member Legal and Technical Commission which advises the Council and a 15-member Finance Committee that deals with budgetary and related matters.", "All members are experts nominated by governments and elected to serve in their individual capacity.==== Enterprise ====The convention also established a body called the '''Enterprise''' which is to serve as the Authority's own mining operator, potentially generating \"hundreds of millions of dollars in royalties\" to be shared with developing nations.\"", "The environmental organization Greenpeace has expressed concerns over the ISA's alleged conflict of interest as both regulator and business operator, though the ISA denies the conflict of interest charge." ], [ "Status", "The Authority has a Secretariat of 37 authorized posts and a 2022 biennial budget of approximately $10,000,000." ], [ "Jurisdiction", "UNCLOS defines the international seabed area—the part under ISA jurisdiction—as \"the seabed and ocean floor and the subsoil thereof, beyond the limits of national jurisdiction\" UNCLOS outlines the areas of national jurisdiction as a \"12 nautical-mile territorial sea; an exclusive economic zone of up to 200 nautical miles and a continental shelf\", unless a nation can demonstrate that its continental shelf is naturally prolonged beyond that limit, in which case it may claim up to .", "ISA has no role in determining this boundary.", "Rather, this task is left to another body established by UNCLOS, the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, which examines scientific data submitted by coastal states that claim a broader reach.", "Member states represented in blue; observer states in yellow (note: the European Union also holds membership)Clarion Clipperton Zone, 1.7 million square miles between Hawaii and Mexico, known for ocean floor nodules of cobalt, nickel, manganese and copper, as well as unusual species" ], [ "Exploration contracts and commercial mining", "=== Commercial ===Although the ISA has yet to approve commercial mining contracts, the Authority anticipates commercial mining could begin as early as 2023–2024 with the completion of much-debated ISA regulations.", "In 2021, the Pacific Island nation of Nauru triggered a deadline that requires the ISA to approve final commercial mining regulations by July 2023 or allow contractors to mine under existing draft regulations.=== Exploratory ===Exploratory mining involves \"deep-sea mapping, manned submersibles or remotely-operated vehicles, photographic and video systems, and drilling devices.", "\"==== Clarion-Clipperton Zone ====Investigation into manganese nodule mining on the seabed in the Clarion-Clipperton ZoneMost areas of exploration are in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ), in the Equatorial North Pacific Ocean, south and southeast of Hawaii, between Hawaii and Mexico.", "The quiet CCZ, as wide as the continental U.S., is home to polymetallic nodules or trillions of potato-size lumps of matter formed over millions of years that contain nickel, manganese, copper, zinc and cobalt, as well as deep water coral, sponges and unusual species (\"ghost octopus\", crustaceans, worms and sea cucumbers) that in a near light-less environment attach to the rock-like nodules for shelter.", "Contractors want to mine polymetallic nodules for battery storage for electric vehicles, smartphones, and solar and wind energy.==== Other areas of exploration ====Exploration contracts for polymetallic nodules have also been issued for contractors operating in the Central Indian Ocean Basin and Western Pacific Ocean.", "The ISA has issued exploration contracts for polymetallic sulphides in the South West Indian Ridge, Central Indian Ridge and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and contracts for exploration for cobalt-rich crusts in the Western Pacific Ocean.==== Requirements of contractors ====Each contractor is required to develop a contingency plan should something go wrong during exploration, report annually on its activities in its assigned area and propose a training program for developing countries .==== List of exploratory contractors ====The ISA has signed 15-year contracts for exploration with 22 contractors seeking polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulphides and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts in the deep seabed.In 2001-2002 the ISA signed contracts with Yuzhmorgeologya (Russian Federation); Interoceanmetal Joint Organization (IOM) (Bulgaria, Cuba, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Poland and Russian Federation); the Government of the Republic of Korea; China Ocean Minerals Research and Development Association (COMRA) (China); Deep Ocean Resources Development Company (DORD) (Japan); Institut français de recherche pour l’exploitation de la mer (IFREMER) (France); the Government of India.", "In 2006, the Authority signed a 15-year contract with the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources of Germany.In 2008, the Authority received two new applications for authorization to explore for polymetallic nodules, coming for the first time from private firms in developing island nations of the Pacific.", "Sponsored by their respective governments, they were submitted by Nauru Ocean Resources Inc. and Tonga Offshore Mining Limited.", "A 15-year exploration contract was granted by the Authority to Nauru Ocean Resources Inc. on 22 July 2011 and to Tonga Offshore Mining Limited on 12 January 2012.Fifteen-year exploration contracts for polymetallic nodules were also granted to G-TECH Sea Mineral Resources NV (Belgium) on 14 January 2013; Marawa Research and Exploration Ltd (Kiribati) on 19 January 2015; Ocean Mineral Singapore Pte Ltd on 22 January 2015; UK Seabed Resources Ltd (two contracts on 8 February 2013 and 29 March 2016 respectively); Cook Islands Investment Corporation on 15 July 2016 and more recently China Minmetals Corporation on 12 May 2017.The Authority has signed seven contracts for the exploration for polymetallic sulphides in the South West Indian Ridge, Central Indian Ridge and Mid-Atlantic Ridge with China Ocean Mineral Resources Research and Development Association (18 November 2011); the Government of Russia (29 October 2012); Government of the Republic of Korea (24 June 2014); Institut français de recherche pour l’exploitation de la mer (Ifremer, France, 18 November 2014); the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources of Germany (6 May 2015); and the Government of India (26 September 2016) and the Government of the Republic of Poland (12 February 2018).The Authority holds five contracts for the exploration of cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts in the Western Pacific Ocean with China Ocean Mineral Resources Research and Development Association (29 April 2014); Japan Oil Gas and Metals National Corporation (JOGMEC, 27 January 2014); Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation (10 March 2015), Companhia De Pesquisa de Recursos Minerais (9 November 2015) and the Government of the Republic of Korea (27 March 2018)." ], [ "Controversy", "=== Environmental concerns and climate crisis ===Environmentalists, scientists from 44 countries, Google, BMW and Volvo, World Wildlife Fund and several Pacific nations, including Fiji and Papua New Guinea, have called for a moratorium on deep-sea mining until more scientific research is conducted on its impact on the marine environment.Advocates for deep sea mining argue extraction of rare metals is critical for electric car batteries necessary to develop a fossil-free economy.Opponents argue seabed mining could wreak havoc on the world's oceans, which act as a carbon sink absorbing a quarter of the world's carbon emissions each year.Greenpeace's Esperanza.", "Photo: Jean-Pierre BazardThe environmental organization Greenpeace has raised objections about deep seabed mining disrupting the habitats of newly reported species, from crabs to whales to snails that survive without eating and congregate near bioluminescent thermal vents.", "Greenpeace has urged the ISA to further develop UNCLOS' foundational Article 136 principle \"of common heritage to all mankind\" to revise regulations and set conservation targets.", "In a 2018 Greenpeace Research Laboratories report the organization stressed the importance of protecting marine biodiversity from toxins released during seabed mining for natural gas and rare metals for photovoltaic cells.", "Greenpeace maintains the \"pro-exploitation\" ISA is not the appropriate authority to regulate deep sea mining (DSM).", "In 2019 Greenpeace activists protested outside the annual meeting of the International Seabed Authority in Jamaica, calling for a global ocean treaty to ban deep sea mining in ocean sanctuaries.", "Some of the activists had sailed to Jamaica aboard Greenpeace's ship, the Esperanza, which travelled from the \"Lost City in the mid-Atlantic\", an area Greenpeace says is threatened by exploratory mining the ISA authorized.ISA Secretary-General Michael Lodge said Greenpeace's support for a global ocean treaty, not the ISA, to control deep sea mining did not make sense.=== Concern over transparency issues ===In 2022, The Guardian reported the ISA failed to renew the contract for Earth Negotiations Bulletin (ENB), a division of the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), which covered past proceedings to maintain an independent record of the ISA.", "The decision came amid warnings from scientists that commercial ocean floor mining \"would be “dangerous”, “reckless” and “irreversible” in its harm to the ecosystem.", "In its defense, the ISA said ENB's non-renewal was triggered by budget cuts.", "The Guardian also reported that Germany and environmentalists had raised questions about the lack of transparency by the ISA's Legal and Technical Commission (LTC), which conducts closed meetings to set standards and issue guidelines for seabed mining.In response to criticism, ISA Secretary-General Michael Lodge defended ISA as a \"transparent public forum of consensus-building.", "\"=== Charges of conflict of interest ===In 2022, the ''Los Angeles Times'' reported that the International Seabed Authority faced criticisms over conflicts of interest.", "The ''LA Times'' reported that the ISA was scheduled to approve seabed mining, despite concerns by scientists and environmentalists about the environmental impact.", "ISA head Michael Lodge had criticized these groups, saying there was \"a growing environmental absolutism and dogmatism bordering on fanaticism\" and arguing that seabed mining was \"predictable and manageable\".", "Scientists and members of Lodge's staff objected to Lodge's appearance in a mining company video seeking investments in robotic exploration for minerals to manufacture electric vehicles.", "In the video, Lodge said his agency supported a 15-year exploration contract because \"land-based resources are becoming increasingly difficult to access.", "\"=== United States' non-ratification of UNCLOS ===The exact nature of the ISA's mission and authority has been questioned by opponents of the Law of the Sea Treaty who are generally skeptical of multilateral engagement by the United States.", "In 2007, although the US Senate Foreign Relations Committee voted in favor of treaty ratification, the full Senate failed to ratify the treaty, with some Republicans arguing UNCLOS might threaten national security by interfering with ocean military operations and hinder seabed mining corporations by imposing environmental regulations.One of the main anti-ratification arguments being a charge that the ISA is flawed or unnecessary.", "In its original form, the Convention included certain provisions that some found objectionable, such as:* Use of collected money for wealth redistribution in addition to ISA administration* Mandatory technology transferBecause of these concerns, the United States pushed for modification of the Convention, obtaining a 1994 Agreement on Implementation that somewhat mitigates them and thus modifies the ISA's authority.", "Despite this change the United States has not ratified the Convention and so is not a member of ISA, although it sends sizable delegations to participate in meetings as an observer.As an observer, not an UNCLOS signatory, the U.S. will not be allowed to vote on approval of final commercial mining regulations and will be unable to sponsor companies to apply for contracts in international waters.", "This is because the ISA requires contractors be sponsored by a state that is a signatory to UNCLOS.", "U.S.-based military contractor Lockheed Martin, however, is participating in two British deep sea mining projects." ], [ "Activities", "=== Legislative ===The Authority's main legislative accomplishment has been the adoption, in the year 2000, of regulations governing exploration for polymetallic nodules.", "These resources, also called manganese nodules, contain varying amounts of manganese, cobalt, copper and nickel.", "They occur as potato-sized lumps scattered about on the surface of the ocean floor, mainly in the central Pacific Ocean in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone but with some deposits in the Indian Ocean.In 2013, the ISA approved amendments to its Mining Code on deep sea exploration, stating a prospector should take a precautionary approach to avoid polluting the ocean and should immediately inform the Secretary-General of any prospect-related incidents that threaten the marine environment.", "The amended regulations also said a contractor can recover \"a reasonable amount of material\" for testing but not for sale.In July, 2019, the ISA's Legal and Trade Commission prepared \"Draft regulations on exploitation of mineral resources in the Area.", "\"In 2010, the ISA adopted Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Polymetallic Sulphides.In 2012, the Authority adopted Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Cobalt-Rich Ferromanganese Crusts.The Council of the Authority began work in August 2002 on another set of regulations, covering polymetallic sulfides and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts, which are rich sources of such minerals as copper, iron, zinc, silver and gold, as well as cobalt.", "The sulphides are found around volcanic hot springs, especially in the western Pacific Ocean, while the crusts occur on oceanic ridges and elsewhere at several locations around the world.", "The Council decided in 2006 to prepare separate sets of regulations for sulphides and for crusts, with priority given to sulphides.", "It devoted most of its sessions in 2007 and 2008 to this task, but several issues remained unresolved.", "Chief among these were the definition and configuration of the area to be allocated to contractors for exploration, the fees to be paid to the Authority and the question of how to deal with any overlapping claims that might arise.", "Meanwhile, the Legal and Technical Commission reported progress on ferromanganese crusts.=== Workshops and research ===In addition to its legislative work, the Authority organizes annual workshops on various aspects of seabed exploration, with emphasis on measures to protect the marine environment from any harmful consequences.", "It disseminates the results of these meetings through publications.", "Studies over several years covering the key mineral area of the Central Pacific resulted in a technical study on biodiversity, species ranges and gene flow in the abyssal Pacific nodule province, with emphasis on predicting and managing the impacts of deep seabed mining A workshop at Manoa, Hawaii, in October 2007 produced a rationale and recommendations for the establishment of \"preservation reference areas\" in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, where nodule mining would be prohibited in order to leave the natural environment intact.", "In recent years, the ISA hosted workshops on enhancing the role of women in conducting deep-sea scientific studies, sustainable management of deep seabed resources, a series for Africa on resources and technologies for DSM and a session on sharing the economic benefits of DSM." ], [ "National trends in seabed mining", "In recent years, however, interest in deep sea mining, especially with regard to ferromanganese crusts and polymetallic sulphides, has picked up among several firms now operating in waters within the national zones of Papua New Guinea, Fiji and Tonga.", "Papua New Guinea was the first country in the world to grant commercial exploration licenses for seafloor massive sulphide deposits when it granted the initial license to Nautilus Minerals in 1997.Japan's new ocean policy emphasizes the need to develop methane hydrate and hydrothermal deposits within Japan's exclusive economic zone and calls for the commercialization of these resources within the next 10 years.", "Reporting on these developments in his annual report to the Authority in April 2008, Secretary-General Nandan referred also to the upward trend in demand and prices for cobalt, copper, nickel and manganese, the main metals that would be derived from seabed mining, and he noted that technologies being developed for offshore extraction could be adapted for deep sea mining.Recently, there has been much interest in the possibility of exploiting seabed resources in the Arctic Ocean, bordered by Canada, Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Russia and the United States (see Territorial claims in the Arctic).", "In 2020, an international coalition of environmental groups urged the government of Norway to not only abandon plans for deep sea mining under national jurisdiction, but to also speak out against DSM Arctic mining before the International Seaboard Authority." ], [ "Endowment fund", "In 2006 the Authority established an Endowment Fund to Support Collaborative Marine Scientific Research on the International Seabed Area.", "The Fund will aid experienced scientists and technicians from developing countries to participate in deep-sea research organized by international and national institutions.", "A campaign was launched in February 2008 to identify participants, establish a network of cooperating bodies and seek outside funds to augment the initial $3 million endowment from the Authority." ], [ "Voluntary commitments", "In 2017, the Authority registered seven voluntary commitments with the UN Oceans Conference for Sustainable Development Goal 14.These were:#OceanAction15467 – Enhancing the role of women in marine scientific research through capacity building#OceanAction15796 – Encouraging dissemination of research results through the ISA Secretary-General Award for Excellence in Deep-Sea Research#OceanAction16538 – Abyssal Initiative for Blue Growth (with UN-DESA)#OceanAction16494 – Fostering cooperation to promote the sustainable development of Africa's deep seabed resources in support of Africas Blue Economy#OceanAction17746 – Enhancing the assessment of essential ecological functions of the deep sea oceans through long-term underwater oceanographic observatories in the Area; #OceanAction17776 – Enhancing deep sea marine biodiversity assessment through the creation of online taxonomic atlases linked to deep sea mining activities in the Area" ], [ "See also", "* UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea)* Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf* Deep Sea Mining* Clarion-Clipperton Zone* Polymetallic nodules* International waters* Seabed Arms Control Treaty* United Nations Trusteeship Council* Antarctic Treaty Secretariat" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* International Seabed Authority* Overview – Convention & Related Agreements.", "UN: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982).", "* Developing a Regulatory Framework for Mineral Exploitation in the Area (Submission to the International Seabed Authority on the report to ISA members and stakeholders)* DEEP TROUBLE: The murky world of the deep sea mining industry (Greenpeace International, 2020)* The Mining Code: Exploration Regulations (ISA, 2013)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Industry Standard Architecture" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Industry Standard Architecture''' ('''ISA''') is the 16-bit internal bus of IBM PC/AT and similar computers based on the Intel 80286 and its immediate successors during the 1980s.", "The bus was (largely) backward compatible with the 8-bit bus of the 8088-based IBM PC, including the IBM PC/XT as well as IBM PC compatibles.Originally referred to as the '''PC bus''' (8-bit) or '''AT bus''' (16-bit), it was also termed ''I/O Channel'' by IBM.", "The ISA term was coined as a retronym by IBM PC clone manufacturers in the late 1980s or early 1990s as a reaction to IBM attempts to replace the AT-bus with its new and incompatible Micro Channel architecture.The 16-bit ISA bus was also used with 32-bit processors for several years.", "An attempt to extend it to 32 bits, called Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA), was not very successful, however.", "Later buses such as VESA Local Bus and PCI were used instead, often along with ISA slots on the same mainboard.", "Derivatives of the AT bus structure were and still are used in ATA/IDE, the PCMCIA standard, CompactFlash, the PC/104 bus, and internally within Super I/O chips.Even though ISA disappeared from consumer desktops many years ago, it is still used in industrial PCs, where certain specialized expansion cards that never transitioned to PCI and PCI Express are used." ], [ "History", "EISA (top to bottom) : Adlib FM Sound card: Madge 4/16 Mbps Token Ring NIC: Ethernet 10BASE-5/2 NIC: US Robotics 56k ModemThe original PC bus was developed by a team led by Mark Dean at IBM as part of the IBM PC project in 1981.It was an 8-bit bus based on the I/O bus of the IBM System/23 Datamaster system - it used the same physical connector, and a similar signal protocol and pinout.", "A 16-bit version, the IBM AT bus, was introduced with the release of the IBM PC/AT in 1984.The AT bus was a mostly backward compatible extension of the PC bus—the AT bus connector was a superset of the PC bus connector.", "In 1988, the 32-bit EISA standard was proposed by the \"Gang of Nine\" group of PC-compatible manufacturers that included Compaq.", "Compaq created the term \"Industry Standard Architecture\" (ISA) to replace \"PC compatible\".", "In the process, they retroactively renamed the AT bus to \"ISA\" to avoid infringing IBM's trademark on its PC and PC/AT systems (and to avoid giving their major competitor, IBM, free advertisement).", "IBM designed the 8-bit version as a buffered interface to the motherboard buses of the Intel 8088 (16/8 bit) CPU in the IBM PC and PC/XT, augmented with prioritized interrupts and DMA channels.", "The 16-bit version was an upgrade for the motherboard buses of the Intel 80286 CPU (and expanded interrupt and DMA facilities) used in the IBM AT, with improved support for bus mastering.", "The ISA bus was therefore synchronous with the CPU clock, until sophisticated buffering methods were implemented by chipsets to interface ISA to much faster CPUs.ISA was designed to connect peripheral cards to the motherboard and allows for bus mastering.", "Only the first 16 MB of main memory is addressable.", "The original 8-bit bus ran from the 4.77 MHz clock of the 8088 CPU in the IBM PC and PC/XT.", "The original 16-bit bus ran from the CPU clock of the 80286 in IBM PC/AT computers, which was 6 MHz in the first models and 8 MHz in later models.", "The IBM RT PC also used the 16-bit bus.", "ISA was also used in some non-IBM compatible machines such as Motorola 68k-based Apollo (68020) and Amiga 3000 (68030) workstations, the short-lived AT&T Hobbit and the later PowerPC-based BeBox.Companies like Dell improved the AT bus's performance but in 1987, IBM replaced the AT bus with its proprietary Micro Channel Architecture (MCA).", "MCA overcame many of the limitations then apparent in ISA but was also an effort by IBM to regain control of the PC architecture and the PC market.", "MCA was far more advanced than ISA and had many features that would later appear in PCI.", "However, MCA was also a closed standard whereas IBM had released full specifications and circuit schematics for ISA.", "Computer manufacturers responded to MCA by developing the Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) and the later VESA Local Bus (VLB).", "VLB used some electronic parts originally intended for MCA because component manufacturers already were equipped to manufacture them.", "Both EISA and VLB were backward compatible expansions of the AT (ISA) bus.Users of ISA-based machines had to know special information about the hardware they were adding to the system.", "While a handful of devices were essentially \"plug-n-play\", this was rare.", "Users frequently had to configure parameters when adding a new device, such as the IRQ line, I/O address, or DMA channel.", "MCA had done away with this complication and PCI actually incorporated many of the ideas first explored with MCA, though it was more directly descended from EISA.This trouble with configuration eventually led to the creation of '''ISA PnP''', a plug-n-play system that used a combination of modifications to hardware, the system BIOS, and operating system software to automatically manage resource allocations.", "In reality, ISA PnP could be troublesome and did not become well-supported until the architecture was in its final days.A PnP ISA, EISA or VLB device may have a 5-byte '''EISA ID''' (3-byte manufacturer ID + 2-byte hex number) to identify the device.", "For example, '''CTL0044''' corresponds to '''Creative Sound Blaster 16 / 32 PnP'''.PCI slots were the first physically-incompatible expansion ports to directly squeeze ISA off the motherboard.", "At first, motherboards were largely ISA, including a few PCI slots.", "By the mid-1990s, the two slot types were roughly balanced, and ISA slots soon were in the minority of consumer systems.", "Microsoft's PC-99 specification recommended that ISA slots be removed entirely, though the system architecture still required ISA to be present in some vestigial way internally to handle the floppy drive, serial ports, etc., which was why the software compatible LPC bus was created.", "ISA slots remained for a few more years, and towards the turn of the century it was common to see systems with an Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) sitting near the central processing unit, an array of PCI slots, and one or two ISA slots near the end.", "In late 2008, even floppy disk drives and serial ports were disappearing, and the extinction of vestigial ISA (by then the LPC bus) from chipsets was on the horizon.PCI slots are \"rotated\" compared to their ISA counterparts—PCI cards were essentially inserted \"upside-down,\" allowing ISA and PCI connectors to squeeze together on the motherboard.", "Only one of the two connectors can be used in each slot at a time, but this allowed for greater flexibility.The AT Attachment (ATA) hard disk interface is directly descended from the 16-bit ISA of the PC/AT.", "ATA has its origins in the IBM Personal Computer Fixed Disk and Diskette Adapter, the standard dual-function floppy disk controller and hard disk controller card for the IBM PC AT; the fixed disk controller on this card implemented the register set and the basic command set which became the basis of the ATA interface (and which differed greatly from the interface of IBM's fixed disk controller card for the PC XT).", "Direct precursors to ATA were third-party ISA hardcards that integrated a hard disk drive (HDD) and a hard disk controller (HDC) onto one card.", "This was at best awkward and at worst damaging to the motherboard, as ISA slots were not designed to support such heavy devices as HDDs.", "The next generation of Integrated Drive Electronics drives moved both the drive and controller to a drive bay and used a ribbon cable and a very simple interface board to connect it to an ISA slot.", "ATA is basically a standardization of this arrangement plus a uniform command structure for software to interface with the HDC within the drive.", "ATA has since been separated from the ISA bus and connected directly to the local bus, usually by integration into the chipset, for much higher clock rates and data throughput than ISA could support.", "ATA has clear characteristics of 16-bit ISA, such as a 16-bit transfer size, signal timing in the PIO modes and the interrupt and DMA mechanisms." ], [ "ISA bus architecture", " right rightThe '''PC/XT-bus''' is an eight-bit ISA bus used by Intel 8086 and Intel 8088 systems in the IBM PC and IBM PC XT in the 1980s.", "Among its 62 pins were demultiplexed and electrically buffered versions of the 8 data and 20 address lines of the 8088 processor, along with power lines, clocks, read/write strobes, interrupt lines, etc.", "Power lines included −5 V and ±12 V in order to directly support pMOS and enhancement mode nMOS circuits such as dynamic RAMs among other things.", "The XT bus architecture uses a single Intel 8259 PIC, giving eight vectorized and prioritized interrupt lines.", "It has four DMA channels originally provided by the Intel 8237.Three of the DMA channels are brought out to the XT bus expansion slots; of these, 2 are normally already allocated to machine functions (diskette drive and hard disk controller): DMA channel Expansion Standard function 0 No Dynamic random-access memory refresh 1 Yes Add-on cards 2 Yes Floppy disk controller 3 Yes Hard disk controllerThe '''PC/AT-bus''', a 16-bit (or 80286-) version of the PC/XT bus, was introduced with the IBM PC/AT.", "This bus was officially termed ''I/O Channel'' by IBM.", "It extends the XT-bus by adding a second shorter edge connector in-line with the eight-bit XT-bus connector, which is unchanged, retaining compatibility with most 8-bit cards.", "The second connector adds four additional address lines for a total of 24, and 8 additional data lines for a total of 16.It also adds new interrupt lines connected to a second 8259 PIC (connected to one of the lines of the first) and 4 × 16-bit DMA channels, as well as control lines to select 8- or 16-bit transfers.The 16-bit AT bus slot originally used two standard edge connector sockets in early IBM PC/AT machines.", "However, with the popularity of the AT-architecture and the 16-bit ISA bus, manufacturers introduced specialized 98-pin connectors that integrated the two sockets into one unit.", "These can be found in almost every AT-class PC manufactured after the mid-1980s.", "The ISA slot connector is typically black (distinguishing it from the brown EISA connectors and white PCI connectors).===Number of devices===Motherboard devices have dedicated IRQs (not present in the slots).", "16-bit devices can use either PC-bus or PC/AT-bus IRQs.", "It is therefore possible to connect up to 6 devices that use one 8-bit IRQ each and up to 5 devices that use one 16-bit IRQ each.", "At the same time, up to 4 devices may use one 8-bit DMA channel each, while up to 3 devices can use one 16-bit DMA channel each.===Varying bus speeds===Originally, the bus clock was synchronous with the CPU clock, resulting in varying bus clock frequencies among the many different IBM \"clones\" on the market (sometimes as high as 16 or 20 MHz), leading to software or electrical timing problems for certain ISA cards at bus speeds they were not designed for.", "Later motherboards or integrated chipsets used a separate clock generator, or a clock divider which either fixed the ISA bus frequency at 4, 6, or 8 MHz or allowed the user to adjust the frequency via the BIOS setup.", "When used at a higher bus frequency, some ISA cards (certain Hercules-compatible video cards, for instance), could show significant performance improvements.===8/16-bit incompatibilities===Memory address decoding for the selection of 8 or 16-bit transfer mode was limited to 128 KiB sections, leading to problems when mixing 8- and 16-bit cards as they could not co-exist in the same 128 KiB area.", "This is because the MEMCS16 line is required to be set based on the value of LA17-23 only." ], [ "Past and current use", "ISA is still used today for specialized industrial purposes.", "In 2008 IEI Technologies released a modern motherboard for Intel Core 2 Duo processors which, in addition to other special I/O features, is equipped with two ISA slots.", "It is marketed to industrial and military users who have invested in expensive specialized ISA bus adaptors, which are not available in PCI bus versions.Similarly, ADEK Industrial Computers is releasing a motherboard in early 2013 for Intel Core i3/i5/i7 processors, which contains one (non-DMA) ISA slot.The PC/104 bus, used in industrial and embedded applications, is a derivative of the ISA bus, utilizing the same signal lines with different connectors.", "The LPC bus has replaced the ISA bus as the connection to the legacy I/O devices on recent motherboards; while physically quite different, LPC looks just like ISA to software, so that the peculiarities of ISA such as the 16 MiB DMA limit (which corresponds to the full address space of the Intel 80286 CPU used in the original IBM AT) are likely to stick around for a while.=== ATA ===As explained in the ''History'' section, ISA was the basis for development of the ATA interface, used for ATA (a.k.a.", "IDE) hard disks.", "Physically, ATA is essentially a simple subset of ISA, with 16 data bits, support for exactly one IRQ and one DMA channel, and 3 address bits.", "To this ISA subset, ATA adds two IDE address select (\"chip select\") lines (i.e.", "address decodes, effectively equivalent to address bits) and a few unique signal lines specific to ATA/IDE hard disks (such as the Cable Select/Spindle Sync.", "line.)", "In addition to the physical interface channel, ATA goes beyond and far outside the scope of ISA by also specifying a set of physical device registers to be implemented on every ATA (IDE) drive and a full set of protocols and device commands for controlling fixed disk drives using these registers.", "The ATA device registers are accessed using the address bits and address select signals in the ATA physical interface channel, and all operations of ATA hard disks are performed using the ATA-specified protocols through the ATA command set.", "The earliest versions of the ATA standard featured a few simple protocols and a basic command set comparable to the command sets of MFM and RLL controllers (which preceded ATA controllers), but the latest ATA standards have much more complex protocols and instruction sets that include optional commands and protocols providing such advanced optional-use features as sizable hidden system storage areas, password security locking, and programmable geometry translation.A further deviation between ISA and ATA is that while the ISA bus remained locked into a single standard clock rate (for backward hardware compatibility), the ATA interface offered many different speed modes, could select among them to match the maximum speed supported by the attached drives, and kept adding faster speeds with later versions of the ATA standard (up to 133 MB/s for ATA-6, the latest.)", "In most forms, ATA ran much faster than ISA, provided it was connected directly to a local bus (e.g.", "southbridge-integrated IDE interfaces) faster than the ISA bus.=== XT-IDE ===Before the 16-bit ATA/IDE interface, there was an 8-bit XT-IDE (also known as XTA) interface for hard disks.", "It was not nearly as popular as ATA has become, and XT-IDE hardware is now fairly hard to find.", "Some XT-IDE adapters were available as 8-bit ISA cards, and XTA sockets were also present on the motherboards of Amstrad's later XT clones as well as a short-lived line of Philips units.", "The XTA pinout was very similar to ATA, but only eight data lines and two address lines were used, and the physical device registers had completely different meanings.", "A few hard drives (such as the Seagate ST351A/X) could support either type of interface, selected with a jumper.Many later AT (and AT successor) motherboards had no integrated hard drive interface but relied on a separate hard drive interface plugged into an ISA/EISA/VLB slot.", "There were even a few 80486 based units shipped with MFM/RLL interfaces and drives instead of the increasingly common AT-IDE.Commodore built the XT-IDE based peripheral hard drive / memory expansion unit A590 for their Amiga 500 and 500+ computers that also supported a SCSI drive.", "Later models – the A600, A1200, and the Amiga 4000 series – use AT-IDE drives.=== PCMCIA ===The PCMCIA specification can be seen as a superset of ATA.", "The standard for PCMCIA hard disk interfaces, which included PCMCIA flash drives, allows for the mutual configuration of the port and the drive in an ATA mode.", "As a de facto extension, most PCMCIA flash drives additionally allow for a simple ATA mode that is enabled by pulling a single pin low, so that PCMCIA hardware and firmware are unnecessary to use them as an ATA drive connected to an ATA port.", "PCMCIA flash drive to ATA adapters are thus simple and inexpensive, but are not guaranteed to work with any and every standard PCMCIA flash drive.", "Further, such adapters cannot be used as generic PCMCIA ports, as the PCMCIA interface is much more complex than ATA." ], [ "Emulation by embedded chips", "Although most modern computers do not have physical ISA buses, almost all PCs — x86-32, and x86-64 — have ISA buses allocated in physical address space.", "Some Southbridges and some CPUs themselves provide services such as temperature monitoring and voltage readings through ISA buses as ISA devices." ], [ "Standardization", "IEEE started a standardization of the ISA bus in 1985, called the P996 specification.", "However, despite books being published on the P996 specification, it never officially progressed past draft status." ], [ "Modern ISA cards", "There still is an existing user base with old computers, so some ISA cards are still manufactured, e.g.", "with USB ports or complete single-board computers based on modern processors, USB 3.0, and SATA." ], [ "See also", "* PC/104 - Embedded variant of ISA* Low Pin Count (LPC)* Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA)* Micro Channel architecture (MCA)* VESA Local Bus (VLB)* Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)* Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP)* PCI-X* PCI Express (PCI-E or PCIe)* List of computer bus interfaces* Amiga Zorro II* NuBus* Switched fabric* List of device bandwidths* CompactPCI* PC card* Universal Serial Bus (USB)* Legacy port* Backplane" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* '' Intel ISA Bus Specification and Application Notes - Rev 2.01''; Intel; 73 pages; 1989." ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change''' ('''IPCC''') is an intergovernmental body of the United Nations.", "Its job is to advance scientific knowledge about climate change caused by human activities.", "The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) established the IPCC in 1988.The United Nations endorsed the creation of the IPCC later that year.", "It has a secretariat in Geneva, Switzerland, hosted by the WMO.", "It has 195 member states who govern the IPCC.", "The member states elect a bureau of scientists to serve through an assessment cycle.", "A cycle is usually six to seven years.", "The bureau selects experts to prepare IPCC reports.", "It draws the experts from nominations by governments and observer organizations.", "The IPCC has three working groups and a task force, which carry out its scientific work.The IPCC informs governments about the state of knowledge of climate change.", "It does this by examining all the relevant scientific literature on the subject.", "This includes the natural, economic and social impacts and risks.", "It also covers possible response options.", "The IPCC does not conduct its own original research.", "It aims to be objective and comprehensive.", "Thousands of scientists and other experts volunteer to review the publications.", "They compile key findings into \"Assessment Reports\" for policymakers and the general public; Experts have described this work as the biggest peer review process in the scientific community.The IPCC is an internationally accepted authority on climate change.", "Leading climate scientists and all member governments endorse its findings.", "Media, governments, civil society organizations and businesses cite its reports.", "IPCC reports play a key role in the annual climate negotiations held by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).", "The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report was an important influence on the landmark Paris Agreement in 2015.The IPCC shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with Al Gore for contributions to the understanding of climate change.The IPCC began its seventh assessment cycle in 2023.In August 2021, the IPCC published its Working Group I contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report (IPCC AR6) on the physical science basis of climate change.", "''The Guardian'' described this report as the \"starkest warning yet\" of \"major inevitable and irreversible climate changes\".", "Many newspapers around the world echoed this theme.", "In February 2022, the IPCC released its Working Group II report on impacts and adaptation.", "It published Working Group III's \"mitigation of climate change\" contribution to the Sixth Assessment in April 2022.The Sixth Assessment Report concluded with a Synthesis Report in March 2023.During the period of the Sixth Assessment Report, the IPCC released three special reports.", "The first and most influential was the Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C in 2018.In 2019 the Special Report on Climate Change and Land (SRCCL), and the Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC) came out.", "The IPCC also updated its methodologies in 2019.So the sixth assessment cycle was the most ambitious in the IPCC's history." ], [ "Origins", "The predecessor of the IPCC was the Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases (AGGG).", "Three organizations set up the AGGG in 1986.These were the International Council of Scientific Unions, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).", "The AGGG reviewed scientific research on greenhouse gases.", "It also studied increases in greenhouse gases.", "Climate science was becoming more complicated and covering more disciplines.", "This small group of scientists lacked the resources to cover climate science.", "The United States Environmental Protection Agency sought an international convention to restrict greenhouse gas emissions.", "The Reagan Administration worried that independent scientists would have too much influence.", "The WMO and UNEP therefore created the IPCC as an intergovernmental body in 1988.Scientists take part in the IPCC as both experts and government representatives.", "The IPCC produces reports backed by all leading relevant scientists.", "Member governments must also endorse the reports by consensus agreement.", "So the IPCC is both a scientific body and an organization of governments.", "Its job is to tell governments what scientists know about climate change.", "It also examines the impacts of climate change and options for dealing with it.", "The IPCC does this by assessing peer-reviewed scientific literature.The United Nations endorsed the creation of the IPCC in 1988.The General Assembly resolution noted that human activity could change the climate.", "This could lead to severe economic and social consequences.", "It said increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases could warm the planet.", "This would cause the sea level to rise.", "The effects for humanity would be disastrous if timely steps were not taken." ], [ "Organization", "Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C in 2018=== Way of working ===The IPCC does not conduct original research.", "It produces comprehensive assessments on the state of knowledge of climate change.", "It prepares reports on special topics relevant to climate change.", "It also produces methodologies.", "These methodologies help countries estimate their greenhouse gas emissions and removals through sinks.", "Its assessments build on previous reports and scientific publications.", "Over the course of six assessments the reports reflect the growing evidence for a changing climate.", "And they show how this is due to human activity.=== Rules and governing principles ===The IPCC has adopted its rules of procedure in the \"Principles Governing IPCC Work\".", "These state that the IPCC will assess:* the risk of climate change caused by human activities,* its potential impacts, and* possible options for prevention.Under IPCC rules its assessments are comprehensive, objective, open and transparent.", "They cover all the information relevant to the scientific understanding of climate change.", "This draws on scientific, technical and socioeconomic information.", "IPCC reports must be neutral regarding policy recommendations.", "However, they may address the objective factors relevant to enacting policies.=== Structure ===The IPCC has the following structure:* IPCC Panel: Meets in plenary session about twice a year.", "It may meet more often for the approval of reports.", "It controls the IPCC's structure, procedures, work programme and budget.", "It accepts and approves IPCC reports.", "The Panel is the IPCC corporate entity.", "* Chair: Elected by the Panel.", "Chairs the Bureau and other bodies.", "Represents the organization.", "* Bureau: Elected by the Panel.", "It currently has 34 members from different geographic regions.", "Besides the Chair and three IPCC Vice-Chairs, they provide the leadership for the IPCC's three Working Groups and Task Force.", "It provides guidance to the Panel on the scientific and technical aspects of its work.", "* Working Groups: Each has two Co-Chairs, one from a developed and one from a developing country.", "A technical support unit supports each Working Group.", "Working Group sessions approve the Summary for Policymakers of assessment and special reports.", "Each Working Group has a Bureau.", "This consists of its Co-Chairs and Vice-Chairs, who are also members of the IPCC Bureau.", "** Working Group I: Assesses scientific aspects of the climate system and climate change.", "Co-Chairs: Robert Vautard (France) and Xiaoye Zhang (China)** Working Group II: Assesses the impacts of climate change on human and natural systems.", "Assesses adaptation options.", "Co-Chairs: Bart van den Hurk (Netherlands) and Winston Chow (Singapore)** Working Group III: Assesses how to stop climate change by limiting greenhouse gas emissions.", "(Known as \"mitigation\".)", "Co-Chairs: Katherine Calvin (United States) and Joy Jacqueline Pereira (Malaysia)* Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories.", "Develops methodologies for estimating greenhouse gas emissions.", "Co-Chairs: Takeshi Enoki (Japan) and Mazhar Hayat (Pakistan)** Task Force Bureau: Consists of two Co-Chairs, who are also members of the IPCC Bureau, and 12 members.", "* Executive Committee: Consists of the Chair, IPCC Vice-Chairs and the Co-Chairs of the Working Groups and Task Force.", "It addresses urgent issues that arise between sessions of the Panel.", "* Secretariat: Administers activities, supports the Chair and Bureau, point of contact for governments.", "Supported by UNEP and the WMO.==== Chair ====The chair of the IPCC is British energy scientist Jim Skea, who is hosted by the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED).", "Skea has served since 28 July 2023 with the election of the new IPCC Bureau.", "His predecessor was Korean economist Hoesung Lee, elected in 2015.The previous chairs were Rajendra K. Pachauri, elected in 2002, Robert Watson, elected in 1997, and Bert Bolin, elected in 1988.==== Panel ====The Panel consists of representatives appointed by governments.", "They take part in plenary sessions of the IPCC and its Working Groups.", "Non-governmental and intergovernmental organizations may attend as observers.", "Meetings of IPCC bodies are by invitation only.", "About 500 people from 130 countries attended the 48th Session of the Panel in Incheon, Republic of Korea.", "This took place in October 2018.They included 290 government officials and 60 representatives of observer organizations.", "The opening ceremonies of sessions of the Panel and of Lead Author Meetings are open to media.", "Otherwise, IPCC meetings are closed.=== Funding ===The IPCC receives funding through a dedicated trust fund.", "UNEP and the WMO established the fund in 1989.The trust fund receives annual financial contributions from member governments.", "The WMO, UNEP and other organizations also contribute.", "Payments are voluntary and there is no set amount required.", "The WMO covers the operating costs of the secretariat.", "It also sets the IPCC's financial regulations and rules.", "The Panel sets the annual budget.In 2021, the IPCC's annual budget amounts to approximately six million euros, financed by the 195 UN Member states, who contribute \"independently and voluntarily\".", "In 2021, the countries giving the most money include the United States, Japan, France, Germany and Norway.", "Other countries, often developing ones, give an \"in-kind contribution, by hosting IPCC meetings\".", "In 2022, this budget was a little less than eight million euros.=== List of all reports ===YearName of reportType of report2023AR6 Synthesis Report: ''Climate Change 2023'' (March 2023)Synthesis Report2021 and 2022Sixth Assessment Report (AR6): ''Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis'' (Working Group I, August 2021), ''Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability'' (Working Group II, February 2022), ''Mitigation of Climate Change'' (Working Group III, April 2022)Assessment Report (Working Group contributions)2019Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC)Special Report2019Special Report on Climate Change and Land (SRCCL)Special Report20192019 Refinement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas InventoriesMethodology Report2018Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15)Special Report2014AR5 Synthesis Report: ''Climate Change 2014''Synthesis Report2013 and 2014Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) ''Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis'' (Working Group I, September 2013), ''Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability'' (Working Group II, March 2014), ''Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change'' (Working Group III, April 2014)Assessment (Working Group contributions)20132013 Supplement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories: WetlandsMethodology Report20132013 Revised Supplementary Methods and Good Practice Guidance Arising from the Kyoto ProtocolMethodology Report2011Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation (SREX)Special Report2011Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (SRREN)Special Report2007AR4 Synthesis Report: ''Climate Change 2007''Synthesis Report2007Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) ''Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis'' (Working Group I, February 2007), ''Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability'' (Working Group II, April 2007), ''Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change'' (Working Group III, May 2007)Assessment Report (Working Group contributions)20062006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas InventoriesMethodology Report2005Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate SystemSpecial Report2005Carbon Dioxide Capture and StorageSpecial Report2003Good Practice Guidance for Land Use, Land-Use Change and ForestryMethodology Report2003Definitions and Methodological Options to Inventory Emissions from Direct Human-induced Degradation of Forests and Devegatation of Other Vegetation TypesMethodology Report2001TAR Synthesis Report: ''Climate Change 2001''Synthesis Report2001Third Assessment Report (TAR) ''Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis'' (Working Group I), ''Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability'' (Working Group II), ''Climate Change 2001: Mitigation'' (Working Group III)Assessment Report (Working Group contributions)2000Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas InventoriesMethodology Report2000Methodological and Technological Issues in Technology TransferSpecial Report2000Land Use, Land-Use Change, and ForestrySpecial Report2000Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES)Special Report1999Aviation and the Global AtmosphereSpecial Report1997The Regional Impacts of Climate Change: An Assessment of VulnerabilitySpecial Report1996Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas InventoriesMethodology Report1996SAR Synthesis Report: ''Climate Change 1995''Synthesis Report1995Second Assessment Report (SAR) ''Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change'' (Working Group I), ''Climate Change 1995: Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change: Scientific-Technical Analyses'' (Working Group II), ''Climate Change 1995: Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate Change'' (Working Group III) Assessment Report (Working Group contributions)1994IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas InventoriesMethodology Report1994Climate Change 1994: Radiative Forcing of Climate Change and An Evaluation of the IPCC IS92 Emission ScenariosSpecial Report1994IPCC Technical Guidelines for Assessing Climate Change Impacts and AdaptationsSpecial Report1992FAR ''Climate Change: The IPCC 1990 and 1992 Assessments'' (June 1992) (includes an Overview of the whole report)Assessment Report (Working Group contributions)/Synthesis Report1992FAR ''Climate Change 1992: The Supplementary Report to the IPCC Scientific Assessment'' (Working Group I, February 2022), ''Climate Change 1992: The Supplementary Report to the IPCC Impacts Assessment'' (Working Group II, February 2022)Assessment Report (Working Group contributions)1990First Assessment Report (FAR) ''Climate Change: The IPCC Scientific Assessment'' (Working Group I), ''Climate Change: The IPCC Impacts Assessment'' (Working Group II), ''Climate Change: The IPCC Response Strategies'' (Working Group III)Assessment Report (Working Group contributions)=== Activities other than report preparation ===The IPCC bases its work on the decisions of the WMO and UNEP, which established the IPCC.", "It also supports the work of the UNFCCC.", "The main work of the IPCC is to prepare assessment and other reports.", "It also supports other activities such as the Data Distribution Centre.", "This helps manage data related to IPCC reports.", "The IPCC has a \"Gender Policy and Implementation Plan\" to pay attention to gender in its work.", "It aims to carry out its work in an inclusive and respectful manner.", "The IPCC aims for balance in participation in IPCC work.", "This should offer all participants equal opportunity.==== Communications and dissemination activities ====The IPCC enhanced its communications activities for the Fifth Assessment Report.", "For instance it made the approved report and press release available to registered media under embargo before the release.", "And it expanded its outreach activities with an outreach calendar.", "The IPCC held an Expert Meeting on Communication in February 2016, at the start of the Sixth Assessment Report cycle.", "Members of the old and new Bureaus worked with communications experts and practitioners at this meeting.", "This meeting produced a series of recommendations.", "The IPCC adopted many of them.", "One was to bring people with communications expertise into the Working Group Technical Support Units.", "Another was to consider communications questions early on in the preparation of reports.Following these steps in communications, the IPCC saw a significant increase in media coverage of its reports.", "This was particularly the case with the ''Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C'' in 2018 and ''Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis'', the Working Group I contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report, in 2021.There was also much greater public interest, reflected in the youth and other movements that emerged in 2018.IPCC reports are important for public awareness of climate change and related policymaking.", "This has led to a number of academic studies of IPCC communications, for example in 2021.==== Archiving ====The IPCC archives its reports and electronic files on its website.", "They include the review comments on drafts of reports.", "The Environmental Science and Public Policy Archives in the Harvard Library also archives them.." ], [ "Assessment reports", "Page counts of the most recent six IPCC Assessment Reports (1990 to 2021)Between 1990 and 2023, the IPCC has published six comprehensive assessment reports reviewing the latest climate science.", "The IPCC has also produced 14 special reports on particular topics.", "Each assessment report has four parts.", "These are a contribution from each of the three working groups, plus a synthesis report.", "The synthesis report integrates the working group contributions.", "It also integrates any special reports produced in that assessment cycle.The First Assessment Report was published in 1990 and received an update in 1992.In intervals of about six years, new editions of IPCC Assessment Report followed.=== Review process of scientific literature ===The IPCC does not carry out its own research.", "It does not monitor climate-related data.", "The reports by IPCC assess scientific papers and independent results from other scientific bodies.", "The IPCC sets a deadline for publication of scientific papers that a report will cover.", "That report will not include new information that emerges after this deadline.", "However, there is a steady evolution of key findings and levels of scientific confidence from one assessment report to the next.", "Each IPCC report notes areas where the science has improved since the previous report.", "It also notes areas that would benefit from further research.===Selection and role of authors===The focal points of the Member states — the individual appointed by each state to liaise with the IPCC — and the observer organizations submit to the IPCC Bureau a list of personalities, which they have freely constituted.", "The Bureau (more precisely, the co-chairs of the relevant working group, with the help of its technical support unit) uses these lists as a basis for appointing authors, while retaining the possibility of appointing people who are not on the list, primarily on the basis of scientific excellence and diversity of viewpoints, and to a lesser extent by ensuring geographical diversity, experience within the IPCC and gender.", "Authors may include, in addition to researchers, personalities from the private sector and experts from NGOs.The IPCC Bureau or Working Group Bureau selects the authors of the reports from government nominations.", "Lead authors of IPCC reports assess the available information about climate change based on published sources.", "According to IPCC guidelines, authors should give priority to peer-reviewed sources.", "Authors may refer to non-peer-reviewed sources (\"grey literature\"), if they are of sufficient quality.", "These could include reports from government agencies and non-governmental organizations.", "Industry journals and model results are other examples of non-peer-reviewed sources.Authors prepare drafts of a full report divided into chapters.", "They also prepare a technical summary of the report, and a summary for policymakers.Each chapter has a number of authors to write and edit the material.", "A typical chapter has two coordinating lead authors, ten to fifteen lead authors and a larger number of contributing authors.", "The coordinating lead authors assemble the contributions of the other authors.", "They ensure that contributions meet stylistic and formatting requirements.", "They report to the Working Group co-chairs.", "Lead authors write sections of chapters.", "They invite contributing authors to prepare text, graphs or data for inclusion.", "Review editors must ensure that authors respond to comments received during the two stages of drafts review: the first is only open to external experts and researchers, while the second is also open to government representatives.The Bureau aims for a range of views, expertise and geographical representation in its choice of authors.", "This ensures the author team includes experts from both developing and developed countries.", "The Bureau also seeks a balance between male and female authors.", "And it aims for a balance between those who have worked previously on IPCC reports and those new to the process.Scientists who work as authors on IPCC reports do not receive any compensation for this work, and all work on a voluntary basis.", "They depend on the salaries they receive from their home institutions or other work.", "The work is labour-intensive with a big time commitment.", "It can disrupt participating scientists' research.", "This has led to concern that the IPCC process may discourage qualified scientists from participating.", "More than 3,000 authors (coordinating lead authors, lead authors, review editors) have participated in the drafting of IPCC reports since its creation.=== Review process for assessment reports ===Expert reviewers comment at different stages on the drafts.", "Reviewers come from member governments and IPCC observers.", "Also, anyone may become an IPCC reviewer by stating they have the relevant expertise.There are generally three stages in the review process.", "First comes expert review of the first draft of the chapters.", "The next stage is a review by governments and experts of the revised draft of the chapters and the first draft of the Summary for Policymakers.", "The third stage is a government review of the revised Summary for Policymakers.", "Review comments and author responses remain in an open archive for at least five years.", "Finally government representatives together with the authors review the Summary for Policymakers.", "They go through the Summary for Policymakers line by line to ensure it is a good summary for the underlying report.", "This final review of the Summary of Policymakers takes place at sessions of the responsible working group or of the Panel.There are several types of endorsement which documents receive:* Approval - Material has been subject to detailed, line-by-line discussion and agreement.", "(The relevant Working Groups ''approve'' Working Group Summaries for Policymakers.", "The Panel ''approves'' the Synthesis Report Summary for Policymakers.", ")* Adoption - Endorsed section by section (not line by line).", "(The Panel ''adopts'' the full IPCC Synthesis Report.", "It also ''adopts'' Overview Chapters of Methodology Reports.", ")* Acceptance - Not been subject to line-by-line discussion and agreement.", "But it presents a comprehensive, objective and balanced view of the subject matter.", "(Working Groups ''accept'' their reports.", "The Panel ''accepts'' Working Group Summaries for Policymakers after working group approval.", "The Panel ''accepts'' Methodology Reports.", ")=== Key findings and impacts ======= Assessment reports one to five (1990 to 2014) ====IPCC Third Assessment Report Working Group I Co-chair Sir John T. Houghton showing a figure that was included in the \"Summary for Policymakers\" of that report (\"hockey stick graph\") at a climate conference in 2005 * The IPCC's First Assessment Report (FAR) appeared in 1990.The report gave a broad overview of climate change science.", "It discussed uncertainties and provided evidence of warming.", "The authors said they are certain that greenhouse gases are increasing in the atmosphere because of human activity.", "This is resulting in more warming of the Earth's surface.", "The report led to the establishment of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).", "* The Second Assessment Report (SAR), was published in 1995.It strengthened the findings of the First Assessment Report.", "The evidence suggests that there is a discernible human influence on the global climate, it said.", "The Second Assessment Report provided important material for the negotiations leading to the UNFCCC's Kyoto Protocol.", "* The Third Assessment Report (TAR) was completed in 2001.It found more evidence that most of the global warming seen over the previous 50 years was due to human activity.", "The report includes a graph reconstructing global temperature since the year 1000.The sharp rise in temperature in recent years gave it the name \"hockey stick\".", "This became a powerful image of how temperature is soaring with climate change.", "The report also shows how adaptation to the effects of climate change can reduce some of its ill effects.", "* The IPCC's Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) was published in 2007.It gives much greater certainty about climate change.", "It states: \"Warming of the climate system is unequivocal...\" The report helped make people around the world aware of climate change.", "The IPCC shared the Nobel Peace Prize in the year of the report's publication for this work (see below).", "* The Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) was published in 2013 and 2014.This report again stated the fact of climate change.", "It warned of the dangerous risks.", "And it emphasized how the world can counter climate change.", "Three key findings were for example: Firstly, human influence on the climate system is clear.", "Secondly, the more we disrupt our climate, the more we risk severe, pervasive and irreversible impacts.", "And thirdly, we have the means to limit climate change and build a more prosperous, sustainable future.", "The report's findings were the scientific foundation of the UNFCCC's 2015 Paris Agreement.====Sixth assessment report (2021/2022)====The IPCC's most recent report is the Sixth Assessment Report (AR6).", "The first three instalments of AR6 appeared in 2021 and 2022.The final synthesis report was completed in March 2023.The IPCC published the Working Group I report, ''Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis'', in August 2021.It confirms that the climate is already changing in every region.", "Many of these changes have not been seen in thousands of years.", "Many of them such as sea-level rise are irreversible over hundreds of thousands of years.", "Strong reductions in greenhouse gas emissions would limit climate change.", "But it could take 20-30 years for the climate to stabilize.", "This report attracted enormous media and public attention.", "U.N. Secretary-General António Guterres described it as \"code red for humanity\".", "The IPCC published the Working Group II report, ''Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability'', in February 2022.Climate change due to human activities is already affecting the lives of billions of people, it said.", "It is disrupting nature.", "The world faces unavoidable hazards over the next two decades even with global warming of 1.5°C, it said.", "The IPCC published the Working Group III report, ''Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change'', in April 2022.It will be impossible to limit warming to 1.5°C without immediate and deep cuts in greenhouse gas emissions.", "It is still possible to halve emissions by 2050, it said." ], [ "Other reports", "===Special reports===The IPCC also publishes other types of reports.", "It produces Special Reports on topics proposed by governments or observer organizations.", "Between 1994 and 2019 the IPCC published 14 special reports.", "Now usually more than one working group cooperates to produce a special report.", "The preparation and approval process is the same as for assessment reports.==== Special reports in 2011 ====During the fifth assessment cycle the IPCC produced two special reports.", "It completed the Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (SRREN) in 2011.Working Group III prepared this report.", "The report examined options to use different types of renewable energy to replace fossil fuels.", "The report noted that the cost of most renewables technologies had fallen.", "It was likely to fall even more with further advances in technology.", "It said renewables could increase access to energy.", "The report reviewed 164 scenarios that examine how renewables could help stop climate change.", "In more than half of these scenarios, renewables would contribute more than 27% of primary energy supply in mid-century.", "This would be more than double the 13% share in 2008.In the scenarios with the highest shares for renewable energy, it contributes 77% by 2050.Later in 2011 the IPCC released the Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation (SREX).", "This was a collaboration between Working Groups I and II.", "It was the first time two IPCC working groups worked together on a special report.", "The report shows how climate change has contributed to changes in extreme weather.", "And it show how policies to avoid and prepare for extreme weather events can reduce their impact.", "In the same way policies to respond to events and recover from them can make societies more resilient.==== Special reports 2018-2019 ====During the sixth assessment cycle the IPCC produced three special reports.", "This made it the most ambitious cycle in IPCC history.", "The UNFCCC set a goal of keeping global warming well below 2°C while trying to hold it at 1.5°C, when it reached the Paris Agreement at COP21 in 2015.But at the time there was little understanding of what warming of 1.5°C meant.", "There was little scientific research explaining how the impacts of 1.5°C would differ from 2°C.", "And there was little understanding about how to keep warming to 1.5°C.", "So the UNFCCC invited the IPCC to prepare a report on global warming of 1.5°C.", "The IPCC subsequently released the Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) in 2018.The report showed that it was possible to keep warming below 1.5°C during the 21st century.", "But this would mean deep cuts in emissions.", "It would also mean rapid, far-reaching changes in all aspects of society.", "The report showed warming of 2°C would have much more severe impacts than 1.5°C.", "In other words: every bit of warming matters.", "SR15 had an unprecedented impact for an IPCC report in the media and with the public.", "It put the 1.5°C target at the centre of climate activism.", "In 2019 the IPCC released two more special reports that examine different parts of the climate system.", "The Special Report on Climate Change and Land (SRCCL) examined how the way we use land affects the climate.", "It looked at emissions from activities such as farming and forestry rather than from energy and transport.", "It also looked at how climate change is affecting land.", "All three IPCC working groups and its Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories collaborated on the report.", "The report found that climate change is adding to the pressures we are putting on our land we use to live on and grow our food.", "It will only be possible to keep warming well below 2°C if we reduce emissions from all sectors including land and food, it said.The Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC) examined how the ocean and frozen parts of the planet interact with climate change.", "(The cryosphere includes frozen systems such as ice sheets, glaciers and permafrost.)", "IPCC Working Groups I and II prepared the report.", "The report highlighted the need to tackle unprecedented changes in the ocean and cryosphere.", "It also showed how adaptation could help sustainable development.The IPCC will prepare a special report on climate change and cities during the seventh assessment cycle.===Methodology Reports===The IPCC has a National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme.", "It develops methodologies and software for countries to report their greenhouse gas emissions.", "The IPCC's Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (TFI) has managed the program since 1998.Japan's Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES) hosts the TFI's Technical Support Unit.The IPCC approves its methodology reports at sessions of the Panel.", "The Panel adopts the Methodology Report's Overview Chapter by endorsing it section by section.==== Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines ====The IPCC released its first Methodology Report, the IPCC ''Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories'', in 1994.The ''Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories'' updated this report.", "Two \"good practice reports\" complete these guidelines.", "These are the ''Good Practice Guidance'' ''and Uncertainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories'' and ''Good Practice Guidance for Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry''.", "Parties to the UNFCCC and its Kyoto Protocol use the 1996 guidelines and two good practice reports for their annual submissions of inventories.==== 2006 IPCC Guidelines ====The ''2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories'' further update these methodologies.", "They include a large number of \"default emission factors\".", "These are factors to estimate the amount of emissions for an activity.", "The IPCC prepared this new version of the guidelines at the request of the UNFCCC.", "The UNFCCC accepted them for use at its 2013 Climate Change Conference, COP19, in Warsaw.", "The IPCC added further material in its ''2019 Refinement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories''.The TFI has started preparations for a methodology report on short-lived climate forcers (SLCFs).", "It will complete this report in the next assessment cycle, the seventh." ], [ "Challenges and controversies", "IPCC reports also attract criticism.", "Criticisms come from both people who say the reports exaggerate the risks and people who say they understate them.", "The IPCC consensus approach has faced internal and external challenges.===Conservative nature of IPCC reports===Some critics have argued that IPCC reports tend to be too conservative in their assessments of climate risk.", "In 2012, it was reported that the IPCC has been criticized by some scientists, who argue that the reports consistently underestimate the pace and impacts of global warming.", "As a result, they believe this leads to findings that are the \"lowest common denominator\".", "David Biello, writing in the Scientific American, argues that, because of the need to secure consensus among governmental representatives, the IPCC reports give conservative estimates of the likely extent and effects of global warming.", "''Science'' editor Brooks Hanson states in a 2010 editorial: \"The IPCC reports have underestimated the pace of climate change while overestimating societies' abilities to curb greenhouse gas emissions.", "\"Climate scientist James E. Hansen argues that the IPCC's conservativeness seriously underestimates the risk of sea-level rise on the order of meters—enough to inundate many low-lying areas, such as the southern third of Florida.", "In January 2024, he told the Guardian, “We are now in the process of moving into the 1.5C world.\"", "He added that “passing through the 1.5C world is a significant milestone because it shows that the story being told by the United Nations, with the acquiescence of its scientific advisory body, the IPCC, is a load of bullshit.” Roger A. Pielke Sr. has also stated \"Humans are significantly altering the global climate, but in a variety of diverse ways beyond the radiative effect of carbon dioxide.", "The IPCC assessments have been too conservative in recognizing the importance of these human climate forcings as they alter regional and global climate.", "\"Stefan Rahmstorf, a professor of physics and oceanography at University of Potsdam, argued in 2007 that the IPCC's tendency to make conservative risk assessments had benefits.", "Rahmstorf argued that \"In a way, it is one of the strengths of the IPCC to be very conservative and cautious and not overstate any climate change risk\".", "IPCC reports aim to inform policymakers about the state of knowledge on climate change.", "They do this by assessing the findings of the thousands of scientific papers available on the subject at a given time.", "Individual publications may have different conclusions to IPCC reports.", "This includes those appearing just after the release of an IPCC report.", "This can lead to criticism that the IPCC is either alarmist or conservative.", "New findings must wait for the next assessment for consideration.=== Potential industry and political influence ===A memo by ExxonMobil to the Bush administration in the United States in 2002 was an example of possible political influence on the IPCC.", "The memo led to strong Bush administration lobbying to oust Robert Watson, a climate scientist, as IPCC chair.", "They sought to replace him with Rajendra Pachauri.", "Many considered Pachauri at the time as more mild-mannered and industry-friendly.Governments form the membership of the IPCC.", "They are the prime audience for IPCC reports.", "IPCC rules give them a formal role in the scoping, preparation and approval of reports.", "For instance governments take part in the review process and work with authors to approve the Summary for Policymakers of reports.", "But some activists have argued that governments abuse this role to influence the outcome of reports.In 2023, it was reported that pressure from Brazil and Argentina, two countries with large beef industries, caused the IPCC to abandon text recommending the adoption of plant-based diets.", "An earlier draft of the report, which noted \"plant-based diets can reduce GHG emissions by up to 50% compared to the average emission-intensive Western diet\", was leaked online in March 2023.=== Controversy and review after Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 ===The IPCC came under unprecedented media scrutiny in 2009 in the run-up to the Copenhagen climate conference.", "This \"Climatic Research Unit email controversy\" involved the leak of emails from climate scientists.", "Many of these scientists were authors of the Fourth Assessment Report which came out in 2007.The discovery of an error in this report that the Himalayan glaciers would melt by 2035 put the IPCC under further pressure.", "Scientific bodies upheld the general findings of the Fourth Assessment Report and the IPCC's approach.", "But many people thought the IPCC should review the way it works.", "==== InterAcademy Council review in 2010 ====Public debate after the publication of AR4 in 2009 put the IPCC under scrutiny, with controversies over alleged bias and inaccuracy in its reports.", "In 2010, this prompted U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon and IPCC chair Rajendra K. Pachauri to request that the InterAcademy Council (IAC) review the IPCC and recommend ways to strengthen its processes and procedures for the preparation of AR5.The IAC report made recommendations to fortify IPCC's management structure, to further develop its conflict-of-interest policy, to strengthen the review process, to clarify the guidelines on the use of so-called gray literature, to ensure consistency in the use of probabilities for the likelihood of outcomes, and to improve its communications strategy especially regarding transparency and rapidity of response.The United Nations Secretary-General and the Chair of the IPCC asked the InterAcademy Council (IAC) in March 2010 to review the IPCC's processes for preparing its reports.", "The IAC panel, chaired by Harold Tafler Shapiro, released its report on 1 September 2010.The IAC panel made seven formal recommendations for improving the IPCC's assessment process.", "The IPCC implemented most of the review's recommendations by 2012.One of these was the introduction of a protocol to handle errors in reports.", "Other recommendations included strengthening the science-review process and improving communications.", "But the IPCC did not adopt the proposal to appoint a full-time executive secretary.=== Issues with consensual approach ===Michael Oppenheimer, a long-time participant in the IPCC, has said the IPCC consensus approach has some limitations.", "Oppenheimer, a coordinating lead author of the Fifth Assessment Report, called for concurring, smaller assessments of special problems instead of the large-scale approach of previous IPCC assessments.", "Others see \"mixed blessings\" in the drive for consensus within the IPCC.", "They suggest including dissenting or minority positions.", "Others suggest improving statements about uncertainties.=== Criticism by experts involved with the IPCC process ===Some of the criticism has originated from experts invited by the IPCC to submit reports or serve on its panels.", "For example, John Christy, a contributing author who works at the University of Alabama in Huntsville, explained in 2007 the difficulties of establishing scientific consensus on the precise extent of human action on climate change.", "\"Contributing authors essentially are asked to contribute a little text at the beginning and to review the first two drafts.", "We have no control over editing decisions.", "Even less influence is granted the 2,000 or so reviewers.", "Thus, to say that 800 contributing authors or 2,000 reviewers reached consensus on anything describes a situation that is not reality\", he wrote.", "Christopher Landsea, a hurricane researcher, said of \"the part of the IPCC to which my expertise is relevant\" that \"I personally cannot in good faith continue to contribute to a process that I view as both being motivated by pre-conceived agendas and being scientifically unsound,\" because of comments made at a press conference by Kevin Trenberth of which Landsea disapproved.", "Trenberth said \"Landsea's comments were not correct\"; the IPCC replied \"individual scientists can do what they wish in their own rights, as long as they are not saying anything on behalf of the IPCC\"." ], [ "Endorsements and awards", "IPCC reports are the benchmark for climate science.", "There is widespread support for the IPCC in the scientific community.", "Publications by other scientific bodies and experts show this.", "Many scientific bodies have issued official statements that endorse the findings of the IPCC.", "For example:* For the Third Assessment Report in 2001 endorsements came from the Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences, United States National Research Council and European Geosciences Union.", "* For the Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 endorsements came from the International Council for Science (ICSU), and the Network of African Science Academies.=== Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 ===In December 2007, the IPCC received the Nobel Peace Prize \"for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change, and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change\".", "It shared the award with former U.S.", "Vice-president Al Gore for his work on climate change and the documentary ''An Inconvenient Truth''.===Gulbenkian Prize for Humanity in 2022===In October 2022, the IPCC and IPBES shared the Gulbenkian Prize for Humanity.", "The two intergovernmental bodies won the prize because they \"produce scientific knowledge, alert society, and inform decision-makers to make better choices for combatting climate change and the loss of biodiversity\"." ], [ "See also", "* *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * of IPCC Data Distribution Centre (Climate data and guidance on its use)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "IPCC (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''IPCC''', or Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, is a scientific body under the auspices of the United Nations.", "'''IPCC''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Other organisations", "* Independent Police Complaints Commission, defunct public body in England and Wales* Independent Police Complaints Council of the Hong Kong Government* Independent Police Conduct Commission, Malaysian oversight body* Irish Peatland Conservation Council, charity to preserve bogs" ], [ "Other uses", "* Integrated Professional Competency Course, a course of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India* Interworld Police Coordinating Company, a fictional organization in Jack Vance's novels" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "IBM Personal Computer" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''IBM Personal Computer''' (model 5150, commonly known as the '''IBM PC''') is the first microcomputer released in the IBM PC model line and the basis for the IBM PC compatible ''de facto'' standard.", "Released on August 12, 1981, it was created by a team of engineers and designers directed by William C. Lowe and Philip Don Estridge in Boca Raton, Florida.The machine was based on open architecture and third-party peripherals.", "Over time, expansion cards and software technology increased to support it.The PC had a substantial influence on the personal computer market.", "The specifications of the IBM PC became one of the most popular computer design standards in the world.", "The only significant competition it faced from a non-compatible platform throughout the 1980s was from Apple's Macintosh product line, as well as consumer-grade platforms created by companies like Commodore and Atari.", "Most contemporary personal computers share architectural features in common with the original IBM PC, including the Intel-based Mac computers manufactured from 2006 to 2022." ], [ "History", "Prior to the 1980s, IBM had largely been known as a provider of business computer systems.", "As the 1980s opened, their market share in the growing minicomputer market failed to keep up with competitors, while other manufacturers were beginning to see impressive profits in the microcomputer space.", "The market for personal computers was dominated at the time by Tandy, Commodore, and Apple, whose machines sold for several hundred dollars each and had become very popular.", "The microcomputer market was large enough for IBM's attention, with $15 billion in sales by 1979 and projected annual growth of more than 40% during the early 1980s.", "Other large technology companies had entered it, such as Hewlett-Packard, Texas Instruments and Data General, and some large IBM customers were buying Apples.As early as 1980 there were rumors of IBM developing a personal computer, possibly a miniaturized version of the IBM System/370, and Matsushita acknowledged publicly that it had discussed with IBM the possibility of manufacturing a personal computer in partnership, although this project was abandoned.", "The public responded to these rumors with skepticism, owing to IBM's tendency towards slow-moving, bureaucratic business practices tailored towards the production of large, sophisticated and expensive business systems.", "As with other large computer companies, its new products typically required about four to five years for development, and a well publicized quote from an industry analyst was, \"IBM bringing out a personal computer would be like teaching an elephant to tap dance.", "\"IBM had previously produced microcomputers, such as 1975's IBM 5100, but targeted them towards businesses; the 5100 had a price tag as high as $20,000.Their entry into the home computer market needed to be competitively priced.In 1980, IBM president John Opel, recognizing the value of entering this growing market, assigned William C. Lowe and Philip Don Estridge as heads of the new Entry Level Systems unit in Boca Raton, Florida.", "Market research found that computer dealers were very interested in selling an IBM product, but they insisted the company use a design based on standard parts, not IBM-designed ones so that stores could perform their own repairs rather than requiring customers to send machines back to IBM for service.Atari proposed to IBM in 1980 that it act as original equipment manufacturer for an IBM microcomputer, a potential solution to IBM's known inability to move quickly to meet a rapidly changing market.", "The idea of acquiring Atari was considered but rejected in favor of a proposal by Lowe that by forming an independent internal working group and abandoning all traditional IBM methods, a design could be delivered within a year and a prototype within 30 days.", "The prototype worked poorly but was presented with a detailed business plan which proposed that the new computer have an open architecture, use non-proprietary components and software, and be sold through retail stores, all contrary to IBM practice.", "It also estimated sales of 220,000 computers over three years, more than IBM's entire installed base.This swayed the Corporate Management Committee, which converted the group into a business unit named \"Project Chess\", and provided the necessary funding and authority to do whatever was needed to develop the computer in the given timeframe.", "The team received permission to expand to 150 people by the end of 1980, and in one day more than 500 IBM employees called in asking to join.=== Design process ===The design process was kept under a policy of strict secrecy, with all other IBM divisions kept in the dark about the project.Several CPUs were considered, including the Texas Instruments TMS9900, Motorola 68000 and Intel 8088.The 68000 was considered the best choice, but was not production-ready like the others.", "The IBM 801 RISC processor was also considered, since it was considerably more powerful than the other options, but rejected due to the design constraint to use off-the-shelf parts.", "The TMS9900 was rejected as it was inferior to the Intel 8088.IBM chose the 8088 over the similar but superior 8086 because Intel offered a better price for the former and could provide more units, and the 8088's 8-bit bus reduced the cost of the rest of the computer.", "The 8088 had the advantage that IBM already had familiarity with the 8085 from designing the IBM System/23 Datamaster.", "The 62-pin expansion bus slots were also designed to be similar to the Datamaster slots, and its keyboard design and layout became the Model F keyboard shipped with the PC, but otherwise the PC design differed in many ways.The 8088 motherboard was designed in 40 days, with a working prototype created in four months, demonstrated in January 1981.The design was essentially complete by April 1981, when it was handed off to the manufacturing team.", "PCs were assembled in an IBM plant in Boca Raton, with components made at various IBM and third party factories.", "The monitor was an existing design from IBM Japan; the printer was manufactured by Epson.", "Because none of the functional components were designed by IBM, they obtained only a handful of patents on the PC, covering such features as the bytecoding for color monitors, DMA access operation, and the keyboard interface.", "They were never enforced.", "Many of the designers were computer hobbyists who owned their own computers, including many Apple II owners, which influenced the decisions to design the computer with an open architecture and publish technical information so others could create compatible software and expansion slot peripherals.During the design process IBM avoided vertical integration as much as possible, for example choosing to license Microsoft BASIC rather than utilizing the in-house version of BASIC used for mainframes due to the better existing public familiarity with the Microsoft version.=== Debut ===The IBM PC debuted on August 12, 1981 after a twelve-month development.", "Pricing started at $1,565 for a configuration with 16 KB RAM, Color Graphics Adapter, keyboard, and no disk drives.", "The price was designed to compete with comparable machines in the market.", "For comparison, the Datamaster, announced two weeks earlier as IBM's least expensive computer, cost $10,000.IBM's marketing campaign licensed the likeness of Charlie Chaplin's character \"The Little Tramp\" for a series of advertisements based on Chaplin's movies, played by Billy Scudder.The PC was IBM's first attempt to sell a computer through retail channels rather than directly to customers.", "Because IBM did not have retail experience, they partnered with the retail chains ComputerLand and Sears, who provided important knowledge of the marketplace and became the main outlets for the PC.", "More than 190 ComputerLand stores already existed, while Sears was in the process of creating a handful of in-store computer centers for sale of the new product.Reception was overwhelmingly positive, with analysts estimating sales volume in the billions of dollars in the first few years after release.", "After release, IBM's PC immediately became the talk of the entire computing industry.", "Dealers were overwhelmed with orders, including customers offering pre-payment for machines with no guaranteed delivery date.", "By the time the machine began shipping, the term \"PC\" was becoming a household name.=== Success ===Sales exceeded IBM's expectations by as much as 800%, with the company at one point shipping as many as 40,000 PCs per month.", "IBM estimated that home users made up 50 to 70% of purchases from retail stores.", "In 1983, IBM sold more than 750,000 machines, while Digital Equipment Corporation, one of the companies whose success had spurred IBM to enter the market, sold only 69,000.Software support from the industry grew rapidly, with the IBM nearly instantly becoming the primary target for most microcomputer software development.", "One publication counted 753 software packages available a year after the PC's release, four times as many as were available for the Macintosh a year after its launch.", "Hardware support also grew rapidly, with 30–40 companies competing to sell memory expansion cards within a year.By 1984, IBM's revenue from the PC market was $4 billion, more than twice that of Apple.", "A 1983 study of corporate customers found that two thirds of large customers standardizing on one computer chose the PC, while only 9% chose Apple.", "A 1985 ''Fortune'' survey found that 56% of American companies with personal computers used PCs while 16% used Apple.Almost as soon as the PC reached the market, rumors of clones began, and the first legal PC-compatible clone—the MPC 1600 by Columbia Data Products—was released in June 1982, less than a year after the PC's debut.Eventually, IBM sold its PC business to Lenovo in 2004." ], [ "Hardware", "alt=For low cost and a quick design turnaround time, the hardware design of the IBM PC used entirely \"off-the-shelf\" parts from third party manufacturers, rather than unique hardware designed by IBM.The PC is housed in a wide, short steel chassis intended to support the weight of a CRT monitor.", "The front panel is made of plastic, with an opening where one or two disk drives can be installed.", "The back panel houses a power inlet and switch, a keyboard connector, a cassette connector and a series of tall vertical slots with blank metal panels which can be removed in order to install expansion cards.Internally, the chassis is dominated by a motherboard which houses the CPU, built-in RAM, expansion RAM sockets, and slots for expansion cards.The IBM PC was highly expandable and upgradeable, but the base factory configuration included:CPUIntel 8088 @ 4.77 MHzRAM16 KB or 64 KB minimum (expandable to 640 KB)VideoIBM Monochrome Display Adapter orIBM Color Graphics AdapterDisplayIBM 5151 monochrome displayIBM 5153 color displayComposite-input televisionInputIBM Model F 83-key keyboard with five-pin connectorSoundSingle programmable-frequency square wave with built-in speakerStorageUp to two internal 5.25-inch single- or double-sided full-height floppy disk drivesPort for attaching to cassette tape recorderInitially no hard drive option, but see textExpansionFive 62-pin expansion slots attached to 8-bit CPU I/O busIBM 5161 Expansion Chassis with eight (seven usable) extra I/O slotsCommunicationOptional serial and parallel ports=== Motherboard ===The PC is built around a single large circuit board called a motherboard which carries the processor, built-in RAM, expansion slots, keyboard and cassette ports, and the various peripheral integrated circuits that connected and controlled the components of the machine.The peripheral chips included an Intel 8259 PIC, an Intel 8237 DMA controller, and an Intel 8253 PIT.", "The PIT provides clock \"ticks\" and dynamic memory refresh timing.=== CPU and RAM ===alt=alt=The CPU is an Intel 8088, a cost-reduced form of the Intel 8086 which largely retains the 8086's internal 16-bit logic, but exposes only an 8-bit bus.", "The CPU is clocked at 4.77 MHz, which would eventually become an issue when clones and later PC models offered higher CPU speeds that broke compatibility with software developed for the original PC.", "The single base clock frequency for the system was 14.31818 MHz, which when divided by 3, yielded the 4.77 MHz for the CPU (which was considered close enough to the then 5 MHz limit of the 8088), and when divided by 4, yielded the required 3.579545 MHz for the NTSC color carrier frequency.The PC motherboard included a second, empty socket, described by IBM simply as an \"auxiliary processor socket\", although the most obvious use was the addition of an Intel 8087 math coprocessor, which improved floating-point math performance.PC mainboards were manufactured with the first memory bank of initially Mostek 4116-compatible, or later 4164-compatible DIP DRAMs soldered to the board, for a minimum configuration of first just 16 KB, or later 64 KB of RAM.Memory upgrades were provided by IBM and third parties both for socketed installation in three further onboard banks, and as ISA expansion cards.", "The early 16 KB mainboards could be upgraded to a maximum of 64 KB onboard, and the more common 64 KB revision to a maximum of 256 KB on the motherboard.RAM cards could upgrade either variant further, for a total of 640 KB conventional memory, and possibly several megabytes of expanded memory beyond that, though on PC/XT-class machines, the latter was a very expensive third-party hardware option only available later in the IBM 5150's lifecycle and only usable with dedicated software support (i.e.", "only accessible via a RAM window in the Upper Memory Area); this was relatively rarely equipped and utilized on the original IBM PC, much less fully so, thus the machine's maximum RAM configuration as commonly understood was 640 KB.=== ROM BIOS ===The BIOS is the firmware of the IBM PC, occupying one 8 KB chip on the motherboard.", "It provides bootstrap code and a library of common functions that all software can use for many purposes, such as video output, keyboard input, disk access, interrupt handling, testing memory, and other functions.", "IBM shipped three versions of the BIOS throughout the PC's lifespan.=== Display ===IBM PC with MDA monitorWhile most home computers had built-in video output hardware, IBM took the unusual approach of offering two different graphics options, the MDA and CGA cards.", "The former provided high-resolution monochrome text, but could not display anything except text, while the latter provided medium- and low-resolution color graphics and text.CGA used the same scan rate as NTSC television, allowing it to provide a composite video output which could be used with any compatible television or composite monitor, as well as a direct-drive TTL output suitable for use with any RGBI monitor using an NTSC scan rate.", "IBM also sold the 5153 color monitor for this purpose, but it was not available at release and was not released until March 1983.MDA scanned at a higher frequency and required a proprietary monitor, the IBM 5151.The card also included a built-in printer port.Both cards could also be installed simultaneously for mixed graphics and text applications.", "For instance, AutoCAD, Lotus 1-2-3 and other software allowed use of a CGA Monitor for graphics and a separate monochrome monitor for text menus.", "Third parties went on to provide an enormous variety of aftermarket graphics adapters, such as the Hercules Graphics Card.The software and hardware of the PC, at release, was designed around a single 8-bit adaptation of the ASCII character set, now known as code page 437.=== Storage ===The two bays in the front of the machine could be populated with one or two 5.25″ floppy disk drives, storing 160 KB per disk side for a total of 320 KB of storage on one disk.", "The floppy drives require a controller card inserted in an expansion slot, and connect with a single ribbon cable with two edge connectors.", "The IBM floppy controller card provides an external 37-pin D-sub connector for attachment of an external disk drive, although IBM did not offer one for purchase until 1986.As was common for home computers of the era, the IBM PC offered a port for connecting a cassette data recorder.", "Unlike the typical home computer however, this was never a major avenue for software distribution, probably because very few PCs were sold without floppy drives.", "The port was removed on the very next PC model, the XT.At release, IBM did not offer any hard disk drive option and adding one was difficult - the PC's stock power supply had inadequate power to run a hard drive, the motherboard did not support BIOS expansion ROMs which was needed to support a hard drive controller, and both PC DOS and the BIOS had no support for hard disks.", "After the XT was released, IBM altered the design of the 5150 to add most of these capabilities, except for the upgraded power supply.", "At this point adding a hard drive was possible, but required the purchase of the IBM 5161 Expansion Unit, which contained a dedicated power supply and included a hard drive.Although official hard drive support did not exist, the third party market did provide early hard drives that connected to the floppy disk controller, but required a patched version of PC DOS to support the larger disk sizes.=== Human interface ===Model F keyboardThe only option for human interface provided in the base PC was the built-in keyboard port, meant to connect to the included Model F keyboard.", "The Model F was initially developed for the IBM Datamaster, and was substantially better than the keyboards provided with virtually all home computers on the market at that time in many regards - number of keys, reliability and ergonomics.", "While some home computers of the time utilized chiclet keyboards or inexpensive mechanical designs, the IBM keyboard provided good ergonomics, reliable and positive tactile key mechanisms and flip-up feet to adjust its angle.", "Public reception of the keyboard was extremely positive, with some sources describing it as a major selling point of the PC and even as \"the best keyboard available on any microcomputer.", "\"CGA monitor (model 5153), original keyboard, 5152 printer and paper stand (1988)At release, IBM provided a Game Control Adapter which offered a 15-pin port intended for the connection of up to two joysticks, each having two analog axes and two buttons.", "(The early PCs predated the advent of the \"Windows, Icons, Mouse, Pointer\" concept and so did not have a mouse.", ")=== Communications ===Connectivity to other computers and peripherals was initially provided through serial and parallel ports.IBM provided a serial card based on an 8250 UART.", "The BIOS supports up to two serial ports.IBM provided two different options for connecting Centronics-compatible parallel printers.", "One was the IBM Printer Adapter, and the other was integrated into the MDA as the IBM Monochrome Display and Printer Adapter.=== Expansion ===The back of a PC, showing the five expansion slotsThe expansion capability of the IBM PC was very significant to its success in the market.", "Some publications highlighted IBM's uncharacteristic decision to publish complete, thorough specifications of the system bus and memory map immediately on release, with the intention of fostering a market of compatible third-party hardware and software.The motherboard includes five 62-pin card edge connectors which are connected to the CPU's I/O lines.", "IBM referred to these as \"I/O slots,\" but after the expansion of the PC clone industry they became retroactively known as the ISA bus.", "At the back of the machine is a metal panel, integrated into the steel chassis of the system unit, with a series of vertical slots lined up with each card slot.Most expansion cards have a matching metal bracket which slots into one of these openings, serving two purposes.", "First, a screw inserted through a tab on the bracket into the chassis fastens the card securely in place, preventing the card from wiggling out of place.", "Second, any ports the card provides for external attachment are bolted to the bracket, keeping them secured in place as well.The PC expansion slots can accept an enormous variety of expansion hardware, adding capabilities such as:* Graphics* Sound* Mouse support* Expanded memory* Additional serial or parallel ports* Networking* Connection to proprietary industrial or scientific equipmentThe market reacted as IBM had intended, and within a year or two of the PC's release the available options for expansion hardware were immense.==== 5161 Expansion Unit ====The expandability of the PC was important, but had significant limitations.One major limitation was the inability to install a hard drive, as described above.", "Another was that there were only five expansion slots, which tended to get filled up by essential hardware - a PC with a graphics card, memory expansion, parallel card and serial card was left with only one open slot, for instance.IBM rectified these problems in the later XT, which included more slots and support for an internal hard drive, but at the same time released the 5161 Expansion Unit, which could be used with either the XT or the original PC.", "The 5161 connected to the PC system unit using a cable and a card plugged into an expansion slot, and provided a second system chassis with more expansion slots and a hard drive." ], [ "Software", "PC DOS 3.30 running on an IBM PCDigital Research CP/M-86 Version 1.0 for the IBM PCIBM initially announced intent to support multiple operating systems: CP/M-86, UCSD p-System, and an in-house product called IBM PC DOS, based on 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products and provided by Microsoft.", "In practice, IBM's expectation and intent was for the market to primarily use PC DOS, CP/M-86 was not available for six months after the PC's release and received extremely few orders once it was, and p-System was also not available at release.", "PC DOS rapidly established itself as the standard OS for the PC and remained the standard for over a decade, with a variant being sold by Microsoft themselves as MS-DOS.The PC included BASIC in ROM (four 8 KB chips), a common feature of 1980s home computers.", "Its ROM BASIC supported the cassette tape interface, but PC DOS did not, limiting use of that interface to BASIC only.PC DOS version 1.00 supported only 160 KB SSDD floppies, but version 1.1, which was released nine months after the PC's introduction, supported 160 KB SSDD and 320 KB DSDD floppies.", "Support for the slightly larger nine sector per track 180 KB and 360 KB formats was added in March 1983.Third-party software support grew extremely quickly, and within a year the PC platform was supplied with a vast array of titles for any conceivable purpose." ], [ "Reception", "Reception of the IBM PC was extremely positive.", "Even before its release reviewers were impressed by the advertised specifications of the machine, and upon its release reviews praised virtually every aspect of its design both in comparison to contemporary machines and with regards to new and unexpected features.Praise was directed at the build quality of the PC, in particular its keyboard, IBM's decision to use open specifications to encourage third party software and hardware development, their speed at delivering documentation and the quality therein, the quality of the video display, and the use of commodity components from established suppliers in the electronics industry.", "The price was considered extremely competitive compared to the value per dollar of competing machines.Two years after its release, ''Byte'' magazine retrospectively concluded that the PC had succeeded both because of its features – an 80-column screen, open architecture, and high-quality keyboard – and the failure of other computer manufacturers to achieve these features first:''Creative Computing'' that year named the PC the best desktop computer between $2,000 and $4,000, praising its vast hardware and software selection, manufacturer support, and resale value.Many IBM PCs remained in service long after their technology became largely obsolete.", "For instance, as of June 2006 (23–25 years after release) IBM PC and XT models were still in use at the majority of U.S. National Weather Service upper-air observing sites, processing data returned from radiosondes attached to weather balloons.Due to its status as the first entry in the extremely influential PC industry, the original IBM PC remains valuable as a collector's item.", ", the system had a market value of $50–$500." ], [ "Model line", "IBM sold a number of computers under the \"Personal Computer\" or \"PC\" name throughout the 80s.", "The name was not used for several years before being reused for the IBM PC Series in the 90s and early 2000s.+The IBM PC line Model nameModel #IntroducedDiscontinuedCPUFeatures PC5150August 1981April 19878088Floppy disk or cassette system.", "One or two internal floppy drives were optional.XT5160March 1983April 19878088First IBM PC to come with an internal hard drive as standard.", "XT/3705160/588October 1983April 198780885160 with XT/370 Option Kit and 3277 Emulation Adapter.3270 PC5271October 1983April 19878088With 3270 terminal emulation, 20 function key keyboardPCjr4860November 1983March 19858088Floppy-based home computer, but also used ROM cartridges; infrared keyboard.Portable5155February 1984April 19868088Floppy-based portableAT5170August 1984April 198780286Faster processor, faster system bus (6 MHz, later 8 MHz, vs 4.77 MHz), jumperless configuration, real-time clock.", "AT/3705170/599October 1984April 1987802865170 with AT/370 Option Kit and 3277 Emulation Adapter.", "3270 AT5281June 1985April 198780286With 3270 terminal emulation.Convertible5140April 1986August 198980C88Microfloppy laptop portable XT 2865162September 1986April 198780286Slow hard disk, but zero wait state memory on the motherboard.", "This 6 MHz model is faster than the 8 MHz AT models (when using planar memory) because of its zero wait state memory.As with all PC-derived systems, all IBM PC models are nominally software-compatible, although some timing-sensitive software will not run correctly on models with faster CPUs." ], [ "Clones", "Because the IBM PC was based on commodity hardware rather than unique IBM components, and because its operation was extensively documented by IBM, creating machines that were fully compatible with the PC offered few challenges other than the creation of a compatible BIOS ROM.Simple duplication of the IBM PC BIOS was a direct violation of copyright law, but soon into the PC's life the BIOS was reverse-engineered by companies like Compaq, Phoenix Software Associates, American Megatrends and Award, who either built their own computers that could run the same software and use the same expansion hardware as the PC, or sold their BIOS code to other manufacturers who wished to build their own machines.These machines became known as IBM compatibles or \"clones\", and software was widely marketed as compatible with \"IBM PC or 100% compatible\".", "Shortly thereafter, clone manufacturers began to make improvements and extensions to the hardware, such as by using faster processors like the NEC V20, which executed the same software as the 8088 at a higher speed up to 10 MHz.The clone market eventually became so large that it lost its associations with the original PC and became a set of de facto standards established by various hardware manufacturers." ], [ "Timeline" ], [ "References", ";Cited references" ], [ "External links", "* IBM SCAMP* IBM 5150 information at www.minuszerodegrees.net* IBM PC 5150 System Disks and ROMs* IBM PC from IT Dictionary* IBM PC history and technical information* What a legacy!", "The IBM PC's 25 year legacy* CNN.com - IBM PC turns 25* IBM-5150 and collection of old digital and analog computers at oldcomputermuseum.com* IBM PC images and information * A brochure from November, 1982 advertising the IBM PC* A Picture of the XT/370 cards, showing the dual 68000 processors" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Counties of Ireland" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''counties of Ireland''' (Irish: ) are historic administrative divisions of the island.", "They began as Norman structures, and as the powers exercised by the Cambro-Norman barons and the Old English nobility waned over time, new offices of political control came to be established at a county level.", "The number of counties varied depending on the time period, however thirty-two is the traditionally accepted and used number.Upon the partition of Ireland in 1921, six of the traditional counties became part of Northern Ireland.", "In Northern Ireland, counties ceased to be used for local government in 1973; districts are instead used.", "In the Republic of Ireland, some counties have been split resulting in the creation of new counties: there are currently 26 counties, 3 cities and 2 cities and counties that demarcate areas of local government in the Republic." ], [ "Terminology", "The word \"county\" has come to be used in different senses for different purposes.", "In common usage, it can mean the 32 counties that existed prior to 1838 – the so-called traditional counties, 26 of which are in the Republic of Ireland.", "However, the Local Government Acts define counties to include separate counties within the traditional county of Dublin.In Ireland, the word ''county'' nearly always precedes the county name; thus \"''County'' Roscommon\" in Ireland as opposed to \"Roscommon ''County''\" in Michigan, United States.", "The former \"King's County\" and \"Queen's County\" were exceptions; however, these are now County Offaly and County Laois, respectively.", "The abbreviation Co. is used, as in \"Co. Roscommon\".", "The counties in Dublin created in 1994 often drop the word ''county'' entirely, or use it after the name; thus, for example, internet search engines show many more uses (on Irish sites) of \"Fingal\" than of either \"County Fingal\" or \"Fingal County\".", "Although official guidance does not use the term county as part of its name, the local council uses all three forms.", "In informal use, the word ''county'' is often dropped except where necessary to distinguish between county and town or city; thus \"Offaly\" rather than \"County Offaly\", but \"County Antrim\" to distinguish it from Antrim town.", "The synonym ''shire'' is not used for Irish counties, although the Marquessate of Downshire was named in 1789 after County Down.Parts of some towns and cities were exempt from the jurisdiction of the counties that surrounded them.", "These towns and cities had the status of a county corporate, often granted by royal charter, which had all the judicial, administrative and revenue-raising powers of the regular counties." ], [ "History", "===Pre-Norman divisions of Ireland===The political geography of Ireland can be traced with some accuracy from the 6th century.", "At that time Ireland was divided into a patchwork of petty kingdoms with a fluid political hierarchy which, in general, had three traditional grades of king.", "The lowest level of political control existed at the level of the (pl.", ").", "A was an autonomous group of people of independent political jurisdiction under a rí túaithe, that is, a local petty king.", "About 150 such units of government existed.", "Each ''rí túaithe'' was in turn subject to a regional or \"over-king\" ().", "There may have been as many as 20 genuine ruiri in Ireland at any time.A \"king of over-kings\" () was often a provincial () or semi-provincial king to whom several ruiri were subordinate.", "No more than six genuine rí ruirech were ever contemporary.", "Usually, only five such \"king of over-kings\" existed contemporaneously and so are described in the Irish annals as ''fifths'' ().", "The areas under the control of these kings were: Ulster (), Leinster (), Connacht (), Munster () and Mide ().", "Later record-makers dubbed them ''provinces'', in imitation of Roman provinces.", "In the Norman period, the historic fifths of Leinster and Meath gradually merged, mainly due to the impact of the Pale, which straddled both, thereby forming the present-day province of Leinster.The use of provinces as divisions of political power was supplanted by the system of counties after the Norman invasion.", "In modern times clusters of counties have been attributed to certain provinces but these clusters have no legal status.", "They are today seen mainly in a sporting context, as Ireland's four professional rugby teams play under the names of the provinces, and the Gaelic Athletic Association has separate Provincial councils and Provincial championships.===Plantagenet era=======Lordships====With the arrival of Cambro-Norman knights in 1169, the Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland commenced.", "This was followed in 1172 by the invasion of King Henry II of England, commencing English royal involvement.After his intervention in Ireland, Henry II effectively divided the English colony into liberties also known as lordships.", "These were effectively palatine counties and differed from ordinary counties in that they were disjoined from the crown and that whoever they were granted to essentially had the same authority as the king and that the king's writ had no effect except a writ of error.", "This covered all land within the county that was not church land.", "The reason for the creation of such powerful entities in Ireland was due to the lack of authority the English crown had there.", "The same process occurred after the Norman conquest of England where despite there being a strong central government, county palatines were needed in border areas with Wales and Scotland.", "In Ireland this meant that the land was divided and granted to Richard de Clare and his followers who became lords (and sometimes called earls), with the only land which the English crown had any direct control over being the sea-coast towns and territories immediately adjacent.Of Henry II's grants, at least three of them—Leinster to Richard de Clare; Meath to Walter de Lacy; Ulster to John de Courcy—were equivalent to palatine counties in their bestowing of royal jurisdiction to the grantees.", "Other grants include the liberties of Connaught and Tipperary.====Division of lordships====Extent of Norman control in Ireland by 1300The Pale (grey), earldoms and lordships (blue) in 1450These initial lordships were later subdivided into smaller \"liberties\", which appear to have enjoyed the same privileges as their predecessors.", "The division of Leinster and Munster into smaller counties is commonly attributed to King John, mostly due to a lack of prior documentary evidence, which has been destroyed.", "However, they may have had an earlier origin.", "These counties were: in Leinster: Carlow (also known as Catherlogh), Dublin, Kildare, Kilkenny, Louth (also known as Uriel), Meath, Wexford, Waterford; in Munster: Cork, Limerick, Kerry and Tipperary.", "It is thought that these counties did not have the administrative purpose later attached to them until late in the reign of King John and that no new counties were created until the Tudor dynasty.The most important office in those that were palatine was that of seneschal.", "In those liberties that came under Crown control this office was held by a sheriff.", "The sovereign could and did appoint sheriffs in palatines; however, their power was confined to the church lands, and they became known as sheriffs of a County of the Cross, of which there seem to have been as many in Ireland as there were counties palatine.The exact boundaries of the liberties and shrievalties appear to have been in constant flux throughout the Plantagenet period, seemingly in line with the extent of English control.", "For example, in 1297 it is recorded that Kildare had extended to include the lands that now comprise the modern-day counties of Offaly, Laois (Leix) and Wicklow (Arklow).", "Some attempts had also been made to extend the county system to Ulster.However the Bruce Invasion of Ireland in 1315 resulted in the collapse of effective English rule in Ireland, with the land controlled by the crown continually shrinking to encompass Dublin, and parts of Meath, Louth and Kildare.", "Throughout the rest of Ireland, English rule was upheld by the earls of Desmond, Ormond, and Kildare (all created in the 14th-century), with the extension of the county system all but impossible.", "During the reign of Edward III (1327–77) all franchises, grants and liberties had been temporarily revoked with power passed to the king's sheriffs over the seneschals.", "This may have been due to the disorganisation caused by the Bruce invasion as well as the renouncing of the Connaught Burkes of their allegiance to the crown.The Earls of Ulster divided their territory up into counties; however, these are not considered part of the Crown's shiring of Ireland.", "In 1333, the Earldom of Ulster is recorded as consisting of seven counties: Antrim, Blathewyc, Cragferus, Coulrath, del Art, Dun (also known as Ladcathel), and Twescard.===Passage to the Crown===Of the original lordships or palatine counties:*Leinster had passed from Richard de Clare to his daughter, Isabel de Clare, who had married William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke (second creation of title).", "This marriage was confirmed by King John, with Isabel's lands given to William as consort.", "The liberty was afterwards divided into five—Carlow, Kildare, Kilkenny, Leix and Wexford—one for each of Marshal's co-heiresses.", "*Meath was divided between the granddaughters of Walter de Lacy: Maud and Margery.", "Maud's half became the liberty of Trim, and she married Geoffrey de Geneville.", "Margery's half retained the name Meath, and she married John de Verdon.", "After the marriage of Maud's daughter Joan to Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March, Trim later passed via their descendants to the English Crown.", "Meath, which had passed to the Talbots, was resumed by Henry VIII under the Statute of Absentees.", "*Ulster was regranted to the de Lacys from John de Courcy, whilst Connaught, which had been granted to William de Burgh, was at some point divided into the liberties of Connaught and Roscommon.", "William's grandson Walter de Burgh was in 1264 also made lord of Ulster, bringing both Connaught and Ulster under the same lord.", "In 1352 Elizabeth de Burgh, 4th Countess of Ulster married Lionel of Antwerp, a son of king Edward III.", "Their daughter Philippa married Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March.", "Upon the death of Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March in 1425, both lordships were inherited by Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York and thus passed to the Crown.", "*Tipperary was resumed by King James I, however under Charles II in 1662 was reconstituted for James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde.With the passing of liberties to the Crown, the number of Counties of the Cross declined, and only one, Tipperary, survived into the Stuart era; the others had ceased to exist by the reign of Henry VIII.===Tudor era===It was not until the Tudors, specifically the reign of Henry VIII (1509–47), that crown control started to once again extend throughout Ireland.", "Having declared himself King of Ireland in 1541, Henry VIII went about converting Irish chiefs into feudal subjects of the crown with land divided into districts, which were eventually amalgamated into the modern counties.", "County boundaries were still ill-defined; however, in 1543 Meath was split into Meath and Westmeath.", "Around 1545, the Byrnes and O'Tooles, both native septs who had constantly been a pain for the English administration of the Pale, petitioned the Lord Deputy of Ireland to turn their district into its own county, Wicklow.", "However, this was ignored.During the reigns of the last two Tudor monarchs, Mary I (1553–58) and Elizabeth I (1558–1603), the majority of the work for the foundation of the modern counties was carried out under the auspices of three Lord Deputies: Thomas Radclyffe, 3rd Earl of Sussex, Sir Henry Sydney, and Sir John Perrot.Mary's reign saw the first addition of actual new counties since the reign of King John.", "Radclyffe had conquered the districts of Glenmaliry, Irry, Leix, Offaly, and Slewmargy from the O'Moores and O'Connors, and in 1556 a statute decreed that Offaly and part of Glenmaliry would be made into the county of King's County, whilst the rest of Glenmarliry along with Irry, Leix and Slewmargy was formed into Queen's County.", "Radclyffe brought forth legislation to shire all land as yet unshired throughout Ireland and sought to divide the island into six parts—Connaught, Leinster, Meath, Nether Munster, Ulster, and Upper Munster.", "However, his administrative reign in Ireland was cut short, and it was not until the reign of Mary's successor, Elizabeth, that this legislation was re-adopted.", "Under Elizabeth, Radclyffe was brought back to implement it.Sydney during his three tenures as Lord Deputy created two presidencies to administer Connaught and Munster.", "He shired Connaught into the counties of Galway, Mayo, Roscommon, and Sligo.", "In 1565 the territory of the O'Rourkes within Roscommon was made into the county of Leitrim.", "In an attempt to reduce the importance of the province of Munster, Sydney, using the River Shannon as a natural boundary took the former kingdom of Thomond (North Munster) and made it into the county of Clare as part of the presidency of Connaught in 1569.In 1569 the Irish Parliament passed \"An Act for turning of Countries that be not yet Shire Grounds into Shire Grounds\".", "A commission headed by Perrot and others in 1571 declared that the territory of Desmond in Munster was to be made a county of itself, and it had its own sheriff appointed, however in 1606 it was merged with the county of Kerry.", "In 1575 Sydney made an expedition to Ulster to plan its shiring.", "However, nothing came to bear.In 1578 the go-ahead was given for turning the districts of the Byrnes and O'Tooles into the county of Wicklow.", "However, with the outbreak of war in Munster and then Ulster, they resumed their independence.", "Sydney also sought to split Wexford into two smaller counties, the northern half of which was to be called Ferns, but the matter was dropped as it was considered impossible to properly administer.", "The territory of the O'Farrells of Annaly, however, which was in Westmeath, in 1583 was formed into the county of Longford and transferred to Connaught.", "The Desmond rebellion (1579–83) that was taking place in Munster stopped Sydney's work and by the time it had been defeated Sir John Perrot was now Lord Deputy, being appointed in 1584.Perrot would be most remembered for shiring the only province of Ireland that remained effectively outside of English control, that of Ulster.", "Prior to his tenancy the only proper county in Ulster was Louth, which had been part of the Pale.", "There were two other long recognised entities north of Louth—Antrim and Down—that had at one time been \"counties\" of the Earldom of Ulster and were regarded as apart from the unreformed parts of the province.", "The date Antrim and Down became constituted is unknown.", "Perrot was recalled in 1588 and the shiring of Ulster would for two decades basically exist on paper as the territory affected remained firmly outside of English control until the defeat of Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone in the Nine Years' War.", "These counties were: Armagh, Cavan, Coleraine, Donegal, Fermanagh, Monaghan, and Tyrone.", "Cavan was formed from the territory of the O'Reilly's of East Breifne in 1584 and had been transferred from Connaught to Ulster.", "After O'Neill and his allies fled Ireland in 1607 in the Flight of the Earls, their lands became escheated to the Crown and the county divisions designed by Perrot were used as the basis for the grants of the subsequent Plantation of Ulster effected by King James I, which officially started in 1609.Around 1600 near the end of Elizabeth's reign, Clare was made an entirely distinct presidency of its own under the Earls of Thomond and would not return to being part of Munster until after the Restoration in 1660.It was not until the subjugation of the Byrnes and O'Tooles by Lord Deputy Sir Arthur Chichester that in 1606 Wicklow was finally shired.", "This county was one of the last to be created, yet was the closest to the centre of English power in Ireland.County Londonderry was incorporated in 1613 by the merger of County Coleraine with the barony of Loughinsholin (in County Tyrone), the North West Liberties of Londonderry (in County Donegal), and the North East Liberties of Coleraine (in County Antrim).===Demarcation of counties and Tipperary===Throughout the Elizabethan era and the reign of her successor James I, the exact boundaries of the provinces and the counties they consisted of remained uncertain.", "In 1598 Meath is considered a province in Hayne's ''Description of Ireland'', and included the counties of Cavan, East Meath, Longford, and Westmeath.", "This contrasts to George Carew's 1602 survey where there were only four provinces with Longford part of Connaught and Cavan not mentioned at all with only three counties mentioned for Ulster.", "During Perrot's tenure as Lord President of Munster before he became Lord Deputy, Munster contained as many as eight counties rather than the six it later consisted of.", "These eight counties were: the five English counties of Cork, Limerick, Kerry, Tipperary, and Waterford; and the three Irish counties of Desmond, Ormond, and Thomond.Perrot's divisions in Ulster were for the main confirmed by a series of inquisitions between 1606 and 1610 that settled the demarcation of the counties of Connaught and Ulster.", "John Speed's ''Description of the Kingdom of Ireland'' in 1610 showed that there was still a vagueness over what counties constituted the provinces, however, Meath was no longer reckoned a province.", "By 1616 when the Attorney General for Ireland Sir John Davies departed Ireland, almost all counties had been delimited.", "The only exception was the county of Tipperary, which still belonged to the palatinate of Ormond.Tipperary would remain an anomaly being in effect two counties, one palatine, the other of the Cross until 1715 during the reign of King George I when an act abolished the \"royalties and liberties of the County of Tipperary\" and \"that whatsoever hath been denominated or called Tipperary or Cross Tipperary, shall henceforth be and remain one county forever, under the name of the County of Tipperary.\"", "Between 1838 and 2014, County Tipperary was divided into two ridings/counties, North Tipperary and South Tipperary.===Sub-divisions of counties===To correspond with the subdivisions of the English shires into honours or baronies, Irish counties were granted out to the Anglo-Norman noblemen in cantreds, later known as baronies, which in turn were subdivided, as in England, into parishes.", "Parishes were composed of townlands.", "However, in many cases, these divisions correspond to earlier, pre-Norman, divisions.", "While there are 331 baronies in Ireland, and more than a thousand civil parishes, there are around sixty thousand townlands that range in size from one to several thousand hectares.", "Townlands were often traditionally divided into smaller units called ''quarters'', but these subdivisions are not legally defined.===Counties corporate===The following towns/cities had charters specifically granting them the status of a county corporate:* County of the Town of Carrickfergus (by 1325)* County of the City of Cork (1608)* County of the Town of Drogheda (1412)* County of the City of Dublin (1548)* County of the Town of Galway (1610)* County of the City of Kilkenny (1610)* County of the City of Limerick (1609)* County of the City of Waterford (1574)The only entirely new counties created in 1898 were the county boroughs of Londonderry and Belfast.", "Carrickfergus, Drogheda and Kilkenny were abolished; Galway was also abolished, but recreated in 1986.===Exceptions to the county system of control===Regional presidencies of Connacht and Munster remained in existence until 1672, with special powers over their subsidiary counties.", "Tipperary remained a county palatine until the passing of the County Palatine of Tipperary Act 1715, with different officials and procedures from other counties.", "At the same time, Dublin, until the 19th century, had ecclesiastical liberties with rules outside those applying to the rest of Dublin city and county.", "Exclaves of the county of Dublin existed in counties Kildare and Wicklow.", "At least eight other enclaves of one county inside another, or between two others, existed.", "The various enclaves and exclaves were merged into neighbouring and surrounding counties, primarily in the mid-19th century under a series of Orders in Council.===Evolution of functions===The Church of Ireland exercised functions at the level of a civil parish that would later be exercised by county authorities.", "Vestigial feudal power structures of major old estates remained well into the 18th century.", "Urban corporations operated individual royal charters.", "Management of counties came to be exercised by grand juries.", "Members of grand juries were the local payers of rates who historically held judicial functions, taking maintenance roles in regard to roads and bridges, and the collection of \"county cess\" taxes.", "They were usually composed of wealthy \"country gentlemen\" (i.e.", "landowners, farmers and merchants):A country gentleman as a member of a Grand Jury...levied the local taxes, appointed the nephews of his old friends to collect them, and spent them when they were gathered in.", "He controlled the boards of guardians and appointed the dispensary doctors, regulated the diet of paupers, inflicted fines and administered the law at petty sessions.", "The counties were initially used for judicial purposes, but began to take on some governmental functions in the 17th century, notably with grand juries.===19th and 20th centuries===In 1836, the use of counties as local government units was further developed, with grand-jury powers extended under the Grand Jury (Ireland) Act 1836.The traditional county of Tipperary was split into two judicial counties (or ridings) following the establishment of assize courts in 1838.Also in that year, local poor law boards, with a mix of magistrates and elected \"guardians\" took over the health and social welfare functions of the grand juries.Sixty years later, a more radical reorganisation of local government took place with the passage of the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898.This Act established a county council for each of the thirty-three Irish administrative counties.", "Elected county councils took over the powers of the grand juries.", "The boundaries of the traditional counties changed on a number of occasions.", "The 1898 Act changed the boundaries of Counties Galway, Clare, Mayo, Roscommon, Sligo, Waterford, Kilkenny, Meath and Louth, and others.", "County Tipperary was divided into two regions: North Riding and South Riding.", "Areas of the cities of Belfast, Cork, Dublin, Limerick, Derry and Waterford were carved from their surrounding counties to become county boroughs in their own right and given powers equivalent to those of administrative counties.Under the Government of Ireland Act 1920, the island was partitioned between Southern Ireland and Northern Ireland.", "For the purposes of the Act, ... Northern Ireland shall consist of the parliamentary counties of Antrim, Armagh, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry and Tyrone, and the parliamentary boroughs of Belfast and Londonderry, and Southern Ireland shall consist of so much of Ireland as is not comprised within the said parliamentary counties and boroughs.The county and county borough borders were thus used to determine the line of partition.", "Southern Ireland shortly afterwards became the Irish Free State.", "This partition was entrenched in the Anglo-Irish Treaty, which was ratified in 1922, by which the Irish Free State left the United Kingdom with Northern Ireland making the decision to not separate two days later.====Historic and traditional counties====Areas that were shired by 1607 and continued as counties until the local government reforms of 1836, 1898 and 2001 are sometimes referred to as \"traditional\" or \"historic\" counties.", "These were distinct from the counties corporate that existed in some of the larger towns and cities, although linked to the county at large for other purposes.", "From 1898 to 2001, areas with county councils were known as administrative counties, while the counties corporate were designated as county boroughs.", "From 2001, local government areas were divided between counties and cities.", "From 2014, they were divided into counties, cities, and cities and counties." ], [ "Current usage", "===In the Republic of Ireland===In the Republic of Ireland, the traditional counties are, in general, the basis for local government, planning and community development purposes and are still generally respected for other purposes.", "They are governed by county councils.", "Administrative borders have been altered to allocate various towns exclusively into one county having been originally split between two counties.At the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922, there were 27 administrative counties (with County Tipperary divided into the administrative counties of North Tipperary and South Tipperary) and 4 county boroughs, Dublin, Cork, Galway, Limerick and Waterford.Rural districts were abolished by the Local Government Act 1925 and the Local Government (Dublin) Act 1930 amidst widespread allegations of corruption.Under the Local Government Provisional Order Confirmation Act 1976, part of the urban area of Drogheda, which lay in County Meath, was transferred to County Louth on 1 January 1977.This resulted in the land area of County Louth increasing slightly at the expense of County Meath.", "The possibility of a similar action with regard to Waterford City has been raised in recent years, though opposition from Kilkenny has been strong.In 1985, Galway became a county borough.County Dublin was abolished as an administrative county in 1994 and divided into three administrative counties: Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Fingal, and South Dublin.Under the Local Government Act 2001, the county boroughs of Dublin, Cork, Galway, Limerick and Waterford were re-styled as cities, with the same status in law as counties.", "The term administrative county was replaced with the term \"county\".The cities of Limerick and Waterford were merged with their respective counties by the Local Government Reform Act 2014, to form new ''cities and counties''.", "The same Act also abolished North Tipperary and South Tipperary and re-established County Tipperary as an administrative unit.There are now 31 local government areas: 26 counties, three cities, and two cities and counties.Since 2014, local authorities send representatives to Regional Assemblies overseeing three regions for the purposes of European Structural and Investment Funds: Southern Region, the Eastern and Midland Region, and the Northern and Western Region.", "From 1994 to 2014, there were eight Regional Authorities, dissolved under the Local Government Reform Act 2014.As placenames, there is a distinction between the traditional counties, listed as \"counties\", and those created as local government areas, listed as \"administrative counties\".====Education====In 2013 Education and Training Boards (ETBs) were formed throughout the Republic of Ireland, replacing the system of Vocational Education Committees (VECs) created in 1930.Originally, VECs were formed for each administrative county and county borough, and also in a number of larger towns, and were legally sub-committees of the relevant authorities.", "In 1997 the majority of town VECs were absorbed by the surrounding county authorities.", "The 33 VEC areas were reduced to 16 ETB areas, with each consisting of one or more local government county or city areas.The Institute of technology system was organised by committee areas or \"functional areas\"; these areas retain their legal basis but are not as important as originally envisioned as the institutes are now more national in character.", "The functional areas are only of significance today when selecting governing councils; similarly, Dublin Institute of Technology was originally a group of several colleges within the aegis of the City of Dublin VEC.====Elections====Where possible, Dáil constituencies follow county boundaries.", "Under the Electoral Act 1997, as amended, a Constituency Commission is established following the publication of preliminary census figures every five years.", "The commission is charged with defining constituency boundaries, and the 1997 Act provides that \"the breaching of county boundaries shall be avoided as far as practicable\".", "This provision does not apply to the boundaries between cities and counties, or between the three counties in the Dublin area.This system usually results in more populated counties having several constituencies: Dublin, including Dublin city, is subdivided into twelve constituencies, Cork into five.", "On the other hand, smaller counties such as Carlow and Kilkenny or Laois and Offaly may be paired to form constituencies.", "Leitrim, Ireland's least populated county, was divided between the constituencies of Sligo–North Leitrim and Roscommon–South Leitrim from 2007 to 2016.Each county, city, and city and county is divided into local electoral areas for the election of councillors.", "The boundaries of the areas and the number of councillors assigned are fixed from time to time by order of the Minister for Housing, Local Government and Heritage, following a report by the Local Government Commission, and based on population changes recorded in the census.===In Northern Ireland===In Northern Ireland, a major reorganisation of local government in 1973 replaced the six traditional counties and two county boroughs (Belfast and Derry) with 26 single-tier districts for local government purposes.", "In 2015, as a result of a reform process that started in 2005, these districts were merged to form 11 new single-tier \"super districts\".The six traditional counties remain in use for some purposes, including the three-letter coding of vehicle number plates, the Royal Mail Postcode Address File (which records counties in all addresses although they are no longer required for postcoded mail) and Lord Lieutenancies (for which the former county boroughs are also used).", "There are no longer official 'county towns'.", "However, the counties are still very widely acknowledged, for example as administrative divisions for sporting and cultural organisations.===Other uses===The administrative division of the island along the lines of the traditional 32 counties was also adopted by non-governmental and cultural organisations.", "In particular, the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) continues to organise its activities on the basis of its own system of counties that, throughout the island, correspond almost exactly to the 32 traditional counties in use at the time of the foundation of that organisation in 1884.The GAA also uses the term \"county\" for some of its organisational units in Britain and further afield.", "Legal adjustments to county bounds since 1884 have not been reflected in GAA county boards (e.g.", "Ballaghaderreen GAA which is located in County Roscommon but affiliated to Mayo GAA county board)." ], [ "List of counties", "The 35 divisions listed below include the traditional counties of Ireland as well as three created in Dublin in 1994.Twenty-four counties still delimit the remit of local government areas in the Republic of Ireland (in some cases with slightly redrawn boundaries).", "County Dublin, which was abolished as a distinct administrative entity in 1994, is included, as are the three new administrative counties which took over the functions of the former County Dublin.", "In Northern Ireland, the counties listed no longer serve this purpose.", "The Irish-language names of counties in the Republic of Ireland are prescribed by ministerial order, which in the case of three newer counties, omits the word (county).", "Irish names form the basis for all English-language county names except Waterford, Wexford, and Wicklow, which are of Norse origin.The \"Region\" column of the table below, except for the six Northern Ireland counties, indicates Regions as defined under the Local Government Act 1991.These are NUTS 2 statistical regions of Ireland.", "\"County town\" is the current or former administrative capital of the county.The cities of Cork, Dublin, and Galway, which are separate local government areas with the same legal status as counties, are not shown separately.", "Also omitted are the former county boroughs of Londonderry and Belfast which in Northern Ireland had the same legal status as the six counties until the reorganisation of local government in 1973.County Native name(Irish) Ulster-Scotsname(s) County town Mostpopulouscity/town Province Region Antrim AnthrimAntrìmEntrim Ballymena Belfast (part) Ulster UKN0: Northern Ireland Armagh Airmagh Armagh Craigavon Ulster UKN0: Northern Ireland Carlow Carlow Leinster IE06: Eastern and Midland Cavan Cavan Ulster IE04: Northern and Western Clare Ennis Munster IE05: Southern Cork Coark Cork Munster IE05: Southern Donegal DinnygalDunnygal Lifford Letterkenny Ulster IE04: Northern and Western Down DoonDoun Downpatrick Belfast (part) Ulster UKN0: Northern Ireland Dublin Dublin Leinster IE06: Eastern and Midland Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown Dún Laoghaire Leinster IE06: Eastern and Midland Fingal Swords Leinster IE06: Eastern and Midland South Dublin Tallaght Leinster IE06: Eastern and Midland Fermanagh Fermanay Enniskillen Ulster UKN0: Northern Ireland Galway Galway IE04: Northern and Western Kerry Tralee Munster IE05: Southern Kildare Naas Newbridge Leinster IE06: Eastern and Midland Kilkenny Kilkenny Leinster IE05: Southern Laois Portlaoise Leinster IE06: Eastern and Midland Leitrim Carrick-on-Shannon IE04: Northern and Western Limerick Lïmerick Limerick Munster IE05: Southern Londonderry Lunnonderrie Coleraine Derry Ulster UKN0: Northern Ireland Longford Langfurd Longford Leinster IE06: Eastern and Midland Louth Dundalk Drogheda Leinster IE06: Eastern and Midland Mayo Castlebar IE04: Northern and Western Meath Navan Leinster IE06: Eastern and Midland Monaghan Ronelann Monaghan Ulster IE04: Northern and Western Offaly Tullamore Leinster IE06: Eastern and Midland Roscommon Roscommon IE04: Northern and Western Sligo Sligo IE04: Northern and Western Tipperary Nenagh Clonmel Munster IE05: Southern Tyrone Owenslann Omagh Ulster UKN0: Northern Ireland Waterford Wattèrford Waterford Munster IE05: Southern Westmeath Mullingar Athlone Leinster IE06: Eastern and Midland Wexford Wexford Leinster IE05: Southern Wicklow Wicklow Bray Leinster IE06: Eastern and Midland;Notes:" ], [ "See also", "*Counties of the United Kingdom*County (Gaelic games)*History of Ireland*Vehicle registration plates of the Republic of Ireland*Vehicle registration plates of Northern Ireland*List of Irish counties by area*List of Irish counties by population*List of Irish counties' coats of arms*List of Irish county towns*ISO 3166-2:GB*ISO 3166-2:IE" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Common Licensed Photos from all the Counties* The Baronies of Ireland -Clans and Baronies" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Information Sciences Institute" ], [ "Introduction", "ISI headquarters in Marina del Rey, CAThe '''USC Information Sciences Institute''' ('''ISI''') is a component of the University of Southern California (USC) Viterbi School of Engineering, and specializes in research and development in information processing, computing, and communications technologies.", "It is located in Marina del Rey, California.ISI actively participated in the information revolution, and it played a leading role in developing and managing the early Internet and its predecessor ARPAnet.", "The Institute conducts basic and applied research supported by more than 20 U.S. government agencies involved in defense, science, health, homeland security, energy and other areas.", "Annual funding is about $100 million.ISI employs about 400 research scientists, research programmers, graduate students and administrative staff at its Marina del Rey, California headquarters, in Arlington, Virginia, and in Boston, Massachusetts.", "About half of the research staff hold PhD degrees, and about 40 are research faculty who teach at USC and advise graduate students.", "Several senior researchers are tenured USC faculty in the Viterbi School." ], [ "Research and sponsors", "ISI research spans artificial intelligence (AI), cybersecurity, grid computing, cloud computing, quantum computing, microelectronics, supercomputing, nano-satellites and many other areas.", "AI expertise includes natural language processing, in which ISI has an international reputation, reconfigurable robotics, information integration, motion analysis and social media analysis.", "Hardware/software expertise includes cyber-physical system security, data mining, reconfigurable computing and cloud computing.", "In networking, ISI explores Internet resilience, Internet traffic analysis and photonics, among other areas.", "Researchers also work in scientific data management, wireless technologies, biomimetics and electrical smart grid, in which ISI is advising the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power on a major demonstration project.", "Another current initiative involves big data brain imaging jointly with the Keck School of Medicine of USC.Federal agency sponsors include the Air Force Research Laboratory, DARPA, Department of Education, Department of Energy, Department of Homeland Security, National Institutes of Health, National Science Foundation, and other scientific, technical, and defense-related agencies.Corporate partners include Chevron Corporation in the Center for Interactive Smart Oilfield Technologies (CiSoft), Lockheed Martin in the USC-Lockheed Martin Quantum Computing Center, and Sparta Inc., a subsidiary of Parsons Corporation in the DETER Project, a cybersecurity research initiative and international testbed.", "ISI also has partnered with businesses including IBM, Samsung Electronics, Raytheon, GlobalFoundries, Northrop Grumman and Carl Zeiss AG, and currently is working with Micron Technology, Inc., Altera Corporation and Fujitsu Ltd.ISI also operates MOSIS, a multi-project electronic circuit wafer service that has prototyped more than 60,000 chips since 1981.MOSIS provides design tools and pools circuit designs to produce specialty and low-volume chips for corporations, universities and other research entities worldwide.", "The Institute also has given rise to several startup and spinoff companies in grid software, geospatial information fusion, machine translation, data integration and other technologies." ], [ "History", "ISI was founded by Keith Uncapher, who headed the computer research group at RAND Corporation in the 1960s and early 1970s.", "Uncapher decided to leave RAND after his group's funding was cut in 1971.He approached the University of California, Los Angeles about creating an off-campus technology institute, but was told that a decision would take 15 months.", "He then presented the concept to USC, which approved the proposal in five days.", "ISI was launched with three employees in 1972.Its first proposal was funded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in 30 days for $6 million.ISI became one of the earliest nodes on ARPANET, the predecessor to the Internet, and in 1977 figured prominently in a demonstration of its international viability.", "ISI also helped refine the TCP/IP communications protocols fundamental to Net operations, and researcher Paul Mockapetris developed the now-familiar Domain Name System characterized by .com, .org, .net, .gov, and .edu on which the Net still operates.", "(The names .com, .org et al.", "were invented at SRI International, an ongoing collaborator.)", "Steve Crocker originated the Request for Comments (RFC) series, the written record of the network's technical structure and operation that both documented and shaped the emerging Internet.", "Another ISI researcher, Danny Cohen, became first to implement packet voice and packet video over ARPANET, demonstrating the viability of packet switching for real-time applications.Jonathan Postel collaborated in development of TCP/IP, DNS and the SMTP protocol that supports email.", "He also edited the RFC for nearly three decades until his sudden death in 1998, when ISI colleagues assumed responsibility.", "The Institute retained that role until 2009.Postel simultaneously directed the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) and its predecessor, which assign Internet addresses.", "IANA was administered from ISI until a nonprofit organization, ICANN, was created for that purpose in 1998." ], [ "Other achievements", "Some of the first Net security applications, and one of the world's first portable computers, also originated at ISI.ISI researchers also created or co-created the:*GLOBUS grid computing standard*LOOM knowledge representation language and environment, or LOOM (ontology) *MONARCH supercomputer-on-a-chip*Soar (cognitive architecture) for developing intelligent behavioral systems*Pegasus (workflow management)In 2011, several ISI natural language experts advised the IBM team that created Watson, the computer that became the first machine to win against human competitors on the ''Jeopardy!''", "TV show.", "In 2012, ISI's Kevin Knight spearheaded a successful drive to crack the Copiale cipher, a lengthy encrypted manuscript that had remained unreadable for 250 years.", "Also in 2012, the USC-Lockheed Martin Quantum Computing Center (QCC) became the first organization to operate a quantum annealing system outside of its manufacturer, D-Wave Systems, Inc. USC, ISI and Lockheed Martin now are performing basic and applied research into quantum computing.", "A second quantum annealing system is located at NASA Ames Research Center, and is operated jointly by NASA and Google.The USC Andrew and Erna Viterbi School of Engineering was ranked among the nation's top 10 engineering graduate schools by ''US News & World Report'' in 2015.Including ISI, USC is ranked first nationally in federal computer science research and development expenditures." ], [ "Organizational structure", "ISI is organized into seven divisions focused on differing areas of research expertise:*Advanced Electronics: MOSIS shared-services integrated circuit research and fabrication, CMOS and post-CMOS concepts, and biomimetics*Computational Systems and Technology: quantum computing; supercomputing; cloud, wireless, reconfigurable and multicore computing; microarchitecture and electronics; science automation technologies; social networks and space systems*Informatics Systems Research: grid computing, information security, service-oriented architectures, imaging and medical informatics that aim to transform healthcare discovery processes, practice and delivery.", "*Artificial Intelligence: artificial intelligence in natural language, machine translation, information integration, education, robotics and other disciplines.", "*Networking and Cybersecurity: internet security research and international testbed, internet measurement and monitoring approaches, and sensor networks that emphasize both networking theory and practice.", "*Space Technology and Systems: space research and hands-on involvement for students through the Space Engineering Research Center, operated jointly by ISI and USC.", "*Vision, Image, Speech and Text Analytics: ISI's Center for Vision, Image, Speech and Text Analytics (VISTA) is an internationally recognized leader in areas such as multimedia signal processing, computer vision, and natural language analysis.Smaller, specialized research groups operate within almost all divisions.ISI is led by Executive Director Craig Knoblock, the previous director to the AI division." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official '''USC Information Sciences Institute''' (ISI) website * Official '''USC Viterbi School of Engineering''' website * Youtube.com* Dwavesys.com" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Information security" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Information security''', sometimes shortened to '''infosec''', is the practice of protecting information by mitigating information risks.", "It is part of information risk management.", "It typically involves preventing or reducing the probability of unauthorized or inappropriate access to data or the unlawful use, disclosure, disruption, deletion, corruption, modification, inspection, recording, or devaluation of information.", "It also involves actions intended to reduce the adverse impacts of such incidents.", "Protected information may take any form, e.g., electronic or physical, tangible (e.g., paperwork), or intangible (e.g., knowledge).", "Information security's primary focus is the balanced protection of data confidentiality, integrity, and availability (also known as the \"CIA\" triad) while maintaining a focus on efficient policy implementation, all without hampering organization productivity.", "This is largely achieved through a structured risk management process that involves: * Identifying information and related assets, plus potential threats, vulnerabilities, and impacts;* Evaluating the risks* Deciding how to address or treat the risks, i.e., to avoid, mitigate, share, or accept them* Where risk mitigation is required, selecting or designing appropriate security controls and implementing them* Monitoring the activities and making adjustments as necessary to address any issues, changes, or improvement opportunitiesTo standardize this discipline, academics and professionals collaborate to offer guidance, policies, and industry standards on passwords, antivirus software, firewalls, encryption software, legal liability, security awareness and training, and so forth.", "This standardization may be further driven by a wide variety of laws and regulations that affect how data is accessed, processed, stored, transferred, and destroyed.", "However, the implementation of any standards and guidance within an entity may have limited effect if a culture of continual improvement is not adopted." ], [ "Definition", "'''Information Security Attributes''': or qualities, i.e., Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability (CIA).", "Information Systems are composed in three main portions, hardware, software and communications with the purpose to help identify and apply information security industry standards, as mechanisms of protection and prevention, at three levels or layers: physical, personal and organizational.", "Essentially, procedures or policies are implemented to tell administrators, users and operators how to use products to ensure information security within the organizations.Various definitions of information security are suggested below, summarized from different sources:# \"Preservation of confidentiality, integrity and availability of information.", "Note: In addition, other properties, such as authenticity, accountability, non-repudiation and reliability can also be involved.\"", "(ISO/IEC 27000:2018)# \"The protection of information and information systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction in order to provide confidentiality, integrity, and availability.\"", "(CNSS, 2010)# \"Ensures that only authorized users (confidentiality) have access to accurate and complete information (integrity) when required (availability).\"", "(ISACA, 2008)# \"Information Security is the process of protecting the intellectual property of an organisation.\"", "(Pipkin, 2000)# \"...information security is a risk management discipline, whose job is to manage the cost of information risk to the business.\"", "(McDermott and Geer, 2001)# \"A well-informed sense of assurance that information risks and controls are in balance.\"", "(Anderson, J., 2003)# \"Information security is the protection of information and minimizes the risk of exposing information to unauthorized parties.\"", "(Venter and Eloff, 2003)# \"Information Security is a multidisciplinary area of study and professional activity which is concerned with the development and implementation of security mechanisms of all available types (technical, organizational, human-oriented and legal) in order to keep information in all its locations (within and outside the organization's perimeter) and, consequently, information systems, where information is created, processed, stored, transmitted and destroyed, free from threats.", "Threats to information and information systems may be categorized and a corresponding security goal may be defined for each category of threats.", "A set of security goals, identified as a result of a threat analysis, should be revised periodically to ensure its adequacy and conformance with the evolving environment.", "The currently relevant set of security goals may include: ''confidentiality, integrity, availability, privacy, authenticity & trustworthiness, non-repudiation, accountability and auditability.''\"", "(Cherdantseva and Hilton, 2013)#Information and information resource security using telecommunication system or devices means protecting information, information systems or books from unauthorized access, damage, theft, or destruction (Kurose and Ross, 2010)." ], [ "Overview", "At the core of information security is information assurance, the act of maintaining the confidentiality, integrity, and availability (CIA) of information, ensuring that information is not compromised in any way when critical issues arise.", "These issues include but are not limited to natural disasters, computer/server malfunction, and physical theft.", "While paper-based business operations are still prevalent, requiring their own set of information security practices, enterprise digital initiatives are increasingly being emphasized, with information assurance now typically being dealt with by information technology (IT) security specialists.", "These specialists apply information security to technology (most often some form of computer system).", "It is worthwhile to note that a computer does not necessarily mean a home desktop.", "A computer is any device with a processor and some memory.", "Such devices can range from non-networked standalone devices as simple as calculators, to networked mobile computing devices such as smartphones and tablet computers.", "IT security specialists are almost always found in any major enterprise/establishment due to the nature and value of the data within larger businesses.", "They are responsible for keeping all of the technology within the company secure from malicious cyber attacks that often attempt to acquire critical private information or gain control of the internal systems.The field of information security has grown and evolved significantly in recent years.", "It offers many areas for specialization, including securing networks and allied infrastructure, securing applications and databases, security testing, information systems auditing, business continuity planning, electronic record discovery, and digital forensics.", "Information security professionals are very stable in their employment.", "more than 80 percent of professionals had no change in employer or employment over a period of a year, and the number of professionals is projected to continuously grow more than 11 percent annually from 2014 to 2019.=== Threats ===Information security threats come in many different forms.", "Some of the most common threats today are software attacks, theft of intellectual property, theft of identity, theft of equipment or information, sabotage, and information extortion.", "Viruses, worms, phishing attacks, and Trojan horses are a few common examples of software attacks.", "The theft of intellectual property has also been an extensive issue for many businesses in the information technology (IT) field.", "Identity theft is the attempt to act as someone else usually to obtain that person's personal information or to take advantage of their access to vital information through social engineering.", "Theft of equipment or information is becoming more prevalent today due to the fact that most devices today are mobile, are prone to theft and have also become far more desirable as the amount of data capacity increases.", "Sabotage usually consists of the destruction of an organization's website in an attempt to cause loss of confidence on the part of its customers.", "Information extortion consists of theft of a company's property or information as an attempt to receive a payment in exchange for returning the information or property back to its owner, as with ransomware.", "There are many ways to help protect yourself from some of these attacks but one of the most functional precautions is conduct periodical user awareness.", "The number one threat to any organisation are users or internal employees, they are also called insider threats.Governments, military, corporations, financial institutions, hospitals, non-profit organisations, and private businesses amass a great deal of confidential information about their employees, customers, products, research, and financial status.", "Should confidential information about a business's customers or finances or new product line fall into the hands of a competitor or a black hat hacker, a business and its customers could suffer widespread, irreparable financial loss, as well as damage to the company's reputation.", "From a business perspective, information security must be balanced against cost; the Gordon-Loeb Model provides a mathematical economic approach for addressing this concern.For the individual, information security has a significant effect on privacy, which is viewed very differently in various cultures.==== Responses to threats ====Possible responses to a security threat or risk are:* reduce/mitigate – implement safeguards and countermeasures to eliminate vulnerabilities or block threats* assign/transfer – place the cost of the threat onto another entity or organization such as purchasing insurance or outsourcing* accept – evaluate if the cost of the countermeasure outweighs the possible cost of loss due to the threat" ], [ "History", "Since the early days of communication, diplomats and military commanders understood that it was necessary to provide some mechanism to protect the confidentiality of correspondence and to have some means of detecting tampering.", "Julius Caesar is credited with the invention of the Caesar cipher c. 50 B.C., which was created in order to prevent his secret messages from being read should a message fall into the wrong hands.", "However, for the most part protection was achieved through the application of procedural handling controls.", "Sensitive information was marked up to indicate that it should be protected and transported by trusted persons, guarded and stored in a secure environment or strong box.", "As postal services expanded, governments created official organizations to intercept, decipher, read, and reseal letters (e.g., the U.K.'s Secret Office, founded in 1653).In the mid-nineteenth century more complex classification systems were developed to allow governments to manage their information according to the degree of sensitivity.", "For example, the British Government codified this, to some extent, with the publication of the Official Secrets Act in 1889.Section 1 of the law concerned espionage and unlawful disclosures of information, while Section 2 dealt with breaches of official trust.", "A public interest defense was soon added to defend disclosures in the interest of the state.", "A similar law was passed in India in 1889, The Indian Official Secrets Act, which was associated with the British colonial era and used to crack down on newspapers that opposed the Raj's policies.", "A newer version was passed in 1923 that extended to all matters of confidential or secret information for governance.", "By the time of the First World War, multi-tier classification systems were used to communicate information to and from various fronts, which encouraged greater use of code making and breaking sections in diplomatic and military headquarters.", "Encoding became more sophisticated between the wars as machines were employed to scramble and unscramble information.The establishment of computer security inaugurated the history of information security.", "The need for such appeared during World War II.", "The volume of information shared by the Allied countries during the Second World War necessitated formal alignment of classification systems and procedural controls.", "An arcane range of markings evolved to indicate who could handle documents (usually officers rather than enlisted troops) and where they should be stored as increasingly complex safes and storage facilities were developed.", "The Enigma Machine, which was employed by the Germans to encrypt the data of warfare and was successfully decrypted by Alan Turing, can be regarded as a striking example of creating and using secured information.", "Procedures evolved to ensure documents were destroyed properly, and it was the failure to follow these procedures which led to some of the greatest intelligence coups of the war (e.g., the capture of U-570).Various mainframe computers were connected online during the Cold War to complete more sophisticated tasks, in a communication process easier than mailing magnetic tapes back and forth by computer centers.", "As such, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), of the United States Department of Defense, started researching the feasibility of a networked system of communication to trade information within the United States Armed Forces.", "In 1968, the ARPANET project was formulated by Larry Roberts, which would later evolve into what is known as the internet.In 1973, important elements of ARPANET security were found by internet pioneer Robert Metcalfe to have many flaws such as the: \"vulnerability of password structure and formats; lack of safety procedures for dial-up connections; and nonexistent user identification and authorizations\", aside from the lack of controls and safeguards to keep data safe from unauthorized access.", "Hackers had effortless access to ARPANET, as phone numbers were known by the public.", "Due to these problems, coupled with the constant violation of computer security, as well as the exponential increase in the number of hosts and users of the system, \"network security\" was often alluded to as \"network insecurity\".The end of the twentieth century and the early years of the twenty-first century saw rapid advancements in telecommunications, computing hardware and software, and data encryption.", "The availability of smaller, more powerful, and less expensive computing equipment made electronic data processing within the reach of small business and home users.", "The establishment of Transfer Control Protocol/Internetwork Protocol (TCP/IP) in the early 1980s enabled different types of computers to communicate.", "These computers quickly became interconnected through the internet.The rapid growth and widespread use of electronic data processing and electronic business conducted through the internet, along with numerous occurrences of international terrorism, fueled the need for better methods of protecting the computers and the information they store, process, and transmit.", "The academic disciplines of computer security and information assurance emerged along with numerous professional organizations, all sharing the common goals of ensuring the security and reliability of information systems." ], [ "Basic principles", "=== Key concepts ===Ministry of DefenceThe \"CIA\" triad of '''''c'''onfidentiality, '''i'''ntegrity, and '''a'''vailability'' is at the heart of information security.", "(The members of the classic InfoSec triad—confidentiality, integrity, and availability—are interchangeably referred to in the literature as security attributes, properties, security goals, fundamental aspects, information criteria, critical information characteristics and basic building blocks.)", "However, debate continues about whether or not this triad is sufficient to address rapidly changing technology and business requirements, with recommendations to consider expanding on the intersections between availability and confidentiality, as well as the relationship between security and privacy.", "Other principles such as \"accountability\" have sometimes been proposed; it has been pointed out that issues such as non-repudiation do not fit well within the three core concepts.The triad seems to have first been mentioned in a NIST publication in 1977.In 1992 and revised in 2002, the OECD's ''Guidelines for the Security of Information Systems and Networks'' proposed the nine generally accepted principles: awareness, responsibility, response, ethics, democracy, risk assessment, security design and implementation, security management, and reassessment.", "Building upon those, in 2004 the NIST's ''Engineering Principles for Information Technology Security'' proposed 33 principles.", "From each of these derived guidelines and practices.In 1998, Donn Parker proposed an alternative model for the classic \"CIA\" triad that he called the six atomic elements of information.", "The elements are confidentiality, possession, integrity, authenticity, availability, and utility.", "The merits of the Parkerian Hexad are a subject of debate amongst security professionals.In 2011, The Open Group published the information security management standard O-ISM3.This standard proposed an operational definition of the key concepts of security, with elements called \"security objectives\", related to access control (9), availability (3), data quality (1), compliance, and technical (4).", "In 2009, DoD Software Protection Initiative released the Three Tenets of Cybersecurity which are System Susceptibility, Access to the Flaw, and Capability to Exploit the Flaw.", "Neither of these models are widely adopted.==== Confidentiality ====In information security, confidentiality \"is the property, that information is not made available or disclosed to unauthorized individuals, entities, or processes.\"", "While similar to \"privacy,\" the two words are not interchangeable.", "Rather, confidentiality is a component of privacy that implements to protect our data from unauthorized viewers.", "Examples of confidentiality of electronic data being compromised include laptop theft, password theft, or sensitive emails being sent to the incorrect individuals.==== Integrity ====In IT security, data integrity means maintaining and assuring the accuracy and completeness of data over its entire lifecycle.", "This means that data cannot be modified in an unauthorized or undetected manner.", "This is not the same thing as referential integrity in databases, although it can be viewed as a special case of consistency as understood in the classic ACID model of transaction processing.", "Information security systems typically incorporate controls to ensure their own integrity, in particular protecting the kernel or core functions against both deliberate and accidental threats.", "Multi-purpose and multi-user computer systems aim to compartmentalize the data and processing such that no user or process can adversely impact another: the controls may not succeed however, as we see in incidents such as malware infections, hacks, data theft, fraud, and privacy breaches.More broadly, integrity is an information security principle that involves human/social, process, and commercial integrity, as well as data integrity.", "As such it touches on aspects such as credibility, consistency, truthfulness, completeness, accuracy, timeliness, and assurance.==== Availability ====For any information system to serve its purpose, the information must be available when it is needed.", "This means the computing systems used to store and process the information, the security controls used to protect it, and the communication channels used to access it must be functioning correctly.", "High availability systems aim to remain available at all times, preventing service disruptions due to power outages, hardware failures, and system upgrades.", "Ensuring availability also involves preventing denial-of-service attacks, such as a flood of incoming messages to the target system, essentially forcing it to shut down.In the realm of information security, availability can often be viewed as one of the most important parts of a successful information security program.", "Ultimately end-users need to be able to perform job functions; by ensuring availability an organization is able to perform to the standards that an organization's stakeholders expect.", "This can involve topics such as proxy configurations, outside web access, the ability to access shared drives and the ability to send emails.", "Executives oftentimes do not understand the technical side of information security and look at availability as an easy fix, but this often requires collaboration from many different organizational teams, such as network operations, development operations, incident response, and policy/change management.", "A successful information security team involves many different key roles to mesh and align for the \"CIA\" triad to be provided effectively.==== Non-repudiation ====In law, non-repudiation implies one's intention to fulfill their obligations to a contract.", "It also implies that one party of a transaction cannot deny having received a transaction, nor can the other party deny having sent a transaction.It is important to note that while technology such as cryptographic systems can assist in non-repudiation efforts, the concept is at its core a legal concept transcending the realm of technology.", "It is not, for instance, sufficient to show that the message matches a digital signature signed with the sender's private key, and thus only the sender could have sent the message, and nobody else could have altered it in transit (data integrity).", "The alleged sender could in return demonstrate that the digital signature algorithm is vulnerable or flawed, or allege or prove that his signing key has been compromised.", "The fault for these violations may or may not lie with the sender, and such assertions may or may not relieve the sender of liability, but the assertion would invalidate the claim that the signature necessarily proves authenticity and integrity.", "As such, the sender may repudiate the message (because authenticity and integrity are pre-requisites for non-repudiation)." ], [ "Risk management", "Broadly speaking, risk is the likelihood that something bad will happen that causes harm to an informational asset (or the loss of the asset).", "A vulnerability is a weakness that could be used to endanger or cause harm to an informational asset.", "A threat is anything (man-made or act of nature) that has the potential to cause harm.", "The likelihood that a threat will use a vulnerability to cause harm creates a risk.", "When a threat does use a vulnerability to inflict harm, it has an impact.", "In the context of information security, the impact is a loss of availability, integrity, and confidentiality, and possibly other losses (lost income, loss of life, loss of real property).The ''Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA) Review Manual 2006'' defines '''risk management''' as \"the process of identifying vulnerabilities and threats to the information resources used by an organization in achieving business objectives, and deciding what countermeasures, if any, to take in reducing risk to an acceptable level, based on the value of the information resource to the organization.", "\"There are two things in this definition that may need some clarification.", "First, the ''process'' of risk management is an ongoing, iterative process.", "It must be repeated indefinitely.", "The business environment is constantly changing and new threats and vulnerabilities emerge every day.", "Second, the choice of countermeasures (controls) used to manage risks must strike a balance between productivity, cost, effectiveness of the countermeasure, and the value of the informational asset being protected.", "Furthermore, these processes have limitations as security breaches are generally rare and emerge in a specific context which may not be easily duplicated.", "Thus, any process and countermeasure should itself be evaluated for vulnerabilities.", "It is not possible to identify all risks, nor is it possible to eliminate all risk.", "The remaining risk is called \"residual risk\".A risk assessment is carried out by a team of people who have knowledge of specific areas of the business.", "Membership of the team may vary over time as different parts of the business are assessed.", "The assessment may use a subjective qualitative analysis based on informed opinion, or where reliable dollar figures and historical information is available, the analysis may use quantitative analysis.Research has shown that the most vulnerable point in most information systems is the human user, operator, designer, or other human.", "The ISO/IEC 27002:2005 Code of practice for information security management recommends the following be examined during a risk assessment:* security policy,* organization of information security,* asset management,* human resources security,* physical and environmental security,* communications and operations management,* access control,* information systems acquisition, development, and maintenance,* information security incident management,* business continuity management* regulatory compliance.In broad terms, the risk management process consists of:# Identification of assets and estimating their value.", "Include: people, buildings, hardware, software, data (electronic, print, other), supplies.# Conduct a threat assessment.", "Include: Acts of nature, acts of war, accidents, malicious acts originating from inside or outside the organization.# Conduct a vulnerability assessment, and for each vulnerability, calculate the probability that it will be exploited.", "Evaluate policies, procedures, standards, training, physical security, quality control, technical security.# Calculate the impact that each threat would have on each asset.", "Use qualitative analysis or quantitative analysis.# Identify, select and implement appropriate controls.", "Provide a proportional response.", "Consider productivity, cost effectiveness, and value of the asset.# Evaluate the effectiveness of the control measures.", "Ensure the controls provide the required cost effective protection without discernible loss of productivity.For any given risk, management can choose to accept the risk based upon the relative low value of the asset, the relative low frequency of occurrence, and the relative low impact on the business.", "Or, leadership may choose to mitigate the risk by selecting and implementing appropriate control measures to reduce the risk.", "In some cases, the risk can be transferred to another business by buying insurance or outsourcing to another business.", "The reality of some risks may be disputed.", "In such cases leadership may choose to deny the risk.=== Security controls ===Selecting and implementing proper security controls will initially help an organization bring down risk to acceptable levels.", "Control selection should follow and should be based on the risk assessment.", "Controls can vary in nature, but fundamentally they are ways of protecting the confidentiality, integrity or availability of information.", "ISO/IEC 27001 has defined controls in different areas.", "Organizations can implement additional controls according to requirement of the organization.", "ISO/IEC 27002 offers a guideline for organizational information security standards.==== Administrative ====Administrative controls (also called procedural controls) consist of approved written policies, procedures, standards, and guidelines.", "Administrative controls form the framework for running the business and managing people.", "They inform people on how the business is to be run and how day-to-day operations are to be conducted.", "Laws and regulations created by government bodies are also a type of administrative control because they inform the business.", "Some industry sectors have policies, procedures, standards, and guidelines that must be followed – the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) required by Visa and MasterCard is such an example.", "Other examples of administrative controls include the corporate security policy, password policy, hiring policies, and disciplinary policies.Administrative controls form the basis for the selection and implementation of logical and physical controls.", "Logical and physical controls are manifestations of administrative controls, which are of paramount importance.==== Logical ====Logical controls (also called technical controls) use software and data to monitor and control access to information and computing systems.", "Passwords, network and host-based firewalls, network intrusion detection systems, access control lists, and data encryption are examples of logical controls.An important logical control that is frequently overlooked is the principle of least privilege, which requires that an individual, program or system process not be granted any more access privileges than are necessary to perform the task.", "A blatant example of the failure to adhere to the principle of least privilege is logging into Windows as user Administrator to read email and surf the web.", "Violations of this principle can also occur when an individual collects additional access privileges over time.", "This happens when employees' job duties change, employees are promoted to a new position, or employees are transferred to another department.", "The access privileges required by their new duties are frequently added onto their already existing access privileges, which may no longer be necessary or appropriate.==== Physical ====Physical controls monitor and control the environment of the work place and computing facilities.", "They also monitor and control access to and from such facilities and include doors, locks, heating and air conditioning, smoke and fire alarms, fire suppression systems, cameras, barricades, fencing, security guards, cable locks, etc.", "Separating the network and workplace into functional areas are also physical controls.An important physical control that is frequently overlooked is separation of duties, which ensures that an individual can not complete a critical task by himself.", "For example, an employee who submits a request for reimbursement should not also be able to authorize payment or print the check.", "An applications programmer should not also be the server administrator or the database administrator; these roles and responsibilities must be separated from one another.=== Defense in depth ===The onion model of defense in depthInformation security must protect information throughout its lifespan, from the initial creation of the information on through to the final disposal of the information.", "The information must be protected while in motion and while at rest.", "During its lifetime, information may pass through many different information processing systems and through many different parts of information processing systems.", "There are many different ways the information and information systems can be threatened.", "To fully protect the information during its lifetime, each component of the information processing system must have its own protection mechanisms.", "The building up, layering on, and overlapping of security measures is called \"defense in depth.\"", "In contrast to a metal chain, which is famously only as strong as its weakest link, the defense in depth strategy aims at a structure where, should one defensive measure fail, other measures will continue to provide protection.Recall the earlier discussion about administrative controls, logical controls, and physical controls.", "The three types of controls can be used to form the basis upon which to build a defense in depth strategy.", "With this approach, defense in depth can be conceptualized as three distinct layers or planes laid one on top of the other.", "Additional insight into defense in depth can be gained by thinking of it as forming the layers of an onion, with data at the core of the onion, people the next outer layer of the onion, and network security, host-based security, and application security forming the outermost layers of the onion.", "Both perspectives are equally valid, and each provides valuable insight into the implementation of a good defense in depth strategy.=== Classification ===An important aspect of information security and risk management is recognizing the value of information and defining appropriate procedures and protection requirements for the information.", "Not all information is equal and so not all information requires the same degree of protection.", "This requires information to be assigned a security classification.", "The first step in information classification is to identify a member of senior management as the owner of the particular information to be classified.", "Next, develop a classification policy.", "The policy should describe the different classification labels, define the criteria for information to be assigned a particular label, and list the required security controls for each classification.Some factors that influence which classification information should be assigned include how much value that information has to the organization, how old the information is and whether or not the information has become obsolete.", "Laws and other regulatory requirements are also important considerations when classifying information.", "The Information Systems Audit and Control Association (ISACA) and its ''Business Model for Information Security'' also serves as a tool for security professionals to examine security from a systems perspective, creating an environment where security can be managed holistically, allowing actual risks to be addressed.The type of information security classification labels selected and used will depend on the nature of the organization, with examples being:* In the business sector, labels such as: Public, Sensitive, Private, Confidential.", "* In the government sector, labels such as: Unclassified, Unofficial, Protected, Confidential, Secret, Top Secret, and their non-English equivalents.", "* In cross-sectoral formations, the Traffic Light Protocol, which consists of: White, Green, Amber, and Red.", "* In the personal sector, one label such as Financial.", "This includes activities related to managing money, such as online banking.All employees in the organization, as well as business partners, must be trained on the classification schema and understand the required security controls and handling procedures for each classification.", "The classification of a particular information asset that has been assigned should be reviewed periodically to ensure the classification is still appropriate for the information and to ensure the security controls required by the classification are in place and are followed in their right procedures.=== Access control ===Access to protected information must be restricted to people who are authorized to access the information.", "The computer programs, and in many cases the computers that process the information, must also be authorized.", "This requires that mechanisms be in place to control the access to protected information.", "The sophistication of the access control mechanisms should be in parity with the value of the information being protected; the more sensitive or valuable the information the stronger the control mechanisms need to be.", "The foundation on which access control mechanisms are built start with identification and authentication.Access control is generally considered in three steps: identification, authentication, and authorization.==== Identification ====Identification is an assertion of who someone is or what something is.", "If a person makes the statement \"Hello, my name is John Doe\" they are making a claim of who they are.", "However, their claim may or may not be true.", "Before John Doe can be granted access to protected information it will be necessary to verify that the person claiming to be John Doe really is John Doe.", "Typically the claim is in the form of a username.", "By entering that username you are claiming \"I am the person the username belongs to\".==== Authentication ====Authentication is the act of verifying a claim of identity.", "When John Doe goes into a bank to make a withdrawal, he tells the bank teller he is John Doe, a claim of identity.", "The bank teller asks to see a photo ID, so he hands the teller his driver's license.", "The bank teller checks the license to make sure it has John Doe printed on it and compares the photograph on the license against the person claiming to be John Doe.", "If the photo and name match the person, then the teller has authenticated that John Doe is who he claimed to be.", "Similarly, by entering the correct password, the user is providing evidence that he/she is the person the username belongs to.There are three different types of information that can be used for authentication:* Something you know: things such as a PIN, a password, or your mother's maiden name* Something you have: a driver's license or a magnetic swipe card* Something you are: biometrics, including palm prints, fingerprints, voice prints, and retina (eye) scansStrong authentication requires providing more than one type of authentication information (two-factor authentication).", "The username is the most common form of identification on computer systems today and the password is the most common form of authentication.", "Usernames and passwords have served their purpose, but they are increasingly inadequate.", "Usernames and passwords are slowly being replaced or supplemented with more sophisticated authentication mechanisms such as time-based one-time password algorithms.==== Authorization ====After a person, program or computer has successfully been identified and authenticated then it must be determined what informational resources they are permitted to access and what actions they will be allowed to perform (run, view, create, delete, or change).", "This is called authorization.", "Authorization to access information and other computing services begins with administrative policies and procedures.", "The policies prescribe what information and computing services can be accessed, by whom, and under what conditions.", "The access control mechanisms are then configured to enforce these policies.", "Different computing systems are equipped with different kinds of access control mechanisms.", "Some may even offer a choice of different access control mechanisms.", "The access control mechanism a system offers will be based upon one of three approaches to access control, or it may be derived from a combination of the three approaches.The non-discretionary approach consolidates all access control under a centralized administration.", "The access to information and other resources is usually based on the individuals function (role) in the organization or the tasks the individual must perform.", "The discretionary approach gives the creator or owner of the information resource the ability to control access to those resources.", "In the mandatory access control approach, access is granted or denied basing upon the security classification assigned to the information resource.Examples of common access control mechanisms in use today include role-based access control, available in many advanced database management systems; simple file permissions provided in the UNIX and Windows operating systems; Group Policy Objects provided in Windows network systems; and Kerberos, RADIUS, TACACS, and the simple access lists used in many firewalls and routers.To be effective, policies and other security controls must be enforceable and upheld.", "Effective policies ensure that people are held accountable for their actions.", "The U.S. Treasury's guidelines for systems processing sensitive or proprietary information, for example, states that all failed and successful authentication and access attempts must be logged, and all access to information must leave some type of audit trail.Also, the need-to-know principle needs to be in effect when talking about access control.", "This principle gives access rights to a person to perform their job functions.", "This principle is used in the government when dealing with difference clearances.", "Even though two employees in different departments have a top-secret clearance, they must have a need-to-know in order for information to be exchanged.", "Within the need-to-know principle, network administrators grant the employee the least amount of privilege to prevent employees from accessing more than what they are supposed to.", "Need-to-know helps to enforce the confidentiality-integrity-availability triad.", "Need-to-know directly impacts the confidential area of the triad.=== Cryptography ===Information security uses cryptography to transform usable information into a form that renders it unusable by anyone other than an authorized user; this process is called encryption.", "Information that has been encrypted (rendered unusable) can be transformed back into its original usable form by an authorized user who possesses the cryptographic key, through the process of decryption.", "Cryptography is used in information security to protect information from unauthorized or accidental disclosure while the information is in transit (either electronically or physically) and while information is in storage.Cryptography provides information security with other useful applications as well, including improved authentication methods, message digests, digital signatures, non-repudiation, and encrypted network communications.", "Older, less secure applications such as Telnet and File Transfer Protocol (FTP) are slowly being replaced with more secure applications such as Secure Shell (SSH) that use encrypted network communications.", "Wireless communications can be encrypted using protocols such as WPA/WPA2 or the older (and less secure) WEP.", "Wired communications (such as ITU‑T G.hn) are secured using AES for encryption and X.1035 for authentication and key exchange.", "Software applications such as GnuPG or PGP can be used to encrypt data files and email.Cryptography can introduce security problems when it is not implemented correctly.", "Cryptographic solutions need to be implemented using industry-accepted solutions that have undergone rigorous peer review by independent experts in cryptography.", "The length and strength of the encryption key is also an important consideration.", "A key that is weak or too short will produce weak encryption.", "The keys used for encryption and decryption must be protected with the same degree of rigor as any other confidential information.", "They must be protected from unauthorized disclosure and destruction, and they must be available when needed.", "Public key infrastructure (PKI) solutions address many of the problems that surround key management." ], [ "Process", "The terms \"reasonable and prudent person\", \"due care\", and \"due diligence\" have been used in the fields of finance, securities, and law for many years.", "In recent years these terms have found their way into the fields of computing and information security.", "U.S. Federal Sentencing Guidelines now make it possible to hold corporate officers liable for failing to exercise due care and due diligence in the management of their information systems.In the business world, stockholders, customers, business partners, and governments have the expectation that corporate officers will run the business in accordance with accepted business practices and in compliance with laws and other regulatory requirements.", "This is often described as the \"reasonable and prudent person\" rule.", "A prudent person takes due care to ensure that everything necessary is done to operate the business by sound business principles and in a legal, ethical manner.", "A prudent person is also diligent (mindful, attentive, ongoing) in their due care of the business.In the field of information security, Harrisoffers the following definitions of due care and due diligence:''\"Due care are steps that are taken to show that a company has taken responsibility for the activities that take place within the corporation and has taken the necessary steps to help protect the company, its resources, and employees''''.\"''", "And, ''\"continual activities that make sure the protection mechanisms are continually maintained and operational.", "\"''Attention should be made to two important points in these definitions.", "First, in due care, steps are taken to show; this means that the steps can be verified, measured, or even produce tangible artifacts.", "Second, in due diligence, there are continual activities; this means that people are actually doing things to monitor and maintain the protection mechanisms, and these activities are ongoing.Organizations have a responsibility with practicing duty of care when applying information security.", "The Duty of Care Risk Analysis Standard (DoCRA) provides principles and practices for evaluating risk.", "It considers all parties that could be affected by those risks.", "DoCRA helps evaluate safeguards if they are appropriate in protecting others from harm while presenting a reasonable burden.", "With increased data breach litigation, companies must balance security controls, compliance, and its mission.=== Security governance ===The Software Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University, in a publication titled ''Governing for Enterprise Security (GES) Implementation Guide'', defines characteristics of effective security governance.", "These include:* An enterprise-wide issue* Leaders are accountable* Viewed as a business requirement* Risk-based* Roles, responsibilities, and segregation of duties defined* Addressed and enforced in policy* Adequate resources committed* Staff aware and trained* A development life cycle requirement* Planned, managed, measurable, and measured* Reviewed and audited=== Incident response plans ===An incident response plan (IRP) is a group of policies that dictate an organizations reaction to a cyber attack.", "Once an security breach has been identified, for example by network intrusion detection system (NIDS) or host-based intrusion detection system (HIDS) (if configured to do so), the plan is initiated.", "It is important to note that there can be legal implications to a data breach.", "Knowing local and federal laws is critical.", "Every plan is unique to the needs of the organization, and it can involve skill sets that are not part of an IT team.", "For example, a lawyer may be included in the response plan to help navigate legal implications to a data breach.As mentioned above every plan is unique but most plans will include the following:==== Preparation ====Good preparation includes the development of an incident response team (IRT).", "Skills need to be used by this team would be, penetration testing, computer forensics, network security, etc.", "This team should also keep track of trends in cybersecurity and modern attack strategies.", "A training program for end users is important as well as most modern attack strategies target users on the network.==== Identification ====This part of the incident response plan identifies if there was a security event.", "When an end user reports information or an admin notices irregularities, an investigation is launched.", "An incident log is a crucial part of this step.", "All of the members of the team should be updating this log to ensure that information flows as fast as possible.", "If it has been identified that a security breach has occurred the next step should be activated.==== Containment ====In this phase, the IRT works to isolate the areas that the breach took place to limit the scope of the security event.", "During this phase it is important to preserve information forensically so it can be analyzed later in the process.", "Containment could be as simple as physically containing a server room or as complex as segmenting a network to not allow the spread of a virus.==== Eradication ====This is where the threat that was identified is removed from the affected systems.", "This could include deleting malicious files, terminating compromised accounts, or deleting other components.", "Some events do not require this step, however it is important to fully understand the event before moving to this step.", "This will help to ensure that the threat is completely removed.==== Recovery ====This stage is where the systems are restored back to original operation.", "This stage could include the recovery of data, changing user access information, or updating firewall rules or policies to prevent a breach in the future.", "Without executing this step, the system could still be vulnerable to future security threats.==== Lessons learned ====In this step information that has been gathered during this process is used to make future decisions on security.", "This step is crucial to the ensure that future events are prevented.", "Using this information to further train admins is critical to the process.", "This step can also be used to process information that is distributed from other entities who have experienced a security event.=== Change management ===Change management is a formal process for directing and controlling alterations to the information processing environment.", "This includes alterations to desktop computers, the network, servers, and software.", "The objectives of change management are to reduce the risks posed by changes to the information processing environment and improve the stability and reliability of the processing environment as changes are made.", "It is not the objective of change management to prevent or hinder necessary changes from being implemented.Any change to the information processing environment introduces an element of risk.", "Even apparently simple changes can have unexpected effects.", "One of management's many responsibilities is the management of risk.", "Change management is a tool for managing the risks introduced by changes to the information processing environment.", "Part of the change management process ensures that changes are not implemented at inopportune times when they may disrupt critical business processes or interfere with other changes being implemented.Not every change needs to be managed.", "Some kinds of changes are a part of the everyday routine of information processing and adhere to a predefined procedure, which reduces the overall level of risk to the processing environment.", "Creating a new user account or deploying a new desktop computer are examples of changes that do not generally require change management.", "However, relocating user file shares, or upgrading the Email server pose a much higher level of risk to the processing environment and are not a normal everyday activity.", "The critical first steps in change management are (a) defining change (and communicating that definition) and (b) defining the scope of the change system.Change management is usually overseen by a change review board composed of representatives from key business areas, security, networking, systems administrators, database administration, application developers, desktop support, and the help desk.", "The tasks of the change review board can be facilitated with the use of automated work flow application.", "The responsibility of the change review board is to ensure the organization's documented change management procedures are followed.", "The change management process is as follows* '''Request''': Anyone can request a change.", "The person making the change request may or may not be the same person that performs the analysis or implements the change.", "When a request for change is received, it may undergo a preliminary review to determine if the requested change is compatible with the organizations business model and practices, and to determine the amount of resources needed to implement the change.", "* '''Approve''': Management runs the business and controls the allocation of resources therefore, management must approve requests for changes and assign a priority for every change.", "Management might choose to reject a change request if the change is not compatible with the business model, industry standards or best practices.", "Management might also choose to reject a change request if the change requires more resources than can be allocated for the change.", "* '''Plan''': Planning a change involves discovering the scope and impact of the proposed change; analyzing the complexity of the change; allocation of resources and, developing, testing, and documenting both implementation and back-out plans.", "Need to define the criteria on which a decision to back out will be made.", "* '''Test''': Every change must be tested in a safe test environment, which closely reflects the actual production environment, before the change is applied to the production environment.", "The backout plan must also be tested.", "* '''Schedule''': Part of the change review board's responsibility is to assist in the scheduling of changes by reviewing the proposed implementation date for potential conflicts with other scheduled changes or critical business activities.", "* '''Communicate''': Once a change has been scheduled it must be communicated.", "The communication is to give others the opportunity to remind the change review board about other changes or critical business activities that might have been overlooked when scheduling the change.", "The communication also serves to make the help desk and users aware that a change is about to occur.", "Another responsibility of the change review board is to ensure that scheduled changes have been properly communicated to those who will be affected by the change or otherwise have an interest in the change.", "* '''Implement''': At the appointed date and time, the changes must be implemented.", "Part of the planning process was to develop an implementation plan, testing plan and, a back out plan.", "If the implementation of the change should fail or, the post implementation testing fails or, other \"drop dead\" criteria have been met, the back out plan should be implemented.", "* '''Document''': All changes must be documented.", "The documentation includes the initial request for change, its approval, the priority assigned to it, the implementation, testing and back out plans, the results of the change review board critique, the date/time the change was implemented, who implemented it, and whether the change was implemented successfully, failed or postponed.", "* '''Post-change review''': The change review board should hold a post-implementation review of changes.", "It is particularly important to review failed and backed out changes.", "The review board should try to understand the problems that were encountered, and look for areas for improvement.Change management procedures that are simple to follow and easy to use can greatly reduce the overall risks created when changes are made to the information processing environment.", "Good change management procedures improve the overall quality and success of changes as they are implemented.", "This is accomplished through planning, peer review, documentation, and communication.ISO/IEC 20000, The Visible OPS Handbook: Implementing ITIL in 4 Practical and Auditable Steps (Full book summary), and ITIL all provide valuable guidance on implementing an efficient and effective change management program information security." ], [ "Business continuity", "Business continuity management (BCM) concerns arrangements aiming to protect an organization's critical business functions from interruption due to incidents, or at least minimize the effects.", "BCM is essential to any organization to keep technology and business in line with current threats to the continuation of business as usual.", "The BCM should be included in an organizations risk analysis plan to ensure that all of the necessary business functions have what they need to keep going in the event of any type of threat to any business function.It encompasses:* Analysis of requirements, e.g., identifying critical business functions, dependencies and potential failure points, potential threats and hence incidents or risks of concern to the organization;* Specification, e.g., maximum tolerable outage periods; recovery point objectives (maximum acceptable periods of data loss);* Architecture and design, e.g., an appropriate combination of approaches including resilience (e.g.", "engineering IT systems and processes for high availability, avoiding or preventing situations that might interrupt the business), incident and emergency management (e.g., evacuating premises, calling the emergency services, triage/situation assessment and invoking recovery plans), recovery (e.g., rebuilding) and contingency management (generic capabilities to deal positively with whatever occurs using whatever resources are available);* Implementation, e.g., configuring and scheduling backups, data transfers, etc., duplicating and strengthening critical elements; contracting with service and equipment suppliers;* Testing, e.g., business continuity exercises of various types, costs and assurance levels;* Management, e.g., defining strategies, setting objectives and goals; planning and directing the work; allocating funds, people and other resources; prioritization relative to other activities; team building, leadership, control, motivation and coordination with other business functions and activities (e.g., IT, facilities, human resources, risk management, information risk and security, operations); monitoring the situation, checking and updating the arrangements when things change; maturing the approach through continuous improvement, learning and appropriate investment;* Assurance, e.g., testing against specified requirements; measuring, analyzing, and reporting key parameters; conducting additional tests, reviews and audits for greater confidence that the arrangements will go to plan if invoked.Whereas BCM takes a broad approach to minimizing disaster-related risks by reducing both the probability and the severity of incidents, a disaster recovery plan (DRP) focuses specifically on resuming business operations as quickly as possible after a disaster.", "A disaster recovery plan, invoked soon after a disaster occurs, lays out the steps necessary to recover critical information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure.", "Disaster recovery planning includes establishing a planning group, performing risk assessment, establishing priorities, developing recovery strategies, preparing inventories and documentation of the plan, developing verification criteria and procedure, and lastly implementing the plan." ], [ "Laws and regulations", "Privacy International 2007 privacy rankinggreen: Protections and safeguardsred: Endemic surveillance societiesBelow is a partial listing of governmental laws and regulations in various parts of the world that have, had, or will have, a significant effect on data processing and information security.", "Important industry sector regulations have also been included when they have a significant impact on information security.", "* The UK Data Protection Act 1998 makes new provisions for the regulation of the processing of information relating to individuals, including the obtaining, holding, use or disclosure of such information.", "The European Union Data Protection Directive (EUDPD) requires that all E.U.", "members adopt national regulations to standardize the protection of data privacy for citizens throughout the E.U.", "* The Computer Misuse Act 1990 is an Act of the U.K. Parliament making computer crime (e.g., hacking) a criminal offense.", "The act has become a model upon which several other countries, including Canada and the Republic of Ireland, have drawn inspiration from when subsequently drafting their own information security laws.", "* The E.U.", "'s Data Retention Directive (annulled) required internet service providers and phone companies to keep data on every electronic message sent and phone call made for between six months and two years.", "* The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) ( g; 34 CFR Part 99) is a U.S. Federal law that protects the privacy of student education records.", "The law applies to all schools that receive funds under an applicable program of the U.S. Department of Education.", "Generally, schools must have written permission from the parent or eligible student in order to release any information from a student's education record.", "* The Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council's (FFIEC) security guidelines for auditors specifies requirements for online banking security.", "* The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) of 1996 requires the adoption of national standards for electronic health care transactions and national identifiers for providers, health insurance plans, and employers.", "Additionally, it requires health care providers, insurance providers and employers to safeguard the security and privacy of health data.", "* The Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act of 1999 (GLBA), also known as the Financial Services Modernization Act of 1999, protects the privacy and security of private financial information that financial institutions collect, hold, and process.", "* Section 404 of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002 (SOX) requires publicly traded companies to assess the effectiveness of their internal controls for financial reporting in annual reports they submit at the end of each fiscal year.", "Chief information officers are responsible for the security, accuracy, and the reliability of the systems that manage and report the financial data.", "The act also requires publicly traded companies to engage with independent auditors who must attest to, and report on, the validity of their assessments.", "* The Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) establishes comprehensive requirements for enhancing payment account data security.", "It was developed by the founding payment brands of the PCI Security Standards Council — including American Express, Discover Financial Services, JCB, MasterCard Worldwide, and Visa International — to help facilitate the broad adoption of consistent data security measures on a global basis.", "The PCI DSS is a multifaceted security standard that includes requirements for security management, policies, procedures, network architecture, software design, and other critical protective measures.", "* State security breach notification laws (California and many others) require businesses, nonprofits, and state institutions to notify consumers when unencrypted \"personal information\" may have been compromised, lost, or stolen.", "* The Personal Information Protection and Electronics Document Act (PIPEDA) of Canada supports and promotes electronic commerce by protecting personal information that is collected, used or disclosed in certain circumstances, by providing for the use of electronic means to communicate or record information or transactions and by amending the Canada Evidence Act, the Statutory Instruments Act and the Statute Revision Act.", "* Greece's Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy (ADAE) (Law 165/2011) establishes and describes the minimum information security controls that should be deployed by every company which provides electronic communication networks and/or services in Greece in order to protect customers' confidentiality.", "These include both managerial and technical controls (e.g., log records should be stored for two years).", "* Greece's Hellenic Authority for Communication Security and Privacy (ADAE) (Law 205/2013) concentrates around the protection of the integrity and availability of the services and data offered by Greek telecommunication companies.", "The law forces these and other related companies to build, deploy, and test appropriate business continuity plans and redundant infrastructures.The US Department of Defense (DoD) issued DoD Directive 8570 in 2004, supplemented by DoD Directive 8140, requiring all DoD employees and all DoD contract personnel involved in information assurance roles and activities to earn and maintain various industry Information Technology (IT) certifications in an effort to ensure that all DoD personnel involved in network infrastructure defense have minimum levels of IT industry recognized knowledge, skills and abilities (KSA).", "Andersson and Reimers (2019) report these certifications range from CompTIA's A+ and Security+ through the ICS2.org's CISSP, etc." ], [ "Culture", "Describing more than simply how security aware employees are, information security culture is the ideas, customs, and social behaviors of an organization that impact information security in both positive and negative ways.", "Cultural concepts can help different segments of the organization work effectively or work against effectiveness towards information security within an organization.", "The way employees think and feel about security and the actions they take can have a big impact on information security in organizations.", "Roer & Petric (2017) identify seven core dimensions of information security culture in organizations:* Attitudes: employees' feelings and emotions about the various activities that pertain to the organizational security of information.", "* Behaviors: actual or intended activities and risk-taking actions of employees that have direct or indirect impact on information security.", "* Cognition: employees' awareness, verifiable knowledge, and beliefs regarding practices, activities, and self-efficacy relation that are related to information security.", "* Communication: ways employees communicate with each other, sense of belonging, support for security issues, and incident reporting.", "* Compliance: adherence to organizational security policies, awareness of the existence of such policies and the ability to recall the substance of such policies.", "* Norms: perceptions of security-related organizational conduct and practices that are informally deemed either normal or deviant by employees and their peers, e.g.", "hidden expectations regarding security behaviors and unwritten rules regarding uses of information-communication technologies.", "* Responsibilities: employees' understanding of the roles and responsibilities they have as a critical factor in sustaining or endangering the security of information, and thereby the organization.Andersson and Reimers (2014) found that employees often do not see themselves as part of the organization Information Security \"effort\" and often take actions that ignore organizational information security best interests.", "Research shows information security culture needs to be improved continuously.", "In ''Information Security Culture from Analysis to Change'', authors commented, \"It's a never ending process, a cycle of evaluation and change or maintenance.\"", "To manage the information security culture, five steps should be taken: pre-evaluation, strategic planning, operative planning, implementation, and post-evaluation.", "* Pre-evaluation: to identify the awareness of information security within employees and to analyze current security policy* Strategic planning: to come up a better awareness-program, we need to set clear targets.", "Clustering people is helpful to achieve it* Operative planning: create a good security culture based on internal communication, management buy-in, security awareness, and training programs* Implementation: should feature commitment of management, communication with organizational members, courses for all organizational members, and commitment of the employees* Post-evaluation: to better gauge the effectiveness of the prior steps and build on continuous improvement" ], [ "Sources of standards", "The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is an international standards organization organized as a consortium of national standards institutions from 167 countries, coordinated through a secretariat in Geneva, Switzerland.", "ISO is the world's largest developer of international standards.", "The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is an international standards organization that deals with electrotechnology and cooperates closely with ISO.", "ISO/IEC 15443: \"Information technology – Security techniques – A framework for IT security assurance\", ISO/IEC 27002: \"Information technology – Security techniques – Code of practice for information security management\", ISO/IEC 20000: \"Information technology – Service management\", and ISO/IEC 27001: \"Information technology – Security techniques – Information security management systems – Requirements\" are of particular interest to information security professionals.The US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is a non-regulatory federal agency within the U.S. Department of Commerce.", "The NIST Computer Security Divisiondevelops standards, metrics, tests, and validation programs as well as publishes standards and guidelines to increase secure IT planning, implementation, management, and operation.", "NIST is also the custodian of the U.S. Federal Information Processing Standard publications (FIPS).The Internet Society is a professional membership society with more than 100 organizations and over 20,000 individual members in over 180 countries.", "It provides leadership in addressing issues that confront the future of the internet, and it is the organizational home for the groups responsible for internet infrastructure standards, including the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the Internet Architecture Board (IAB).", "The ISOC hosts the Requests for Comments (RFCs) which includes the Official Internet Protocol Standards and the RFC-2196 Site Security Handbook.The Information Security Forum (ISF) is a global nonprofit organization of several hundred leading organizations in financial services, manufacturing, telecommunications, consumer goods, government, and other areas.", "It undertakes research into information security practices and offers advice in its biannual Standard of Good Practice for Information Security and more detailed advisories for members.The Institute of Information Security Professionals (IISP) is an independent, non-profit body governed by its members, with the principal objective of advancing the professionalism of information security practitioners and thereby the professionalism of the industry as a whole.", "The institute developed the IISP Skills Framework.", "This framework describes the range of competencies expected of information security and information assurance professionals in the effective performance of their roles.", "It was developed through collaboration between both private and public sector organizations, world-renowned academics, and security leaders.The German Federal Office for Information Security (in German ''Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik (BSI)'') BSI-Standards 100–1 to 100-4 are a set of recommendations including \"methods, processes, procedures, approaches and measures relating to information security\".", "The BSI-Standard 100-2 ''IT-Grundschutz Methodology'' describes how information security management can be implemented and operated.", "The standard includes a very specific guide, the IT Baseline Protection Catalogs (also known as IT-Grundschutz Catalogs).", "Before 2005, the catalogs were formerly known as \"IT Baseline Protection Manual\".", "The Catalogs are a collection of documents useful for detecting and combating security-relevant weak points in the IT environment (IT cluster).", "The collection encompasses as of September 2013 over 4,400 pages with the introduction and catalogs.", "The IT-Grundschutz approach is aligned with to the ISO/IEC 2700x family.The European Telecommunications Standards Institute standardized a catalog of information security indicators, headed by the Industrial Specification Group (ISG) ISI." ], [ "See also", "* Backup* Capability-based security* Computer security (cybersecurity)* Data breach* Data-centric security* Enterprise information security architecture* Identity-based security* Information infrastructure* Information security audit* Information security indicators* Information security management* Information security standards* Information technology* Information technology security audit* IT risk* ITIL security management* Kill chain* List of computer security certifications* Mobile security* Network Security Services* Privacy engineering* Privacy software* Privacy-enhancing technologies* Security bug* Security convergence* Security information management* Security level management* Security of Information Act* Security service (telecommunication)* Single sign-on* Verification and validation* Gordon–Loeb model for cyber security investments" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " * Anderson, K., \" IT Security Professionals Must Evolve for Changing Market\", ''SC Magazine'', October 12, 2006.", "* Aceituno, V., \"On Information Security Paradigms\", ''ISSA Journal'', September 2005.", "* Easttom, C., ''Computer Security Fundamentals (2nd Edition)'' Pearson Education, 2011.", "* Lambo, T., \"ISO/IEC 27001: The future of infosec certification\", ''ISSA Journal'', November 2006.", "* Dustin, D., \" Awareness of How Your Data is Being Used and What to Do About It\", \"CDR Blog\", May 2017.", "* Dhillon, G., \" The intellectual core of Information Systems Security\", ''Journal of Information Systems Security'', Vol.", "19, No 2.=== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* DoD IA Policy Chart on the DoD Information Assurance Technology Analysis Center web site.", "* patterns & practices Security Engineering Explained* Open Security Architecture- Controls and patterns to secure IT systems* IWS – Information Security Chapter * Ross Anderson's book \"Security Engineering\"* teciza.in" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Income" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Income''' is the consumption and saving opportunity gained by an entity within a specified timeframe, which is generally expressed in monetary terms.", "Income is difficult to define conceptually and the definition may be different across fields.", "For example, a person's income in an economic sense may be different from their income as defined by law.An extremely important definition of income is Haig–Simons income, which defines income as ''Consumption + Change in net worth'' and is widely used in economics.For households and individuals in the United States, income is defined by tax law as a sum that includes any wage, salary, profit, interest payment, rent, or other form of earnings received in a calendar year.", "Discretionary income is often defined as gross income minus taxes and other deductions (e.g., mandatory pension contributions), and is widely used as a basis to compare the welfare of taxpayers.In the field of public economics, the concept may comprise the accumulation of both monetary and non-monetary consumption ability, with the former (monetary) being used as a proxy for total income.For a firm, gross income can be defined as sum of all revenue minus the cost of goods sold.", "Net income nets out expenses: net income equals revenue minus cost of goods sold, expenses, depreciation, interest, and taxes." ], [ "Economic definitions", "===Full and Haig–Simons income===\"Full income\" refers to the accumulation of both the monetary and the non-monetary consumption-ability of any given entity, such as a person or a household.", "According to what the economist Nicholas Barr describes as the \"classical definition of income\" (the 1938 Haig–Simons definition): \"income may be defined as the... sum of (1) the market value of rights exercised in consumption and (2) the change in the value of the store of property rights...\" Since the consumption potential of non-monetary goods, such as leisure, cannot be measured, monetary income may be thought of as a proxy for full income.", "As such, however, it is criticized for being unreliable, ''i.e.''", "failing to accurately reflect affluence (and thus the consumption opportunities) of any given agent.", "It omits the utility a person may derive from non-monetary income and, on a macroeconomic level, fails to accurately chart social welfare.", "According to Barr, \"in practice money income as a proportion of total income varies widely and unsystematically.", "Non-observability of full-income prevent a complete characterization of the individual opportunity set, forcing us to use the unreliable yardstick of money income.===Factor income===In economics, \"factor income\" is the return accruing for a person, or a nation, derived from the \"factors of production\": rental income, wages generated by labor, the interest created by capital, and profits from entrepreneurial ventures.In consumer theory 'income' is another name for the \"budget constraint\", an amount to be spent on different goods x and y in quantities and at prices and .", "The basic equation for this is:This equation implies two things.", "First buying one more unit of good x implies buying less units of good y.", "So, is the ''relative'' price of a unit of x as to the number of units given up in y.", "Second, if the price of x falls for a fixed and fixed then its relative price falls.", "The usual hypothesis, the law of demand, is that the quantity demanded of x would increase at the lower price.", "The analysis can be generalized to more than two goods.The theoretical generalization to more than one period is a multi-period wealth and income constraint.", "For example, the same person can gain more productive skills or acquire more productive income-earning assets to earn a higher income.", "In the multi-period case, something might also happen to the economy beyond the control of the individual to reduce (or increase) the flow of income.", "Changing measured income and its relation to consumption over time might be modeled accordingly, such as in the permanent income hypothesis." ], [ "Legal definitions", "===Definitions under the Internal Revenue Code===26 U.S. Code § 61 - Gross income defined.", "There are also some statutory exclusions from income.===Definition under US Case law===Income is an \"undeniable accessions to wealth, clearly realized, and over which the taxpayer has complete dominion.\"", "Commentators say that this is a pretty good definition of income.Taxable income is usually lower than Haig-Simons income.", "This is because unrealized appreciation (e.g., the increase in the value of stock over the course of a year) is economic income but not taxable income, and because there are many statutory exclusions from taxable income, including workman's compensation, SSI, gifts, child support, and in-kind government transfers." ], [ "Accounting definitions", "The International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) uses the following definition: \"Income is increases in economic benefits during the accounting period in the form of inflows or enhancements of assets or decreases of liabilities that result in increases in equity, other than those relating to contributions from equity participants.\"", "F.70 (IFRS Framework).Previously the IFRS conceptual framework (4.29) stated: \"The definition of income encompasses both revenue and gains.", "Revenue arises in the course of the ordinary activities of an entity and is referred to by a variety of different names including sales, fees, interest, dividends, royalties and rent.", "4.30: Gains represent other items that meet the definition of income and may, or may not, arise in the course of the ordinary activities of an entity.", "Gains represent increases in economic benefits and as such are no different in nature from revenue.", "Hence, they are not regarded as constituting a separate element in this Conceptual Framework.", "\"The current IFRS conceptual framework (4.68) no longer draws a distinction between revenue and gains.", "Nevertheless, the distinction continues to be drawn at the standard and reporting levels.", "For example, IFRS 9.5.7.1 states: \"A gain or loss on a financial asset or financial liability that is measured at fair value shall be recognised in profit or loss ...\" while the IASB defined IFRS XBRL taxonomy includes OtherGainsLosses, GainsLossesOnNetMonetaryPosition and similar items.US GAAP does not define income but does define comprehensive income (CON 8.4.E75): Comprehensive income is the change in equity of a business entity during a period from transactions and other events and circumstances from nonowner sources.", "It includes all changes in equity during a period except those resulting from investments by owners and distributions to owners.According to John Hicks' definitions, income \"is the maximum amount which can be spent during a period if there is to be an expectation of maintaining intact, the capital value of prospective receipts (in money terms)\"." ], [ "\"Nonincome\"", "=== Debt ===Borrowing or repaying money is not income under any definition, for either the borrower or the lender.", "Interest and forgiveness of debt are income.=== Psychic income ===\"Non-monetary joy,\" such as watching a sunset or having sex, simply is not income.", "Similarly, nonmonetary suffering, such as heartbreak or labor, are not negative income.", "This may seem trivial, but the non-inclusion of psychic income has important effects on economics and tax policy.", "It encourages people to find happiness in nonmonetary, nontaxable ways and means that reported income may overstate or understate the well-being of a given individual." ], [ "Income growth", "Income per capita has been increasing steadily in most countries.", "Many factors contribute to people having a higher income, including education, globalisation and favorable political circumstances such as economic freedom and peace.", "Increases in income also tend to lead to people choosing to work fewer hours.Developed countries (defined as countries with a \"developed economy\") have higher incomes as opposed to developing countries tending to have lower incomes." ], [ "Income inequality", "Income inequality is the extent to which income is distributed in an uneven manner.", "It can be measured by various methods, including the Lorenz curve and the Gini coefficient.", "Many economists argue that certain amounts of inequality are necessary and desirable but that excessive inequality leads to efficiency problems and social injustice.", "Thereby necessitating initiatives like the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 10 aimed at reducing inequality.National income, measured by statistics such as net national income (NNI), measures the total income of individuals, corporations, and government in the economy.", "For more information see Measures of national income and output." ], [ "Income in philosophy and ethics", "Throughout history, many have written about the impact of income on morality and society.", "Saint Paul wrote 'For the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil:' (1 Timothy 6:10 (ASV)).Some scholars have come to the conclusion that material progress and prosperity, as manifested in continuous income growth at both the individual and the national level, provide the indispensable foundation for sustaining any kind of morality.", "This argument was explicitly given by Adam Smith in his ''Theory of Moral Sentiments'', and has more recently been developed by Harvard economist Benjamin Friedman in his book ''The Moral Consequences of Economic Growth''." ], [ "Income and health", "A landmark systematic review from Harvard University researchers in the Cochrane Collaboration found that income given in the form of unconditional cash transfers leads to reductions in disease, improvements in food security and dietary diversity, increases in children's school attendance, decreases in extreme poverty, and higher health care spending." ], [ "History", "Income is conventionally denoted by \"Y\" in economics.", "John Hicks used \"I\" for income, but Keynes wrote to him in 1937, \"''after trying both, I believe it is easier to use Y for income and I for investment.''\"", "Some consider Y as an alternative letter for the phoneme I in languages like Spanish, although Y as the \"Greek I\" was actually pronounced like the modern German ü or the phonetic /y/." ], [ "See also", "* Citizen's dividend* Comprehensive income* Guaranteed minimum income* Income tax* Revenue* Social dividend* Universal basic income* Unpaid work" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* D. Usher (1987).", "\"real income\", ''The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics'', v. 4, pp.", "104–5." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Iona" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Iona''' (; , sometimes simply ''Ì'') is an island in the Inner Hebrides, off the Ross of Mull on the western coast of Scotland.", "It is mainly known for Iona Abbey, though there are other buildings on the island.", "Iona Abbey was a centre of Gaelic monasticism for three centuries and is today known for its relative tranquility and natural environment.", "It is a tourist destination and a place for spiritual retreats.", "Its modern Scottish Gaelic name means \"Iona of (Saint) Columba\" (formerly anglicised as \"Icolmkill\").In 2019, Iona's estimated population was 120.In March 1980, the Hugh Fraser Foundation donated much of the main island (and its off-lying islands) to the current owner, the National Trust for Scotland.", "The abbey and some church buildings are owned by the Iona Cathedral Trust.One publication, describing the religious significance of the island, says that the island is \"known as the birthplace of Celtic Christianity in Scotland,” and notes that “St Columba came here in the year 563 to establish the Abbey, which still stands\"." ], [ "Etymology", "Because the Hebrides have been successively occupied by speakers of several languages since the Iron Age, many of its islands’ names have more than one possible meaning.", "Nonetheless, few, if any, have accumulated as many different names over the centuries as the island now known in English as \"Iona\".The place-name scholar William J. Watson has shown that the earliest recorded names of the island meant something like \"yew-place\".", "The element ''Ivo-'', denoting \"yew\", occurs in inscriptions in the ogham alphabet (''Iva-cattos'' genitive, ''Iva-geni'' genitive) and in Gaulish names (''Ivo-rix'', ''Ivo-magus''); it may also be the basis of early Gaelic names like ''Eógan'' (ogham: ''Ivo-genos'').", "The island's name may also be related to the name of a mythological figure, ''Fer hÍ mac Eogabail'', the foster-son of Manannán, whose forename meaning \"man of the yew\".Mac an Tàilleir (2003) has analyzed the more recent Gaelic names of ''Ì'', ''Ì Chaluim Chille'' and ''Eilean Idhe''.", "He notes that the name ''Ì'' was \"generally lengthened to avoid confusion\" to ''Ì Chaluim Chille'', which means \"Calum's Iona\" or \"island of Calum's monastery\".", "(“Calum”’s Latinized form is \"Columba\".)", "This confusion would have arisen because ''ì'', the original name of the island, would have been confused with the now-obsolete Gaelic noun ''ì'', meaning \"island\", which was derived from the Old Norse word for island (''ey'').", "''Eilean Idhe'' means \"the isle of Iona\", also known as ''Ì nam ban bòidheach'' (\"the isle of beautiful women\").", "The modern English name comes from yet another variant, ''Ioua'', which arose either from Adomnán's 7th-century attempt to make the Gaelic name fit Latin grammar, or spontaneously, as a derivative of ''Ivova'' (\"yew place\").", "The change in the island's name from ''Ioua''' to ''Iona'', which is attested from c.1274, resulted from a transcription error due to the similarity of \"n\" and \"u\" in Insular Minuscule script.Despite the continuity of forms in Gaelic from the pre-Norse to the post-Norse era, Haswell-Smith (2004) speculates that the island’s name may be connected with the Norse word ''Hiōe'', meaning \"island of the den of the brown bear\".", "The medieval English-language version of the name was \"Icolmkill\" (and variants thereof).Table of earliest forms (incomplete)FormSourceLanguageNotesIoua insulaAdomnán's ''Vita Columbae'' (c. 700)LatinAdomnán calls Eigg ''Egea insula'' and Skye ''Scia insula''Hii, HyBede's ''Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum''LatinEoa, Iae, Ie,I Cholaim Chille''Annals of Ulster''Irish, LatinU563 ''Nauigatio Coluim Chille ad Insolam Iae''\"The journey of St Columba to Í\"U641 ''Naufragium scaphe familie Iae.", "''\"Shipwreck of a vessel of the community of Í.", "\"U716 ''Pascha comotatur in Eoa ciuitate''\"The date of Easter is changed in the monastery of Í\")U717 ''Expulsio familie Ie''\"The expulsion of the community of Í\"U778 ''Niall...a nn-I Cholaim Chille''\"Niall... in Í Cholaim Chille\"Hi, Eu''Lebor na hUidre''Irish''Hi con ilur a mmartra''\"Hi with the multitude of its relics\" ''in tan conucaib a chill hi tosuċ .i.", "Eu''\"the time he raised his church first i.e.", "Eu\"EoWalafrid Strabo (c. 831)Latin''Insula Pictorum quaedam monstratur in oris fluctivago suspensa salo, cognominis Eo''\"On the coasts of the Picts is pointed out an isle poised in the rolling sea, whose name is ''Eo''\"Euea insula''Life of St Cathróe of Metz''Latin===Folk etymology===Murray (1966) claims that the \"ancient\" Gaelic name was ''Innis nan Druinich'' (\"the isle of Druidic hermits\"), but there is no evidence for the \"ancient\" use of such a name before the nineteenth century, when it appears in the ''New Statistical Account'' and it may arise from a misunderstanding of the name ''Cladh nan Druineach'', which means 'burial ground of the embroideresses or artificers' – a cemetery on the east shore of the island.", "He also repeats a Gaelic story (which he admits is apocryphal) that as Columba's coracle first drew close to the island one of his companions cried out ''\"Chì mi i''\" meaning \"I see her\" and that Columba's response was \"Henceforth we shall call her Ì\"." ], [ "Geology", "The geology of Iona is quite complex given the island's size and quite distinct from that of nearby Mull.", "About half of the island's bedrock is Scourian gneiss assigned to the Lewisian complex and dating from the Archaean eon making it some of the oldest rock in Britain and indeed Europe.", "Closely associated with these gneisses are mylonite and meta-anorthosite and melagabbro.", "Along the eastern coast facing Mull are steeply dipping Neoproterozoic age metaconglomerates, metasandstones, metamudstones and hornfelsed metasiltstones ascribed to the Iona Group, described traditionally as Torridonian.", "In the southwest and on parts of the west coast are pelites and semipelites of Archaean to Proterozoic age.", "There are small outcrops of Silurian age pink granite on southeastern beaches, similar to those of the Ross of Mull pluton cross the sound to the east.", "Numerous geological faults cross the island, many in a E-W or NW-SE alignment.", "Devonian aged microdiorite dykes are found in places and some of these are themselves cut by Palaeocene age camptonite and monchiquite dykes ascribed to the 'Iona-Ross of Mull dyke swarm’.", "More recent sedimentary deposits of Quaternary age include both present day beach deposits and raised marine deposits around Iona as well as some restricted areas of blown sand." ], [ "Geography", "The Bay at the Back of the OceanMap of 1874, with subdivisions:*Ceann Tsear *Sliabh Meanach *Machar *Sliginach *Sliabh Siar *StaonaigIona lies about from the coast of Mull.", "It is about wide and long with a resident population of 125.Like other places swept by ocean breezes, there are few trees; most of them are near the parish church.Iona's highest point is Dùn Ì, , an Iron Age hill fort dating from 100 BC – AD 200.Iona's geographical features include the Bay at the Back of the Ocean and ''Càrn Cùl ri Éirinn'' (the Hill/Cairn of turning the Back to Ireland), said to be adjacent to the beach where St. Columba first landed.The main settlement, located at St. Ronan's Bay on the eastern side of the island, is called ''Baile Mòr'' and is also known locally as \"The Village\".", "The primary school, post office, the island's two hotels, the Bishop's House and the ruins of the Nunnery are here.", "The Abbey and MacLeod Centre are a short walk to the north.", "Port Bàn (white port) beach on the west side of the island is home to the Iona Beach Party.There are numerous offshore islets and skerries: Eilean Annraidh (island of storm) and Eilean Chalbha (calf island) to the north, Rèidh Eilean and Stac MhicMhurchaidh to the west and Eilean Mùsimul (mouse holm island) and Soa Island to the south are amongst the largest.", "The steamer ''Cathcart Park'' carrying a cargo of salt from Runcorn to Wick ran aground on Soa on 15 April 1912, the crew of 11 escaping in two boats.===Subdivision===On a map of 1874, the following territorial subdivision is indicated (from north to south):*Ceann Tsear (East Head)*Sliabh Meanach (Middle Mountain)*Machar (Low-lying Grassy Plain)*Sliginach (Shelly Area)*Sliabh Siar (Rear Mountain)*Staonaig (Sloping Ground)" ], [ "History", "===Dál Riata===The Book of Kells – Gospel of JohnIn the early Historic Period Iona lay within the Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata, in the region controlled by the Cenél Loairn (i.e.", "Lorn, as it was then).", "The island was the site of a highly important monastery (see Iona Abbey) during the Early Middle Ages.", "The monastery was founded in 563 by the monk Columba, also known as Colm Cille, who sailed here from Ireland to live the monastic life.", "Much later legends (a thousand years later, and without any good evidence) said that he had been exiled from his native Ireland as a result of his involvement in the Battle of Cul Dreimhne.", "Columba and twelve companions went into exile on Iona and founded a monastery there.", "The monastery was hugely successful, and may have played a role in the conversion to Christianity of the Picts and Gaels of present-day Scotland in the late 6th century, and was certainly central to the conversion of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria in 635.Many satellite institutions were founded, and Iona became the centre of one of the most important monastic systems in Great Britain and Ireland.Iona became a renowned centre of learning, and its scriptorium produced highly important documents, probably including the original texts of the Iona Chronicle, thought to be the source for the early Irish annals.", "The monastery is often associated with the distinctive practices and traditions known as Celtic Christianity.", "In particular, Iona was a major supporter of the \"Celtic\" system for calculating the date of Easter at the time of the Easter controversy, which pitted supporters of the Celtic system against those favoring the \"Roman\" system used elsewhere in Western Christianity.", "The controversy weakened Iona's ties to Northumbria, which adopted the Roman system at the Synod of Whitby in 664, and to Pictland, which followed suit in the early 8th century.", "Iona itself did not adopt the Roman system until 715, according to the Anglo-Saxon historian Bede.", "Iona's prominence was further diminished over the next centuries as a result of Viking raids and the rise of other powerful monasteries in the system, such as the Abbey of Kells.The Book of Kells may have been produced or begun on Iona towards the end of the 8th century.", "Around this time the island's exemplary high crosses were sculpted; these may be the first such crosses to contain the ring around the intersection that became characteristic of the \"Celtic cross\".", "The series of Viking raids on Iona began in 794 and, after its treasures had been plundered many times, Columba's relics were removed and divided two ways between Scotland and Ireland in 849 as the monastery was abandoned.===Kingdom of the Isles===As the Norse domination of the west coast of Scotland advanced, Iona became part of the Kingdom of the Isles.", "The Norse ''Rex plurimarum insularum'' Amlaíb Cuarán died in 980 or 981 whilst in \"religious retirement\" on Iona.", "Nonetheless, the island was sacked twice by his successors, on Christmas night 986 and again in 987.Although Iona was never again important to Ireland, it rose to prominence once more in Scotland following the establishment of the Kingdom of Scotland in the later 9th century; the ruling dynasty of Scotland traced its origin to Iona, and the island thus became an important spiritual centre for the new kingdom, with many of its early kings buried there.", "However, a campaign by Magnus Barelegs led to the formal acknowledgement of Norwegian control of Argyll, in 1098.Somerled, the brother-in-law of Norway's governor of the region (the ''King of the Isles''), launched a revolt, and made the kingdom independent.", "A convent for Augustinian nuns was established in about 1208, with Bethóc, Somerled's daughter, as first prioress.", "The present buildings are of the Benedictine abbey, Iona Abbey, from about 1203, dissolved at the Reformation.On Somerled's death, nominal Norwegian overlordship of the Kingdom was re-established, but de facto control was split between Somerled's sons, and his brother-in-law.===Kingdom of Scotland===Following the 1266 Treaty of Perth the Hebrides were transferred from Norwegian to Scottish overlordship.", "At the end of the century, King John Balliol was challenged for the throne by Robert the Bruce.", "By this point, Somerled's descendants had split into three groups, the MacRory, MacDougalls, and MacDonalds.", "The MacDougalls backed Balliol, so when he was defeated by Bruce, the latter exiled the MacDougalls and transferred their island territories to the MacDonalds; by marrying the heir of the MacRorys, the heir of the MacDonalds re-unified most of Somerled's realm, creating the Lordship of the Isles, under nominal Scottish authority.", "Iona, which had been a MacDougall territory (together with the rest of Lorn), was given to the Campbells, where it remained for half a century.In 1354, though in exile and without control of his ancestral lands, John, the MacDougall heir, quitclaimed any rights he had over Mull and Iona to the Lord of the Isles (though this had no meaningful effect at the time).", "When Robert's son, David II, became king, he spent some time in English captivity; following his release, in 1357, he restored MacDougall authority over Lorn.", "The 1354 quitclaim, which seems to have been an attempt to ensure peace in just such an eventuality, took automatic effect, splitting Mull and Iona from Lorn, and making it subject to the Lordship of the Isles.", "Iona remained part of the Lordship of the Isles for the next century and a half.Following the 1491 Raid on Ross, the Lordship of the Isles was dismantled, and Scotland gained full control of Iona for the second time.", "The monastery and nunnery continued to be active until the Reformation, when buildings were demolished and all but three of the 360 carved crosses destroyed.", "The Augustine nunnery now only survives as a number of 13th century ruins, including a church and cloister.", "By the 1760s little more of the nunnery remained standing than at present, though it is the most complete remnant of a medieval nunnery in Scotland.===Post-Union===After a visit in 1773, the English writer Samuel Johnson remarked::The island, which was once the metropolis of learning and piety, now has no school for education, nor temple for worship.He estimated the population of the village at 70 families or perhaps 350 inhabitants.In the 19th century green-streaked marble was commercially mined in the south-east of Iona; the quarry and machinery survive, see 'Marble Quarry remains' below." ], [ "Iona Abbey", "Panoramic viewEnlargement, showing the location of the abbey and monasteriesIona Abbey, now an ecumenical church, is of particular historical and religious interest to pilgrims and visitors alike.", "It is the most elaborate and best-preserved ecclesiastical building surviving from the Middle Ages in the Western Isles of Scotland.", "Though modest in scale in comparison to medieval abbeys elsewhere in Western Europe, it has a wealth of fine architectural detail, and monuments of many periods.", "The 8th Duke of Argyll presented the sacred buildings and sites of the island to the Iona Cathedral trust in 1899.Historic Environment Scotland also recommends visiting the Augustinian nunnery, \"the most complete nunnery complex to survive in Scotland\".", "It was founded at the same time as the Abbey; many ruins from the 14th century are visible.", "The nunnery declined after the Scottish Reformation but was still used as a burial place for women.In front of the Abbey stands the 9th-century St Martin's Cross, one of the best-preserved Celtic crosses in the British Isles, and a replica of the 8th-century St John's Cross (original fragments in the Abbey museum).The ancient burial ground, called the Rèilig Odhrain (Eng: Oran's \"burial place\" or \"cemetery\"), contains the 12th-century chapel of St Odhrán (said to be Columba's uncle), restored at the same time as the Abbey itself.", "It contains a number of medieval grave monuments.", "The abbey graveyard is said to contain the graves of many early Scottish Kings, as well as Norse kings from Ireland and Norway.", "Iona became the burial site for the kings of Dál Riata and their successors.", "Notable burials there include:*Cináed mac Ailpín, king of the Picts (also known today as \"Kenneth I of Scotland\")*Domnall mac Causantín, alternatively \"king of the Picts\" or \"king of Scotland\" (\"Donald II\")*Máel Coluim mac Domnaill, king of Scotland (\"Malcolm I\")*Donnchad mac Crínáin, king of Scotland (\"Duncan I\")*Mac Bethad mac Findlaích, king of Scotland (\"Macbeth\")*Domnall mac Donnchada, king of Scotland (\"Donald III\")*John Smith, Labour Party LeaderIn 1549 an inventory of 48 Scottish, 8 Norwegian and 4 Irish kings was recorded.", "None of these graves are now identifiable (their inscriptions were reported to have worn away at the end of the 17th century).", "Saint Baithin and Saint Failbhe may also be buried on the island.", "The Abbey graveyard is also the final resting place of John Smith, the former Labour Party leader, who loved Iona.", "His grave is marked with an epitaph quoting Alexander Pope: \"An honest man's the noblest work of God\".Limited archaeological investigations commissioned by the National Trust for Scotland found some evidence for ancient burials in 2013.The excavations, conducted in the area of Martyrs Bay, revealed burials from the 6th–8th centuries, probably jumbled up and reburied in the 13–15th centuries.Other early Christian and medieval monuments have been removed for preservation to the cloister arcade of the Abbey, and the Abbey museum (in the medieval infirmary).", "The ancient buildings of Iona Abbey are now cared for by Historic Environment Scotland (there is an entrance charge to visit them)." ], [ "Marble quarry remains", "Iona Marble QuarryThe remains of a marble quarrying enterprise are present in a small bay on the south-east shore of Iona.", "The quarry is the source of 'Iona Marble', a translucent green and white stone, much used in brooches and other jewellery.", "The stone has been known of for centuries and was credited with healing and other powers.", "While the quarry had been used in a small way, it was not until around the end of the 18th century when it was opened up on a more industrial scale by the Duke of Argyle.", "The difficulties of extracting the hard stone and transporting it meant that the scheme was short lived.", "Another attempt was started in 1907, this time more successful with considerable quantities of stone extracted and indeed exported.", "The First World War impacted the quarry, with little quarrying after 1914 and the operation finally closed in 1919.A painting showing the quarry in operation, ''The Marble Quarry, Iona'' (1909) by David Young Cameron, is in the collection of Cartwright Hall art gallery in Bradford.", "The site has been designated as a Scheduled Ancient Monument." ], [ "Present day", "The island, other than the land owned by the Iona Cathedral Trust, was purchased from the Duke of Argyll by Hugh Fraser in 1979 and donated to the National Trust for Scotland.", "In 2001 Iona's population was 125 and by the time of the 2011 census this had grown to 177 usual residents.", "During the same period Scottish island populations as a whole grew by 4% to 103,702.The estimated permanent population in 2020 was 120.The island's tourism bureau estimated that roughly 130,000 visitors arrived each year.", "Many tourists come to visit the Abbey and other ecclesiastical properties and the marble quarry, or to enjoy the nine beaches that are within walking distance of the main area.===Iona Community===Baile Mòr viewed from the Sound of IonaNot to be confused with the local island community, Iona (Abbey) Community is based within Iona Abbey.In 1938 George MacLeod founded the Iona Community, an ecumenical Christian community of men and women from different walks of life and different traditions in the Christian church committed to seeking new ways of living the Gospel of Jesus in today's world.", "This community is a leading force in the present Celtic Christian revival.The Iona Community runs three residential centres on the Isle of Iona and on Mull, where one can live together in community with people of every background from all over the world.", "Weeks at the centres often follow a programme related to the concerns of the Iona Community.The 8 tonne ''Fallen Christ'' sculpture by Ronald Rae was permanently situated outside the MacLeod Centre in February 2008.===Transport===Visitors can reach Iona by the 10-minute ferry trip across the Sound of Iona from Fionnphort on Mull.", "The most common route from the mainland is via Oban in Argyll and Bute, where regular ferries connect to Craignure on Mull, from where the scenic road runs to Fionnphort.", "Tourist coaches and local bus services meet the ferries.Car ownership is lightly regulated, with no requirement for a MOT Certificate or payment of Road Tax for cars kept permanently on the island, but vehicular access is restricted to permanent residents and there are few cars.", "Visitors are not allowed to bring vehicles onto the island although \"blue badge holders with restricted mobility ... may apply for a permit under certain exemptions\".", "Visitors will find the village, the shops, the post office, the cafe, the hotels and the abbey are all within walking distance.", "Bike hire is available at the pier, and on Mull.", "Taxi service is also available.===Tourism===Conde Nast Traveller recommends the island for its \"peaceful atmosphere ... a popular place for spiritual retreats\" but also recommends the \"sandy beaches, cliffs, rocks, fields and bogs ... \"wildflowers and birds such as the rare corncrake and puffins\" as well as the \"abundance of sea life\".The Iona Council advises visitors that they can find a campsite (at Cnoc Oran), a hostel (at Lagandorain), family run bed and breakfasts, and two hotels on the island in addition to several self-catering houses.", "The agency also mentions that distances are short, with the Abbey a mere 10 minutes’ walk from the pier.", "Tourists can rent bikes or use the local taxi." ], [ "Iona in Scottish painting", "The island of Iona has played an important role in Scottish landscape painting, especially during the Twentieth Century.", "As travel to north and west Scotland became easier from the mid C18 on, artists' visits to the island steadily increased.", "The Abbey remains in particular became frequently recorded during this early period.", "Many of the artists are listed and illustrated in the valuable book, '''Iona Portrayed – The Island through Artists' Eyes 1760–1960''', which lists over 170 artists known to have painted on the island.The C20 however saw the greatest period of influence on landscape painting, in particular through the many paintings of the island produced by F C B Cadell and S J Peploe, two of the ‘Scottish Colourists’.", "As with many artists, both professional and amateur, they were attracted by the unique quality of light, the white sandy beaches, the aquamarine colours of the sea and the landscape of rich greens and rocky outcrops.", "While Cadell and Peploe are perhaps best known, many major Scottish painters of the C20 worked on Iona and visited many times – for example George Houston, D Y Cameron, James Shearer, John Duncan and John Maclauchlan Milne, among many.File:Cathedral Rock, Iona - Samuel John Peploe - ABDAG010719.jpg|alt=Rocky landscape with sea and islands in background|''Cathedral Rock, Iona'', Samuel Peploe (1920), Aberdeen Art GalleryFile:Lunga from Iona - Francis Campbell Boileau Cadell - ABDAG002205.jpg|alt=Grassy foreground leading to beach, cliffs and sea|''Lunga from Iona'', Francis Cadell, Aberdeen Art GalleryFile:Stormy Weather, Iona by Samuel John Peploe - Samuel John Peploe - ABDAG003040.jpg|alt=Seascape with waves crashing against coastal rocks|''Stormy Weather, Iona'', Samuel Peploe (ca.1929), Aberdeen Art Gallery" ], [ "Media and the arts", "Samuel Johnson wrote \"That man is little to be envied whose patriotism would not gain force upon the plains of Marathon, or whose piety would not grow warmer amid the ruins of Iona.", "\"In Jules Verne's novel ''The Green Ray'', the heroes visit Iona in chapters 13 to 16.The inspiration is romantic, the ruins of the island are conducive to daydreaming.", "The young heroine, Helena Campbell, argues that Scotland in general and Iona in particular are the scene of the appearance of goblins and other familiar demons.In Jean Raspail's novel ''The Fisherman's Ring'' (1995), his cardinal is one of the last to support the antipope Benedict XIII and his successors.In the novel ''The Carved Stone'' (by Guillaume Prévost), the young Samuel Faulkner is projected in time as he searches for his father and lands on Iona in the year 800, then threatened by the Vikings.", "\"Peace of Iona\" is a song written by Mike Scott that appears on the studio album ''Universal Hall'' and on the live recording ''Karma to Burn'' by The Waterboys.", "Iona is the setting for the song \"Oran\" on the 1997 Steve McDonald album ''Stone of Destiny''.Kenneth C. Steven published an anthology of poetry entitled ''Iona: Poems'' in 2000 inspired by his association with the island and the surrounding area.Iona is featured prominently in the first episode (\"By the Skin of Our Teeth\") of the celebrated arts series ''Civilisation: A Personal View by Kenneth Clark'' (1969).Iona is the setting of Jeanne M. Dams' Dorothy Martin mystery ''Holy Terror of the Hebrides'' (1998).The Academy Award–nominated Irish animated film ''The Secret of Kells'' is about the creation of the Book of Kells.", "One of the characters, Brother Aidan, is a master illuminator from Iona Abbey who had helped to illustrate the Book, but had to escape the island with it during a Viking invasion.Frances Macdonald the contemporary Scottish artist based in Crinian, Argyll, regularly paints landscapes on Iona.Neil Gaiman's poem \"In Relig Odhrain\", published in ''Trigger Warning: Short Fictions and Disturbances (2015)'', retells the story of Oran's death, and the creation of the chapel on Iona.", "This poem was made into a short stop-motion animated film, released in 2019.Iona's local golf course was featured on Season 7's ''Adventure's in Golf'' by documentary filmmaker, Erik Anders Lang." ], [ "Gallery", "File:St Martins Cross on Iona.jpg|St Martin's Cross (from the 9th century)File:TyIonaNunnery20030825r19f31.jpg|Iona NunneryFile:Cloisters of Abbey on the Isle of Iona.jpg|Abbey cloistersFile:TyIonaStColumbasBay20030825r19f10.jpg|Looking towards St. Columba's BayFile:Iona2may11.jpg|Jetty at Baile Mòr" ], [ "See also", "* List of islands of Scotland* Bishop's House Iona* Clann-an-oistir* Dál Riata* Statutes of Iona" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* Christian, J & Stiller, C (2000), ''Iona Portrayed – The Island through Artists' Eyes 1760–1960'', The New Iona Press, Inverness, 96pp, numerous illustrations in B&W and colour, with list of artists.", "*Dwelly, Edward (1911).", "''Faclair Gàidhlig gu Beurla le Dealbhan/The Illustrated Scottish Gaelic- English Dictionary''.", "Edinburgh.", "Birlinn.", ".", "* * Gregory, Donald (1881) ''The History of the Western Highlands and Isles of Scotland 1493–1625''.", "Edinburgh.", "Birlinn.", "2008 reprint – originally published by Thomas D. Morrison.", ".", "* * Hunter, James (2000).", "''Last of the Free: A History of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland''.", "Edinburgh.", "Mainstream.", "* Johnson, Samuel (1775).", "''A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland''.", "London: Chapman & Dodd.", "(1924 edition).", "* * * Marsden, John (1995).", "''The Illustrated Life of Columba''.", "Edinburgh.", "Floris Books.", ".", "* Murray, W. H. (1966).", "''The Hebrides''.", "London.", "Heinemann.", "* Ó Corráin, Donnchadh (1998) ''Vikings in Ireland and Scotland in the Ninth Century'' CELT.", "* Watson, W. J., ''The History of the Celtic Place-names of Scotland''.", "Reprinted with an introduction by Simon Taylor, Birlinn, Edinburgh, 2004..* ===Citations===" ], [ "Further reading", "* Campbell, George F. (2006).", "''The First and Lost Iona''.", "Glasgow: Candlemas Hill Publishing.", "(and on Kindle).", "* Herbert, Maire (1996).", "''Iona, Kells and Derry: The History and Hagiography of the Monastic familia of Columba''.", "Dublin: Four Courts Press.", "* MacArthur, E Mairi, ''Iona, Colin Baxter Island Guide'' (1997) Colin Baxter Photography, Grantown-on-Spey, 128pp." ], [ "External links", "* Visit Mull & Iona (Official tourism website for the Isles of Mull and Iona)* Isle of Iona, Scotland (A visitors guide to the Isle)* The Iona Community* Computer-generated virtual panorama Summit of Iona Index** Photo Gallery of Iona by Enrico Martino* National Trust for Scotland property page" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ido" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ido''' () is a constructed language derived from Reformed Esperanto, and similarly designed with the goal of being a universal second language for people of diverse backgrounds.", "To function as an effective ''international auxiliary language'', Ido was specifically designed to be grammatically, orthographically, and lexicographically regular (and, above all, easy to learn and use).", "It is the most successful of the many Esperanto derivatives, called ''Esperantidoj''.Ido was created in 1907 out of a desire to reform perceived flaws in Esperanto, a language that had been created 20 years earlier to facilitate international communication.", "The name comes from the Esperanto word '''', meaning \"offspring\", since the language is a \"descendant\" of Esperanto.", "After its inception, Ido gained support from some in the Esperanto community.", "A setback occurred with the sudden death in 1914 of one of its most influential proponents, Louis Couturat.", "In 1928, leader Otto Jespersen left the movement for his own language Novial.Ido declined in popularity for two reasons: the emergence of further schisms arising from competing reform projects, and a general lack of awareness of Ido as a candidate for an international language.", "These obstacles weakened the movement and it was not until the rise of the Internet that it began to regain momentum.Ido uses the same 26 letters as the English (Latin) alphabet, with no diacritics.", "It draws its vocabulary from English, French, German, Italian, Latin, Russian, Spanish and Portuguese, and is largely intelligible to those who have studied Esperanto.Several works of literature have been translated into Ido, including ''The Little Prince'', the Book of Psalms, and the Gospel of Luke.", "As of the year 2000, there were approximately 100–200 Ido speakers in the world.", "As of 2022, Ido has 26 native speakers in Finland." ], [ "History", "The idea of a universal second language is not new, and constructed languages are not a recent phenomenon.", "The first known constructed language was Hildegard of Bingen's Lingua Ignota, created in the 12th century.", "The concept did not attract significant interest until the language Volapük was created in 1879.Volapük was popular for some time and apparently had a few thousand users, but was later eclipsed by the popularity of Esperanto, which arose in 1887.Several other languages, such as Latino sine Flexione and Idiom Neutral were also put forward.", "It was during this time that French mathematician Louis Couturat formed the ''Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language''.This delegation made a formal request to the International Association of Academies in Vienna to select and endorse an international language; the request was rejected in May 1907.The Delegation then met as a Committee in Paris in October 1907 to discuss the adoption of a standard international language.", "Among the languages considered was a new language anonymously submitted at the last moment (and therefore against the Committee rules) under the pen name ''Ido''.", "In the end the committee, always without plenary sessions and consisting of only 12 members, concluded the last day with 4 votes for and 1 abstention.", "They concluded that no language was completely acceptable, but that Esperanto could be accepted \"on condition of several modifications to be realized by the permanent Commission in the direction defined by the conclusions of the Report of the Secretaries Louis Couturat and Léopold Leau and by the Ido project\".The International Ido Congress in Dessau, Germany, in 1922Esperanto's inventor, L. L. Zamenhof, having heard a number of complaints, had suggested in 1894 a proposal for a Reformed Esperanto with several changes that Ido adopted and made it closer to French: eliminating the accented letters and the accusative case, changing the plural to an Italianesque ''-i'', and replacing the table of correlatives with more Latinate words.", "However, the Esperanto community voted and rejected Reformed Esperanto, and likewise most rejected the recommendations of the 1907 Committee composed by 12 members.", "Zamenhof deferred to their judgment, although doubtful.", "Furthermore, controversy ensued when the \"Ido project\" was found to have been primarily devised by Louis de Beaufront, whom Zamenhof had chosen to represent Esperanto before the committee, as the committee's rules dictated that the creator of a submitted language could not defend it.", "The committee's language was French and not everyone could speak in French.", "When the president of the Committee asked who was the author of Ido's project, Couturat, Beaufront and Leau answered that they were not.", "Beaufront was the person who presented Ido's project and gave a description as a better, richer version of Esperanto.", "Couturat, Leau, Beaufront and Jespersen were finally the only members who voted, all of them for Ido's project.", "A month later, Couturat accidentally put Jespersen in a copy of a letter in which he acknowledged that Beaufront was the author of the Ido project.", "Jespersen was angered by this and asked for a public confession, which was never forthcoming.It is estimated that some 20% of Esperanto leaders and 3–4% of ordinary Esperantists switched to Ido, which from then on suffered constant modifications seeking to perfect it, but which ultimately had the effect of causing many Ido speakers to give up on trying to learn it.", "Although it fractured the Esperanto movement, the schism gave the remaining Esperantists the freedom to concentrate on using and promoting their language as it stood.", "At the same time, it gave the Idists freedom to continue working on their own language for several more years before actively promoting it.", "The ''Uniono di la Amiki di la Linguo Internaciona'' (''Union of Friends of the International Language'') was established along with an Ido Academy to work out the details of the new language.Couturat, who was the leading proponent of Ido, was killed in an automobile accident in 1914.This, along with World War I, practically suspended the activities of the Ido Academy from 1914 to 1920.In 1928 Ido's major intellectual supporter, the Danish linguist Otto Jespersen, published his own planned language, Novial.", "His leaving the Ido movement set it back even further.===Digital era===The language still has active speakers, numbering about 500.The Internet has sparked a renewal of interest in the language in recent years.", "A sample of 24 Idists on the Yahoo!", "group ''Idolisto'' during November 2005 showed that 57% had begun their studies of the language during the preceding three years, 32% from the mid-1990s to 2002, and 8% had known the language from before.===Changes===Few changes have been made to Ido since 1922.Camiel de Cock was named secretary of linguistic issues in 1990, succeeding Roger Moureaux.", "He resigned after the creation of a linguistic committee in 1991.De Cock was succeeded by Robert C. Carnaghan, who held the position from 1992 to 2008.No new words were adopted between 2001 and 2006.Following the 2008–2011 elections of ULI's direction committee, Gonçalo Neves replaced Carnaghan as secretary of linguistic issues in February 2008.Neves resigned in August 2008.A new linguistic committee was formed in 2010.In April 2010, Tiberio Madonna was appointed as secretary of linguistic issues, succeeding Neves.", "In January 2011, ULI approved eight new words.", "This was the first addition of words in many years.", "As of January 2021, the secretary of linguistic issues remains Tiberio Madonna." ], [ "Phonology", "Ido has five vowel phonemes.", "The values and are interchangeable depending on speaker preference, as are and .", "The orthographic sequences and indicate diphthongs in word roots but not when created by affixing.+ Ido vowels Front Back Close Mid ~ ~ Open +Ido consonants Labial Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Nasal Stop Affricatec ch Fricativesh j Approximant y () Flap r All polysyllabic words are stressed on the second-to-last syllable except for verb infinitives, which are stressed on the last syllable'''sko'''lo, ka'''fe'''o and '''ler'''nas for \"school\", \"coffee\" and the present tense of \"to learn\", but i'''rar''', sa'''var''' and drin'''kar''' for \"to go\", \"to know\" and \"to drink\".", "If an '''i''' or '''u''' precedes another vowel, the pair is considered part of the same syllable when applying the accent rulethus '''ra'''dio, fa'''mi'''lio and '''ma'''nuo for \"radio\", \"family\" and \"hand\", unless the two vowels are the only ones in the word, in which case the \"i\" or \"u\" is stressed: '''di'''o, '''fru'''a for \"day\" and \"early\"." ], [ "Orthography", "Ido uses the same 26 letters as the English alphabet and ISO Basic Latin alphabet with three digraphs and no ligatures or diacritics.", "Where the table below lists two pronunciations, either is perfectly acceptable.", "Letter IPA EnglishEsperanto a ''a'' as in \"p'''a'''rt\" b ''b'' as in \"sta'''b'''le\" c most similar to ''ts'' as in \"ca'''ts'''\"*(also used in the digraph ''ch'') d ''d'' as in \"a'''d'''opt\" e , most similar to ''e'' as in \"'''e'''gg\" or ''e'' as in \"b'''e'''t\" f ''f'' as in \"a'''f'''raid\" g hard ''g'' as in \"'''g'''o\" h ''h'' as in \"'''h'''at\", \"a'''h'''oy\" i ''i'' as in \"mach'''i'''ne\", ''ee'' in \"b'''ee'''\" j , ''s'' as in \"plea'''s'''ure, mea'''s'''ure\" or ''g'' in \"mira'''g'''e, bei'''g'''e\"'''ĵ or ĝ''' k ''k'' as in \"s'''k'''in, s'''k'''ip\" l most similar to ''l'' as in \"'''l'''amb\" m ''m'' as in \"ad'''m'''it\" n ''n'' as in \"a'''n'''alogy\" o , most similar to ''o'' as in \"'''o'''r\" p ''p'' as in \"s'''p'''in, s'''p'''ark\" q same as ''k''*(used only in the digraph ''qu'') - r flapped or rolled ''r'' as in Italian or Spanish;or the ''r'' in ve'''r'''y in Scottish English pronunciation (cf ''Pronunciation of English /r/'') s ''s'' as in \"ea'''s'''t\"*(also used in the digraph ''sh'') t ''t'' as in \"s'''t'''ake, s'''t'''op\" u ''u'' as in \"r'''u'''de\" v ''v'' as in \"a'''v'''oid\" w ''w'' as in \"a'''w'''ard\" - x , x as in \"e'''x'''cept\" or \"e'''x'''ist\" - y ''y'' as in \"'''y'''es\"j z ''z'' as in \"'''z'''ebra\"zThe digraphs are: Digraph IPA EnglishEsperanto ch ''ch'' as in \"'''ch'''ick\"'''ĉ''' qu , ''qu'' as in \"'''qu'''ick\" - sh ''sh'' as in \"'''sh'''y\"'''ŝ'''" ], [ "Grammar", "The definite article is ''la'' and is invariable.", "The indefinite article (a/an) does not exist in Ido.", "Each word in the Ido vocabulary is built from a root word.", "A word consists of a root and a grammatical ending.", "Other words can be formed from that word by removing the grammatical ending and adding a new one, or by inserting certain affixes between the root and the grammatical ending.Some of the grammatical endings are defined as follows: Grammatical form Ido Esperanto English Singular noun ''' -o''' (libro) '''-o''' (libro) '''-''' (book) Plural noun '''-i''' (libri) '''-oj''' (libroj) '''-s''' (books) Adjective '''-a''' (varma) '''-a''', '''-aj''' (varma, varmaj) '''-''' (warm) Adverb '''-e''' (varme) '''-e''' (varme) -ly (warmly) Present tense infinitive '''-ar''' (irar) '''-anti''' (iranti)'''-i''' (iri) to be - (to be going) '''to -''' (to go) Past tense infinitive '''-ir''' (irir) '''-inti''' (irinti) to have - (to have gone) Future tense infinitive '''-or''' (iror) '''-onti''' (ironti) to be going to - (to be going to go) Present '''-as''' (iras) '''-as''' (iras) -, -s, -es (go, goes) Past '''-is''' (iris) '''-is''' (iris) irr., -ed (went) Future '''-os''' (iros) '''-os''' (iros) will - (will go) Imperative '''-ez''' (irez) '''-u''' (iru) (go!)", "Conditional '''-us''' (irus) '''-us''' (irus) would - (would go) These are the same as in Esperanto except for ''-i'', ''-ir'', ''-ar'', ''-or'' and ''-ez''.", "Esperanto marks noun plurals by an ''agglutinative'' ending ''-j'' (so plural nouns end in ''-oj''), uses ''-i'' for verb infinitives (Esperanto infinitives are tenseless), and uses ''-u'' for the imperative.", "Verbs in Ido, as in Esperanto, do not conjugate depending on person, number or gender; the -'''as''', -'''is''', and -'''os''' endings suffice whether the subject is I, you, he, she, they, or anything else.", "For the word \"to be,\" Ido allows either ''esas'' or ''es'' in the present tense; however, the full forms must be used for the past tense ''esis'' and future tense ''esos''.\"", "Adjectives and adverbs are compared in Ido by means of the words ''plu'' = more, ''maxim'' = most, ''min'' = less, ''minim'' = least, ''kam'' = than/as.", "There exist in Ido three categories of adverbs: the simple, the derived, and the composed.", "The simple adverbs do not need special endings, for example: ''tre'' = very, ''tro'' = too, ''olim'' = formerly, ''nun'' = now, ''nur'' = only.", "The derived and composed adverbs, not being originally adverbs but derived from nouns, adjectives and verbs, have the ending '''-e'''.===Syntax===Ido word order is generally the same as English (subject–verb–object), so the sentence ''Me havas la blua libro'' is the same as the English \"I have the blue book\", both in meaning and word order.", "There are a few differences, however:* Adjectives can precede the noun as in English, or follow the noun as in Spanish.", "Thus, ''Me havas la libro blua'' means the same thing.", "* Ido has the accusative suffix ''-n''.", "Unlike Esperanto, this suffix is only required when the object of the sentence is not clear, for example, when the subject-verb-object word order is not followed.", "Thus, ''La blua libron me havas'' also means the same thing.Ido generally does not impose rules of grammatical agreement between grammatical categories within a sentence.", "For example, the verb in a sentence is invariable regardless of the number and person of the subject.", "Nor must the adjectives be pluralized as well the nounsin Ido ''the large books'' would be ''la granda libri'' as opposed to the Esperanto ''la grandaj libroj''.Negation occurs in Ido by simply adding '''ne''' before a verb: '''Me ne havas libro''' means \"I do not have a book\".", "This as well does not vary, and thus the \"I do not\", \"He does not\", \"They do not\" before a verb are simply '''Me ne''', '''Il ne''', and '''Li ne'''.", "In the same way, past tense and future tense negatives are formed by '''ne''' before the conjugated verb.", "\"I will not go\" and \"I did not go\" become '''Me ne iros''' and '''Me ne iris''' respectively.Yes/no questions are formed by the particle '''ka''' in front of the question.", "\"I have a book\" (me havas libro) becomes '''Ka me havas libro?'''", "(do I have a book?).", "'''Ka''' can also be placed in front of a noun without a verb to make a simple question, corresponding to the English \"is it?\"", "'''Ka Mark?'''", "can mean, \"Are you Mark?", "\", \"Is it Mark?", "\", \"Do you mean Mark?\"", "depending on the context.===Pronouns===The pronouns of Ido were revised to make them more acoustically distinct than those of Esperanto, which all end in ''i''.", "Especially the singular and plural first-person pronouns ''mi'' and ''ni'' may be difficult to distinguish in a noisy environment, so Ido has ''me'' and ''ni'' instead.", "Ido also distinguishes between intimate (''tu'') and formal (''vu'') second-person singular pronouns as well as plural second-person pronouns (''vi'') not marked for intimacy.", "Furthermore, Ido has a pan-gender third-person pronoun ''lu'' (it can mean \"he\", \"she\", or \"it\", depending on the context) in addition to its masculine (''il''), feminine (''el''), and neuter (''ol'') third-person pronouns.+ Pronounssingularpluralreflexiveindefinitefirstsecondthirdfirstsecondthird''familiar''''formal''''masc.''''fem.''''neuter''''pan-gender''''masc.''''fem.", "''''neuter''''pan-gender''Ido me tu vu il(u) el(u) ol(u) lu ni vi ili eli oli li su on(u)English I thou you he she it they/it we you theyoneself one/you/theyEsperanto mi ci¹ vi¹ li ŝi ĝi ĝi/ri² ni vi iliiŝi²iĝi² ili/iri² si oni# ''ci'', although technically the familiar form of the word \"you\" in Esperanto, is seldom used.", "Esperanto's inventor himself did not include the pronoun in the first book on Esperanto and only later reluctantly; later he recommended against using ''ci'' because different cultures have conflicting traditions regarding the use of the familiar and formal forms of \"you\".#''ri'', ''iŝi'', ''iĝi'' and by extension ''iri'' are proposed neologisms and are rare, but they are still used albeit seldom.", "''ol'', like English ''it'' and Esperanto ''ĝi'', is not limited to inanimate objects, but can be used \"for entities whose sex is indeterminate: ''babies, children, humans, youths, elders, people, individuals, horses, cattle, cats,'' etc.", "\"''Lu'' is often mistakenly labeled an epicene pronoun, that is, one that refers to both masculine and feminine beings, but in fact, ''lu'' is more properly a \"pan-gender\" pronoun, as it is also used for referring to inanimate objects.", "From ''Kompleta Gramatiko Detaloza di la Linguo Internaciona Ido'' by Beaufront:===Table of correlatives===Ido makes correlatives by combining entire words together and changing the word ending, with some irregularities to show distinction.Relative andinterrogativeDemonstrativeIndeterminateMostIndeterminateNegativeCollectivequa, ∅ita, ∅ula, ∅irganulaomnaIndividual-u qua ita 1uluirgunuluomnuPlural-iquiiti 1uliirginuliomniThing-oquoito 1uloirgonuloomnoAdjective-a qua ita 1ulairganulaomnaMotivepropro quopro topro ulopro irgopro nulopro omnoPlaceloke ube ibeulalokeirgalokenulalokeomnalokeTimetempe kande loreulatempe 2irgatempenulatempe 2 sempre 3Quality-a, speca quala talaulaspeca 2irgaspecanulaspeca 2omnaspecaManner-e, maniere quale taleule, ulamaniere 2irge, irgamanierenule, nulamaniere 2omne, omnamaniereQuantity -adjectivequanta quanta tanta kelkairgaquantanulaquantaomnaquantaQuantity -nounquanto quanto tanto kelko irga quanto 4 nula quanto 4 la tota quanto 4# The initial ''i'' can be omitted: ''ta'', ''to'', ''ti'', ''ta''.# One can omit the initial ''a'': ''ultempe'', ''nultempe'', ''ulspeca'', ''nulspeca'', ''ulmaniere'', ''nulmaniere''.# ''omnatempe'' is correct and usable, but ''sempre'' is the actual word.# Instead of ''irga quanto'', ''nula quanto'' and ''la tota quanto'' one usually says ''irgo'', ''nulo'' and ''omno''.===Compound formation===Composition in Ido obeys stricter rules than in Esperanto, especially formation ofnouns, adjectives and verbs from a radical of a differentclass.", "The reversibility principle assumes that for each composition rule (affix addition), the corresponding decomposition rule (affix removal) is valid.Hence, while in Esperanto an adjective (for instance , formed on the noun radical , can mean an attribute ( \"paper-made encyclopedia\") and a relation ( \"paper-making factory\"), Ido will distinguish the attribute (\"paper\" or \"of paper\" (not \"paper-made\" exactly)) from the relation (\"paper-making\").Similarly, means in both Esperanto and Ido the noun \"crown\"; where Esperanto allows formation of \"to crown\" by simply changing the ending from noun to verb (\"crowning\" is ), Ido requires an affix so the composition is reversible: (\"the act of crowning\" is ).According to Claude Piron, some modifications brought by Ido are in practice impossible to use and ruin spontaneous expression: Ido displays, on linguistic level, other drawbacks Esperanto succeeded to avoid, but I don't have at hand documents which would allow me to go further in detail.", "For instance, if I remember correctly, where Esperanto only has the suffix *, Ido has several: **, **, **, which match subtleties which were meant to make language clearer, but that, in practice, inhibit natural expression." ], [ "Vocabulary", "Vocabulary in Ido is derived from French, Italian, Spanish, English, German, and Russian.", "Basing the vocabulary on various widespread languages was intended to make Ido as easy as possible for the greatest number of people possible.", "Early on, the first 5,371 Ido word roots were analyzed compared to the vocabulary of the six source languages, and the following result was found:* 2024 roots (38%) belong to 6 languages* 942 roots (17%) belong to 5 languages* 1111 roots (21%) belong to 4 languages* 585 roots (11%) belong to 3 languages* 454 roots (8%) belong to 2 languages* 255 roots (5%) belong to 1 languageAnother analysis showed that:* 4880 roots (91%) are found in French* 4454 roots (83%) are found in Italian* 4237 roots (79%) are found in Spanish* 4219 roots (79%) are found in English* 3302 roots (61%) are found in German* 2821 roots (52%) are found in Russian+ Comparison of Ido vocabulary with its six source languages (by # of roots) Ido French Italian Spanish English German Russian bonabon buono bueno goodbonus gut Bonus khoroshiy (хороший) donardonner dare donare dar donargivedonate geben dat, darit (дать) (дарить) filtrarfiltrer filtrare filtrar filter filtern filtrovat (фильтровать) gardenojardin giardino jardín garden Garten sad (caд) kavalocheval cavallo caballo horsecavalry Pferd Kavallerie loshad, kobyla (лошадь, кобыла) maromer mare mar seamarine Meer more (море) naciononation nazione nación nation Nation natsija (нация) studiarétudier studiare estudiar study studieren izuchat (изучать) yunajeune giovane joven youngjuvenile jung yunyi, molodoy (юный, молодой)+Comparison of Ido vocabulary with Esperanto and Latin (or Germanic root)IdoEsperantoLatinGermanicbonabonabonumdonardonidarefiltrarfiltrispargerefeltgardenoĝardenohortumgardokavaloĉevaloequum, caballusmaromaromarenaciononaciogentem, natiostudiarstudistudereyunajunaiuvenisjungVocabulary in Ido is often created through a number of official prefixes and suffixes that alter the meaning of the word.", "This allows a user to take existing words and modify them to create neologisms when necessary, and allows for a wide range of expression without the need to learn new vocabulary each time.", "Though their number is too large to be included in one article, some examples include:*The diminutive suffix '''-et-'''.", "'''Domo''' (house) becomes '''dometo''' (cottage), and '''libro''' (book) becomes '''libreto''' (novelette or short story).", "*The pejorative suffix '''-ach-'''.", "'''Domo''' becomes '''domacho''' (hovel), and '''libro''' becomes '''libracho''' (a shoddy piece of work, pulp fiction, etc.", ")*The prefix '''retro-''', which implies a reversal.", "'''Irar''' (to go) becomes '''retroirar''' (to go back, backward) and '''venar''' (to come) becomes '''retrovenar''' (to return).New vocabulary is generally created through an analysis of the word, its etymology, and reference to the six source languages.", "If a word can be created through vocabulary already existing in the language then it will usually be adopted without need for a new radical (such as '''wikipedio''' for ''Wikipedia'', which consists of '''wiki''' + '''enciklopedio''' for ''encyclopedia''), and if not an entirely new word will be created.", "The word '''alternatoro''' for example was adopted in 1926, likely because five of the six source languages used largely the same orthography for the word, and because it was long enough to avoid being mistaken for other words in the existing vocabulary.", "Adoption of a word is done through consensus, after which the word will be made official by the union.", "Care must also be taken to avoid homonyms if possible, and usually a new word undergoes some discussion before being adopted.", "Foreign words that have a restricted sense and are not likely to be used in everyday life (such as the word ''intifada'' to refer to the conflict between Israel and Palestine) are left untouched, and often written in italics.Ido, unlike Esperanto, does not assume the male sex by default.", "For example, Ido does not derive the word for \"waitress\" by adding a feminine suffix to \"waiter\", as Esperanto does.", "Instead, Ido words are defined as sex-neutral, and two different suffixes derive masculine and feminine words from the root: '''' for a waiter of either sex, '''' for a male waiter, and '''' for a waitress.", "There are only two exceptions to this rule: First, '''' for \"father\", '''' for \"mother\", and '''' for \"parent\", and second, '''' for \"man\", '''' for \"woman\", and '''' for \"adult\"." ], [ "Sample", "The Lord's Prayer: '''Ido'''Patro nia, qua esas en la cielo,tua nomo santigesez;tua regno advenez;tua volo facesezquale en la cielo, tale anke sur la tero.Donez a ni cadie l'omnadia pano,e pardonez a ni nia ofensi,quale anke ni pardonas a nia ofensanti,e ne duktez ni aden la tento,ma liberigez ni del malajo.", "'''English'''Our Father, who art in heaven,hallowed be your name.Thy kingdom come,Thy will be done,on earth as it is in heaven.Give us this day our daily bread,and forgive us our debts,as we also have forgiven our debtors.And lead us not into temptation,but deliver us from evil." ], [ "Literature and publications", "Ido has a number of publications that can be subscribed to or downloaded for free in most cases.", "is a magazine produced in France every few months with a range of topics.", "is a magazine produced by the Spanish Ido Society every two months that has a range of topics, as well as a few dozen pages of work translated from other languages.", "is the official organ of the Ido movement and has been around since the inception of the movement in 1908.Other sites can be found with various stories, fables or proverbs along with a few books of the Bible translated into Ido on a smaller scale.", "The site has a few podcasts in Ido along with various songs and other recorded material.Wikipedia includes an Ido-language edition (known in Ido as ); in January 2012 it was the 81st most visited Wikipedia." ], [ "Symbols of Ido", "An Ido-SteloThe Ido star or Jankó star is the main symbol of Ido.", "It is a six pointed star, with the points representing Ido's six source languages: English, French, Italian, German, Spanish and Russian.", "Alternatively, the six points represent the six continents (excluding Antarctica).", "The emblem was originally a six pointed white star on a circular blue background, consisting of two concentric, equilateral triangles, with one vertically flipped.", "However, this was soon changed due to the similarity it presented with the Star of David, since a true international auxiliary language should not have religious affiliations.After a search to find an appropriate new symbol, the Ido-Akademio decided on the current Ido symbol, created by their secretary, Paul von Jankó (hence the alternative name the Jankó star).", "The current Ido Star is a concave isotoxal hexagon, with a vertically flipped equilateral triangle overlaid on top.", "This new shape also had the benefit of being able to be copyrighted." ], [ "International Ido conventions", "ULI organises Ido conventions yearly, and the conventions include a mix of tourism and work.", "* 2019: Berlin, Germany, 15 participants from 2 countries ( Information)* 2018: Provins, France, 11 participants from 5 countries ( Information)* 2017: České Budějovice, Czech Republic, 8 participants from 5 countries ( Information)* 2016: Valencia, Spain, 10 participants from 7 countries ( Information)* 2015: Berlin, Germany, 14 participants ( Information)* 2014: Paris, France ( Information)* 2013: Ouroux-en-Morvan, France, 13 participants from 4 countries ( Information)* 2012: Dessau, Germany, 12 participants ( Information)* 2011: Echternach, Luxembourg ( Information), 24 participants from 11 countries* 2010: Tübingen, Germany ( Information)* 2009: Riga, Latvia, and Tallinn, Estonia, 14 participants from 7 countries ( Information)* 2008: Wuppertal-Neviges, Germany, 18 participants from 5 countries ( Information)* 2007: Paris, France, 14 participants from 9 countries ( Information, Photos)* 2006: Berlin, Germany, approx.", "25 participants from 10 countries ( Information)* 2005: Toulouse, France, 13 participants from 4 countries ( Information)* 2004: Kyiv, Ukraine, 17 participants from 9 countries ( Information)* 2003: Großbothen, Germany, participants from 6 countries ( Information)* 2002: Kraków, Poland, 14 participants from 6 countries ( Information)* 2001: Nuremberg, Germany, 14 participants from 5 countries ( Information)* 2000: Nuremberg, Germany* 1999: Waldkappel, Germany* 1998: Białobrzegi, Poland, 15 participants from 6 countries* 1997: Bakkum, Netherlands, 19 participants from 7 countries* 1995: Elsnigk, Germany* 1991: Ostend, Belgium, 21 participants* 1990: Waldkappel, Germany* 1989: Zürich-Thalwil, Switzerland* 1987: Eschwege, Germany* 1985: Antwerp, Belgium* 1983: York, England* 1981: Jongny, Switzerland* 1980: Namur, Belgium, 35 participants* 1979: Uppsala, Sweden* 1978: Cambridge, England* 1977: Berlin-Tegel, Germany* 1976: Saint-Nazaire, France* 1975: Thun, Switzerland* 1974: Kyiv, Ukraine* 1973: Cardiff, Wales* 1972: Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland* 1971: Trollhättan, Sweden* 1970: Luxembourg City, Luxembourg* 1969: Zürich, Switzerland* 1968: Berlin, Germany* 1967: Bourges, France* 1966: Biella, Italy* 1965: Lons-le-Saunier, France* 1964: Kiel, Germany* 1963: Barcelona, Spain* 1962: Thun, Switzerland* 1961: Zürich, Switzerland, participants* 1960: Colmar, France* 1959: Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany* 1957: Luxembourg City, Luxembourg* 1952: Berlin, Germany* 1951: Turin, Italy* 1950: Colmar, France* 1939: St. Gallen, Switzerland* 1937: Paris, France* 1936: Szombathely, Hungary* 1935: Fredericia, Denmark* 1934: Oostduinkerke, Belgium* 1933: Mondorf, Luxembourg* 1931: Lauenburg/Elbe, Germany* 1930: Sopron, Hungary* 1929: Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany* 1928: Zürich, Switzerland* 1927: Paris, France* 1926: Prague, Czechoslovakia* 1925: Turin, Italy* 1924: Luxembourg City, Luxembourg* 1923: Kassel, Germany* 1922: Dessau, Germany* 1921: Vienna, Austria" ], [ "See also", "* Comparison between Esperanto and Ido* Comparison between Ido and Novial* Comparison between Ido and Interlingua* Interhelpo* English false friends in Ido* Engelbert Pigal" ], [ "References", "'''Additional notes'''# L. Couturat, L. Leau.", "''Delegation pour l'adoption d'une Langue auxiliare internationale'' (15–24 October 1907).", "Coulommiers: Imprimerie Paul Brodard, 1907" ], [ "External links", "* The international language Ido* Union for the International Language Ido (in Ido)* Ido : a Modern Language* The IDO foundation for language research in memory of Hellmut Röhnish* Otto Jespersen's history of Ido* Henry Jacob's history of Ido* Ido for all – English course for learning Ido* Online Ido library (in Ido)* Examples of Ido Phrases" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Improvisational theatre" ], [ "Introduction", "Swedish actors performing in theatresports, a competitive form of improv'''Improvisational theatre''', often called '''improvisation''' or '''improv''', is the form of theatre, often comedy, in which most or all of what is performed is unplanned or unscripted, created spontaneously by the performers.", "In its purest form, the dialogue, action, story, and characters are created collaboratively by the players as the improvisation unfolds in present time, without use of an already prepared, written script.Improvisational theatre exists in performance as a range of styles of improvisational comedy as well as some non-comedic theatrical performances.", "It is sometimes used in film and television, both to develop characters and scripts and occasionally as part of the final product.Improvisational techniques are often used extensively in drama programs to train actors for stage, film, and television and can be an important part of the rehearsal process.", "However, the skills and processes of improvisation are also used outside the context of performing arts.", "This practice, known as applied improvisation, is used in classrooms as an educational tool and in businesses as a way to develop communication skills, creative problem solving, and supportive team-work abilities that are used by improvisational, ensemble players.", "It is sometimes used in psychotherapy as a tool to gain insight into a person's thoughts, feelings, and relationships." ], [ "History", "The earliest well-documented use of improvisational theatre in Western history is found in the Atellan Farce of 391 BC.", "From the 16th to the 18th centuries, ''commedia dell'arte'' performers improvised based on a broad outline in the streets of Italy.", "In the 1890s, theatrical theorists and directors such as the Russian Konstantin Stanislavski and the French Jacques Copeau, founders of two major streams of acting theory, both heavily utilized improvisation in acting training and rehearsal.===Modern===Italian Nobel-winner Dario Fo received international acclaim for his highly improvisational styleModern theatrical improvisation games began as drama exercises for children, which were a staple of drama education in the early 20th century thanks in part to the progressive education movement initiated by John Dewey in 1916.Some people credit American Dudley Riggs as the first vaudevillian to use audience suggestions to create improvised sketches on stage.", "Improvisation exercises were developed further by Viola Spolin in the 1940s, 50s, and 60s, and codified in her book ''Improvisation For The Theater'', the first book that gave specific techniques for learning to do and teach improvisational theater.", "In 1977, Clive Barker's book ''Theatre Games'' (several translations and editions) spread the ideas of improv internationally.", "British playwright and director Keith Johnstone wrote ''Impro: Improvisation and the Theatre'', a book outlining his ideas on improvisation, and invented Theatresports, which has become a staple of modern improvisational comedy and is the inspiration for the popular television show ''Whose Line Is It Anyway?", "''Viola Spolin influenced the first generation of modern American improvisers at The Compass Players in Chicago, which led to The Second City.", "Her son, Paul Sills, along with David Shepherd, started The Compass Players.", "Following the demise of the Compass Players, Paul Sills began The Second City.", "They were the first organized improv troupes in Chicago, and the modern Chicago improvisational comedy movement grew from their success.Many of the current \"rules\" of comedic improv were first formalized in Chicago in the late 1950s and early 1960s, initially among The Compass Players troupe, which was directed by Paul Sills.", "From most accounts, David Shepherd provided the philosophical vision of the Compass Players, while Elaine May was central to the development of the premises for its improvisations.", "Mike Nichols, Ted Flicker, and Del Close were her most frequent collaborators in this regard.", "When The Second City opened its doors on December 16, 1959, directed by Paul Sills, his mother Viola Spolin began training new improvisers through a series of classes and exercises which became the cornerstone of modern improv training.", "By the mid-1960s, Viola Spolin's classes were handed over to her protégé, Jo Forsberg, who further developed Spolin's methods into a one-year course, which eventually became The Players Workshop, the first official school of improvisation in the United States.", "During this time, Forsberg trained many of the performers who went on to star on The Second City stage.Many of the original cast of ''Saturday Night Live'' came from The Second City, and the franchise has produced such comedy stars as Mike Myers, Tina Fey, Bob Odenkirk, Amy Sedaris, Stephen Colbert, Eugene Levy, Jack McBrayer, Steve Carell, Chris Farley, Dan Aykroyd, and John Belushi.Members of the Montreal Improvisation LeagueSimultaneously, Keith Johnstone's group The Theatre Machine, which originated in London, was touring Europe.", "This work gave birth to Theatresports, at first secretly in Johnstone's workshops, and eventually in public when he moved to Canada.", "Toronto has been home to a rich improv tradition.In 1984, Dick Chudnow (Kentucky Fried Theater) founded ComedySportz in Milwaukee, WI.", "Expansion began with the addition of ComedySportz-Madison (WI), in 1985.The first Comedy League of America National Tournament was held in 1988, with 10 teams participating.", "The league is now known as CSz Worldwide and boasts a roster of 29 international cities.In San Francisco, The Committee theater was active in North Beach during the 1960s.", "It was founded by alumni of Chicago's Second City, Alan Myerson and his wife Jessica.", "When The Committee disbanded in 1972, three major companies were formed: The Pitchell Players, The Wing, and Improvisation Inc.", "The only company that continued to perform Close's Harold was the latter one.", "Its two former members, Michael Bossier and John Elk, formed Spaghetti Jam in San Francisco's Old Spaghetti Factory in 1976, where shortform improv and Harolds were performed through 1983.Stand-up comedians performing down the street at the Intersection for the Arts would drop by and sit in.", "In 1979, Elk brought shortform to England, teaching workshops at Jacksons Lane Theatre, and he was the first American to perform at The Comedy Store, London, above a Soho strip club.Modern political improvisation's roots include Jerzy Grotowski's work in Poland during the late 1950s and early 1960s, Peter Brook's \"happenings\" in England during the late 1960s, Augusto Boal's \"Forum Theatre\" in South America in the early 1970s, and San Francisco's The Diggers' work in the 1960s.", "Some of this work led to pure improvisational performance styles, while others simply added to the theatrical vocabulary and were, on the whole, avant-garde experiments.Joan Littlewood, an English actress and director who was active from the 1950s to 1960s, made extensive use of improv in developing plays for performance.", "However, she was successfully prosecuted twice for allowing her actors to improvise in performance.", "Until 1968, British law required scripts to be approved by the Lord Chamberlain's Office.", "The department also sent inspectors to some performances to check that the approved script was performed exactly as approved.In 1987, Annoyance Theatre began as a club in Chicago that emphasizes longform improvisation.", "The Annoyance Theatre has grown into multiple locations in Chicago and New York City.", "It is the home of the longest running musical improv show in history at 11 years.In 2012, Lebanese writer and director Lucien Bourjeily used improvisational theater techniques to create a multi-sensory play entitled ''66 Minutes in Damascus''.", "This play premiered at the London International Festival of Theater, and is considered one of the most extreme kinds of interactive improvised theater put on stage.", "The audience play the part of kidnapped tourists in today's Syria in a hyperreal sensory environment.Rob Wittig and Mark C. Marino have developed a form of improv for online theatrical improvisation called netprov.", "The form relies on social media to engage audiences in the creation of dynamic fictional scenarios that evolve in real-time." ], [ "Improvisational comedy", "Three improvisers performing longform improv comedy at the Gorilla Tango Theatre in Chicago.Modern improvisational comedy, as it is practiced in the West, falls generally into two categories: shortform and longform.Shortform improv consists of short scenes usually constructed from a predetermined game, structure, or idea and driven by an audience suggestion.", "Many short form exercises were first created by Viola Spolin, who called them theatre games, influenced by her training from recreational games expert Neva Boyd.", "The short-form improv comedy television series ''Whose Line Is It Anyway?''", "has familiarized American and British viewers with short-form.Longform improv performers create shows in which short scenes are often interrelated by story, characters, or themes.", "Longform shows may take the form of an existing type of theatre, for example a full-length play or Broadway-style musical such as Spontaneous Broadway.", "One of the better-known longform structures is the Harold, developed by ImprovOlympic co-founder Del Close.", "Many such longform structures now exist.", "Actors such as Will Ferrell, Tina Fey, and Steve Carrell found their start in longform improv.", "Longform improvisation is especially performed in Chicago, New York City, Los Angeles, Austin, Dallas, Boston, Minneapolis, Phoenix, Philadelphia, San Francisco, Seattle, Detroit, Toronto, Vancouver, and Washington, D.C., and is building a growing following in Baltimore, Denver, Kansas City, Montreal, Columbus, New Orleans, Omaha, Rochester, NY, and Hawaii.", "Outside the United States, longform improv has a growing presence in the United Kingdom, especially in cities such as London, Bristol, Glasgow, and at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe." ], [ "Non-comedic, experimental, and dramatic, narrative-based improvisational theater", "Other forms of improvisational theatre training and performance techniques are experimental and avant-garde in nature and not necessarily intended to be comedic.", "These include Playback Theatre and Theatre of the Oppressed, the Poor Theatre, the Open Theatre, to name only a few.The Open Theatre was founded in New York City by a group of former students of acting teacher Nola Chilton, and joined shortly thereafter by director Joseph Chaikin, formerly of The Living Theatre, and Peter Feldman.", "This avant-garde theatre group explored political, artistic, and social issues.", "The company, developing work through an improvisational process drawn from Chilton and Viola Spolin, created well-known exercises, such as \"sound and movement\" and \"transformations\", and originated radical forms and techniques that anticipated or were contemporaneous with Jerzy Grotowski's \"poor theater\" in Poland.", "During the sixties, Chaikin and the Open Theatre developed full theatrical productions with nothing but the actors, a few chairs, and a bare stage, creating character, time, and place through a series of transformations the actors physicalized and discovered through improvisations.On the west coast, Ruth Zaporah developed Action Theater™, a physically based improvisation form that treats language, movement and voice equally.", "Action Theater™ performances have no scripts, no preplanned ideas and create full-length shows or shorter performances.", "Longform, dramatic, and narrative-based improvisation is well-established on the west coast with companies such as San Francisco's BATS Improv.", "This format allows for full-length plays and musicals to be created improvisationally." ], [ "Applying improv principles in life", "Many people who have studied improv have noted that the guiding principles of improv are useful, not just on stage, but in everyday life.", "For example, Stephen Colbert in a commencement address said,Tina Fey, in her book ''Bossypants'', lists several rules of improv that apply in the workplace.", "There has been much interest in bringing lessons from improv into the corporate world.", "In a ''New York Times'' article titled \"Can Executives Learn to Ignore the Script?", "\", Stanford professor and author, Patricia Ryan Madson notes, \"executives and engineers and people in transition are looking for support in saying yes to their own voice.", "Often, the systems we put in place to keep us secure are keeping us from our more creative selves.", "\"Applying improv principles is also commonly used to enhance ideation in teams and groups." ], [ "In film and television", "Many directors have made use of improvisation in the creation of both mainstream and experimental films.", "Many silent filmmakers such as Charlie Chaplin and Buster Keaton used improvisation in the making of their films, developing their gags while filming and altering the plot to fit.", "The Marx Brothers were notorious for deviating from the script they were given, their ad libs often becoming part of the standard routine and making their way into their films.", "Many people, however, make a distinction between ad-libbing and improvising.The British director Mike Leigh makes extensive use of improvisation in the creation of his films, including improvising important moments in the characters' lives that will not even appear in the film.", "''This Is Spinal Tap'' and other mockumentary films of director Christopher Guest were created with a mix of scripted and unscripted material.", "''Blue in the Face'' is a 1995 comedy directed by Wayne Wang and Paul Auster created in part by the improvisations during the filming of ''Smoke''.Some of the best known American film directors who used improvisation in their work with actors are John Cassavetes, Robert Altman, Christopher Guest, and Rob Reiner.Improv comedy techniques have also been used in hit television shows such as HBO's ''Curb Your Enthusiasm'' created by Larry David, the UK Channel 4 and ABC television series ''Whose Line Is It Anyway'' (and its spinoffs ''Drew Carey's Green Screen Show'' and ''Drew Carey's Improv-A-Ganza''), Nick Cannon's improv comedy show ''Wild 'N Out'', and ''Thank God You're Here''.", "A very early American improv television program was the weekly half-hour ''What Happens Now?''", "which premiered on New York's WOR-TV on October 15, 1949, and ran for 22 episodes.", "\"The Improvisers\" were six actors (including Larry Blyden, Ross Martin, and Jean Alexander – Jean Pugsley at the time) who improvised skits based on situations suggested by viewers.", "In Canada, the series ''Train 48'' was improvised from scripts which contained a minimal outline of each scene, and the comedy series ''This Sitcom Is...Not to Be Repeated'' incorporated dialogue drawn from a hat during the course of an episode.", "The American show ''Reno 911!''", "also contained improvised dialogue based on a plot outline.", "''Fast and Loose'' is an improvisational game show, much like ''Whose Line Is It Anyway?''.", "The BBC sitcoms ''Outnumbered'' and ''The Thick of It'' also had some improvised elements in them." ], [ "Psychology", "In the field of the psychology of consciousness, Eberhard Scheiffele explored the altered state of consciousness experienced by actors and improvisers in his scholarly paper ''Acting: an altered state of consciousness''.", "According to G. William Farthing in ''The Psychology of Consciousness'' comparative study, actors routinely enter into an altered state of consciousness (ASC).", "Acting is seen as altering most of the 14 dimensions of changed subjective experience which characterize ASCs according to Farthing, namely: attention, perception, imagery and fantasy, inner speech, memory, higher-level thought processes, meaning or significance of experiences, time experience, emotional feeling and expression, level of arousal, self-control, suggestibility, body image, and sense of personal identity.In the growing field of Drama Therapy, psychodramatic improvisation, along with other techniques developed for Drama Therapy, are used extensively.", "The ''\"Yes, and\"'' rule has been compared to Milton Erickson's ''utilization'' process and to a variety of acceptance-based psychotherapies.", "Improv training has been recommended for couples therapy and therapist training, and it has been speculated that improv training may be helpful in some cases of social anxiety disorder." ], [ "Structure and process", "Improvisational theatre often allows an interactive relationship with the audience.", "Improv groups frequently solicit suggestions from the audience as a source of inspiration, a way of getting the audience involved, and as a means of proving that the performance is not scripted.", "That charge is sometimes aimed at the masters of the art, whose performances can seem so detailed that viewers may suspect the scenes are planned.In order for an improvised scene to be successful, the improvisers involved must work together responsively to define the parameters and action of the scene, in a process of co-creation.", "With each spoken word or action in the scene, an improviser makes an ''offer'', meaning that he or she defines some element of the reality of the scene.", "This might include giving another character a name, identifying a relationship, location, or using mime to define the physical environment.", "These activities are also known as ''endowment''.", "It is the responsibility of the other improvisers to accept the offers that their fellow performers make; to not do so is known as blocking, negation, or denial, which usually prevents the scene from developing.", "Some performers may deliberately block (or otherwise break out of character) for comedic effect—this is known as ''gagging''—but this generally prevents the scene from advancing and is frowned upon by many improvisers.", "Accepting an offer is usually accompanied by adding a new offer, often building on the earlier one; this is a process improvisers refer to as ''Yes, and...'' and is considered the cornerstone of improvisational technique.", "Every new piece of information added helps the improvisers to refine their characters and progress the action of the scene.", "The ''Yes, and...'' rule, however, applies to a scene's early stage since it is in this stage that a \"base (or shared) reality\" is established in order to be later redefined by applying the \"if (this is true), then (what else can also be true)\" practice progressing the scene into comedy, as explained in the 2013 manual by the ''Upright Citizens Brigade'' members.The unscripted nature of improv also implies no predetermined knowledge about the props that might be useful in a scene.", "Improv companies may have at their disposal some number of readily accessible props that can be called upon at a moment's notice, but many improvisers eschew props in favor of the infinite possibilities available through mime.", "In improv, this is more commonly known as 'space object work' or 'space work', rather than 'mime', and the props and locations created by this technique, as 'space objects' created out of 'space substance', developed as a technique by Viola Spolin.", "As with all improv 'offers', improvisers are encouraged to respect the validity and continuity of the imaginary environment defined by themselves and their fellow performers; this means, for example, taking care not to walk through the table or \"miraculously\" survive multiple bullet wounds from another improviser's gun.Because improvisers may be required to play a variety of roles without preparation, they need to be able to construct characters quickly with physicality, gestures, accents, voice changes, or other techniques as demanded by the situation.", "The improviser may be called upon to play a character of a different age or sex.", "Character motivations are an important part of successful improv scenes, and improvisers must therefore attempt to act according to the objectives that they believe their character seeks.In improv formats with multiple scenes, an agreed-upon signal is used to denote scene changes.", "Most often, this takes the form of a performer running in front of the scene, known as a \"wipe\".", "Tapping a character in or out can also be employed.", "The performers not currently part of the scene often stand at the side or back of the stage, and can enter or exit the scene by stepping into or out of the stage center." ], [ "Community", "Many theatre troupes are devoted to staging improvisational performances and growing the improv community through their training centers.In addition to for-profit theatre troupes, there are many college-based improv groups in the United States and around the world.In Europe the special contribution to the theatre of the abstract, the surreal, the irrational and the subconscious have been part of the stage tradition for centuries.", "From the 1990s onwards a growing number of European Improv groups have been set up specifically to explore the possibilities offered by the use of the abstract in improvised performance, including dance, movement, sound, music, mask work, lighting, and so on.", "These groups are not especially interested in comedy, either as a technique or as an effect, but rather in expanding the improv genre so as to incorporate techniques and approaches that have long been a legitimate part of European theatre." ], [ "Notable contributors to the field", "Two theater members in front of the former building on Hennepin Avenue in Minneapolis.The Brave New Workshop Comedy Theater (BNW), is a sketch and improvisational comedy theater based in Minneapolis, Minnesota.", "Started by Dudley Riggs in 1958, the artists of the BNW have been writing, performing and producing live sketch comedy and improvisation performances for 62 years – longer than any other theater in the nation.", "Notable alumni of the BNW include Louie Anderson, Mo Collins, Tom Davis, Al Franken, Penn Jillette, Carl Lumbly, Paul Menzel, Pat Proft, Annie Reirson, Taylor Nikolai, Nancy Steen, Peter Tolan, Linda Wallem, Lizz Winstead, Peter MacNicol, Melissa Peterman, and Cedric Yarbrough.Some key figures in the development of improvisational theatre are Viola Spolin and her son Paul Sills, founder of Chicago's famed Second City troupe and originator of Theater Games, and Del Close, founder of ImprovOlympic (along with Charna Halpern) and creator of a popular longform improv format known as The Harold.", "Others include Keith Johnstone, the British teacher and writer–author of ''Impro'', who founded the Theatre Machine and whose teachings form the foundation of the popular shortform Theatresports format, Dick Chudnow, founder of ComedySportz which evolved its family-friendly show format from Johnstone's Theatersports, and Bill Johnson, creator/director of The Magic Meathands, who pioneered the concept of \"Commun-edy Outreach\" by tailoring performances to non-traditional audiences, such as the homeless and foster children.David Shepherd, with Paul Sills, founded The Compass Players in Chicago.", "Shepherd was intent on developing a true \"people's Theatre\", and hoped to bring political drama to the stockyards.", "The Compass went on to play in numerous forms and companies, in a number of cities including New York and Hyannis, after the founding of The Second City.", "A number of Compass members were also founding members of The Second City.", "In the 1970s, Shepherd began experimenting with group-created videos.", "He is the author of ''That Movie In Your Head'', about these efforts.", "In the 1970s, David Shepherd and Howard Jerome created the Improvisational Olympics, a format for competition based improv.", "The Improv Olympics were first demonstrated at Toronto's Homemade Theatre in 1976 and have been continued on as the Canadian Improv Games.", "In the United States, the Improv Olympics were later produced by Charna Halpern under the name \"ImprovOlympic\" and now as \"IO\"; IO operates training centers and theaters in Chicago and Los Angeles.", "At IO, Halpern combined Shepherd's \"Time Dash\" game with Del Close's \"Harold\" game; the revised format for the Harold became the fundamental structure for the development of modern longform improvisation.In 1975 Jonathan Fox founded Playback Theatre, a form of improvised community theatre which is often not comedic and replays stories as shared by members of the audience.The Groundlings is a popular and influential improv theatre and training center in Los Angeles, California.", "The late Gary Austin, founder of The Groundlings, taught improvisation around the country, focusing especially in Los Angeles.", "He was widely acclaimed as one of the greatest acting teachers in America.", "His work was grounded in the lessons he learned as an improviser at The Committee with Del Close, as well as in his experiences as founding director of The Groundlings.", "The Groundlings is often seen as the Los Angeles training ground for the \"second generation\" of improv performers and troupes.", "Stan Wells developed the \"Clap-In\" style of longform improvisation here, later using this as the basis for his own theatre, The Empty Stage, which in turn bred multiple troupes utilizing this style.In the late 1990s, Matt Besser, Amy Poehler, Ian Roberts, and Matt Walsh founded the Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre in New York and later they founded one in Los Angeles, each with an accompanying improv/sketch comedy school.", "In September 2011 the UCB opened a third theatre in New York City's East Village, known as UCBeast.Hoopla Impro are the founders of the UK and London's first improv theatre.", "They also run an annual UK improv festival and improv marathon.In 2015, The Free Association opened in London as a counterpart to American improv schools.Gunter Lösel compared the existing improvisational theater theories (including Moreno, Spolin, Johnstone, and Close), structured them and wrote a general theory of improvisational theater.Alan Alda's book ''If I Understood You, Would I Have This Look on My Face?''", "investigates the way in which improvisation improves communication in the sciences.", "The book is based on his work at Alan Alda Center for Communicating Science at Stony Brook University.", "The book has many examples of how improvisational theater games can increase communication skills and develop empathy." ], [ "See also", "* Busking* Guerrilla theater* Improvisation* List of improvisational theatre companies* List of improvisational theater festivals* Playback Theatre" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Abbott, John.", "2007.", "''The Improvisation Book''.", "London: Nick Hern Books.", ".", "* Besser, Matt; Ian Roberts, Matt Walsh.", "2013.", "''The Upright Citizens Brigade Comedy Improvisation Manual'', Comedy Council of Nicea, * Charna Halpern, Del Close, Kim Howard Johnson.", "1994.", "''The Truth in Comedy - The Manual for Improvisation'' Meriwether Pub Ltd. * Coleman, Janet.", "1991.", "''The Compass: The Improvisational Theatre that Revolutionized American Comedy''.", "Chicago: University Of Chicago Press.", "* Dudeck, Theresa Robbins.", "2013.", "\"Keith Johnstone: A Critical Biography.\"", "London: Bloomsbury.", ".", "* Hauck, Ben.", "2012.", "''Long-Form Improv: The Complete Guide to Creating Characters, Sustaining Scenes, and Performing Extraordinary Harolds''.", "New York: Allworth Press, 2012..* Johnstone, Keith.", "1981.", "''Impro: Improvisation and the Theatre'' Rev.", "ed.", "London: Methuen, 2007..* Koppett, Kat.", "2011.", "\"Training to imagine practical improvisational theatre techniques to enhance creativity, teamwork, leadership, and learn.\"", "Stylus Publishing.", "* Lösel, Gunter.", "2013.", "''Das Spiel mit dem Chaos - Zur Performativität des Improvisationstheaters'' transcript.", "* Ryan Madson, Patricia.", "2005.", "\"Improv Wisdom: Don't Prepare, Just Show Up\" New York: Bell Tower.", "* Spolin, Viola.", "1967.", "''Improvisation for the Theater''.", "Third rev.", "ed.", "Evanston, Il.", ": Northwestern University Press, 1999..*" ], [ "External links", "* Collection of improv games* The Ultimate Guide to Improv: 101 Improv Tips* How to improvise stand-up comedy, Wired UK, 11 April 2014* How To Be A Better Improviser, an essay by Daniel Gray Goldstein that lays out a foundation for improvising.", "* Improvisation: the Original Survival Tool, an essay by Brad Fortier linking evolution of humanity with ethics of improvisation.", "* Wiki about improvisational theatre (exercises and games)* Fundamental Improv Principles.", "* Improv Comedy for Anxiety.", "* Group Mind and Intuition with Improv.", "* Applied Improv Network - annual global conference on using improv off-stage, in business, education, and life* Academic Literature Review of Theatrical Improvisation Training in the Workplace" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "International Space Station" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''International Space Station''' ('''ISS''') is a large space station assembled and maintained in low Earth orbit by a collaboration of five space agencies: NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe), CSA (Canada), and their contractors.", "ISS is the largest space station ever built.", "Its primary purpose is performing microgravity and space environment experiments.Operationally the station is divided into two sections: the Russian Orbital Segment assembled by Roscosmos and the US Orbital Segment assembled by NASA, JAXA, ESA and CSA.", "A striking feature of the ISS is the Integrated Truss Structure, which connects the large solar panels and radiators to the pressurized modules.", "The pressurized modules are specialized for research, habitation, storage, spacecraft control and airlock functions.", "Visiting spacecraft dock to the station via its eight docking and berthing ports.", "The ISS maintains an orbit with an average altitude of and circles the Earth in roughly 93 minutes, completing orbits per day.The ISS programme combines two prior plans to construct crewed Earth-orbiting stations: Space Station ''Freedom'' planned by the United States, and the'' Mir-2'' station planned by the Soviet Union.", "The first ISS module was launched in 1998.Major modules have been launched by Proton and Soyuz rockets and by the Space Shuttle launch system.", "The first long-term residents, Expedition 1, arrived on 2 November 2000.Since then the station has been continuously occupied for , the longest continuous human presence in space.", ", 273 individuals from 21 countries have visited the space station.", "The ISS is expected to have additional modules (the Axiom Orbital Segment, for example) before being de-orbited by a dedicated NASA spacecraft in January 2031." ], [ "History" ], [ "Purpose", "The ISS was originally intended to be a laboratory, observatory, and factory while providing transportation, maintenance, and a low Earth orbit staging base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars, and asteroids.", "However, not all of the uses envisioned in the initial memorandum of understanding between NASA and Roscosmos have been realised.", "In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, the ISS was given additional roles of serving commercial, diplomatic, and educational purposes.===Scientific research===The ISS provides a platform to conduct scientific research, with power, data, cooling, and crew available to support experiments.", "Small uncrewed spacecraft can also provide platforms for experiments, especially those involving zero gravity and exposure to space, but space stations offer a long-term environment where studies can be performed potentially for decades, combined with ready access by human researchers.The ISS simplifies individual experiments by allowing groups of experiments to share the same launches and crew time.", "Research is conducted in a wide variety of fields, including astrobiology, astronomy, physical sciences, materials science, space weather, meteorology, and human research including space medicine and the life sciences.", "Scientists on Earth have timely access to the data and can suggest experimental modifications to the crew.", "If follow-on experiments are necessary, the routinely scheduled launches of resupply craft allows new hardware to be launched with relative ease.", "Crews fly expeditions of several months' duration, providing approximately 160 person-hours per week of labour with a crew of six.", "However, a considerable amount of crew time is taken up by station maintenance.Perhaps the most notable ISS experiment is the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), which is intended to detect dark matter and answer other fundamental questions about our universe.", "According to NASA, the AMS is as important as the Hubble Space Telescope.", "Currently docked on station, it could not have been easily accommodated on a free flying satellite platform because of its power and bandwidth needs.", "On 3 April 2013, scientists reported that hints of dark matter may have been detected by the AMS.", "According to the scientists, \"The first results from the space-borne Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer confirm an unexplained excess of high-energy positrons in Earth-bound cosmic rays\".The space environment is hostile to life.", "Unprotected presence in space is characterised by an intense radiation field (consisting primarily of protons and other subatomic charged particles from the solar wind, in addition to cosmic rays), high vacuum, extreme temperatures, and microgravity.", "Some simple forms of life called extremophiles, as well as small invertebrates called tardigrades can survive in this environment in an extremely dry state through desiccation.Medical research improves knowledge about the effects of long-term space exposure on the human body, including muscle atrophy, bone loss, and fluid shift.", "These data will be used to determine whether high duration human spaceflight and space colonisation are feasible.", "In 2006, data on bone loss and muscular atrophy suggested that there would be a significant risk of fractures and movement problems if astronauts landed on a planet after a lengthy interplanetary cruise, such as the six-month interval required to travel to Mars.Medical studies are conducted aboard the ISS on behalf of the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI).", "Prominent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity study in which astronauts perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts.", "The study considers the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions in space.", "Usually, there is no physician on board the ISS and diagnosis of medical conditions is a challenge.", "It is anticipated that remotely guided ultrasound scans will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations where access to a trained physician is difficult.In August 2020, scientists reported that bacteria from Earth, particularly ''Deinococcus radiodurans'' bacteria, which is highly resistant to environmental hazards, were found to survive for three years in outer space, based on studies conducted on the International Space Station.", "These findings supported the notion of panspermia, the hypothesis that life exists throughout the Universe, distributed in various ways, including space dust, meteoroids, asteroids, comets, planetoids or contaminated spacecraft.Remote sensing of the Earth, astronomy, and deep space research on the ISS have dramatically increased during the 2010s after the completion of the US Orbital Segment in 2011.Throughout the more than 20 years of the ISS program researchers aboard the ISS and on the ground have examined aerosols, ozone, lightning, and oxides in Earth's atmosphere, as well as the Sun, cosmic rays, cosmic dust, antimatter, and dark matter in the universe.", "Examples of Earth-viewing remote sensing experiments that have flown on the ISS are the Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3, ISS-RapidScat, ECOSTRESS, the Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation, and the Cloud Aerosol Transport System.", "ISS-based astronomy telescopes and experiments include SOLAR, the Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer, the Calorimetric Electron Telescope, the Monitor of All-sky X-ray Image (MAXI), and the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer.====Freefall====ISS crew member storing samplesA comparison between the combustion of a candle on Earth (left) and in a free fall environment, such as that found on the ISS (right)Gravity at the altitude of the ISS is approximately 90% as strong as at Earth's surface, but objects in orbit are in a continuous state of freefall, resulting in an apparent state of weightlessness.", "This perceived weightlessness is disturbed by five effects:* Drag from the residual atmosphere.", "* Vibration from the movements of mechanical systems and the crew.", "* Actuation of the on-board attitude control moment gyroscopes.", "* Thruster firings for attitude or orbital changes.", "* Gravity-gradient effects, also known as tidal effects.", "Items at different locations within the ISS would, if not attached to the station, follow slightly different orbits.", "Being mechanically connected, these items experience small forces that keep the station moving as a rigid body.Researchers are investigating the effect of the station's near-weightless environment on the evolution, development, growth and internal processes of plants and animals.", "In response to some of the data, NASA wants to investigate microgravity's effects on the growth of three-dimensional, human-like tissues and the unusual protein crystals that can be formed in space.Investigating the physics of fluids in microgravity will provide better models of the behaviour of fluids.", "Because fluids can be almost completely combined in microgravity, physicists investigate fluids that do not mix well on Earth.", "Examining reactions that are slowed by low gravity and low temperatures will improve our understanding of superconductivity.The study of materials science is an important ISS research activity, with the objective of reaping economic benefits through the improvement of techniques used on the ground.", "Other areas of interest include the effect of low gravity on combustion, through the study of the efficiency of burning and control of emissions and pollutants.", "These findings may improve knowledge about energy production and lead to economic and environmental benefits.===Exploration===A 3D plan of the Russia-based MARS-500 complex, used for conducting ground-based experiments that complement ISS-based preparations for a human mission to MarsThe ISS provides a location in the relative safety of low Earth orbit to test spacecraft systems that will be required for long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars.", "This provides experience in operations, maintenance, and repair and replacement activities on-orbit.", "This will help develop essential skills in operating spacecraft farther from Earth, reduce mission risks, and advance the capabilities of interplanetary spacecraft.", "Referring to the MARS-500 experiment, a crew isolation experiment conducted on Earth, ESA states, \"Whereas the ISS is essential for answering questions concerning the possible impact of weightlessness, radiation and other space-specific factors, aspects such as the effect of long-term isolation and confinement can be more appropriately addressed via ground-based simulations\".", "Sergey Krasnov, the head of human space flight programmes for Russia's space agency, Roscosmos, in 2011 suggested a \"shorter version\" of MARS-500 may be carried out on the ISS.In 2009, noting the value of the partnership framework itself, Sergey Krasnov wrote, \"When compared with partners acting separately, partners developing complementary abilities and resources could give us much more assurance of the success and safety of space exploration.", "The ISS is helping further advance near-Earth space exploration and realisation of prospective programmes of research and exploration of the Solar system, including the Moon and Mars.\"", "A crewed mission to Mars may be a multinational effort involving space agencies and countries outside the current ISS partnership.", "In 2010, ESA Director-General Jean-Jacques Dordain stated his agency was ready to propose to the other four partners that China, India, and South Korea be invited to join the ISS partnership.", "NASA chief Charles Bolden stated in February 2011, \"Any mission to Mars is likely to be a global effort.\"", "Currently, US federal legislation prevents NASA co-operation with China on space projects.===Education and cultural outreach===Original Jules Verne manuscripts displayed by crew inside the ''Jules Verne'' ATVThe ISS crew provides opportunities for students on Earth by running student-developed experiments, making educational demonstrations, allowing for student participation in classroom versions of ISS experiments, and directly engaging students using radio, and email.", "ESA offers a wide range of free teaching materials that can be downloaded for use in classrooms.", "In one lesson, students can navigate a 3D model of the interior and exterior of the ISS, and face spontaneous challenges to solve in real time.The Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) aims to inspire children to \"pursue craftsmanship\" and to heighten their \"awareness of the importance of life and their responsibilities in society\".", "Through a series of education guides, students develop a deeper understanding of the past and near-term future of crewed space flight, as well as that of Earth and life.", "In the JAXA \"Seeds in Space\" experiments, the mutation effects of spaceflight on plant seeds aboard the ISS are explored by growing sunflower seeds that have flown on the ISS for about nine months.", "In the first phase of ''Kibō'' utilisation from 2008 to mid-2010, researchers from more than a dozen Japanese universities conducted experiments in diverse fields.Cultural activities are another major objective of the ISS programme.", "Tetsuo Tanaka, the director of JAXA's Space Environment and Utilization Center, has said: \"There is something about space that touches even people who are not interested in science.", "\"Amateur Radio on the ISS (ARISS) is a volunteer programme that encourages students worldwide to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, through amateur radio communications opportunities with the ISS crew.", "ARISS is an international working group, consisting of delegations from nine countries including several in Europe, as well as Japan, Russia, Canada, and the United States.", "In areas where radio equipment cannot be used, speakerphones connect students to ground stations which then connect the calls to the space station.Spoken voice recording by ESA astronaut Paolo Nespoli on the subject of the ISS, produced in November 2017 for Wikipedia''First Orbit'' is a 2011 feature-length documentary film about Vostok 1, the first crewed space flight around the Earth.", "By matching the orbit of the ISS to that of Vostok 1 as closely as possible, in terms of ground path and time of day, documentary filmmaker Christopher Riley and ESA astronaut Paolo Nespoli were able to film the view that Yuri Gagarin saw on his pioneering orbital space flight.", "This new footage was cut together with the original Vostok 1 mission audio recordings sourced from the Russian State Archive.", "Nespoli is credited as the director of photography for this documentary film, as he recorded the majority of the footage himself during Expedition 26/27.The film was streamed in a global YouTube premiere in 2011 under a free licence through the website ''firstorbit.org''.In May 2013, commander Chris Hadfield shot a music video of David Bowie's \"Space Oddity\" on board the station, which was released on YouTube.", "It was the first music video ever to be filmed in space.In November 2017, while participating in Expedition 52/53 on the ISS, Paolo Nespoli made two recordings of his spoken voice (one in English and the other in his native Italian), for use on Wikipedia articles.", "These were the first content made in space specifically for Wikipedia.In November 2021, a virtual reality exhibit called The Infinite featuring life aboard the ISS was announced." ], [ "Construction", "===Manufacturing===ISS module Node 2 manufacturing and processing in the Space Station Processing FacilityAn MPLM module in the SSPF at Cape CanaveralSince the International Space Station is a multi-national collaborative project, the components for in-orbit assembly were manufactured in various countries around the world.", "Beginning in the mid-1990s, the U.S. components ''Destiny'', ''Unity'', the Integrated Truss Structure, and the solar arrays were fabricated at the Marshall Space Flight Center and the Michoud Assembly Facility.", "These modules were delivered to the Operations and Checkout Building and the Space Station Processing Facility (SSPF) for final assembly and processing for launch.The Russian modules, including ''Zarya'' and ''Zvezda'', were manufactured at the Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center in Moscow.", "''Zvezda'' was initially manufactured in 1985 as a component for ''Mir-2'', but Mir 2 was never launched and instead became the ISS Service Module.The European Space Agency (ESA) ''Columbus'' module was manufactured at the EADS Astrium Space Transportation facilities in Bremen, Germany, along with many other contractors throughout Europe.", "The other ESA-built modules''Harmony'', ''Tranquility'', the ''Leonardo'' MPLM, and the ''Cupola''were initially manufactured at the Thales Alenia Space factory in Turin, Italy.", "The structural steel hulls of the modules were transported by aircraft to the Kennedy Space Center SSPF for launch processing.The Japanese Experiment Module ''Kibō'', was fabricated in various technology manufacturing facilities in Japan, at the NASDA (now JAXA) Tsukuba Space Center, and the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science.", "The ''Kibo'' module was transported by ship and flown by aircraft to the SSPF.The Mobile Servicing System, consisting of the Canadarm2 and the ''Dextre'' grapple fixture, was manufactured at various factories in Canada (such as the David Florida Laboratory) and the United States, under contract by the Canadian Space Agency.", "The mobile base system, a connecting framework for Canadarm2 mounted on rails, was built by Northrop Grumman.===Assembly===Animation of the assembly of the International Space StationThe ISS was slowly assembled over more than a decade of spaceflights and crewsA view of the completed station as seen from Shuttle Atlantis during STS-132, 23 May 2010The assembly of the International Space Station, a major endeavour in space architecture, began in November 1998.Russian modules launched and docked robotically, with the exception of ''Rassvet''.", "All other modules were delivered by the Space Shuttle, which required installation by ISS and Shuttle crewmembers using the Canadarm2 (SSRMS) and extra-vehicular activities (EVAs); by 5 June 2011, they had added 159 components during more than 1,000 hours of EVA.", "127 of these spacewalks originated from the station, and the remaining 32 were launched from the airlocks of docked Space Shuttles.", "The beta angle of the station had to be considered at all times during construction.The first module of the ISS, ''Zarya'', was launched on 20 November 1998 on an autonomous Russian Proton rocket.", "It provided propulsion, attitude control, communications, and electrical power, but lacked long-term life support functions.", "A passive NASA module, ''Unity'', was launched two weeks later aboard Space Shuttle flight STS-88 and attached to ''Zarya'' by astronauts during EVAs.", "The ''Unity'' module has two Pressurized Mating Adapters (PMAs): one connects permanently to ''Zarya'' and the other allowed the Space Shuttle to dock to the space station.", "At that time, the Russian (Soviet) station ''Mir'' was still inhabited, and the ISS remained uncrewed for two years.", "On 12 July 2000, the ''Zvezda'' module was launched into orbit.", "Onboard preprogrammed commands deployed its solar arrays and communications antenna.", "''Zvezda'' then became the passive target for a rendezvous with ''Zarya'' and ''Unity'', maintaining a station-keeping orbit while the ''Zarya''–''Unity'' vehicle performed the rendezvous and docking via ground control and the Russian automated rendezvous and docking system.", "''Zarya'' computer transferred control of the station to ''Zvezda'' computer soon after docking.", "''Zvezda'' added sleeping quarters, a toilet, kitchen, CO2 scrubbers, dehumidifier, oxygen generators, and exercise equipment, plus data, voice and television communications with mission control, enabling permanent habitation of the station.The first resident crew, Expedition 1, arrived in November 2000 on Soyuz TM-31.At the end of the first day on the station, astronaut Bill Shepherd requested the use of the radio call sign \"''Alpha''\", which he and cosmonaut Sergei Krikalev preferred to the more cumbersome \"''International Space Station''\".", "The name \"''Alpha''\" had previously been used for the station in the early 1990s, and its use was authorised for the whole of Expedition 1.Shepherd had been advocating the use of a new name to project managers for some time.", "Referencing a naval tradition in a pre-launch news conference he had said: \"For thousands of years, humans have been going to sea in ships.", "People have designed and built these vessels, launched them with a good feeling that a name will bring good fortune to the crew and success to their voyage.\"", ", the President of Russian Space Corporation Energia at the time, disapproved of the name \"''Alpha''\" as he felt that ''Mir'' was the first modular space station, so the names \"''Beta''\" or \"''Mir'' 2\" for the ISS would have been more fitting.Expedition 1 arrived midway between the Space Shuttle flights of missions STS-92 and STS-97.These two flights each added segments of the station's Integrated Truss Structure, which provided the station with Ku-band communication for US television, additional attitude support needed for the additional mass of the USOS, and substantial solar arrays to supplement the station's four existing arrays.", "Over the next two years, the station continued to expand.", "A Soyuz-U rocket delivered the ''Pirs'' docking compartment.", "The Space Shuttles ''Discovery'', ''Atlantis'', and ''Endeavour'' delivered the ''Destiny'' laboratory and ''Quest'' airlock, in addition to the station's main robot arm, the Canadarm2, and several more segments of the Integrated Truss Structure.The expansion schedule was interrupted in 2003 by the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' disaster and a resulting hiatus in flights.", "The Space Shuttle was grounded until 2005 with STS-114 flown by ''Discovery''.", "Assembly resumed in 2006 with the arrival of STS-115 with ''Atlantis'', which delivered the station's second set of solar arrays.", "Several more truss segments and a third set of arrays were delivered on STS-116, STS-117, and STS-118.As a result of the major expansion of the station's power-generating capabilities, more pressurised modules could be accommodated, and the ''Harmony'' node and ''Columbus'' European laboratory were added.", "These were soon followed by the first two components of ''Kibō''.", "In March 2009, STS-119 completed the Integrated Truss Structure with the installation of the fourth and final set of solar arrays.", "The final section of ''Kibō'' was delivered in July 2009 on STS-127, followed by the Russian ''Poisk'' module.", "The third node, ''Tranquility'', was delivered in February 2010 during STS-130 by the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', alongside the ''Cupola'', followed by the penultimate Russian module, ''Rassvet'', in May 2010.", "''Rassvet'' was delivered by Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' on STS-132 in exchange for the Russian Proton delivery of the US-funded ''Zarya'' module in 1998.The last pressurised module of the USOS, ''Leonardo'', was brought to the station in February 2011 on the final flight of ''Discovery'', STS-133.The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer was delivered by ''Endeavour'' on STS-134 the same year.By June 2011, the station consisted of 15 pressurised modules and the Integrated Truss Structure.", "Two power modules called NEM-1 and NEM-2.are still to be launched.", "Russia's new primary research module ''Nauka'' docked in July 2021, along with the European Robotic Arm which will be able to relocate itself to different parts of the Russian modules of the station.", "Russia's latest addition, the nodal module ''Prichal'', docked in November 2021.The gross mass of the station changes over time.", "The total launch mass of the modules on orbit is about ().", "The mass of experiments, spare parts, personal effects, crew, foodstuff, clothing, propellants, water supplies, gas supplies, docked spacecraft, and other items add to the total mass of the station.", "Hydrogen gas is constantly vented overboard by the oxygen generators." ], [ "Structure", "The ISS functions as a modular space station, enabling the addition or removal of modules from its structure for increased adaptability.File:ISS blueprint.png|Overview blueprint of componentsFile:View of the ISS taken during Crew-2 flyaround (ISS066-E-081311).jpg|The ISS exterior and steelwork taken on 8 November 2021, from the departing SpaceX Crew-2 capsuleFile:Iss after installation of all roll out solar arrays.jpg|Diagram structure of International Space Station after installation of iROSA solar arrays (as of 2023)Below is a diagram of major station components.", "The blue areas are pressurised sections accessible by the crew without using spacesuits.", "The station's unpressurised superstructure is indicated in red.", "Planned components are shown in white, non installed, temporarily defunct or non-commissioned components are shown in brown and former ones in gray.", "Other unpressurised components are yellow.", "The ''Unity'' node joins directly to the ''Destiny'' laboratory.", "For clarity, they are shown apart.", "Similar cases are also seen in other parts of the structure.", "===Pressurised modules===''Zarya'' as seen by during STS-88====''Zarya''====''Zarya'' (), also known as the Functional Cargo Block or FGB (from the or ''ФГБ''), is the first module of the ISS to have been launched.", "The FGB provided electrical power, storage, propulsion, and guidance to the ISS during the initial stage of assembly.", "With the launch and assembly in orbit of other modules with more specialized functionality, ''Zarya,'' as of August 2021'','' is primarily used for storage, both inside the pressurized section and in the externally mounted fuel tanks.", "The ''Zarya'' is a descendant of the TKS spacecraft designed for the Russian ''Salyut'' program.", "The name ''Zarya'' (\"Dawn\") was given to the FGB because it signified the dawn of a new era of international cooperation in space.", "Although it was built by a Russian company, it is owned by the United States.", "''Unity'' as seen by during STS-88====''Unity''====The ''Unity'' connecting module, also known as Node 1, is the first U.S.-built component of the ISS.", "It connects the Russian and U.S. segments of the station, and is where crew eat meals together.The module is cylindrical in shape, with six berthing locations (forward, aft, port, starboard, zenith, and nadir) facilitating connections to other modules.", "''Unity'' measures in diameter, is long, made of steel, and was built for NASA by Boeing in a manufacturing facility at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama.", "''Unity'' is the first of the three connecting modules; the other two are ''Harmony'' and ''Tranquility''.", "''Zvezda'' as seen by during STS-97====''Zvezda''====''Zvezda'' (, meaning \"star\"), ''Salyut'' DOS-8, is also known as the ''Zvezda'' Service Module.", "It was the third module launched to the station, and provides all of the station's life support systems, some of which are supplemented in the USOS, as well as living quarters for two crew members.", "It is the structural and functional center of the Russian Orbital Segment, which is the Russian part of the ISS.", "Crew assemble here to deal with emergencies on the station.The module was manufactured by RKK Energia, with major sub-contracting work by GKNPTs Khrunichev.", "''Zvezda'' was launched on a Proton rocket on 12 July 2000, and docked with the ''Zarya'' module on 26 July 2000.The ''Destiny'' module being installed on the ISS====''Destiny''====The ''Destiny'' module, also known as the U.S.", "Lab, is the primary operating facility for U.S. research payloads aboard the ISS.", "It was berthed to the ''Unity'' module and activated over a period of five days in February 2001.", "''Destiny'' is NASA's first permanent operating orbital research station since Skylab was vacated in February 1974.The Boeing Company began construction of the research laboratory in 1995 at the Michoud Assembly Facility and then the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama.", "''Destiny'' was shipped to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida in 1998, and was turned over to NASA for pre-launch preparations in August 2000.It launched on 7 February 2001, aboard the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' on STS-98.Astronauts work inside the pressurized facility to conduct research in numerous scientific fields.", "Scientists throughout the world would use the results to enhance their studies in medicine, engineering, biotechnology, physics, materials science, and Earth science.", "''Quest'' Joint Airlock Module====''Quest''====The Joint Airlock (also known as \"Quest\") is provided by the U.S. and provides the capability for ISS-based Extravehicular Activity (EVA) using either a U.S. Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) or Russian Orlan EVA suits.", "Before the launch of this airlock, EVAs were performed from either the U.S. Space Shuttle (while docked) or from the Transfer Chamber on the Service Module.", "Due to a variety of system and design differences, only U.S. space suits could be used from the Shuttle and only Russian suits could be used from the Service Module.", "The Joint Airlock alleviates this short-term problem by allowing either (or both) spacesuit systems to be used.The Joint Airlock was launched on ISS-7A / STS-104 in July 2001 and was attached to the right hand docking port of Node 1.The Joint Airlock is 20 ft. long, 13 ft. in diameter, and weighs 6.5 tons.", "The Joint Airlock was built by Boeing at Marshall Space Flight Center.", "The Joint Airlock was launched with the High Pressure Gas Assembly.", "The High Pressure Gas Assembly was mounted on the external surface of the Joint Airlock and will support EVAs operations with breathing gases and augments the Service Module's gas resupply system.The Joint Airlock has two main components: a crew airlock from which astronauts and cosmonauts exit the ISS and an equipment airlock designed for storing EVA gear and for so-called overnight \"campouts\" wherein Nitrogen is purged from astronaut's bodies overnight as pressure is dropped in preparation for spacewalks the following day.", "This alleviates the bends as the astronauts are repressurized after their EVA.The crew airlock was derived from the Space Shuttle's external airlock.", "It is equipped with lighting, external handrails, and an Umbilical Interface Assembly (UIA).", "The UIA is located on one wall of the crew airlock and provides a water supply line, a wastewater return line, and an oxygen supply line.", "The UIA also provides communication gear and spacesuit power interfaces and can support two spacesuits simultaneously.", "This can be either two American EMU spacesuits, two Russian ORLAN spacesuits, or one of each design.====''Poisk''====''Poisk'' () was launched on 10 November 2009 attached to a modified Progress spacecraft, called Progress M-MIM2, on a Soyuz-U rocket from Launch Pad 1 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan.", "''Poisk'' is used as the Russian airlock module, containing two identical EVA hatches.", "An outward-opening hatch on the ''Mir'' space station failed after it swung open too fast after unlatching, because of a small amount of air pressure remaining in the airlock.", "All EVA hatches on the ISS open inwards and are pressure-sealing.", "Poisk is used to store, service, and refurbish Russian Orlan suits and provides contingency entry for crew using the slightly bulkier American suits.", "The outermost docking port on the module allows docking of Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, and the automatic transfer of propellants to and from storage on the ROS.", "Since the departure of the identical Pirs module on 26 July 2021, Poisk has served as the only airlock on the ROS.", "''Harmony'' shown connected to ''Columbus'', ''Kibo'', and ''Destiny''.", "PMA-2 faces.", "The nadir and zenith locations are open.====''Harmony''====''Harmony'', also known as ''Node 2'', is the \"utility hub\" of the ISS.", "It connects the laboratory modules of the United States, Europe and Japan, as well as providing electrical power and electronic data.", "Sleeping cabins for four of the crew are housed here.", "''Harmony'' was successfully launched into space aboard Space Shuttle flight STS-120 on 23 October 2007.After temporarily being attached to the port side of the ''Unity'' node, it was moved to its permanent location on the forward end of the ''Destiny'' laboratory on 14 November 2007.", "''Harmony'' added to the station's living volume, an increase of almost 20 per cent, from .", "Its successful installation meant that from NASA's perspective, the station was considered to be \"U.S.", "Core Complete\".", "''Tranquility'' in 2011====''Tranquility''====''Tranquility'', also known as Node 3, is a module of the ISS.", "It contains environmental control systems, life support systems, a toilet, exercise equipment, and an observation cupola.The European Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency had ''Tranquility'' manufactured by Thales Alenia Space.", "A ceremony on 20 November 2009 transferred ownership of the module to NASA.", "On 8 February 2010, NASA launched the module on the Space Shuttle's STS-130 mission.The ''Columbus'' module on the ISS====''Columbus''====''Columbus'' is a science laboratory that is part of the ISS and is the largest single contribution to the station made by the European Space Agency.Like the ''Harmony'' and ''Tranquility'' modules, the ''Columbus'' laboratory was constructed in Turin, Italy by Thales Alenia Space.", "The functional equipment and software of the lab was designed by EADS in Bremen, Germany.", "It was also integrated in Bremen before being flown to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida in an Airbus Beluga.", "It was launched aboard Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' on 7 February 2008, on flight STS-122.It is designed for ten years of operation.", "The module is controlled by the Columbus Control Centre, located at the German Space Operations Center, part of the German Aerospace Center in Oberpfaffenhofen near Munich, Germany.The European Space Agency has spent €1.4 billion (about US$2 billion) on building ''Columbus'', including the experiments it carries and the ground control infrastructure necessary to operate them.", "Exposed Facility on the right====''Kibō''====The Japanese Experiment Module (JEM), nicknamed , is a Japanese science module for the International Space Station (ISS) developed by JAXA.", "It is the largest single ISS module, and is attached to the ''Harmony'' module.", "The first two pieces of the module were launched on Space Shuttle missions STS-123 and STS-124.The third and final components were launched on STS-127.The ''Cupola'' windows with shutters open====''Cupola''====The ''Cupola'' is an ESA-built observatory module of the ISS.", "Its name derives from the Italian word '''', which means \"dome\".", "Its seven windows are used to conduct experiments, dockings and observations of Earth.", "It was launched aboard Space Shuttle mission STS-130 on 8 February 2010 and attached to the ''Tranquility'' (Node 3) module.", "With the ''Cupola'' attached, ISS assembly reached 85 per cent completion.", "The ''Cupola'' central window has a diameter of .", "''Rassvet'' module with MLM-outfitting equipment (consisting of experiment airlock, RTOd radiators, and ERA workpost) at KSC====''Rassvet''====''Rassvet'' (; lit.", "\"dawn\"), also known as the Mini-Research Module 1 (MRM-1) (, ) and formerly known as the Docking Cargo Module (DCM), is a component of the International Space Station (ISS).", "The module's design is similar to the ''Mir'' Docking Module launched on STS-74 in 1995.", "''Rassvet'' is primarily used for cargo storage and as a docking port for visiting spacecraft.", "It was flown to the ISS aboard Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' on the STS-132 mission on 14 May 2010, and was connected to the ISS on 18 May 2010.The hatch connecting ''Rassvet'' with the ISS was first opened on 20 May 2010.On 28 June 2010, the Soyuz TMA-19 spacecraft performed the first docking with the module.====''Science (or Experiment) Airlock''====Experiment airlock berthed to ''Nauka''The airlock, ShK, is designed for a payload with dimensions up to , has a volume of 2.1 m3, weight of 1050 kg and consumes 1.5 kW of power at the peak.", "Prior to berthing the MLM to the ISS, the airlock is stowed as part of MRM1.On 4 May 2023, 01:00 UTC, the chamber was moved by the ERA manipulator and berthed to the forward active docking port of the pressurized docking hub of the Nauka module during VKD-57 spacewalk.", "It is intended to be used:*for extracting payloads and from the MLM docking adapter and placing them on the outer surface of the station;*enable science investigations to be removed, exposed to the external microgravity environment, then returned inside while being maneuvered with the European robotic arm.", "*for receiving payloads from the ERA manipulator and moving them into the internal volume of the airlock and further into the MLM pressurized adapter;*for conducting scientific experiments in the internal volume of the airlock;*for conducting scientific experiments outside the airlock chamber on an extended table and in a special organized place.", "*for launching cubesats into space, with the aid of ERAvery similar to the Japanese airlock and Nanoracks Bishop Airlock on the U.S. segment of the station.", "''Leonardo'' Permanent Multipurpose Module====''Leonardo''====The ''Leonardo'' Permanent Multipurpose Module (PMM) is a module of the International Space Station.", "It was flown into space aboard the Space Shuttle on STS-133 on 24 February 2011 and installed on 1 March.", "''Leonardo'' is primarily used for storage of spares, supplies and waste on the ISS, which was until then stored in many different places within the space station.", "It is also the personal hygiene area for the astronauts who live in the US Orbital Segment.", "The ''Leonardo'' PMM was a Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) before 2011, but was modified into its current configuration.", "It was formerly one of two MPLM used for bringing cargo to and from the ISS with the Space Shuttle.", "The module was named for Italian polymath Leonardo da Vinci.====Bigelow Expandable Activity Module====Progression of the expansion of BEAMThe Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM) is an experimental expandable space station module developed by Bigelow Aerospace, under contract to NASA, for testing as a temporary module on the International Space Station (ISS) from 2016 to at least 2020.It arrived at the ISS on 10 April 2016, was berthed to the station on 16 April at Tranquility Node 3, and was expanded and pressurized on 28 May 2016.In December 2021, Bigelow Aerospace conveyed ownership of the module to NASA, as a result of Bigelow's cessation of activity.IDA-1 upright====International Docking Adapters====The International Docking Adapter (IDA) is a spacecraft docking system adapter developed to convert APAS-95 to the NASA Docking System (NDS).", "An IDA is placed on each of the ISS's two open Pressurized Mating Adapters (PMAs), both of which are connected to the ''Harmony'' module.Two International Docking Adapters are currently installed aboard the Station.", "Originally, IDA-1 was planned to be installed on PMA-2, located at ''Harmony'''s forward port, and IDA-2 would be installed on PMA-3 at ''Harmony'''s zenith.", "After IDA 1 was destroyed in a launch incident, IDA-2 was installed on PMA-2 on 19 August 2016, while IDA-3 was later installed on PMA-3 on 21 August 2019.NanoRacks Bishop airlock module installed on the ISS====Bishop Airlock Module====The NanoRacks Bishop Airlock Module is a commercially funded airlock module launched to the ISS on SpaceX CRS-21 on 6 December 2020.The module was built by NanoRacks, Thales Alenia Space, and Boeing.", "It will be used to deploy CubeSats, small satellites, and other external payloads for NASA, CASIS, and other commercial and governmental customers.====''Nauka''====''Nauka'' (), also known as the Multipurpose Laboratory Module-Upgrade (MLM-U), (Russian: ''Многоцелевой лабораторный модуль'', усоверше́нствованный, or ''МЛМ-У)'', is a Roscosmos-funded component of the ISS that was launched on 21 July 2021, 14:58 UTC.", "In the original ISS plans, ''Nauka'' was to use the location of the Docking and Stowage Module (DSM), but the DSM was later replaced by the ''Rassvet'' module and moved to ''Zarya''s nadir port.", "''Nauka'' was successfully docked to ''Zvezda''s nadir port on 29 July 2021, 13:29 UTC, replacing the ''Pirs'' module.Progress MS-17 undocking and taking the Nauka nadir temporary docking adapter with itIt had a temporary docking adapter on its nadir port for crewed and uncrewed missions until Prichal arrival, where just before its arrival it was removed by a departing Progress spacecraft.", "''Nauka'' and ''Prichal'' docked to ISS====''Prichal''====''Prichal'', also known as ''Uzlovoy'' Module or UM (), is a ball-shaped module that will provide the Russian segment additional docking ports to receive Soyuz MS and Progress MS spacecraft.", "UM was launched in November 2021.It was integrated with a special version of the Progress cargo spacecraft and launched by a standard Soyuz rocket, docking to the nadir port of the ''Nauka'' module.", "One port is equipped with an active hybrid docking port, which enables docking with the MLM module.", "The remaining five ports are passive hybrids, enabling docking of Soyuz and Progress vehicles, as well as heavier modules and future spacecraft with modified docking systems.", "The node module was intended to serve as the only permanent element of the cancelled Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex (OPSEK).===Unpressurised elements===ISS Truss Components breakdown showing Trusses and all ORUs in situThe ISS has a large number of external components that do not require pressurisation.", "The largest of these is the Integrated Truss Structure (ITS), to which the station's main solar arrays and thermal radiators are mounted.", "The ITS consists of ten separate segments forming a structure long.The station was intended to have several smaller external components, such as six robotic arms, three External Stowage Platforms (ESPs) and four ExPRESS Logistics Carriers (ELCs).", "While these platforms allow experiments (including MISSE, the STP-H3 and the Robotic Refueling Mission) to be deployed and conducted in the vacuum of space by providing electricity and processing experimental data locally, their primary function is to store spare Orbital Replacement Units (ORUs).", "ORUs are parts that can be replaced when they fail or pass their design life, including pumps, storage tanks, antennas, and battery units.", "Such units are replaced either by astronauts during EVA or by robotic arms.", "Several shuttle missions were dedicated to the delivery of ORUs, including STS-129, STS-133 and STS-134., only one other mode of transportation of ORUs had been utilisedthe Japanese cargo vessel HTV-2which delivered an FHRC and CTC-2 via its Exposed Pallet (EP).Construction of the Integrated Truss Structure over New ZealandThere are also smaller exposure facilities mounted directly to laboratory modules; the ''Kibō'' Exposed Facility serves as an external \"porch\" for the ''Kibō'' complex, and a facility on the European ''Columbus'' laboratory provides power and data connections for experiments such as the European Technology Exposure Facility and the Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space.", "A remote sensing instrument, SAGE III-ISS, was delivered to the station in February 2017 aboard CRS-10, and the NICER experiment was delivered aboard CRS-11 in June 2017.The largest scientific payload externally mounted to the ISS is the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), a particle physics experiment launched on STS-134 in May 2011, and mounted externally on the ITS.", "The AMS measures cosmic rays to look for evidence of dark matter and antimatter.The commercial ''Bartolomeo'' External Payload Hosting Platform, manufactured by Airbus, was launched on 6 March 2020 aboard CRS-20 and attached to the European ''Columbus'' module.", "It will provide an additional 12 external payload slots, supplementing the eight on the ExPRESS Logistics Carriers, ten on ''Kibō'', and four on ''Columbus''.", "The system is designed to be robotically serviced and will require no astronaut intervention.", "It is named after Christopher Columbus's younger brother.====MLM outfittings====MLM outfittings on RassvetROS as seen from the cupolaIn May 2010, equipment for ''Nauka'' was launched on STS-132 (as part of an agreement with NASA) and delivered by Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''.", "Weighing 1.4 metric tons, the equipment was attached to the outside of ''Rassvet'' (MRM-1).", "It included a spare elbow joint for the European Robotic Arm (ERA) (which was launched with ''Nauka'') and an ERA-portable workpost used during EVAs, as well as RTOd add-on heat radiator and internal hardware alongside the pressurized experiment airlock.The RTOd radiator adds additional cooling capability to ''Nauka'', which enables the module to host more scientific experiments.The ERA was used to remove the RTOd radiator from ''Rassvet'' and transferred over to ''Nauka'' during VKD-56 spacewalk.", "Later it was activated and fully deployed on VKD-58 spacewalk.", "This process took several months.", "A portable work platform was also transferred over in August 2023 during VKD-60 spacewalk, which can attach to the end of the ERA to allow cosmonauts to \"ride\" on the end of the arm during spacewalks.", "However, even after several months of outfitting EVAs and RTOd heat radiator installation, six months later, the RTOd radiator malfunctioned before active use of Nauka (the purpose of RTOd installation is to radiate heat from Nauka experiments).", "The malfunction, a leak, rendered the RTOd radiator unusable for Nauka.", "This is the third ISS radiator leak after Soyuz MS-22 and Progress MS-21 radiator leaks.", "If a spare RTOd is not available, Nauka experiments will have to rely on Nauka's main launch radiator and the module could never be utilized to its full capacity.Another MLM outfitting is a 4 segment external payload interface called means of attachment of large payloads (Sredstva Krepleniya Krupnogabaritnykh Obyektov, SKKO).", "Delivered in two parts to Nauka by Progress MS-18 (LCCS part) and Progress MS-21 (SCCCS part) as part of the module activation outfitting process.", "It was taken outside and installed on the ERA aft facing base point on Nauka during the VKD-55 spacewalk.====Robotic arms and cargo cranes====The Integrated Truss Structure serves as a base for the station's primary remote manipulator system, the Mobile Servicing System (MSS), which is composed of three main components:* Canadarm2, the largest robotic arm on the ISS, has a mass of and is used to: dock and manipulate spacecraft and modules on the USOS; hold crew members and equipment in place during EVAs; and move Dextre around to perform tasks.", "* Dextre is a robotic manipulator that has two arms and a rotating torso, with power tools, lights, and video for replacing orbital replacement units (ORUs) and performing other tasks requiring fine control.", "* The Mobile Base System (MBS) is a platform that rides on rails along the length of the station's main truss, which serves as a mobile base for Canadarm2 and Dextre, allowing the robotic arms to reach all parts of the USOS.A grapple fixture was added to ''Zarya'' on STS-134 to enable Canadarm2 to inchworm itself onto the Russian Orbital Segment.", "Also installed during STS-134 was the Orbiter Boom Sensor System (OBSS), which had been used to inspect heat shield tiles on Space Shuttle missions and which can be used on the station to increase the reach of the MSS.", "Staff on Earth or the ISS can operate the MSS components using remote control, performing work outside the station without the need for space walks.Japan's Remote Manipulator System, which services the ''Kibō'' Exposed Facility, was launched on STS-124 and is attached to the ''Kibō'' Pressurised Module.", "The arm is similar to the Space Shuttle arm as it is permanently attached at one end and has a latching end effector for standard grapple fixtures at the other.The European Robotic Arm, which will service the Russian Orbital Segment, was launched alongside the ''Nauka'' module.", "The ROS does not require spacecraft or modules to be manipulated, as all spacecraft and modules dock automatically and may be discarded the same way.", "Crew use the two ''Strela'' () cargo cranes during EVAs for moving crew and equipment around the ROS.", "Each Strela crane has a mass of .=== Former module ======= ''Pirs'' ====Pirs (Russian: Пирс, lit.", "'Pier') was launched on 14 September 2001, as ISS Assembly Mission 4R, on a Russian Soyuz-U rocket, using a modified Progress spacecraft, Progress M-SO1, as an upper stage.", "Pirs was undocked by Progress MS-16 on 26 July 2021, 10:56 UTC, and deorbited on the same day at 14:51 UTC to make room for ''Nauka'' module to be attached to the space station.", "Prior to its departure, Pirs served as the primary Russian airlock on the station, being used to store and refurbish the Russian Orlan spacesuits.===Planned components======= Axiom segment ====In January 2020, NASA awarded Axiom Space a contract to build a commercial module for the ISS.", "The contract is under the NextSTEP2 program.", "NASA negotiated with Axiom on a firm fixed-price contract basis to build and deliver the module, which will attach to the forward port of the space station's ''Harmony (Node 2)'' module.", "Although NASA has only commissioned one module, Axiom plans to build an entire segment consisting of five modules, including a node module, an orbital research and manufacturing facility, a crew habitat, and a \"large-windowed Earth observatory\".", "The Axiom segment is expected to greatly increase the capabilities and value of the space station, allowing for larger crews and private spaceflight by other organisations.", "Axiom plans to convert the segment into a stand-alone space station once the ISS is decommissioned, with the intention that this would act as a successor to the ISS.", "Canadarm 2 will also help to berth the Axiom Space Station modules to the ISS and will continue its operations on the Axiom Space Station after the retirement of ISS in late 2020s.As of December 2023, Axiom Space expects to launch the first module, Hab One, at the end of 2026.===Proposed components=======Independence-1====Nanoracks, after finalizing its contract with NASA, and after winning NextSTEPs Phase II award, is now developing its concept Independence-1 (previously known as Ixion), which would turn spent rocket tanks into a habitable living area to be tested in space.", "In Spring 2018, Nanoracks announced that Ixion is now known as the Independence-1, the first 'outpost' in Nanoracks' Space Outpost Program.====Nautilus-X Centrifuge Demonstration====If produced, this centrifuge will be the first in-space demonstration of sufficient scale centrifuge for artificial partial-g effects.", "It will be designed to become a sleep module for the ISS crew.===Cancelled components===The cancelled Habitation module under construction at Michoud in 1997Several modules planned for the station were cancelled over the course of the ISS programme.", "Reasons include budgetary constraints, the modules becoming unnecessary, and station redesigns after the 2003 ''Columbia'' disaster.", "The US Centrifuge Accommodations Module would have hosted science experiments in varying levels of artificial gravity.", "The US Habitation Module would have served as the station's living quarters.", "Instead, the living quarters are now spread throughout the station.", "The US Interim Control Module and ISS Propulsion Module would have replaced the functions of ''Zvezda'' in case of a launch failure.", "Two Russian Research Modules were planned for scientific research.", "They would have docked to a Russian Universal Docking Module.", "The Russian Science Power Platform would have supplied power to the Russian Orbital Segment independent of the ITS solar arrays.====Science Power Modules 1 and 2 (Repurposed Components)===='''Science Power Module 1''' ('''SPM-1''', also known as '''NEM-1''') and '''Science Power Module 2''' ('''SPM-2''', also known as '''NEM-2''') are modules that were originally planned to arrive at the ISS no earlier than 2024, and dock to the ''Prichal'' module, which is currently docked to the ''Nauka'' module.", "In April 2021, Roscosmos announced that NEM-1 would be repurposed to function as the core module of the proposed Russian Orbital Service Station (ROSS), launching no earlier than 2027 and docking to the free-flying ''Nauka'' module either before or after the ISS has been deorbited.", "NEM-2 may be converted into another core \"base\" module, which would be launched in 2028.====Xbase====Designed by Bigelow Aerospace.", "In August 2016, Bigelow negotiated an agreement with NASA to develop a full-size ground prototype Deep Space Habitation based on the B330 under the second phase of Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships.", "The module was called the Expandable Bigelow Advanced Station Enhancement (XBASE), as Bigelow hoped to test the module by attaching it to the International Space Station.", "However, in March 2020, Bigelow laid off all 88 of its employees, and the company remains dormant and is currently considered defunct, making it appear unlikely that the XBASE module will ever be launched." ], [ "Onboard systems", "===Life support===The critical systems are the atmosphere control system, the water supply system, the food supply facilities, the sanitation and hygiene equipment, and fire detection and suppression equipment.", "The Russian Orbital Segment's life support systems are contained in the ''Zvezda'' service module.", "Some of these systems are supplemented by equipment in the USOS.", "The ''Nauka'' laboratory has a complete set of life support systems.====Atmospheric control systems====alt=A flowchart diagram showing the components of the ISS life support system.The atmosphere on board the ISS is similar to that of Earth.", "Normal air pressure on the ISS is ; the same as at sea level on Earth.", "An Earth-like atmosphere offers benefits for crew comfort, and is much safer than a pure oxygen atmosphere, because of the increased risk of a fire such as that responsible for the deaths of the Apollo 1 crew.Earth-like atmospheric conditions have been maintained on all Russian and Soviet spacecraft.The ''Elektron'' system aboard ''Zvezda'' and a similar system in ''Destiny'' generate oxygen aboard the station.", "The crew has a backup option in the form of bottled oxygen and Solid Fuel Oxygen Generation (SFOG) canisters, a chemical oxygen generator system.", "Carbon dioxide is removed from the air by the Vozdukh system in ''Zvezda''.", "Other by-products of human metabolism, such as methane from the intestines and ammonia from sweat, are removed by activated charcoal filters.Part of the ROS atmosphere control system is the oxygen supply.", "Triple-redundancy is provided by the Elektron unit, solid fuel generators, and stored oxygen.", "The primary supply of oxygen is the Elektron unit which produces and by electrolysis of water and vents overboard.", "The system uses approximately one litre of water per crew member per day.", "This water is either brought from Earth or recycled from other systems.", "''Mir'' was the first spacecraft to use recycled water for oxygen production.", "The secondary oxygen supply is provided by burning oxygen-producing Vika cartridges (see also ISS ECLSS).", "Each 'candle' takes 5–20 minutes to decompose at , producing of .", "This unit is manually operated.The US Orbital Segment has redundant supplies of oxygen, from a pressurised storage tank on the ''Quest'' airlock module delivered in 2001, supplemented ten years later by ESA-built Advanced Closed-Loop System (ACLS) in the ''Tranquility'' module (Node 3), which produces by electrolysis.", "Hydrogen produced is combined with carbon dioxide from the cabin atmosphere and converted to water and methane.===Power and thermal control===Double-sided solar arrays provide electrical power to the ISS.", "These bifacial cells collect direct sunlight on one side and light reflected off from the Earth on the other, and are more efficient and operate at a lower temperature than single-sided cells commonly used on Earth.", "The Russian segment of the station, like most spacecraft, uses 28 V low voltage DC from two rotating solar arrays mounted on ''Zvezda''.", "The USOS uses 130–180 V DC from the USOS PV array, power is stabilised and distributed at 160 V DC and converted to the user-required 124 V DC.", "The higher distribution voltage allows smaller, lighter conductors, at the expense of crew safety.", "The two station segments share power with converters.The USOS solar arrays are arranged as four wing pairs, for a total production of 75 to 90 kilowatts.", "These arrays normally track the Sun to maximise power generation.", "Each array is about in area and long.", "In the complete configuration, the solar arrays track the Sun by rotating the ''alpha gimbal'' once per orbit; the ''beta gimbal'' follows slower changes in the angle of the Sun to the orbital plane.", "The Night Glider mode aligns the solar arrays parallel to the ground at night to reduce the significant aerodynamic drag at the station's relatively low orbital altitude.The station originally used rechargeable nickel–hydrogen batteries () for continuous power during the 45 minutes of every 90-minute orbit that it is eclipsed by the Earth.", "The batteries are recharged on the day side of the orbit.", "They had a 6.5-year lifetime (over 37,000 charge/discharge cycles) and were regularly replaced over the anticipated 20-year life of the station.", "Starting in 2016, the nickel–hydrogen batteries were replaced by lithium-ion batteries, which are expected to last until the end of the ISS program.The station's large solar panels generate a high potential voltage difference between the station and the ionosphere.", "This could cause arcing through insulating surfaces and sputtering of conductive surfaces as ions are accelerated by the spacecraft plasma sheath.", "To mitigate this, plasma contactor units create current paths between the station and the ambient space plasma.ISS External Active Thermal Control System (EATCS) diagramThe station's systems and experiments consume a large amount of electrical power, almost all of which is converted to heat.", "To keep the internal temperature within workable limits, a passive thermal control system (PTCS) is made of external surface materials, insulation such as MLI, and heat pipes.", "If the PTCS cannot keep up with the heat load, an External Active Thermal Control System (EATCS) maintains the temperature.", "The EATCS consists of an internal, non-toxic, water coolant loop used to cool and dehumidify the atmosphere, which transfers collected heat into an external liquid ammonia loop.", "From the heat exchangers, ammonia is pumped into external radiators that emit heat as infrared radiation, then back to the station.", "The EATCS provides cooling for all the US pressurised modules, including ''Kibō'' and ''Columbus'', as well as the main power distribution electronics of the S0, S1 and P1 trusses.", "It can reject up to 70 kW.", "This is much more than the 14 kW of the Early External Active Thermal Control System (EEATCS) via the Early Ammonia Servicer (EAS), which was launched on STS-105 and installed onto the P6 Truss.===Communications and computers===''Luch'' and the Space Shuttle are not in use as of 2020.|alt=Diagram showing communications links between the ISS and other elements.Radio communications provide telemetry and scientific data links between the station and mission control centres.", "Radio links are also used during rendezvous and docking procedures and for audio and video communication between crew members, flight controllers and family members.", "As a result, the ISS is equipped with internal and external communication systems used for different purposes.The Russian Orbital Segment communicates directly with the ground via the ''Lira'' antenna mounted to ''Zvezda''.", "The ''Lira'' antenna also has the capability to use the ''Luch'' data relay satellite system.", "This system fell into disrepair during the 1990s, and so was not used during the early years of the ISS, although two new ''Luch'' satellites''Luch''-5A and ''Luch''-5Bwere launched in 2011 and 2012 respectively to restore the operational capability of the system.", "Another Russian communications system is the Voskhod-M, which enables internal telephone communications between ''Zvezda'', ''Zarya'', ''Pirs'', ''Poisk'', and the USOS and provides a VHF radio link to ground control centres via antennas on ''Zvezda'' exterior.The US Orbital Segment (USOS) makes use of two separate radio links: S band (audio, telemetry, commanding – located on the P1/S1 truss) and Ku band (audio, video and data – located on the Z1 truss) systems.", "These transmissions are routed via the United States Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) in geostationary orbit, allowing for almost continuous real-time communications with Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center (MCC-H) in Houston.", "Data channels for the Canadarm2, European ''Columbus'' laboratory and Japanese ''Kibō'' modules were originally also routed via the S band and Ku band systems, with the European Data Relay System and a similar Japanese system intended to eventually complement the TDRSS in this role.", "Communications between modules are carried on an internal wireless network.UHF radio is used by astronauts and cosmonauts conducting EVAs and other spacecraft that dock to or undock from the station.", "Automated spacecraft are fitted with their own communications equipment; the ATV used a laser attached to the spacecraft and the Proximity Communications Equipment attached to ''Zvezda'' to accurately dock with the station.The ISS is equipped with about 100 IBM/Lenovo ThinkPad and HP ZBook 15 laptop computers.", "The laptops have run Windows 95, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows 7, Windows 10 and Linux operating systems.", "Each computer is a commercial off-the-shelf purchase which is then modified for safety and operation including updates to connectors, cooling and power to accommodate the station's 28V DC power system and weightless environment.", "Heat generated by the laptops does not rise but stagnates around the laptop, so additional forced ventilation is required.", "Portable Computer System (PCS) laptops connect to the Primary Command & Control computer (C&C MDM) as remote terminals via a USB to 1553 adapter.", "Station Support Computer (SSC) laptops aboard the ISS are connected to the station's wireless LAN via Wi-Fi and ethernet, which connects to the ground via Ku band.", "While originally this provided speeds of 10 Mbit/s download and 3 Mbit/s upload from the station, NASA upgraded the system in late August 2019 and increased the speeds to 600 Mbit/s.", "Laptop hard drives occasionally fail and must be replaced.", "Other computer hardware failures include instances in 2001, 2007 and 2017; some of these failures have required EVAs to replace computer modules in externally mounted devices.The operating system used for key station functions is the Debian Linux distribution.", "The migration from Microsoft Windows to Linux was made in May 2013 for reasons of reliability, stability and flexibility.In 2017, an SG100 Cloud Computer was launched to the ISS as part of OA-7 mission.", "It was manufactured by NCSIST of Taiwan and designed in collaboration with Academia Sinica, and National Central University under contract for NASA.ISS crew members have access to the Internet, and thus the web.", "This was first enabled in 2010, allowing NASA astronaut T.J. Creamer to make the first tweet from space.", "Access is achieved via an Internet-enabled computer in Houston, using remote desktop mode, thereby protecting the ISS from virus infection and hacking attempts." ], [ "Operations", "===Expeditions===Each permanent crew is given an expedition number.", "Expeditions run up to six months, from launch until undocking, an 'increment' covers the same time period, but includes cargo spacecraft and all activities.", "Expeditions 1 to 6 consisted of three-person crews.", "Expeditions 7 to 12 were reduced to the safe minimum of two following the destruction of the NASA Shuttle ''Columbia''.", "From Expedition 13 the crew gradually increased to six around 2010.With the arrival of crew on US commercial vehicles beginning in 2020, NASA has indicated that expedition size may be increased to seven crew members, the number ISS was originally designed for.Gennady Padalka, member of Expeditions 9, 19/20, 31/32, and 43/44, and Commander of Expedition 11, has spent more time in space than anyone else, a total of 878 days, 11 hours, and 29 minutes.", "Peggy Whitson has spent the most time in space of any American, totalling 675 days, 3 hours and 48 minutes during her time on Expeditions 5, 16, and 50/51/52 and Axiom Mission 2.===Private flights===Travellers who pay for their own passage into space are termed spaceflight participants by Roscosmos and NASA, and are sometimes referred to as \"space tourists\", a term they generally dislike.", ", thirteen space tourists have visited the ISS; nine were transported to the ISS on Russian Soyuz spacecraft, and four were transported on American SpaceX Dragon 2 spacecraft.", "For one-tourist missions, when professional crews change over in numbers not divisible by the three seats in a Soyuz, and a short-stay crewmember is not sent, the spare seat is sold by MirCorp through Space Adventures.", "Space tourism was halted in 2011 when the Space Shuttle was retired and the station's crew size was reduced to six, as the partners relied on Russian transport seats for access to the station.", "Soyuz flight schedules increased after 2013, allowing five Soyuz flights (15 seats) with only two expeditions (12 seats) required.", "The remaining seats were to be sold for around US$40 million to members of the public who could pass a medical exam.", "ESA and NASA criticised private spaceflight at the beginning of the ISS, and NASA initially resisted training Dennis Tito, the first person to pay for his own passage to the ISS.", "Anousheh Ansari became the first self-funded woman to fly to the ISS as well as the first Iranian in space.", "Officials reported that her education and experience made her much more than a tourist, and her performance in training had been \"excellent.\"", "She did Russian and European studies involving medicine and microbiology during her 10-day stay.", "The 2009 documentary ''Space Tourists'' follows her journey to the station, where she fulfilled \"an age-old dream of man: to leave our planet as a 'normal person' and travel into outer space.", "\"In 2008, spaceflight participant Richard Garriott placed a geocache aboard the ISS during his flight.", "This is currently the only non-terrestrial geocache in existence.", "At the same time, the Immortality Drive, an electronic record of eight digitised human DNA sequences, was placed aboard the ISS.After a 12-year hiatus, the first two wholly space tourism-dedicated private spaceflights to the ISS were undertaken.", "Soyuz MS-20 launched in December 2021, carrying visiting Roscosmos cosmonaut Alexander Misurkin and two Japanese space tourists under the aegis of the private company Space Adventures; in April 2022, the company Axiom Space chartered a SpaceX Dragon 2 spacecraft and sent its own employee astronaut Michael Lopez-Alegria and three space tourists to the ISS for Axiom Mission 1, followed in May 2023 by one more tourist, John Shoffner, alongside employee astronaut Peggy Whitson and two Saudi astronauts for Axiom Mission 2.=== Fleet operations ===Dragon and Cygnus cargo vessels were docked at the ISS together for the first time in April 2016Japan's Kounotori 4 berthingCommercial Crew Program vehicles Starliner and DragonA wide variety of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft have supported the station's activities.", "Flights to the ISS include 37 Space Shuttle missions, 83 Progress resupply spacecraft (including the modified M-MIM2, M-SO1 and M-UM module transports), 63 crewed Soyuz spacecraft, 5 European ATVs, 9 Japanese HTVs, 1 Boeing Starliner, 30 SpaceX Dragon (both crewed and uncrewed) and 18 Cygnus missions.There are currently eleven available docking ports for visiting spacecraft:# ''Harmony'' forward (with ''IDA 2'')# ''Harmony'' zenith (with ''IDA 3'')# ''Harmony'' nadir# ''Unity'' nadir# ''Prichal'' nadir# ''Prichal'' aft# ''Prichal'' forward# ''Prichal'' starboard# ''Prichal'' port# ''Poisk'' zenith# ''Rassvet'' nadir# ''Zvezda'' aft==== Crewed ====, 269 people from 21 countries had visited the space station, many of them multiple times.", "The United States sent 163 people, Russia sent 57, Japan sent 11, Canada sent nine, Italy sent five, France sent four, Germany sent four, the United Arab Emirates , Saudi Arabia and Sweden sent two, and there were one each from Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, the United Kingdom, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, the Netherlands, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, and Israel.==== Uncrewed ====Uncrewed spaceflights to the ISS are made primarily to deliver cargo, however several Russian modules have also docked to the outpost following uncrewed launches.", "Resupply missions typically use the Russian Progress spacecraft, former European ATVs, Japanese Kounotori vehicles, and the American Dragon and Cygnus spacecraft.", "The primary docking system for Progress spacecraft is the automated Kurs system, with the manual TORU system as a backup.", "ATVs also used Kurs, however they were not equipped with TORU.", "Progress and former ATV can remain docked for up to six months.", "The other spacecraftthe Japanese HTV, the SpaceX Dragon (under CRS phase 1), and the Northrop Grumman Cygnusrendezvous with the station before being grappled using Canadarm2 and berthed at the nadir port of the ''Harmony'' or ''Unity'' module for one to two months.", "Under CRS phase 2, Cargo Dragon docks autonomously at IDA-2 or IDA-3., Progress spacecraft have flown most of the uncrewed missions to the ISS.Soyuz MS-22 was launched in 2022.A micro-meteorite impact in December 2022 caused a coolant leak in its external radiator and it was considered risky for human landing.", "Thus MS-22 reentered uncrewed on 28 March 2023 and Soyuz MS-23 was launched uncrewed on 24 February 2023, and it returned the MS-22 crew.==== Currently docked/berthed ====Rendering of the ISS and visiting vehicles.", "Live link at nasa.gov.", "Spacecraft Type Mission Location Arrival (UTC) Departure (planned) '''' Crewed Crew-7 ''Harmony'' zenith 27 August 2023 March 2024 Soyuz MS No.", "755 ''Antares'' Crewed Soyuz MS-24 ''Rassvet'' nadir 15 September 2023 March 2024 Progress MS No.", "455 Uncrewed Progress MS-25 Poisk zenith 3 Dec 20232024 S.S. Patricia “Patty” Hilliard Robertson Uncrewed NG-20 ''Unity'' nadir 1 February 2024 Q1 2024 Progress MS No.", "456 Uncrewed Progress MS-26 Zvezda aft 17 Feb 20232024====Modules/spacecraft pending relocation/installation==== Modules and spacecraft Type Current location Relocated location Relocation date (planned) EVA Assisted==== Scheduled missions ====* All dates are UTC.", "Dates are the earliest possible dates and may change.", "* Forward ports are at the front of the station according to its normal direction of travel and orientation (attitude).", "Aft is at the rear of the station, used by spacecraft boosting the station's orbit.", "Nadir is closest the Earth, zenith is on top.", "Port is to the left if pointing one's feet towards the Earth and looking in the direction of travel; starboard to the right.", "Mission Launch date () Spacecraft Type Launch vehicle Launch site Launch provider Docking/berthing port SpaceX Crew-8 1 March 2024 Crewed Falcon 9 Block 5 Kennedy LC-39A SpaceX ''Harmony'' forward or zenith SpaceX CRS-30 13 March 2024 Cargo Dragon Uncrewed Falcon 9 Block 5 Kennedy LC-39A SpaceX ''Harmony'' forward or zenith Soyuz MS-25 21 March 2024 Soyuz MS Crewed Soyuz-2.1a Baikonur Site 31/6 Roscosmos ''Prichal'' nadir NG-21 March 2024 Cygnus Uncrewed Falcon 9 Block 5 Kennedy LC-39A SpaceX ''Unity'' nadir Starliner CFT 14 April 2024 Boeing Starliner SC-3 Calypso Crewed Atlas V N22 Cape Canaveral SLC-41 United Launch Alliance ''Harmony'' forward SNC-1 June 2024 Dream Chaser ''Tenacity'' Uncrewed Vulcan Centaur VC4L Cape Canaveral SLC-41 United Launch Alliance ''Harmony'' nadir Progress MS-27 June 2024 Progress MS No.", "457 Uncrewed Soyuz-2.1a Baikonur Site 31/6 Roscosmos ''Poisk'' zenith SpaceX CRS-31 June 2024 Cargo Dragon Uncrewed Falcon 9 Block 5 Kennedy LC-39A SpaceX ''Harmony'' forward or zenith NG-22 July 2024 Cygnus Uncrewed Falcon 9 Block 5 Kennedy LC-39A SpaceX ''Unity'' nadir AX-4 August 2024 Crew Dragon Crewed Falcon 9 Block 5 Kennedy LC-39A SpaceX ''Harmony'' forward Starliner-1 Q3 2024 Boeing Starliner SC-2 Crewed Atlas V N22 Cape Canaveral SLC-41 United Launch Alliance ''Harmony'' forward HTV-X1 2025 HTV-X Uncrewed H3-24L Tanegashima LA-Y2 JAXA ''Harmony'' nadir==== Docking ====The Progress M-14M resupply vehicle approaching the ISS in 2012.More than 50 unpiloted Progress spacecraft have delivered supplies during the lifetime of the station., ATV-2, Soyuz TMA-21, and Progress M-10M docked to the ISS, as seen from the departing Soyuz TMA-20All Russian spacecraft and self-propelled modules are able to rendezvous and dock to the space station without human intervention using the Kurs radar docking system from over 200 kilometres away.", "The European ATV uses star sensors and GPS to determine its intercept course.", "When it catches up it uses laser equipment to optically recognise ''Zvezda'', along with the Kurs system for redundancy.", "Crew supervise these craft, but do not intervene except to send abort commands in emergencies.", "Progress and ATV supply craft can remain at the ISS for six months, allowing great flexibility in crew time for loading and unloading of supplies and trash.", "From the initial station programs, the Russians pursued an automated docking methodology that used the crew in override or monitoring roles.", "Although the initial development costs were high, the system has become very reliable with standardisations that provide significant cost benefits in repetitive operations.", "Soyuz spacecraft used for crew rotation also serve as lifeboats for emergency evacuation; they are replaced every six months and were used after the ''Columbia'' disaster to return stranded crew from the ISS.", "The average expedition requires of supplies, and by 9 March 2011, crews had consumed a total of around .", "Soyuz crew rotation flights and Progress resupply flights visit the station on average two and three times respectively each year.", "Other vehicles berth instead of docking.", "The Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle parked itself in progressively closer orbits to the station, and then awaited 'approach' commands from the crew, until it was close enough for a robotic arm to grapple and berth the vehicle to the USOS.", "Berthed craft can transfer International Standard Payload Racks.", "Japanese spacecraft berth for one to two months.", "The berthing Cygnus and SpaceX Dragon were contracted to fly cargo to the station under phase 1 of the Commercial Resupply Services program.", "From 26 February 2011 to 7 March 2011 four of the governmental partners (United States, ESA, Japan and Russia) had their spacecraft (NASA Shuttle, ATV, HTV, Progress and Soyuz) docked at the ISS, the only time this has happened to date.", "On 25 May 2012, SpaceX delivered the first commercial cargo with a Dragon spacecraft.==== Launch and docking windows ====Prior to a spacecraft's docking to the ISS, navigation and attitude control (GNC) is handed over to the ground control of the spacecraft's country of origin.", "GNC is set to allow the station to drift in space, rather than fire its thrusters or turn using gyroscopes.", "The solar panels of the station are turned edge-on to the incoming spacecraft, so residue from its thrusters does not damage the cells.", "Before its retirement, Shuttle launches were often given priority over Soyuz, with occasional priority given to Soyuz arrivals carrying crew and time-critical cargoes, such as biological experiment materials.===Repairs===ORUs; some are externally stored on pallets called ELCs and ESPsOBSS during STS-120, astronaut Scott Parazynski performs makeshift repairs to a US solar array that damaged itself when unfolding|alt=Two black and orange solar arrays, shown uneven and with a large tear visible.", "A crew member in a spacesuit, attached to the end of a robotic arm, holds a latticework between two solar sails.Mike Hopkins during a spacewalkOrbital Replacement Units (ORUs) are spare parts that can be readily replaced when a unit either passes its design life or fails.", "Examples of ORUs are pumps, storage tanks, controller boxes, antennas, and battery units.", "Some units can be replaced using robotic arms.", "Most are stored outside the station, either on small pallets called ExPRESS Logistics Carriers (ELCs) or share larger platforms called External Stowage Platforms which also hold science experiments.", "Both kinds of pallets provide electricity for many parts that could be damaged by the cold of space and require heating.", "The larger logistics carriers also have local area network (LAN) connections for telemetry to connect experiments.", "A heavy emphasis on stocking the USOS with ORU's occurred around 2011, before the end of the NASA shuttle programme, as its commercial replacements, Cygnus and Dragon, carry one tenth to one quarter the payload.Unexpected problems and failures have impacted the station's assembly time-line and work schedules leading to periods of reduced capabilities and, in some cases, could have forced abandonment of the station for safety reasons.", "Serious problems include an air leak from the USOS in 2004, the venting of fumes from an ''Elektron'' oxygen generator in 2006, and the failure of the computers in the ROS in 2007 during STS-117 that left the station without thruster, ''Elektron'', ''Vozdukh'' and other environmental control system operations.", "In the latter case, the root cause was found to be condensation inside electrical connectors leading to a short circuit.During STS-120 in 2007 and following the relocation of the P6 truss and solar arrays, it was noted during unfurling that the solar array had torn and was not deploying properly.", "An EVA was carried out by Scott Parazynski, assisted by Douglas Wheelock.", "Extra precautions were taken to reduce the risk of electric shock, as the repairs were carried out with the solar array exposed to sunlight.", "The issues with the array were followed in the same year by problems with the starboard Solar Alpha Rotary Joint (SARJ), which rotates the arrays on the starboard side of the station.", "Excessive vibration and high-current spikes in the array drive motor were noted, resulting in a decision to substantially curtail motion of the starboard SARJ until the cause was understood.", "Inspections during EVAs on STS-120 and STS-123 showed extensive contamination from metallic shavings and debris in the large drive gear and confirmed damage to the large metallic bearing surfaces, so the joint was locked to prevent further damage.", "Repairs to the joints were carried out during STS-126 with lubrication and the replacement of 11 out of 12 trundle bearings on the joint.In September 2008, damage to the S1 radiator was first noticed in Soyuz imagery.", "The problem was initially not thought to be serious.", "The imagery showed that the surface of one sub-panel has peeled back from the underlying central structure, possibly because of micro-meteoroid or debris impact.", "On 15 May 2009 the damaged radiator panel's ammonia tubing was mechanically shut off from the rest of the cooling system by the computer-controlled closure of a valve.", "The same valve was then used to vent the ammonia from the damaged panel, eliminating the possibility of an ammonia leak.", "It is also known that a Service Module thruster cover struck the S1 radiator after being jettisoned during an EVA in 2008, but its effect, if any, has not been determined.In the early hours of 1 August 2010, a failure in cooling Loop A (starboard side), one of two external cooling loops, left the station with only half of its normal cooling capacity and zero redundancy in some systems.", "The problem appeared to be in the ammonia pump module that circulates the ammonia cooling fluid.", "Several subsystems, including two of the four CMGs, were shut down.Planned operations on the ISS were interrupted through a series of EVAs to address the cooling system issue.", "A first EVA on 7 August 2010, to replace the failed pump module, was not fully completed because of an ammonia leak in one of four quick-disconnects.", "A second EVA on 11 August successfully removed the failed pump module.", "A third EVA was required to restore Loop A to normal functionality.The USOS's cooling system is largely built by the US company Boeing, which is also the manufacturer of the failed pump.The four Main Bus Switching Units (MBSUs, located in the S0 truss), control the routing of power from the four solar array wings to the rest of the ISS.", "Each MBSU has two power channels that feed 160V DC from the arrays to two DC-to-DC power converters (DDCUs) that supply the 124V power used in the station.", "In late 2011 MBSU-1 ceased responding to commands or sending data confirming its health.", "While still routing power correctly, it was scheduled to be swapped out at the next available EVA.", "A spare MBSU was already on board, but a 30 August 2012 EVA failed to be completed when a bolt being tightened to finish installation of the spare unit jammed before the electrical connection was secured.", "The loss of MBSU-1 limited the station to 75% of its normal power capacity, requiring minor limitations in normal operations until the problem could be addressed.On 5 September 2012, in a second six-hour EVA, astronauts Sunita Williams and Akihiko Hoshide successfully replaced MBSU-1 and restored the ISS to 100% power.On 24 December 2013, astronauts installed a new ammonia pump for the station's cooling system.", "The faulty cooling system had failed earlier in the month, halting many of the station's science experiments.", "Astronauts had to brave a \"mini blizzard\" of ammonia while installing the new pump.", "It was only the second Christmas Eve spacewalk in NASA history.=== Mission control centres ===The components of the ISS are operated and monitored by their respective space agencies at mission control centres across the globe, including RKA Mission Control Center, ATV Control Centre, JEM Control Center and HTV Control Center at Tsukuba Space Center, Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center, Payload Operations and Integration Center, Columbus Control Center and Mobile Servicing System Control." ], [ "Life aboard", "===Living quarters===The living and working space on the International Space Station is larger than a six-bedroom house (complete with six sleeping quarters, two bathrooms, a gym, and a 360-degree view bay window).===Crew activities===Engineer leftA typical day for the crew begins with a wake-up at 06:00, followed by post-sleep activities and a morning inspection of the station.", "The crew then eats breakfast and takes part in a daily planning conference with Mission Control before starting work at around 08:10.The first scheduled exercise of the day follows, after which the crew continues work until 13:05.Following a one-hour lunch break, the afternoon consists of more exercise and work before the crew carries out its pre-sleep activities beginning at 19:30, including dinner and a crew conference.", "The scheduled sleep period begins at 21:30.In general, the crew works ten hours per day on a weekday, and five hours on Saturdays, with the rest of the time their own for relaxation or work catch-up.STS-122 mission specialists working on robotic equipment in the US labThe time zone used aboard the ISS is Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).", "The windows are covered during night hours to give the impression of darkness because the station experiences 16 sunrises and sunsets per day.", "During visiting Space Shuttle missions, the ISS crew mostly followed the shuttle's Mission Elapsed Time (MET), which was a flexible time zone based on the launch time of the Space Shuttle mission.The station provides crew quarters for each member of the expedition's crew, with two \"sleep stations\" in the ''Zvezda'', one in ''Nauka'' and four more installed in ''Harmony''.", "The USOS quarters are private, approximately person-sized soundproof booths.", "The ROS crew quarters in ''Zvezda'' include a small window, but provide less ventilation and sound proofing.", "A crew member can sleep in a crew quarter in a tethered sleeping bag, listen to music, use a laptop, and store personal items in a large drawer or in nets attached to the module's walls.", "The module also provides a reading lamp, a shelf and a desktop.", "Visiting crews have no allocated sleep module, and attach a sleeping bag to an available space on a wall.", "It is possible to sleep floating freely through the station, but this is generally avoided because of the possibility of bumping into sensitive equipment.", "It is important that crew accommodations be well ventilated; otherwise, astronauts can wake up oxygen-deprived and gasping for air, because a bubble of their own exhaled carbon dioxide has formed around their heads.", "During various station activities and crew rest times, the lights in the ISS can be dimmed, switched off, and colour temperatures adjusted.===Food and personal hygiene===The crews of Expedition 20 and STS-127 enjoy a meal inside ''Unity''Main dining desk in Node 1Fresh fruits and vegetables are grown in the ISSOn the USOS, most of the food aboard is vacuum sealed in plastic bags; cans are rare because they are heavy and expensive to transport.", "Preserved food is not highly regarded by the crew and taste is reduced in microgravity, so efforts are taken to make the food more palatable, including using more spices than in regular cooking.", "The crew looks forward to the arrival of any spacecraft from Earth as they bring fresh fruit and vegetables.", "Care is taken that foods do not create crumbs, and liquid condiments are preferred over solid to avoid contaminating station equipment.", "Each crew member has individual food packages and cooks them using the galley, which has two food warmers, a refrigerator (added in November 2008), and a water dispenser that provides heated and unheated water.", "Drinks are provided as dehydrated powder that is mixed with water before consumption.", "Drinks and soups are sipped from plastic bags with straws, while solid food is eaten with a knife and fork attached to a tray with magnets to prevent them from floating away.", "Any food that floats away, including crumbs, must be collected to prevent it from clogging the station's air filters and other equipment.Showers on space stations were introduced in the early 1970s on ''Skylab'' and ''Salyut'' 3.By ''Salyut'' 6, in the early 1980s, the crew complained of the complexity of showering in space, which was a monthly activity.", "The ISS does not feature a shower; instead, crewmembers wash using a water jet and wet wipes, with soap dispensed from a toothpaste tube-like container.", "Crews are also provided with rinseless shampoo and edible toothpaste to save water.There are two space toilets on the ISS, both of Russian design, located in ''Zvezda'' and ''Tranquility''.", "These Waste and Hygiene Compartments use a fan-driven suction system similar to the Space Shuttle Waste Collection System.", "Astronauts first fasten themselves to the toilet seat, which is equipped with spring-loaded restraining bars to ensure a good seal.", "A lever operates a powerful fan and a suction hole slides open: the air stream carries the waste away.", "Solid waste is collected in individual bags which are stored in an aluminium container.", "Full containers are transferred to Progress spacecraft for disposal.", "Liquid waste is evacuated by a hose connected to the front of the toilet, with anatomically correct \"urine funnel adapters\" attached to the tube so that men and women can use the same toilet.", "The diverted urine is collected and transferred to the Water Recovery System, where it is recycled into drinking water.", "In 2021, the arrival of the Nauka module also brought a third toilet to the ISS.===Crew health and safety=======Overall====On 12 April 2019, NASA reported medical results from the Astronaut Twin Study.", "Astronaut Scott Kelly spent a year in space on the ISS, while his twin spent the year on Earth.", "Several long-lasting changes were observed, including those related to alterations in DNA and cognition, when one twin was compared with the other.In November 2019, researchers reported that astronauts experienced serious blood flow and clot problems while on board the ISS, based on a six-month study of 11 healthy astronauts.", "The results may influence long-term spaceflight, including a mission to the planet Mars, according to the researchers.====Radiation====Video of the Aurora Australis, taken by the crew of Expedition 28 on an ascending pass from south of Madagascar to just north of Australia over the Indian OceanThe ISS is partially protected from the space environment by Earth's magnetic field.", "From an average distance of about from the Earth's surface, depending on Solar activity, the magnetosphere begins to deflect solar wind around Earth and the space station.", "Solar flares are still a hazard to the crew, who may receive only a few minutes warning.", "In 2005, during the initial \"proton storm\" of an X-3 class solar flare, the crew of Expedition 10 took shelter in a more heavily shielded part of the ROS designed for this purpose.Subatomic charged particles, primarily protons from cosmic rays and solar wind, are normally absorbed by Earth's atmosphere.", "When they interact in sufficient quantity, their effect is visible to the naked eye in a phenomenon called an aurora.", "Outside Earth's atmosphere, ISS crews are exposed to approximately one millisievert each day (about a year's worth of natural exposure on Earth), resulting in a higher risk of cancer.", "Radiation can penetrate living tissue and damage the DNA and chromosomes of lymphocytes; being central to the immune system, any damage to these cells could contribute to the lower immunity experienced by astronauts.", "Radiation has also been linked to a higher incidence of cataracts in astronauts.", "Protective shielding and medications may lower the risks to an acceptable level.Radiation levels on the ISS are between 12 and 28.8 milli rads per day, about five times greater than those experienced by airline passengers and crew, as Earth's electromagnetic field provides almost the same level of protection against solar and other types of radiation in low Earth orbit as in the stratosphere.", "For example, on a 12-hour flight, an airline passenger would experience 0.1 millisieverts of radiation, or a rate of 0.2 millisieverts per day; this is only one fifth the rate experienced by an astronaut in LEO.", "Additionally, airline passengers experience this level of radiation for a few hours of flight, while the ISS crew are exposed for their whole stay on board the station.====Stress====Cosmonaut Nikolai Budarin at work inside the ''Zvezda'' service module crew quartersThere is considerable evidence that psychosocial stressors are among the most important impediments to optimal crew morale and performance.", "Cosmonaut Valery Ryumin wrote in his journal during a particularly difficult period on board the ''Salyut'' 6 space station: \"All the conditions necessary for murder are met if you shut two men in a cabin measuring 18 feet by 20 5.5 m × 6 m and leave them together for two months.", "\"NASA's interest in psychological stress caused by space travel, initially studied when their crewed missions began, was rekindled when astronauts joined cosmonauts on the Russian space station ''Mir''.", "Common sources of stress in early US missions included maintaining high performance under public scrutiny and isolation from peers and family.", "The latter is still often a cause of stress on the ISS, such as when the mother of NASA astronaut Daniel Tani died in a car accident, and when Michael Fincke was forced to miss the birth of his second child.A study of the longest spaceflight concluded that the first three weeks are a critical period where attention is adversely affected because of the demand to adjust to the extreme change of environment.", "ISS crew flights typically last about five to six months.The ISS working environment includes further stress caused by living and working in cramped conditions with people from very different cultures who speak a different language.", "First-generation space stations had crews who spoke a single language; second- and third-generation stations have crew from many cultures who speak many languages.", "Astronauts must speak English and Russian, and knowing additional languages is even better.Due to the lack of gravity, confusion often occurs.", "Even though there is no up and down in space, some crew members feel like they are oriented upside down.", "They may also have difficulty measuring distances.", "This can cause problems like getting lost inside the space station, pulling switches in the wrong direction or misjudging the speed of an approaching vehicle during docking.====Medical====Astronaut Frank De Winne, attached to the TVIS treadmill with bungee cords aboard the ISS|alt=A man running on a treadmill, smiling at the camera, with bungee cords stretching down from his waistband to the sides of the treadmillThe physiological effects of long-term weightlessness include muscle atrophy, deterioration of the skeleton (osteopenia), fluid redistribution, a slowing of the cardiovascular system, decreased production of red blood cells, balance disorders, and a weakening of the immune system.", "Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, and puffiness of the face.Sleep is regularly disturbed on the ISS because of mission demands, such as incoming or departing spacecraft.", "Sound levels in the station are unavoidably high.", "The atmosphere is unable to thermosiphon naturally, so fans are required at all times to process the air which would stagnate in the freefall (zero-G) environment.To prevent some of the adverse effects on the body, the station is equipped with: two TVIS treadmills (including the COLBERT); the ARED (Advanced Resistive Exercise Device), which enables various weightlifting exercises that add muscle without raising (or compensating for) the astronauts' reduced bone density; and a stationary bicycle.", "Each astronaut spends at least two hours per day exercising on the equipment.", "Astronauts use bungee cords to strap themselves to the treadmill.====Microbiological environmental hazards====Hazardous molds that can foul air and water filters may develop aboard space stations.", "They can produce acids that degrade metal, glass, and rubber.", "They can also be harmful to the crew's health.", "Microbiological hazards have led to a development of the LOCAD-PTS which identifies common bacteria and molds faster than standard methods of culturing, which may require a sample to be sent back to Earth.", "Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence of five ''Enterobacter bugandensis'' bacterial strains on the ISS (none of which are pathogenic to humans), that microorganisms on the ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for astronauts.Contamination on space stations can be prevented by reduced humidity, and by using paint that contains mold-killing chemicals, as well as the use of antiseptic solutions.", "All materials used in the ISS are tested for resistance against fungi.", "Since 2016, a series of ESA-sponsored experiments have been done to test the anti-bacterial properties of various materials, with the goal of developing \"smart surfaces\" that mitigate bacterial growth in multiple ways, using the best method for a particular circumstance.", "Dubbed \"Microbial Aerosol Tethering on Innovative Surfaces\" (MATISS), the programme involves deployment of small plaques containing an array of glass squares covered with different test coatings.", "They remain on the station for six months before being returned to earth for analysis.", "The most recent and final experiment of the series was launched on 5 June 2023 aboard the SpaceX CRS-28 cargo mission to ISS, comprising four plaques.", "Whereas previous experiments in the series were limited to analysis by light microsocopy, the present experiment uses quartz glass made of pure silica, which will allow spectrographic analysis.", "Two of the plaques will be returned after eight months and the remaining two after 16 months.In April 2019, NASA reported that a comprehensive study had been conducted into the microorganisms and fungi present on the ISS.", "The experiment was performed over a period of 14 months on three different flight missions, and involved taking samples from 8 predefined locations inside the station, then returning them to earth for analysis.", "In prior experiments, analysis was limited to culture-based methods, thus overlooking microbes which cannot be grown in culture.", "The present study utilized molecular-based methods in addition to culturing, resulting in a more complete catalog.", "The results may be useful in improving the health and safety conditions for astronauts, as well as better understanding other closed-in environments on earth such as clean rooms used by the pharmaceutical and medical industries.====Noise====Space flight is not inherently quiet, with noise levels exceeding acoustic standards as far back as the Apollo missions.", "For this reason, NASA and the International Space Station international partners have developed noise control and hearing loss prevention goals as part of the health program for crew members.", "Specifically, these goals have been the primary focus of the ISS Multilateral Medical Operations Panel (MMOP) Acoustics Subgroup since the first days of ISS assembly and operations.", "The effort includes contributions from acoustical engineers, audiologists, industrial hygienists, and physicians who comprise the subgroup's membership from NASA, Roscosmos, the European Space Agency (ESA), the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).When compared to terrestrial environments, the noise levels incurred by astronauts and cosmonauts on the ISS may seem insignificant and typically occur at levels that would not be of major concern to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration – rarely reaching 85 dBA.", "But crew members are exposed to these levels 24 hours a day, seven days a week, with current missions averaging six months in duration.", "These levels of noise also impose risks to crew health and performance in the form of sleep interference and communication, as well as reduced alarm audibility.Over the 19 plus year history of the ISS, significant efforts have been put forth to limit and reduce noise levels on the ISS.", "During design and pre-flight activities, members of the Acoustic Subgroup have written acoustic limits and verification requirements, consulted to design and choose quietest available payloads, and then conducted acoustic verification tests prior to launch.", "During spaceflights, the Acoustics Subgroup has assessed each ISS module's in flight sound levels, produced by a large number of vehicle and science experiment noise sources, to assure compliance with strict acoustic standards.", "The acoustic environment on ISS changed when additional modules were added during its construction, and as additional spacecraft arrive at the ISS.", "The Acoustics Subgroup has responded to this dynamic operations schedule by successfully designing and employing acoustic covers, absorptive materials, noise barriers, and vibration isolators to reduce noise levels.", "Moreover, when pumps, fans, and ventilation systems age and show increased noise levels, this Acoustics Subgroup has guided ISS managers to replace the older, noisier instruments with quiet fan and pump technologies, significantly reducing ambient noise levels.NASA has adopted most-conservative damage risk criteria (based on recommendations from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health and the World Health Organization), in order to protect all crew members.", "The MMOP Acoustics Subgroup has adjusted its approach to managing noise risks in this unique environment by applying, or modifying, terrestrial approaches for hearing loss prevention to set these conservative limits.", "One innovative approach has been NASA's Noise Exposure Estimation Tool (NEET), in which noise exposures are calculated in a task-based approach to determine the need for hearing protection devices (HPDs).", "Guidance for use of HPDs, either mandatory use or recommended, is then documented in the Noise Hazard Inventory, and posted for crew reference during their missions.", "The Acoustics Subgroup also tracks spacecraft noise exceedances, applies engineering controls, and recommends hearing protective devices to reduce crew noise exposures.", "Finally, hearing thresholds are monitored on-orbit, during missions.There have been no persistent mission-related hearing threshold shifts among US Orbital Segment crewmembers (JAXA, CSA, ESA, NASA) during what is approaching 20 years of ISS mission operations, or nearly 175,000 work hours.", "In 2020, the MMOP Acoustics Subgroup received the Safe-In-Sound Award for Innovation for their combined efforts to mitigate any health effects of noise.====Fire and toxic gases====An onboard fire or a toxic gas leak are other potential hazards.", "Ammonia is used in the external radiators of the station and could potentially leak into the pressurised modules." ], [ "Orbit", "===Altitude and orbital inclination===The ISS is currently maintained in a nearly circular orbit with a minimum mean altitude of and a maximum of , in the centre of the thermosphere, at an inclination of 51.6 degrees to Earth's equator with an eccentricity of 0.007.This orbit was selected because it is the lowest inclination that can be directly reached by Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome at 46° N latitude without overflying China or dropping spent rocket stages in inhabited areas.It travels at an average speed of , and completes orbits per day (93 minutes per orbit).", "The station's altitude was allowed to fall around the time of each NASA shuttle flight to permit heavier loads to be transferred to the station.", "After the retirement of the shuttle, the nominal orbit of the space station was raised in altitude (from about 350 km to about 400 km).", "Other, more frequent supply spacecraft do not require this adjustment as they are substantially higher performance vehicles.Atmospheric drag reduces the altitude by about 2 km a month on average.", "Orbital boosting can be performed by the station's two main engines on the ''Zvezda'' service module, or Russian or European spacecraft docked to ''Zvezda'' aft port.", "The Automated Transfer Vehicle is constructed with the possibility of adding a second docking port to its aft end, allowing other craft to dock and boost the station.", "It takes approximately two orbits (three hours) for the boost to a higher altitude to be completed.", "Maintaining ISS altitude uses about 7.5 tonnes of chemical fuel per annum at an annual cost of about $210 million.Orbits of the ISS, shown in April 2013The Russian Orbital Segment contains the Data Management System, which handles Guidance, Navigation and Control (ROS GNC) for the entire station.", "Initially, ''Zarya'', the first module of the station, controlled the station until a short time after the Russian service module ''Zvezda'' docked and was transferred control.", "''Zvezda'' contains the ESA built DMS-R Data Management System.", "Using two fault-tolerant computers (FTC), ''Zvezda'' computes the station's position and orbital trajectory using redundant Earth horizon sensors, Solar horizon sensors as well as Sun and star trackers.", "The FTCs each contain three identical processing units working in parallel and provide advanced fault-masking by majority voting.===Orientation===''Zvezda'' uses gyroscopes (reaction wheels) and thrusters to turn itself around.", "Gyroscopes do not require propellant; instead they use electricity to 'store' momentum in flywheels by turning in the opposite direction to the station's movement.", "The USOS has its own computer-controlled gyroscopes to handle its extra mass.", "When gyroscopes 'saturate', thrusters are used to cancel out the stored momentum.", "In February 2005, during Expedition 10, an incorrect command was sent to the station's computer, using about 14 kilograms of propellant before the fault was noticed and fixed.", "When attitude control computers in the ROS and USOS fail to communicate properly, this can result in a rare 'force fight' where the ROS GNC computer must ignore the USOS counterpart, which itself has no thrusters.Docked spacecraft can also be used to maintain station attitude, such as for troubleshooting or during the installation of the S3/S4 truss, which provides electrical power and data interfaces for the station's electronics.===Orbital debris threats===The low altitudes at which the ISS orbits are also home to a variety of space debris, including spent rocket stages, defunct satellites, explosion fragments (including materials from anti-satellite weapon tests), paint flakes, slag from solid rocket motors, and coolant released by US-A nuclear-powered satellites.", "These objects, in addition to natural micrometeoroids, are a significant threat.", "Objects large enough to destroy the station can be tracked, and are not as dangerous as smaller debris.", "Objects too small to be detected by optical and radar instruments, from approximately 1 cm down to microscopic size, number in the trillions.", "Despite their small size, some of these objects are a threat because of their kinetic energy and direction in relation to the station.", "Spacewalking crew in spacesuits are also at risk of suit damage and consequent exposure to vacuum.Ballistic panels, also called micrometeorite shielding, are incorporated into the station to protect pressurised sections and critical systems.", "The type and thickness of these panels depend on their predicted exposure to damage.", "The station's shields and structure have different designs on the ROS and the USOS.", "On the USOS, Whipple Shields are used.", "The US segment modules consist of an inner layer made from aluminium, a intermediate layers of Kevlar and Nextel (a ceramic fabric), and an outer layer of stainless steel, which causes objects to shatter into a cloud before hitting the hull, thereby spreading the energy of impact.", "On the ROS, a carbon fibre reinforced polymer honeycomb screen is spaced from the hull, an aluminium honeycomb screen is spaced from that, with a screen-vacuum thermal insulation covering, and glass cloth over the top.Space debris is tracked remotely from the ground, and the station crew can be notified.", "If necessary, thrusters on the Russian Orbital Segment can alter the station's orbital altitude, avoiding the debris.", "These Debris Avoidance Manoeuvres (DAMs) are not uncommon, taking place if computational models show the debris will approach within a certain threat distance.", "Ten DAMs had been performed by the end of 2009.Usually, an increase in orbital velocity of the order of 1 m/s is used to raise the orbit by one or two kilometres.", "If necessary, the altitude can also be lowered, although such a manoeuvre wastes propellant.", "If a threat from orbital debris is identified too late for a DAM to be safely conducted, the station crew close all the hatches aboard the station and retreat into their spacecraft in order to be able to evacuate in the event the station was seriously damaged by the debris.", "This partial station evacuation has occurred on 13 March 2009, 28 June 2011, 24 March 2012 and 16 June 2015.In November 2021, a debris cloud from the destruction of Kosmos 1408 by an anti-satellite weapons test threatened the ISS, leading to the announcement of a yellow alert, leading to crew sheltering in the crew capsules.", "A couple of weeks later, it had to perform an unscheduled maneuver to drop the station by 310 meters to avoid a collision with hazardous space debris.File:SDIO KEW Lexan projectile.jpg|A 7-gram object (shown in centre) shot at , the orbital velocity of the ISS, made this crater in a solid block of aluminiumFile:Debris-GEO1280.jpg|Radar-trackable objects, including debris, with distinct ring of geostationary satellitesFile:ISS impact risk.jpg|Example of risk management: A NASA model showing areas at high risk from impact for the International Space Station===Sightings from Earth===The ISS is visible to the naked eye as a slow-moving, bright white dot because of reflected sunlight, and can be seen in the hours after sunset and before sunrise, when the station remains sunlit but the ground and sky are dark.", "The ISS takes about 10 minutes to pass from one horizon to another, and will only be visible part of that time because of moving into or out of the Earth's shadow.", "Because of the size of its reflective surface area, the ISS is the brightest artificial object in the sky (excluding other satellite flares), with an approximate maximum magnitude of −4 when in sunlight and overhead (similar to Venus), and a maximum angular size of 63 arcseconds.", "The ISS, like many satellites including the Iridium constellation, can also produce flares of up to 16 times the brightness of Venus as sunlight glints off reflective surfaces.", "The ISS is also visible in broad daylight, albeit with a great deal more difficulty.Tools are provided by a number of websites such as Heavens-Above (see ''Live viewing'' below) as well as smartphone applications that use orbital data and the observer's longitude and latitude to indicate when the ISS will be visible (weather permitting), where the station will appear to rise, the altitude above the horizon it will reach and the duration of the pass before the station disappears either by setting below the horizon or entering into Earth's shadow.In November 2012 NASA launched its \"Spot the Station\" service, which sends people text and email alerts when the station is due to fly above their town.", "The station is visible from 95% of the inhabited land on Earth, but is not visible from extreme northern or southern latitudes.Under specific conditions, the ISS can be observed at night on five consecutive orbits.", "Those conditions are 1) a mid-latitude observer location, 2) near the time of the solstice with 3) the ISS passing in the direction of the pole from the observer near midnight local time.", "The three photos show the first, middle and last of the five passes on 5–6 June 2014.File:ISS 2008-01-10.jpg|Skytrack long duration exposure of the ISSFile:The ISS passing nearly overhead shortly after sunset in June 2014.jpg|The ISS on its first pass of the night passing nearly overhead shortly after sunset in June 2014File:The ISS passing north near local midnight in June 2014.jpg|The ISS passing north on its third pass of the night near local midnight in June 2014The ISS passing west on its 5th pass of the night before sunrise in June 2014.jpg|The ISS passing west on its fifth pass of the night before sunrise in June 2014====Astrophotography====The ISS and HTV photographed from Earth by Ralf VandeberghUsing a telescope-mounted camera to photograph the station is a popular hobby for astronomers, while using a mounted camera to photograph the Earth and stars is a popular hobby for crew.", "The use of a telescope or binoculars allows viewing of the ISS during daylight hours.Composite of six photos of the ISS transiting the gibbous MoonTransits of the ISS in front of the Sun, particularly during an eclipse (and so the Earth, Sun, Moon, and ISS are all positioned approximately in a single line) are of particular interest for amateur astronomers." ], [ "International co-operation", "A Commemorative Plaque honouring Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement signed on 28 January 1998Involving five space programs and fifteen countries, the International Space Station is the most politically and legally complex space exploration programme in history.", "The 1998 Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement sets forth the primary framework for international cooperation among the parties.", "A series of subsequent agreements govern other aspects of the station, ranging from jurisdictional issues to a code of conduct among visiting astronauts.Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, continued cooperation between Russia and other countries on the International Space Station has been put into question.", "Roscosmos Director General Dmitry Rogozin insinuated that Russian withdrawal could cause the International Space Station to de-orbit due to lack of reboost capabilities, writing in a series of tweets, \"If you block cooperation with us, who will save the ISS from an unguided de-orbit to impact on the territory of the US or Europe?", "There's also the chance of impact of the 500-ton construction in India or China.", "Do you want to threaten them with such a prospect?", "The ISS doesn't fly over Russia, so all the risk is yours.", "Are you ready for it?\"", "(This latter claim is untrue: the ISS flies over all parts of the Earth between 51.6 degrees latitude north and south, approximately the latitude of Saratov.)", "Rogozin later tweeted that normal relations between ISS partners could only be restored once sanctions have been lifted, and indicated that Roscosmos would submit proposals to the Russian government on ending cooperation.", "NASA stated that, if necessary, US corporation Northrop Grumman has offered a reboost capability that would keep the ISS in orbit.On 26 July 2022, Yury Borisov, Rogozin's successor as head of Roscosmos, submitted to Russian President Putin plans for withdrawal from the programme after 2024.However, Robyn Gatens, the NASA official in charge of the space station, responded that NASA had not received any formal notices from Roscosmos concerning withdrawal plans.===Participating countries===* (1997–2007)* * European Space Agency** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** * * *" ], [ "End of mission", "atmospheric re-entry, such as ''Jules Verne'' ATVAccording to the Outer Space Treaty, the United States and Russia are legally responsible for all modules they have launched.", "Several possible disposal options were considered: Natural orbital decay with random reentry (as with Skylab), boosting the station to a higher altitude (which would delay reentry), and a controlled targeted de-orbit to a remote ocean area.", "In late 2010, the preferred plan was to use a slightly modified Progress spacecraft to de-orbit the ISS.", "This plan was seen as the simplest, cheapest and with the lowest risk to human life.OPSEK was previously intended to be constructed of modules from the Russian Orbital Segment after the ISS is decommissioned.", "The modules under consideration for removal from the current ISS included the Multipurpose Laboratory Module (''Nauka''), launched in July 2021, and the other new Russian modules that are proposed to be attached to ''Nauka''.", "These newly launched modules would still be well within their useful lives in 2024.At the end of 2011, the Exploration Gateway Platform concept also proposed using leftover USOS hardware and ''Zvezda 2'' as a refuelling depot and service station located at one of the Earth–Moon Lagrange points.", "However, the entire USOS was not designed for disassembly and will be discarded.On 30 September 2015, Boeing's contract with NASA as prime contractor for the ISS was extended to 30 September 2020.Part of Boeing's services under the contract related to extending the station's primary structural hardware past 2020 to the end of 2028.There have also been suggestions in the commercial space industry that the station could be converted to commercial operations after it is retired by government entities.In July 2018, the Space Frontier Act of 2018 was intended to extend operations of the ISS to 2030.This bill was unanimously approved in the Senate, but failed to pass in the U.S. House.", "In September 2018, the Leading Human Spaceflight Act was introduced with the intent to extend operations of the ISS to 2030, and was confirmed in December 2018.Congress later passed similar provisions in its CHIPS and Science Act, signed into law by President Joe Biden on 9 August 2022.In January 2022, NASA announced a planned date of January 2031 to de-orbit the ISS using a deorbit module and direct any remnants into a remote area of the South Pacific Ocean.", "NASA will launch the deorbiting spacecraft, a year before reentry, docking at the Harmony forward port either through a CBM or to PMA 2/IDA 2 after the removal of Axiom Orbital Segment.", "The spacecraft would only be functional during the final days of ISS, once the station's orbit has decayed to .", "The spacecraft would then conduct one or more orientation burns to lower the perigee to , followed by a final deorbiting burn." ], [ "Cost", "The ISS has been described as the most expensive single item ever constructed.", "As of 2010, the total cost was US$150 billion.", "This includes NASA's budget of $58.7 billion ($89.73 billion in 2021 dollars) for the station from 1985 to 2015, Russia's $12 billion, Europe's $5 billion, Japan's $5 billion, Canada's $2 billion, and the cost of 36 shuttle flights to build the station, estimated at $1.4 billion each, or $50.4 billion in total.", "Assuming 20,000 person-days of use from 2000 to 2015 by two- to six-person crews, each person-day would cost $7.5 million, less than half the inflation-adjusted $19.6 million ($5.5 million before inflation) per person-day of Skylab." ], [ "In film", "Beside numerous documentaries such as the IMAX documentaries ''Space Station 3D'' from 2002, or ''A Beautiful Planet'' from 2016, and films like ''Apogee of Fear'' (2012) and ''Yolki 5'' (2016) the ISS is the subject of feature films such as ''The Day After Tomorrow'' (2004), ''Love'' (2011), together with the Chinese station Tiangong 1 in ''Gravity'' (2013), ''Life'' (2017), and ''I.S.S.''", "(2023).In 2022, the movie ''The Challenge'' (''Doctor's House Call'') was filmed aboard the ISS, and was notable for being the first feature film in which both professional actors and director worked together in space." ], [ "See also", "* ''A Beautiful Planet'' – 2016 IMAX documentary film showing scenes of Earth, as well as astronaut life aboard the ISS* Center for the Advancement of Science in Space – operates the US National Laboratory on the ISS* List of accidents and incidents involving the International Space Station* List of International Space Station expeditions* List of International Space Station spacewalks* List of commanders of the International Space Station* List of human spaceflights to the International Space Station* List of space stations* List of spacecraft deployed from the International Space Station* Politics of outer space* Science diplomacy* ''Space Station 3D'' – 2002 Canadian documentary" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "'''Attribution:'''*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * O'Sullivan, John.", "''European Missions to the International Space Station: 2013 to 2019'' (Springer Nature, 2020).", "* Ruttley, Tara M., Julie A. Robinson, and William H. Gerstenmaier.", "\"The International Space Station: Collaboration, Utilization, and Commercialization.\"", "''Social Science Quarterly'' 98.4 (2017): 1160–1174.online" ], [ "External links", "* * ISS Location===Agency ISS websites===*   Canadian Space Agency* 20px  European Space Agency*   Centre national d'études spatiales (National Centre for Space Studies)*   German Aerospace Center.", ".", "*   Italian Space Agency*   Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency*   S.P.", "Korolev Rocket and Space Corporation Energia.", ".", "*   Russian Federal Space Agency.", ".", "*   National Aeronautics and Space Administration===Research===* NASA: Daily ISS Reports* NASA: Station Science* ESA: ''Columbus''* RSC Energia: Science Research on ISS Russian Segment.", ".===Live viewing===* Live ISS webcam by NASA at uStream.tv* Live HD ISS webcams by NASA HDEV at uStream.tv* Sighting opportunities at NASA.gov* Complete Orbital Position at KarhuKoti.com* Real-time position at Heavens-above.com* Real-time tracking and position at uphere.space===Multimedia===* Johnson Space Center image gallery at Flickr* ISS tour with Sunita Williams by NASA (on YouTube)* Journey to the ISS by ESA (on YouTube)* ''The Future of Hope'', ''Kibō'' module documentary by JAXA (on YouTube)* Seán Doran's compiled videos of orbital photography from the ISS: ''Orbit – Remastered'', ''Orbit: Uncut''; ''The Four Seasons'', ''Nocturne – Earth at Night'', ''Earthbound'', ''The Pearl'' (see Flickr album for more)* Amateur Radio ISS Contact with Harrogate Ladies College in 2002" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Irish" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Irish''' may refer to:" ], [ "Common meanings", "* Someone or something of, from, or related to:** Ireland, an island situated off the north-western coast of continental Europe***Éire, Irish language name for the isle** Northern Ireland, a constituent unit of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland** Republic of Ireland, a sovereign state* Irish language, a Celtic Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family spoken in Ireland* Irish people, people of Irish ethnicity" ], [ "Places", "* Irish Creek (Kansas), a stream in Kansas* Irish Creek (South Dakota), a stream in South Dakota* Irish Lake, Watonwan County, Minnesota* Irish Sea, the body of water which separates the islands of Ireland and Great Britain" ], [ "People", "* Irish (surname), a list of people* William Irish, pseudonym of American writer Cornell Woolrich (1903–1968)* Irish Bella, (born 1995) Indonesian actress* Irish Bob Murphy, Irish-American boxer Edwin Lee Conarty (1922–1961)* Irish McCalla, American actress and artist Nellie McCalla (1928–2002)* Irish Meusel, American Major League Baseball player Emil Meusel (1893–1963)* Irish McIlveen, Northern Ireland-born American Major League Baseball player Henry McIlveen (1880–1960)" ], [ "Other uses", "* Irish (game), historical tables game that was the predecessor of backgammon* London Irish, a rugby union club in London, sometimes called just \"Irish\"" ] ]
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[ [ "Cosmicomics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Cosmicomics''''' () is a collection of twelve short stories by Italo Calvino first published in Italian in 1965 and in English in 1968.The stories were originally published between 1964 and 1965 in the Italian periodicals ''Il Caffè'' and ''Il Giorno''.", "Each story takes a scientific theory (though sometimes a falsehood by today's understanding), and builds an imaginative story around it.", "An always-extant being called Qfwfq explicitly narrates all of the stories save two.", "Every story is a memory of an event in the history of the universe.All of the stories in ''Cosmicomics'', together with more of Qfwfq stories from ''t zero'' and other sources, are now available in a single volume collection, ''The Complete Cosmicomics'' (Penguin UK, 2009).The first U.S. edition, translated by William Weaver, won the National Book Award in the Translation category." ], [ "Contents", "* \"The Distance of the Moon\", the first and probably the best known story.", "Calvino takes the fact that the Moon used to be much closer to the Earth, and builds a story about a love triangle among people who used to jump between the Earth and the Moon, in which lovers drift apart as the Moon recedes.", "* \"At Daybreak\": Life in a nebula before solid matter condenses, and the formation of the planets.", "* \"A Sign in Space\": The idea that the galaxy slowly revolves becomes a story about a being who is desperate to leave behind some unique sign of his existence.", "This story also is a direct illustration of one of the tenets of postmodern theory—that the sign is not the thing it signifies, nor can one claim to fully or properly describe a thing or an idea with a word or other symbol.", "* \"All at One Point\": The fact that all matter and creation used to exist in a single point.", "\"Naturally, we were all there—old Qfwfq said—where else could we have been?", "Nobody knew then that there could be space.", "Or time either: what use did we have for time, packed in there like sardines?", "\"* \"Without Colors\": Before there was an atmosphere, everything was the same shade of gray.", "As the atmosphere appears, so do colors.", "The novelty scares off Ayl, Qfwfq's love interest.", "* \"Games Without End\": A galactic game of marbles played using Hydrogen atoms, before the universe had created other materials.", "* \"The Aquatic Uncle\": A tale on the fact that at one stage in evolution animals left the sea and came to live on land.", "The story is about a family living on land that is a bit ashamed of their old uncle who still lives in the sea, refusing to come ashore like \"civilized\" people.", "* \"How Much Shall We Bet\": Qfwfq bets against his rival Dean (k)yK about the universe's transformations, making increasingly long-term and specific conjectures.", "* \"The Dinosaurs\": How some dinosaurs lived after most of them had become extinct, and how it felt to be that last existing dinosaur in an age where all the current mammals feared his kind as demons.", "* \"The Form of Space\": As the unnamed narrator \"falls\" through space, he cannot help but notice that his trajectory is parallel to that of a beautiful woman, Ursula H'x, and that of lieutenant Fenimore, who is also in love with Ursula.", "The narrator dreams of the shape of space changing, so that he may touch Ursula (or fight with Fenimore).", "* \"The Light Years\": The unnamed narrator looking at other galaxies, and spotting one with a sign pointed right at him saying \"I saw you.\"", "Given that there's a gulf of 100,000,000 light years, he checks his diary to find out what he had been doing that day, and finds out that it was something he wished to hide.", "Then he starts to worry.", "* \"The Spiral\": A story about life as a mollusc who creates the first shell.", "By creating this object of beauty to behold, he enables the development of vision in other creatures and sets off a chain reaction leading to the present day.All of the stories feature non-human characters who have been heavily anthropomorphized." ], [ "Adaptations", "''\"La Luna\" by Enrico Casarosa, 2011'' is a short film based off the same premise as \"The Distance of the Moon.\"" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * \"Italo Calvino's Science Fiction Masterpiece\", essay on ''Cosmicomic''s at ''The Millions'', 25 July 2014" ] ]
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[ [ "IA-32" ], [ "Introduction", "'''IA-32''' (short for \"'''Intel Architecture, 32-bit'''\", commonly called ''i386'') is the 32-bit version of the x86 instruction set architecture, designed by Intel and first implemented in the 80386 microprocessor in 1985.IA-32 is the first incarnation of x86 that supports 32-bit computing; as a result, the \"IA-32\" term may be used as a metonym to refer to all x86 versions that support 32-bit computing.Within various programming language directives, IA-32 is still sometimes referred to as the \"i386\" architecture.", "In some other contexts, certain iterations of the IA-32 ISA are sometimes labelled ''i486'', ''i586'' and ''i686'', referring to the instruction supersets offered by the 80486, the P5 and the P6 microarchitectures respectively.", "These updates offered numerous additions alongside the base IA-32 set including floating-point capabilities and the MMX extensions.Intel was historically the largest manufacturer of IA-32 processors, with the second biggest supplier having been AMD.", "During the 1990s, VIA, Transmeta and other chip manufacturers also produced IA-32 compatible processors (e.g.", "WinChip).", "In the modern era, Intel still produced IA-32 processors under the Intel Quark microcontroller platform until 2019; however, since the 2000s, the majority of manufacturers (Intel included) moved almost exclusively to implementing CPUs based on the 64-bit variant of x86, x86-64.x86-64, by specification, offers legacy operating modes that operate on the IA-32 ISA for backwards compatibility.", "Even given the contemporary prevalence of x86-64, , IA-32 protected mode versions of many modern operating systems are still maintained, e.g.", "Microsoft Windows (until Windows 10; Windows 11 requires x86-64-compatible processor for x86 versions), Windows Server (until Windows Server 2008; Windows Server 2008 R2 requires x86-64-compatible processor for x86 versions) and the Debian Linux distribution.", "In spite of IA-32's name (and causing some potential confusion), the 64-bit evolution of x86 that originated out of AMD would not be known as \"IA-64\", that name instead belonging to Intel's Itanium architecture." ], [ "Architectural features", "The primary defining characteristic of IA-32 is the availability of 32-bit general-purpose processor registers (for example, EAX and EBX), 32-bit integer arithmetic and logical operations, 32-bit offsets within a segment in protected mode, and the translation of segmented addresses to 32-bit linear addresses.", "The designers took the opportunity to make other improvements as well.", "Some of the most significant changes (relative to the 16-bit 286 instruction set) are:; 32-bit integer capability: All general-purpose registers (GPRs) are expanded from 16 bits to 32 bits, and all arithmetic and logical operations, memory-to-register and register-to-memory operations, etc., can operate directly on 32-bit integers.", "Pushes and pops on the stack default to 4-byte strides, and non-segmented pointers are 4 bytes wide.", "; More general addressing modes: Any GPR can be used as a base register, and any GPR other than ESP can be used as an index register, in a memory reference.", "The index register value can be multiplied by 1, 2, 4, or 8 before being added to the base register value and displacement.", "; Additional segment registers: Two additional segment registers, FS and GS, are provided.", "; Larger virtual address space: The IA-32 architecture defines a 48-bit segmented address format, with a 16-bit segment number and a 32-bit offset within the segment.", "Segmented addresses are mapped to 32-bit linear addresses.", "; Demand paging: 32-bit linear addresses are virtual addresses rather than physical addresses; they are translated to physical addresses through a page table.", "In the 80386, 80486, and the original Pentium processors, the physical address was 32 bits; in the Pentium Pro and later processors, the Physical Address Extension allowed 36-bit physical addresses, although the linear address size was still 32 bits." ], [ "Operating modes", " Operating mode Operating system required Type of code being run Default address size Default operand size Typical GPR width Protected mode 32-bit operating system or boot loader 32-bit protected-mode code 32 bits 32 bits 32 bits 16-bit protected-mode operating system or boot loader, or 32-bit boot loader 16-bit protected-mode code 16 bits 16 bits 16 or 32 bits Virtual 8086 mode 16- or 32-bit protected-mode operating system 16-bit real-mode code 16 bits 16 bits 16 or 32 bits Real mode 16-bit real-mode operating system or boot loader, or 32-bit boot loader 16-bit real-mode code 16 bits 16 bits 16 or 32 bits Unreal mode 16-bit real-mode operating system or boot loader, or 32-bit boot loader 16-bit real-mode code 32 bits 16 bits 16 or 32 bits" ], [ "See also", "* x86-64* IA-64* List of former IA-32 compatible processor manufacturers* Transient execution CPU vulnerability" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Internalism and externalism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Internalism''' and '''externalism''' are two opposite ways of integration of explaining various subjects in several areas of philosophy.", "These include human motivation, knowledge, justification, meaning, and truth.", "The distinction arises in many areas of debate with similar but distinct meanings.", "Internal–external distinction is a distinction used in philosophy to divide an ontology into two parts: an internal part concerning observation related to philosophy, and an external part concerning question related to philosophy.Internalism is the thesis that no fact about the world can provide reasons for action independently of desires and beliefs.", "Externalism is the thesis that reasons are to be identified with objective features of the world." ], [ "Moral philosophy", "=== Motivation ===In contemporary moral philosophy, '''motivational internalism''' (or '''moral internalism''') is the view that moral convictions (which are not necessarily beliefs, e.g.", "feelings of moral approval or disapproval) are intrinsically motivating.", "That is, the motivational internalist believes that there is an internal, necessary connection between one's conviction that X ought to be done and one's motivation to do X. Conversely, the '''motivational externalist''' (or '''moral externalist''') claims that there is no necessary internal connection between moral convictions and moral motives.", "That is, there is no necessary connection between the conviction that X is wrong and the motivational drive not to do X.", "(The use of these terms has roots in W.D.", "Falk's (1947) paper \"'Ought' and Motivation\").These views in moral psychology have various implications.", "In particular, if motivational internalism is true, then amorality is unintelligible (and metaphysically impossible).", "An amoralist is not simply someone who is immoral, rather it is someone who knows what the moral things to do are, yet is not motivated to do them.", "Such an agent is unintelligible to the motivational internalist, because moral judgments about the right thing to do have built into them corresponding motivations to do those things that are judged by the agent to be the moral things to do.", "On the other hand, an amoralist is entirely intelligible to the motivational ''externalist'', because the motivational externalist thinks that moral judgments about what is right do not necessitate some motivation to do those things that are judged to be the right thing to do; rather, an independent desire—such as the desire to do the right thing—is required (Brink, 2003), (Rosati, 2006).=== Reasons ===There is also a distinction in ethics and action theory, largely made popular by Bernard Williams (1979, reprinted in 1981), concerning internal and external reasons for an action.", "An ''internal reason'' is, roughly, something that one has in light of one's own \"subjective motivational set\"—one's own commitments, desires (or wants), goals, etc.", "On the other hand, an ''external reason'' is something that one has independent of one's subjective motivational set.", "For example, suppose that Sally is going to drink a glass of poison, because she wants to commit suicide and believes that she can do so by drinking the poison.", "Sally has an internal reason to drink the poison, because she wants to commit suicide.", "However, one might say that she has an external reason not to drink the poison because, even though she wants to die, one ought not to kill oneself no matter what—regardless of whether one wants to die.Some philosophers embrace the existence of both kinds of reason, while others deny the existence of one or the other.", "For example, Bernard Williams (1981) argues that there are really only internal reasons for action.", "Such a view is called ''internalism about reasons'' (or ''reasons internalism'').", "''Externalism about reasons'' (or ''reasons externalism'') is the denial of reasons internalism.", "It is the view that there are external reasons for action; that is, there are reasons for action that one can have even if the action is not part of one's subjective motivational set.Consider the following situation.", "Suppose that it's against the moral law to steal from the poor, and Sasha knows this.", "However, Sasha doesn't desire to follow the moral law, and there is currently a poor person next to him.", "Is it intelligible to say that Sasha has a reason to follow the moral law right now (to not steal from the poor person next to him), even though he doesn't care to do so?", "The reasons externalist answers in the affirmative (\"Yes, Sasha has a reason not to steal from that poor person.", "\"), since he believes that one can have reasons for action even if one does not have the relevant desire.", "Conversely, the reasons internalist answers the question in the negative (\"No, Sasha does not have a reason not to steal from that poor person, though others might.\").", "The reasons internalist claims that external reasons are unintelligible; one has a reason for action only if one has the relevant desire (that is, only internal reasons can be reasons for action).", "The reasons internalist claims the following: the moral facts are a reason ''for Sasha's action'' not to steal from the poor person next to him only if he currently ''wants'' to follow the moral law (or if not stealing from the poor person is a way to satisfy his other current goals—that is, part of what Williams calls his \"subjective motivational set\").", "In short, the reasoning behind reasons internalism, according to Williams, is that reasons for action must be able to explain one's action; and only internal reasons can do this." ], [ "Epistemology<!--Linked from 'Reliabilism'-->", "=== Justification ======= Internalism ====Two main varieties of epistemic internalism about justification are access internalism and ontological internalism.", "Access internalists require that a believer must have internal access to the justifier(s) of their belief ''p'' in order to be justified in believing ''p''.", "For the access internalist, justification amounts to something like the believer being aware (or capable of being aware) of certain facts that make her belief in ''p'' rational, or them being able to give reasons for her belief in ''p''.", "At minimum, access internalism requires that the believer have some kind of reflective access or awareness to whatever justifies her belief.", "Ontological internalism is the view that justification for a belief is established by one's mental states.", "Ontological internalism can be distinct from access internalism, but the two are often thought to go together since we are generally considered to be capable of having reflective access to mental states.One popular argument for internalism is known as the 'new evil demon problem'.", "The new evil demon problem indirectly supports internalism by challenging externalist views of justification, particularly reliabilism.", "The argument asks us to imagine a subject with beliefs and experiences identical to ours, but the subject is being systematically deceived by a malicious Cartesian demon so that all their beliefs turn out false.", "In spite of the subject's unfortunate deception, the argument goes, we do not think this subject ceases to be rational in taking things to be as they appear as we do.", "After all, it is possible that we could be radically deceived in the same way, yet we are still justified in holding most of our beliefs in spite of this possibility.", "Since reliabilism maintains that one's beliefs are justified via reliable belief-forming processes (where reliable means yielding true beliefs), the subject in the evil demon scenario would not likely have any justified beliefs according to reliabilism because all of their beliefs would be false.", "Since this result is supposed to clash with our intuitions that the subject is justified in their beliefs in spite of being systematically deceived, some take the new evil demon problem as a reason for rejecting externalist views of justification.==== Externalism ====Externalist views of justification emerged in epistemology during the late 20th century.", "Externalist conceptions of justification assert that facts external to the believer can serve as the justification for a belief.", "According to the externalist, a believer need not have any internal access or cognitive grasp of any reasons or facts which make their belief justified.", "The externalist's assessment of justification can be contrasted with access internalism, which demands that the believer have internal reflective access to reasons or facts which corroborate their belief in order to be justified in holding it.", "Externalism, on the other hand, maintains that the justification for someone's belief can come from facts that are entirely external to the agent's subjective awareness.Alvin Goldman, one of the most well-known proponents of externalism in epistemology, is known for developing a popular form of externalism called reliabilism.", "In his paper, “What is Justified Belief?” Goldman characterizes the reliabilist conception of justification as such:\"If S’s believing ''p'' at ''t'' results from a reliable cognitive belief-forming process (or \tset of processes), then S’s belief in ''p'' at ''t'' is justified.”Goldman notes that a reliable belief-forming process is one which generally produces true beliefs.A unique consequence of reliabilism (and other forms of externalism) is that one can have a justified belief without knowing one is justified (this is not possible under most forms of epistemic internalism).", "In addition, we do not yet know which cognitive processes are in fact reliable, so anyone who embraces reliabilism must concede that we do not always know whether some of our beliefs are justified (even though there is a fact of the matter).=== As a response to skepticism ===In responding to skepticism, Hilary Putnam (1982) claims that semantic externalism yields \"an argument we can give that shows we are not brains in a vat (BIV).", "(See also DeRose, 1999.)", "If semantic externalism is true, then the meaning of a word or sentence is not wholly determined by what individuals think those words mean.", "For example, semantic externalists maintain that the word \"water\" referred to the substance whose chemical composition is H2O even before scientists had discovered that chemical composition.", "The fact that the substance out in the world we were calling \"water\" actually had that composition at least partially determined the meaning of the word.", "One way to use this in a response to skepticism is to apply the same strategy to the terms used in a skeptical argument in the following way (DeRose, 1999):To clarify how this argument is supposed to work: Imagine that there is brain in a vat, and a whole world is being simulated for it.", "Call the individual who is being deceived \"Steve.\"", "When Steve is given an experience of walking through a park, semantic externalism allows for his thought, \"I am walking through a park\" to be true so long as the simulated reality is one in which he is walking through a park.", "Similarly, what it takes for his thought, \"I am a brain in a vat,\" to be true is for the simulated reality to be one where he is a brain in a vat.", "But in the simulated reality, he is not a brain in a vat.Apart from disputes over the success of the argument or the plausibility of the specific type of semantic externalism required for it to work, there is question as to what is gained by defeating the skeptical worry with this strategy.", "Skeptics can give new skeptical cases that wouldn't be subject to the same response (e.g., one where the person was very recently turned into a brain in a vat, so that their words \"brain\" and \"vat\" still pick out real brains and vats, rather than simulated ones).", "Further, if even brains in vats can correctly believe \"I am not a brain in a vat,\" then the skeptic can still press us on how we know we are not in that situation (though the externalist will point out that it may be difficult for the skeptic to describe that situation).Another attempt to use externalism to refute skepticism is done by Brueckner and Warfield.", "It involves the claim that our thoughts are ''about'' things, unlike a BIV's thoughts, which cannot be ''about'' things (DeRose, 1999)." ], [ "Semantics", "Semantic externalism comes in two varieties, depending on whether meaning is construed cognitively or linguistically.", "On a cognitive construal, externalism is the thesis that what concepts (or contents) are available to a thinker is determined by their environment, or their relation to their environment.", "On a linguistic construal, externalism is the thesis that the meaning of a word is environmentally determined.", "Likewise, one can construe semantic internalism in two ways, as a denial of either of these two theses.Externalism and internalism in semantics is closely tied to the distinction in philosophy of mind concerning mental content, since the contents of one's thoughts (specifically, intentional mental states) are usually taken to be semantic objects that are truth-evaluable.See also:*Linguistic turn for more about the two construals of meaning*Swamp man thought experiment*Twin Earth thought experiment" ], [ "Philosophy of mind", "Within the context of the philosophy of mind, externalism is the theory that the contents of at least some of one's mental states are dependent in part on their relationship to the external world or one's environment.The traditional discussion on externalism was centered around the semantic aspect of mental content.", "This is by no means the only meaning of externalism now.", "Externalism is now a broad collection of philosophical views considering all aspects of mental content and activity.", "There are various forms of externalism that consider either the content or the vehicles of the mind or both.", "Furthermore, externalism could be limited to cognition, or it could address broader issues of consciousness.As to the traditional discussion on semantic externalism (often dubbed ''content externalism''), some mental states, such as believing that water is wet, and fearing that the Queen has been insulted, have contents we can capture using 'that' clauses.", "The content externalist often appeal to observations found as early as Hilary Putnam's seminal essay, \"The Meaning of 'Meaning',\" (1975).", "Putnam stated that we can easily imagine pairs of individuals that are microphysical duplicates embedded in different surroundings who use the same words but mean different things when using them.For example, suppose that Ike and Tina's mothers are identical twins and that Ike and Tina are raised in isolation from one another in indistinguishable environments.", "When Ike says, \"I want my mommy,\" he expresses a want satisfied only if he is brought to his mommy.", "If we brought Tina's mommy, Ike might not notice the difference, but he doesn't get what he wants.", "It seems that what he wants and what he says when he says, \"I want my mommy,\" will be different from what Tina wants and what she says she wants when she says, \"I want my mommy.", "\"Externalists say that if we assume competent speakers know what they think, and say what they think, the difference in what these two speakers mean corresponds to a difference in the thoughts of the two speakers that is not (necessarily) reflected by a difference in the internal make up of the speakers or thinkers.", "They urge us to move from externalism about meaning of the sort Putnam defended to externalism about contentful states of mind.", "The example pertains to singular terms, but has been extended to cover kind terms as well such as natural kinds (e.g., 'water') and for kinds of artifacts (e.g., 'espresso maker').", "There is no general agreement amongst content externalists as to the scope of the thesis.Philosophers now tend to distinguish between ''wide content'' (externalist mental content) and ''narrow content'' (anti-externalist mental content).", "Some, then, align themselves as endorsing one view of content exclusively, or both.", "For example, Jerry Fodor (1980) argues for narrow content (although he comes to reject that view in his 1995), while David Chalmers (2002) argues for a two dimensional semantics according to which the contents of mental states can have both wide and narrow content.Critics of the view have questioned the original thought experiments saying that the lessons that Putnam and later writers such as Tyler Burge (1979, 1982) have urged us to draw can be resisted.", "Frank Jackson and John Searle, for example, have defended internalist accounts of thought content according to which the contents of our thoughts are fixed by descriptions that pick out the individuals and kinds that our thoughts intuitively pertain to the sorts of things that we take them to.", "In the Ike/Tina example, one might agree that Ike's thoughts pertain to Ike's mother and that Tina's thoughts pertain to Tina's but insist that this is because Ike thinks of that woman as his mother and we can capture this by saying that he thinks of her as 'the mother of the speaker'.", "This descriptive phrase will pick out one unique woman.", "Externalists claim this is implausible, as we would have to ascribe to Ike knowledge he wouldn't need to successfully think about or refer to his mother.Critics have also claimed that content externalists are committed to epistemological absurdities.", "Suppose that a speaker can have the concept of water we do only if the speaker lives in a world that contains H2O.", "It seems this speaker could know a priori that they think that water is wet.", "This is the thesis of privileged access.", "It also seems that they could know on the basis of simple thought experiments that they can only think that water is wet if they live in a world that contains water.", "What would prevent her from putting these together and coming to know a priori that the world contains water?", "If we should say that no one could possibly know whether water exists a priori, it seems either we cannot know content externalism to be true on the basis of thought experiments or we cannot know what we are thinking without first looking into the world to see what it is like.As mentioned, content externalism (limited to the semantic aspects) is only one among many other options offered by externalism by and large.See also:* Twin Earth thought experiment* Extended cognition" ], [ "Historiography of science<!--'Historiographical internalism' and 'Historiographical externalism' redirect here-->", "'''Internalism in the historiography of science''' claims that science is completely distinct from social influences and pure natural science can exist in any society and at any time given the intellectual capacity.", "Imre Lakatos is a notable proponent of historiographical internalism.", "'''Externalism in the historiography of science''' is the view that the history of science is due to its social context – the socio-political climate and the surrounding economy determines scientific progress.", "Thomas Kuhn is a notable proponent of historiographical externalism." ], [ "See also", "* Anti-psychologism* Dream argument* Emic and etic* Foundationalism* Relativism* Self-awareness* Simulated reality" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Brink, David (1989) \"Moral Realism and the Foundations of Ethics\", New York: Cambridge University Press, Ch.", "3, pp. 37–80.", "* Brown, Curtis (2007) \"Narrow Mental Content\", ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Spring 2007 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).", "( link)* Burge, Tyler (1979) \"Individualism and the Mental\", in French, Uehling, and Wettstein (eds.)", "''Midwest Studies in Philosophy'' IV, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 73–121.", "* Burge, Tyler (1982) \"Other Bodies\", in Woodfield, Andrew, ed., Thought and Object.", "New York: Oxford.", "* Chalmers, David (2002) \"The Components of Content\", in Chalmers (ed.)", "''Philosophy of Mind: Classical and Contemporary Readings'', Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "Preprint available online* Cohen, Stewart (1984) \"Justification and Truth\", ''Philosophical Studies'' 46, pp. 279–296.", "* DeRose, Keith (1999) \"Responding to Skepticism\", ''Skepticism: A Contemporary Reader''.", "* Falk, W. D. (1947) \"'Ought' and Motivation\", ''Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society'', 48: 492–510* Finlay, Stephen & Schroeder, Mark (2008).", "\"Reasons for Action: Internal vs.", "External\".", "''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Edward N. Zalta (ed.).", "( link)* Fodor, Jerry (1980) \"Methodological Solipsism Considered as a Research Strategy in Cognitive Psychology\", ''Behavioral and Brain Sciences'' 3:1.", "* Fodor, Jerry (1995) ''The Elm and the Expert: Mentalese and its Semantics'', Cambridge: MIT Press.", "* Kornblith, Hilary (ed.)", "(2001) ''Epistemology: Internalism and Externalism'', Blackwell Press.", "* Lau, Joe (2004) \"Externalism About Mental Content\", ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2004 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).", "( link)*Le Morvan, Pierre (2005) \"A Metaphilosophical Dilemma for Epistemic Externalism\", ''Metaphilosophy'' 36(5), pp. 688–707.", "* Pappas, George (2005) \"Internalist vs. Externalist Conceptions of Epistemic Justification\", ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Spring 2005 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).", "( link)* Putnam, Hilary (1975) \"The Meaning of 'Meaning'\", in Keith Gunderson (ed.)", "''Language, Mind and Knowledge'', Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp.", "131–93 (reprinted in Putnam (1975), ''Mind, Language and Reality: Philosophical Papers Volume 2'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).", "( link)* Putnam, Hilary (1982) \"Brains in a Vat\", in ''Reason, Truth, and History'', Cambridge University Press.", "( link)* Rosati, Connie S. (2006).", "\"Moral Motivation\", ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' Edward N. Zalta (ed.).", "( link)* Smith, Basil (2013).", "\"Internalism and Externalism in the Philosophy of Mind and Language,\" 'The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy,' P. Saka (ed.).", "( link)* Sosa, Ernest (1991) \"Reliabilism and Intellectual Virtue,\" in E. Sosa, ''Knowledge In Perspective'', Cambridge Press, pp. 131–145.", "* Williams, Bernard (1981) \"Internal and External Reasons\", in Williams's ''Moral Luck'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.", "101–13." ], [ "External links", "* * * * Internalist Explorations of Meaning reading group at Harvard University, autumn 2007." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Isolationism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Isolationism''' is a term used to refer to a political philosophy advocating a national foreign policy that opposes involvement in the political affairs, and especially the wars, of other countries.", "Thus, isolationism fundamentally advocates neutrality and opposes entanglement in military alliances and mutual defense pacts.", "In its purest form, isolationism opposes all commitments to foreign countries including treaties and trade agreements.", "This distinguishes isolationism from non-interventionism, which also advocates military neutrality but does not necessarily oppose international commitments and treaties in general.This contrasts with philosophies such as colonialism, expansionism, and liberal internationalism." ], [ "Introduction", "Isolationism has been defined as:" ], [ "By country", "===Albania======Bhutan===Before 1999, Bhutan had banned television and the Internet in order to preserve its culture, environment, and identity.", "Eventually, Jigme Singye Wangchuck lifted the ban on television and the Internet.", "His son, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, was elected Druk Gyalpo of Bhutan, which helped forge the Bhutanese democracy.", "Bhutan has subsequently undergone a transition from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy multi-party democracy.", "The development of ''Bhutanese democracy'' has been marked by the active encouragement and participation of the reigning Bhutanese monarchs since the 1950s, beginning with legal reforms, and culminating in the enactment of Bhutan's Constitution.Tourism in Bhutan was prohibited until 1974.Since then, the country has allowed foreigners to visit, but has tightly controlled tourism in an effort to preserve its natural and cultural heritage.", "tourists must pay a $200 per day fee on top of other travel expenses such as meals and accommodation.", "Prior to 2022, visitors were not allowed to travel independently and had to be accompanied by a tour guide.", "Bhutan does not maintain formal foreign relations with any of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council, notably including China, its neighbor to the north with which it has a historically tense relationship.===Cambodia===From 1431 to 1863, the Kingdom of Cambodia enforced an isolationist policy.", "The policy prohibited foreign contact with most outside countries.", "When Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge came to power on 17 April 1975 and established Democratic Kampuchea, the whole population of Cambodia were evacuated in every cities including Phnom Penh to the countryside that was ordered by Communist Party of Kampuchea and the secret police Santebal have established an infamous prison gulag inside the torture chamber called Tuol Sleng (S-21).", "Cambodia became Year Zero because of its extreme isolation from the rest of the world but not before 1979 when the Vietnamese overthrow Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge and liberated Cambodia from tyranny on 7 January.===China===After Zheng He's voyages in the 15th century, the foreign policy of the Ming dynasty in China became increasingly isolationist.", "The Hongwu Emperor was not the first to propose the policy to ban all maritime shipping in 1390.The Qing dynasty that came after the Ming dynasty often continued the Ming dynasty's isolationist policies.", "Wokou, which literally translates to \"Japanese pirates\" or \"dwarf pirates\", were pirates who raided the coastlines of China, Japan, and Korea, and were one of the key primary concerns, although the maritime ban was not without some control.In the winter of 1757, the Qianlong Emperor declared that—effective the next year—Guangzhou was to be the only Chinese port permitted to foreign traders, beginning the Canton System.Since the division of the territory following the Chinese Civil War in 1949, China is divided into two regimes with the People's Republic of China solidified control on mainland China while the existing Republic of China was confined to the island of Taiwan as both governments lay claim to each other's sovereignty.", "While the PRC is recognized by the United Nations, European Union, and the majority of the world's states, the ROC remains diplomatically isolated although 15 states recognize it as \"China\" with some countries maintaining unofficial diplomatic relations through trade offices.===Japan===From 1641 to 1853, the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan enforced a policy called ''kaikin''.", "The policy prohibited foreign contact with most outside countries.", "The commonly held idea that Japan was entirely closed, however, is misleading.", "In fact, Japan maintained limited-scale trade and diplomatic relations with China, Korea, and the Ryukyu Islands, as well as the Dutch Republic as the only Western trading partner of Japan for much of the period.The culture of Japan developed with limited influence from the outside world and had one of the longest stretches of peace in history.", "During this period, Japan developed thriving cities, castle towns, increasing commodification of agriculture and domestic trade, wage labor, increasing literacy and concomitant print culture, laying the groundwork for modernization even as the shogunate itself grew weak.===Korea===In 1863, Emperor Gojong took the throne of the Joseon Dynasty when he was a child.", "His father, Regent Heungseon Daewongun, ruled for him until Gojong reached adulthood.", "During the mid-1860s he was the main proponent of isolationism and the principal instrument of the persecution of both native and foreign Catholics.Following the division of the peninsula after independence from Japan at the end of World War II, Kim Il Sung inaugurated an isolationist nationalist regime in the North, which would continued by his son and grandson following his death in 1994.===Paraguay===In 1814, three years after it gained its independence on May 14, 1811, Paraguay was taken over by the dictator José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia.", "During his rule which lasted from 1814 until his death in 1840, he closed Paraguay's borders and prohibited trade or any relationship between Paraguay and the outside world.", "The Spanish settlers who had arrived in Paraguay just before it gained its independence were required to marry old colonists or the native Guaraní in order to create a single Paraguayan people.Francia had a particular dislike of foreigners, and any foreigners who attempted to enter the country were not allowed to leave for an indefinite period of time.", "An independent character, he hated European influences and the Catholic Church and in order to try to keep foreigners at bay, he turned church courtyards into artillery parks and turned confession boxes into border sentry posts.===United States===The cultural roots of isolationism, such as German and Irish ethnicity, have interested scholars.", "Some scholars, such as Robert J.", "Art, believe that the United States had an isolationist history, but most other scholars dispute that claim by describing the United States as following a strategy of unilateralism or non-interventionism rather than a strategy of isolationism.", "Robert Art makes his argument in ''A Grand Strategy for America'' (2003).", "Books that have made the argument that the United States followed unilaterism instead of isolationism include Walter A. McDougall's ''Promised Land, Crusader State'' (1997), John Lewis Gaddis's ''Surprise, Security, and the American Experience'' (2004), and Bradley F. Podliska's ''Acting Alone'' (2010).", "Both sides claim policy prescriptions from George Washington's Farewell Address as evidence for their argument.", "Bear F. Braumoeller argues that even the best case for isolationism, the United States in the interwar period, has been widely misunderstood and that Americans proved willing to fight as soon as they believed a genuine threat existed.", "Warren F. Kuehl and Gary B. Ostrower argue:Events during and after the Revolution related to the treaty of alliance with France, as well as difficulties arising over the neutrality policy pursued during the French revolutionary wars and the Napoleonic wars, encouraged another perspective.", "A desire for separateness and unilateral freedom of action merged with national pride and a sense of continental safety to foster the policy of isolation.", "Although the United States maintained diplomatic relations and economic contacts abroad, it sought to restrict these as narrowly as possible in order to retain its independence.", "The Department of State continually rejected proposals for joint cooperation, a policy made explicit in the Monroe Doctrine's emphasis on unilateral action.", "Not until 1863 did an American delegate attend an international conference." ], [ "Criticism", "Isolationism has been criticized for the lack of aiding nations with major troubles.", "One notable example is that of American isolationism, which Benjamin Schwartz described as a \"tragedy\" inspired by Puritanism.Some modern American conservative commentators claim that labeling others as isolationist is used against individuals in a pejorative manner." ], [ "See also", "* Autarky* Cordon Sanitaire* Economic nationalism* Iron Curtain* Indigenous peoples in voluntary isolation* International isolation* Non-interventionism* Sakoku, Japan's policy before 1868* Swiss neutrality* Isolation (disambiguation)* Splendid isolation* United States non-interventionism* Unilateralism in the United States* ''Why Die for Danzig?''" ], [ "Works cited" ], [ "References", "* Barry, Tom.", "\"A Global Affairs Commentary: The Terms of Power,\" ''Foreign Policy in Focus'', November 6, 2002, University Press.", "*Chalberg, John C. (1995).", "''Isolationism: Opposing Viewpoints.''", "San Diego: Greenhaven Press.", "; * Sullivan, Michael P.", "\"Isolationism.\"", "World Book Deluxe 2001.CD-ROM.===China and Japan===* Berry, Mary Elizabeth.", "(2006).", "''Japan in Print: Information and Nation in the Early Modern Period.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Craig, Albert.", "(1961).", "''Chōshū in the Meiji Restoration.''", "Cambridge: Harvard University Press.", "; * Glahn, Richard Von.", "(1996).", "''Fountain of Fortune: Money and Monetary Policy in China, 1000–1700.''", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "; * Jansen, Marius B.", "(1961).", "''Sakamoto Ryoma and the Meiji Restoration.''", "Princeton: Princeton University Press.", "* Smith, Thomas C. (1959).", "''The Agrarian Origins of Modern Japan.''", "Stanford: Stanford University Press.", "* Toby, Ronald P. (1984).", "''State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu.''", "Princeton: Princeton University Press.", "; ===United States===* Adler, Selig.", "''The Isolationist Impulse: Its Twentieth Century Reaction'' (1957); says it's based on economic self-sufficiency and the illusion of security, together with Irish and German ethnic factors.", "* Graebner, Norman A.", "(1956).", "''The New Isolationism; a Study in Politics and Foreign Policy Since 1950.''", "New York: Ronald Press.", "* Kupchan, Charles A.", "''Isolationism: A History of America's Efforts to Shield Itself from the World'' (Oxford University Press, USA, 2020).", "online; also see online review* Nichols, Christopher McKnight (2011).", "\"Promise and Peril: America at the Dawn of a Global Age.\"", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2011.", "* Nordlinger, Eric A.", "(1995).", "''Isolationism Reconfigured: American Foreign Policy for a New Century.''", "Princeton: Princeton University Press.", "; * Rose, Kenneth D. ''American Isolationism Between the World Wars: The Search for a Nation's Identity'' (Routledge, 2021) online.", "* Weinberg, Albert K. \"The Historical Meaning of the American Doctrine of Isolation.\"", "''American Political Science Review'' 34#3 (1940): 539–547.in JSTOR===Primary sources===*Washington, George \"Washington's Farewell Address 1796.\"", "''Yale Law School Avalon Project, 2008''.", "Web.", "12 Sept 2013." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Indianapolis Colts" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Indianapolis Colts''' are a professional American football team based in Indianapolis.", "The Colts compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league's American Football Conference (AFC) South division.", "Since the 2008 season, the Colts have played their games in Lucas Oil Stadium.", "Previously, the team had played for over two decades (1984–2007) at the RCA Dome.", "Since 1987, the Colts have served as the host team for the NFL Scouting Combine.The Colts have competed as a member club of the NFL since their founding in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1953, after then-owner Carroll Rosenbloom purchased the assets of the NFL's last founding Ohio League member Dayton Triangles-Dallas Texans franchise.", "They were one of three NFL teams to join those of the American Football League (AFL) to form the AFC, following the 1970 merger.", "While in Baltimore, the team advanced to the playoffs ten times and won three NFL Championship games in 1958, 1959, and 1968.The Baltimore Colts played in two Super Bowl games, losing to the New York Jets in Super Bowl III and defeating the Dallas Cowboys in Super Bowl V. The Colts relocated to Indianapolis in 1984 and have since appeared in the playoffs sixteen times, won two conference championships, and played in two Super Bowl games; they defeated the Chicago Bears in Super Bowl XLI, and lost to the New Orleans Saints in Super Bowl XLIV (all four Super Bowls that the Colts have played in took place at the home stadium for the Miami Dolphins; while based in Baltimore, they played in Super Bowl III and Super Bowl V at the Orange Bowl in Miami, and while based in Indianapolis, they played in Super Bowl XLI and Super Bowl XLIV at what is now Hard Rock Stadium in Miami Gardens)." ], [ "Franchise history", "=== Baltimore Colts ===Following World War II, a competing professional football league was organized known as the All America Football Conference which began to play in the 1946 season.", "In its second year, the franchise assigned to the Miami Seahawks was relocated to Maryland's major commercial and manufacturing city of Baltimore.", "After a fan contest, the team was renamed the Baltimore Colts and used the team colors of silver and green.", "The Colts played for the next three seasons in the old AAFC.", "until they agreed to merge with the old National Football League (of 1920–1922 to 1950) when the NFL was reorganized.", "The Baltimore Colts were one of the three former AAFC powerhouse teams to merge with the NFL at that time, the others being the San Francisco 49ers and the Cleveland Browns.", "This Colts team, now in the \"big league\" of professional American football for the first time, although with shaky financing and ownership, played only in the 1950 season of the NFL, and was later disbanded.=== Carroll Rosenbloom era (1953–1971) ===Memorial Stadium, home to the Baltimore Colts until 1983.In 1953, a new Baltimore-based group, heavily supported by the city's municipal government and with a large subscription-base of fan-purchased season tickets, led by local owner Carroll Rosenbloom won the rights to a new Baltimore NFL franchise.", "Rosenbloom was awarded the remains of the former Dallas Texans team, who themselves had a long and winding history, with a small part of the franchise starting as the Boston Yanks in 1944, merging later with the Brooklyn Tigers, a franchise that had a far more deep and rich history, being previously known as the Dayton Triangles, one of the original old NFL teams established even before the League itself, in 1913.That team later became the New York Yanks in 1950, and many of the players from the New York Yankees of the former competing All-America Football Conference (1946–49) were added to the team to begin playing in the newly merged League for the 1950 season.", "The Yanks then moved to Dallas in Texas after the 1951 season having competed for two seasons, but played their final two \"home\" games of the 1952 season as a so-called \"road team\" at the Rubber Bowl football stadium in Akron, Ohio.", "The NFL considers the Texans and Colts to be separate teams, although many of the earlier teams shared the same colors of blue and white.", "Thus, the Indianapolis Colts are legally considered to be a 1953 expansion team.Pro Football Hall of Fame inductee Johnny Unitas (1933–2002), was the Baltimore Colts' starting quarterback and famed \"Number 19\", from 1956 to 1972.==== Weeb Ewbank years (1954–1962) ====The current version of the Colts football team played their first season in Baltimore in 1953, where the team compiled a 3–9 record under first-year head coach Keith Molesworth.", "The franchise struggled during the first few years in Baltimore, with the team not achieving their first winning record until the 1957 season.===== NFL champions (1958,1959) =====However, under head coach Weeb Ewbank and the leadership of quarterback Johnny Unitas, the Colts went on to a 9–3 record during the 1958 season and reached the NFL Championship Game for the first time in their history by winning the NFL Western Conference.", "The Colts faced the New York Giants in the 1958 NFL Championship Game, which is considered to be among the greatest contests in professional football history.", "The Colts defeated the Giants 23–17 in the first game ever to utilize the overtime rule, a game seen by 45 million people.Following the Colts first NFL championship, the team posted a 9–3 record during the 1959 season and once again defeated the Giants in the NFL Championship Game to claim their second title in back to back fashion.==== Don Shula years (1963–1969) ====Following the two championships in 1958 and 1959, the Colts did not return to the NFL Championship for four seasons and replaced the head coach Ewbank with the young Don Shula in 1963.In Shula's second season the Colts compiled a 12–2 record, but lost to the Cleveland Browns in the NFL Championship.===== NFL champions (1968) =====In 1968 the Colts returned with the continued leadership of Unitas and Shula and went on to win the Colts' third NFL Championship and made an appearance in Super Bowl III.The Colts against Dallas in their first Super Bowl championship (V).Leading up to the Super Bowl and following the 34–0 trouncing of the Cleveland Browns in the NFL Championship, many were calling the 1968 Colts team one of the \"greatest pro football teams of all time\" and were favored by 18 points against their counterparts from the American Football League, the New York Jets.", "The Colts, however, were stunned by the Jets, who won the game 16–7 in the first Super Bowl victory for the young AFL.", "The result of the game surprised many in the sports media as Joe Namath and Matt Snell led the Jets to the Super Bowl victory under head coach Weeb Ewbank, who had previously won two NFL Championships with the Colts.==== Don McCafferty years (1970–1972) ====Rosenbloom of the Colts, Art Modell of the Browns, and Art Rooney of the Pittsburgh Steelers agreed to have their teams join the ten AFL teams in the American Football Conference as part of the AFL–NFL merger in 1970.===== Super Bowl V champions (1970) =====The Colts immediately went on a rampage in the new league, as new head coach Don McCafferty led the 1970 team to an 11–2–1 regular-season record, winning the AFC East title.", "In the first round of the NFL Playoffs, the Colts beat the Cincinnati Bengals 17–0; one week later in the first-ever AFC Championship Game, they beat the Oakland Raiders 27–17.Baltimore went on to win the first post-merger Super Bowl (Super Bowl V), defeating the National Football Conference's Dallas Cowboys 16–13 on a Jim O'Brien field goal with five seconds left to play.", "The victory gave the Colts their fourth NFL championship and first Super Bowl victory.", "Following the championship, the Colts returned to the playoffs in 1971 and defeated the Cleveland Browns in the first round, but lost to the Miami Dolphins in the AFC Championship.=== Robert Irsay era (1971–1996) ===Citing friction with the City of Baltimore and the local press, Rosenbloom traded the Colts franchise to Robert Irsay on July 13, 1972, and received the Los Angeles Rams in return.", "Under the new ownership, the Colts did not reach the postseason for three consecutive seasons after 1971, and after the 1972 season, starting quarterback and legend Johnny Unitas was traded to the San Diego Chargers.", "Following Unitas' departure, the Colts made the playoffs three consecutive seasons from 1975 to 1977, losing in the divisional round each time.", "The Colts' 1977 playoff loss in double overtime against the Oakland Raiders was famous for the fact that it was the last playoff game for the Colts in Baltimore and is also known for the Ghost to the Post play.", "These consecutive championship teams featured 1976 NFL Most Valuable Player Bert Jones at quarterback and an outstanding defensive line, nicknamed the \"Sack Pack.", "\"Following the 1970s success, the team endured nine consecutive losing seasons beginning in 1978.In 1981, the Colts defense allowed an NFL-record 533 points, set an all-time record for fewest sacks (13), and also set a modern record for fewest punt returns (12).", "The following year, the offense collapsed, including a game against the Buffalo Bills where the Colts' offense did not cross mid-field the entire game.", "The Colts finished 0–8–1 in the strike-shortened 1982 season, thereby earning the right to select Stanford quarterback John Elway with the first overall pick.", "Elway, however, refused to play for Baltimore, and using leverage as a draftee of the New York Yankees baseball club, forced a trade to Denver.", "Behind an improved defense the team finished 7–9 in 1983, but that would be their last season in Baltimore.=== Relocation to Indianapolis ===The Indianapolis Colts played in the RCA Dome from 1984 until 2007.The Baltimore Colts played their final home game in Baltimore on December 18, 1983, against the then Houston Oilers.", "Irsay continued to request upgrades to Memorial Stadium or construction of a new stadium.", "As a result of the poor performance on the field and the stadium issues, fan attendance and team revenue continued to dwindle.", "City officials were precluded from using tax-payer funds for the building of a new stadium, and the modest proposals that were offered by the city were not acceptable to either the Colts or the city's MLB franchise the Orioles.", "However, all sides continued to negotiate.", "Relations between Irsay and the city of Baltimore deteriorated.", "Although Irsay assured fans that his ultimate desire was to stay in Baltimore, he nevertheless began discussions with several other cities willing to build new football stadiums, eventually narrowing the list of cities to two: Phoenix and Indianapolis.", "Under the administration of mayors Richard Lugar and then William Hudnut, Indianapolis had undertaken an ambitious effort to reinvent itself into a 'Great American City'.", "The Hoosier Dome, which was later renamed the RCA Dome, had been built specifically for, and was ready to host, an NFL expansion team.Meanwhile, in Baltimore, the situation worsened.", "The Maryland General Assembly intervened when a bill was introduced to give the city of Baltimore the right to seize ownership of the team by eminent domain.", "As a result, Irsay began serious negotiations with Indianapolis Mayor William Hudnut in order to move the team before the Maryland legislature could pass the law.", "Indianapolis offered loans as well as the Hoosier Dome and a training complex.", "After the deal was reached, moving vans from Indianapolis-based Mayflower Transit were dispatched overnight to the team's Maryland training complex, arriving on the morning of March 29, 1984.Once in Maryland, workers loaded all of the team's belongings, and by midday the trucks departed for Indianapolis, leaving nothing of the Colts organization that could be seized by Baltimore.", "The Baltimore Colts' Marching Band had to scramble to retrieve their equipment and uniforms before they were shipped to Indianapolis as well.The move triggered a flurry of legal activity that ended when representatives of the city of Baltimore and the Colts organization reached a settlement in March 1986.Under the agreement, all lawsuits regarding the relocation were dismissed, and the Colts agreed to endorse a new NFL team for Baltimore.Eric Dickerson led the team in rushing and earned three Pro Bowl invitations during his tenure with the Colts (87'-91').Upon the Colts' arrival in Indianapolis over 143,000 requests for season tickets were received in just two weeks.", "The move to Indianapolis, however, did not change the recent fortune of the Colts, with the team appearing in the postseason only once in the first 11 seasons in Indianapolis.", "During the 1984 season, the first in Indianapolis, the team went 4–12 and accounted for the lowest offensive yardage in the league that season.", "The 1985 and 1986 teams combined for only eight wins, including an 0–13 start in 1986 which prompted the firing of head coach Rod Dowhower, who was replaced by Ron Meyer.", "The Colts, however, did receive eventual Hall of Fame running back Eric Dickerson as a result of a trade during the 1987 season, and went on to compile a 9–6 record, thereby winning the AFC East and advancing to the postseason for the first time in Indianapolis; they lost that game to the Cleveland Browns.Following 1987, the Colts did not see any real success for quite some time, with the team missing the postseason for seven consecutive seasons.", "The struggles came to a climax in 1991 when the team went 1–15 and was just one point away from the first \"imperfect\" season in the history of a 16-game schedule.", "The season resulted in the firing of head coach Ron Meyer and the return of former head coach Ted Marchibroda to the organization in 1992; he had coached the team from 1975 to 1979.The team continued to struggle under Marchibroda and Jim Irsay, son of Robert Irsay and general manager at the time.", "It was in 1994 that Robert Irsay brought in Bill Tobin to become the general manager of the Indianapolis Colts.Under Tobin, the Colts drafted running back Marshall Faulk with the second overall pick in the 1994 and acquired quarterback Jim Harbaugh as well.", "These moves along with others saw the Colts begin to turn their fortunes around with playoff appearances in 1995 and 1996.The Colts won their first postseason game as the Indianapolis Colts in 1995 and advanced to the AFC Championship Game against the Pittsburgh Steelers, coming just a Hail Mary pass reception away from a trip to Super Bowl XXX.Marchibroda retired following the 1995 season and was replaced by Lindy Infante in 1996.After two consecutive playoff appearances, the Colts regressed and went 3–13 during the 1997 season.=== Jim Irsay era (1997–present) ===Along with the disappointing season, the principal owner and man who moved the team to Indianapolis, Robert Irsay, died in January 1997 after years of declining health.", "Jim Irsay, Robert Irsay's son, entered the role of principal owner following his father's death and quickly began to change the organization.", "Irsay replaced general manager Tobin with Bill Polian in 1997 as the team decided to build through their number one overall pick in the 1998 draft.==== Jim Mora years (1998–2001) ====Peyton Manning was the starting quarterback for the Colts from 1998 until 2010.Jim Irsay began to shape the Colts one year after assuming control from his father by firing head coach Lindy Infante and hiring Bill Polian as the general manager of the organization.", "Polian in turn hired Jim Mora to become the next head coach of the team and drafted Tennessee Volunteer quarterback Peyton Manning, the son of New Orleans Saints legend Archie Manning, with the first overall pick in the 1998 NFL Draft.The team and Manning struggled during the 1998 season, winning only three games; Manning threw a league high 28 interceptions.", "However, Manning did pass for 3,739 yards and threw 26 touchdown passes and was named to the NFL All-Rookie First Team.", "The Colts began to improve towards the end of the 1998 season and showed continued growth in 1999.Indianapolis drafted Edgerrin James in 1999 and continued to improve their roster heading into the upcoming season.", "The Colts went 13–3 in 1999 and finished first in the AFC East, their first division title since 1987.Indianapolis lost to the eventual AFC champion Tennessee Titans in the divisional playoffs.The 2000 and 2001 Colts teams were considerably less successful compared to the 1999 team, and pressure began to mount on team administration and the coaching staff following a 6–10 season in 2001.==== Tony Dungy years (2002–2008) ====Head coach Jim Mora was fired at the end of the season and was replaced by former Tampa Bay Buccaneers head coach Tony Dungy.", "Dungy and the team quickly changed the atmosphere of the organization and returned to the playoffs in 2002 with a 10–6 record.", "The Colts also returned to the playoffs in 2003 and 2004 with 12–4 records and AFC South championships.", "The Colts lost to the New England Patriots and Tom Brady in the 2003 AFC Championship Game and in the 2004 divisional playoffs, thereby beginning a rivalry between the two teams, and between Manning and Brady.", "Following two consecutive playoff losses to the Patriots, the Colts began the 2005 season with a 13–0 record, including a regular season victory over the Patriots, the first in the Manning era.", "During the season Manning and Marvin Harrison broke the NFL record for touchdowns by a quarterback and receiver tandem.", "Indianapolis finished the 2005 season with a 14–2 record, the best record in the league that year and the best in a 16 games season for the franchise, but lost to the Pittsburgh Steelers in the divisional round, a disappointing end to the season.===== Super Bowl XLI champions (2006) =====Indianapolis entered the 2006 season with a veteran quarterback, receivers, and defenders, and chose running back Joseph Addai in the 2006 draft.", "As in the previous season, the Colts began the season undefeated and went 9–0 before losing their first game against the Dallas Cowboys.", "Indianapolis finished the season with a 12–4 record and entered the playoffs for the fifth consecutive year, this time as the number three seed in the AFC.", "The Colts won their first two playoff games against the Kansas City Chiefs and the Baltimore Ravens to return to the AFC Championship Game for the first time since the 2003 playoffs, where they faced their rivals, the New England Patriots.", "In a classic game, the Colts overcame a 21–3 first-half deficit to win the game 38–34 and earned a trip to Super Bowl XLI, the franchise's first Super Bowl appearance since 1970 and for the first as Indianapolis.", "The Colts faced the Chicago Bears in the Super Bowl, winning the game 29–17 and giving Manning, Polian, Irsay, and Dungy, as well as the city of Indianapolis, their first Super Bowl title.Following their Super Bowl championship, the Colts compiled a 13–3 record during the 2007 season; they lost to the San Diego Chargers in the divisional playoffs, in what was the final game the Colts played at the RCA Dome before moving into Lucas Oil Stadium in 2008.The 2008 season began with Manning being sidelined for most of the pre-season due to surgery.", "Indianapolis began the season with a 3–4 record, but then won nine consecutive games to end the season at 12–4 and make in into the playoffs as a wild card team, eventually losing to the Chargers in the wild card round.", "Following the season, Tony Dungy announced his retirement after seven seasons as head coach, having compiled an overall record of 92–33 with the team.Indianapolis offensive line huddles during Super Bowl XLIV (2010)==== Jim Caldwell years (2009–2011) ====Jim Caldwell was hired as head coach of the team following Dungy, and led the team during the 2009 season.", "The Colts went 14–0 during the season to finish with an overall record of 14–2 after controversially benching their starters during the last two games.", "The Colts for the second time in the Manning era entered the playoffs with the best record in the AFC.", "The Colts managed victories over the Baltimore Ravens and New York Jets to advance to Super Bowl XLIV against the New Orleans Saints, but lost to the Saints 31–17 to end the season in disappointment.At the completion of the 2009 season, the Colts had finished the first decade of the 2000s (2000–2009) with the most regular-season wins (115) and highest winning percentage (.719) of any team in the NFL during that span.The 2010 team compiled a 10–6 record, the first time the Colts did not win 12 games since 2002, and lost to the New York Jets in the wild card round of the playoffs.", "The loss to the Jets was the last game for Peyton Manning as a Colt.After missing the preseason, Manning was ruled out for the Colts' opening game in Houston and eventually the entire 2011 season.", "Taking over as starter was veteran quarterback Kerry Collins, who had been signed to the team after dissatisfaction with backup quarterback Curtis Painter and Dan Orlovsky.", "However, even with a veteran quarterback, the Colts lost their first 13 games and finished the season with a 2–14 record, enough to receive the first overall pick in the 2012 draft.", "Immediately following the season, team president Bill Polian was fired, ending his 14-year tenure with the team.", "The change built the anticipation of the organization's decision regarding Manning's future with the team.", "The Peyton Manning era came to an end on March 8, 2012, when Jim Irsay announced that Manning was being released from the roster after 13 seasons.==== Chuck Pagano years (2012–2017) ====Luck during his first playoff game against the Baltimore RavensDuring the 2012 off-season owner Jim Irsay hired Ryan Grigson to be the General Manager.", "Grigson decided to let head coach Jim Caldwell go and Chuck Pagano was hired as the new head coach shortly thereafter.", "The Colts also began to release some higher paid and oft-injured veteran players, including Joseph Addai, Dallas Clark, and Gary Brackett.", "The Colts used their number one overall draft pick in 2012 to draft Stanford Cardinal quarterback Andrew Luck and also drafted his teammate Coby Fleener in the second round.", "The team also switched to a 3–4 defensive scheme.With productive seasons from both Luck and veteran receiver Reggie Wayne, the Colts rebounded from the 2–14 season of 2011 with a 2012 season record of 11–5.The franchise, team, and fan base rallied behind head coach Chuck Pagano during his fight with leukemia.", "Clinching an unexpected playoff spot in the 2012–13 NFL playoffs, the 14th playoff berth for the club since 1995.The season ended in a 24–9 playoff loss to the eventual Super Bowl Champion Baltimore Ravens.Two weeks into the 2013 season, the Colts traded their first-round selection in the 2014 NFL Draft to the Cleveland Browns for running back Trent Richardson.", "In Week 7, Luck led the Colts to a 39–33 win over his predecessor, Peyton Manning, and the undefeated Broncos.", "Luck went on to lead the Colts to a 15th division championship later that season.", "In the first round of the 2013 NFL playoffs, Andrew Luck led the Colts to a 45–44 victory over Kansas City, outscoring the Chiefs 35–13 in the second half in the 2nd biggest comeback in NFL playoff history.During the 2014 season, Luck led the Colts to the AFC Championship game for the first time in his career after breaking the Colts' single-season passing yardage record previously held by Manning.After the Colts finished 8–8 in both the 2015 and 2016 seasons and missed the playoffs in back-to-back seasons for the first time since 1997–98, Grigson was fired as general manager.", "Just three of his previous 18 draft picks remained on the team at the time of his firing.", "On January 30, 2017, the team hired Chris Ballard, who served as the Kansas City Chiefs Director of Football Operations, to replace Grigson.On December 31, 2017, after winning the final game of the season and a final record of 4–12, the Colts parted ways with Pagano.", "Luck, who had suffered multiple injuries and missed nine games during the 2015 season, sat out the entire 2017 season recovering from shoulder surgery.In the weeks following the end of the 2017 season, after two interviews, it was widely reported that the Colts would hire Josh McDaniels, offensive coordinator of the New England Patriots, to replace Pagano, after McDaniels fulfilled his obligations to the Patriots in Super Bowl LII.", "On February 8, 2018, the Colts announced McDaniels as their new head coach.", "Hours later, however, McDaniels rescinded his decision to be the head coach, and he returned to the Patriots.==== Frank Reich years (2018–2022) ====On February 11, 2018, the Colts announced Frank Reich, then offensive coordinator of the Philadelphia Eagles, as their new head coach.", "In Reich's first season as head coach, Andrew Luck's return to the field got off to a shaky start, as the Colts began the 2018 season 1–5.However, they would surge back to win nine of their last ten games to secure a 10–6 record and a playoff berth.", "They would win a Wild-Card game against their division rival Houston Texans before falling to the Kansas City Chiefs in the divisional round.", "Luck, benefiting from the Colts' best offensive line of his career, was named the 2018 Comeback Player of the Year.Colts General Manager Chris Ballard achieved a historic feat in 2018 when two players he had drafted that year, guard Quenton Nelson and linebacker Shaquille Leonard were both named First-Team All-Pro.", "This was the first time two rookies from the same team received that honor since Hall-of-Famers Dick Butkus and Gale Sayers achieved the feat in 1965.On August 24, 2019, Luck informed the Colts that he would be retiring from the NFL after not attending training camp.", "He cited an unfulfilling cycle of injury and rehab as his primary reason for leaving football.On November 17, 2019, the Colts defeated the Jacksonville Jaguars for the team's 300th win in the Indianapolis era, with a record of 300–267.Despite a promising 5–2 start and strong seasons from Leonard, Nelson, and newly acquired defensive end Justin Houston, the Colts struggled in the second half of the 2019 season with new starting quarterback Jacoby Brissett at the helm and finished the year with a 7–9 record.On March 17, 2020, the Colts signed longtime Los Angeles Chargers quarterback and eight-time Pro Bowler Philip Rivers to a one-year deal worth $25 million.", "Rivers led the Colts to an 11–5 record and a playoff berth, where they then lost to the Buffalo Bills in the NFL's first expanded playoffs.On March 17, 2021, the Colts traded a 2021 third-round pick and a 2022 second-round conditional pick for former Eagles quarterback Carson Wentz.", "The Colts finished the season 9–8 after an upset loss to the Jacksonville Jaguars that eliminated the Colts from playoff contention.", "The Colts then traded Wentz and a second round pick to the Washington Commanders in exchange for three draft picks On March 21, 2022, the Colts traded a 2022 third-round pick for longtime Atlanta Falcons quarterback Matt Ryan.", "After playing seven games in which he threw for nine touchdowns and nine interceptions, while also fumbling 11 times, Ryan was benched for the remainder of the season in favor of Sam Ehlinger.On November 7, 2022, the Colts fired Reich as head coach the day after losing by 23 points to the New England Patriots to continue a disappointing 3–5–1 start.", "Longtime Colts center Jeff Saturday was subsequently named the interim head coach." ], [ "Logos and uniforms", "The Colts' former wordmark logo, used from 1984 to 2019.Despite unveiling a new wordmark, the original remains painted on the left end zone at Lucas Oil Stadium.The Colts' helmets in 1953 were white with a blue stripe.", "In 1954–55 they were blue with a white stripe and a pair of horseshoes at the rear of the helmet.", "For 1956, the colors were reversed, white helmet, blue stripe and horseshoes at the rear.", "In 1957 the horseshoes moved to their current location, one on each side of the helmet.The blue jerseys have white shoulder stripes and the white jerseys have blue stripes.", "The team also wears white pants with blue stripes down the sides.", "Both designs originally had sleeve stripes, but by 1957, the uniforms changed to its current form, which evolved as materials changed.For much of the team's history, the Colts wore blue socks, accenting them with two or three white stripes for much of their history in Baltimore and during the 2004 and 2005 seasons.", "From 1982 to 1987, the blue socks featured gray stripes.", "For a period lasting 1955 to 1958 and again from 1988 to 1992, the Colts wore white socks with either two or three blue stripes.From 1982 through 1986, the Colts wore gray pants with their blue jerseys.", "The gray pants featured a horseshoe on the top of the sides with the player's number inside the horseshoe.", "The Colts continued to wear white pants with their white jerseys throughout this period, and in 1987, the gray pants were retired.The Colts wore blue pants with their white jerseys for the first three games of the 1995 season (pairing them with white socks), but then returned to white pants with both the blue and white jerseys.", "The team made some minor uniform adjustments before the start of the 2004 season, including reverting from blue to the traditional gray face masks, darkening their blue colors from a royal blue to speed blue, as well as adding two white stripes to the socks.", "In 2006, the stripes were removed from the socks.In 2002, the Colts made a minor striping pattern change on their jerseys, having the stripes only on top of the shoulders then stop completely.", "Previously, the stripes used to go around to underneath the jersey sleeves.", "This was done because the Colts, like many other football teams, were beginning to manufacture the jerseys to be tighter to reduce holding calls and reduce the size of the sleeves.", "Although the white jerseys of the Minnesota Vikings at the time also had a similar striping pattern and continued as such (as well as the throwbacks the New England Patriots wore in the Thanksgiving game against the Detroit Lions in 2002, though the Patriots later wore the same throwbacks in 2009 with truncated stripes and in 2010 became their official alternate uniform), the Colts and most college teams with this striping pattern did not make this adjustment.In 2017, the Colts brought back the blue pants but paired them with the blue jerseys as part of the NFL Color Rush program.The club officially revealed an updated wordmark logo, as well as updated numeral fonts, on April 13, 2020.While blue and white remained the team's core colors, they added black as a tertiary color, with its usage restricted to the embroidered Nike swoosh on the white uniforms.", "Despite the wordmark change, the previous wordmarks are still painted on the Lucas Oil Stadium end zones.On July 20, 2023, the Colts unveiled a new alternate uniform, including a black alternate helmet.", "The jersey remained blue, but added black trim to the numbers and moved the white sleeve stripes to the shoulders.", "The \"Indiana C\" alternate logo was placed on the left shoulder.", "Blue pants with white stripes are paired with this uniform.", "In a first for the franchise, the Colts would wear black helmets with the uniform, maintaining almost the same look as the primary white helmet save for the increased usage of black." ], [ "Facilities", "After 24 years of playing at the RCA Dome, the Colts moved to their new home Lucas Oil Stadium in the fall of 2008.In December 2004, the City of Indianapolis and Jim Irsay agreed to a new stadium deal at an estimated cost of $1 billion (including the Indiana Convention Center upgrades).", "In a deal estimated at $122 million, Lucas Oil Products won the naming rights to the stadium for 20 years.Lucas Oil Stadium is a seven-level stadium that seats 63,000 for football.", "It can be reconfigured to seat 70,000 or more for NCAA basketball and football and concerts.", "It covers .", "The stadium features a retractable roof allowing the Colts to play home games outdoors for the first time since arriving in Indianapolis.", "Using FieldTurf, the playing surface is roughly below ground level.", "In addition to being larger than the RCA Dome, the new stadium features: 58 permanent concession stands, 90 portable concession stands, 13 escalators, 11 passenger elevators, 800 restrooms, HD video displays from Daktronics and replay monitors and 142 luxury suites.", "The stadium also features a retractable roof, with electrification technology developed by VAHLE, Inc. Other than being the home of the Colts, the stadium will host games in both the Men's and Women's NCAA basketball tournaments and will serve as the backup host for all NCAA Final Four Tournaments.", "The stadium hosted the Super Bowl for the 2011 season (Super Bowl XLVI) and has a potential economic impact estimated at $286 million.", "Lucas Oil Stadium has also hosted the Drum Corps International World Championships since 2009." ], [ "Rivalries", "===AFC South rivalries===As a transplant from the AFC East into the AFC South upon the realignment of the NFL's divisions in , the Colts merely share loose rivalries with the other three teams in its division, namely the Houston Texans, Jacksonville Jaguars, and Tennessee Titans.", "They have dominated the AFC South for much of the division's history, especially during the 2000s and early 2010s, under quarterbacks Peyton Manning and Andrew Luck, but have faced competition for divisional supremacy in recent years from the Texans.===New England Patriots===The rivalry between the Indianapolis Colts and New England Patriots is one of the NFL's newest rivalries.", "The rivalry is fueled by the quarterback comparison between Peyton Manning and Tom Brady during the 2000s.", "The Patriots owned the beginning of the series, defeating the Colts in six consecutive contests including the 2003 AFC Championship game and a 2004 AFC Divisional game.", "The Colts won the next three matches, notching two regular-season victories and a win in the 2006 AFC Championship game on the way to their win in Super Bowl XLI.", "On November 4, 2007, the Patriots defeated the Colts 24–20; in the next matchup on November 2, 2008, the Colts won 18–15 in a game that was one of the reasons the Patriots failed to make the playoffs; in the 2009 meeting, the Colts staged a spirited comeback to beat the Patriots 35–34; in 2010 the Colts almost staged another comeback, pulling within 31–28 after trailing 31–14 in the fourth quarter, but fell short due to a Patriots interception of a Manning pass late in the game; it turned out to be Manning's final meeting against the Patriots as a member of the Colts.", "After a dismal 2011 season that included a 31–24 loss to the Patriots, the Colts drafted Andrew Luck and in November of 2012 the two teams met with identical 6–3 records; the Patriots erased a 14–7 gap to win 59–24.The nature of this rivalry is ironic because the Colts and Patriots were division rivals from 1970 to 2001, but it did not become prominent in league circles until after Indianapolis was relocated to the AFC South.", "On November 16, 2014, the New England Patriots traveled at 7–2 to play the 6–3 Colts at Lucas Oil Stadium.", "After a stellar four-touchdown performance by New England running back Jonas Gray, the Patriots defeated the Colts 42–20.The Patriots followed up with a 45–7 defeat of the Colts in the 2014 AFC Championship Game.===Earliest rivalries===In the years 1953–66, the Colts played in the NFL Western Conference (also known as division), but did not have significant rivalries with other franchises in that alignment, as they were the easternmost team and the rest of the division included the Great Lakes franchises Green Bay, Detroit Lions, Chicago Bears, and after 1961, the Minnesota Vikings, along with the league's two West Coast teams in San Francisco and Los Angeles.", "The closest team to Baltimore was the Washington Redskins, but they were not in the same division and not very competitive during most years at that time.===New York Giants===In 1958, Baltimore played its first NFL Championship Game against the 10–3 New York Giants.", "The Giants qualified for the championship after a tie-breaking playoff against the Cleveland Browns.", "Having already been defeated by the Giants in the regular season, Baltimore was not favored to win, yet proceeded to take the title in sudden death overtime.", "The Colts then repeated the feat by posting an identical record and routing the Giants in the 1959 final.", "Up until the Colts' back-to-back titles, the Giants had been the premier club in the NFL, and continued to be post-season stalwarts the next decade, losing three straight finals.", "The situation was reversed by the end of the decade, with Baltimore winning the 1968 NFL title and New York compiling less impressive results.", "In recent years, the Colts and Giants featured brothers as their starting quarterbacks (Peyton and Eli Manning respectively), leading to their occasional match-up being referred to as the \"Manning Bowl\".===New York Jets===Super Bowl III became the most famous upset in professional sports history as the American Football League's New York Jets won 16–7 over the overwhelmingly favored Colts.", "With the merger of the AFL and NFL the Colts and Jets were placed in the new AFC East.", "The two teams met twice a year (interrupted in 1982 by a player strike) 1970–2001; with the move of the Colts to the AFC South the two teams' rivalry actually escalated, as they met three times in the playoffs in the South's first nine seasons of existence; the Jets crushed the Colts 41–0 in the 2002 Wild Card playoff round; the Colts then defeated the Jets 30–17 in the 2009 AFC Championship Game; but the next year in the wild-card round the Jets pulled off another playoff upset of the Colts, winning 17–16; it was Peyton Manning's final game with the Colts.", "The Jets defeated the Colts 35–9 in 2012 in Andrew Luck's debut season; after two straight losses Luck led a 45–10 rout of the Jets in 2016.Joe Namath and Johnny Unitas were the focal point of the rivalry at its beginning, but they did not meet for a full game until September 24, 1972.Namath erupted with six touchdowns and 496 passing yards despite only 28 throws and 15 completions.", "Unitas threw for 376 yards and two scores but was sacked six times as the Jets won 44–34; the game was considered one of the top ten passing duels in NFL history.===Miami Dolphins===Baltimore's post NFL-AFL merger passage to the AFC saw them thrust into a new environment with little in common with its fellow divisional teams: the Jets, Miami Dolphins, Buffalo Bills, and Boston Patriots.", "One angle where Baltimore and Miami did have something in common, however, came in new Miami coach Don Shula.", "Shula had coached the Colts the previous seven pre-merger seasons (1963–69) and was signed by Joe Robbie after the merger was consummated; because the signing came after the merger the NFL's rules on tampering came into play, and the Dolphins had to give up their first-round pick to the Colts.Powered by QB Earl Morrall Baltimore was the first non-AFL franchise to win a division title in the conference, outlasting the Miami Dolphins by one game, and leading the division since Week 3 of 1970.The two franchises were denied a playoff confrontation by Miami's first-round defeat to the Oakland Raiders, whereas Baltimore won its first Super Bowl title that year.Yet in 1971, the teams were engaged in a heated race that went down to the final week of the season, where Miami won its first division title with a 10–3–1 title compared to the 10–4 Baltimore record after the Colts won the Week 13 matchup between them at home, but proceeded to lose the last game of the season to Boston.", "In the playoffs, Baltimore advanced to the AFC title game after a 20–3 victory over the Cleveland Browns, while Miami won in double overtime against the Kansas City Chiefs.", "This set up a title game that was favored for the defending league champion Colts.", "Yet Miami won the AFC championship with a 21–0 shutout and advanced to lose Super Bowl VI to Dallas.", "In 1975 Baltimore and Miami tied with 10–4 records, yet the Colts advanced to the playoffs based on a head-to-head sweep of their series.", "In 1977 Baltimore tied for first for the third straight year (in 1976 they tied with the now-New England Patriots) with Miami, and this time advanced to the playoffs on even slimmer pretenses, with a conference record of 9–3 compared to Miami's 8–4, as they had split the season series.", "The rivalry in the following years was virtually negated by very poor play of the Colts; the Colts won just 117 games in the twenty-one seasons (1978–98) that bracketed their 1977 playoff loss to the Oakland Raiders and the 1999 trade of star running back Marshall Faulk; this included a 0–8–1 record during the NFL's strike-shortened 1982 season.In 1995, now as Indianapolis, the two both posted borderline 9–7 records to tie for second against Buffalo, yet the Colts once again reached the post-season having swept the season series.", "The following season they edged out Miami by posting a 9–7 record and winning the ordinarily meaningless 3rd-place position, but qualifying for the wild card.", "The two clubs' 1999 meetings were dramatic affairs between Hall Of Fame-bound Dan Marino and up-and-coming star Peyton Manning.", "Marino led a 25-point fourth-quarter comeback for a 34–31 Dolphins win at the RCA Dome, and then in Miami Marino led another comeback to tie the game 34–34 with 36 seconds remaining; Manning, however, drove the Colts in range for a 53-yard field goal as time expired (37–34 Colts win).The last truly meaningful matchup between the two franchises was in the 2000 season, when Miami edged out Indianapolis with an 11–5 record for the division championship.", "The two then met in the wild-card round where the Dolphins won 23–17 before being blown out by Oakland 27–0 (the Colts themselves had suffered a bitter loss to the Raiders in Week 2 of the season when the Raiders erased a 24–7 gap to win 38–31).", "In 2002 the Colts moved to the newly created AFC South division; the two clubs met at the RCA Dome on September 15 where the Dolphins edged the Colts 21–13 after stopping a late Colts drive.", "The rivalry was effectively retired after this; the two clubs did meet in a memorable ''Monday Night Football'' matchup in 2009 where the Colts, despite having the ball for only 15 minutes, defeated the Dolphins 27–23.The rivalry saw a rekindling after the 2012 NFL Draft brought new quarterbacks to both teams in Ryan Tannehill and Luck.", "The two met during the 2012 season with Luck breaking the rookie record for passing yards in a game in a 23–20 win over the Dolphins, but Tannehill and the Dolphins beat the Colts 24–20 the next season.", "The Dolphins win began a slump for Luck and the Colts against AFC East teams (eight straight losses by the Colts) that ended in December 2016 against the Jets, when they defeated them by a score of 41–10." ], [ "Players of note", "===Current roster======Retired numbers===Hall of Fame WR Raymond BerryHall of Fame RB Marshall FaulkHall of Fame WR Marvin HarrisonHall of Fame DE Gino MarchettiJim Parker+Retired numbers for the Indianapolis ColtsNo.PlayerPositionYears playedRetired '''18''' Peyton Manning QB 1998–2011 October 8, 2017 '''19''' Johnny Unitas QB 1956–1972 '''22''' Buddy Young RB 1953–1955 '''24''' Lenny Moore HB 1956–1967 November 24, 1968 '''70''' Art Donovan DT 1953–1961 1962 '''77''' Jim Parker OL 1957–1967 '''82''' Raymond Berry WR 1955–1967 '''89''' Gino Marchetti DE 1953–1966 ===Pro Football Hall of Famers===Baltimore/Indianapolis Colts in the Pro Football Hall of FamePlayers No.", "Name Positions Seasons Inducted No.", "Name Positions Seasons Inducted 82 '''Raymond Berry''' SE 1955–1967 1973 96 Richard Dent DE 1996 2011 29 Eric Dickerson RB 1987–1991 1999 70 '''Art Donovan''' DT 1953–1961 1968 28 Marshall Faulk RB 1994–1998 2011 93 '''Dwight Freeney''' DE 2002–2012 2024 88 '''Marvin Harrison''' WR 1996–2008 2016 83 Ted Hendricks LB 1969–1973 1990 32 '''Edgerrin James''' RB 1999–2005 2020 81 Andre Johnson WR 2015 2024 88 '''John Mackey''' TE 1963–1971 1992 89 '''Gino Marchetti''' DE 1953–1964 1966 1972 18 '''Peyton Manning''' QB 1998–2011 2021 77 '''Jim Parker''' OT 1957–1967 1973 24 '''Lenny Moore''' HB 1956–1967 1975 34 Joe Perry FB 1961–1962 1969 19 '''Johnny Unitas''' QB 1956–1972 1979Coaches and executivesName Positions Tenure Inducted '''Weeb Ewbank''' Head coach 1954–1962 1978 Don Shula Head coach 1963–1969 1997 '''Bill Polian''' President/GM 1998–2011 2015 '''Tony Dungy''' Head coach 2002–2008 2016===Ring of Honor===The Ring of Honor was established on September 23, 1996.There have been 15 inductees.Indianapolis Colts Ring of Honor'''No.'''", "'''Name''' '''Position ''' '''Years With Club''' '''Inducted''' — Robert Irsay Owner 1972–1997 1996 80 Bill Brooks WR 1986–1992 1998 — Ted Marchibroda Head Coach 1975–19791992–1995 2000 75 Chris Hinton OT, OG 1983–1989 2001 4 Jim Harbaugh QB 1994–1997 2005 — 12th Man Fans — 2007 — Tony Dungy Head Coach 2002–2008 2010 88 Marvin Harrison WR 1996–2008 2011 32 Edgerrin James RB 1999–2005 2012 29 Eric Dickerson RB 1987–1991 2013 28 Marshall Faulk RB 1994–1998 63 Jeff Saturday C 1999–2011 2015 — Bill Polian President/GM 1998–2011 2017 18 Peyton Manning QB 1998–2011 87 Reggie Wayne WR 2001–2014 2018 93 Dwight Freeney DE 2002–2012 2019 98 Robert Mathis DE 2003–2016 2021===First-round draft picks===" ], [ "Staff and head coaches", "===Head coaches======Current staff===" ], [ "Statistics and records", "===Season-by-season record===This is a partial list of the Colts' last five completed seasons.", "For the full season-by-season franchise results, see List of Indianapolis Colts seasons.", "'''''Note:''' The Finish, Wins, Losses, and Ties columns list regular season results and exclude any postseason play.", "''+Legend'''Super Bowl champions''' (1970–present)'''Conference champions''''''Division champions''''''Wild Card berth'''+Indianapolis Colts season-by-season recordsSeasonTeamLeagueConferenceDivisionRegular seasonPostseason resultsAwardsFinishWinsLossesTies 2016 NFL AFC South 3rd 8 8 0 — — 2017 NFL AFC South 3rd 4 12 0 — — 2018 NFL AFC South 2nd 10 6 0 '''Won''' Wild Card Playoffs (at Texans) 21–7 Lost Divisional Playoffs (at Chiefs) 31–13 — 2019 NFL AFC South 3rd 7 9 0 — — 2020 NFL AFC South 2nd 11 5 0 Lost Wild Card Playoffs (at Bills) 27–24 —===Records===All-time Colts leadersLeader Player Record Years with Colts Passing Peyton Manning 54,828 passing yards 1998–2011 Rushing Edgerrin James 9,226 rushing yards 1999–2005 Receiving Marvin Harrison 14,580 receiving yards 1996–2008 Coaching wins Tony Dungy 85 wins 2002–2008 Sacks Robert Mathis 118 sacks 2003–2016 Interceptions Bobby Boyd 57 interceptions 1960–1968" ], [ "Radio and television coverage", "The Colts' flagship radio stations since 2007 are WFNI (1070 AM, currently silent but with its repeater signals at 93.5 FM and 107.5 FM continuing to function as \"93.5/107.5 The Fan\" using WIBC-HD2 as a signal source) and WLHK 97.1 FM.", "The 1070 AM frequency, then known as WIBC, had also been the flagship from 1984 to 1992 and from 1995 to 1997.Matt Taylor is the team's play-by-play announcer, succeeding Bob Lamey in 2018.Lamey held the job from 1984 to 1991 and again from 1995 to 2018.Former Colts backup quarterback Jim Sorgi serves as the \"color commentator\".", "Mike Jansen serves as the public address announcer at all Colts home games.", "Jansen has been the public address announcer since the 1998 season.The team's local TV carriage rights were shaken up in mid-2014 when WTTV's owner Tribune Media came to terms with CBS to become the network's Indianapolis affiliate as of January 1, 2015, replacing WISH-TV.", "With the deal, both Tribune Media stations, including WXIN (channel 59) carry the bulk of the team's regular-season games starting with the 2015 NFL season.", "Also as of the 2015 season, WTTV and WXIN became the official Colts stations and air the team's preseason games, along with official team programming and coach's shows, and have a signage presence along the fascia of Lucas Oil Stadium.WISH's sister station WNDY-TV aired preseason games from 2011 to 2014, having replaced WTTV at that time.===Radio station affiliates=======Indiana====+Indiana affiliatesCityCall SignFrequency Alexandria WMXQ 96.7 FM Angola WLKI 100.3 FM Bedford WBIW 1340 AM Bloomington WGCL 1370 AM Columbus WRZQ 107.3 FM Crawfordsville WIMC 103.9 FM Evansville WGBF 1280 AMFort Wayne WOWO 1190 AM WFWI 92.3 FM Goshen WYXX 97.7 FM Greencastle WREB-FM 94.3 FMIndianapolis, Indiana WFNI 1070 AM WLHK 97.1 FM Lafayette WASK-FM 98.7 FM Loogootee WRZR 94.5 FM Madison WORX-FM 96.7 FM Marion WMRI 860 AM Michigan City WEFM 95.9 FM Monticello WMRS 107.7 FM Mount Vernon WMVI 106.7 FM Muncie WMUN 1340 AM North Vernon WJCP 1460 AM Oxford WIBN 98.1 FM Plymouth WTCA 1050 AMPortland WPGW 1440 AM WZBD 92.7 FM Richmond WKBV 1490 AM Rochester WROI 92.1 FM Rushville WIFE-FM 94.3 FM Santa Claus WAXL 103.3 FM South Bend WYET 102.3 FM Sullivan WNDI-FM 95.3 FM Tell City WTCJ 1230 AM Terre Haute WVIG 105.5 FM Vincennes WZDM 92.1 FM Wabash WJOT-FM 105.9 FMWarsaw WAOR 102.7 FM WRSW 1480 AM Washington WWBL 106.5 FM====Illinois====+Illinois affiliatesCity Call Sign Frequency Danville WDAN 1490 AM Decatur WDZQ 95.1 FM Effingham WCRA 1090 AM Mount Carmel WYNG 94.9 FM Olney WVLN 740 AM====Kentucky====+Kentucky affiliatesCity Call Sign Frequency Bardstown WBRT 1320 AM Eminence WLUE 1600 AM Henderson WGBF-FM 103.1 FM Louisville WLRS 1570 AM Owensboro WVJS 1420 AMMap of radio affiliates* Indianapolis Colts Radio Affiliates" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Indianapolis Colts at the National Football League official website*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Immigration to the United States" ], [ "Introduction", "A welcome notice to new immigrantsNaturalization ceremony at Oakton High School in Fairfax County, Virginia, December 2015Oath of Allegiance at a naturalization ceremony at the Grand Canyon National Park in Arizona, September 2010.Population growth rate with and without migration in the U.S.'''Immigration to the United States''' has been a major source of population growth and cultural change throughout much of its history.", "In absolute numbers, the United States has by far the highest number of immigrants in the world, with 50,661,149 people as of 2019.This represents 19.1% of the 244 million international migrants worldwide, and 14.4% of the United States' population.", "In 2018, there were almost 90 million immigrants and U.S.-born children of immigrants in the United States, accounting for 28% of the overall U.S. population.According to the 2016 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics, the United States admitted a total of 1.18 million legal immigrants (618k new arrivals, 565k status adjustments) in 2016.Of these, 48% were the immediate relatives of United States citizens, 20% were family-sponsored, 13% were refugees or asylum seekers, 12% were employment-based preferences, 4.2% were part of the Diversity Immigrant Visa program, 1.4% were victims of a crime (U1) or their family members were (U2 to U5), and 1.0% who were granted the Special Immigrant Visa (SIV) for Iraqis and Afghans employed by the United States Government.", "The remaining 0.4% included small numbers from several other categories, including 0.2% who were granted suspension of deportation as an immediate relative of a citizen (Z13); persons admitted under the Nicaraguan and Central American Relief Act; children born after the issuance of a parent's visa; and certain parolees from the former Soviet Union, Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam who were denied refugee status.Between 1921 and 1965, policies such as the national origins formula limited immigration and naturalization opportunities for people from areas outside Northwestern Europe.", "Exclusion laws enacted as early as the 1880s generally prohibited or severely restricted immigration from Asia, and quota laws enacted in the 1920s curtailed Southern and Eastern European immigration.", "The civil rights movement led to the replacement of these ethnic quotas with per-country limits for family-sponsored and employment-based preference visas.", "Between 1970 and 2007, the number of first-generation immigrants living in the United States quadrupled from 9.6 million to 38.1 million residents.", "Census estimates show 45.3 million foreign born residents in the United States as of March 2018 and 45.4 million in September 2021, the lowest three-year increase in decades.In 2017, out of the U.S. foreign-born population, some 45% (20.7 million) were naturalized citizens, 27% (12.3 million) were lawful permanent residents, 6% (2.2 million) were temporary lawful residents, and 23% (10.5 million) were unauthorized immigrants.", "The United States led the world in refugee resettlement for decades, admitting more refugees than the rest of the world combined.Some research suggests that immigration is beneficial to the United States economy.", "With few exceptions, the evidence suggests that on average, immigration has positive economic effects on the native population, but it is mixed as to whether low-skilled immigration adversely affects low-skilled natives.", "Studies also show that immigrants have lower crime rates than natives in the United States.", "The economic, social, and political aspects of immigration have caused controversy regarding such issues as maintaining ethnic homogeneity, workers for employers versus jobs for non-immigrants, settlement patterns, impact on upward social mobility, crime, and voting behavior." ], [ "History", "An 1887 illustration of immigrants on an ocean steamer passing the Statue of Liberty in New York HarborAmerican immigration history can be viewed in four epochs: the colonial period, the mid-19th century, the start of the 20th century, and post-1965.Each period brought distinct national groups, races, and ethnicities to the United States.=== Colonial period ===During the 17th century, approximately 400,000 English people migrated to America under European colonization.", "They comprised 83.5% of the white population at the time of the first census in 1790.From 1700 to 1775, between 350,000 and 500,000 Europeans immigrated: estimates vary in sources.", "Regarding English settlers of the 18th century, one source says 52,000 English migrated during the period of 1701 to 1775, although this figure is likely too low.", "400,000–450,000 of the 18th-century migrants were Scots, Scots-Irish from Ulster, Germans, Swiss, and French Huguenots.", "Over half of all European immigrants to Colonial America during the 17th and 18th centuries arrived as indentured servants.", "They numbered 350,000.From 1770 to 1775 (the latter year being when the American Revolutionary War began), 7,000 English, 15,000 Scots, 13,200 Scots-Irish, 5,200 Germans, and 3,900 Irish Catholics migrated to the Thirteen Colonies.", "According to Butler (2000), up to half of English migrants in the 18th century may have been young, single men who were well-skilled, trained artisans, like the Huguenots.", "Based on scholarly analysis, ''English'' was the largest single ancestry in all U.S. states at the time of the first census in 1790, ranging from a high of 82% in Massachusetts to a low of 35.3% in Pennsylvania, where Germans accounted for 33.3%.=== Origins of immigrant stock in 1790 ===The Census Bureau published preliminary estimates of the origins of the colonial American population by scholarly classification of the names of all White heads of families recorded in the 1790 census in a 1909 report entitled ''A Century of Population Growth''.", "These initial estimates were scrutinized and rejected following passage of the Immigration Act of 1924, when the government required accurate official estimates of the origins of the colonial stock population as basis for computing National Origins Formula immigration quotas in the 1920s.", "In 1927, proposed quotas based on CPG figures were rejected by the President's Committee chaired by the Secretaries of State, Commerce, and Labor, with the President reporting to Congress \"the statistical and historical information available raises grave doubts as to the whole value of these computations as the basis for the purposes intended\".", "Concluding that CPG \"had not been accepted by scholars as better than a first approximation of the truth\", an extensive scientific revision was produced, in collaboration with the American Council of Learned Societies (ACLS), as basis for computing contemporary legal immigration quotas.", "For this task scholars estimated the proportion of names of unique derivation from each of the major national stocks present in the population as of the 1790 census.", "The final results, later also published in the journal of the American Historical Association, are presented below:State or TerritoryEnglishScotchScotch-IrishIrishGermanDutchFrenchSwedishSpanishOtherTotal#%#%#%#%#%#%#%#%#%#%67.00%2.20%1.80%1.10%0.30%0.26%0.90%0.01%26.43%60.00%8.00%6.30%5.40%1.10%4.32%1.62%8.85%4.41%57.40%15.50%11.50%3.80%7.60%0.19%2.27%0.57%1.17% & 57.90%10.00%7.00%5.20%14.00%1.29%2.15%0.54%1.92% 60.00%4.50%8.00%3.70%1.30%0.10%1.25%21.15% & 64.50%7.60%5.80%6.50%11.70%0.48%1.20%0.46%1.77% 82.00%4.40%2.60%1.30%0.30%0.16%0.80%0.02%8.42% 61.00%6.20%4.60%2.90%0.40%0.07%0.71%24.12% 47.00%7.70%6.30%3.20%9.20%16.62%2.35%3.91%3.71% 52.00%7.00%5.10%3.00%8.20%17.50%3.82%0.48%2.91% 66.00%14.80%5.70%5.40%4.70%0.28%1.66%0.24%1.22% 35.30%8.60%11.00%3.50%33.30%1.77%1.77%0.79%3.97% 71.00%5.80%2.00%0.80%0.50%0.39%0.77%0.08%18.66% 60.20%15.10%9.40%4.40%5.00%0.36%3.92%0.23%1.39% 76.00%5.10%3.20%1.90%0.20%0.59%0.41%12.60% & 68.50%10.20%6.20%5.50%6.30%0.34%1.47%0.59%0.90%'''''''''''''''60.94%''''''''''''''''''''8.21%''''''''''''''''''''5.99%''''''''''''''''''''3.65%''''''''''''''''''''8.73%''''''''''''''''''''3.15%''''''''''''''''''''1.73%''''''''''''''''''''0.67%''''''''''''''''''''6.93%'''''''''''''''''''''29.81%''''''''4.08%''''''''2.92%''''''''1.81%''''''''4.24%''''''''57.14%''''''''''''11.20%''''''''1.53%''''''''1.10%''''''''0.68%''''''''8.75%''''''''64.25%''''''''12.50%'''''''' Spanish America''''''''2.54%''''''''0.35%''''''''0.25%''''''''0.15%''''''''0.35%''''''''96.35%'''''''''''''''''''''60.10%''''''''''''8.09%''''''''''''5.91%''''''''''''3.60%''''''''''''8.65%''''''''''''3.10%''''''''''''2.29%''''''''''''0.65%''''''''''''0.79%''''''''''''6.81%'''''''''Historians estimate that fewer than one million immigrants moved to the United States from Europe between 1600 and 1799.By comparison, in the first federal census, in 1790, the population of the United States was enumerated to be 3,929,214.These statistics do not include the 17.8% of the population who were enslaved, according to the 1790 census.=== Early United States era ===Immigrants arriving at Ellis Island in 1902The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited naturalization to \"free white persons\"; it was expanded to include black people in the 1860s and Asian people in the 1950s.", "This made the United States an outlier, since laws that made racial distinctions were uncommon in the world in the 18th century.The 1794 Jay Treaty provided freedom of movement for Americans, British subjects, and Native Americans into British and American jurisdictions, Hudson Bay Company land excepted.", "The treaty is still in effect to the degree that it allows Native Americans born in Canada (subject to a blood quantum test) to enter the United States freely.In the early years of the United States, immigration (not counting the enslaved, who were treated as merchandise rather than people) was fewer than 8,000 people a year, including French refugees from the slave revolt in Haiti.", "Legal importation of enslaved African was prohibited after 1808, though many were smuggled in to sell.", "After 1820, immigration gradually increased.", "From 1836 to 1914, over 30 million Europeans migrated to the United States.", "The death rate on these transatlantic voyages was high, during which one in seven travelers died.After an initial wave of immigration from China following the California Gold Rush, Congress passed its first immigration law, the Page Act of 1875 which banned Chinese women.", "This was followed by the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, banning virtually all immigration from China until the law's repeal in 1943.In the late 1800s, immigration from other Asian countries, especially to the West Coast, became more common.=== Exclusion Era ===The peak year of European immigration was in 1907, when 1,285,349 persons entered the country.", "By 1910, 13.5 million immigrants were living in the United States.While the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 had already excluded immigrants from China, the immigration of people from Asian countries in addition to China was banned by the Immigration Act of 1917, also known as the Asiatic Barred Zone Act, which also banned homosexuals, people with intellectual disability, and people with an anarchist worldview.", "The Emergency Quota Act was enacted in 1921, limiting immigration from the Eastern Hemisphere by national quotas equal to 3 percent of the number of foreign-born from each nation in the 1910 census.", "The Act aimed to further restrict immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe, particularly Italian, Slavic, and Jewish people, who had begun to enter the country in large numbers beginning in the 1890s.", "The temporary quota system was superseded by the National Origins Formula of the Immigration Act of 1924, which computed national quotas as a fraction of 150,000 in proportion to the national origins of the entire White American population as of the 1920 census, except those having origins in the nonquota countries of the Western Hemisphere (which remained unrestricted).=== Origins of immigrant stock in 1920 ===The National Origins Formula was a unique computation which attempted to measure the total contributions of \"blood\" from each national origin as a share of the total stock of White Americans in 1920, counting immigrants, children of immigrants, and the grandchildren of immigrants (and later generations), in addition to estimating the colonial stock descended from the population who had immigrated in the colonial period and were enumerated in the 1790 census.", "European Americans remained predominant, although there were shifts toward Southern, Central, and Eastern Europe from immigration in the period 1790 to 1920.The formula determined that ancestry derived from Great Britain accounted for over 40% of the American gene pool, followed by German ancestry at 16%, then Irish ancestry at 11%.", "The restrictive immigration quota system established by the Immigration Act of 1924, revised and re-affirmed by the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, sought to preserve this demographic makeup of America by allotting quotas in proportion to how much blood each national origin had contributed to the total stock of the population in 1920, as presented below:'''Country of origin''''''Total''''''Colonial stock''''''Postcolonial stock''''''Total''''''Immigrants'''''''''''''''#%#%#%#%#%#%Austria 0.89%0.03%1.55%2.23%2.16%0.53%Belgium0.82%1.46%0.33%0.46%0.32%0.25%Czechoslovakia1.81%0.13%3.10%4.08%4.71%0.95%Denmark0.74%0.23%1.14%1.39%1.44%0.70%Estonia 0.07%0.13%0.25%0.15%0.04%Finland0.36%0.01%0.63%1.09%0.76%0.19%France1.94%1.86%2.01%1.13%1.69%2.88%Germany16.33%7.36%23.26%12.20%21.11%32.61%Greece0.19%0.34%0.99%0.24%0.00%Hungary0.55%0.97%2.33%0.96%0.08%Ireland11.24%4.41%16.50%5.99%10.93%28.66%Italy3.65%6.47%11.76%8.71%0.87%Latvia 0.15%0.26%0.51%0.29%0.08%Lithuania 0.24%0.43%0.85%0.46%0.12%Netherlands 1.98%3.31%0.96%0.97%1.07%0.85%Norway 1.50%0.18%2.51%2.65%3.11%1.85%Poland4.11%0.02%7.26%13.23%9.27%1.41%Portugal0.28%0.06%0.45%0.76%0.55%0.14%Romania 0.19%0.33%0.65%0.44%0.02%Russia 1.75%0.01%3.09%5.60%3.97%0.62%Spain 0.16%0.09%0.21%0.36%0.13%0.18%Sweden 2.09%0.53%3.29%4.56%4.04%1.74%Switzerland 1.07%0.94%1.18%0.87%1.06%1.49%Mandate of Syria & Leb.", "0.08%0.14%0.31%0.16%Turkey 0.14%0.25%0.75%0.16%0.00%United Kingdom 41.36%77.02%13.85%9.96%12.03%18.12%Kingdom of Yugoslavia0.53%0.94%1.61%1.38%0.09%Other Countries0.18%0.01%0.31%0.52%0.49%0.01%'''All Quota Countries''' '''''''''100.00%''''''''''''45.05%''''''''''''54.95%''''''''''''13.49%''''''''''''19.69%''''''''''''21.78%'''''Nonquota Countries'' ''''''5.60%''''''''2.34%''''''''8.13%''''''''11.97%''''''''8.18%''''''''5.52%'''''1920 1912 Total''' '''''''''100.00%''''''''''''43.54%''''''''''''56.46%''''''''''''14.46%''''''''''''20.24%''''''''''''21.76%'''Polish immigrants working on a farm in 1909; the welfare system was practically non-existent before the 1930s and the economic pressures on the poor were giving rise to child labor.|alt=Several Polish immigrant workers, some of which are children, are seen standing in their fields after picking berries.Immigration patterns of the 1930s were affected by the Great Depression.", "In the final prosperous year, 1929, there were 279,678 immigrants recorded, but in 1933, only 23,068 moved to the U.S.", "In the early 1930s, more people emigrated from the United States than to it.", "The U.S. government sponsored a Mexican Repatriation program which was intended to encourage people to voluntarily move to Mexico, but thousands were deported against their will.", "Altogether, approximately 400,000 Mexicans were repatriated; half of them were US citizens.", "Most of the Jewish refugees fleeing the Nazis and World War II were barred from coming to the United States.", "In the post-war era, the Justice Department launched Operation Wetback, under which 1,075,168 Mexicans were deported in 1954.=== Since 1965 ===Immigrant trunks from Sweden in the late 19th century (on left) and from a refugee camp in Thailand in 1993 (on right)Boston's Chinatown in Boston in 2008The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, also known as the Hart-Cellar Act, abolished the system of national-origin quotas.", "By equalizing immigration policies, the act resulted in new immigration from non-European nations, which changed the ethnic demographics of the United States.", "In 1970, 60% of immigrants were from Europe; this decreased to 15% by 2000.In 1986 president Ronald Reagan signed immigration reform that gave amnesty to 3 million undocumented immigrants in the country.In 1990, George H. W. Bush signed the Immigration Act of 1990, which increased legal immigration to the United States by 40%.", "In 1991, Bush signed the Armed Forces Immigration Adjustment Act 1991, allowing foreign service members who had served 12 or more years in the US Armed Forces to qualify for permanent residency and, in some cases, citizenship.In November 1994, California voters passed Proposition 187 amending the state constitution, denying state financial aid to illegal immigrants.", "The federal courts voided this change, ruling that it violated the federal constitution.Appointed by President Bill Clinton, the U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform recommended reducing legal immigration from about 800,000 people per year to approximately 550,000.While an influx of new residents from different cultures presents some challenges, \"the United States has always been energized by its immigrant populations\", said President Bill Clinton in 1998.", "\"America has constantly drawn strength and spirit from wave after wave of immigrants...", "They have proved to be the most restless, the most adventurous, the most innovative, the most industrious of people.", "\"In 2001, President George W. Bush discussed an accord with Mexican President Vincente Fox.", "Due to the September 11 attacks, the possible accord did not occur.", "From 2005 to 2013, the US Congress discussed various ways of controlling immigration.", "The Senate and House were unable to reach an agreement.Nearly 8 million people immigrated to the United States from 2000 to 2005; 3.7 million of them entered without papers.", "Hispanic immigrants suffered job losses during the late-2000s recession, but since the recession's end in June 2009, immigrants posted a net gain of 656,000 jobs.Nearly 14 million immigrants entered the United States from 2000 to 2010, and over one million persons were naturalized as U.S. citizens in 2008.The per-country limit applies the same maximum on the number of visas to all countries regardless of their population and has therefore had the effect of significantly restricting immigration of persons born in populous nations such as Mexico, China, India, and the Philippines—the leading countries of origin for legally admitted immigrants to the United States in 2013; nevertheless, China, India, and Mexico were the leading countries of origin for immigrants overall to the United States in 2013, regardless of legal status, according to a U.S. Census Bureau study.Over 1 million immigrants were granted legal residence in 2011.For those who enter the US illegally across the Mexico–United States border and elsewhere, migration is difficult, expensive and dangerous.", "Virtually all undocumented immigrants have no avenues for legal entry to the United States due to the restrictive legal limits on green cards, and lack of immigrant visas for low-skilled workers.", "Participants in debates on immigration in the early 21st century called for increasing enforcement of existing laws governing illegal immigration to the United States, building a barrier along some or all of the Mexico-U.S. border, or creating a new guest worker program.", "Through much of 2006 the country and Congress was engaged in a debate about these proposals.", "few of these proposals had become law, though a partial border fence had been approved and subsequently canceled.=== Modern reform attempts ===Beginning with Ronald Reagan in the 1980s, presidents from both political parties have steadily increased the number of border patrol agents and instituted harsher punitive measures for immigration violations.", "Examples of these policies include Ronald Reagan's Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 and the Clinton-era Prevention Through Deterrence strategy.", "The sociologist Douglas Massey has argued that these policies have succeeded at producing a perception of border enforcement but have largely failed at preventing emigration from Latin America.", "Notably, rather than curtailing illegal immigration, the increase in border patrol agents decreased circular migration across the U.S.–Mexico border, thus increasing the population of Hispanics in the U.S.Presidents from both parties have employed anti-immigrant rhetoric to appeal to their political base or to garner bi-partisan support for their policies.", "While Republicans like Reagan and Donald Trump have led the way in framing Hispanic immigrants as criminals, Douglas Massey points out that \"the current moment of open racism and xenophobia could not have happened with Democratic acquiescence\".", "For example, while lobbying for his 1986 immigration bill, Reagan framed unauthorized immigration as a \"national security\" issue and warned that \"terrorists and subversives are just two days' driving time\" from the border.", "Later presidents, including Democrats Bill Clinton and Barack Obama, used similar \"security\" rhetoric in their efforts to court Republican support for comprehensive immigration reform.", "In his 2013 State of the Union Address, Obama said \"real reform means strong border security, and we can build on the progress my administration has already madeputting more boots on the southern border than at any time in our history\".==== Trump administration policies ====ICE reports that it removed 240,255 immigrants in fiscal year 2016, as well as 226,119 in FY2017 and 256,085 in FY2018.Citizens of Central American countries (including Mexico) made up over 90% of removals in FY2017 and over 80% in FY2018.In January 2017, U.S. President Donald Trump signed an executive order temporarily suspending entry to the United States by nationals of seven Muslim-majority countries.", "It was replaced by another executive order in March 2017 and by a presidential proclamation in September 2017, with various changes to the list of countries and exemptions.", "The orders were temporarily suspended by federal courts but later allowed to proceed by the Supreme Court, pending a definite ruling on their legality.", "Another executive order called for the immediate construction of a wall across the U.S.–Mexico border, the hiring of 5,000 new border patrol agents and 10,000 new immigration officers, and federal funding penalties for sanctuary cities.The \"zero-tolerance\" policy was put in place in 2018, which legally allows children to be separated from adults unlawfully entering the United States.", "This is justified by labeling all adults that enter unlawfully as criminals, thus subjecting them to criminal prosecution.", "The Trump Administration also argued that its policy had precedent under the Obama Administration, which had opened family detention centers in response to migrants increasingly using children as a way to get adults into the country.", "However, the Obama Administration detained families together in administrative, rather than criminal, detention.Other policies focused on what it means for an asylum seeker to claim credible fear.", "To further decrease the amount of asylum seekers into the United States, Attorney General Jeff Sessions released a decision that restricts those fleeing gang violence and domestic abuse as \"private crime\", therefore making their claims ineligible for asylum.", "These new policies that have been put in place are putting many lives at risk, to the point that the ACLU sued Jeff Sessions along with other members of the Trump Administration.", "The ACLU claimed that the policies put in place by the Trump Administration undermined the fundamental human rights of those immigrating into the United States, specifically women.", "They also claimed that these policies violated decades of settle asylum law.In April 2020, President Trump said he will sign an executive order to temporarily suspend immigration to the United States because of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States.==== Biden administration policies ====In January 2023, regarding the southern border crisis, Joe Biden announced a new immigration policy that would allow 30,000 migrants per month from Cuba, Haiti, Nicaragua and Venezuela but will also expel the migrants from those countries who violate US laws of immigration.", "The policy has faced criticism from \"immigration reform advocates and lawyers who decry any expansion of Title 42.", "\"=== Origins of the U.S. immigrant population, 1960–2016 ===+ % of foreign-born population residing in the U.S. who were born in ... 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2018 Europe-Canada 84% 68% 42% 26% 19% 15% 15% 14% 14% 14% 14% 13% 13% South and East Asia 4% 7% 15% 22% 23% 25% 25% 26% 26% 26% 27% 27% 28% Other Latin America 4% 11% 16% 21% 22% 24% 24% 24% 24% 24% 24% 25% 25% Mexico 6% 8% 16% 22% 29% 29% 29% 28% 28% 28% 27% 26% 25%Note: \"Other Latin America\" includes Central America, South America and the Caribbean.+Persons obtaining legal permanent resident status by fiscal yearYearYearYearYearYearYearYearYear 1890 455,302 1910 1,041,570 1930 241,700 1950 249,187 1970 373,326 1990 1,535,872 2010 1,042,625 2018 1,096,611 1895 258,536 1915 326,700 1935 34,956 1955 237,790 1975 385,378 1995 720,177 2015 1,051,031 2019 1,031,765 1900 448,572 1920 430,001 1940 70,756 1960 265,398 1980 524,295 2000 841,002 2016 1,183,505 2020 707,362 1905 1,026,499 1925 294,314 1945 38,119 1965 296,697 1985 568,149 2005 1,122,257 2017 1,127,167 2021 740,002DecadeAverage per year 1890–99 369,100 1900–09 745,100 1910–19 634,400 1920–29 429,600 1930–39 69,900 1940–49 85,700 1950–59 249,900 1960–69 321,400 1970–79 424,800 1980–89 624,400 1990–99 977,500 2000–09 1,029,900 2010–19 1,063,300;Refugee numbersOperation Allies Refuge with Afghans being evacuated on a U.S. Air Force Boeing C-17 plane during the fall of Kabul in 2021According to the Department of State, in the 2016 fiscal year 84,988 refugees were accepted into the US from around the world.", "In the fiscal year of 2017, 53,691 refugees were accepted to the US.", "There was a significant decrease after Trump took office; it continued in the fiscal year of 2018 when only 22,405 refugees were accepted into the US.", "This displays a massive drop in acceptance of refugees since the Trump Administration has been in place.On September 26, 2019, the Trump administration announced that it planned to allow only 18,000 refugees to resettle in the United States in the 2020 fiscal year, its lowest level since the modern program began in 1980.In 2020 the Trump administration announced that it planned to slash refugee admissions to U.S. for 2021 to a record low of 15,000 refugees down from a cap of 18,000 for 2020, making 2021 the fourth consecutive year of declining refugee admissions under the Trump term.PeriodRefugee Program 2018 45,000 2019 30,000 2020 18,000 2021 15,000" ], [ "Contemporary immigration", "Legal immigration to the United States over timeA naturalization ceremony in Salem, Massachusetts in 2007, approximately half of immigrants living in the United States are from Mexico and other Latin American countries.", "Many Central Americans are fleeing because of desperate social and economic circumstances in their countries.", "Some believe that the large number of Central American refugees arriving in the United States can be explained as a \"blowback\" to policies such as United States military interventions and covert operations that installed or maintained in power authoritarian leaders allied with wealthy land owners and multinational corporations who stop family farming and democratic efforts, which have caused drastically sharp social inequality, wide-scale poverty and rampant crime.", "Economic austerity dictated by neoliberal policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund and its ally, the U.S., has also been cited as a driver of the dire social and economic conditions, as has the U.S. \"War on Drugs\", which has been understood as fueling murderous gang violence in the region.", "Another major migration driver from Central America (Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador) are crop failures, which are (partly) caused by climate change.", "\"The current debate... is almost totally about what to do about immigrants when they get here.", "But the 800-pound gorilla that's missing from the table is what we have been doing there that brings them here, that drives them here\", according to Jeff Faux, an economist who is a distinguished fellow at the Economic Policy Institute.Until the 1930s most legal immigrants were male.", "By the 1990s women accounted for just over half of all legal immigrants.", "Contemporary immigrants tend to be younger than the native population of the United States, with people between the ages of 15 and 34 substantially overrepresented.", "Immigrants are also more likely to be married and less likely to be divorced than native-born Americans of the same age.Immigrants are likely to move to and live in areas populated by people with similar backgrounds.", "This phenomenon has remained true throughout the history of immigration to the United States.", "Seven out of ten immigrants surveyed by Public Agenda in 2009 said they intended to make the U.S. their permanent home, and 71% said if they could do it over again they would still come to the US.", "In the same study, 76% of immigrants say the government has become stricter on enforcing immigration laws since the September 11 attacks (\"9/11\"), and 24% report that they personally have experienced some or a great deal of discrimination.Public attitudes about immigration in the U.S. were heavily influenced in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks.", "After the attacks, 52% of Americans believed that immigration was a good thing overall for the U.S., down from 62% the year before, according to a 2009 Gallup poll.", "A 2008 Public Agenda survey found that half of Americans said tighter controls on immigration would do \"a great deal\" to enhance U.S. national security.", "Harvard political scientist and historian Samuel P. Huntington argued in his 2004 book ''Who Are We?", "The Challenges to America's National Identity'' that a potential future consequence of continuing massive immigration from Latin America, especially Mexico, could lead to the bifurcation of the United States.The estimated population of illegal Mexican immigrants in the US decreased from approximately 7 million in 2007 to 6.1 million in 2011 Commentators link the reversal of the immigration trend to the economic downturn that started in 2008 and which meant fewer available jobs, and to the introduction of tough immigration laws in many states.", "According to the Pew Hispanic Center, the net immigration of Mexican born persons had stagnated in 2010, and tended toward going into negative figures.More than 80 cities in the United States, including Washington D.C., New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, San Francisco, San Diego, San Jose, Salt Lake City, Phoenix, Dallas, Fort Worth, Houston, Detroit, Jersey City, Minneapolis, Denver, Baltimore, Seattle, Portland, Oregon and Portland, Maine, have sanctuary policies, which vary locally.=== Origin countries ===Immigration to the United States over time by region+Inflow of New Legal Permanent Residents by region, 2015–2020Region 2015 % of total 2016 % of total 2017 % of total 2018 % of total 2019 % of total 2020 % of total /% in 2020 Americas 438,435 41.7% 506,901 42.8% 492,726 43.7% 497,860 45.4% 461,710 44.8% 284,491 40.2% 38.4% Asia 419,297 39.9% 462,299 39.1% 424,743 37.7% 397,187 36.2% 364,761 35.4% 272,597 38.5% 25.3% Africa 101,415 9.7% 113,426 9.6% 118,824 10.5% 115,736 10.6% 111,194 10.8% 76,649 10.8% 31.1% Europe 85,803 8.2% 93,567 7.9% 84,335 7.5% 80,024 7.3% 87,597 8.5% 68,994 9.8% 21.2% Australia and Oceania 5,404 0.5% 5,588 0.5% 5,071 0.5% 4,653 0.4% 5,359 0.5% 3,998 0.6% 25.4% Unknown 677 0.1% 1,724 0.1% 1,468 0.1% 1,151 0.1% 1,144 0.1% 633 >0.1% '''Total''' '''1,051,031''' '''100%''' '''1,183,505''' '''100%''' '''1,127,167''' '''100%''' '''1,096,611''' '''100%''' '''1,031,765''' '''100%''' '''707,632''' '''100%''' '''31.4%'''Source: US Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics+'''Top 15 Countries of Origin of Permanent Residents, 2016–2022:'''Country2016201720182019202020212022 India 64,687 60,394 59,821 54,495 46,363 93,450 120,121 Mexico 174,534 170,581 161,858 156,052 100,325 107,230 117,710 China 81,772 71,565 65,214 62,248 41,483 49,847 62,022 Dominican Republic 61,161 58,520 57,413 49,911 30,005 24,553 36,007 Cuba 66,516 65,028 76,486 41,641 16,367 23,077 31,019 Philippines 53,287 49,147 47,258 45,920 25,491 27,511 27,692 El Salvador 23,449 25,109 28,326 27,656 17,907 18,668 25,609 Vietnam 41,451 38,231 33,834 39,712 29,995 16,312 22,604 Brazil 13,812 14,989 15,394 19,825 16,746 18,351 20,806 Colombia 18,610 17,956 17,545 19,841 11,989 15,293 16,763 Venezuela 10,772 11,809 11,762 15,720 12,136 14,412 16,604 Guatemala 7,369 8,199 15,328 South Korea 21,801 19,194 17,676 18,479 16,244 12,351 Honduras 7,843 9,425 14,762 Canada 11,297 12,053 13,916 Jamaica 23,350 21,905 20,347 21,689 12,826 13,357 13,603 '''Total''' '''1,183,505''' '''1,127,167''' '''1,096,611''' '''1,031,765''' '''707,362''' '''740,002''' '''1,018,349'''=== Charts ===" ], [ "Demography", "=== Extent and destinations ===Little Italy in New York City, c. 1900A crowd at the Philippine Independence Day Parade in New York CityGalveston immigration stationsYearNumber offoreign-bornPercentforeign-born18502,244,6029.718604,138,69713.218705,567,22914.418806,679,94313.318909,249,54714.8190010,341,27613.6191013,515,88614.7192013,920,69213.2193014,204,14911.6194011,594,8968.8195010,347,3956.919609,738,0915.419709,619,3024.7198014,079,9066.2199019,767,3167.9200031,107,88911.1201039,956,00012.9201744,525,50013.7201844,728,50213.5201944,932,799* 2010, 2017, 2018The United States admitted more legal immigrants from 1991 to 2000, between ten and eleven million, than in any previous decade.", "In the most recent decade, the 10 million legal immigrants that settled in the U.S. represent roughly one third of the annual growth, as the U.S. population increased by 32 million (from 249 million to 281 million).", "By comparison, the highest previous decade was the 1900s, when 8.8 million people arrived, increasing the total U.S. population by one percent every year.", "Specifically, \"nearly 15% of Americans were foreign-born in 1910, while in 1999, only about 10% were foreign-born\".By 1970, immigrants accounted for 4.7 percent of the US population and rising to 6.2 percent in 1980, with an estimated 12.5 percent in 2009., 25% of US residents under age 18 were first- or second-generation immigrants.", "Eight percent of all babies born in the U.S. in 2008 belonged to illegal immigrant parents, according to a recent analysis of U.S. Census Bureau data by the Pew Hispanic Center.Legal immigration to the U.S. increased from 250,000 in the 1930s, to 2.5 million in the 1950s, to 4.5 million in the 1970s, and to 7.3 million in the 1980s, before becoming stable at about 10 million in the 1990s.", "Since 2000, legal immigrants to the United States number approximately 1,000,000 per year, of whom about 600,000 are ''Change of Status'' who already are in the U.S. Legal immigrants to the United States now are at their highest level ever, at just over 37,000,000 legal immigrants.", "In reports in 2005–2006, estimates of illegal immigration ranged from 700,000 to 1,500,000 per year.", "Immigration led to a 57.4% increase in foreign-born population from 1990 to 2000.Foreign-born immigration has caused the U.S. population to continue its rapid increase with the foreign-born population doubling from almost 20 million in 1990 to over 47 million in 2015.In 2018, there were almost 90 million immigrants and U.S.-born children of immigrants (second-generation Americans) in the United States, accounting for 28% of the overall U.S. population.While immigration has increased drastically over the 20th century, the foreign-born share of the population is, at 13.4, only somewhat below what it was at its peak in 1910 at 14.7%.", "A number of factors may be attributed to the decrease in the representation of foreign-born residents in the United States.", "Most significant has been the change in the composition of immigrants; prior to 1890, 82% of immigrants came from North and Western Europe.", "From 1891 to 1920, that number decreased to 25%, with a rise in immigrants from East, Central, and South Europe, summing up to 64%.", "Animosity towards these ethnically different immigrants increased in the United States, resulting in much legislation to limit immigration in the 20th century.=== Origin ===+ '''Country of birth for foreign-born population in the United States (1970–2015)'''Country of birth201520102000199019801970Mexico 11,513,528 11,599,653 9,177,487 4,298,014 2,199,221759,711India 2,348,687 1,837,838 1,022,552 450,406 206,08751,000China 2,034,383 1,583,634 988,857 529,837 286,120172,132Philippines 1,945,345 1,810,537 1,369,070 912,674 501,440184,842El Salvador 1,323,592 1,201,972 817,336465,433N/AN/AVietnam 1,314,927 1,231,716 988,174 543,262231,120N/ACuba 1,227,031 1,057,346 872,716 736,971 607,184439,048South Korea 1,064,960 1,085,151 864,125 568,397 289,88538,711Dominican Republic 1,057,439 866,618 687,677 347,858 169,14761,228Guatemala 923,562 822,947 480,665225,739N/AN/ACanada 818,441 808,772 820,771 744,830 842,859812,421Jamaica 727,634 671,197 553,827 334,140 196,81168,576Colombia 723,561 648,594 509,872286,124N/AN/AUnited Kingdom 696,048 685,938 677,751 640,145 669,149686,099Haiti 643,341 572,896 419,317225,393N/AN/AHonduras 603,179 502,827 282,852108,923N/AN/AGermany 577,282 617,070 706,704 711,929 849,384832,965Peru 447,223 419,363 278,186144,199N/AN/AEcuador 437,581 428,747 298,626143,314N/AN/APoland 422,208 450,537 466,742 388,328 418,128548,107Russia 391,974 391,101 340,177 333,725 406,022463,462Iran (Incl.", "Kurdistan) 377,741 353,169 283,226210,941N/AN/ATaiwan 376,666 365,981 326,215244,102N/AN/ABrazil 373,058 332,250 212,42882,489N/AN/APakistan 371,400 301,280 223,47791,889N/AN/AItaly 348,216 368,699 473,338 580,592 831,9221,008,533Japan 346,887 334,449 347,539 290,128 221,794120,235Ukraine 344,565 324,216275,153N/AN/AN/ANigeria 298,532 221,077 134,94055,350N/AN/AGuyana 274,118 257,272 211,189120,698N/AN/AVenezuela 265,282 182,342 107,03142,119N/AN/ANicaragua 252,196 250,186 220,335168,659N/AN/AThailand 247,614 224,576 169,801106,919N/AN/ATrinidad and Tobago 234,483 231,678 197,398115,710N/AN/AHong Kong 228,316 216,948 203,580147,131N/AN/AEthiopia 226,159 164,046 69,53134,805N/AN/ABangladesh 221,275 166,51395,294N/AN/AN/AIraq 212,608 148,673 89,89244,916N/AN/ALaos 188,385 192,469 204,284171,577N/AN/AArgentina 187,052 170,120 125,21892,563N/AN/AEgypt 179,157 143,086 113,39666,313N/AN/APortugal 175,555 186,142 203,119 210,122 177,43791,034France 175,198 157,577 151,154 119,233 120,215105,385Cambodia 159,827 156,508 136,978118,833N/AN/AGhana 158,999 120,785 65,57220,889N/AN/ARomania 158,033 163,431 135,96691,106N/AN/AMyanmar 137,19089,553N/A19,835N/AN/AGreece 134,654 136,914 165,750 177,398 210,998177,275Israel 134,172 133,074 109,71986,048N/AN/AKenya 126,20995,126N/AN/AN/AN/AIreland 124,411 128,496 156,474 169,827 197,817251,375Lebanon 120,620 119,523 105,910 86,369N/AN/ANepal 119,64063,948N/AN/AN/AN/ATurkey 113,937 102,242 78,37855,087N/AN/ASpain 109,712 86,683 82,85876,415N/AN/ABosnia and Herzegovina 105,657 115,60098,766N/AN/AN/APanama 103,715 104,080 105,17785,737N/AN/ASouth Africa 99,323 83,298 63,55834,707N/AN/AChile 97,391 92,948 80,80455,681N/AN/AIndonesia 96,158 92,555 72,55248,387N/AN/ASomalia92,807N/AN/AN/AN/AN/ASaudi Arabia 90,83648,916N/A12,632N/AN/ASyria 88,226 64,240 54,56136,782N/AN/AArmenia 86,727 80,97265,280N/AN/AN/AAustralia 86,447 74,478 60,96542,267N/AN/ACosta Rica 86,186 83,034 71,87043,350N/AN/AAlbania 85,40677,091N/AN/AN/AN/ANetherlands 84,579 85,096 94,570 96,198 103,136110,570Liberia 83,22171,062N/AN/AN/AN/AAfghanistan 79,298 60,314 45,19528,444N/AN/AMorocco 74,00958,728N/A15,541N/AN/AMalaysia 72,878 58,095 49,45933,834N/AN/AJordan 72,662 60,912 46,79431,871N/AN/ABulgaria 68,65861,931N/AN/AN/AN/AHungary 67,594 75,479 92,017 110,337 144,368183,236Former Czechoslovakia 67,241 70,283 83,031 87,020 112,707160,899Belarus 59,501 54,57538,503N/AN/AN/AUzbekistan 56,27547,664N/AN/AN/AN/ABarbados 54,131 51,764 52,17243,015N/AN/ASri Lanka 50,81943,568N/AN/AN/AN/ACameroon50,646N/AN/AN/AN/AN/ABelize 49,43246,717N/A29,957N/AN/AUruguay 47,93347,254N/A20,766N/AN/AYemen 47,66438,627N/AN/AN/AN/ASweden 47,190 45,856 49,724 53,676 77,157127,070Austria 46,167 49,465 63,648 87,673 145,607214,014Fiji 45,35439,921N/AN/AN/AN/AMoldova 42,38834,081N/AN/AN/AN/ASudan 41,08140,740N/AN/AN/AN/ACape Verde 39,83634,678N/A14,368N/AN/ASwitzerland 39,20338,872N/A39,130N/AN/ACroatia 38,85444,002N/AN/AN/AN/AEritrea 38,65727,148N/AN/AN/AN/ASierra Leone 38,257 34,58820,831N/AN/AN/ASerbia 36,24430,509N/AN/AN/AN/ABelgium 35,07731,938N/A34,366N/AN/ALithuania 34,33436,317N/A29,745N/AN/AGrenada 34,04130,291N/A17,730N/AN/ABahamas 32,96231,095N/A21,633N/AN/ASingapore 32,74829,173N/AN/AN/AN/ADominica 31,00729,883N/AN/AN/AN/AKuwait 30,52224,373N/AN/AN/AN/ADenmark 29,04529,964N/A34,999N/AN/AKazakhstan 28,51224,169N/AN/AN/AN/AAzores26,022N/AN/AN/AN/AN/ANorway 24,58326,207N/A42,240N/AN/ANorth Macedonia 24,52923,645N/AN/AN/AN/ALatvia 22,98323,763N/AN/AN/AN/ASt.", "Vincent and the Grenadines 22,89821,478N/AN/AN/AN/AForeign-Born Population 43,027,453 39,784,145 31,107,889 19,767,316 14,079,9069,619,302}}'''Foreign-born population in the United States in 2019 by country of birth'''Country of birthChange (2019)Population (2019)2018–2019change'''Total foreign-born''' '''44,932,799''' +204,297Mexico 10,931,939 −239,954India|2,688,075 +35,222China|2,250,230 +28,287Philippines 2,045,248 +31,492El Salvador 1,412,101 −7,229Vietnam 1,383,779 +38,026Cuba 1,359,990 +16,030Dominican Republic 1,169,420 −8,444South Korea 1,038,885 −214Guatemala 1,111,495 +104,508Colombia 808,148 +18,587Canada 797,158 −16,506Jamaica 772,215 +38,786Honduras 745,838 +99,585Haiti 701,688 +14,502United Kingdom 687,186 −12,007Germany 537,691 −21,411Brazil 502,104 +29,467Venezuela 465,235 +71,394Peru 446,063 −21,109Ecuador 431,150 −11,955Poland 404,107 +5,321Pakistan 398,399 +19,296Nigeria 392,811 +18,100Russia 392,422 +8,917Iran 385,473 +3,522Taiwan 371,851 −18,299Ukraine 354,832 +28,947Japan 333,273 −28,292Italy 314,867 −10,036Bangladesh 261,348 +296Thailand|260,820 −8,561Nicaragua|257,343 −4,734Ethiopia|256,032 −22,051Guyana 253,847 −26,450Iraq 249,670 +12,248Hong Kong 231,469 −1,779Trinidad and Tobago 212,798 −9,770Argentina 210,767 +16,346Egypt 205,852 −1,727Ghana 199,163 +3,792Laos 176,904 −7,486France 171,452 −19,727Romania 167,751 +5,308Nepal 166,651 +18,017Portugal 161,500 −8,390Kenya 153,414 +6,854Burma 150,877 +10,486Cambodia 149,326 +10,792Israel 132,477 +2,551Afghanistan 132,160 +18,491Lebanon 120,065 −1,861Greece 119,571 −6,128Turkey 117,291 −9,203Spain 116,077 −1,713Somalia 114,607 +11,230Ireland 111,886 −13,104South Africa 111,116 +11,444Bosnia and Herzegovina 104,612 −957Indonesia 101,622 +7,543Panama 101,076 −2,674Australia 98,969 +8,382Liberia 98,116 +12,824Albania 94,856 +4,617Chile|93,950 −9,080Costa Rica 93,620 +6,237Syria 92,514 −19,252Jordan 90,018 +2,335Armenia 87,419 +151Netherlands 82,603 −5,632Bolivia 79,804 +447Morocco 77,434 −1,978Saudi Arabia 76,840 +2,166Malaysia 76,712 −5,844Cameroon 72,634 −5,374former Czechoslovakia 68,312 +3,960Bulgaria 66,950 −5,239Uzbekistan 65,216 −3,296Hungary 64,852 −2,413Democratic Republic of the Congo 60,512 +/−Yemen 58,627 −3,795Belarus 57,315 −13,654Barbados 52,279 −1,097Sri Lanka 51,695 −305Sudan 51,351 −1,300Eritrea 49,355 +4,245Uruguay 48,900 +2,638Fiji 48,710 +5,195Moldova 46,388 −1,379Sierra Leone 45,506 −2,328Belize 44,364 −2,923Uganda 44,150 +/−Sweden 43,506 −6,236Switzerland 42,958 +8,536Bahamas 40,067 +10,851Austria 39,083 +100Serbia 39,020 +1,585Republic of the Congo 38,932 +/−Croatia 37,044 −1,941Cape Verde 36,410 −663Dominica 36,372 −721Singapore 33,736 −466Kazakhstan 33,438 +5,148Lithuania 32,655 −445Belgium 32,323 −3,431Denmark 31,872 +2,541Kuwait 31,113 −4,494Senegal 30,828 +/−North Macedonia 30,359 +4,456Micronesia 30,136 +/−Grenada 29,722 −11,288Paraguay 25,022 +/-Latvia 23,300 −2,039Zimbabwe 20,519 +/−Norway 20,143 −4,928" ], [ "Effects of immigration", "Mexican immigrants march for more rights in San Jose, California in 2006|alt=Mexican immigrants are seen protesting for more rights in San Jose.Immigration to the United States significantly increases the population.", "The Census Bureau estimates that the US population will increase from 317 million in 2014 to 417 million in 2060 with immigration, when nearly 20% will be foreign-born.", "In particular, the population of Hispanic and Asian Americans is significantly increased by immigration, with both populations expected to see major growth.", "Overall, the Pew Report predicts the population of the United States will rise from 296 million in 2005 to 441 million in 2065, but only to 338 million with no immigration.", "The prevalence of immigrant segregation has brought into question the accuracy of describing the United States as a melting pot.", "Immigration to the United States has also increased religious diversity, with Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism growing in the United States due to immigration.", "Changing demographics as a result of immigration have affected political affiliations.", "Immigrants are more likely than natives to support the Democratic Party.", "Interest groups that lobby for and against immigration play a role in immigration policy, with religious, ethnic, and business groups most likely to lobby on issues of immigration.Immigrants have not been found to increase crime in the United States, and immigrants overall are associated with lower crime rates than natives.", "Some research even suggests that increases in immigration may partly explain the reduction in the U.S. crime rate.", "According to one study, sanctuary cities—which adopt policies designed to not prosecute people solely for being an illegal immigrant—have no statistically meaningful effect on crime.", "Research suggests that police practices, such as racial profiling, over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of immigrants among crime suspects.", "Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for immigrants.", "Crimmigration has emerged as a field in which critical immigration scholars conceptualize the current immigration law enforcement system.Increased immigration to the United States has historically caused discrimination and racial unrest.", "Areas with higher minority populations may be subject to increased policing and harsher sentencing.", "Faculty in educational facilities have been found to be more responsive toward white students, though affirmative action policies may cause colleges to favor minority applicants.", "Evidence also shows the existence of racial discrimination in the housing market and the labor market.", "Discrimination also exists between different immigrant groups.", "According to a 2018 study of longitudinal earnings, most immigrants economically assimilate into the United States within a span of 20 years, matching the economic situations of non-immigrants of similar race and ethnicity.Immigration has been found to have little impact on the health of natives.", "Researchers have also found what is known as the \"healthy immigrant effect\", in which immigrants in general tend to be healthier than individuals born in the U.S.", "However, some illnesses are believed to have been introduced to the United States or caused to increase by immigration.", "Immigrants are more likely than native-born Americans to have a medical visit labeled uncompensated care.A significant proportion of American scientists and engineers are immigrants.", "Graduate students are more likely to be immigrants than undergraduate students, as immigrants often complete undergraduate training in their native country before immigrating.", "33% of all U.S. Ph.D.s in science and engineering were awarded to foreign-born graduate students as of 2004.=== Economic impact===Manhattan's ChinatownHigh-skilled immigration and low-skilled immigration have both been found to make economic conditions better for the average immigrant and the average American.", "The overall impact of immigration on the economy tends to be minimal.", "Research suggests that diversity has a net positive effect on productivity and economic prosperity.", "Contributions by immigrants through taxation and the economy have been found to exceed the cost of services they use.", "Overall immigration has not had much effect on native wage inequality but low-skill immigration has been linked to greater income inequality in the native population.", "Labor unions have historically opposed immigration over economic concerns.Immigrants have also been found to raise economic productivity, as they are more likely to take jobs that natives are unwilling to do.", "Research indicates that immigrants are more likely to work in risky jobs than U.S.-born workers, partly due to differences in average characteristics, such as immigrants' lower English language ability and educational attainment.", "Refugees have been found to integrate more slowly into the labor market than other immigrants, but they have also been found to increase government revenue overall.", "Immigration has also been correlated with increased innovation and entrepreneurship, and immigrants are more likely to start businesses than Native Americans.Undocumented immigrants have also been found to have a positive effect on economic conditions in the United States.", "According to NPR in 2005, about 3% of illegal immigrants were working in agriculture, and the H-2A visa allows U.S. employers to bring foreign nationals to the United States to fill temporary agricultural jobs.", "States that imposed harsher immigration laws were found to suffer significant economic losses." ], [ "Public opinion", "Department of Homeland SecurityApprehensions between ports of entry, annually by federal fiscal year since 2020The largely ambivalent feeling of Americans toward immigrants is shown by a positive attitude toward groups that have been visible for a century or more, and much more negative attitude toward recent arrivals.", "For example, a 1982 national poll by the Roper Center at the University of Connecticut showed respondents a card listing a number of groups and asked, \"Thinking both of what they have contributed to this country and have gotten from this country, for each one tell me whether you think, on balance, they've been a good or a bad thing for this country\", which produced the results shown in the table.", "\"By high margins, Americans are telling pollsters it was a very good thing that Poles, Italians, and Jews immigrated to America.", "Once again, it's the newcomers who are viewed with suspicion.", "This time, it's the Mexicans, the Filipinos, and the people from the Caribbean who make Americans nervous.", "\"In a 2002 study, which took place soon after the September 11 attacks, 55% of Americans favored decreasing legal immigration, 27% favored keeping it at the same level, and 15% favored increasing it.In 2006, the immigration-reduction advocacy think tank the Center for Immigration Studies released a poll that found that 68% of Americans think U.S. immigration levels are too high, and just 2% said they are too low.", "They also found that 70% said they are less likely to vote for candidates that favor increasing legal immigration.", "In 2004, 55% of Americans believed legal immigration should remain at the current level or increased and 41% said it should be decreased.", "The less contact a native-born American has with immigrants, the more likely they would have a negative view of immigrants.One of the most important factors regarding public opinion about immigration is the level of unemployment; anti-immigrant sentiment is where unemployment is highest, and vice versa.Surveys indicate that the U.S. public consistently makes a sharp distinction between legal and illegal immigrants, and generally views those perceived as \"playing by the rules\" with more sympathy than immigrants who have entered the country illegally.According to a Gallup poll in July 2015, immigration is the fourth-most important problem facing the United States and seven percent of Americans said it was the most important problem facing America today.", "In March 2015, another Gallup poll provided insight into American public opinion on immigration; the poll revealed that 39% of people worried about immigration \"a great deal\".", "A January poll showed that only 33% of Americans were satisfied with the current state of immigration in America.Before 2012, a majority of Americans supported securing United States borders compared to dealing with illegal immigrants in the United States.", "In 2013, that trend has reversed and 55% of people polled by Gallup revealed that they would choose \"developing a plan to deal with immigrants who are currently in the U.S. illegally\".", "Changes regarding border control are consistent across party lines, with the percentage of Republicans saying that \"securing U.S. borders to halt flow of illegal immigrants\" is extremely important decreasing from 68% in 2011 to 56% in 2014.Meanwhile, Democrats who chose extremely important shifted from 42% in 2011 to 31% in 2014.In July 2013, 87% of Americans said they would vote in support of a law that would \"allow immigrants already in the country to become U.S. citizens if they meet certain requirements including paying taxes, having a criminal background check and learning English\".", "However, in the same survey, 83% also said they would support the tightening of U.S. border security.Donald Trump's campaign for presidency focused on a rhetoric of reducing illegal immigration and toughening border security.", "In July 2015, 48% of Americans thought that Donald Trump would do a poor job of handling immigration problems.", "In November 2016, 55% of Trump's voters thought that he would do the right thing regarding illegal immigration.", "In general, Trump supporters are not united upon how to handle immigration.", "In December 2016, Trump voters were polled and 60% said that \"undocumented immigrants in the U.S. who meet certain requirements should be allowed to stay legally\".American opinion regarding how immigrants affect the country and how the government should respond to illegal immigration have changed over time.", "In 2006, out of all U.S. adults surveyed, 28% declared that they believed the growing number of immigrants helped American workers and 55% believed that it hurt American workers.", "In 2016, those views had changed, with 42% believing that they helped and 45% believing that they hurt.", "The PRRI 2015 American Values Atlas showed that between 46% and 53% of Americans believed that \"the growing number of newcomers from other countries ... strengthens American society\".", "In the same year, between 57% and 66% of Americans chose that the U.S. should \"allow immigrants living in the U.S. illegally a way to become citizens provided they meet certain requirements\".In February 2017, the American Enterprise Institute released a report on recent surveys about immigration issues.", "In July 2016, 63% of Americans favored the temporary bans of immigrants from areas with high levels of terrorism and 53% said the U.S. should allow fewer refugees to enter the country.", "In November 2016, 55% of Americans were opposed to building a border wall with Mexico.", "Since 1994, Pew Research center has tracked a change from 63% of Americans saying that immigrants are a burden on the country to 27%.The Trump administration's zero-tolerance policy was reacted to negatively by the public.", "One of the main concerns was how detained children of illegal immigrants were treated.", "Due to very poor conditions, a campaign was begun called \"Close the Camps\".", "Detainment facilities were compared to concentration and internment camps.After the 2021 evacuation from Afghanistan in August 2021, an NPR/Ipsos poll (±4.6%) found 69% of Americans supported resettling in the United States Afghans who had worked with the U.S., with 65% support for Afghans who \"fear repression or persecution from the Taliban\".", "There was lower support for other refugees: 59% for those \"fleeing from civil strife and violence in Africa\", 56% for those \"fleeing from violence in Syria and Libya\", and 56% for \"Central Americans fleeing violence and poverty\".", "57% supported the Trump-era Remain in Mexico policy, and 55% supported legalizing the status of those illegally brought to the U.S. as children (as proposed in the DREAM Act).=== Religious responses ===Religious figures in the United States have stated their views on the topic of immigration as informed by their religious traditions.", "* Catholicism – In 2018, Catholic leaders stated that asylum-limiting laws proposed by the Trump administration were immoral.", "Some bishops considered imposing sanctions (known as \"canonical penalties\") on church members who have participated in enforcing such policies.", "* Judaism – American Jewish rabbis from various denominations have stated that their understanding of Judaism is that immigrants and refugees should be welcomed, and even assisted.", "The exception would be if there is significant economic hardship or security issues faced by the host country or community, in which case immigration may be limited, discouraged or even prohibited altogether.", "Some liberal denominations place more emphasis on the welcoming of immigrants, while Conservative, Orthodox and Independent rabbis also consider economic and security concerns.", "Some provide moral arguments for both the right of country to enforce immigration standards as well as for providing some sort of amnesty for illegal migrants." ], [ "Legal issues", "green card, a document confirming permanent resident status for eligible immigrants, including refugees, political asylum seekers, family-sponsored migrants, employment-based workers, and diversity immigrantsLaws concerning immigration and naturalization include the Immigration Act of 1990 (IMMACT), the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act (AEDPA), the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA), the Naturalization Act of 1790, the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798, the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, and the Johnson-Reed Act of 1924.AEDPA and IIRARA exemplify many categories of criminal activity for which immigrants, including green card holders, can be deported and have imposed mandatory detention for certain types of cases.", "The Johnson-Reed Act limited the number of immigrants and the Chinese Exclusion Act banned immigration from China altogether.Refugees are able to gain legal status in the United States through asylum, and a specified number of legally defined refugees, who either apply for asylum overseas or after arriving in the U.S., are admitted annually.", "In 2014, the number of asylum seekers accepted into the U.S. was about 120,000.By comparison, about 31,000 were accepted in the UK and 13,500 in Canada.", "Asylum offices in the United States receive more applications for asylum than they can process every month and every year, and these continuous applications cause a significant backlog.Removal proceedings are considered administrative proceedings under the authority of the United States Attorney General, and thus part of the executive branch rather than the judicial branch of government.", "in removal proceedings in front of an immigration judge, cancellation of removal is a form of relief that is available for some long-time residents of the United States.", "Eligibility may depend on time spent in the United States, criminal record, or family in the country.", "Members of Congress may submit private bills granting residency to specific named individuals.", "The United States allows immigrant relatives of active duty military personnel to reside in the United States through a green card.As of 2015, there are estimated to be 11 to 12 million unauthorized immigrants in the United States, making up about 5% of the civilian labor force.", "Under the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program, unauthorized immigrants that arrived as children were granted exemptions to immigration law.Most immigration proceedings are civil matters, though criminal charges are applicable when evading border enforcement, committing fraud to gain entry, or committing identity theft to gain employment.", "Due process protections under the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution have been found to apply to immigration proceedings, but those of the Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution have not due to their nature as civil matters.In 2021 a new system establishes by The U.S.", "Citizenship Act, for responsibly manage and secure U.S. border's, for safety of families and communities, and better manage migration across the Hemisphere, sent by President Biden to U.S. Congress." ], [ "Immigration in popular culture", "''Puck'' magazine criticized businessmen for welcoming large numbers of low-paid immigrants, leaving the American men unemployed.The history of immigration to the United States is the history of the country itself, and the journey from beyond the sea is an element found in American folklore, appearing in many works, such as ''The Godfather'', ''Gangs of New York'', \"The Song of Myself\", Neil Diamond's \"America\", and the animated feature ''An American Tail''.From the 1880s to the 1910s, vaudeville dominated the popular image of immigrants, with very popular caricature portrayals of ethnic groups.", "The specific features of these caricatures became widely accepted as accurate portrayals.In ''The Melting Pot'' (1908), playwright Israel Zangwill (1864–1926) explored issues that dominated Progressive Era debates about immigration policies.", "Zangwill's theme of the positive benefits of the American melting pot resonated widely in popular culture and literary and academic circles in the 20th century; his cultural symbolismin which he situated immigration issueslikewise informed American cultural imagining of immigrants for decades, as exemplified by Hollywood films.The popular culture's image of ethnic celebrities often includes stereotypes about immigrant groups.", "For example, Frank Sinatra's public image as a superstar contained important elements of the ''American Dream'' while simultaneously incorporating stereotypes about Italian Americans that were based in nativist and Progressive responses to immigration.The process of assimilation has been a common theme of popular culture.", "For example, \"lace-curtain Irish\" refers to middle-class Irish Americans desiring assimilation into mainstream society in counterpoint to the older, more raffish \"shanty Irish\".", "The occasional malapropisms and social blunders of these upward mobiles were lampooned in vaudeville, popular song, and the comic strips of the day such as ''Bringing Up Father'', starring Maggie and Jiggs, which ran in daily newspapers for 87 years (1913 to 2000).", "In ''The Departed'' (2006), Staff Sergeant Dignam regularly points out the dichotomy between the lace-curtain Irish lifestyle Billy Costigan enjoyed with his mother, and the shanty Irish lifestyle of Costigan's father.", "Since the late 20th century popular culture has paid special attention to Mexican immigration; the film ''Spanglish'' (2004) tells of a friendship of a Mexican housemaid (played by Paz Vega) and her boss (played by Adam Sandler).=== Immigration in literature ===Maggie and Jiggs from ''Bringing Up Father'', January 7, 1940Novelists and writers have captured much of the color and challenge in their immigrant lives through their writings.Regarding Irish women in the 19th century, there were numerous novels and short stories by Harvey O'Higgins, Peter McCorry, Bernard O'Reilly and Sarah Orne Jewett that emphasize emancipation from Old World controls, new opportunities and expansiveness of the immigrant experience.Fears of population decline have at times fueled anti-emigration sentiment in foreign countries.", "Hladnik studies three popular novels of the late 19th century that warned Slovenes not to migrate to the dangerous new world of the United States.", "In India some politicians oppose emigration to the United States because of a supposed brain drain of highly qualified and educated Indian nationals.Jewish American writer Anzia Yezierska wrote her novel ''Bread Givers'' (1925) to explore such themes as Russian-Jewish immigration in the early 20th century, the tension between Old and New World Yiddish culture, and women's experience of immigration.", "A well established author Yezierska focused on the Jewish struggle to escape the ghetto and enter middle- and upper-class America.", "In the novel, the heroine, Sara Smolinsky, escapes from New York City's \"down-town ghetto\" by breaking tradition.", "She quits her job at the family store and soon becomes engaged to a rich real-estate magnate.", "She graduates college and takes a high-prestige job teaching public school.", "Finally Sara restores her broken links to family and religion.The Swedish author Vilhelm Moberg, in the mid-20th century, wrote a series of four novels describing one Swedish family's migration from Småland to Minnesota in the late 19th century, a destiny shared by almost one million people.", "The author emphasizes the authenticity of the experiences as depicted (although he did change names).", "These novels have been translated into English (''The Emigrants'', 1951, ''Unto a Good Land'', 1954, ''The Settlers'', 1961, ''The Last Letter Home'', 1961).", "The musical ''Kristina från Duvemåla'' by ex-ABBA members Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson is based on this story.", "''The Immigrant'' is a musical by Steven Alper, Sarah Knapp, and Mark Harelik.", "The show is based on the story of Harelik's grandparents, Matleh and Haskell Harelik, who traveled to Galveston, Texas in 1909." ], [ "Documentary films", "A 1970 video about the history of immigration to the United StatesIn their documentary ''How Democracy Works Now: Twelve Stories'', filmmakers Shari Robertson and Michael Camerini examine the American political system through the lens of immigration reform from 2001 to 2007.Since the debut of the first five films, the series has become an important resource for advocates, policy-makers and educators.That film series premiered nearly a decade after the filmmakers' landmark documentary film ''Well-Founded Fear'' which provided a behind-the-scenes look at the process for seeking asylum in the United States.", "That film still marks the only time that a film-crew was privy to the private proceedings at the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), where individual asylum officers ponder the often life-or-death fate of immigrants seeking asylum.The documentary ''Trafficked with Mariana van Zeller'' argued that weapons smuggling from the United States contributed to insecurity in Latin America, itself triggering more migration to the United States." ], [ "Overall approach to regulation", "The Statue of Liberty was a common sight to many immigrants who entered the United States through Ellis Island.University of North Carolina School of Law professor Hiroshi Motomura has identified three approaches the United States has taken to the legal status of immigrants in his book ''Americans in Waiting: The Lost Story of Immigration and Citizenship in the United States''.", "The first, dominant in the 19th century, treated immigrants as in transition; in other words, as prospective citizens.", "As soon as people declared their intention to become citizens, they received multiple low-cost benefits, including the eligibility for free homesteads in the Homestead Act of 1862, and in many states, the right to vote.", "The goal was to make the country more attractive, so large numbers of farmers and skilled craftsmen would settle new lands.By the 1880s, a second approach took over, treating newcomers as \"immigrants by contract\".", "An implicit deal existed where immigrants who were literate and could earn their own living were permitted in restricted numbers.", "Once in the United States, they would have limited legal rights, but were not allowed to vote until they became citizens, and would not be eligible for the New Deal government benefits available in the 1930s.The third policy is \"immigration by affiliation\", originating in the later half of the 20th century, which Motomura argues is the treatment which depends on how deeply rooted people have become in the country.", "An immigrant who applies for citizenship as soon as permitted, has a long history of working in the United States, and has significant family ties, is more deeply affiliated and can expect better treatment.The American Dream is the belief that through hard work and determination, any United States immigrant can achieve a better life, usually in terms of financial prosperity and enhanced personal freedom of choice.", "According to historians, the rapid economic and industrial expansion of the U.S. is not simply a function of being a resource rich, hard working, and inventive country, but the belief that anybody could get a share of the country's wealth if he or she was willing to work hard.", "This dream has been a major factor in attracting immigrants to the United States." ], [ "See also", "* Demographics of the United States* Emigration from the United States* European colonization of the Americas* History of laws concerning immigration and naturalization in the United States* ''How Democracy Works Now: Twelve Stories''* Illegal immigration to the United States* Immigration policies of American labor unions* Inequality within immigrant families (United States)* Nativism (politics), opposition to immigration* Opposition to immigration* United States immigration statistics* Immigrant benefits urban legend, a hoax regarding benefits comparison" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "=== Surveys ===* Anbinder, Tyler.", "''City of Dreams: The 400-Year Epic History of Immigrant New York'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2016).", "766 pp.", "* Archdeacon, Thomas J.", "''Becoming American: An Ethnic History'' (1984)* Bankston, Carl L. III and Danielle Antoinette Hidalgo, eds.", "''Immigration in U.S. History'' Salem Press, (2006) * short scholarly biographies With bibliographies; 448 pp.", "* Bodnar, John.", "''The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America'' Indiana University Press, (1985) * Daniels, Roger.", "''Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United States since 1850'' University of Washington Press, (1988) * Daniels, Roger.", "''Coming to America'' 2nd ed.", "(2005) * Daniels, Roger.", "''Guarding the Golden Door : American Immigration Policy and Immigrants since 1882'' (2005) * Diner, Hasia.", "''The Jews of the United States, 1654 to 2000'' (2004) * Dinnerstein, Leonard, and David M. Reimers.", "''Ethnic Americans: a history of immigration'' (1999) online* Gerber, David A.", "''American Immigration: A Very Short Introduction'' (2011).", "* Gjerde, Jon, ed.", "''Major Problems in American Immigration and Ethnic History'' (1998).", "* Glazier, Michael, ed.", "''The Encyclopedia of the Irish in America'' (1999).", "* Jones, Maldwyn A.", "''American immigration'' (1960) online* Joselit, Jenna Weissman.", "''Immigration and American religion'' (2001) online* Parker, Kunal M. ''Making Foreigners: Immigration and Citizenship Law in America, 1600–2000.''", "New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015.", "* * Sowell, Thomas.", "''Ethnic America: A History'' (1981).", "* Thernstrom, Stephan, ed.", "''Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups'' (1980).", "=== Before 1920 ===* Alexander, June Granatir.", "''Daily Life in Immigrant America, 1870–1920: How the Second Great Wave of Immigrants Made Their Way in America'' (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2007.xvi, 332 pp.", ")* Berthoff, Rowland Tappan.", "''British Immigrants in Industrial America, 1790–1950'' (1953).", "* Briggs, John.", "''An Italian Passage: Immigrants to Three American Cities, 1890–1930'' Yale University Press, (1978).", "* Diner, Hasia.", "''Hungering for America: Italian, Irish, and Jewish Foodways in the Age of Migration'' (2003).", "* Dudley, William, ed.", "''Illegal immigration: opposing viewpoints'' (2002) online* Eltis, David; ''Coerced and Free Migration: Global Perspectives'' (2002) emphasis on migration to Americas before 1800.", "* Greene, Victor R. ''A Singing Ambivalence: American Immigrants Between Old World and New, 1830–1930'' (2004), covering musical traditions.", "* Isaac Aaronovich Hourwich.", "''Immigration and Labor: The Economic Aspects of European Immigration to the United States'' (1912) (full text online)* Joseph, Samuel; '' Jewish Immigration to the United States from 1881 to 1910'' Columbia University Press, (1914).", "* Kulikoff, Allan; ''From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers'' (2000), details on colonial immigration.", "* * Meagher, Timothy J.", "''The Columbia Guide to Irish American History''.", "(2005).", "* Miller, Kerby M. ''Emigrants and Exiles'' (1985), influential scholarly interpretation of Irish immigration* Motomura, Hiroshi.", "''Americans in Waiting: The Lost Story of Immigration and Citizenship in the United States'' (2006), legal history.", "* Pochmann, Henry A. and Arthur R. Schultz; German culture in America; philosophical and literary influences, 1600-1900 (1957) * Waters, Tony.", "''Crime and Immigrant Youth'' Sage Publications (1999), a sociological analysis.", "* U.S. Immigration Commission, ''Abstracts of Reports,'' 2 vols.", "(1911); the full 42-volume report is summarized (with additional information) in Jeremiah W. Jenks and W. Jett Lauck, ''The Immigrant Problem'' (1912; 6th ed.", "1926)* Wittke, Carl.", "''We Who Built America: The Saga of the Immigrant'' (1939), covers all major groups* Yans-McLaughlin, Virginia ed.", "''Immigration Reconsidered: History, Sociology, and Politics'' Oxford University Press.", "(1990) === Recent: post 1965 ===* Beasley, Vanessa B. ed.", "''Who Belongs in America?", ": Presidents, Rhetoric, And Immigration'' (2006) * Bogen, Elizabeth.", "''Immigration in New York'' (1987) * Bommes, Michael and Andrew Geddes.", "''Immigration and Welfare: Challenging the Borders of the Welfare State'' (2000) * Borjas, George J. ed.", "''Issues in the Economics of Immigration'' (National Bureau of Economic Research Conference Report) (2000).", "* Borjas, George.", "''Friends or Strangers'' (1990) * * Briggs, Vernon M. Jr. ''Immigration Policy and the America Labor Force.''", "Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984.", "* Briggs, Vernon M. Jr. ''Mass Immigration and the National Interest'' (1992) * Cafaro, Philip.", "''How Many Is Too Many?", "The Progressive Argument for Reducing Immigration into the United States''.", "University of Chicago Press, 2015.", "* Cooper, Mark A.", "''Moving to the United States of America and Immigration.''", "2008.", "* Egendorf, Laura K., ed.", "''Illegal immigration : an opposing viewpoints guide'' (2007) online* Fawcett, James T., and Benjamin V. Carino.", "''Pacific Bridges: The New Immigration from Asia and the Pacific Islands''.", "New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1987.", "* Foner, Nancy.", "''In A New Land: A Comparative View Of Immigration'' (2005) * Garland, Libby.", "''After They Closed the Gate: Jewish Illegal Immigration to the United States, 1921–1965.''", "Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014.", "* Levinson, David and Melvin Ember, eds.", "''American Immigrant Cultures'' 2 vol (1997).", "* Lowe, Lisa.", "''Immigrant Acts: On Asian American Cultural Politics'' (1996) * Meier, Matt S. and Gutierrez, Margo, eds.", "''The Mexican American Experience : An Encyclopedia'' (2003) ()* Mohl, Raymond A.", "\"Latinization in the Heart of Dixie: Hispanics in Late-twentieth-century Alabama\" ''Alabama Review'' 2002 55(4): 243–74.", "* Portes, Alejandro, and Robert L. Bach.", "''Latin Journey: Cuban and Mexican Immigrants in the United States.''", "Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1985.", "* * Portes, Alejandro, and Rubén Rumbaut.", "''Immigrant America.''", "Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990.", "* Reimers, David.", "''Still the Golden Door: The Third World Comes to America.''", "New York: Columbia University Press, (1985).", "* Smith, James P., and Barry Edmonston, eds.", "''The Immigration Debate: Studies on the Economic, Demographic, and Fiscal Effects of Immigration'' (1998), online version* Waters, Tony.", "''Crime and Immigrant Youth'' Thousand Oaks: Sage 1999.", "* Zhou, Min and Carl L. Bankston III.", "''Growing Up American: How Vietnamese Children Adapt to Life in the United States'' Russell Sage Foundation.", "(1998)* Borjas, George J.", "''Heaven's Door: Immigration Policy and the American Economy''.", "Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999.xvii, 263 pp.", "* Lamm, Richard D., and Gary Imhoff.", "''The Immigration Time Bomb: the Fragmenting of America'', in series, ''Truman Talley Books''.", "First ed.", "New York: E.P.", "Dutton, 1985.xiii, 271 pp." ], [ "External links", "=== History ===* Immigrant Servants Database* Asian-Nation: Early Asian Immigration to the U.S.* Irish Catholic Immigration to America* Scotch-Irish Immigration to Colonial America* GG Archives Immigration Historical Documents, Articles, and Immigrants* Maurer, Elizabeth. \"", "New Beginnings: Immigrant Women and the American Experience\".", "National Women's History Museum.", "2014.=== Immigration policy ===* Immigration policy reports from the Brookings Institution* Immigration policy reports from the Urban Institute* Permanent Legal Immigration to the United States: Policy Overview Congressional Research Service (May 2018)* A Primer on U.S. Immigration Policy Congressional Research Service (November 2017)=== Current immigration ===* U.S.", "Citizenship and Immigration Services* U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement* Cornell University's Legal Information Institute: Immigration* Yearbook of Immigration Statistics – United States Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics 2004, 2005 editions available.", "* \"Estimates of the Unauthorized Immigrant Population Residing in the United States: January 2005\" M. Hoefer, N. Rytina, C. Campbell (2006) \"Population Estimates (August).", "U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics.=== Economic impact ===*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Image and Scanner Interface Specification" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Image and Scanner Interface Specification''' ('''ISIS''') is an industry standard interface for image scanning technologies, developed by Pixel Translations in 1990 (which became EMC Corporation's Captiva Software and later acquired by OpenText).ISIS is an open standard for scanner control and a complete image-processing framework.", "It is currently supported by a number of application and scanner vendors." ], [ "Functions", "The modular design allows the scanner to be accessed both directly or with built-in routines to handle most situations automatically.A message-based interface with tags is used so that features, operations, and formats not yet supported by ISIS can be added as desired without waiting for a new version of the specification.The standard addresses all of the issues that an application using a scanner needs to be concerned with.", "Functions include but are not limited to selecting, installing, and configuring a new scanner; setting scanner-specific parameters; scanning, reading and writing files, and fast image scaling, rotating, displaying, and printing.", "Drivers have been written to dynamically process data for operations such as converting grayscale to binary image data.An ISIS interface can run scanners at or above their rated speed by linking drivers together in a pipe so that data flows from a scanner driver to compression driver, to packaging driver, to a file, viewer, or printer in a continuous stream, usually without the need to buffer more than a small portion of the full image.", "As a result of using the piping method, each driver can be optimised to perform one function well.", "Drivers are typically small and modular in order to make it simple to add new functionality to an existing application." ], [ "See also", "* Scanner Access Now Easy* TWAIN* Windows Image Acquisition" ], [ "External links", "* EMC Captiva* Official portal for ISIS developers* http://www.scannerdrivers.com" ] ]
wikipedia