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[ [ "Holocene extinction" ], [ "Introduction", "The dodo became extinct during the mid-to-late 17th century due to habitat destruction, overhunting, and predation by introduced mammals.", "It is an often-cited example of a modern extinction.The '''Holocene extinction''', or '''Anthropocene extinction''', is the ongoing extinction event caused by humans during the Holocene epoch.", "These extinctions span numerous families of plants and animals, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and invertebrates, and affecting not just terrestrial species but also large sectors of marine life.", "With widespread degradation of biodiversity hotspots, such as coral reefs and rainforests, as well as other areas, the vast majority of these extinctions are thought to be undocumented, as the species are undiscovered at the time of their extinction, which goes unrecorded.", "The current rate of extinction of species is estimated at 100 to 1,000 times higher than natural background extinction rates and is increasing.", "During the past 100–200 years, biodiversity loss and species extinction have accelerated, to the point that most conservation biologists now believe that human activity has either produced a period of mass extinction, or is on the cusp of doing so.", "As such, after the \"Big Five\" mass extinctions, the Holocene extinction event has also been referred to as the '''sixth mass extinction''' or '''sixth extinction'''; given the recent recognition of the Capitanian mass extinction, the term '''seventh mass extinction''' has also been proposed for the Holocene extinction event.The Holocene extinction follows the extinction of many large (megafaunal) animals during the preceding Late Pleistocene.", "It has been suggested that the demise of at least some of these megafauna was due at least in part due to human hunting pressure.", "The most popular theory is that human overhunting of species added to existing stress conditions as the Holocene extinction coincides with human colonization of many new areas around the world.", "Although there is debate regarding how much human predation and habitat loss affected their decline, certain population declines have been directly correlated with the onset of human activity, such as the extinction events of New Zealand, Madagascar, and Hawaii.", "Aside from humans, climate change may have been a driving factor in the megafaunal extinctions, especially at the end of the Pleistocene.Over the course of the Late Holocene, there were hundreds of extinctions of birds on islands across the Pacific, driven by human settlement of the previously uninhabited islands, with extinctions peaking around 1300 AD.", "Roughly 12% of avian species have been driven to extinction by human activity over the last 126,000 years, which is double previous estimates.In the twentieth century, human numbers quadrupled, and the size of the global economy increased twenty-five-fold.", "This Great Acceleration or Anthropocene epoch has also accelerated species extinction.", "Ecologically, humanity is now an unprecedented \"global superpredator\", which consistently preys on the adults of other apex predators, takes over other species' essential habitats and displaces them, and has worldwide effects on food webs.", "There have been extinctions of species on every land mass and in every ocean: there are many famous examples within Africa, Asia, Europe, Australia, North and South America, and on smaller islands.Overall, the Holocene extinction can be linked to the human impact on the environment.", "The Holocene extinction continues into the 21st century, with human population growth, increasing per capita consumption (especially by the super-affluent), and meat production and consumption, among others, being the primary drivers of mass extinction.", "Deforestation, overfishing, ocean acidification, the destruction of wetlands, and the decline in amphibian populations, among others, are a few broader examples of global biodiversity loss." ], [ "Background", "Mass extinctions are characterized by the loss of at least 75% of species within a geologically short period of time (i.e., less than 2 million years).", "The Holocene extinction is also known as the \"sixth extinction\", as it is possibly the sixth mass extinction event, after the Ordovician–Silurian extinction events, the Late Devonian extinction, the Permian–Triassic extinction event, the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event, and the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.", "If the Capitanian extinction event is included among the first-order mass extinctions, the Holocene extinction would correspondingly be known as the \"seventh extinction\".", "The Holocene is the current geological epoch." ], [ "Overview", "The moa went extinct in New Zealand in the 1400s due to overhunting.", "Prior to the arrival of the Maori a hundred years earlier, New Zealand was uninhabited by humans.There is no general agreement on where the Holocene, or anthropogenic, extinction begins, and the Quaternary extinction event, which includes climate change resulting in the end of the last ice age, ends, or if they should be considered separate events at all.", "The Holocene extinction is mainly caused by human activities.", "Some have suggested that anthropogenic extinctions may have begun as early as when the first modern humans spread out of Africa between 200,000 and 100,000 years ago; this is supported by rapid megafaunal extinction following recent human colonization in Australia, New Zealand, and Madagascar.", "In many cases, it is suggested that even minimal hunting pressure was enough to wipe out large fauna, particularly on geographically isolated islands.", "Only during the most recent parts of the extinction have plants also suffered large losses.=== Extinction rate ===The contemporary rate of extinction of species is estimated at 100 to 1,000 times higher than the background extinction rate, the historically typical rate of extinction (in terms of the natural evolution of the planet); also, the current rate of extinction is 10 to 100 times higher than in any of the previous mass extinctions in the history of Earth.", "One scientist estimates the current extinction rate may be 10,000 times the background extinction rate, although most scientists predict a much lower extinction rate than this outlying estimate.", "Theoretical ecologist Stuart Pimm stated that the extinction rate for plants is 100 times higher than normal.Some contend that contemporary extinction has yet to reach the level of the previous five mass extinctions, and that this comparison downplays how severe the first five mass extinctions were.", "John Briggs argues that there is inadequate data to determine the real rate of extinctions, and shows that estimates of current species extinctions varies enormously, ranging from 1.5 species to 40,000 species going extinct due to human activities each year.", "Both papers from Barnosky et al.", "(2011) and Hull et al.", "(2015) point out that the real rate of extinction during previous mass extinctions is unknown, both as only some organisms leave fossil remains, and as the temporal resolution of the fossil layer is larger than the time frame of the extinction events.", "However, all these authors agree that there is a modern biodiversity crisis with population declines affecting numerous species, and that a future anthropogenic mass extinction event is a big risk.", "The 2011 study by Barnosky et al.", "confirms that \"current extinction rates are higher than would be expected from the fossil record\" and adds that anthropogenic ecological stressors, including climate change, habitat fragmentation, pollution, overfishing, overhunting, invasive species, and expanding human biomass, will intensify and accelerate extinction rates in the future without significant mitigation efforts.In ''The Future of Life'' (2002), Edward Osborne Wilson of Harvard calculated that, if the current rate of human disruption of the biosphere continues, one-half of Earth's higher lifeforms will be extinct by 2100.A 1998 poll conducted by the American Museum of Natural History found that 70% of biologists acknowledge an ongoing anthropogenic extinction event.In a pair of studies published in 2015, extrapolation from observed extinction of Hawaiian snails led to the conclusion that 7% of all species on Earth may have been lost already.", "A 2021 study published in the journal ''Frontiers in Forests and Global Change'' found that only around 3% of the planet's terrestrial surface is ecologically and faunally intact, meaning areas with healthy populations of native animal species and little to no human footprint.The 2019 ''Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services'', published by the United Nations' Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), posits that out of around eight million species of plants and animals, roughly one million species face extinction within decades as the result of human actions.", "Organized human existence is jeopardized by increasingly rapid destruction of the systems that support life on Earth, according to the report, the result of one of the most comprehensive studies of the health of the planet ever conducted.", "Moreover, the 2021 ''Economics of Biodiversity'' review, published by the UK government, asserts that \"biodiversity is declining faster than at any time in human history.\"", "According to a 2022 study published in ''Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment'', a survey of more than 3,000 experts says that the extent of the mass extinction might be greater than previously thought, and estimates that roughly 30% of species \"have been globally threatened or driven extinct since the year 1500.\"", "In a 2022 report, IPBES listed unsustainable fishing, hunting, and logging as being some of the primary drivers of the global extinction crisis.", "A 2022 study published in ''Science Advances'' suggests that if global warming reaches or by 2100, then 13% and 27% of terrestrial vertebrate species will go extinct by then, largely due to climate change (62%), with anthropogenic land conversion and co-extinctions accounting for the rest.", "A 2023 study published in ''PLOS One'' shows that around two million species are threatened with extinction, double the estimate put forward in the 2019 IPBES report.According to a 2023 study published in ''PNAS'', at least 73 genera of animals have gone extinct since 1500.If humans had never existed, the study estimates it would have taken 18,000 years for the same genera to have disappeared naturally, leading the authors to conclude that \"the current generic extinction rates are 35 times higher than expected background rates prevailing in the last million years under the absence of human impacts\" and that human civilization is causing the \"rapid mutilation of the tree of life.", "\"=== Attribution ===There is widespread consensus among scientists that human activity is accelerating the extinction of many animal species through the destruction of habitats, the consumption of animals as resources, and the elimination of species that humans view as threats or competitors.", "Rising extinction trends impacting numerous animal groups including mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians have prompted some scientists to declare a biodiversity crisis.=== Scientific debate ===human population since 1800 in billions.", "Data from the United Nations projections in 2019.Characterization of recent extinction as a mass extinction has been debated among scientists.", "Stuart Pimm, for example, asserts that the sixth mass extinction \"is something that hasn't happened yet – we are on the edge of it.\"", "Several studies posit that the earth has entered a sixth mass extinction event, including a 2015 paper by Barnosky et al.", "and a November 2017 statement titled \"World Scientists' Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice\", led by eight authors and signed by 15,364 scientists from 184 countries which asserted that, among other things, \"we have unleashed a mass extinction event, the sixth in roughly 540 million years, wherein many current life forms could be extirpated or at least committed to extinction by the end of this century.\"", "The World Wide Fund for Nature's 2020 ''Living Planet Report'' says that wildlife populations have declined by 68% since 1970 as a result of overconsumption, population growth, and intensive farming, which is further evidence that humans have unleashed a sixth mass extinction event; however, this finding has been disputed by one 2020 study, which posits that this major decline was primarily driven by a few extreme outlier populations, and that when these outliers are removed, the trend shifts to that of a decline between the 1980s and 2000s, but a roughly positive trend after 2000.A 2021 report in ''Frontiers in Conservation Science'' which cites both of the aforementioned studies, says \"population sizes of vertebrate species that have been monitored across years have declined by an average of 68% over the last five decades, with certain population clusters in extreme decline, thus presaging the imminent extinction of their species,\" and asserts \"that we are already on the path of a sixth major extinction is now scientifically undeniable.\"", "A January 2022 review article published in ''Biological Reviews'' builds upon previous studies documenting biodiversity decline to assert that a sixth mass extinction event caused by anthropogenic activity is currently underway.", "A December 2022 study published in ''Science Advances'' states that \"the planet has entered the sixth mass extinction\" and warns that current anthropogenic trends, particularly regarding climate and land-use changes, could result in the loss of more than a tenth of plant and animal species by the end of the century.", "A 2023 study published in ''Biological Reviews'' found that, of 70,000 monitored species, some 48% are experiencing population declines from anthropogenic pressures, whereas only 3% have increasing populations.According to the UNDP's 2020 Human Development Report, ''The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene'':The 2022 ''Living Planet Report'' found that vertebrate wildlife populations have plummeted by an average of almost 70% since 1970, with agriculture and fishing being the primary drivers of this decline.Some scientists, including Rodolfo Dirzo and Paul R. Ehrlich, contend that the sixth mass extinction is largely unknown to most people globally and is also misunderstood by many in the scientific community.", "They say it is not the disappearance of species, which gets the most attention, that is at the heart of the crisis, but \"the existential threat of myriad population extinctions.", "\"===Anthropocene===A diagram showing the ecological processes of coral reefs before and during the AnthropoceneThe abundance of species extinctions considered anthropogenic, or due to human activity, has sometimes (especially when referring to hypothesized future events) been collectively called the \"Anthropocene extinction\".", "''Anthropocene'' is a term introduced in 2000.Some now postulate that a new geological epoch has begun, with the most abrupt and widespread extinction of species since the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago.The term \"anthropocene\" is being used more frequently by scientists, and some commentators may refer to the current and projected future extinctions as part of a longer Holocene extinction.", "The Holocene–Anthropocene boundary is contested, with some commentators asserting significant human influence on climate for much of what is normally regarded as the Holocene Epoch.", "Other commentators place the Holocene–Anthropocene boundary at the industrial revolution and also say that \"formal adoption of this term in the near future will largely depend on its utility, particularly to earth scientists working on late Holocene successions.", "\"It has been suggested that human activity has made the period starting from the mid-20th century different enough from the rest of the Holocene to consider it a new geological epoch, known as the Anthropocene, a term which was considered for inclusion in the timeline of Earth's history by the International Commission on Stratigraphy in 2016.In order to constitute the Holocene as an extinction event, scientists must determine exactly when anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions began to measurably alter natural atmospheric levels on a global scale, and when these alterations caused changes to global climate.", "Using chemical proxies from Antarctic ice cores, researchers have estimated the fluctuations of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) gases in the Earth's atmosphere during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene epochs.", "Estimates of the fluctuations of these two gases in the atmosphere, using chemical proxies from Antarctic ice cores, generally indicate that the peak of the Anthropocene occurred within the previous two centuries: typically beginning with the Industrial Revolution, when the highest greenhouse gas levels were recorded.=== Human ecology ===A 2015 article in ''Science'' suggested that humans are unique in ecology as an unprecedented \"global superpredator\", regularly preying on large numbers of fully grown terrestrial and marine apex predators, and with a great deal of influence over food webs and climatic systems worldwide.", "Although significant debate exists as to how much human predation and indirect effects contributed to prehistoric extinctions, certain population crashes have been directly correlated with human arrival.", "Human activity has been the main cause of mammalian extinctions since the Late Pleistocene.", "A 2018 study published in ''PNAS'' found that since the dawn of human civilization, the biomass of wild mammals has decreased by 83%.", "The biomass decrease is 80% for marine mammals, 50% for plants, and 15% for fish.", "Currently, livestock make up 60% of the biomass of all mammals on earth, followed by humans (36%) and wild mammals (4%).", "As for birds, 70% are domesticated, such as poultry, whereas only 30% are wild." ], [ "Historic extinction", "===Human activity=======Activities contributing to extinctions====The percentage of megafauna on different land masses over time, with the arrival of humans indicated.Extinction of animals, plants, and other organisms caused by human actions may go as far back as the late Pleistocene, over 12,000 years ago.", "There is a correlation between megafaunal extinction and the arrival of humans.", "Megafauna that are still extant also suffered severe declines that were highly correlated with human expansion and activity.", "Over the past 125,000 years, the average body size of wildlife has fallen by 14% as actions by prehistoric humans eradicated megafauna on all continents with the exception of Africa.Human civilization was founded on and grew from agriculture.", "The more land used for farming, the greater the population a civilization could sustain, and subsequent popularization of farming led to widespread habitat conversion.Habitat destruction by humans, thus replacing the original local ecosystems, is a major driver of extinction.", "The sustained conversion of biodiversity rich forests and wetlands into poorer fields and pastures (of lesser carrying capacity for wild species), over the last 10,000 years, has considerably reduced the Earth's carrying capacity for wild birds and mammals, among other organisms, in both population size and species count.Other, related human causes of the extinction event include deforestation, hunting, pollution, the introduction in various regions of non-native species, and the widespread transmission of infectious diseases spread through livestock and crops.==== Agriculture and climate change ====Deforestation in the Maranhão state, Brazil, in July 2016Recent investigations into the practice of landscape burning during the Neolithic Revolution have a major implication for the current debate about the timing of the Anthropocene and the role that humans may have played in the production of greenhouse gases prior to the Industrial Revolution.", "Studies of early hunter-gatherers raise questions about the current use of population size or density as a proxy for the amount of land clearance and anthropogenic burning that took place in pre-industrial times.", "Scientists have questioned the correlation between population size and early territorial alterations.", "Ruddiman and Ellis' research paper in 2009 makes the case that early farmers involved in systems of agriculture used more land per capita than growers later in the Holocene, who intensified their labor to produce more food per unit of area (thus, per laborer); arguing that agricultural involvement in rice production implemented thousands of years ago by relatively small populations created significant environmental impacts through large-scale means of deforestation.While a number of human-derived factors are recognized as contributing to rising atmospheric concentrations of CH4 (methane) and CO2 (carbon dioxide), deforestation and territorial clearance practices associated with agricultural development may have contributed most to these concentrations globally in earlier millennia.", "Scientists that are employing a variance of archaeological and paleoecological data argue that the processes contributing to substantial human modification of the environment spanned many thousands of years on a global scale and thus, not originating as late as the Industrial Revolution.", "Palaeoclimatologist William Ruddiman has argued that in the early Holocene 11,000 years ago, atmospheric carbon dioxide and methane levels fluctuated in a pattern which was different from the Pleistocene epoch before it.", "He argued that the patterns of the significant decline of CO2 levels during the last ice age of the Pleistocene inversely correlate to the Holocene where there have been dramatic increases of CO2 around 8000 years ago and CH4 levels 3000 years after that.", "The correlation between the decrease of CO2 in the Pleistocene and the increase of it during the Holocene implies that the causation of this spark of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere was the growth of human agriculture during the Holocene.===Climate change===''Top:'' Arid ice age climate''Middle:'' Atlantic Period, warm and wet''Bottom:'' Potential vegetation in climate now if not for human effects like agriculture.One of the main theories explaining early Holocene extinctions is historic climate change.", "The climate change theory has suggested that a change in climate near the end of the late Pleistocene stressed the megafauna to the point of extinction.", "Some scientists favor abrupt climate change as the catalyst for the extinction of the megafauna at the end of the Pleistocene, most who believe increased hunting from early modern humans also played a part, with others even suggesting that the two interacted.", "In the Americas, a controversial explanation for the shift in climate is presented under the Younger Dryas impact hypothesis, which states that the impact of comets cooled global temperatures.", "Despite its popularity among nonscientists, this hypothesis never been accepted by relevant experts, who dismiss it as a fringe theory." ], [ "Contemporary extinction", "===History===There are roughly 880 mountain gorillas remaining.", "60% of primate species face an anthropogenically driven extinction crisis and 75% have declining populations.Contemporary human overpopulation and continued population growth, along with per-capita consumption growth, prominently in the past two centuries, are regarded as the underlying causes of extinction.", "Inger Andersen, the executive director of the United Nations Environment Programme, stated that \"we need to understand that the more people there are, the more we put the Earth under heavy pressure.", "As far as biodiversity is concerned, we are at war with nature.", "\"Some scholars assert that the emergence of capitalism as the dominant economic system has accelerated ecological exploitation and destruction, and has also exacerbated mass species extinction.", "CUNY professor David Harvey, for example, posits that the neoliberal era \"happens to be the era of the fastest mass extinction of species in the Earth's recent history\".", "Ecologist William E. Rees concludes that the \"neoliberal paradigm contributes significantly to planetary unraveling\" by treating the economy and the ecosphere as totally separate systems, and by neglecting the latter.", "Major lobbying organizations representing corporations in the agriculture, fisheries, forestry and paper, mining, and oil and gas industries, including the United States Chamber of Commerce, have been pushing back against legislation that could address the extinction crisis.", "A 2022 report by the climate think tank InfluenceMap stated that \"although industry associations, especially in the US, appear reluctant to discuss the biodiversity crisis, they are clearly engaged on a wide range of policies with significant impacts on biodiversity loss.", "\"As of 2023, giraffe populations have been driven to extinction in seven countries.The loss of animal species from ecological communities, defaunation, is primarily driven by human activity.", "This has resulted in empty forests, ecological communities depleted of large vertebrates.", "This is not to be confused with extinction, as it includes both the disappearance of species and declines in abundance.", "Defaunation effects were first implied at the Symposium of Plant-Animal Interactions at the University of Campinas, Brazil in 1988 in the context of Neotropical forests.", "Since then, the term has gained broader usage in conservation biology as a global phenomenon.Big cat populations have severely declined over the last half-century and could face extinction in the following decades.", "According to 2011 IUCN estimates: lions are down to 25,000, from 450,000; leopards are down to 50,000, from 750,000; cheetahs are down to 12,000, from 45,000; tigers are down to 3,000 in the wild, from 50,000.A December 2016 study by the Zoological Society of London, Panthera Corporation and Wildlife Conservation Society showed that cheetahs are far closer to extinction than previously thought, with only 7,100 remaining in the wild, existing within only 9% of their historic range.", "Human pressures are to blame for the cheetah population crash, including prey loss due to overhunting by people, retaliatory killing from farmers, habitat loss and the illegal wildlife trade.", "Populations of brown bears have experienced similar population decline.The term pollinator decline refers to the reduction in abundance of insect and other animal pollinators in many ecosystems worldwide beginning at the end of the twentieth century, and continuing into the present day.", "Pollinators, which are necessary for 75% of food crops, are declining globally in both abundance and diversity.", "A 2017 study led by Radboud University's Hans de Kroon indicated that the biomass of insect life in Germany had declined by three-quarters in the previous 25 years.", "Participating researcher Dave Goulson of Sussex University stated that their study suggested that humans are making large parts of the planet uninhabitable for wildlife.", "Goulson characterized the situation as an approaching \"ecological Armageddon\", adding that \"if we lose the insects then everything is going to collapse.\"", "A 2019 study found that over 40% of insect species are threatened with extinction.", "The most significant drivers in the decline of insect populations are associated with intensive farming practices, along with pesticide use and climate change.", "The world's insect population decreases by around 1 to 2% per year.The ring-tailed lemur, one of the more than 120 unique species of mammals only found on Madagascar threatened with extinction.Angalifu, a male northern white rhinoceros at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park (died December 2014).", "Sudan, the last male of the subspecies died on March 19, 2018.Various species are predicted to become extinct in the near future, among them some species of rhinoceros, primates, and pangolins.", "Others, including several species of giraffe, are considered \"vulnerable\" and are experiencing significant population declines from anthropogenic impacts including hunting, deforestation and conflict.", "Hunting alone threatens bird and mammalian populations around the world.", "The direct killing of megafauna for meat and body parts is the primary driver of their destruction, with 70% of the 362 megafauna species in decline as of 2019.Mammals in particular have suffered such severe losses as the result of human activity (mainly during the Quaternary extinction event, but partly during the Holocene) that it could take several million years for them to recover.", "Contemporary assessments have discovered that roughly 41% of amphibians, 25% of mammals, 21% of reptiles and 14% of birds are threatened with extinction, which could disrupt ecosystems on a global scale and eliminate billions of years of phylogenetic diversity.", "189 countries, which are signatory to the Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio Accord), have committed to preparing a Biodiversity Action Plan, a first step at identifying specific endangered species and habitats, country by country.A 2023 study published in ''Current Biology'' concluded that current biodiversity loss rates could reach a tipping point and inevitably trigger a total ecosystem collapse.===Recent extinction===Share of species threatened with extinction as of 2019.Recent extinctions are more directly attributable to human influences, whereas prehistoric extinctions can be attributed to other factors, such as global climate change.", "The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) characterizes 'recent' extinction as those that have occurred past the cut-off point of 1500, and at least 875 plant and animal species have gone extinct since that time and 2009.Some species, such as the Père David's deer and the Hawaiian crow, are extinct in the wild, and survive solely in captive populations.", "Other populations are only locally extinct (extirpated), still existent elsewhere, but reduced in distribution, as with the extinction of gray whales in the Atlantic, and of the leatherback sea turtle in Malaysia.Since the Late Pleistocene, humans (together with other factors) have been rapidly driving the largest vertebrate animals towards extinction, and in the process interrupting a 66-million-year-old feature of ecosystems, the relationship between diet and body mass, which researchers suggest could have unpredictable consequences.", "A 2019 study published in ''Nature Communications'' found that rapid biodiversity loss is impacting larger mammals and birds to a much greater extent than smaller ones, with the body mass of such animals expected to shrink by 25% over the next century.", "Another 2019 study published in ''Biology Letters'' found that extinction rates are perhaps much higher than previously estimated, in particular for bird species.The 2019 ''Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services'' lists the primary causes of contemporary extinctions in descending order: (1) changes in land and sea use (primarily agriculture and overfishing respectively); (2) direct exploitation of organisms such as hunting; (3) anthropogenic climate change; (4) pollution and (5) invasive alien species spread by human trade.", "This report, along with the 2020 ''Living Planet Report'' by the WWF, both project that climate change will be the leading cause in the next several decades.A June 2020 study published in ''PNAS'' posits that the contemporary extinction crisis \"may be the most serious environmental threat to the persistence of civilization, because it is irreversible\" and that its acceleration \"is certain because of the still fast growth in human numbers and consumption rates.\"", "The study found that more than 500 vertebrate species are poised to be lost in the next two decades.===Habitat destruction===Humans both create and destroy crop cultivar and domesticated animal varieties.", "Advances in transportation and industrial farming has led to monoculture and the extinction of many cultivars.", "The use of certain plants and animals for food has also resulted in their extinction, including silphium and the passenger pigeon.", "It was estimated in 2012 that 13% of Earth's ice-free land surface is used as row-crop agricultural sites, 26% used as pastures, and 4% urban-industrial areas.In March 2019, ''Nature Climate Change'' published a study by ecologists from Yale University, who found that over the next half century, human land use will reduce the habitats of 1,700 species by up to 50%, pushing them closer to extinction.", "That same month ''PLOS Biology'' published a similar study drawing on work at the University of Queensland, which found that \"more than 1,200 species globally face threats to their survival in more than 90% of their habitat and will almost certainly face extinction without conservation intervention\".Since 1970, the populations of migratory freshwater fish have declined by 76%, according to research published by the Zoological Society of London in July 2020.Overall, around one in three freshwater fish species are threatened with extinction due to human-driven habitat degradation and overfishing.Satellite image of rainforest converted to oil palm plantations.Some scientists and academics assert that industrial agriculture and the growing demand for meat is contributing to significant global biodiversity loss as this is a significant driver of deforestation and habitat destruction; species-rich habitats, such as the Amazon region and Indonesia being converted to agriculture.", "A 2017 study by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) found that 60% of biodiversity loss can be attributed to the vast scale of feed crop cultivation required to rear tens of billions of farm animals.", "Moreover, a 2006 report by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, ''Livestock's Long Shadow'', also found that the livestock sector is a \"leading player\" in biodiversity loss.", "More recently, in 2019, the IPBES ''Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services'' attributed much of this ecological destruction to agriculture and fishing, with the meat and dairy industries having a very significant impact.", "Since the 1970s food production has soared in order to feed a growing human population and bolster economic growth, but at a huge price to the environment and other species.", "The report says some 25% of the earth's ice-free land is used for cattle grazing.", "A 2020 study published in ''Nature Communications'' warned that human impacts from housing, industrial agriculture and in particular meat consumption are wiping out a combined 50 billion years of earth's evolutionary history (defined as phylogenetic diversity) and driving to extinction some of the \"most unique animals on the planet,\" among them the Aye-aye lemur, the Chinese crocodile lizard and the pangolin.", "Said lead author Rikki Gumbs:Urbanization has also been cited as a significant driver of biodiversity loss, particularly of plant life.", "A 1999 study of local plant extirpations in Great Britain found that urbanization contributed at least as much to local plant extinction as did agriculture.=== Climate change ===Bramble Cay melomys were declared extinct in June 2016.This is the first recorded mammalian extinction due to anthropogenic climate change.", "Climate change is expected to be a major driver of extinctions from the 21st century.", "Rising levels of carbon dioxide are resulting in influx of this gas into the ocean, increasing its acidity.", "Marine organisms which possess calcium carbonate shells or exoskeletons experience physiological pressure as the carbonate reacts with acid.", "For example, this is already resulting in coral bleaching on various coral reefs worldwide, which provide valuable habitat and maintain a high biodiversity.", "Marine gastropods, bivalves, and other invertebrates are also affected, as are the organisms that feed on them.", "Some studies have suggested that it is not climate change that is driving the current extinction crisis, but the demands of contemporary human civilization on nature.", "However, a rise in average global temperatures greater than 5.2 °C is projected to cause a mass extinction similar to the \"Big Five\" mass extinction events of the Phanerozoic, even without other anthropogenic impacts on biodiversity.===Overexploitation===The vaquita, the world's most endangered marine mammal, was reduced to 30 individuals as of February 2017.They are often killed by commercial fishing nets.", "As of March 2019, only 10 remain, according to The International Committee for the Recovery of the Vaquita.The collapse of the Atlantic northwest cod fishery as a result of overfishing, and subsequent recovery.Overhunting can reduce the local population of game animals by more than half, as well as reducing population density, and may lead to extinction for some species.", "Populations located nearer to villages are significantly more at risk of depletion.", "Several conservationist organizations, among them IFAW and HSUS, assert that trophy hunters, particularly from the United States, are playing a significant role in the decline of giraffes, which they refer to as a \"silent extinction\".The surge in the mass killings by poachers involved in the illegal ivory trade along with habitat loss is threatening African elephant populations.", "In 1979, their populations stood at 1.7 million; at present there are fewer than 400,000 remaining.", "Prior to European colonization, scientists believe Africa was home to roughly 20 million elephants.", "According to the Great Elephant Census, 30% of African elephants (or 144,000 individuals) disappeared over a seven-year period, 2007 to 2014.African elephants could become extinct by 2035 if poaching rates continue.Decline in the number of African elephants since 1500 CEFishing has had a devastating effect on marine organism populations for several centuries even before the explosion of destructive and highly effective fishing practices like trawling.", "Humans are unique among predators in that they regularly prey on other adult apex predators, particularly in marine environments; bluefin tuna, blue whales, North Atlantic right whales, and over fifty species of sharks and rays are vulnerable to predation pressure from human fishing, in particular commercial fishing.", "A 2016 study published in ''Science'' concludes that humans tend to hunt larger species, and this could disrupt ocean ecosystems for millions of years.", "A 2020 study published in ''Science Advances'' found that around 18% of marine megafauna, including iconic species such as the Great white shark, are at risk of extinction from human pressures over the next century.", "In a worst-case scenario, 40% could go extinct over the same time period.", "According to a 2021 study published in ''Nature'', 71% of oceanic shark and ray populations have been destroyed by overfishing (the primary driver of ocean defaunation) from 1970 to 2018, and are nearing the \"point of no return\" as 24 of the 31 species are now threatened with extinction, with several being classified as critically endangered.", "Almost two thirds of sharks and rays around coral reefs are threatened with extinction from overfishing, with 14 of 134 species being critically endangered.===Disease===The golden toad of Costa Rica, extinct since around 1989.Its disappearance has been attributed to a confluence of several factors, including El Niño warming, fungus, habitat loss and the introduction of invasive species.Toughie, the last Rabbs' fringe-limbed treefrog, died in September 2016.The species was killed off by the chytrid fungus ''Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis''The decline of amphibian populations has also been identified as an indicator of environmental degradation.", "As well as habitat loss, introduced predators and pollution, Chytridiomycosis, a fungal infection accidentally spread by human travel, globalization, and the wildlife trade, has caused severe population drops of over 500 amphibian species, and perhaps 90 extinctions, including (among many others) the extinction of the golden toad in Costa Rica, the Gastric-brooding frog in Australia, the Rabb's fringe-limbed treefrog and the extinction of the Panamanian golden frog in the wild.", "Chytrid fungus has spread across Australia, New Zealand, Central America and Africa, including countries with high amphibian diversity such as cloud forests in Honduras and Madagascar.", "''Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans'' is a similar infection currently threatening salamanders.", "Amphibians are now the most endangered vertebrate group, having existed for more than 300 million years through three other mass extinctions.Millions of bats in the US have been dying off since 2012 due to a fungal infection known as white-nose syndrome that spread from European bats, who appear to be immune.", "Population drops have been as great as 90% within five years, and extinction of at least one bat species is predicted.", "There is currently no form of treatment, and such declines have been described as \"unprecedented\" in bat evolutionary history by Alan Hicks of the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation.Between 2007 and 2013, over ten million beehives were abandoned due to colony collapse disorder, which causes worker bees to abandon the queen.", "Though no single cause has gained widespread acceptance by the scientific community, proposals include infections with ''Varroa'' and ''Acarapis'' mites; malnutrition; various pathogens; genetic factors; immunodeficiencies; loss of habitat; changing beekeeping practices; or a combination of factors." ], [ "By region", "Megafauna were once found on every continent of the world, but are now almost exclusively found on the continent of Africa.", "In some regions, megafauna experienced population crashes and trophic cascades shortly after the earliest human settlers.", "Worldwide, 178 species of the world's largest mammals died out between 52,000 and 9,000 BC; it has been suggested that a higher proportion of African megafauna survived because they evolved alongside humans.", "The timing of South American megafaunal extinction appears to precede human arrival, although the possibility that human activity at the time impacted the global climate enough to cause such an extinction has been suggested.=== Africa ===Africa experienced the smallest decline in megafauna compared to the other continents.", "This is presumably due to the idea that Afroeurasian megafauna evolved alongside humans, and thus developed a healthy fear of them, unlike the comparatively tame animals of other continents.=== Eurasia ===Many giant mammals such as woolly mammoths, woolly rhinoceroses, and cave lions inhabited the mammoth steppe during the Pleistocene.Unlike other continents, the megafauna of Eurasia went extinct over a relatively long period of time, possibly due to climate fluctuations fragmenting and decreasing populations, leaving them vulnerable to over-exploitation, as with the steppe bison (''Bison priscus'').", "The warming of the arctic region caused the rapid decline of grasslands, which had a negative effect on the grazing megafauna of Eurasia.", "Most of what once was mammoth steppe was converted to mire, rendering the environment incapable of supporting them, notably the woolly mammoth.In the western Mediterranean region, anthropogenic forest degradation began around 4,000 BP, during the Chalcolithic, and became especially pronounced during the Roman era.", "The reasons for the decline of forest ecosystems stem from agriculture, grazing, and mining.", "During the twilight years of the Western Roman Empire, forests in northwestern Europe rebounded from losses incurred throughout the Roman period, though deforestation on a large scale resumed once again around 800 BP, during the High Middle Ages.In southern China, human land use is believed to have permanently altered the trend of vegetation dynamics in the region, which was previously governed by temperature.", "This is evidenced by high fluxes of charcoal from that time interval.=== Americas ===Reconstructed woolly mammoth bone hut, based on finds in Mezhyrich.The passenger pigeon was a species of pigeon endemic to North America.", "It experienced a rapid decline in the late 1800s due to habitat destruction and intense hunting after the arrival of Europeans.", "The last wild bird is thought to have been shot in 1901.There has been a debate as to the extent to which the disappearance of megafauna at the end of the last glacial period can be attributed to human activities by hunting, or even by slaughter of prey populations.", "Discoveries at Monte Verde in South America and at Meadowcroft Rock Shelter in Pennsylvania have caused a controversy regarding the Clovis culture.", "There likely would have been human settlements prior to the Clovis culture, and the history of humans in the Americas may extend back many thousands of years before the Clovis culture.", "The amount of correlation between human arrival and megafauna extinction is still being debated: for example, in Wrangel Island in Siberia the extinction of dwarf woolly mammoths (approximately 2000 BCE) did not coincide with the arrival of humans, nor did megafaunal mass extinction on the South American continent, although it has been suggested climate changes induced by anthropogenic effects elsewhere in the world may have contributed.Illustration of Paleo-Indians hunting a glyptodonComparisons are sometimes made between recent extinctions (approximately since the industrial revolution) and the Pleistocene extinction near the end of the last glacial period.", "The latter is exemplified by the extinction of large herbivores such as the woolly mammoth and the carnivores that preyed on them.", "Humans of this era actively hunted the mammoth and the mastodon, but it is not known if this hunting was the cause of the subsequent massive ecological changes, widespread extinctions and climate changes.The ecosystems encountered by the first Americans had not been exposed to human interaction, and may have been far less resilient to human made changes than the ecosystems encountered by industrial era humans.", "Therefore, the actions of the Clovis people, despite seeming insignificant by today's standards could indeed have had a profound effect on the ecosystems and wild life which was entirely unused to human influence.In the Yukon, the mammoth steppe ecosystem collapsed between 13,500 and 10,000 BP, though wild horses and woolly mammoths somehow persisted in the region for millennia after this collapse.", "In what is now Texas, a drop in local plant and animal biodiversity occurred during the Younger Dryas cooling, though while plant diversity recovered after the Younger Dryas, animal diversity did not.", "In the Channel Islands, multiple terrestrial species went extinct around the same time as human arrival, but direct evidence for an anthropogenic cause of their extinction remains lacking.", "In the montane forests of the Colombian Andes, spores of coprophilous fungi indicate megafaunal extinction occurred in two waves, the first occurring around 22,900 BP and the second around 10,990 BP.", "A 2023 study of megafaunal extinctions in the Junín Plateau of Peru found that the timing of the disappearance of megafauna was concurrent with a large uptick in fire activity attributed to human actions, implicating humans as the cause of their local extinction on the plateau.=== Australia ===Reconstruction of a hippopotamus-sized ''Diprotodon''Australia was once home to a large assemblage of megafauna, with many parallels to those found on the African continent today.", "Australia's fauna is characterized by primarily marsupial mammals, and many reptiles and birds, all existing as giant forms until recently.", "Humans arrived on the continent very early, about 50,000 years ago.", "The extent human arrival contributed is controversial; climatic drying of Australia 40,000–60,000 years ago was an unlikely cause, as it was less severe in speed or magnitude than previous regional climate change which failed to kill off megafauna.", "Extinctions in Australia continued from original settlement until today in both plants and animals, whilst many more animals and plants have declined or are endangered.Due to the older timeframe and the soil chemistry on the continent, very little subfossil preservation evidence exists relative to elsewhere.", "However, continent-wide extinction of all genera weighing over 100 kilograms, and six of seven genera weighing between 45 and 100 kilograms occurred around 46,400 years ago (4,000 years after human arrival) and the fact that megafauna survived until a later date on the island of Tasmania following the establishment of a land bridge suggest direct hunting or anthropogenic ecosystem disruption such as fire-stick farming as likely causes.", "The first evidence of direct human predation leading to extinction in Australia was published in 2016.A 2021 study found that the rate of extinction of Australia's megafauna is rather unusual, with some generalistic species having gone extinct earlier while highly specialized ones having become extinct later or even still surviving today.", "A mosaic cause of extinction with different anthropogenic and environmental pressures has been proposed.=== Caribbean ===Recently extinct flightless birds include Madagascar's elephant bird (left), Mauritius's dodo and the great auk of the Atlantic (bottom right).Human arrival in the Caribbean around 6,000 years ago is correlated with the extinction of many species.", "These include many different genera of ground and arboreal sloths across all islands.", "These sloths were generally smaller than those found on the South American continent.", "''Megalocnus'' were the largest genus at up to , ''Acratocnus'' were medium-sized relatives of modern two-toed sloths endemic to Cuba, ''Imagocnus'' also of Cuba, ''Neocnus'' and many others.=== Macaronesia ===The arrival of the first human settlers in the Azores saw the introduction of invasive plants and livestock to the archipelago, resulting in the extinction of at least two plant species on Pico Island.", "On Faial Island, the decline of ''Prunus lusitanica'' has been hypothesized by some scholars to have been related to the tree species being endozoochoric, with the extirpation or extinction of various bird species drastically limiting its seed dispersal.", "Lacustrine ecosystems were ravaged by human colonization, as evidenced by hydrogen isotopes from C30 fatty acids recording hypoxic bottom waters caused by eutrophication in Lake Funda on Flores Island beginning between 1500 and 1600 AD.The arrival of humans on the archipelago of Madeira caused the extinction of approximately two-thirds of its endemic bird species, with two non-endemic birds also being locally extirpated from the archipelago.", "Of thirty-four land snail species collected in a subfossil sample from eastern Madeira Island, nine became extinct following the arrival of humans.", "On the Desertas Islands, of forty-five land snail species known to exist before human colonization, eighteen are extinct and five are no longer present on the islands.", "''Eurya stigmosa'', whose extinction is typically attributed to climate change following the end of the Pleistocene rather than humans, may have survived until the colonization of the archipelago by the Portuguese and gone extinct as a result of human activity.", "Introduced mice have been implicated as a leading driver of extinction on Madeira following its discovery by humans.In the Canary Islands, native thermophilous woodlands were decimated and two tree taxa were driven extinct following the arrival of its first humans, primarily as a result of increased fire clearance and soil erosion and the introduction of invasive pigs, goats, and rats.", "Invasive species introductions accelerated during the Age of Discovery when Europeans first settled the Macaronesian archipelago.", "The archipelago's laurel forests, though still negatively impacted, fared better due to being less suitable for human economic use.Cabo Verde, like the Canary Islands, witnessed precipitous deforestation upon the arrival of European settlers and various invasive species brought by them in the archipelago, with the archipelago's thermophilous woodlands suffering the greatest destruction.", "Introduced species, overgrazing, increased fire incidence, and soil degradation have been attributed as the chief causes of Cabo Verde's ecological devastation.=== Pacific ===Archaeological and paleontological digs on 70 different Pacific islands suggested that numerous species became extinct as people moved across the Pacific, starting 30,000 years ago in the Bismarck Archipelago and Solomon Islands.", "It is currently estimated that among the bird species of the Pacific, some 2000 species have gone extinct since the arrival of humans, representing a 20% drop in the biodiversity of birds worldwide.", "In Polynesia, the Late Holocene declines in avifaunas only abated after they were heavily depleted and there were increasingly fewer bird species able to be driven to extinction.", "Additionally, the endemic faunas of Pacific archipelagos are exceptionally at risk in the coming decades due to rising sea levels caused by global warming.The endemic megafaunal meiolaniid turtles of Vanuatu became extinct immediately following the first human arrivals and remains of them containing evidence of butchery by humans have been found.The arrival of humans in New Caledonia marked the commencement of coastal forest and mangrove decline on the island.", "The archipelago's megafauna was still extant when humans arrived, but indisputable evidence for the anthropogenicity of their extinction remains elusive.In Fiji, the giant iguanas ''Brachylophus gibbonsi'' and ''Lapitiguana impensa'' both succumbed to human-induced extinction shortly after encountering the first humans on the island.In American Samoa, deposits dating back to the period of initial human colonisation contain elevated quantities of bird, turtle, and fish remains caused by increased predation pressure.The first human settlers of the Hawaiian islands are thought to have arrived between 300 and 800 CE, with European arrival in the 16th century.", "Hawaii is notable for its endemism of plants, birds, insects, mollusks and fish; 30% of its organisms are endemic.", "Many of its species are endangered or have gone extinct, primarily due to accidentally introduced species and livestock grazing.", "Over 40% of its bird species have gone extinct, and it is the location of 75% of extinctions in the United States.", "Evidence suggests that the introduction of the Polynesian rat, above all other factors, drove the ecocide of the endemic forests of the archipelago.", "Extinction has increased in Hawaii over the last 200 years and is relatively well documented, with extinctions among native snails used as estimates for global extinction rates.=== Madagascar ===giant lemurs were present in Madagascar until after human arrival.Within centuries of the arrival of humans around the 1st millennium AD, nearly all of Madagascar's distinct, endemic, and geographically isolated megafauna became extinct.", "The largest animals, of more than , were extinct very shortly after the first human arrival, with large and medium-sized species dying out after prolonged hunting pressure from an expanding human population moving into more remote regions of the island around 1000 years ago.", "as well as 17 species of \"giant\" lemurs.", "Some of these lemurs typically weighed over , and their fossils have provided evidence of human butchery on many species.", "Other megafauna present on the island included the Malagasy hippopotamuses as well as the large flightless elephant birds, both groups are thought to have gone extinct in the interval 750–1050 CE.", "Smaller fauna experienced initial increases due to decreased competition, and then subsequent declines over the last 500 years.", "All fauna weighing over died out.", "The primary reasons for the decline of Madagascar's biota, which at the time was already stressed by natural aridification, were human hunting, herding, farming, and forest clearing, all of which persist and threaten Madagascar's remaining taxa today.", "The natural ecosystems of Madagascar as a whole were further impacted by the much greater incidence of fire as a result of anthropogenic fire production; evidence from Lake Amparihibe on the island of Nosy Be indicates a shift in local vegetation from intact rainforest to a fire-disturbed patchwork of grassland and woodland between 1300 and 1000 BP.=== New Zealand ===New Zealand is characterized by its geographic isolation and island biogeography, and had been isolated from mainland Australia for 80 million years.", "It was the last large land mass to be colonized by humans.", "The arrival of Polynesian settlers in the late 13th century resulted in the extinction of all of the islands' megafaunal birds within several hundred years.", "The moa, large flightless ratites, were thriving during the Late Holocene, but became extinct within 200 years of the arrival of human settlers, as did the enormous Haast's eagle, their primary predator, and at least two species of large, flightless geese.", "The Polynesians also introduced the Polynesian rat.", "This may have put some pressure on other birds but at the time of early European contact (18th century) and colonization (19th century) the bird life was prolific.", "With them, the Europeans brought various invasive species including ship rats, possums, cats and mustelids which devastated native bird life, some of which had adapted flightlessness and ground nesting habits, and had no defensive behavior as a result of having no native mammalian predators.", "The kākāpō, the world's biggest parrot, which is flightless, now only exists in managed breeding sanctuaries.", "New Zealand's national emblem, the kiwi, is on the endangered bird list." ], [ "Mitigation", "Stabilizing human populations; reining in capitalism, decreasing economic demands, and shifting them to economic activities with low impacts on biodiversity; transitioning to plant-based diets; and increasing the number and size of terrestrial and marine protected areas have been suggested to avoid or limit biodiversity loss and a possible sixth mass extinction.", "Rodolfo Dirzo and Paul R. Ehrlich suggest that \"the one fundamental, necessary, 'simple' cure, ... is reducing the scale of the human enterprise.\"", "According to a 2021 paper published in ''Frontiers in Conservation Science'', humanity almost certainly faces a \"ghastly future\" of mass extinction, biodiversity collapse, climate change and their impacts unless major efforts to change human industry and activity are rapidly undertaken.Reducing human population growth has been suggested as a means of mitigating climate change and the biodiversity crisis, although many scholars believe it has been largely ignored in mainstream policy discourse.", "An alternative proposal is greater agricultural efficiency & sustainability.", "Lots of non-arable land can be made into arable land good for growing food crops.", "Mushrooms have also been known to repair damaged soil.A 2018 article in ''Science'' advocated for the global community to designate 30% of the planet by 2030, and 50% by 2050, as protected areas in order to mitigate the contemporary extinction crisis.", "It highlighted that the human population is projected to grow to 10 billion by the middle of the century, and consumption of food and water resources is projected to double by this time.", "A 2022 report published in ''Science'' warned that 44% of earth's terrestrial surface, or , must be conserved and made \"ecologically sound\" in order to prevent further biodiversity loss.In November 2018, the UN's biodiversity chief Cristiana Pașca Palmer urged people around the world to put pressure on governments to implement significant protections for wildlife by 2020.She called biodiversity loss a \"silent killer\" as dangerous as global warming, but said it had received little attention by comparison.", "\"It's different from climate change, where people feel the impact in everyday life.", "With biodiversity, it is not so clear but by the time you feel what is happening, it may be too late.\"", "In January 2020, the UN Convention on Biological Diversity drafted a Paris-style plan to stop biodiversity and ecosystem collapse by setting the deadline of 2030 to protect 30% of the earth's land and oceans and to reduce pollution by 50%, with the goal of allowing for the restoration of ecosystems by 2050.The world failed to meet the Aichi Biodiversity targets for 2020 set by the convention during a summit in Japan in 2010.Of the 20 biodiversity targets proposed, only six were \"partially achieved\" by the deadline.", "It was called a global failure by Inger Andersen, head of the United Nations Environment Programme:Some scientists have proposed keeping extinctions below 20 per year for the next century as a global target to reduce species loss, which is the biodiversity equivalent of the 2 °C climate target, although it is still much higher than the normal background rate of two per year prior to anthropogenic impacts on the natural world.An October 2020 report on the \"era of pandemics\" from IPBES found that many of the same human activities that contribute to biodiversity loss and climate change, including deforestation and the wildlife trade, have also increased the risk of future pandemics.", "The report offers several policy options to reduce such risk, such as taxing meat production and consumption, cracking down on the illegal wildlife trade, removing high disease-risk species from the legal wildlife trade, and eliminating subsidies to businesses which are harmful to the environment.", "According to marine zoologist John Spicer, \"the COVID-19 crisis is not just another crisis alongside the biodiversity crisis and the climate change crisis.", "Make no mistake, this is one big crisis – the greatest that humans have ever faced.", "\"In December 2022, nearly every country on earth, with the United States and the Holy See being the only exceptions, signed onto the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework agreement formulated at the 2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference (COP 15) which includes protecting 30% of land and oceans by 2030 and 22 other targets intended to mitigate the extinction crisis.", "The agreement is weaker than the Aichi Targets of 2010.It was criticized by some countries for being rushed and not going far enough to protect endangered species." ], [ "See also", "* Anthropocene* Biodiversity loss* Ecocide* Extinction Rebellion* Extinction risk from climate change* Extinction symbol* ''Extinction: The Facts'' (2020 documentary)* Human impact on the environment* Lists of extinct species* Pleistocene rewilding* Quaternary extinction* ''Racing Extinction'' (2015 documentary film)* Timeline of extinctions in the Holocene* World Scientists' Warning to Humanity" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*** ************ *" ], [ "External links", "* The Extinction Crisis .", "Center for Biological Diversity.", "* Vanishing: The extinction crisis is far worse than you think.", "CNN.", "December 2016.", "* Biologists say half of all species could be extinct by end of century, ''The Guardian,'' 25 February 2017* Humans are ushering in the sixth mass extinction of life on Earth, scientists warn, ''The Independent,'' 31 May 2017* Human activity pushing Earth towards 'sixth mass species extinction,' report warns.", "CBC.", "Mar 26, 2018* 'Terror being waged on wildlife', leaders warn.", "''The Guardian.''", "October 4, 2018.", "* Earth Is on the Cusp of the Sixth Mass Extinction.", "Here's What Paleontologists Want You to Know.", "''Discover''.", "December 3, 2020.", "* What the Extinction Crisis Took From the World in 2022.", "''The Nation''.", "December 22, 2022.", "* Extinction crisis puts 1 million species on the brink.", "Reuters.", "December 23, 2022.", "* Exclusive: Huge chunk of plants, animals in U.S. at risk of extinction.", "Reuters.", "February 6, 2023." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Harrison Narcotics Tax Act" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Harrison Narcotics Tax Act''' (Ch.", "1, ) was a United States federal law that regulated and taxed the production, importation, and distribution of opiates and coca products.", "The act was proposed by Representative Francis Burton Harrison of New York and was approved on December 17, 1914.", "\"An Act To provide for the registration of, with collectors of internal revenue, and to impose a special tax on all persons who produce, import, manufacture, compound, deal in, dispense, sell, distribute, or give away opium or coca leaves, their salts, derivatives, or preparations, and for other purposes.\"", "The courts interpreted this to mean that physicians could prescribe narcotics to patients in the course of normal treatment, but not for the treatment of addiction.The Harrison anti-narcotic legislation consisted of three U.S. House bills imposing restrictions on the availability and consumption of the psychoactive drug opium.", "U.S. House bills and passed conjointly with House bill or the Opium and Coca Leaves Trade Restrictions Act.Although technically illegal for purposes of distribution and use, the distribution, sale and use of cocaine was still legal for registered companies and individuals." ], [ "History", "===International background===Following the Spanish–American War and the Philippine–American War, the Philippines saw a proliferation of opium use.", "A cholera outbreak in 1902 further strengthened this tendency due to the astringent properties of opium.Charles Henry Brent was an American Episcopal bishop who served as Missionary Bishop of the Philippines beginning in 1901.He convened a Commission of Inquiry, known as the Brent Commission, for the purpose of examining alternatives to a licensing system for opium addicts.", "Although Governor William Taft supported this policy, Brent opposed it \"on moral grounds\".", "The Commission recommended that narcotics should be subject to international control.", "The recommendations of the Brent Commission were endorsed by the United States Department of State and in 1906 President Theodore Roosevelt called for an international conference, the International Opium Commission, which was held in Shanghai in February 1909.A second conference was held at The Hague in May 1911, and out of it came the first international drug control treaty, the International Opium Convention of 1912.===Domestic background===In the 1800s, opiates and cocaine were mostly unregulated drugs.", "In the 1890s, the Sears & Roebuck catalogue, which was distributed to millions of Americans homes, offered a syringe and a small amount of cocaine or heroin for $1.50.On the other hand, as early as 1880, some states and localities had already passed laws against smoking opium, at least in public, for example as reported in the Los Angeles Herald in an article mentioning the city law against opium smoking.At the beginning of the 20th century, cocaine began to be linked to crime.", "In 1900, the ''Journal of the American Medical Association'' published an editorial stating, \"Negroes in the South are reported as being addicted to a new form of vice – that of 'cocaine sniffing' or the 'coke habit.'\"", "Some newspapers later claimed cocaine use caused blacks to rape white women and was improving their pistol marksmanship.", "Chinese immigrants were blamed for importing the opium-smoking habit to the U.S.", "The 1903 blue-ribbon citizens' panel, the Committee on the Acquirement of the Drug Habit, concluded, \"If the Chinaman cannot get along without his dope we can get along without him.", "\"===Opium===Theodore Roosevelt appointed Dr. Hamilton Wright as the first Opium Commissioner of the United States in 1908.In 1909, Wright attended the International Opium Commission in Shanghai as the American delegate.", "He was accompanied by Charles Henry Brent, the Episcopal Bishop.", "On March 12, 1911, Wright was quoted in an article in ''The New York Times'': \"Of all the nations of the world, the United States consumes most habit-forming drugs per capita.", "Opium, the most pernicious drug known to humanity, is surrounded, in this country, with far fewer safeguards than any other nation in Europe fences it with.\"", "He further claimed that \"it has been authoritatively stated that cocaine is often the direct incentive to the crime of rape by the negroes of the South and other sections of the country\".", "He also stated that \"one of the most unfortunate phases of smoking opium in this country is the large number of women who have become involved and were living as common-law wives or cohabitating with Chinese in the Chinatowns of our various cities\".Opium usage had begun to decline by 1914 after rising dramatically in the post Civil War Era, peaking at around one-half million pounds per year in 1896.Demand gradually declined thereafter in response to mounting public concern, local and state regulations, and the Pure Food and Drugs Act of 1906, which required labeling of patent medicines that contained opiates, cocaine, alcohol, cannabis and other intoxicants.", "As of 1911, an estimated one U.S. citizen in 400 (0.25%) was addicted to some form of opium.", "The opium addicts were mostly women who were prescribed and dispensed legal opiates by physicians and pharmacist for \"female problems\" (probably pain at menstruation) or white men and Chinese at the opium dens.", "Between two-thirds and three-quarters of these addicts were women.", "By 1914, forty-six states had regulations on cocaine and twenty-nine states had laws against opium, morphine, and heroin.The committee report prior to the debate on the house floor and the debate itself, discussed the rise of opiate use in the United States.", "Harrison stated that \"The purpose of this Bill can hardly be said to raise revenue, because it prohibits the importation of something upon which we have hitherto collected revenue.\"", "Later Harrison stated, \"We are not attempting to collect revenue, but regulate commerce.\"", "House representative Thomas Sisson stated, \"The purpose of this bill—and we are all in sympathy with it—is to prevent the use of opium in the United States, destructive as it is to human happiness and human life.", "\"The drafters played on fears of \"drug-crazed, sex-mad negroes\" and made references to Negroes under the influence of drugs murdering whites, degenerate Mexicans smoking marijuana, and \"Chinamen\" seducing white women with drugs.", "Dr. Hamilton Wright, testified at a hearing for the Harrison Act.", "Wright alleged that drugs made blacks uncontrollable, gave them superhuman powers and caused them to rebel against white authority.", "Dr. Christopher Koch of the State Pharmacy Board of Pennsylvania testified that \"Most of the attacks upon the white women of the South are the direct result of a cocaine-crazed Negro brain\".Before the Act was passed, on February 8, 1914, ''The New York Times'' published an article entitled \"Negro Cocaine 'Fiends' Are New Southern Menace: Murder and Insanity Increasing Among Lower-Class Blacks\" by Edward Huntington Williams, which reported that Southern sheriffs had increased the caliber of their weapons from .32 to .38 to bring down Negroes under the effect of cocaine.Despite the extreme racialization of the issue that took place in the buildup to the Act's passage, the contemporary research on the subject indicated that black Americans were using cocaine and opium at much lower rates than white Americans.===Effect===Enforcement began in 1915.The act appears to be mainly concerned about the marketing of opiates.", "However, a clause applying to doctors allowed distribution \"in the course of his professional practice only.\"", "This clause was interpreted after 1917 to mean that a doctor could not prescribe opiates to an addict.", "A number of doctors were arrested and some were imprisoned.", "The medical profession quickly learned not to supply opiates to addicts.", "In ''United States v. Doremus'', 249 U.S. 86 (1919), the Supreme Court ruled that the Harrison Act was constitutional, and in ''Webb v. United States'', 249 U.S. 96, 99 (1919) that physicians could not prescribe narcotics solely for maintenance.The impact of diminished supply was obvious by mid-1915.A 1918 commission called for sterner law enforcement, while newspapers published sensational articles about addiction-related crime waves.", "Congress responded by tightening up the Harrison Act—the importation of heroin for any purpose was banned in 1924.The use of the term 'narcotic', which was originally derived from ancient Greek ναρκῶ (narkō), \"to make numb\", in the title of the act referenced not just opiates but also cocaine, which is a central nervous system stimulant.", "This set a precedent of frequent legislative and judicial misclassification of various (illegal) substances as 'narcotics'.", "Today, law enforcement agencies, popular media, the United Nations, other nations and even some medical practitioners can be observed applying the term very broadly and often pejoratively in reference to a wide range of illicit substances, regardless of the more precise definition existing in medical contexts.", "For this reason, however, 'narcotic' has come to mean any illegally used drug, but it is useful as a shorthand for referring to a controlled drug in a context where its legal status is more important than its physiological effects.One effect of this act, which has largely been superseded by the Controlled Substances Act of 1970, is the warning \"*Warning: May be habit forming\" on labels, package inserts, and other places where ingredients are listed in the case of many opioids, barbiturates, medicinal formulations of cocaine, and chloral hydrate.The act also marks the beginning of the criminalization of addiction and the American black market for drugs.", "Within five years the Rainey Committee, a Special Committee on Investigation appointed by Secretary of the Treasury William Gibbs McAdoo and led by Congressman T. Rainey, reported in June, 1919 that drugs were being smuggled into the country by sea, and across the Mexican and Canadian borders by nationally established organisations and that the United States consumed 470,000 pounds of opium annually, compared to 17,000 pounds in both France and Germany.", "The Monthly Summary of Foreign Commerce of the United States recorded that in the 7 months to January 1920, 528,635 pounds of opium was imported, compared to 74,650 pounds in the same period in 1919." ], [ "Challenge", "The Act's applicability in prosecuting doctors who prescribe narcotics to addicts was successfully challenged in ''Linder v. United States'' in 1925, as Justice McReynolds ruled that the federal government has no power to regulate medical practice." ], [ "See also", "* Arguments for and against drug prohibition* Prohibition of drugs" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Horse tack" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Tack''' is equipment or accessories equipped on horses and other equines in the course of their use as domesticated animals.", "This equipment includes such items as saddles, stirrups, bridles, halters, reins, bits, and harnesses.", "Equipping a horse is often referred to as '''tacking up,''' and involves putting the tack equipment on the horse.", "A room to store such equipment, usually near or in a stable, is a '''tack room'''." ], [ "Saddles", "A horse equipped with a saddle for mounted police.Saddles are seats for the rider, fastened to the horse's back by means of a ''girth'' in English-style riding, or a ''cinch'' in the use of Western tack.", "Girths are generally a wide strap that goes around the horse at a point about four inches behind the forelegs.", "Some western saddles will also have a second strap known as a ''flank'' or ''back cinch'' that fastens at the rear of the saddle and goes around the widest part of the horse's belly.It is important that the saddle be comfortable for both the rider and the horse as an improperly fitting saddle may create pressure points on the horse's back muscle (Latissimus dorsi) and cause the horse pain and can lead to the horse, rider, or both getting injured.There are many types of saddle, each specially designed for its given task.Saddles are usually divided into two major categories: \"English saddles\" and \"Western saddles\" according to the riding discipline they are used in.", "Other types of saddles, such as racing saddles, Australian saddles, sidesaddles and endurance saddles do not necessarily fit neatly in either category.===Saddle accessories===*Breastplate or breastcollar: Prevents saddles of all styles from sliding sideways or backward on a horse's back*Surcingle*Crupper*Breeching, also called \"britching\"*Saddle blanket or numnah=== Stirrups ===Stirrups are supports for the rider's feet that hang down on either side of the saddle.", "They provide greater stability for the rider but can have safety concerns due to the potential for a rider's feet to get stuck in them.", "If a rider is thrown from a horse but has a foot caught in the stirrup, they could be dragged if the horse runs away.", "To minimize this risk, a number of safety precautions are taken.", "First, most riders wear riding boots with a heel and a smooth sole.", "Next, some saddles, particularly English saddles, have safety bars that allow a stirrup leather to fall off the saddle if pulled backwards by a falling rider.", "Other precautions are done with stirrup design itself.", "Western saddles have wide stirrup treads that make it more difficult for the foot to become trapped.", "A number of saddle styles incorporate a tapedero, which is covering over the front of the stirrup that keeps the foot from sliding all the way through the stirrup.", "The English stirrup (or \"iron\") has several design variations which are either shaped to allow the rider's foot to slip out easily or are closed with a very heavy rubber band.", "The invention of stirrups was of great historic significance in mounted combat, giving the rider secure foot support while on horseback." ], [ "Headgear", "A nylon halter/headcollar''Bridles'', hackamores, ''halters'', or ''headcollars'', and similar equipment consist of various arrangements of straps around the horse's head, and are used for control and communication with the animal.===Halters===A ''halter'' (United States) or ''headcollar'' (United Kingdom) (occasionally ''headstall'') consists of a noseband and headstall that buckles around the horse's head and allows the horse to be led or tied.", "The lead rope is separate, and it may be short (from six to ten feet, two to three meters) for everyday leading and tying, or much longer (up to , eight meters) for tasks such as for leading packhorses or for picketing a horse out to graze.Some horses, particularly stallions, may have a chain attached to the lead rope and placed over the nose or under the jaw to increase the control provided by a halter while being led.", "Most of the time, horses are not ridden with a halter, as it offers insufficient precision and control.", "Halters have no bit.In Australian and British English, a ''halter'' is a rope with a spliced running loop around the nose and another over the poll, used mainly for unbroken horses or for cattle.", "The lead rope cannot be removed from the halter.", "A show halter is made from rolled leather and the lead attaches to form the chinpiece of the noseband.", "These halters are not suitable for paddock usage or in loose stalls.", "An ''underhalter'' is a lightweight halter or headcollar which is made with only one small buckle, and can be worn under a bridle for tethering a horse without untacking.===Bridles===Bridles usually have a ''bit'' attached to ''reins'' and are used for riding and driving horses.An English bridle with cavesson noseband''English Bridles'' have a ''cavesson'' style noseband and are seen in English riding.", "Their reins are buckled to one another, and they have little adornment or flashy hardware.", "''Western Bridles'' used in Western riding usually have no noseband, are made of thin bridle leather.", "They may have long, separated \"Split\" reins or shorter closed reins, which sometimes include an attached ''Romal''.", "Western bridles are often adorned with silver or other decorative features.", "''Double bridles'' are a type of English bridle that use two bits in the mouth at once, a snaffle and a curb.", "The two bits allow the rider to have very precise control of the horse.", "As a rule, only very advanced horses and riders use double bridles.", "Double bridles are usually seen in the top levels of dressage, but also are seen in certain types of show hack and Saddle seat competition.===Hackamores and other bitless designs===A bosal hackamoreA ''hackamore'' is a headgear that utilizes a heavy noseband of some sort, rather than a bit, most often used to train young horses or to go easy on an older horse's mouth.", "Hackamores are more often seen in western riding.", "Some related styles of headgear that control a horse with a noseband rather than a bit are known as bitless bridles.The word \"hackamore\" is derived from the Spanish word ''jáquima.''", "Hackamores are seen in western riding disciplines, as well as in endurance riding and English riding disciplines such as show jumping and the stadium phase of eventing.", "While the classic bosal-style hackamore is usually used to start young horses, other designs, such as various bitless bridles and the mechanical hackamore are often seen on mature horses with dental issues that make bit use painful, horses with certain training problems, and on horses with mouth or tongue injuries.", "Some riders also like to use them in the winter to avoid putting a frozen metal bit into a horse's mouth.Like bitted bridles, noseband-based designs can be gentle or harsh, depending on the hands of the rider.", "It is a myth that a bit is cruel and a hackamore is gentler.", "The horse's face is very soft and sensitive with many nerve endings.", "Misuse of a hackamore can cause swelling on the nose, scraping on the nose and jawbone, and extreme misuse may cause damage to the bones and cartilage of the horse's head.===Other headgear===A ''longeing cavesson'' (UK: ''lungeing'') is a special type of halter or noseband used for longeing a horse.", "Longeing is the activity of having a horse walk, trot and/or canter in a large circle around the handler at the end of a rope that is 25 to long.", "It is used for training and exercise.A ''neck rope'' or ''cordeo'' is a rope tied around a horse's neck used to guide the horse during bridleless riding or groundwork." ], [ "Reins", "Reins consist of leather straps or rope attached to the outer ends of a ''bit'' and extend to the rider's or driver's hands.", "Reins are the means by which a horse rider or driver communicates directional commands to the horse's head.", "Pulling on the reins can be used to steer or stop the horse.", "The sides of a horse's mouth are sensitive, so pulling on the reins pulls the bit, which then pulls the horse's head from side to side, which is how the horse is controlled.On some types of harnesses there might be supporting rings to carry the reins over the horse's back.", "When pairs of horses are used in drawing a wagon or coach it is usual for the outer side of each pair to be connected to reins and the inside of the bits connected by a short bridging strap or rope.", "The driver carries \"four-in-hand\" or \"six-in-hand\" being the number of reins connecting to the pairs of horses.A rein may be attached to a halter to lead or guide the horse in a circle for training purposes or to lead a packhorse, but a simple lead rope is more often used for these purposes.", "A longe line is sometimes called a \"longe rein\", but it is actually a flat line about long, usually made of nylon or cotton web, about one inch wide, thus longer and wider than even a driving rein." ], [ "Bits", "A pelham bit with a jointed mouthpieceA bit is a device placed in a horse's mouth, kept on a horse's head by means of a headstall.", "There are many types, each useful for specific types of riding and training.The mouthpiece of the bit does not rest on the teeth of the horse, but rather rests on the gums or \"bars\" of the horse's mouth in an interdental space behind the front incisors and in front of the back molars.", "It is important that the style of bit is appropriate to the horse's needs and is fitted properly for it to function properly and be as comfortable as possible for the horse.a curb and snaffle bit shown together on a double bridleThe basic \"classic\" styles of bits are:*Curb bit*Snaffle bit*Pelham bit*Weymouth or Double BridleWhile there are literally hundreds of types of bit mouthpieces, bit rings and bit shanks, essentially there are really only two broad categories: direct pressure bits, broadly termed snaffle bits; and leverage bits, usually termed curbs.Bits that act with direct pressure on the tongue and lips of the bit are in the general category of ''snaffle'' bits.", "Snaffle bits commonly have a single jointed mouthpiece and act with a nutcracker effect on the bars, tongue and occasionally roof of the mouth.", "However, regardless of mouthpiece, any bit that operates only on direct pressure is a \"snaffle\" bit.Leverage bits have shanks coming off the mouthpiece to create leverage that applies pressure to the poll, chin groove and mouth of the horse are in the category of ''curb'' bits.", "Any bit with shanks that works off of leverage is a \"curb\" bit, regardless of whether the mouthpiece is solid or jointed.Some combination or hybrid bits combine direct pressure and leverage, such as the Kimblewick or Kimberwicke, which adds slight leverage to a two-rein design that resembles a snaffle; and the four rein designs such as the single mouthpiece Pelham bit and the double bridle, which places a curb and a snaffle bit simultaneously in the horse's mouth.In the wrong hands even the mildest bit can hurt the horse.", "Conversely, a very severe bit, in the right hands, can transmit subtle commands that cause no pain to the horse.", "Bit commands should be given with only the quietest movements of the hands, and much steering and stopping should be done with the legs and seat." ], [ "Harness", "A horse harness is a set of devices and straps that attaches a horse to a cart, carriage, sledge or any other load.", "There are two main styles of harnesses - breaststrap and collar and hames style.", "These differ in how the weight of the load is attached.", "Most Harnesses are made from leather, which is the traditional material for harnesses, though some designs are now made of nylon webbing or synthetic biothane.A breaststrap harness has a wide leather strap going horizontally across the horses' breast, attached to the traces and then to the load.", "This is used only for lighter loads.", "A collar and hames harness has a collar around the horses' neck with wood or metal hames in the collar.", "The traces attach from the hames to the load.", "This type of harness is needed for heavy draft work.Both types will also have a bridle and reins.", "A harness that is used to support shafts, such as on a cart pulled by a single horse, will also have a ''saddle'' attached to the harness to help the horse support the shafts and ''breeching'' to brake the forward motion of the vehicle, especially when stopping or moving downhill.", "Horses guiding vehicles by means of a pole, such as two-horse teams pulling a wagon, a hay-mower, or a dray, will have ''pole-straps'' attached to the lower part of the horse collar." ], [ "Breastplates and martingales", "An English-style breastplate with elastic and a running martingale attachmentHorse wearing a breastplateBreastplates, breastcollars or breastgirths attach to the front of the saddle, cross the horse's chest, and usually have a strap that runs between the horse's front legs and attaches to the girth.", "They keep the saddle from sliding back or sideways.", "They are usually seen in demanding, fast-paced sports.", "They are crucial pieces of safety equipment for English riding activities requiring jumping, such as eventing, show jumping, polo, and fox hunting.", "They are also seen in Western riding events, particularly in rodeo, reining and cutting, where it is particularly important to prevent a saddle from shifting.", "They may also be worn in other horse show classes for decorative purposes.A martingale is a piece of equipment that keeps a horse from raising its head too high.", "Various styles can be used as a control measure, to prevent the horse from avoiding rider commands by raising its head out of position; or as a safety measure to keep the horse from tossing its head high or hard enough to smack its rider in the face.They are allowed in many types of competition, especially those where speed or jumping may be required, but are not allowed in most \"flat\" classes at horse shows, though an exception is made in a few classes limited exclusively to young or \"green\" horses who may not yet be fully trained.Martingales are usually attached to the horse one of two ways.", "They are either attached to the center chest ring of a breastplate or, if no breastplate is worn, they are attached by two straps, one that goes around the horse's neck, and the other that attaches to the girth, with the martingale itself beginning at the point in the center of the chest where the neck and girth straps intersect.Martingale types include:*German martingale or Market Harborough: This design consists of a split fork that comes up from the chest, runs through the rings of the bit and attaches to the reins of the bridle between the bit and the rider's hand.", "It acts in a manner similar to a running martingale, but with greater leverage.", "It is not usually considered show legal and is used primarily as a training aid.", "*Irish martingale: Unlike the previous designs, this very simple \"martingale\" does not control the height of the horse's head, but merely keeps the reins from going over the horse's head in the result of a fall.", "It consists of a piece of leather with a ring on each end through which each rein runs.a horse wearing a running martingale*Running martingale: This design adds leverage to a bit and features a split ''fork'' beginning at the chest with a ring on each side of the fork through which the reins pass, enabling the rider to more easily keep the horse under control, but also allowing the horse freedom of movement when needed.", "Fitted correctly, the running martingale only controls how high the horse carries its head when the rider tightens the reins.", "The standard adjustment of a running martingale is to set the rings at a height where they do not engage and add leverage to the reins when the horse carries its head at the proper height.", "Sometimes a running martingale may be adjusted at a greater or lesser length depending on the needs of the horse and rider.", "*Standing martingale: A design with one strap that runs from the girth or the chest and attaches to the noseband of the bridle.", "The standing martingale acts on the horse's nose and creates an absolute limit to how high a horse can raise its head.", "The term used in western riding for this piece of equipment is the ''tie down''.", "Standard adjustment of a standing martingale allows enough slack to bring the strap to the horse's throatlatch when the animal has its head in a relaxed, natural position.", "However, it is sometimes adjusted shorter.", "Unlike the running martingale, it limits the freedom of the horse's head, no matter how long or short the reins may be.", "While standing martingales are common in show hunter and equitation classes, the limits placed on the horse's movement are dangerous for cross-country riding or show jumping.", "Therefore, in these disciplines, a running martingale is necessary for safety reasons, if a martingale is used at all.There are other training devices that fall loosely in the martingale category, in that they use straps attached to the reins or bit which limit the movement of the horse's head or add leverage to the rider's hands in order to control the horse's head.", "Common devices of this nature include the overcheck, the chambon, de Gogue, grazing reins, draw reins and the \"bitting harness\" or \"bitting rig\".", "However, most of this equipment is used for training purposes and is not legal in any competition.", "In some disciplines, use of leverage devices, even in training, is controversial." ], [ "Associated Equipment", "*Bell boots*Crop*Hoof boot*Horseshoe*Polo wraps*Splint boots*Spurs*Whip*Blinkers and Blinders" ], [ "See also", "*Glossary of equestrian terms*Great Stirrup Controversy*Equestrian helmet*Riding boot" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hausa language" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Hausa''' (; / ; Ajami: ) is a Chadic language that is spoken by the Hausa people in the northern parts of Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroon, Benin and Togo, and the southern parts of Niger, Chad and Sudan, with significant minorities in Ivory Coast.Hausa is a member of the Afroasiatic language family and is the most widely spoken language within the Chadic branch of that family.", "''Ethnologue'' estimated that it was spoken as a first language by some 50.7 million people and as a second language by another 26.2 million, bringing the total number of Hausa speakers to an estimated 77 million.In Nigeria, the Hausa film industry is known as Kannywood." ], [ "Classification", "Hausa belongs to the West Chadic languages subgroup of the Chadic languages group, which in turn is part of the Afroasiatic language family." ], [ "Geographic distribution", "linguistic groups of Nigeria in 1979Native speakers of Hausa, the Hausa people, are mostly found in southern Niger and northern Nigeria.", "The language is used as a lingua franca by non-native speakers in most of northern Nigeria, southern Niger, northern Cameroon, northern Ghana, northern Benin, northern Togo, southern Chad and parts of Sudan.===By country=======Nigeria====In Nigeria, Hausa is dominant throughout the north, but not dominant in the states of Kwara, Kogi and Benue.", "Cities in which Hausa is spoken include Kano, Kaduna, Katsina, Daura, Gobir, Zaria, Sokoto, Birnin Kebbi, Gusau, Dutse, Hadejia, Bauchi, Misau, Zamfara, Gombe, Nafada, Maiduguri, Yobe, Yola, Jalingo, Jos, Lafia, Nasarawa, Minna, Kontagora, Lokoja, Keffi and Abuja.====Niger====In Niger, Hausa is spoken in the south, including the cities of Maradi, Diffa, Tahoua, Zinder, Tillaberi, Dosso, and Agadez.====Cameroon====In Cameroon, Hausa is spoken in the north, including the cities of Ngaoundere, Garoua, and Maroua.====Ghana====In Ghana, Hausa is the lingua franca of the Zongo communities across the country.====Benin====In Benin, Hausa is spoken in the north.", "Cities where it is spoken include Parakou, Kandi, Natitingou, and Djougou.====Togo====In Togo, Hausa is spoken in the north.", "Cities where it is spoken include Sokode, Kara, and Dapaong.====Chad====In Chad, Hausa is spoken in the south.", "Cities where it is spoken include N'Djamena.====Sudan====In Sudan, Hausa is spoken in the states of Jazirah, Blue Nile, and Kordofan." ], [ "Dialects", "Hausa presents a wide uniformity wherever it is spoken.", "However, linguists have identified dialect areas with a cluster of features characteristic of each one.=== Traditional dialects ===Eastern Hausa dialects include ''Dauranci'' in Daura, ''Kananci'' in Kano, ''Bausanci'' in Bauchi, ''Gudduranci'' in Katagum Misau and part of Borno, and ''Hadejanci'' in Hadejiya.Western Hausa dialects include ''Sakkwatanci'' in Sokoto, ''Katsinanci'' in Katsina, ''Arewanci'' in Gobir, Adar, Kebbi, and Zanhwaranci in Zamfara, and ''Kurhwayanci'' in Kurfey in Niger.", "Katsina is transitional between Eastern and Western dialects.", "Sokoto is used in a variety of classical Hausa literature, and is often known as ''Classical Hausa''.Northern Hausa dialects include ''Arewa'' (meaning 'North') and ''Arewaci''.", "''Zazzaganci'' in Zazzau is the major Southern dialect.The Daura (''Dauranchi'') and Kano (''Kananci'') dialect are the standard.", "The BBC, Deutsche Welle, Radio France Internationale and Voice of America offer Hausa services on their international news web sites using Dauranci and Kananci.", "In recent language development Zazzaganci took over the innovation of writing and speaking the current Hausa language use.=== Northernmost dialects and loss of tonality ===The western to eastern Hausa dialects of ''Kurhwayanci'', Dam''agaram'' and ''Adarawa'', represent the traditional northernmost limit of native Hausa communities.", "These are spoken in the northernmost sahel and mid-Saharan regions in west and central Niger in the Tillaberi, Tahoua, Dosso, Maradi, Agadez and Zinder regions.", "While mutually comprehensible with other dialects (especially ''Sakkwatanci'', and to a lesser extent ''Gaananci''), the northernmost dialects have slight grammatical and lexical differences owing to frequent contact with the Zarma, Fula, and Tuareg groups and cultural changes owing to the geographical differences between the grassland and desert zones.", "These dialects also have the quality of bordering on non-tonal pitch accent dialects.This link between non-tonality and geographic location is not limited to Hausa alone, but is exhibited in other northern dialects of neighbouring languages; example includes differences within the Songhay language (between the non-tonal northernmost dialects of Koyra Chiini in Timbuktu and Koyraboro Senni in Gao; and the tonal southern Zarma dialect, spoken from western Niger to northern Ghana), and within the Soninke language (between the non-tonal northernmost dialects of Imraguen and Nemadi spoken in east-central Mauritania; and the tonal southern dialects of Senegal, Mali and the Sahel).=== Ghanaian Hausa dialect ===The Ghanaian Hausa dialect (''Gaananci''), spoken in Ghana and Togo, is a distinct western native Hausa dialect-bloc with adequate linguistic and media resources available.", "Separate smaller Hausa dialects are spoken by an unknown number of Hausa further west in parts of Burkina Faso, and in the Haoussa Foulane, Badji Haoussa, Guezou Haoussa, and Ansongo districts of northeastern Mali (where it is designated as a minority language by the Malian government), but there are very little linguistic resources and research done on these particular dialects at this time.Gaananci forms a separate group from other Western Hausa dialects, as it now falls outside the contiguous Hausa-dominant area, and is usually identified by the use of ''c'' for ''ky'', and ''j'' for ''gy''.", "This is attributed to the fact that Ghana's Hausa population descend from Hausa-Fulani traders settled in the zongo districts of major trade-towns up and down the previous Asante, Gonja and Dagomba kingdoms stretching from the sahel to coastal regions, in particular the cities of Accra (Sabon Zango, Nima), Takoradi and Cape CoastGaananci exhibits noted inflected influences from Zarma, Gur, Jula-Bambara, Akan, and Soninke, as Ghana is the westernmost area in which the Hausa language is a major lingua-franca among sahelian/Muslim West Africans, including both Ghanaian and non-Ghanaian zango migrants primarily from the northern regions, or Mali and Burkina Faso.", "Ghana also marks the westernmost boundary in which the Hausa people inhabit in any considerable number.", "Immediately west and north of Ghana (in Cote d'Ivoire, and Burkina Faso), Hausa is abruptly replaced with Dioula–Bambara as the main sahelian/Muslim lingua-franca of what become predominantly Manding areas, and native Hausa-speakers plummet to a very small urban minority.Because of this, and the presence of surrounding Akan, Gbe, Gur and Mande languages, Gaananci was historically isolated from the other Hausa dialects.", "Despite this difference, grammatical similarities between ''Sakkwatanci'' and Ghanaian Hausa determine that the dialect, and the origin of the Ghanaian Hausa people themselves, are derived from the northwestern Hausa area surrounding Sokoto.Hausa is also widely spoken by non-native Gur, and Mandé Ghanaian Muslims, but differs from Gaananci, and rather has features consistent with non-native Hausa dialects.=== Other native dialects ===Hausa is also spoken in various parts of Cameroon and Chad, which combined the mixed dialects of Northern Nigeria and Niger.", "In addition, Arabic has had a great influence in the way Hausa is spoken by the native Hausa speakers in these areas.=== Non-native Hausa ===In West Africa, Hausa's use as a lingua franca has given rise to a non-native pronunciation that differs vastly from native pronunciation by way of key omissions of implosive and ejective consonants present in native Hausa dialects, such as ''ɗ'', ''ɓ'' and ''kʼ/ƙ'', which are pronounced by non-native speakers as ''d'', ''b'' and ''k'' respectively.", "This creates confusion among non-native and native Hausa speakers, as non-native pronunciation does not distinguish words like '''' (\"correct\") and '''' (\"one-by-one\").", "Another difference between native and non-native Hausa is the omission of vowel length in words and change in the standard tone of native Hausa dialects (ranging from native Fulani and Tuareg Hausa-speakers omitting tone altogether, to Hausa speakers with Gur or Yoruba mother tongues using additional tonal structures similar to those used in their native languages).", "Use of masculine and feminine gender nouns and sentence structure are usually omitted or interchanged, and many native Hausa nouns and verbs are substituted with non-native terms from local languages.Non-native speakers of Hausa numbered more than 25 million and, in some areas, live close to native Hausa.", "It has replaced many other languages especially in the north-central and north-eastern part of Nigeria and continues to gain popularity in other parts of Africa as a result of Hausa movies and music which spread out throughout the region.===Hausa-based pidgins===There are several pidgin forms of Hausa.", "Barikanchi was formerly used in the colonial army of Nigeria.", "'''Gibanawa''' is currently in widespread use in Jega in northwestern Nigeria, south of the native Hausa area.=== Loan words ===The Hausa language has a long history of borrowing words from other languages, usually from the languages being spoken around and near Hausaland.", "+WordLanguage''akwati'' - 'box', ''agogo'' - 'clock', ''ashana'' - 'matches'Yoruba''dattijo'' - 'old man', ''inna'' - 'mother', ''kawu'' – 'uncle'Fulani''karatu'' – 'reading', ''rubutu'' – 'writing', ''birni'' – 'city'Kanuri''shinkafa'' – 'rice', ''angulu'' – 'vulture'Nupe" ], [ "Phonology", "===Consonants===Hausa has between 23 and 25 consonant phonemes depending on the speaker.+Consonant phonemesBilabialAlveolarPost-alveolarDorsalGlottalfrontplainroundNasalPlosive/Affricateimplosivevoiced()tenuisejective()()FricativevoicedtenuisApproximant RhoticThe three-way contrast between palatals , plain velars , and labialized velars is found only before long and short , e.g.", "('grass'), ('to increase'), ('shea-nuts').", "Before front vowels, only palatals and labialized velars occur, e.g.", "('jealousy') vs. ('side of body').", "Before rounded vowels, only labialized velars occur, e.g.", "('ringworm').===Glottalic consonants===Hausa has glottalic consonants (implosives and ejectives) at four or five places of articulation (depending on the dialect).", "They require movement of the glottis during pronunciation and have a staccato sound.They are written with modified versions of Latin letters.", "They can also be denoted with an apostrophe, either before or after depending on the letter, as shown below:* ɓ / b', an implosive consonant, , sometimes ;* ɗ / d', an implosive , sometimes ;* ts', an ejective consonant, or , according to the dialect;* ch', an ejective (does not occur in Kano dialect)* ƙ / k', an ejective ; and are separate consonants;* ƴ / 'y is a palatal approximant with creaky voice, , found in only a small number of high-frequency words (e.g.", "\"children\", \"daughter\").", "Historically it developed from palatalized .===Vowels===Hausa vowel chart, from .", "The short vowels have a much wider range of allophones than what is presented on the chart.Hausa vowels occur in five different vowel qualities, all of which can be short or long, totaling 10 monophthongs.", "In addition, there are four diphthongs, giving a total number of 14 vocalic phonemes.+FrontCentralBackCloseMidOpen;:In comparison with the long vowels, the short can be similar in quality to the long vowels, mid-centralized to or centralized to .Medial can be neutralized to , with the rounding depending on the environment.Medial are neutralized with .The short can be either similar in quality to the long , or it can be as high as , with possible intermediate pronunciations ().The 4 diphthongs in Hausa are .===Tones===Hausa is a tonal language.", "Each of its five vowels may have low tone, high tone or falling tone.", "In standard written Hausa, tone is not marked.", "In recent linguistic and pedagogical materials, tone is marked by means of diacritics.", ":  – low tone: grave accent ():  – falling tone: circumflex ()An acute accent () may be used for high tone, but the usual practice is to leave high tone unmarked." ], [ "Morphology", "Except for the Zaria and Bauchi dialects spoken south of Kano, Hausa distinguishes between masculine and feminine genders.Hausa, like the rest of the Chadic languages, is known for its complex, irregular pluralization of nouns.", "Noun plurals in Hausa are derived using a variety of morphological processes, such as suffixation, infixation, reduplication, or a combination of any of these processes.", "There are 20 plural classes proposed by Newman (2000).", "Class Affix Singular (ex.)", "Plural (ex.)", "Gloss (ex.)", "1 a-a sirdì sir'''à'''d'''a''' 'saddle' 2 a-e gulbi gul'''à'''b'''e''' 'stream' 3 a-u kurmì kur'''à'''m'''u''' 'grove' 4 -aCe wuri wur'''à'''r'''e''' 'place' 5 -ai malàm malàm'''ai''' 'teacher' 6 -anni watà wàt'''ànni''' 'moon' 7 -awa talàkà talak'''awa''' 'commoner' 8 -aye zomo zom'''àye''' 'hare' 9 -Ca tabò tab'''ba''' 'scar' 10 -Cai tudù tùd'''dai''' 'high ground' 11 -ce2 ciwò cìwà'''ce-cìwàce''' 'illness' 12 -Cuna cikì cik'''kunà''' 'belly' 13 -e2 camfì càmf'''e-càmfe''' 'superstition' 14 -i tàurarò tàuràr'''i''' 'star' 15 -oCi tagà tag'''ogi''' 'window' 16 -u kujèra kùjèr'''u''' 'chair' 17 u-a cokàli cok'''u'''l'''à''' 'spoon' 18 -uka layò lay'''ukà''' 'lane' 19 -una rìga rig'''unà''' 'grown' 20 X2 àkàwu àkàwu-'''àkàwu''' 'clerk'===Pronouns===Hausa marks tense differences by different sets of subject pronouns, sometimes with the pronoun combined with some additional particle.", "For this reason, a subject pronoun must accompany every verb in Hausa, regardless of whether the subject is known from previous context or is expressed by a noun subject.+ Time, aspect, and mood 1st person 2nd person 3rd person indef singular plural singular plural singular plural m f m f perfect naː mun kaː kin kun jaː taː sun an relative na mukà ka kikà kukà ja ta sukà akà negative bàn ... ba bàmù ... ba bàkà ... ba bàkì ... ba bàkù ... ba bài ... ba bàtà ... ba bàsù ... ba bà’à ... ba continuous inàː munàː kanàː kinàː kunàː janàː / ʃinàː tanàː sunàː anàː relative nakèː / nikèː mukèː kakèː kikèː kukèː jakèː / ʃikèː takèː sukèː akèː negative baː nàː baː màː baː kàː baː kjàː baː kwàː baː jàː baː tàː baː sàː baː àː negative(possessives) bâː ni bâː mu bâː ka bâː ki bâː ku bâː ʃi bâː ta bâː su bâː a subjunctive ìn mù kà kì kù jà tà sù à negative kadà/kâr ìn kadà/kâr mù kadà/kâr kà kadà/kâr kì kadà/kâr kù kadà/kâr jà kadà/kâr tà kadà/kâr sù kadà/kâr à future zân / zaː nì zaː mù zaː kà zaː kì zaː kù zâi / zaː jà zaː tà zaː sù zaː à negative bà/bàː zân ... ba /bà/bàː zaː nì ... ba bà/bàː zaː mù ... ba bà/bàː zaː kà ... ba bà/bàː zaː kì ... ba bà/bàː zaː kù ... ba bà/bàː zâi ...ba /bà/bàː zaː jà ... ba bà/bàː zaː tà ... ba bà/bàː zaː sù ... ba bà/bàː zaː à ... ba indefinite future nâː mâː/mwâː kâː kjâː kwâː jâː tâː sâː/swâː âː negative bà nâː... ba bà mâː/mwâː ... ba bà kâː ... ba bà kjâː ... ba bà kwâː ... ba bà jâː ... ba bà tâː ... ba bà sâː/swâː ... ba bà âː ... ba habitual nakàn mukàn kakàn kikàn kukàn jakàn takàn sukàn akàn negative bà nakàn ... ba bà mukàn ... ba bà kakàn ... ba bà kikàn ... ba bà kukàn ... ba bà jakàn ... ba bà takàn ... ba bà sukàn ... ba bà akàn ... ba" ], [ "Writing systems", "===''Boko'' (Latin)===Hausa's modern official orthography is a Latin-based alphabet called ''boko'', which was introduced in the 1930s by the British colonial administration.", "A a B b Ɓ ɓ C c D d Ɗ ɗ E e F f G g H h I i J j K k Ƙ ƙ L l M m N n O o R r (R̃ r̃) S s Sh sh T t Ts ts U u W w Y y (Ƴ ƴ) Z z The letter ''ƴ'' (y with a right hook) is used only in Niger; in Nigeria it is written ''ʼy''.Tone and vowel length are not marked in writing.", "So, for example, \"from\" and \"battle\" are both written ''daga''.", "The distinction between and (which does not exist for all speakers) is not marked in orthography, but may be indicated with R̃ r̃ for the trill in linguistic transcription.===''Ajami'' (Arabic)===Hausa has also been written in ''ajami'', an Arabic alphabet, since the early 17th century.", "The first known work to be written in Hausa is Riwayar Nabi Musa by Abdullahi Suka in the 17th century.", "There is no standard system of using ''ajami'', and different writers may use letters with different values.", "Short vowels are written regularly with the help of vowel marks, which are seldom used in Arabic texts other than the Quran.", "Many medieval Hausa manuscripts in ''ajami'', similar to the Timbuktu Manuscripts, have been discovered recently; some of them even describe constellations and calendars.In the following table, short and long ''e'' are shown along with the Arabic letter for ''t'' ().", "Latin IPA Arabic ''ajami'' a   a   b   ɓ   (same as b), (not used in Arabic) c   d   ɗ   (same as d), (also used for ts) e   (not used in Arabic) e   (not used in Arabic) f   g   h   i   i   j   k   ƙ   (same as k), l   m   n   o    (same as u) o    (same as u) r ,   s   sh   t   ts   (also used for ɗ), (not used in Arabic) u    (same as o) u    (same as o) w   y   z       ʼ   ===Other systems===Hausa is one of three indigenous languages of Nigeria that have been rendered in braille.At least three other writing systems for Hausa have been proposed or \"discovered\".", "None of these are in active use beyond perhaps some individuals.", "* A Hausa alphabet, named in some sources as ''Salifou'' or ''Gobiri'', supposedly of ancient origin and in use north of Maradi, Niger.", "* A script that apparently originated with the writing/publishing group Raina Kama in the 1980s.", "* A script called \"Tafi\" proposed in the 1970s(?)" ], [ "See also", "* History of Niger* History of Nigeria* Kanem Empire* Bornu Empire* Bayajidda" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Philips, John Edward .", "“Hausa in the Twentieth Century: An Overview.” in ''Sudanic Africa, ''vol.", "15, 2004, pp.", "55–84.online, on Romanization of the language.", "* * * * (Now in the public domain)." ], [ "External links", "* * Omniglot* Hausa Language Acquisitions at Columbia University Libraries* Hausa Vocabulary List –World Loanword Database* Hausa Dictionary at University of Vienna* ''Hausar Yau Da Kullum:'' –Intermediate and Advanced Lessons in Hausa Language and Culture" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of mathematics" ], [ "Introduction", "A proof from Euclid's ''Elements'' (), widely considered the most influential textbook of all time.The '''history of mathematics''' deals with the origin of discoveries in mathematics and the mathematical methods and notation of the past.", "Before the modern age and the worldwide spread of knowledge, written examples of new mathematical developments have come to light only in a few locales.", "From 3000 BC the Mesopotamian states of Sumer, Akkad and Assyria, followed closely by Ancient Egypt and the Levantine state of Ebla began using arithmetic, algebra and geometry for purposes of taxation, commerce, trade and also in the patterns in nature, the field of astronomy and to record time and formulate calendars.The earliest mathematical texts available are from Mesopotamia and Egypt – ''Plimpton 322'' (Babylonian – 1900 BC), the ''Rhind Mathematical Papyrus'' (Egyptian c. 1800 BC) and the ''Moscow Mathematical Papyrus'' (Egyptian c. 1890 BC).", "All of these texts mention the so-called Pythagorean triples, so, by inference, the Pythagorean theorem seems to be the most ancient and widespread mathematical development after basic arithmetic and geometry.The study of mathematics as a \"demonstrative discipline\" began in the 6th century BC with the Pythagoreans, who coined the term \"mathematics\" from the ancient Greek ''μάθημα'' (''mathema''), meaning \"subject of instruction\".", "Greek mathematics greatly refined the methods (especially through the introduction of deductive reasoning and mathematical rigor in proofs) and expanded the subject matter of mathematics.", "Although they made virtually no contributions to theoretical mathematics, the ancient Romans used applied mathematics in surveying, structural engineering, mechanical engineering, bookkeeping, creation of lunar and solar calendars, and even arts and crafts.", "Chinese mathematics made early contributions, including a place value system and the first use of negative numbers.", "The Hindu–Arabic numeral system and the rules for the use of its operations, in use throughout the world today evolved over the course of the first millennium AD in India and were transmitted to the Western world via Islamic mathematics through the work of Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī.", "Islamic mathematics, in turn, developed and expanded the mathematics known to these civilizations.", "Contemporaneous with but independent of these traditions were the mathematics developed by the Maya civilization of Mexico and Central America, where the concept of zero was given a standard symbol in Maya numerals.Many Greek and Arabic texts on mathematics were translated into Latin from the 12th century onward, leading to further development of mathematics in Medieval Europe.", "From ancient times through the Middle Ages, periods of mathematical discovery were often followed by centuries of stagnation.", "Beginning in Renaissance Italy in the 15th century, new mathematical developments, interacting with new scientific discoveries, were made at an increasing pace that continues through the present day.", "This includes the groundbreaking work of both Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in the development of infinitesimal calculus during the course of the 17th century.+ Table of numeralsEuropean (descended from the West Arabic)0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9Arabic-Indic٠ ١ ٢ ٣ ٤ ٥ ٦ ٧ ٨ ٩Eastern Arabic-Indic (Persian and Urdu)۰ ۱ ۲ ۳ ۴ ۵ ۶ ۷ ۸ ۹Devanagari (Hindi)० १ २ ३ ४ ५ ६ ७ ८ ९Chinese – Japanese 零 一 二 三 四 五 六 七 八 九Tamil ௧ ௨ ௩ ௪ ௫ ௬ ௭ ௮ ௯" ], [ "Prehistoric{{anchor|Science_education#United_States}}", "The origins of mathematical thought lie in the concepts of number, patterns in nature, magnitude, and form.", "Modern studies of animal cognition have shown that these concepts are not unique to humans.", "Such concepts would have been part of everyday life in hunter-gatherer societies.", "The idea of the \"number\" concept evolving gradually over time is supported by the existence of languages which preserve the distinction between \"one\", \"two\", and \"many\", but not of numbers larger than two.The Ishango bone, found near the headwaters of the Nile river (northeastern Congo), may be more than 20,000 years old and consists of a series of marks carved in three columns running the length of the bone.", "Common interpretations are that the Ishango bone shows either a ''tally'' of the earliest known demonstration of sequences of prime numbers or a six-month lunar calendar.", "Peter Rudman argues that the development of the concept of prime numbers could only have come about after the concept of division, which he dates to after 10,000 BC, with prime numbers probably not being understood until about 500 BC.", "He also writes that \"no attempt has been made to explain why a tally of something should exhibit multiples of two, prime numbers between 10 and 20, and some numbers that are almost multiples of 10.\"", "The Ishango bone, according to scholar Alexander Marshack, may have influenced the later development of mathematics in Egypt as, like some entries on the Ishango bone, Egyptian arithmetic also made use of multiplication by 2; this however, is disputed.Predynastic Egyptians of the 5th millennium BC pictorially represented geometric designs.", "It has been claimed that megalithic monuments in England and Scotland, dating from the 3rd millennium BC, incorporate geometric ideas such as circles, ellipses, and Pythagorean triples in their design.", "All of the above are disputed however, and the currently oldest undisputed mathematical documents are from Babylonian and dynastic Egyptian sources." ], [ "Babylonian", "Babylonian mathematics refers to any mathematics of the peoples of Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) from the days of the early Sumerians through the Hellenistic period almost to the dawn of Christianity.", "The majority of Babylonian mathematical work comes from two widely separated periods: The first few hundred years of the second millennium BC (Old Babylonian period), and the last few centuries of the first millennium BC (Seleucid period).", "It is named Babylonian mathematics due to the central role of Babylon as a place of study.", "Later under the Arab Empire, Mesopotamia, especially Baghdad, once again became an important center of study for Islamic mathematics.Geometry problem on a clay tablet belonging to a school for scribes; Susa, first half of the 2nd millennium BCEIn contrast to the sparsity of sources in Egyptian mathematics, knowledge of Babylonian mathematics is derived from more than 400 clay tablets unearthed since the 1850s.", "Written in Cuneiform script, tablets were inscribed whilst the clay was moist, and baked hard in an oven or by the heat of the sun.", "Some of these appear to be graded homework.The earliest evidence of written mathematics dates back to the ancient Sumerians, who built the earliest civilization in Mesopotamia.", "They developed a complex system of metrology from 3000 BC that was chiefly concerned with administrative/financial counting, such as grain allotments, workers, weights of silver, or even liquids, among other things.", "From around 2500 BC onward, the Sumerians wrote multiplication tables on clay tablets and dealt with geometrical exercises and division problems.", "The earliest traces of the Babylonian numerals also date back to this period.The Babylonian mathematical tablet Plimpton 322, dated to 1800 BC.Babylonian mathematics were written using a sexagesimal (base-60) numeral system.", "From this derives the modern-day usage of 60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour, and 360 (60 × 6) degrees in a circle, as well as the use of seconds and minutes of arc to denote fractions of a degree.", "It is thought the sexagesimal system was initially used by Sumerian scribes because 60 can be evenly divided by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20 and 30, and for scribes (doling out the aforementioned grain allotments, recording weights of silver, etc) being able to easily calculate by hand was essential, and so a sexagesimal system is pragmatically easier to calculate by hand with; however, there is the possibility that using a sexagesimal system was an ethno-linguistic phenomenon (that might not ever be known), and not a mathematical/practical decision.", "Also, unlike the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, the Babylonians had a place-value system, where digits written in the left column represented larger values, much as in the system.", "The power of the Babylonian notational system lay in that it could be used to represent fractions as easily as whole numbers; thus multiplying two numbers that contained fractions was no different from multiplying integers, similar to modern notation.", "The notational system of the Babylonians was the best of any civilization until the Renaissance, and its power allowed it to achieve remarkable computational accuracy; for example, the Babylonian tablet YBC 7289 gives an approximation of accurate to five decimal places.", "The Babylonians lacked, however, an equivalent of the decimal point, and so the place value of a symbol often had to be inferred from the context.", "By the Seleucid period, the Babylonians had developed a zero symbol as a placeholder for empty positions; however it was only used for intermediate positions.", "This zero sign does not appear in terminal positions, thus the Babylonians came close but did not develop a true place value system.Other topics covered by Babylonian mathematics include fractions, algebra, quadratic and cubic equations, and the calculation of regular numbers, and their reciprocal pairs.", "The tablets also include multiplication tables and methods for solving linear, quadratic equations and cubic equations, a remarkable achievement for the time.", "Tablets from the Old Babylonian period also contain the earliest known statement of the Pythagorean theorem.", "However, as with Egyptian mathematics, Babylonian mathematics shows no awareness of the difference between exact and approximate solutions, or the solvability of a problem, and most importantly, no explicit statement of the need for proofs or logical principles." ], [ "Egyptian", "Image of Problem 14 from the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus.", "The problem includes a diagram indicating the dimensions of the truncated pyramid.Egyptian mathematics refers to mathematics written in the Egyptian language.", "From the Hellenistic period, Greek replaced Egyptian as the written language of Egyptian scholars.", "Mathematical study in Egypt later continued under the Arab Empire as part of Islamic mathematics, when Arabic became the written language of Egyptian scholars.", "Archaeological evidence has suggested that the Ancient Egyptian counting system had origins in Sub-Saharan Africa.", "Also, fractal geometry designs which are widespread among Sub-Saharan African cultures are also found in Egyptian architecture and cosmological signs.The most extensive Egyptian mathematical text is the Rhind papyrus (sometimes also called the Ahmes Papyrus after its author), dated to c. 1650 BC but likely a copy of an older document from the Middle Kingdom of about 2000–1800 BC.", "It is an instruction manual for students in arithmetic and geometry.", "In addition to giving area formulas and methods for multiplication, division and working with unit fractions, it also contains evidence of other mathematical knowledge, including composite and prime numbers; arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means; and simplistic understandings of both the Sieve of Eratosthenes and perfect number theory (namely, that of the number 6).", "It also shows how to solve first order linear equations as well as arithmetic and geometric series.Another significant Egyptian mathematical text is the Moscow papyrus, also from the Middle Kingdom period, dated to c. 1890 BC.", "It consists of what are today called ''word problems'' or ''story problems'', which were apparently intended as entertainment.", "One problem is considered to be of particular importance because it gives a method for finding the volume of a frustum (truncated pyramid).Finally, the Berlin Papyrus 6619 (c. 1800 BC) shows that ancient Egyptians could solve a second-order algebraic equation." ], [ "Greek", "The Pythagorean theorem.", "The Pythagoreans are generally credited with the first proof of the theorem.Greek mathematics refers to the mathematics written in the Greek language from the time of Thales of Miletus (~600 BC) to the closure of the Academy of Athens in 529 AD.", "Greek mathematicians lived in cities spread over the entire Eastern Mediterranean, from Italy to North Africa, but were united by culture and language.", "Greek mathematics of the period following Alexander the Great is sometimes called Hellenistic mathematics.Greek mathematics was much more sophisticated than the mathematics that had been developed by earlier cultures.", "All surviving records of pre-Greek mathematics show the use of inductive reasoning, that is, repeated observations used to establish rules of thumb.", "Greek mathematicians, by contrast, used deductive reasoning.", "The Greeks used logic to derive conclusions from definitions and axioms, and used mathematical rigor to prove them.Greek mathematics is thought to have begun with Thales of Miletus (c. 624–c.546 BC) and Pythagoras of Samos (c. 582–c.", "507 BC).", "Although the extent of the influence is disputed, they were probably inspired by Egyptian and Babylonian mathematics.", "According to legend, Pythagoras traveled to Egypt to learn mathematics, geometry, and astronomy from Egyptian priests.Thales used geometry to solve problems such as calculating the height of pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore.", "He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales' Theorem.", "As a result, he has been hailed as the first true mathematician and the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed.", "Pythagoras established the Pythagorean School, whose doctrine it was that mathematics ruled the universe and whose motto was \"All is number\".", "It was the Pythagoreans who coined the term \"mathematics\", and with whom the study of mathematics for its own sake begins.", "The Pythagoreans are credited with the first proof of the Pythagorean theorem, though the statement of the theorem has a long history, and with the proof of the existence of irrational numbers.", "Although he was preceded by the Babylonians, Indians and the Chinese, the Neopythagorean mathematician Nicomachus (60–120 AD) provided one of the earliest Greco-Roman multiplication tables, whereas the oldest extant Greek multiplication table is found on a wax tablet dated to the 1st century AD (now found in the British Museum).", "The association of the Neopythagoreans with the Western invention of the multiplication table is evident in its later Medieval name: the ''mensa Pythagorica''.Plato (428/427 BC – 348/347 BC) is important in the history of mathematics for inspiring and guiding others.", "His Platonic Academy, in Athens, became the mathematical center of the world in the 4th century BC, and it was from this school that the leading mathematicians of the day, such as Eudoxus of Cnidus, came.", "Plato also discussed the foundations of mathematics, clarified some of the definitions (e.g.", "that of a line as \"breadthless length\"), and reorganized the assumptions.", "The analytic method is ascribed to Plato, while a formula for obtaining Pythagorean triples bears his name.Eudoxus (408–) developed the method of exhaustion, a precursor of modern integration and a theory of ratios that avoided the problem of incommensurable magnitudes.", "The former allowed the calculations of areas and volumes of curvilinear figures, while the latter enabled subsequent geometers to make significant advances in geometry.", "Though he made no specific technical mathematical discoveries, Aristotle (384–) contributed significantly to the development of mathematics by laying the foundations of logic.One of the oldest surviving fragments of Euclid's ''Elements'', found at Oxyrhynchus and dated to circa AD 100.The diagram accompanies Book II, Proposition 5.In the 3rd century BC, the premier center of mathematical education and research was the Musaeum of Alexandria.", "It was there that Euclid () taught, and wrote the ''Elements'', widely considered the most successful and influential textbook of all time.", "The ''Elements'' introduced mathematical rigor through the axiomatic method and is the earliest example of the format still used in mathematics today, that of definition, axiom, theorem, and proof.", "Although most of the contents of the ''Elements'' were already known, Euclid arranged them into a single, coherent logical framework.", "The ''Elements'' was known to all educated people in the West up through the middle of the 20th century and its contents are still taught in geometry classes today.", "In addition to the familiar theorems of Euclidean geometry, the ''Elements'' was meant as an introductory textbook to all mathematical subjects of the time, such as number theory, algebra and solid geometry, including proofs that the square root of two is irrational and that there are infinitely many prime numbers.", "Euclid also wrote extensively on other subjects, such as conic sections, optics, spherical geometry, and mechanics, but only half of his writings survive.Archimedes used the method of exhaustion to approximate the value of pi.Archimedes (–212 BC) of Syracuse, widely considered the greatest mathematician of antiquity, used the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, in a manner not too dissimilar from modern calculus.", "He also showed one could use the method of exhaustion to calculate the value of π with as much precision as desired, and obtained the most accurate value of π then known, .", "He also studied the spiral bearing his name, obtained formulas for the volumes of surfaces of revolution (paraboloid, ellipsoid, hyperboloid), and an ingenious method of exponentiation for expressing very large numbers.", "While he is also known for his contributions to physics and several advanced mechanical devices, Archimedes himself placed far greater value on the products of his thought and general mathematical principles.", "He regarded as his greatest achievement his finding of the surface area and volume of a sphere, which he obtained by proving these are 2/3 the surface area and volume of a cylinder circumscribing the sphere.Apollonius of Perga made significant advances in the study of conic sections.Apollonius of Perga (–190 BC) made significant advances to the study of conic sections, showing that one can obtain all three varieties of conic section by varying the angle of the plane that cuts a double-napped cone.", "He also coined the terminology in use today for conic sections, namely parabola (\"place beside\" or \"comparison\"), \"ellipse\" (\"deficiency\"), and \"hyperbola\" (\"a throw beyond\").", "His work ''Conics'' is one of the best known and preserved mathematical works from antiquity, and in it he derives many theorems concerning conic sections that would prove invaluable to later mathematicians and astronomers studying planetary motion, such as Isaac Newton.", "While neither Apollonius nor any other Greek mathematicians made the leap to coordinate geometry, Apollonius' treatment of curves is in some ways similar to the modern treatment, and some of his work seems to anticipate the development of analytical geometry by Descartes some 1800 years later.Around the same time, Eratosthenes of Cyrene (–194 BC) devised the Sieve of Eratosthenes for finding prime numbers.", "The 3rd century BC is generally regarded as the \"Golden Age\" of Greek mathematics, with advances in pure mathematics henceforth in relative decline.", "Nevertheless, in the centuries that followed significant advances were made in applied mathematics, most notably trigonometry, largely to address the needs of astronomers.", "Hipparchus of Nicaea (–120 BC) is considered the founder of trigonometry for compiling the first known trigonometric table, and to him is also due the systematic use of the 360 degree circle.", "Heron of Alexandria (–70 AD) is credited with Heron's formula for finding the area of a scalene triangle and with being the first to recognize the possibility of negative numbers possessing square roots.", "Menelaus of Alexandria () pioneered spherical trigonometry through Menelaus' theorem.", "The most complete and influential trigonometric work of antiquity is the ''Almagest'' of Ptolemy (–168), a landmark astronomical treatise whose trigonometric tables would be used by astronomers for the next thousand years.", "Ptolemy is also credited with Ptolemy's theorem for deriving trigonometric quantities, and the most accurate value of π outside of China until the medieval period, 3.1416.Title page of the 1621 edition of Diophantus' ''Arithmetica'', translated into Latin by Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac.Following a period of stagnation after Ptolemy, the period between 250 and 350 AD is sometimes referred to as the \"Silver Age\" of Greek mathematics.", "During this period, Diophantus made significant advances in algebra, particularly indeterminate analysis, which is also known as \"Diophantine analysis\".", "The study of Diophantine equations and Diophantine approximations is a significant area of research to this day.", "His main work was the ''Arithmetica'', a collection of 150 algebraic problems dealing with exact solutions to determinate and indeterminate equations.", "The ''Arithmetica'' had a significant influence on later mathematicians, such as Pierre de Fermat, who arrived at his famous Last Theorem after trying to generalize a problem he had read in the ''Arithmetica'' (that of dividing a square into two squares).", "Diophantus also made significant advances in notation, the ''Arithmetica'' being the first instance of algebraic symbolism and syncopation.The Hagia Sophia was designed by mathematicians Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus.Among the last great Greek mathematicians is Pappus of Alexandria (4th century AD).", "He is known for his hexagon theorem and centroid theorem, as well as the Pappus configuration and Pappus graph.", "His ''Collection'' is a major source of knowledge on Greek mathematics as most of it has survived.", "Pappus is considered the last major innovator in Greek mathematics, with subsequent work consisting mostly of commentaries on earlier work.The first woman mathematician recorded by history was Hypatia of Alexandria (AD 350–415).", "She succeeded her father (Theon of Alexandria) as Librarian at the Great Library and wrote many works on applied mathematics.", "Because of a political dispute, the Christian community in Alexandria had her stripped publicly and executed.", "Her death is sometimes taken as the end of the era of the Alexandrian Greek mathematics, although work did continue in Athens for another century with figures such as Proclus, Simplicius and Eutocius.", "Although Proclus and Simplicius were more philosophers than mathematicians, their commentaries on earlier works are valuable sources on Greek mathematics.", "The closure of the neo-Platonic Academy of Athens by the emperor Justinian in 529 AD is traditionally held as marking the end of the era of Greek mathematics, although the Greek tradition continued unbroken in the Byzantine empire with mathematicians such as Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus, the architects of the Hagia Sophia.", "Nevertheless, Byzantine mathematics consisted mostly of commentaries, with little in the way of innovation, and the centers of mathematical innovation were to be found elsewhere by this time." ], [ "Roman", "ancient Roman land surveyor (''gromatici''), found at the site of Aquincum, modern Budapest, HungaryAlthough ethnic Greek mathematicians continued under the rule of the late Roman Republic and subsequent Roman Empire, there were no noteworthy native Latin mathematicians in comparison.", "Ancient Romans such as Cicero (106–43 BC), an influential Roman statesman who studied mathematics in Greece, believed that Roman surveyors and calculators were far more interested in applied mathematics than the theoretical mathematics and geometry that were prized by the Greeks.", "It is unclear if the Romans first derived their numerical system directly from the Greek precedent or from Etruscan numerals used by the Etruscan civilization centered in what is now Tuscany, central Italy.Using calculation, Romans were adept at both instigating and detecting financial fraud, as well as managing taxes for the treasury.", "Siculus Flaccus, one of the Roman ''gromatici'' (i.e.", "land surveyor), wrote the ''Categories of Fields'', which aided Roman surveyors in measuring the surface areas of allotted lands and territories.", "Aside from managing trade and taxes, the Romans also regularly applied mathematics to solve problems in engineering, including the erection of architecture such as bridges, road-building, and preparation for military campaigns.", "Arts and crafts such as Roman mosaics, inspired by previous Greek designs, created illusionist geometric patterns and rich, detailed scenes that required precise measurements for each tessera tile, the opus tessellatum pieces on average measuring eight millimeters square and the finer opus vermiculatum pieces having an average surface of four millimeters square.The creation of the Roman calendar also necessitated basic mathematics.", "The first calendar allegedly dates back to 8th century BC during the Roman Kingdom and included 356 days plus a leap year every other year.", "In contrast, the lunar calendar of the Republican era contained 355 days, roughly ten-and-one-fourth days shorter than the solar year, a discrepancy that was solved by adding an extra month into the calendar after the 23rd of February.", "This calendar was supplanted by the Julian calendar, a solar calendar organized by Julius Caesar (100–44 BC) and devised by Sosigenes of Alexandria to include a leap day every four years in a 365-day cycle.", "This calendar, which contained an error of 11 minutes and 14 seconds, was later corrected by the Gregorian calendar organized by Pope Gregory XIII (), virtually the same solar calendar used in modern times as the international standard calendar.At roughly the same time, the Han Chinese and the Romans both invented the wheeled odometer device for measuring distances traveled, the Roman model first described by the Roman civil engineer and architect Vitruvius ().", "The device was used at least until the reign of emperor Commodus (), but its design seems to have been lost until experiments were made during the 15th century in Western Europe.", "Perhaps relying on similar gear-work and technology found in the Antikythera mechanism, the odometer of Vitruvius featured chariot wheels measuring 4 feet (1.2 m) in diameter turning four-hundred times in one Roman mile (roughly 4590 ft/1400 m).", "With each revolution, a pin-and-axle device engaged a 400-tooth cogwheel that turned a second gear responsible for dropping pebbles into a box, each pebble representing one mile traversed." ], [ "Chinese", "The Tsinghua Bamboo Slips, containing the world's earliest decimal multiplication table, dated 305 BC during the Warring States periodAn analysis of early Chinese mathematics has demonstrated its unique development compared to other parts of the world, leading scholars to assume an entirely independent development.", "The oldest extant mathematical text from China is the ''Zhoubi Suanjing'' (周髀算經), variously dated to between 1200 BC and 100 BC, though a date of about 300 BC during the Warring States Period appears reasonable.", "However, the Tsinghua Bamboo Slips, containing the earliest known decimal multiplication table (although ancient Babylonians had ones with a base of 60), is dated around 305 BC and is perhaps the oldest surviving mathematical text of China.Counting rod numeralsOf particular note is the use in Chinese mathematics of a decimal positional notation system, the so-called \"rod numerals\" in which distinct ciphers were used for numbers between 1 and 10, and additional ciphers for powers of ten.", "Thus, the number 123 would be written using the symbol for \"1\", followed by the symbol for \"100\", then the symbol for \"2\" followed by the symbol for \"10\", followed by the symbol for \"3\".", "This was the most advanced number system in the world at the time, apparently in use several centuries before the common era and well before the development of the Indian numeral system.", "Rod numerals allowed the representation of numbers as large as desired and allowed calculations to be carried out on the ''suan pan'', or Chinese abacus.", "The date of the invention of the ''suan pan'' is not certain, but the earliest written mention dates from AD 190, in Xu Yue's ''Supplementary Notes on the Art of Figures''.The oldest existent work on geometry in China comes from the philosophical Mohist canon , compiled by the followers of Mozi (470–390 BC).", "The ''Mo Jing'' described various aspects of many fields associated with physical science, and provided a small number of geometrical theorems as well.", "It also defined the concepts of circumference, diameter, radius, and volume.", "''The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art'', one of the earliest surviving mathematical texts from China (2nd century AD).In 212 BC, the Emperor Qin Shi Huang commanded all books in the Qin Empire other than officially sanctioned ones be burned.", "This decree was not universally obeyed, but as a consequence of this order little is known about ancient Chinese mathematics before this date.", "After the book burning of 212 BC, the Han dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) produced works of mathematics which presumably expanded on works that are now lost.", "The most important of these is ''The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art'', the full title of which appeared by AD 179, but existed in part under other titles beforehand.", "It consists of 246 word problems involving agriculture, business, employment of geometry to figure height spans and dimension ratios for Chinese pagoda towers, engineering, surveying, and includes material on right triangles.", "It created mathematical proof for the Pythagorean theorem, and a mathematical formula for Gaussian elimination.", "The treatise also provides values of π, which Chinese mathematicians originally approximated as 3 until Liu Xin (d. 23 AD) provided a figure of 3.1457 and subsequently Zhang Heng (78–139) approximated pi as 3.1724, as well as 3.162 by taking the square root of 10.Liu Hui commented on the ''Nine Chapters'' in the 3rd century AD and gave a value of π accurate to 5 decimal places (i.e.", "3.14159).", "Though more of a matter of computational stamina than theoretical insight, in the 5th century AD Zu Chongzhi computed the value of π to seven decimal places (between 3.1415926 and 3.1415927), which remained the most accurate value of π for almost the next 1000 years.", "He also established a method which would later be called Cavalieri's principle to find the volume of a sphere.The high-water mark of Chinese mathematics occurred in the 13th century during the latter half of the Song dynasty (960–1279), with the development of Chinese algebra.", "The most important text from that period is the ''Precious Mirror of the Four Elements'' by Zhu Shijie (1249–1314), dealing with the solution of simultaneous higher order algebraic equations using a method similar to Horner's method.", "The ''Precious Mirror'' also contains a diagram of Pascal's triangle with coefficients of binomial expansions through the eighth power, though both appear in Chinese works as early as 1100.The Chinese also made use of the complex combinatorial diagram known as the magic square and magic circles, described in ancient times and perfected by Yang Hui (AD 1238–1298).Even after European mathematics began to flourish during the Renaissance, European and Chinese mathematics were separate traditions, with significant Chinese mathematical output in decline from the 13th century onwards.", "Jesuit missionaries such as Matteo Ricci carried mathematical ideas back and forth between the two cultures from the 16th to 18th centuries, though at this point far more mathematical ideas were entering China than leaving.Japanese mathematics, Korean mathematics, and Vietnamese mathematics are traditionally viewed as stemming from Chinese mathematics and belonging to the Confucian-based East Asian cultural sphere.", "Korean and Japanese mathematics were heavily influenced by the algebraic works produced during China's Song dynasty, whereas Vietnamese mathematics was heavily indebted to popular works of China's Ming dynasty (1368–1644).", "For instance, although Vietnamese mathematical treatises were written in either Chinese or the native Vietnamese Chữ Nôm script, all of them followed the Chinese format of presenting a collection of problems with algorithms for solving them, followed by numerical answers.", "Mathematics in Vietnam and Korea were mostly associated with the professional court bureaucracy of mathematicians and astronomers, whereas in Japan it was more prevalent in the realm of private schools." ], [ "Indian", "The numerals used in the Bakhshali manuscript, dated between the 2nd century BC and the 2nd century AD.The earliest civilization on the Indian subcontinent is the Indus Valley civilization (mature second phase: 2600 to 1900 BC) that flourished in the Indus river basin.", "Their cities were laid out with geometric regularity, but no known mathematical documents survive from this civilization.The oldest extant mathematical records from India are the Sulba Sutras (dated variously between the 8th century BC and the 2nd century AD), appendices to religious texts which give simple rules for constructing altars of various shapes, such as squares, rectangles, parallelograms, and others.", "As with Egypt, the preoccupation with temple functions points to an origin of mathematics in religious ritual.", "The Sulba Sutras give methods for constructing a circle with approximately the same area as a given square, which imply several different approximations of the value of π.", "In addition, they compute the square root of 2 to several decimal places, list Pythagorean triples, and give a statement of the Pythagorean theorem.", "All of these results are present in Babylonian mathematics, indicating Mesopotamian influence.", "It is not known to what extent the Sulba Sutras influenced later Indian mathematicians.", "As in China, there is a lack of continuity in Indian mathematics; significant advances are separated by long periods of inactivity.Pāṇini (c. 5th century BC) formulated the rules for Sanskrit grammar.", "His notation was similar to modern mathematical notation, and used metarules, transformations, and recursion.", "Pingala (roughly 3rd–1st centuries BC) in his treatise of prosody uses a device corresponding to a binary numeral system.", "His discussion of the combinatorics of meters corresponds to an elementary version of the binomial theorem.", "Pingala's work also contains the basic ideas of Fibonacci numbers (called ''mātrāmeru'').The next significant mathematical documents from India after the ''Sulba Sutras'' are the ''Siddhantas'', astronomical treatises from the 4th and 5th centuries AD (Gupta period) showing strong Hellenistic influence.", "They are significant in that they contain the first instance of trigonometric relations based on the half-chord, as is the case in modern trigonometry, rather than the full chord, as was the case in Ptolemaic trigonometry.", "Through a series of translation errors, the words \"sine\" and \"cosine\" derive from the Sanskrit \"jiya\" and \"kojiya\".sine rule in ''Yuktibhāṣā''Around 500 AD, Aryabhata wrote the ''Aryabhatiya'', a slim volume, written in verse, intended to supplement the rules of calculation used in astronomy and mathematical mensuration, though with no feeling for logic or deductive methodology.", "It is in the ''Aryabhatiya'' that the decimal place-value system first appears.", "Several centuries later, the Muslim mathematician Abu Rayhan Biruni described the ''Aryabhatiya'' as a \"mix of common pebbles and costly crystals\".In the 7th century, Brahmagupta identified the Brahmagupta theorem, Brahmagupta's identity and Brahmagupta's formula, and for the first time, in ''Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta'', he lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and decimal digit, and explained the Hindu–Arabic numeral system.", "It was from a translation of this Indian text on mathematics (c. 770) that Islamic mathematicians were introduced to this numeral system, which they adapted as Arabic numerals.", "Islamic scholars carried knowledge of this number system to Europe by the 12th century, and it has now displaced all older number systems throughout the world.", "Various symbol sets are used to represent numbers in the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, all of which evolved from the Brahmi numerals.", "Each of the roughly dozen major scripts of India has its own numeral glyphs.", "In the 10th century, Halayudha's commentary on Pingala's work contains a study of the Fibonacci sequence and Pascal's triangle, and describes the formation of a matrix.In the 12th century, Bhāskara II, who lived in southern India, wrote extensively on all then known branches of mathematics.", "His work contains mathematical objects equivalent or approximately equivalent to infinitesimals, derivatives, the mean value theorem and the derivative of the sine function.", "To what extent he anticipated the invention of calculus is a controversial subject among historians of mathematics.In the 14th century, Narayana Pandita completed his ''Ganita Kaumudi''.Also in the 14th century, Madhava of Sangamagrama, the founder of the Kerala School of Mathematics, found the Madhava–Leibniz series and obtained from it a transformed series, whose first 21 terms he used to compute the value of π as 3.14159265359.Madhava also found the Madhava-Gregory series to determine the arctangent, the Madhava-Newton power series to determine sine and cosine and the Taylor approximation for sine and cosine functions.", "In the 16th century, Jyesthadeva consolidated many of the Kerala School's developments and theorems in the ''Yukti-bhāṣā''.", "It has been argued that the advances of the Kerala school, which laid the foundations of the classical analysis, were transmitted to Europe in the 16th century via Jesuit missionaries and traders who were active around the ancient port of Muziris at the time and, as a result, directly influenced later European developments in analysis and calculus.", "However, other scholars argue that the Kerala School did not formulate a systematic theory of differentiation and integration, and that there is not any direct evidence of their results being transmitted outside Kerala." ], [ "Islamic empires", "Page from ''The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing'' by Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (c. AD 820)The Islamic Empire established across the Middle East, Central Asia, North Africa, Iberia, and in parts of India in the 8th century made significant contributions towards mathematics.", "Although most Islamic texts on mathematics were written in Arabic, most of them were not written by Arabs, since much like the status of Greek in the Hellenistic world, Arabic was used as the written language of non-Arab scholars throughout the Islamic world at the time.In the 9th century, the mathematician Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī wrote an important book on the Hindu–Arabic numerals and one on methods for solving equations.", "His book ''On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals'', written about 825, along with the work of Al-Kindi, were instrumental in spreading Indian mathematics and Indian numerals to the West.", "The word ''algorithm'' is derived from the Latinization of his name, Algoritmi, and the word ''algebra'' from the title of one of his works, ''Al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī hīsāb al-ğabr wa’l-muqābala'' (''The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing'').", "He gave an exhaustive explanation for the algebraic solution of quadratic equations with positive roots, and he was the first to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake.", "He also discussed the fundamental method of \"reduction\" and \"balancing\", referring to the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation.", "This is the operation which al-Khwārizmī originally described as ''al-jabr''.", "His algebra was also no longer concerned \"with a series of problems to be resolved, but an exposition which starts with primitive terms in which the combinations must give all possible prototypes for equations, which henceforward explicitly constitute the true object of study.\"", "He also studied an equation for its own sake and \"in a generic manner, insofar as it does not simply emerge in the course of solving a problem, but is specifically called on to define an infinite class of problems.", "\"In Egypt, Abu Kamil extended algebra to the set of irrational numbers, accepting square roots and fourth roots as solutions and coefficients to quadratic equations.", "He also developed techniques used to solve three non-linear simultaneous equations with three unknown variables.", "One unique feature of his works was trying to find all the possible solutions to some of his problems, including one where he found 2676 solutions.", "His works formed an important foundation for the development of algebra and influenced later mathematicians, such as al-Karaji and Fibonacci.Further developments in algebra were made by Al-Karaji in his treatise ''al-Fakhri'', where he extends the methodology to incorporate integer powers and integer roots of unknown quantities.", "Something close to a proof by mathematical induction appears in a book written by Al-Karaji around 1000 AD, who used it to prove the binomial theorem, Pascal's triangle, and the sum of integral cubes.", "The historian of mathematics, F. Woepcke, praised Al-Karaji for being \"the first who introduced the theory of algebraic calculus.\"", "Also in the 10th century, Abul Wafa translated the works of Diophantus into Arabic.", "Ibn al-Haytham was the first mathematician to derive the formula for the sum of the fourth powers, using a method that is readily generalizable for determining the general formula for the sum of any integral powers.", "He performed an integration in order to find the volume of a paraboloid, and was able to generalize his result for the integrals of polynomials up to the fourth degree.", "He thus came close to finding a general formula for the integrals of polynomials, but he was not concerned with any polynomials higher than the fourth degree.In the late 11th century, Omar Khayyam wrote ''Discussions of the Difficulties in Euclid'', a book about what he perceived as flaws in Euclid's ''Elements'', especially the parallel postulate.", "He was also the first to find the general geometric solution to cubic equations.", "He was also very influential in calendar reform.In the 13th century, Nasir al-Din Tusi (Nasireddin) made advances in spherical trigonometry.", "He also wrote influential work on Euclid's parallel postulate.", "In the 15th century, Ghiyath al-Kashi computed the value of π to the 16th decimal place.", "Kashi also had an algorithm for calculating ''n''th roots, which was a special case of the methods given many centuries later by Ruffini and Horner.Other achievements of Muslim mathematicians during this period include the addition of the decimal point notation to the Arabic numerals, the discovery of all the modern trigonometric functions besides the sine, al-Kindi's introduction of cryptanalysis and frequency analysis, the development of analytic geometry by Ibn al-Haytham, the beginning of algebraic geometry by Omar Khayyam and the development of an algebraic notation by al-Qalasādī.During the time of the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Empire from the 15th century, the development of Islamic mathematics became stagnant." ], [ "Maya", "The Maya numerals for numbers 1 through 19, written in the Maya scriptIn the Pre-Columbian Americas, the Maya civilization that flourished in Mexico and Central America during the 1st millennium AD developed a unique tradition of mathematics that, due to its geographic isolation, was entirely independent of existing European, Egyptian, and Asian mathematics.", "Maya numerals used a base of twenty, the vigesimal system, instead of a base of ten that forms the basis of the decimal system used by most modern cultures.", "The Maya used mathematics to create the Maya calendar as well as to predict astronomical phenomena in their native Maya astronomy.", "While the concept of zero had to be inferred in the mathematics of many contemporary cultures, the Maya developed a standard symbol for it." ], [ "Medieval European", " \tMedieval European interest in mathematics was driven by concerns quite different from those of modern mathematicians.", "One driving element was the belief that mathematics provided the key to understanding the created order of nature, frequently justified by Plato's ''Timaeus'' and the biblical passage (in the ''Book of Wisdom'') that God had ''ordered all things in measure, and number, and weight''.Boethius provided a place for mathematics in the curriculum in the 6th century when he coined the term ''quadrivium'' to describe the study of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music.", "He wrote ''De institutione arithmetica'', a free translation from the Greek of Nicomachus's ''Introduction to Arithmetic''; ''De institutione musica'', also derived from Greek sources; and a series of excerpts from Euclid's ''Elements''.", "His works were theoretical, rather than practical, and were the basis of mathematical study until the recovery of Greek and Arabic mathematical works.In the 12th century, European scholars traveled to Spain and Sicily seeking scientific Arabic texts, including al-Khwārizmī's ''The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing'', translated into Latin by Robert of Chester, and the complete text of Euclid's ''Elements'', translated in various versions by Adelard of Bath, Herman of Carinthia, and Gerard of Cremona.", "These and other new sources sparked a renewal of mathematics.Leonardo of Pisa, now known as Fibonacci, serendipitously learned about the Hindu–Arabic numerals on a trip to what is now Béjaïa, Algeria with his merchant father.", "(Europe was still using Roman numerals.)", "There, he observed a system of arithmetic (specifically algorism) which due to the positional notation of Hindu–Arabic numerals was much more efficient and greatly facilitated commerce.", "Leonardo wrote ''Liber Abaci'' in 1202 (updated in 1254) introducing the technique to Europe and beginning a long period of popularizing it.", "The book also brought to Europe what is now known as the Fibonacci sequence (known to Indian mathematicians for hundreds of years before that) which Fibonacci used as an unremarkable example.The 14th century saw the development of new mathematical concepts to investigate a wide range of problems.", "One important contribution was development of mathematics of local motion.Thomas Bradwardine proposed that speed (V) increases in arithmetic proportion as the ratio of force (F) to resistance (R) increases in geometric proportion.", "Bradwardine expressed this by a series of specific examples, but although the logarithm had not yet been conceived, we can express his conclusion anachronistically by writing:V = log (F/R).", "Bradwardine's analysis is an example of transferring a mathematical technique used by al-Kindi and Arnald of Villanova to quantify the nature of compound medicines to a different physical problem.Nicole Oresme (1323–1382), shown in this contemporary illuminated manuscript with an armillary sphere in the foreground, was the first to offer a mathematical proof for the divergence of the harmonic series.One of the 14th-century Oxford Calculators, William Heytesbury, lacking differential calculus and the concept of limits, proposed to measure instantaneous speed \"by the path that '''would''' be described by a body '''if'''... it were moved uniformly at the same degree of speed with which it is moved in that given instant\".Heytesbury and others mathematically determined the distance covered by a body undergoing uniformly accelerated motion (today solved by integration), stating that \"a moving body uniformly acquiring or losing that increment of speed will traverse in some given time a distance completely equal to that which it would traverse if it were moving continuously through the same time with the mean degree of speed\".Nicole Oresme at the University of Paris and the Italian Giovanni di Casali independently provided graphical demonstrations of this relationship, asserting that the area under the line depicting the constant acceleration, represented the total distance traveled.", "In a later mathematical commentary on Euclid's ''Elements'', Oresme made a more detailed general analysis in which he demonstrated that a body will acquire in each successive increment of time an increment of any quality that increases as the odd numbers.", "Since Euclid had demonstrated the sum of the odd numbers are the square numbers, the total quality acquired by the body increases as the square of the time." ], [ "Renaissance", "During the Renaissance, the development of mathematics and of accounting were intertwined.", "While there is no direct relationship between algebra and accounting, the teaching of the subjects and the books published often intended for the children of merchants who were sent to reckoning schools (in Flanders and Germany) or abacus schools (known as ''abbaco'' in Italy), where they learned the skills useful for trade and commerce.", "There is probably no need for algebra in performing bookkeeping operations, but for complex bartering operations or the calculation of compound interest, a basic knowledge of arithmetic was mandatory and knowledge of algebra was very useful.Piero della Francesca (c. 1415–1492) wrote books on solid geometry and linear perspective, including ''De Prospectiva Pingendi (On Perspective for Painting)'', ''Trattato d’Abaco (Abacus Treatise)'', and ''De quinque corporibus regularibus (On the Five Regular Solids)''.", "''Portrait of Luca Pacioli'', a painting traditionally attributed to Jacopo de' Barbari, 1495, (Museo di Capodimonte).Luca Pacioli's ''Summa de Arithmetica, Geometria, Proportioni et Proportionalità'' (Italian: \"Review of Arithmetic, Geometry, Ratio and Proportion\") was first printed and published in Venice in 1494.It included a 27-page treatise on bookkeeping, ''\"Particularis de Computis et Scripturis\"'' (Italian: \"Details of Calculation and Recording\").", "It was written primarily for, and sold mainly to, merchants who used the book as a reference text, as a source of pleasure from the mathematical puzzles it contained, and to aid the education of their sons.", "In ''Summa Arithmetica'', Pacioli introduced symbols for plus and minus for the first time in a printed book, symbols that became standard notation in Italian Renaissance mathematics.", "''Summa Arithmetica'' was also the first known book printed in Italy to contain algebra.", "Pacioli obtained many of his ideas from Piero Della Francesca whom he plagiarized.In Italy, during the first half of the 16th century, Scipione del Ferro and Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia discovered solutions for cubic equations.", "Gerolamo Cardano published them in his 1545 book ''Ars Magna'', together with a solution for the quartic equations, discovered by his student Lodovico Ferrari.", "In 1572 Rafael Bombelli published his ''L'Algebra'' in which he showed how to deal with the imaginary quantities that could appear in Cardano's formula for solving cubic equations.Simon Stevin's ''De Thiende'' ('the art of tenths'), first published in Dutch in 1585, contained the first systematic treatment of decimal notation in Europe, which influenced all later work on the real number system.Driven by the demands of navigation and the growing need for accurate maps of large areas, trigonometry grew to be a major branch of mathematics.", "Bartholomaeus Pitiscus was the first to use the word, publishing his ''Trigonometria'' in 1595.Regiomontanus's table of sines and cosines was published in 1533.During the Renaissance the desire of artists to represent the natural world realistically, together with the rediscovered philosophy of the Greeks, led artists to study mathematics.", "They were also the engineers and architects of that time, and so had need of mathematics in any case.", "The art of painting in perspective, and the developments in geometry that involved, were studied intensely." ], [ "Mathematics during the Scientific Revolution", "===17th century===Gottfried Wilhelm LeibnizThe 17th century saw an unprecedented increase of mathematical and scientific ideas across Europe.", "Galileo observed the moons of Jupiter in orbit about that planet, using a telescope based Hans Lipperhey's.", "Tycho Brahe had gathered a large quantity of mathematical data describing the positions of the planets in the sky.", "By his position as Brahe's assistant, Johannes Kepler was first exposed to and seriously interacted with the topic of planetary motion.", "Kepler's calculations were made simpler by the contemporaneous invention of logarithms by John Napier and Jost Bürgi.", "Kepler succeeded in formulating mathematical laws of planetary motion.The analytic geometry developed by René Descartes (1596–1650) allowed those orbits to be plotted on a graph, in Cartesian coordinates.Building on earlier work by many predecessors, Isaac Newton discovered the laws of physics that explain Kepler's Laws, and brought together the concepts now known as calculus.", "Independently, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, developed calculus and much of the calculus notation still in use today.", "He also refined the binary number system, which is the foundation of nearly all digital (electronic, solid-state, discrete logic) computers, including the Von Neumann architecture, which is the standard design paradigm, or \"computer architecture\", followed from the second half of the 20th century, and into the 21st.", "Leibniz has been called the \"founder of computer science\".Science and mathematics had become an international endeavor, which would soon spread over the entire world.In addition to the application of mathematics to the studies of the heavens, applied mathematics began to expand into new areas, with the correspondence of Pierre de Fermat and Blaise Pascal.", "Pascal and Fermat set the groundwork for the investigations of probability theory and the corresponding rules of combinatorics in their discussions over a game of gambling.", "Pascal, with his wager, attempted to use the newly developing probability theory to argue for a life devoted to religion, on the grounds that even if the probability of success was small, the rewards were infinite.", "In some sense, this foreshadowed the development of utility theory in the 18th–19th century.=== 18th century ===Leonhard EulerThe most influential mathematician of the 18th century was arguably Leonhard Euler (1707–1783).", "His contributions range from founding the study of graph theory with the Seven Bridges of Königsberg problem to standardizing many modern mathematical terms and notations.", "For example, he named the square root of minus 1 with the symbol ''i'', and he popularized the use of the Greek letter to stand for the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter.", "He made numerous contributions to the study of topology, graph theory, calculus, combinatorics, and complex analysis, as evidenced by the multitude of theorems and notations named for him.Other important European mathematicians of the 18th century included Joseph Louis Lagrange, who did pioneering work in number theory, algebra, differential calculus, and the calculus of variations, and Pierre-Simon Laplace, who, in the age of Napoleon, did important work on the foundations of celestial mechanics and on statistics." ], [ "Modern", "=== 19th century ===Carl Friedrich GaussThroughout the 19th century mathematics became increasingly abstract.", "Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) epitomizes this trend.", "He did revolutionary work on functions of complex variables, in geometry, and on the convergence of series, leaving aside his many contributions to science.", "He also gave the first satisfactory proofs of the fundamental theorem of algebra and of the quadratic reciprocity law.Behavior of lines with a common perpendicular in each of the three types of geometryThis century saw the development of the two forms of non-Euclidean geometry, where the parallel postulate of Euclidean geometry no longer holds.The Russian mathematician Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky and his rival, the Hungarian mathematician János Bolyai, independently defined and studied hyperbolic geometry, where uniqueness of parallels no longer holds.", "In this geometry the sum of angles in a triangle add up to less than 180°.", "Elliptic geometry was developed later in the 19th century by the German mathematician Bernhard Riemann; here no parallel can be found and the angles in a triangle add up to more than 180°.", "Riemann also developed Riemannian geometry, which unifies and vastly generalizes the three types of geometry, and he defined the concept of a manifold, which generalizes the ideas of curves and surfaces, and set the mathematical foundations for the theory of general relativity.The 19th century saw the beginning of a great deal of abstract algebra.", "Hermann Grassmann in Germany gave a first version of vector spaces, William Rowan Hamilton in Ireland developed noncommutative algebra.", "The British mathematician George Boole devised an algebra that soon evolved into what is now called Boolean algebra, in which the only numbers were 0 and 1.Boolean algebra is the starting point of mathematical logic and has important applications in electrical engineering and computer science.", "Augustin-Louis Cauchy, Bernhard Riemann, and Karl Weierstrass reformulated the calculus in a more rigorous fashion.Also, for the first time, the limits of mathematics were explored.", "Niels Henrik Abel, a Norwegian, and Évariste Galois, a Frenchman, proved that there is no general algebraic method for solving polynomial equations of degree greater than four (Abel–Ruffini theorem).", "Other 19th-century mathematicians used this in their proofs that straight edge and compass alone are not sufficient to trisect an arbitrary angle, to construct the side of a cube twice the volume of a given cube, nor to construct a square equal in area to a given circle.", "Mathematicians had vainly attempted to solve all of these problems since the time of the ancient Greeks.", "On the other hand, the limitation of three dimensions in geometry was surpassed in the 19th century through considerations of parameter space and hypercomplex numbers.Abel and Galois's investigations into the solutions of various polynomial equations laid the groundwork for further developments of group theory, and the associated fields of abstract algebra.", "In the 20th century physicists and other scientists have seen group theory as the ideal way to study symmetry.In the later 19th century, Georg Cantor established the first foundations of set theory, which enabled the rigorous treatment of the notion of infinity and has become the common language of nearly all mathematics.", "Cantor's set theory, and the rise of mathematical logic in the hands of Peano, L.E.J.", "Brouwer, David Hilbert, Bertrand Russell, and A.N.", "Whitehead, initiated a long running debate on the foundations of mathematics.The 19th century saw the founding of a number of national mathematical societies: the London Mathematical Society in 1865, the Société Mathématique de France in 1872, the Circolo Matematico di Palermo in 1884, the Edinburgh Mathematical Society in 1883, and the American Mathematical Society in 1888.The first international, special-interest society, the Quaternion Society, was formed in 1899, in the context of a vector controversy.In 1897, Kurt Hensel introduced p-adic numbers.=== 20th century === The 20th century saw mathematics become a major profession.", "By the end of the century, thousands of new Ph.D.s in mathematics were being awarded every year, and jobs were available in both teaching and industry.", "An effort to catalogue the areas and applications of mathematics was undertaken in Klein's encyclopedia.In a 1900 speech to the International Congress of Mathematicians, David Hilbert set out a list of 23 unsolved problems in mathematics.", "These problems, spanning many areas of mathematics, formed a central focus for much of 20th-century mathematics.", "Today, 10 have been solved, 7 are partially solved, and 2 are still open.", "The remaining 4 are too loosely formulated to be stated as solved or not.A map illustrating the Four Color TheoremNotable historical conjectures were finally proven.", "In 1976, Wolfgang Haken and Kenneth Appel proved the four color theorem, controversial at the time for the use of a computer to do so.", "Andrew Wiles, building on the work of others, proved Fermat's Last Theorem in 1995.Paul Cohen and Kurt Gödel proved that the continuum hypothesis is independent of (could neither be proved nor disproved from) the standard axioms of set theory.", "In 1998, Thomas Callister Hales proved the Kepler conjecture, also using a computer.Mathematical collaborations of unprecedented size and scope took place.", "An example is the classification of finite simple groups (also called the \"enormous theorem\"), whose proof between 1955 and 2004 required 500-odd journal articles by about 100 authors, and filling tens of thousands of pages.", "A group of French mathematicians, including Jean Dieudonné and André Weil, publishing under the pseudonym \"Nicolas Bourbaki\", attempted to exposit all of known mathematics as a coherent rigorous whole.", "The resulting several dozen volumes has had a controversial influence on mathematical education.relativistic precession of apsidesDifferential geometry came into its own when Albert Einstein used it in general relativity.", "Entirely new areas of mathematics such as mathematical logic, topology, and John von Neumann's game theory changed the kinds of questions that could be answered by mathematical methods.", "All kinds of structures were abstracted using axioms and given names like metric spaces, topological spaces etc.", "As mathematicians do, the concept of an abstract structure was itself abstracted and led to category theory.", "Grothendieck and Serre recast algebraic geometry using sheaf theory.", "Large advances were made in the qualitative study of dynamical systems that Poincaré had begun in the 1890s.Measure theory was developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.", "Applications of measures include the Lebesgue integral, Kolmogorov's axiomatisation of probability theory, and ergodic theory.", "Knot theory greatly expanded.", "Quantum mechanics led to the development of functional analysis.", "Other new areas include Laurent Schwartz's distribution theory, fixed point theory, singularity theory and René Thom's catastrophe theory, model theory, and Mandelbrot's fractals.", "Lie theory with its Lie groups and Lie algebras became one of the major areas of study.Non-standard analysis, introduced by Abraham Robinson, rehabilitated the infinitesimal approach to calculus, which had fallen into disrepute in favour of the theory of limits, by extending the field of real numbers to the Hyperreal numbers which include infinitesimal and infinite quantities.", "An even larger number system, the surreal numbers were discovered by John Horton Conway in connection with combinatorial games.The development and continual improvement of computers, at first mechanical analog machines and then digital electronic machines, allowed industry to deal with larger and larger amounts of data to facilitate mass production and distribution and communication, and new areas of mathematics were developed to deal with this: Alan Turing's computability theory; complexity theory; Derrick Henry Lehmer's use of ENIAC to further number theory and the Lucas–Lehmer primality test; Rózsa Péter's recursive function theory; Claude Shannon's information theory; signal processing; data analysis; optimization and other areas of operations research.", "In the preceding centuries much mathematical focus was on calculus and continuous functions, but the rise of computing and communication networks led to an increasing importance of discrete concepts and the expansion of combinatorics including graph theory.", "The speed and data processing abilities of computers also enabled the handling of mathematical problems that were too time-consuming to deal with by pencil and paper calculations, leading to areas such as numerical analysis and symbolic computation.", "Some of the most important methods and algorithms of the 20th century are: the simplex algorithm, the fast Fourier transform, error-correcting codes, the Kalman filter from control theory and the RSA algorithm of public-key cryptography.At the same time, deep insights were made about the limitations to mathematics.", "In 1929 and 1930, it was proved the truth or falsity of all statements formulated about the natural numbers plus either addition or multiplication (but not both), was decidable, i.e.", "could be determined by some algorithm.", "In 1931, Kurt Gödel found that this was not the case for the natural numbers plus both addition and multiplication; this system, known as Peano arithmetic, was in fact incomplete.", "(Peano arithmetic is adequate for a good deal of number theory, including the notion of prime number.)", "A consequence of Gödel's two incompleteness theorems is that in any mathematical system that includes Peano arithmetic (including all of analysis and geometry), truth necessarily outruns proof, i.e.", "there are true statements that cannot be proved within the system.", "Hence mathematics cannot be reduced to mathematical logic, and David Hilbert's dream of making all of mathematics complete and consistent needed to be reformulated.The absolute value of the Gamma function on the complex planeOne of the more colorful figures in 20th-century mathematics was Srinivasa Aiyangar Ramanujan (1887–1920), an Indian autodidact , including properties of highly composite numbers, the partition function and its asymptotics, and mock theta functions.", "He also made major investigations in the areas of gamma functions, modular forms, divergent series, hypergeometric series and prime number theory.Paul Erdős published more papers than any other mathematician in history, working with hundreds of collaborators.", "Mathematicians have a game equivalent to the Kevin Bacon Game, which leads to the Erdős number of a mathematician.", "This describes the \"collaborative distance\" between a person and Erdős, as measured by joint authorship of mathematical papers.Emmy Noether has been described by many as the most important woman in the history of mathematics.", "She studied the theories of rings, fields, and algebras.As in most areas of study, the explosion of knowledge in the scientific age has led to specialization: by the end of the century, there were hundreds of specialized areas in mathematics, and the Mathematics Subject Classification was dozens of pages long.", "More and more mathematical journals were published and, by the end of the century, the development of the World Wide Web led to online publishing.=== 21st century ===In 2000, the Clay Mathematics Institute announced the seven Millennium Prize Problems.", "In 2003 the Poincaré conjecture was solved by Grigori Perelman (who declined to accept an award, as he was critical of the mathematics establishment).Most mathematical journals now have online versions as well as print versions, and many online-only journals are launched.", "There is an increasing drive toward open access publishing, first made popular by arXiv." ], [ "Future", "There are many observable trends in mathematics, the most notable being that the subject is growing ever larger as computers are ever more important and powerful; the volume of data being produced by science and industry, facilitated by computers, continues expanding exponentially.", "As a result, there is a corresponding growth in the demand for mathematics to help process and understand this big data.", "Math science careers are also expected to continue to grow, with the US Bureau of Labor Statistics estimating (in 2018) that \"employment of mathematical science occupations is projected to grow 27.9 percent from 2016 to 2026.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Archives of American Mathematics* History of algebra* History of arithmetic* History of calculus* History of combinatorics* History of the function concept* History of geometry* History of group theory* History of logic* History of mathematicians* History of mathematical notation* History of measurement* History of numbers** History of ancient numeral systems** Prehistoric counting* History of number theory* History of statistics* History of trigonometry* History of writing numbers* Kenneth O.", "May Prize* List of important publications in mathematics* Lists of mathematicians* List of mathematics history topics* Timeline of mathematics" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "** * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "===General===* * * Burton, David M. (1997).", "''The History of Mathematics: An Introduction''.", "McGraw Hill.", "* * Kline, Morris.", "''Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times''.", "* Struik, D. J.", "(1987).", "''A Concise History of Mathematics'', fourth revised edition.", "Dover Publications, New York.=== Books on a specific period ===* * * van der Waerden, B. L. (1983).", "''Geometry and Algebra in Ancient Civilizations'', Springer, .=== Books on a specific topic ===* * * *" ], [ "External links", "=== Documentaries ===* BBC (2008).", "''The Story of Maths''.", "* Renaissance Mathematics, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Robert Kaplan, Jim Bennett & Jackie Stedall (''In Our Time'', Jun 2, 2005)=== Educational material ===* MacTutor History of Mathematics archive (John J. O'Connor and Edmund F. Robertson; University of St Andrews, Scotland).", "An award-winning website containing detailed biographies on many historical and contemporary mathematicians, as well as information on notable curves and various topics in the history of mathematics.", "* History of Mathematics Home Page (David E. Joyce; Clark University).", "Articles on various topics in the history of mathematics with an extensive bibliography.", "* The History of Mathematics (David R. Wilkins; Trinity College, Dublin).", "Collections of material on the mathematics between the 17th and 19th century.", "* Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (Jeff Miller).", "Contains information on the earliest known uses of terms used in mathematics.", "* Earliest Uses of Various Mathematical Symbols (Jeff Miller).", "Contains information on the history of mathematical notations.", "* Mathematical Words: Origins and Sources (John Aldrich, University of Southampton) Discusses the origins of the modern mathematical word stock.", "* Biographies of Women Mathematicians (Larry Riddle; Agnes Scott College).", "* Mathematicians of the African Diaspora (Scott W. Williams; University at Buffalo).", "* Notes for MAA minicourse: teaching a course in the history of mathematics.", "(2009) (V. Frederick Rickey & Victor J.", "Katz).", "* Ancient Rome: The Odometer Of Vitruv.", "Pictorial (moving) re-construction of Vitusius' Roman ododmeter.=== Bibliographies ===* A Bibliography of Collected Works and Correspondence of Mathematicians archive dated 2007/3/17 (Steven W. Rockey; Cornell University Library).===Organizations===* International Commission for the History of Mathematics===Journals===* ''Historia Mathematica''* Convergence, the Mathematical Association of America's online ''Math History'' Magazine* History of Mathematics Math Archives (University of Tennessee, Knoxville)* History/Biography The Math Forum (Drexel University)* History of Mathematics (Courtright Memorial Library).", "* History of Mathematics Web Sites (David Calvis; Baldwin-Wallace College)* * Historia de las Matemáticas (Universidad de La La guna)* História da Matemática (Universidade de Coimbra)* Using History in Math Class* Mathematical Resources: History of Mathematics (Bruno Kevius)* History of Mathematics (Roberta Tucci)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hydrogen atom" ], [ "Introduction", "Depiction of a hydrogen atom showing the diameter as about twice the Bohr model radius.", "(Image not to scale)A '''hydrogen atom''' is an atom of the chemical element hydrogen.", "The electrically neutral atom contains a single positively charged proton and a single negatively charged electron bound to the nucleus by the Coulomb force.", "'''Atomic hydrogen''' constitutes about 75% of the baryonic mass of the universe.In everyday life on Earth, isolated hydrogen atoms (called \"atomic hydrogen\") are extremely rare.", "Instead, a hydrogen atom tends to combine with other atoms in compounds, or with another hydrogen atom to form ordinary (diatomic) hydrogen gas, H2.", "\"Atomic hydrogen\" and \"hydrogen atom\" in ordinary English use have overlapping, yet distinct, meanings.", "For example, a water molecule contains two hydrogen atoms, but does not contain atomic hydrogen (which would refer to isolated hydrogen atoms).Atomic spectroscopy shows that there is a discrete infinite set of states in which a hydrogen (or any) atom can exist, contrary to the predictions of classical physics.", "Attempts to develop a theoretical understanding of the states of the hydrogen atom have been important to the history of quantum mechanics, since all other atoms can be roughly understood by knowing in detail about this simplest atomic structure." ], [ "Isotopes", "The most abundant isotope, '''hydrogen-1''', '''protium''', or '''light hydrogen''', contains no neutrons and is simply a proton and an electron.", "Protium is stable and makes up 99.985% of naturally occurring hydrogen atoms.", "'''Deuterium''' ('''2H''') contains one neutron and one proton in its nucleus.", "Deuterium is stable and makes up 0.0156% of naturally occurring hydrogen and is used in industrial processes like nuclear reactors and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance.", "'''Tritium''' ('''3H''') contains two neutrons and one proton in its nucleus and is not stable, decaying with a half-life of 12.32 years.", "Because of its short half-life, tritium does not exist in nature except in trace amounts.Heavier isotopes of hydrogen are only created artificially in particle accelerators and have half-lives on the order of 10−22 seconds.", "They are unbound resonances located beyond the neutron drip line; this results in prompt emission of a neutron.The formulas below are valid for all three isotopes of hydrogen, but slightly different values of the Rydberg constant (correction formula given below) must be used for each hydrogen isotope." ], [ "Hydrogen ion", "Lone neutral hydrogen atoms are rare under normal conditions.", "However, neutral hydrogen is common when it is covalently bound to another atom, and hydrogen atoms can also exist in cationic and anionic forms.If a neutral hydrogen atom loses its electron, it becomes a cation.", "The resulting ion, which consists solely of a proton for the usual isotope, is written as \"H+\" and sometimes called ''hydron''.", "Free protons are common in the interstellar medium, and solar wind.", "In the context of aqueous solutions of classical Brønsted–Lowry acids, such as hydrochloric acid, it is actually hydronium, H3O+, that is meant.", "Instead of a literal ionized single hydrogen atom being formed, the acid transfers the hydrogen to H2O, forming H3O+.If instead a hydrogen atom gains a second electron, it becomes an anion.", "The hydrogen anion is written as \"H–\" and called ''hydride''." ], [ "Theoretical analysis", "The hydrogen atom has special significance in quantum mechanics and quantum field theory as a simple two-body problem physical system which has yielded many simple analytical solutions in closed-form.=== Failed classical description ===Experiments by Ernest Rutherford in 1909 showed the structure of the atom to be a dense, positive nucleus with a tenuous negative charge cloud around it.", "This immediately raised questions about how such a system could be stable.", "Classical electromagnetism had shown that any accelerating charge radiates energy, as shown by the Larmor formula.", "If the electron is assumed to orbit in a perfect circle and radiates energy continuously, the electron would rapidly spiral into the nucleus with a fall time of:where is the Bohr radius and is the classical electron radius.", "If this were true, all atoms would instantly collapse, however atoms seem to be stable.", "Furthermore, the spiral inward would release a smear of electromagnetic frequencies as the orbit got smaller.", "Instead, atoms were observed to only emit discrete frequencies of radiation.", "The resolution would lie in the development of quantum mechanics.=== Bohr–Sommerfeld Model ===In 1913, Niels Bohr obtained the energy levels and spectral frequencies of the hydrogen atom after making a number of simple assumptions in order to correct the failed classical model.", "The assumptions included:# Electrons can only be in certain, discrete circular orbits or ''stationary states'', thereby having a discrete set of possible radii and energies.# Electrons do not emit radiation while in one of these stationary states.# An electron can gain or lose energy by jumping from one discrete orbit to another.Bohr supposed that the electron's angular momentum is quantized with possible values: where and is Planck constant over .", "He also supposed that the centripetal force which keeps the electron in its orbit is provided by the Coulomb force, and that energy is conserved.", "Bohr derived the energy of each orbit of the hydrogen atom to be:where is the electron mass, is the electron charge, is the vacuum permittivity, and is the quantum number (now known as the principal quantum number).", "Bohr's predictions matched experiments measuring the hydrogen spectral series to the first order, giving more confidence to a theory that used quantized values.For , the valueis called the Rydberg unit of energy.", "It is related to the Rydberg constant of atomic physics by The exact value of the Rydberg constant assumes that the nucleus is infinitely massive with respect to the electron.", "For hydrogen-1, hydrogen-2 (deuterium), and hydrogen-3 (tritium) which have finite mass, the constant must be slightly modified to use the reduced mass of the system, rather than simply the mass of the electron.", "This includes the kinetic energy of the nucleus in the problem, because the total (electron plus nuclear) kinetic energy is equivalent to the kinetic energy of the reduced mass moving with a velocity equal to the electron velocity relative to the nucleus.", "However, since the nucleus is much heavier than the electron, the electron mass and reduced mass are nearly the same.", "The Rydberg constant ''RM'' for a hydrogen atom (one electron), ''R'' is given bywhere is the mass of the atomic nucleus.", "For hydrogen-1, the quantity is about 1/1836 (i.e.", "the electron-to-proton mass ratio).", "For deuterium and tritium, the ratios are about 1/3670 and 1/5497 respectively.", "These figures, when added to 1 in the denominator, represent very small corrections in the value of ''R'', and thus only small corrections to all energy levels in corresponding hydrogen isotopes.There were still problems with Bohr's model:# it failed to predict other spectral details such as fine structure and hyperfine structure# it could only predict energy levels with any accuracy for single–electron atoms (hydrogen-like atoms)# the predicted values were only correct to , where is the fine-structure constant.Most of these shortcomings were resolved by Arnold Sommerfeld's modification of the Bohr model.", "Sommerfeld introduced two additional degrees of freedom, allowing an electron to move on an elliptical orbit characterized by its eccentricity and declination with respect to a chosen axis.", "This introduced two additional quantum numbers, which correspond to the orbital angular momentum and its projection on the chosen axis.", "Thus the correct multiplicity of states (except for the factor 2 accounting for the yet unknown electron spin) was found.", "Further, by applying special relativity to the elliptic orbits, Sommerfeld succeeded in deriving the correct expression for the fine structure of hydrogen spectra (which happens to be exactly the same as in the most elaborate Dirac theory).", "However, some observed phenomena, such as the anomalous Zeeman effect, remained unexplained.", "These issues were resolved with the full development of quantum mechanics and the Dirac equation.", "It is often alleged that the Schrödinger equation is superior to the Bohr–Sommerfeld theory in describing hydrogen atom.", "This is not the case, as most of the results of both approaches coincide or are very close (a remarkable exception is the problem of hydrogen atom in crossed electric and magnetic fields, which cannot be self-consistently solved in the framework of the Bohr–Sommerfeld theory), and in both theories the main shortcomings result from the absence of the electron spin.", "It was the complete failure of the Bohr–Sommerfeld theory to explain many-electron systems (such as helium atom or hydrogen molecule) which demonstrated its inadequacy in describing quantum phenomena.=== Schrödinger equation ===The Schrödinger equation allows one to calculate the stationary states and also the time evolution of quantum systems.", "Exact analytical answers are available for the nonrelativistic hydrogen atom.", "Before we go to present a formal account, here we give an elementary overview.Given that the hydrogen atom contains a nucleus and an electron, quantum mechanics allows one to predict the probability of finding the electron at any given radial distance .", "It is given by the square of a mathematical function known as the \"wavefunction\", which is a solution of the Schrödinger equation.", "The lowest energy equilibrium state of the hydrogen atom is known as the ground state.", "The ground state wave function is known as the wavefunction.", "It is written as:Here, is the numerical value of the Bohr radius.", "The probability density of finding the electron at a distance in any radial direction is the squared value of the wavefunction:The wavefunction is spherically symmetric, and the surface area of a shell at distance is , so the total probability of the electron being in a shell at a distance and thickness isIt turns out that this is a maximum at .", "That is, the Bohr picture of an electron orbiting the nucleus at radius corresponds to the most probable radius.", "Actually, there is a finite probability that the electron may be found at any place , with theprobability indicated by the square of the wavefunction.", "Since the probability of finding the electron ''somewhere'' in the whole volume is unity, the integral of is unity.", "Then we say that the wavefunction is properly normalized.As discussed below, the ground state is also indicated by the quantum numbers .", "The second lowest energy states, just above the ground state, are given by the quantum numbers , , and .", "These states all have the same energy and are known as the and states.", "There is one state:and there are three states:An electron in the or state is most likely to be found in the second Bohr orbit with energy given by the Bohr formula.==== Wavefunction ====The Hamiltonian of the hydrogen atom is the radial kinetic energy operator and Coulomb attraction force between the positive proton and negative electron.", "Using the time-independent Schrödinger equation, ignoring all spin-coupling interactions and using the reduced mass , the equation is written as:Expanding the Laplacian in spherical coordinates:This is a separable, partial differential equation which can be solved in terms of special functions.", "When the wavefunction is separated as product of functions , , and three independent differential functions appears with A and B being the separation constants:* radial: * polar: * azimuth: The normalized position wavefunctions, given in spherical coordinates are:3D illustration of the eigenstate .", "Electrons in this state are 45% likely to be found within the solid body shown.where:* ,* is the reduced Bohr radius, ,* is a generalized Laguerre polynomial of degree , and* is a spherical harmonic function of degree and order .", "Note that the generalized Laguerre polynomials are defined differently by different authors.", "The usage here is consistent with the definitions used by Messiah, and Mathematica.", "In other places, the Laguerre polynomial includes a factor of , or the generalized Laguerre polynomial appearing in the hydrogen wave function is instead.The quantum numbers can take the following values:* (principal quantum number)* (azimuthal quantum number)* (magnetic quantum number).Additionally, these wavefunctions are ''normalized'' (i.e., the integral of their modulus square equals 1) and orthogonal:where is the state represented by the wavefunction in Dirac notation, and is the Kronecker delta function.The wavefunctions in momentum space are related to the wavefunctions in position space through a Fourier transformwhich, for the bound states, results inwhere denotes a Gegenbauer polynomial and is in units of .The solutions to the Schrödinger equation for hydrogen are analytical, giving a simple expression for the hydrogen energy levels and thus the frequencies of the hydrogen spectral lines and fully reproduced the Bohr model and went beyond it.", "It also yields two other quantum numbers and the shape of the electron's wave function (\"orbital\") for the various possible quantum-mechanical states, thus explaining the anisotropic character of atomic bonds.The Schrödinger equation also applies to more complicated atoms and molecules.", "When there is more than one electron or nucleus the solution is not analytical and either computer calculations are necessary or simplifying assumptions must be made.Since the Schrödinger equation is only valid for non-relativistic quantum mechanics, the solutions it yields for the hydrogen atom are not entirely correct.", "The Dirac equation of relativistic quantum theory improves these solutions (see below).==== Results of Schrödinger equation ====The solution of the Schrödinger equation (wave equation) for the hydrogen atom uses the fact that the Coulomb potential produced by the nucleus is isotropic (it is radially symmetric in space and only depends on the distance to the nucleus).", "Although the resulting energy eigenfunctions (the ''orbitals'') are not necessarily isotropic themselves, their dependence on the angular coordinates follows completely generally from this isotropy of the underlying potential: the eigenstates of the Hamiltonian (that is, the energy eigenstates) can be chosen as simultaneous eigenstates of the angular momentum operator.", "This corresponds to the fact that angular momentum is conserved in the orbital motion of the electron around the nucleus.", "Therefore, the energy eigenstates may be classified by two angular momentum quantum numbers, and (both are integers).", "The angular momentum quantum number determines the magnitude of the angular momentum.", "The magnetic quantum number determines the projection of the angular momentum on the (arbitrarily chosen) -axis.In addition to mathematical expressions for total angular momentum and angular momentum projection of wavefunctions, an expression for the radial dependence of the wave functions must be found.", "It is only here that the details of the Coulomb potential enter (leading to Laguerre polynomials in ).", "This leads to a third quantum number, the principal quantum number .", "The principal quantum number in hydrogen is related to the atom's total energy.Note that the maximum value of the angular momentum quantum number is limited by the principal quantum number: it can run only up to , i.e., .Due to angular momentum conservation, states of the same but different have the same energy (this holds for all problems with rotational symmetry).", "In addition, for the hydrogen atom, states of the same but different are also degenerate (i.e., they have the same energy).", "However, this is a specific property of hydrogen and is no longer true for more complicated atoms which have an (effective) potential differing from the form (due to the presence of the inner electrons shielding the nucleus potential).Taking into account the spin of the electron adds a last quantum number, the projection of the electron's spin angular momentum along the -axis, which can take on two values.", "Therefore, any eigenstate of the electron in the hydrogen atom is described fully by four quantum numbers.", "According to the usual rules of quantum mechanics, the actual state of the electron may be any superposition of these states.", "This explains also why the choice of -axis for the directional quantization of the angular momentum vector is immaterial: an orbital of given and obtained for another preferred axis can always be represented as a suitable superposition of the various states of different (but same ) that have been obtained for .==== Mathematical summary of eigenstates of hydrogen atom ====In 1928, Paul Dirac found an equation that was fully compatible with special relativity, and (as a consequence) made the wave function a 4-component \"Dirac spinor\" including \"up\" and \"down\" spin components, with both positive and \"negative\" energy (or matter and antimatter).", "The solution to this equation gave the following results, more accurate than the Schrödinger solution.=====Energy levels=====The energy levels of hydrogen, including fine structure (excluding Lamb shift and hyperfine structure), are given by the Sommerfeld fine-structure expression:where is the fine-structure constant and is the total angular momentum quantum number, which is equal to , depending on the orientation of the electron spin relative to the orbital angular momentum.", "This formula represents a small correction to the energy obtained by Bohr and Schrödinger as given above.", "The factor in square brackets in the last expression is nearly one; the extra term arises from relativistic effects (for details, see #Features going beyond the Schrödinger solution).", "It is worth noting that this expression was first obtained by A. Sommerfeld in 1916 based on the relativistic version of the old Bohr theory.", "Sommerfeld has however used different notation for the quantum numbers.==== Coherent states ====The coherent states have been proposed aswhich satisfies and takes the form=== Visualizing the hydrogen electron orbitals ===Probability densities through the ''xz''-plane for the electron at different quantum numbers (''ℓ'', across top; ''n'', down side; ''m'' = 0)The image to the right shows the first few hydrogen atom orbitals (energy eigenfunctions).", "These are cross-sections of the probability density that are color-coded (black represents zero density and white represents the highest density).", "The angular momentum (orbital) quantum number ''ℓ'' is denoted in each column, using the usual spectroscopic letter code (''s'' means ''ℓ'' = 0, ''p'' means ''ℓ'' = 1, ''d'' means ''ℓ'' = 2).", "The main (principal) quantum number ''n'' (= 1, 2, 3, ...) is marked to the right of each row.", "For all pictures the magnetic quantum number ''m'' has been set to 0, and the cross-sectional plane is the ''xz''-plane (''z'' is the vertical axis).", "The probability density in three-dimensional space is obtained by rotating the one shown here around the ''z''-axis.The \"ground state\", i.e.", "the state of lowest energy, in which the electron is usually found, is the first one, the 1''s'' state (principal quantum level ''n'' = 1, ''ℓ'' = 0).Black lines occur in each but the first orbital: these are the nodes of the wavefunction, i.e.", "where the probability density is zero.", "(More precisely, the nodes are spherical harmonics that appear as a result of solving the Schrödinger equation in spherical coordinates.", ")The quantum numbers determine the layout of these nodes.", "There are:* total nodes,* of which are angular nodes:** angular nodes go around the axis (in the ''xy'' plane).", "(The figure above does not show these nodes since it plots cross-sections through the ''xz''-plane.", ")** (the remaining angular nodes) occur on the (vertical) axis.", "* (the remaining non-angular nodes) are radial nodes.==== Features going beyond the Schrödinger solution ====There are several important effects that are neglected by the Schrödinger equation and which are responsible for certain small but measurable deviations of the real spectral lines from the predicted ones:* Although the mean speed of the electron in hydrogen is only 1/137th of the speed of light, many modern experiments are sufficiently precise that a complete theoretical explanation requires a fully relativistic treatment of the problem.", "A relativistic treatment results in a momentum increase of about 1 part in 37,000 for the electron.", "Since the electron's wavelength is determined by its momentum, orbitals containing higher speed electrons show contraction due to smaller wavelengths.", "* Even when there is no external magnetic field, in the inertial frame of the moving electron, the electromagnetic field of the nucleus has a magnetic component.", "The spin of the electron has an associated magnetic moment which interacts with this magnetic field.", "This effect is also explained by special relativity, and it leads to the so-called ''spin–orbit coupling'', i.e., an interaction between the electron's orbital motion around the nucleus, and its spin.Both of these features (and more) are incorporated in the relativistic Dirac equation, with predictions that come still closer to experiment.", "Again the Dirac equation may be solved analytically in the special case of a two-body system, such as the hydrogen atom.", "The resulting solution quantum states now must be classified by the total angular momentum number (arising through the coupling between electron spin and orbital angular momentum).", "States of the same and the same are still degenerate.", "Thus, direct analytical solution of Dirac equation predicts 2S() and 2P() levels of hydrogen to have exactly the same energy, which is in a contradiction with observations (Lamb–Retherford experiment).", "* There are always vacuum fluctuations of the electromagnetic field, according to quantum mechanics.", "Due to such fluctuations degeneracy between states of the same but different is lifted, giving them slightly different energies.", "This has been demonstrated in the famous Lamb–Retherford experiment and was the starting point for the development of the theory of quantum electrodynamics (which is able to deal with these vacuum fluctuations and employs the famous Feynman diagrams for approximations using perturbation theory).", "This effect is now called Lamb shift.For these developments, it was essential that the solution of the Dirac equation for the hydrogen atom could be worked out exactly, such that any experimentally observed deviation had to be taken seriously as a signal of failure of the theory." ], [ "Alternatives to the Schrödinger theory", "In the language of Heisenberg's matrix mechanics, the hydrogen atom was first solved by Wolfgang Pauli using a rotational symmetry in four dimensions O(4)-symmetry generated by the angular momentumand the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector.", "By extending the symmetry group O(4) to the dynamical group O(4,2),the entire spectrum and all transitions were embedded in a single irreducible group representation.In 1979 the (non-relativistic) hydrogen atom was solved for the first time within Feynman's path integral formulationof quantum mechanics by Duru and Kleinert.", "This work greatly extended the range of applicability of Feynman's method." ], [ "See also", "* Antihydrogen* Atomic orbital* Balmer series* Helium atom* Lithium atom* Hydrogen molecular ion* Proton decay* Quantum chemistry* Quantum state* Theoretical and experimental justification for the Schrödinger equation* Trihydrogen cation* List of quantum-mechanical systems with analytical solutions" ], [ "References" ], [ "Books", "* Section 4.2 deals with the hydrogen atom specifically, but all of Chapter 4 is relevant.", "* Kleinert, H. (2009).", "''Path Integrals in Quantum Mechanics, Statistics, Polymer Physics, and Financial Markets'', 4th edition, Worldscibooks.com, World Scientific, Singapore (also available online physik.fu-berlin.de)" ], [ "External links", "* The Hydrogen Atom and The Periodic Table - The Feynman Lectures on Physics* Physics of hydrogen atom on Scienceworld" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Elagabalus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Marcus Aurelius Antoninus''' (born '''Sextus Varius Avitus Bassianus''', 204 – 11/12 March 222), better known by his nicknames '''Elagabalus''' (, ) and '''Heliogabalus''' ( ), was Roman emperor from 218 to 222, while he was still a teenager.", "His short reign was notorious for sex scandals and religious controversy.", "A close relative to the Severan dynasty, he came from a prominent Arab family in Emesa (Homs), Syria, where since his early youth he served as head priest of the sun god Elagabal.", "After the death of his cousin, the emperor Caracalla, Elagabalus was raised to the principate at 14 years of age in an army revolt instigated by his grandmother Julia Maesa against Caracalla's short-lived successor, Macrinus.", "He only posthumously became known by the Latinised name of his god.Later historians suggest Elagabalus showed a disregard for Roman religious traditions and sexual taboos.", "He replaced the traditional head of the Roman pantheon, Jupiter, with the deity Elagabal, of whom he had been high priest.", "He forced leading members of Rome's government to participate in religious rites celebrating this deity, presiding over them in person.", "He married four women, including a Vestal Virgin, in addition to lavishing favours on male courtiers thought to have been his lovers.", "He was also reported to have prostituted himself.", "His behavior estranged the Praetorian Guard, the Senate and the common people alike.", "Amidst growing opposition, at just 18 years of age he was assassinated and replaced by his cousin Severus Alexander in March 222.The assassination plot against Elagabalus was devised by Julia Maesa and carried out by disaffected members of the Praetorian Guard.Elagabalus developed a reputation among his contemporaries for extreme eccentricity, decadence, zealotry and sexual promiscuity.", "This tradition has persisted; among writers of the early modern age he endured one of the worst reputations among Roman emperors.", "Edward Gibbon, notably, wrote that Elagabalus \"abandoned himself to the grossest pleasures with ungoverned fury\".", "According to Barthold Georg Niebuhr, \"“the name of Elagabalus is branded in history above all others; ... \"Elagabus had nothing at all to make up for his vices, which are of such a kind that it is too disgusting even to allude to them.\"", "An example of a modern historian's assessment is Adrian Goldsworthy's: \"Elagabalus was not a tyrant, but he was an incompetent, probably the least able emperor Rome had ever had.\"", "Despite near-universal condemnation of his reign, some scholars write warmly about his religious innovations, including the 6th-century Byzantine chronicler John Malalas, as well as Warwick Ball, a modern historian who described him as \"a tragic enigma lost behind centuries of prejudice\"." ], [ "Family and priesthood", "Elagabalus was born in 203 or 204, to Sextus Varius Marcellus and Julia Soaemias Bassiana, who had probably married around the year 200 (and no later than 204).", "Elagabalus's full birth name was probably (Sextus) Varius Avitus Bassianus, the last name being apparently a cognomen of the Emesene dynasty.", "Marcellus was an equestrian, later elevated to a senatorial position.", "Julia Soaemias was a cousin of the emperor Caracalla, and there were rumors (which Soaemias later publicly supported) that Elagabalus was Caracalla's child.Marcellus's tombstone attests that Elagabalus had at least one brother, about whom nothing is known.", "Elagabalus's grandmother, Julia Maesa, was the widow of the consul Julius Avitus Alexianus, the sister of Julia Domna, and the sister-in-law of the emperor Septimius Severus.", "Other relatives included Elagabalus's aunt Julia Avita Mamaea and uncle Marcus Julius Gessius Marcianus and their son Severus Alexander.Elagabalus's family held hereditary rights to the priesthood of the sun god Elagabal, of whom Elagabalus was the high priest at Emesa (modern Homs) in Roman Syria as part of the Arab Emesene dynasty.", "The deity's Latin name, \"Elagabalus\", is a Latinized version of the Arabic إِلٰهُ الْجَبَلِ ''Ilāh al-Jabal'', from ''ilāh'' (\"god\") and ''jabal'' (\"mountain\"), meaning \"God of the Mountain\", the Emesene manifestation of Ba'al.Initially venerated at Emesa, the deity's cult spread to other parts of the Roman Empire in the second century; a dedication has been found as far away as Woerden (in the Netherlands), near the Roman ''limes''.", "The god was later imported to Rome and assimilated with the sun god known as Sol Indiges in the era of the Roman Republic and as Sol Invictus during the late third century.", "In Greek, the sun god is Helios, hence Elagabal was later known as \"Heliogabalus\", a hybrid of \"Helios\" and \"Elagabalus\"." ], [ "Rise to power", "Herodian writes that when the emperor Macrinus came to power, he suppressed the threat to his reign from the family of his assassinated predecessor, Caracalla, by exiling them—Julia Maesa, her two daughters, and her eldest grandson Elagabalus—to their estate at Emesa in Syria.", "Almost upon arrival in Syria, Maesa began a plot with her advisor and Elagabalus's tutor, Gannys, to overthrow Macrinus and elevate the fourteen-year-old Elagabalus to the imperial throne.Maesa spread a rumor, which Soaemias publicly supported, that Elagabalus was the illegitimate child of Caracalla and so deserved the loyalty of Roman soldiers and senators who had sworn allegiance to Caracalla.", "The soldiers of the Third Legion ''Gallica'' at Raphana, who had enjoyed greater privileges under Caracalla and resented Macrinus (and may have been impressed or bribed by Maesa's wealth), supported this claim.", "At sunrise on 16 May 218, Elagabalus was declared emperor by Publius Valerius Comazon, commander of the legion.", "To strengthen his legitimacy, Elagabalus adopted the same name Caracalla bore as emperor, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.", "Cassius Dio states that some officers tried to keep the soldiers loyal to Macrinus, but they were unsuccessful.Reverse of an ''aureus'' of Elagabalus, marked: (\"''the Health of Antoninus Augustus''\")Praetorian prefect Ulpius Julianus responded by attacking the Third Legion, most likely on Macrinus's orders (though one account says he acted on his own before Macrinus knew of the rebellion).", "Herodian suggests Macrinus underestimated the threat, considering the rebellion inconsequential.", "During the fighting, Julianus's soldiers killed their officers and joined Elagabalus's forces.Macrinus asked the Roman Senate to denounce Elagabalus as \"the False Antoninus\", and they complied, declaring war on Elagabalus and his family.", "Macrinus made his son Diadumenian co-emperor, and attempted to secure the loyalty of the Second Legion with large cash payments.", "During a banquet to celebrate this at Apamea, however, a messenger presented Macrinus with the severed head of his defeated prefect Julianus.", "Macrinus therefore retreated to Antioch, after which the Second Legion shifted its loyalties to Elagabalus.Elagabalus's legionaries, commanded by Gannys, defeated Macrinus and Diadumenian and their Praetorian Guard at the Battle of Antioch on 8 June 218, prevailing when Macrinus's troops broke ranks after he fled the battlefield.", "Macrinus made for Italy, but was intercepted near Chalcedon and executed in Cappadocia, while Diadumenian was captured at Zeugma and executed.That month, Elagabalus wrote to the Senate, assuming the imperial titles without waiting for senatorial approval, which violated tradition but was a common practice among third-century emperors.", "Letters of reconciliation were dispatched to Rome extending amnesty to the Senate and recognizing its laws, while also condemning the administration of Macrinus and his son.The senators responded by acknowledging Elagabalus as emperor and accepting his claim to be the son of Caracalla.", "Elagabalus was made consul for the year 218 in the middle of June.", "Caracalla and Julia Domna were both deified by the Senate, both Julia Maesa and Julia Soaemias were elevated to the rank of Augustae, and the memory of Macrinus was expunged by the Senate.", "(Elagabalus's imperial artifacts assert that he succeeded Caracalla directly.)", "Comazon was appointed commander of the Praetorian Guard.", "Elagabalus was named ''Pater Patriae'' by the Senate before 13 July 218.On 14 July, Elagabalus was inducted into the colleges of all the Roman priesthoods, including the College of Pontiffs, of which he was named ''pontifex maximus''." ], [ "Emperor (218–222)", "===Journey to Rome and political appointments===''Denarius'' of Elagabalus, inscribed: on the obverse and on the reverse, showing Fortuna with a ''cornucopia'' and a rudder on a globeAmphitheatrum Castrense in the Horti Spei Veteris on the Esquiline Hill in RomeThe apse of the Sessorium basilica in the Horti Spei VeterisElagabalus stayed for a time at Antioch, apparently to quell various mutinies.", "Dio outlines several, which historian Fergus Millar places prior to the winter of 218–219.These included one by Gellius Maximus, who commanded the Fourth Legion and was executed, and one by Verus, who commanded the Third Legion ''Gallica'', which was disbanded once the revolt was put down.Next, according to Herodian, Elagabalus and his entourage spent the winter of 218–219 in Bithynia at Nicomedia, and then traveled through Thrace and Moesia to Italy in the first half of 219, the year of Elagabalus's second consulship.", "Herodian says that Elagabalus had a painting of himself sent ahead to Rome to be hung over a statue of the goddess Victoria in the Senate House so people would not be surprised by his Eastern garb, but it is unclear if such a painting actually existed, and Dio does not mention it.", "If the painting was indeed hung over Victoria, it put senators in the position of seeming to make offerings to Elagabalus when they made offerings to Victoria.On his way to Rome, Elagabalus and his allies executed several prominent supporters of Macrinus, such as Syrian governor Fabius Agrippinus and former Thracian governor C. Claudius Attalus Paterculianus.", "Arriving at the imperial capital in August or September 219, Elagabalus staged an ''adventus'', a ceremonial entrance to the city.", "In Rome, his offer of amnesty for the Roman upper class was largely honored, though the jurist Ulpian was exiled.", "Elagabalus made Comazon praetorian prefect, and later consul (220) and prefect of the city (three times, 220–222), which Dio regarded as a violation of Roman norms.", "Elagabalus himself held a consulship for the third year in a row in 220.Herodian and the ''Augustan History'' say that Elagabalus alienated many by giving powerful positions to other allies.He developed the imperial palace at Horti Spei Veteris with the inclusion of the nearby land inherited from his father Sextus Varius Marcellus.", "Elagabalus made it his favourite retreat and designed it (as for Nero's Domus Aurea project) as a vast suburban villa divided into various building and landscape nuclei with the Amphitheatrum Castrense which he built and the Circus Varianus hippodrome fired by his unbridled passion for circuses and his habit of driving chariots inside the villa.", "He raced chariots under the family name of Varius.Dio states that Elagabalus wanted to marry a charioteer named Hierocles and to declare him ''caesar'', just as (Dio says) he had previously wanted to marry Gannys and name him ''caesar''.", "The athlete Aurelius Zoticus is said by Dio to have been Elagabalus's lover and ''cubicularius'' (a non-administrative role), while the ''Augustan History'' says Zoticus was a husband to Elagabalus and held greater political influence.Elagabalus's relationships to his mother Julia Soaemias and grandmother Julia Maesa were strong at first; they were influential supporters from the beginning, and Macrinus declared war on them as well as Elagabalus.", "Accordingly, they became the first women allowed into the Senate, and both received senatorial titles: Soaemias the established title of ''Clarissima,'' and Maesa the more unorthodox ''Mater Castrorum et Senatus'' (\"Mother of the army camp and of the Senate\").", "They exercised influence over the young emperor throughout his reign, and are found on many coins and inscriptions, a rare honour for Roman women.Under Elagabalus, the gradual devaluation of Roman ''aurei'' and ''denarii'' continued (with the silver purity of the ''denarius'' dropping from 58% to 46.5%), though ''antoniniani'' had a higher metal content than under Caracalla.=== Religious controversy ===Reverse of an ''aureus'' of Elagabalus, with the ''baetylus'' transported in a ''quadriga''.", "Inscription: (\"''to the Holy Sun God El-Gabal''\")The ''baetylus'' of Elgabal back in its home temple at Emesa, on a coin of UraniusSince the reign of Septimius Severus, sun worship had increased throughout the Empire.", "At the end of 220, Elagabalus instated Elagabal as the chief deity of the Roman pantheon, possibly on the date of the winter solstice.", "In his official titulature, Elagabalus was then entitled in .", "That a foreign god should be honored above Jupiter, with Elagabalus himself as chief priest, shocked many Romans.As a token of respect for Roman religion, however, Elagabalus joined either Astarte, Minerva, Urania, or some combination of the three to Elagabal as consort.", "A union between Elagabal and a traditional goddess would have served to strengthen ties between the new religion and the imperial cult.", "There may have been an effort to introduce Elagabal, Urania, and Athena as the new Capitoline Triad of Rome—replacing Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva.He aroused further discontent when he married the Vestal Virgin Aquilia Severa, Vesta's high priestess, claiming the marriage would produce \"godlike children\".", "This was a flagrant breach of Roman law and tradition, which held that any Vestal found to have engaged in sexual intercourse was to be buried alive.A lavish temple called the Elagabalium was built on the east face of the Palatine Hill to house Elagabal, who was represented by a black conical meteorite from Emesa.", "This was a ''baetylus''.", "Herodian wrote \"this stone is worshipped as though it were sent from heaven; on it there are some small projecting pieces and markings that are pointed out, which the people would like to believe are a rough picture of the sun, because this is how they see them\".Dio writes that in order to increase his piety as high priest of Elagabal atop a new Roman pantheon, Elagabalus had himself circumcised and swore to abstain from swine.", "He forced senators to watch while he danced circling the altar of Elagabal to the accompaniment of drums and cymbals.", "Each summer solstice he held a festival dedicated to the god, which became popular with the masses because of the free food distributed on these occasions.", "During this festival, Elagabalus placed the black stone on a chariot adorned with gold and jewels, which he paraded through the city:The most sacred relics from the Roman religion were transferred from their respective shrines to the Elagabalium, including the emblem of the Great Mother, the fire of Vesta, the Shields of the Salii, and the Palladium, so that no other god could be worshipped except in association with Elagabal.", "Although his native cult was widely ridiculed by contemporaries, sun-worship was popular among the soldiers and would be promoted by several later emperors.===Marriages, sexual orientation and gender identity===Roman denarius depicting Aquilia Severa, the second wife of Elagabalus.", "The marriage caused a public outrage because Aquilia was a Vestal Virgin, sworn by Roman law to celibacy for 30 years.", "Inscription: The question of Elagabalus's sexual orientation and gender identity is confused, owing to salacious and unreliable sources.", "Cassius Dio states that Elagabalus was married five times (twice to the same woman).", "His first wife was Julia Cornelia Paula, whom he married prior to 29 August 219; between then and 28 August 220, he divorced Paula, took the Vestal Virgin Julia Aquilia Severa as his second wife, divorced her, and took a third wife, who Herodian says was Annia Aurelia Faustina, a descendant of Marcus Aurelius and the widow of a man Elagabalus had recently executed, Pomponius Bassus.", "In the last year of his reign, Elagabalus divorced Annia Faustina and remarried Aquilia Severa.Dio states that another \"husband of this woman Elagabalus was Hierocles\", an ex-slave and chariot driver from Caria.", "The ''Augustan History'' claims that Elagabalus also married a man named Zoticus, an athlete from Smyrna, while Dio says only that Zoticus was his cubicularius.", "Dio says that Elagabalus prostituted himself in taverns and brothels.Some writers suggest that Elagabalus may have identified as female or been transgender, and may have sought sex reassignment surgery.", "Dio says Elagabalus delighted in being called Hierocles's mistress, wife, and queen.", "The emperor reportedly wore makeup and wigs, preferred to be called a lady and not a lord, and supposedly offered vast sums to any physician who could provide him with a vagina by means of incision.", "Some historians treat these accounts with caution, as sources for Elagabalus' life were often antagonistic towards him.In November 2023, the North Hertfordshire Museum in Hitchin, United Kingdom, announced that Elagabalus would be considered as transgender and hence referred to with female pronouns in its exhibits due to claims that the emperor had said \"call me not Lord, for I am a Lady\".", "The museum has one Elagabalus coin.===Fall from power===Elagabalus stoked the animus of Roman elites and the Praetorian Guard through his perceptibly foreign conduct and his religious provocations.", "When Elagabalus's grandmother Julia Maesa perceived that popular support for the emperor was waning, she decided that he and his mother, who had encouraged his religious practices, had to be replaced.", "As alternatives, she turned to her other daughter, Julia Avita Mamaea, and her daughter's son, the fifteen-year-old Severus Alexander.Prevailing on Elagabalus, she arranged that he appoint his cousin Alexander as his heir and that the boy be given the title of ''caesar''.", "Alexander was elevated to ''caesar'' in June 221, possibly on 26 June.", "Elagabalus and Alexander were each named ''consul designatus'' for the following year, probably on 1 July.", "Elagabalus took up his fourth consulship for the year of 222.Alexander shared the consulship with the emperor that year.", "However, Elagabalus reconsidered this arrangement when he began to suspect that the Praetorian Guard preferred his cousin to himself.Elagabalus ordered various attempts on Alexander's life, after failing to obtain approval from the Senate for stripping Alexander of his shared title.", "According to Dio, Elagabalus invented the rumor that Alexander was near death, in order to see how the Praetorians would react.", "A riot ensued, and the Guard demanded to see Elagabalus and Alexander in the Praetorian camp.====Assassination====Statue of Elagabalus as Hercules, re-faced as his successor, Alexander Severus (National Archaeological Museum, Naples)The emperor complied and on 11 or 12 March 222 he publicly presented his cousin along with his own mother, Julia Soaemias.", "On their arrival the soldiers started cheering Alexander while ignoring Elagabalus, who ordered the summary arrest and execution of anyone who had taken part in this display of insubordination.", "In response, members of the Praetorian Guard attacked Elagabalus and his mother:Following his assassination, many associates of Elagabalus were killed or deposed.", "His lover Hierocles was executed.", "His religious edicts were reversed and the stone of Elagabal was sent back to Emesa.", "Women were again barred from attending meetings of the Senate.", "The practice of ''damnatio memoriae''—erasing from the public record a disgraced personage formerly of note—was systematically applied in his case.", "Several images, including an over-life-size statue of him as Hercules now in Naples, were re-carved with the face of Alexander Severus." ], [ "Sources", "===Cassius Dio===An ''Aureus'' of Elagabalus, marked: The historian Cassius Dio, who lived from the second half of the second century until sometime after 229, wrote a contemporary account of Elagabalus.", "Born into a patrician family, Dio spent the greater part of his life in public service.", "He was a senator under emperor Commodus and governor of Smyrna after the death of Septimius Severus, and then he served as suffect consul around 205, and as proconsul in Africa and Pannonia.Dio's ''Roman History'' spans nearly a millennium, from the arrival of Aeneas in Italy until the year 229.His contemporaneous account of Elagabalus's reign is generally considered more reliable than the ''Augustan History'' or other accounts for this general time period, though by his own admission Dio spent the greater part of the relevant period outside of Rome and had to rely on second-hand information.Furthermore, the political climate in the aftermath of Elagabalus's reign, as well as Dio's own position within the government of Severus Alexander, who held him in high esteem and made him consul again, likely influenced the truth of this part of his history for the worse.", "Dio regularly refers to Elagabalus as Sardanapalus, partly to distinguish him from his divine namesake, but chiefly to do his part in maintaining the ''damnatio memoriae'' and to associate him with another autocrat notorious for a dissolute life.Historian Clare Rowan calls Dio's account a mixture of reliable information and \"literary exaggeration\", noting that Elagabalus's marriages and time as consul are confirmed by numismatic and epigraphic records.", "In other instances, Dio's account is inaccurate, such as when he says Elagabalus appointed entirely unqualified officials and that Comazon had no military experience before being named to head the Praetorian Guard, when in fact Comazon had commanded the Third Legion.", "Dio also gives different accounts in different places of when and by whom Diadumenian (whose forces Elagabalus fought) was given imperial names and titles.=== Herodian ===Reverse of an ''aureus'' of Elagabalus, marked: (\"''the Faith of the Army''\")Another contemporary of Elagabalus was Herodian, a minor Roman civil servant who lived from until 240.His work, ''History of the Roman Empire since Marcus Aurelius'', commonly abbreviated as ''Roman History'', is an eyewitness account of the reign of Commodus until the beginning of the reign of Gordian III.", "His work largely overlaps with Dio's own ''Roman History'', and the texts, written independently of each other, agree more often than not about Elagabalus and his short but eventful reign.Arrizabalaga writes that Herodian is in most ways \"less detailed and punctilious than Dio\", and he is deemed less reliable by many modern scholars, though Rowan considers his account of Elagabalus's reign more reliable than Dio's and Herodian's lack of literary and scholarly pretensions are considered to make him less biased than senatorial historians.", "He is considered an important source for the religious reforms which took place during the reign of Elagabalus, which have been confirmed by numismatic and archaeological evidence.=== ''Augustan History'' ===The source of many stories of Elagabalus's depravity is the ''Historia Augusta'', which includes controversial claims.", "It is most likely that the ''Historia Augusta'' was written towards the end of the fourth century, during the reign of emperor Theodosius I.", "The account of Elagabalus in the ''Historia Augusta'' is of uncertain historical merit.", "Sections 13 to 17, relating to the fall of Elagabalus, are less controversial among historians.", "The author of the most scandalous stories in the ''Historia Augusta'' concedes that \"both these matters and some others which pass belief were, I think, invented by people who wanted to depreciate Heliogabalus to win favour with Alexander\".=== Modern historians ===''Aureus'' of Elagabalus, inscribed: For readers of the modern age, ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' by Edward Gibbon (1737–1794) further cemented the scandalous reputation of Elagabalus.", "Gibbon not only accepted and expressed outrage at the allegations of the ancient historians, but he might have added some details of his own; for example, he is the first historian known to claim that Gannys was a eunuch.", "Gibbon wrote:The 20th-century anthropologist James George Frazer (author of ''The Golden Bough'') took seriously the monotheistic aspirations of the emperor, but also ridiculed him: \"The dainty priest of the Sun was the most abandoned reprobate who ever sat upon a throne ...", "It was the intention of this eminently religious but crack-brained despot to supersede the worship of all the gods, not only at Rome but throughout the world, by the single worship of Elagabalus or the Sun.", "\"The first book-length biography was ''The Amazing Emperor Heliogabalus'' (1911) by J. Stuart Hay, \"a serious and systematic study\" more sympathetic than that of previous historians, which nonetheless stressed the exoticism of Elagabalus, calling his reign one of \"enormous wealth and excessive prodigality, luxury and aestheticism, carried to their ultimate extreme, and sensuality in all the refinements of its Eastern habit\".Medal of Elagabalus, Louvre Museum.", "Inscription: Some recent historians paint a more favourable picture of the emperor's rule.", "Martijn Icks, in ''Images of Elagabalus'' (2008; republished as ''The Crimes of Elagabalus'' in 2011 and 2012), doubts the reliability of the ancient sources and argues that it was the emperor's unorthodox religious policies that alienated the power elite of Rome, to the point that his grandmother saw fit to eliminate him and replace him with his cousin.", "He described ancient stories pertaining to the emperor as \"part of a long tradition of 'character assassination' in ancient historiography and biography\".Leonardo de Arrizabalaga y Prado, in ''The Emperor Elagabalus: Fact or Fiction?''", "(2008), is also critical of the ancient historians and speculates that neither religion nor sexuality played a role in the fall of the young emperor.", "Prado instead suggests Elagabalus was the loser in a power struggle within the imperial family, that the loyalty of the Praetorian Guards was up for sale, and that Julia Maesa had the resources to outmaneuver and outbribe her grandson.", "In this version of events, once Elagabalus, his mother, and his immediate circle had been murdered, a campaign of character assassination began, resulting in a grotesque caricature that has persisted to the present day.", "Other historians, including Icks, criticized Prado for being overly skeptical of primary sources.Warwick Ball, in his book ''Rome in the East'', writes an apologetic account of the emperor, arguing that descriptions of his religious rites were exaggerated and should be dismissed as propaganda, similar to how pagan descriptions of Christian rites have since been dismissed.", "Ball describes the emperor's ritual processions as sound political and religious policy, arguing that syncretism of eastern and western deities deserves praise rather than ridicule.", "Ultimately, he paints Elagabalus as a child forced to become emperor who, as expected of the high-priest of a cult, continued his rituals even after becoming emperor.", "Ball justified Elagabalus's executions of prominent Roman figures who criticized his religious activities in the same way.", "Finally, Ball asserts Elagabalus's eventual victory in the sense that his deity would be welcomed by Rome in its Sol Invictus form 50 years later.", "Ball claims that Sol Invictus came to influence the monotheist Christian beliefs of Constantine, asserting that this influence remains in Christianity to this day." ], [ "Cultural references", "Despite the attempted ''damnatio memoriae'', stories about Elagabalus survived and figured in many works of art and literature.", "In Spanish, his name became a word for \"glutton\", ''heliogábalo''.", "Due to the ancient stories about him, he often appears in literature and other creative media as a decadent figure (becoming something of an anti-hero in the Decadent movement of the late 19th century, and inspiring many famous works of art, especially by Decadents) and the epitome of a young, amoral aesthete.", "The most notable of these works include:===Fiction===Illustration by Auguste Leroux for the 1902 edition of Jean Lombard's ''L'agonie'' showing the migration of the ''baetylus'' of Elgabal, though with the emperor riding rather than leading the god's chariot*''L'Agonie'' (1888) by Jean Lombard, which was the inspiration for Louis Couperus's ''De berg van licht'' (''The Mountain of Light'') in 1905–06;*''Héliogabale ou l'Anarchiste couronné'' (''Heliogabalus or The Anarchist Crowned'') by Antonin Artaud (1934), depicting the life of Elagabalus and combining essay, biography, and fiction;*Historical novels ''Family Favourites'' (1960) by Alfred Duggan and ''Child of the Sun'' (1966) by Kyle Onstott and Lance Horner, in the former of which an ordinary Roman soldier witnesses the reign; and *Victor Pelevin's ''Sol Invictus'', which depicts Elagabalus as a key unrecognized spiritual figure.===Plays===* ''Heliogabalus: A Buffoonery in Three Acts'' (1920) by H. L. Mencken and George Jean Nathan* ''Heliogabalus: A Love Story'' (2002) by Sky Gilbert=== Dance ===Elagabalus on a wall painting at Forchtenstein Castle in Austria* ''Héliogabale'', a modern dance choreographed by Maurice Béjart* ''The Legends'', a dance performed by Sebastian Droste as Heliogabalus, as part of the ''Dances of Vice, Horror and Ecstasy'' performance staged by Droste and Anita Berber in 1923===Music===* ''Eliogabalo'' (1667), an opera by Venetian Baroque composer Francesco Cavalli* Is mentioned (as Heliogabalus) in the \"Major-General's Song\" (1879) from Gilbert and Sullivan's ''The Pirates of Penzance''.", "\"I quote in elegiacs all the crimes of Heliogabalus\".", "* ''Heliogabale'' (1910), an opera by French composer Déodat de Séverac *''Artaud'' (1973), an album released by Argentine band Pescado Rabioso, particularly the track \"Cantata de Puentes Amarillos\", was heavily influenced by Antonin Artaud's book, ''Héliogabale ou l'Anarchiste couronn''é, as well as the life of Heliogabalus.", "* ''Eliogabalus'' (1990), title of both the second album and second song by the experimental rock band Devil Doll (Slovenian band)* ''Heliogabalus imperator'' (''Emperor Heliogabalus'') (1972), an orchestral work by the German composer Hans Werner Henze * ''Six Litanies for Heliogabalus'' (2007), an album by American musician John Zorn* ''The Pale Emperor'' (2015), an album by American musician Marilyn Manson, was inspired by the life of Heliogabalus and more specifically Antonin Artaud's book=== Paintings ===''The Roses of Heliogabalus'' by Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1888)* ''Heliogabalus, High Priest of the Sun'' (1866), by the Pre-Raphaelite Simeon Solomon* One of the most notorious incidents laid to his account, an extravagant dinner party in which guests were smothered under a mass of \"violets and other flowers\" dropped from above, is immortalized in the 19th-century painting ''The Roses of Heliogabalus'' (1888), by the Anglo-Dutch academician Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema.", "* ''Antonin Artaud Heliogabalus'' (2010–11), by Anselm Kiefer===Poetry===* ''Algabal'' (1892–1919), a collection of poems by Stefan George* In \"He 'Digesteth Harde Yron American poet Marianne Moore describes a banquet at which Elagabalus served six hundred ostrich brains, a detail she found in George Jennison's book ''Animals for Show and Pleasure in Ancient Rome''.===Television===* In CBBC's adaptation of ''Horrible Histories'', Elagabalus is portrayed by Mathew Baynton as a laddish teenager with a cruel sense of humour." ], [ "Severan dynasty family tree" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Primary sources===* * Published on Livius.org in 2007* ''Historia Augusta'', The Life of Elagabalus Part 1 and 2 , Latin text with English translation.===Secondary material===* * Arrizabalaga y Prado, Leonardo de.", "\"Pseudo-Eunuchs in the Court of Elagabalus: The Riddle of Gannys, Eutychianus, and Comazon\" , ''Collected Papers in Honour of the Ninety-Fifth Anniversary of Ueno Gakuen'', Tokyo, 1999, pp. 117–141.", "* Arrizabalaga y Prado, Leonardo de.", "\"Varian Studies: a Definition of the Subject\", opening address to the Varian Symposium, Trinity College, Cambridge, 30–31 July 2005.", "* * * * * * * * * * * Additional copy.", "Introduction by J.", "B.", "Bury.", "* * * Kienast, Dietmar.", "\"Heliogabalus, a Monster on the Roman Throne: The Literary Construction of a 'Bad' Emperor,\" in Ineke Sluiter and Ralph M. Rosen (eds), ''Kakos: Badness and Anti-value in Classical Antiquity'' (Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2008) (Mnemosyne: Supplements.", "History and Archaeology of Classical Antiquity, 307.", "* Kienast, Dietmar.", "\"Leonardo de Arrizabalaga y Prado: ''The Emperor Elagabalus''\" .", "* Kienast, Dietmar.", "\"The 'Vices and Follies' of Elagabalus in Modern Historical Research\", paper delivered at the Varian Symposium, Trinity College, Cambridge, 30–31 July 2005.", "* , 26 August 1997.", "* * * * * * * * * * Varian Symposium Acta and links for a conference held at Trinity College, Cambridge, 30–31 July 2005.", "* * ====Images====* Wildwinds coin archive: Elagabalus .", "Large archive of ancient Roman and provincial coins bearing the image of Elagabalus.", "Retrieved on 2008-05-03.", "* Coinarchives coin archive: Elagabalus .", "Large archive of ancient Roman and provincial coins issued under Elagabalus, including coins of family members.", "Retrieved on 2008-05-03." ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Homeopathy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Homeopathy''' or '''homoeopathy''' is a pseudoscientific system of alternative medicine.", "It was conceived in 1796 by the German physician Samuel Hahnemann.", "Its practitioners, called '''homeopaths''' or homeopathic physicians, believe that a substance that causes symptoms of a disease in healthy people can cure similar symptoms in sick people; this doctrine is called ''similia similibus curentur'', or \"like cures like\".", "Homeopathic preparations are termed ''remedies'' and are made using homeopathic dilution.", "In this process, the selected substance is repeatedly diluted until the final product is chemically indistinguishable from the diluent.", "Often not even a single molecule of the original substance can be expected to remain in the product.", "Between each dilution homeopaths may hit and/or shake the product, claiming this makes the diluent \"remember\" the original substance after its removal.", "Practitioners claim that such preparations, upon oral intake, can treat or cure disease.All relevant scientific knowledge about physics, chemistry, biochemistry and biology contradicts homeopathy.", "Homeopathic remedies are typically biochemically inert, and have no effect on any known disease.", "Its theory of disease, centered around principles Hahnemann termed miasms, is inconsistent with subsequent identification of viruses and bacteria as causes of disease.", "Clinical trials have been conducted and generally demonstrated no objective effect from homeopathic preparations.", "The fundamental implausibility of homeopathy as well as a lack of demonstrable effectiveness has led to it being characterized within the scientific and medical communities as quackery and fraud.Homeopathy achieved its greatest popularity in the 19th century.", "It was introduced to the United States in 1825, and the first American homeopathic school opened in 1835.Throughout the 19th century, dozens of homeopathic institutions appeared in Europe and the United States.", "During this period, homeopathy was able to appear relatively successful, as other forms of treatment could be harmful and ineffective.", "By the end of the century the practice began to wane, with the last exclusively homeopathic medical school in the United States closing in 1920.During the 1970s, homeopathy made a significant comeback, with sales of some homeopathic products increasing tenfold.", "The trend corresponded with the rise of the New Age movement, and may be in part due to chemophobia, an irrational aversion to synthetic chemicals, and the longer consultation times homeopathic practitioners provided.In the 21st century, a series of meta-analyses have shown that the therapeutic claims of homeopathy lack scientific justification.", "As a result, national and international bodies have recommended the withdrawal of government funding for homeopathy in healthcare.", "National bodies from Australia, the United Kingdom, Switzerland and France, as well as the European Academies' Science Advisory Council and the Russian Academy of Sciences have all concluded that homeopathy is ineffective, and recommended against the practice receiving any further funding.", "The National Health Service in England no longer provides funding for homeopathic remedies and asked the Department of Health to add homeopathic remedies to the list of forbidden prescription items.", "France removed funding in 2021, while Spain has also announced moves to ban homeopathy and other pseudotherapies from health centers." ], [ "History", "Homeopathy was created in 1796 by Samuel Hahnemann.", "Hahnemann rejected the mainstream medicine of the late 18th century as irrational and inadvisable, because it was largely ineffective and often harmful.", "He advocated the use of single drugs at lower doses and promoted an immaterial, vitalistic view of how living organisms function.", "The term ''homeopathy'' was coined by Hahnemann and first appeared in print in 1807.He also coined the expression \"allopathic medicine\", which was used to pejoratively refer to traditional Western medicine.===Concept===Samuel Hahnemann Monument, Washington, D.C., with the inscription ''Similia Similibus Curentur'' – \"Like cures Like\"Hahnemann conceived of homeopathy while translating a medical treatise by the Scottish physician and chemist William Cullen into German.", "Being sceptical of Cullen's theory that cinchona cured malaria because it was bitter, Hahnemann ingested some bark specifically to investigate what would happen.", "He experienced fever, shivering and joint pain: symptoms similar to those of malaria itself.", "From this, Hahnemann came to believe that all effective drugs produce symptoms in healthy individuals similar to those of the diseases that they treat.", "This led to the name ''\"homeopathy\"'', which comes from the ''hómoios'', \"-like\" and ''páthos'', \"suffering\".The doctrine that those drugs are effective which produce symptoms similar to the symptoms caused by the diseases they treat, called \"the law of similars\", was expressed by Hahnemann with the Latin phrase ''similia similibus curentur'', or \"like cures like\".", "Hahnemann's law of similars is unproven and does not derive from the scientific method.", "An account of the effects of eating cinchona bark noted by Oliver Wendell Holmes, published in 1861, failed to reproduce the symptoms Hahnemann reported.", "Subsequent scientific work showed that cinchona cures malaria because it contains quinine, which kills the ''Plasmodium falciparum'' parasite that causes the disease; the mechanism of action is unrelated to Hahnemann's ideas.====Provings====Hahnemann began to test what effects various substances may produce in humans, a procedure later called \"homeopathic proving\".", "These tests required subjects to test the effects of ingesting substances by recording all their symptoms as well as the ancillary conditions under which they appeared.", "He published a collection of provings in 1805, and a second collection of 65 preparations appeared in his book, ''Materia Medica Pura'' (1810).As Hahnemann believed that large doses of drugs that caused similar symptoms would only aggravate illness, he advocated for extreme dilutions.", "A technique was devised for making dilutions that Hahnemann claimed would preserve the substance's therapeutic properties while removing its harmful effects.", "Hahnemann believed that this process enhanced \"the spirit-like medicinal powers of the crude substances\".", "He gathered and published an overview of his new medical system in his book, ''The Organon of the Healing Art'' (1810), with a sixth edition published in 1921 that homeopaths still use today.====Miasms and disease====In the ''Organon'', Hahnemann introduced the concept of \"miasms\" as the \"infectious principles\" underlying chronic disease and as \"peculiar morbid derangements of vital force\".", "Hahnemann associated each miasm with specific diseases, and thought that initial exposure to miasms causes local symptoms, such as skin or venereal diseases.", "His assertion was that if these symptoms were suppressed by medication, the cause went deeper and began to manifest itself as diseases of the internal organs.", "Homeopathy maintains that treating diseases by directly alleviating their symptoms, as is sometimes done in conventional medicine, is ineffective because all \"disease can generally be traced to some latent, deep-seated, underlying chronic, or inherited tendency\".", "The underlying imputed miasm still remains, and deep-seated ailments can be corrected only by removing the deeper disturbance of the vital force.Hahnemann's hypotheses for miasms originally presented only three local symptoms: psora (the itch), syphilis (venereal disease) or sycosis (fig-wart disease).", "Of these the most important was ''psora'', described as being related to any itching diseases of the skin and was claimed to be the foundation of many further disease conditions.", "Hahnemann believed it to be the cause of such diseases as epilepsy, cancer, jaundice, deafness, and cataracts.", "Since Hahnemann's time, other miasms have been proposed, some replacing illnesses previously attributed to the psora, including tuberculosis and cancer miasms.Hahnemann's miasm theory remains disputed and controversial within homeopathy even in modern times.", "The theory of miasms has been criticized as an explanation developed to preserve the system of homeopathy in the face of treatment failures, and for being inadequate to cover the many hundreds of sorts of diseases, as well as for failing to explain disease predispositions, as well as genetics, environmental factors, and the unique disease history of each patient.===19th century: rise to popularity and early criticism===''Homeopathy Looks at the Horrors of Allopathy'', an 1857 painting by Alexander Beydeman, showing historical figures and personifications of homeopathy observing the brutality of medicine of the 19th centuryHomeopathy achieved its greatest popularity in the 19th century.", "It was introduced to the United States in 1825 by Hans Birch Gram, a student of Hahnemann.", "The first homeopathic school in the United States opened in 1835 and the American Institute of Homeopathy was established in 1844.Throughout the 19th century, dozens of homeopathic institutions appeared in Europe and the United States, and by 1900, there were 22 homeopathic colleges and 15,000 practitioners in the United States.Because medical practice of the time relied on treatments which were often ineffective and harmful, patients of homeopaths often had better outcomes than those being treated by medical practitioners.", "Though ineffective, homeopathic preparations are rarely detrimental, thus users are less likely to be harmed by the treatment that is supposed to be helping them.", "The relative success of homeopathy in the 19th century may have led to the abandonment of the ineffective and harmful treatments of bloodletting and purging and begun the move towards more effective, science-based medicine.", "One reason for the growing popularity of homeopathy was its apparent success in treating people suffering from infectious disease epidemics.", "During 19th-century epidemics of diseases such as cholera, death rates in homeopathic hospitals were often lower than in conventional hospitals, where the treatments used at the time were often harmful and did little or nothing to combat the diseases.Even during its rise in popularity, homeopathy was criticized by scientists and physicians.", "Sir John Forbes, physician to Queen Victoria, said in 1843 that the extremely small doses of homeopathy were regularly derided as useless and considered it \"an outrage to human reason\".", "James Young Simpson said in 1853 of the highly diluted drugs: \"No poison, however strong or powerful, the billionth or decillionth of which would in the least degree affect a man or harm a fly.\"", "Nineteenth-century American physician and author Oliver Wendell Holmes was also a vocal critic of homeopathy and published an essay entitled ''Homœopathy and Its Kindred Delusions'' (1842).", "The members of the French Homeopathic Society observed in 1867 that some leading homeopaths of Europe not only were abandoning the practice of administering infinitesimal doses but were also no longer defending it.", "The last school in the United States exclusively teaching homeopathy closed in 1920.=== Revival in the 20th century ===According to academics and Edzard Ernst, the Nazi regime in Germany was fond of homeopathy, and spent large sums of money on researching its mechanisms, but without gaining a positive result.", "Unschuld also states that homeopathy never subsequently took root in the United States, but remained more deeply established in European thinking.", "In the United States, the ''Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act'' of 1938 (sponsored by Royal Copeland, a Senator from New York and homeopathic physician) recognized homeopathic preparations as drugs.", "In the 1950s, there were only 75 solely homeopathic practitioners in the U.S. By the mid to late 1970s, homeopathy made a significant comeback and the sales of some homeopathic companies increased tenfold.Some homeopaths credit the revival to Greek homeopath George Vithoulkas, who conducted a \"great deal of research to update the scenarios and refine the theories and practice of homeopathy\" in the 1970s, but Ernst and Simon Singh consider it to be linked to the rise of the New Age movement.", "Bruce Hood has argued that the increased popularity of homeopathy in recent times may be due to the comparatively long consultations practitioners are willing to give their patients, and to a preference for \"natural\" products, which people think are the basis of homeopathic preparations.Towards the end of the century opposition to homeopathy began to increase again; with William T. Jarvis, the President of the National Council Against Health Fraud, saying that \"Homeopathy is a fraud perpetrated on the public with the government's blessing, thanks to the abuse of political power of Sen. Royal S.", "Copeland.", "\"===21st century: renewed criticism===Since the beginning of the 21st century, a series of meta-analyses have further shown that the therapeutic claims of homeopathy lack scientific justification.", "This had led to a decrease or suspension of funding by many governments.", "In a 2010 report, the Science and Technology Committee of the United Kingdom House of Commons recommended that homeopathy should no longer receive National Health Service (NHS) funding due its lack of scientific credibility; NHS funding for homeopathy ceased in 2017.They also asked the Department of Health in the UK to add homeopathic remedies to the list of forbidden prescription items.In 2015, the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia found that \"there are no health conditions for which there is reliable evidence that homeopathy is effective\".", "The federal government only ended up accepting three of the 45 recommendations made by the 2018 review of Pharmacy Remuneration and Regulation.", "The same year the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) held a hearing requesting public comment on the regulation of homeopathic drugs.", "In 2017 the FDA announced it would strengthen regulation of homeopathic products.The American non-profit Center for Inquiry (CFI) filed a lawsuit in 2018 against the CVS pharmacy for consumer fraud over its sale of homeopathic medicines.", "It claimed that CVS was selling homeopathic products on an easier-to-obtain basis than standard medication.", "In 2019, CFI brought a similar lawsuit against Walmart for \"committing wide-scale consumer fraud and endangering the health of its customers through its sale and marketing of homeopathic medicines\".", "They also conducted a survey in which they found consumers felt ripped off when informed of the lack of evidence for the efficacy of homeopathic remedies, such as those sold by Walmart and CVS.In 2021, the French healthcare minister phased out social security reimbursements for homeopathic drugs.", "France has long had a stronger belief in the virtues of homeopathic drugs than many other countries and the world's biggest manufacturer of alternative medicine drugs, Boiron, is located in that country.", "Spain has also announced moves to ban homeopathy and other pseudotherapies.", "In 2016, the University of Barcelona cancelled its master's degree in Homeopathy citing \"lack of scientific basis\", after advice from the Spanish Ministry of Health.", "Shortly afterwards the University of Valencia announced the elimination of its Masters in Homeopathy." ], [ "Preparations and treatment", "Homeopathic repertory by James Tyler KentHomeopathic preparations are referred to as \"homeopathic remedies\".", "Practitioners rely on two types of reference when prescribing: ''Materia medica'' and repertories.", "A homeopathic ''materia medica'' is a collection of \"drug pictures\", organized alphabetically.", "A homeopathic repertory is a quick reference version of the ''materia medica'' that indexes the symptoms and then the associated remedies for each.", "In both cases different compilers may dispute particular inclusions in the references.", "The first symptomatic homeopathic ''materia medica'' was arranged by Hahnemann.", "The first homeopathic repertory was Georg Jahr's ''Symptomenkodex'', published in German in 1835, and translated into English as the ''Repertory to the more Characteristic Symptoms of Materia Medica'' in 1838.This version was less focused on disease categories and was the forerunner to later works by James Tyler Kent.", "There are over 118 repertories published in English, with Kent's being one of the most used.=== Consultation ===Homeopaths generally begin with a consultation, which can be a 10–15 minute appointment or last for over an hour, where the patient describes their medical history.", "The patient describes the \"modalities\", or if their symptoms change depending on the weather and other external factors.", "The practitioner also solicits information on mood, likes and dislikes, physical, mental and emotional states, life circumstances, and any physical or emotional illnesses.", "This information (also called the \"symptom picture\") is matched to the \"drug picture\" in the ''materia medica'' or repertory and used to determine the appropriate homeopathic remedies.", "In classical homeopathy, the practitioner attempts to match a single preparation to the totality of symptoms (the ''simlilum''), while \"clinical homeopathy\" involves combinations of preparations based on the illness's symptoms.=== Preparation ===''Oscillococcinum'', a homeopathic remedy in pill formHomeopathy uses animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic substances in its preparations, generally referring to them using Latin names.", "Examples include ''arsenicum album'' (arsenic oxide), ''natrum muriaticum'' (sodium chloride or table salt), ''Lachesis muta'' (the venom of the bushmaster snake), ''opium'', and ''thyroidinum'' (thyroid hormone).", "Homeopaths say this is to ensure accuracy.", "In the USA the common name must be displayed, although the Latin one can also be present.", "Homeopathic pills are made from an inert substance (often sugars, typically lactose), upon which a drop of liquid homeopathic preparation is placed and allowed to evaporate.Isopathy is a therapy derived from homeopathy in which the preparations come from diseased or pathological products such as fecal, urinary and respiratory discharges, blood, and tissue.", "They are called nosodes (from the Greek ''nosos'', disease) with preparations made from \"healthy\" specimens being termed \"sarcodes\".", "Many so-called \"homeopathic vaccines\" are a form of isopathy.", "Tautopathy is a form of isopathy where the preparations are composed of drugs or vaccines that a person has consumed in the past, in the belief that this can reverse the supposed lingering damage caused by the initial use.", "There is no convincing scientific evidence for isopathy as an effective method of treatment.Some modern homeopaths use preparations they call \"imponderables\" because they do not originate from a substance but some other phenomenon presumed to have been \"captured\" by alcohol or lactose.", "Examples include X-rays and sunlight.", "Another derivative is electrohomeopathy, where an electric bio-energy of therapeutic value is supposedly extracted from plants.", "Popular in the late nineteenth century, electrohomeopathy is extremely pseudo-scientific.", "In 2012, the Allahabad High Court in Uttar Pradesh, India, handed down a decree stating that electrohomeopathy was quackery and no longer recognized it as a system of medicine .Other minority practices include paper preparations, in which the terms for substances and dilutions are written on pieces of paper and either pinned to the patients' clothing, put in their pockets, or placed under glasses of water that are then given to the patients.", "Radionics, the use of electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves, can also be used to manufacture preparations.", "Such practices have been strongly criticized by classical homeopaths as unfounded, speculative, and verging upon magic and superstition.", "Flower preparations are produced by placing flowers in water and exposing them to sunlight.", "The most famous of these are the Bach flower remedies, which were developed by Edward Bach.=== Dilutions ===This bottle is labelled ''Arnica montana'' (wolf's bane) D6, i.e.", "the nominal dilution is one part in a million (10'''-6''').Hahnemann claimed that undiluted doses caused reactions, sometimes dangerous ones, and thus that preparations be given at the lowest possible dose.", "A solution that is more dilute is described as having a higher \"potency\", and thus are claimed to be stronger and deeper-acting.", "The general method of dilution is serial dilution, where solvent is added to part of the previous mixture, but the \"Korsakovian\" method may also be used.", "In the Korsakovian method, the vessel in which the preparations are manufactured is emptied, refilled with solvent, with the volume of fluid adhering to the walls of the vessel deemed sufficient for the new batch.", "The Korsakovian method is sometimes referred to as K on the label of a homeopathic preparation.", "Another method is Fluxion, which dilutes the substance by continuously passing water through the vial.", "Insoluble solids, such as granite, diamond, and platinum, are diluted by grinding them with lactose (\"trituration\").Three main logarithmic dilution scales are in regular use in homeopathy.", "Hahnemann created the \"centesimal\" or \"C scale\", diluting a substance by a factor of 100 at each stage.", "There is also a decimal dilution scale (notated as \"X\" or \"D\") in which the preparation is diluted by a factor of 10 at each stage.", "The centesimal scale was favoured by Hahnemann for most of his life, although in his last ten years Hahnemann developed a quintamillesimal (Q) scale which diluted the drug 1 part in 50,000.A 2C dilution works out to one part of the original substance in 10,000 parts of the solution.", "In standard chemistry, this produces a substance with a concentration of 0.01% (volume-volume percentage).", "A 6C dilution ends up with the original substance diluted by a factor of 100−6 (one part in one trillion).", "The end product is usually so diluted as to be indistinguishable from the diluent (pure water, sugar or alcohol).", "The greatest dilution reasonably likely to contain at least one molecule of the original substance is approximately 12C.Hahnemann advocated dilutions of 1 part to 1060 or 30C.", "Hahnemann regularly used dilutions of up to 30C but opined that \"there must be a limit to the matter\".", "To counter the reduced potency at high dilutions he formed the view that vigorous shaking by striking on an elastic surface – a process termed ''succussion'' – was necessary.", "Homeopaths are unable to agree on the number and force of strikes needed, and there is no way that the claimed results of succussion can be tested.Critics of homeopathy commonly emphasize the dilutions involved in homeopathy, using analogies.", "One mathematically correct example is that a 12C solution is equivalent to \"a pinch of salt in both the North and South Atlantic Oceans\".", "One-third of a drop of some original substance diluted into all the water on earth would produce a preparation with a concentration of about 13C.", "A 200C dilution of duck liver, marketed under the name Oscillococcinum, would require 10320 universes worth of molecules to contain just one original molecule in the final substance.", "The high dilutions characteristically used are often considered to be the most controversial and implausible aspect of homeopathy.===Provings===Homeopaths claim that they can determine the properties of their preparations by following a method which they call \"proving\".", "As performed by Hahnemann, provings involved administering various preparations to healthy volunteers.", "The volunteers were then observed, often for months at a time.", "They were made to keep extensive journals detailing all of their symptoms at specific times throughout the day.", "They were forbidden from consuming coffee, tea, spices, or wine for the duration of the experiment; playing chess was also prohibited because Hahnemann considered it to be \"too exciting\", though they were allowed to drink beer and encouraged to exercise in moderation.", "At first Hahnemann used undiluted doses for provings, but he later advocated provings with preparations at a 30C dilution, and most modern provings are carried out using ultra-dilute preparations.Provings are claimed to have been important in the development of the clinical trial, due to their early use of simple control groups, systematic and quantitative procedures, and some of the first application of statistics in medicine.", "The lengthy records of self-experimentation by homeopaths have occasionally proven useful in the development of modern drugs: For example, evidence that nitroglycerin might be useful as a treatment for angina was discovered by looking through homeopathic provings, though homeopaths themselves never used it for that purpose at that time.", "The first recorded provings were published by Hahnemann in his 1796 ''Essay on a New Principle''.", "His ''Fragmenta de Viribus'' (1805) contained the results of 27 provings, and his 1810 ''Materia Medica Pura'' contained 65.For James Tyler Kent's 1905 ''Lectures on Homoeopathic Materia Medica'', 217 preparations underwent provings and newer substances are continually added to contemporary versions.Though the proving process has superficial similarities with clinical trials, it is fundamentally different in that the process is subjective, not blinded, and modern provings are unlikely to use pharmacologically active levels of the substance under proving.", "As early as 1842, Oliver Holmes had noted that provings were impossibly vague, and the purported effect was not repeatable among different subjects." ], [ "Evidence and efficacy", "Outside of the alternative medicine community, scientists have long considered homeopathy a sham or a pseudoscience, and the medical community regards it as quackery.", "There is an overall absence of sound statistical evidence of therapeutic efficacy, which is consistent with the lack of any biologically plausible pharmacological agent or mechanism.", "Proponents argue that homeopathic medicines must work by some, as yet undefined, biophysical mechanism.", "No homeopathic preparation has been shown to be different from placebo.=== Lack of scientific evidence ===The lack of convincing scientific evidence supporting its efficacy and its use of preparations without active ingredients have led to characterizations of homeopathy as pseudoscience and quackery, or, in the words of a 1998 medical review, \"placebo therapy at best and quackery at worst\".", "The Russian Academy of Sciences considers homeopathy a \"dangerous 'pseudoscience' that does not work\", and \"urges people to treat homeopathy 'on a par with magic.", "The Chief Medical Officer for England, Dame Sally Davies, has stated that homeopathic preparations are \"rubbish\" and do not serve as anything more than placebos.", "In 2013, Mark Walport, the UK Government Chief Scientific Adviser and head of the Government Office for Science said \"homeopathy is nonsense, it is non-science.\"", "His predecessor, John Beddington, also said that homeopathy \"has no underpinning of scientific basis\" and is being \"fundamentally ignored\" by the Government.Jack Killen, acting deputy director of the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, says homeopathy \"goes beyond current understanding of chemistry and physics\".", "He adds: \"There is, to my knowledge, no condition for which homeopathy has been proven to be an effective treatment.\"", "Ben Goldacre says that homeopaths who misrepresent scientific evidence to a scientifically illiterate public, have \"... walled themselves off from academic medicine, and critique has been all too often met with avoidance rather than argument\".", "Homeopaths often prefer to ignore meta-analyses in favour of cherry picked positive results, such as by promoting a particular observational study (one which Goldacre describes as \"little more than a customer-satisfaction survey\") as if it were more informative than a series of randomized controlled trials.In an article entitled \"Should We Maintain an Open Mind about Homeopathy?\"", "published in the ''American Journal of Medicine'', Michael Baum and Edzard Ernstwriting to other physicianswrote that \"Homeopathy is among the worst examples of faith-based medicine...", "These axioms of homeopathy are not only out of line with scientific facts but also directly opposed to them.", "If homeopathy is correct, much of physics, chemistry, and pharmacology must be incorrect...\".=== Plausibility of dilutions ===A homeopathic preparation made from marsh tea: the \"15C\" dilution shown here means the original solution was diluted to 1/1030 of its original strength.The exceedingly low concentration of homeopathic preparations, which often lack even a single molecule of the diluted substance, has been the basis of questions about the effects of the preparations since the 19th century.", "The laws of chemistry give this dilution limit, which is related to the Avogadro number, as being roughly equal to 12C homeopathic dilutions (1 part in 1024).", "James Randi and the 10:23 campaign groups have highlighted the lack of active ingredients by taking large 'overdoses'.", "None of the hundreds of demonstrators in the UK, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the US were injured and \"no one was cured of anything, either\".Modern advocates of homeopathy have proposed a concept of \"water memory\", according to which water \"remembers\" the substances mixed in it, and transmits the effect of those substances when consumed.", "This concept is inconsistent with the current understanding of matter, and water memory has never been demonstrated to have any detectable effect, biological or otherwise.", "Existence of a pharmacological effect in the absence of any true active ingredient is inconsistent with the law of mass action and the observed dose-response relationships characteristic of therapeutic drugs.", "Homeopaths contend that their methods produce a therapeutically active preparation, selectively including only the intended substance, though in reality any water will have been in contact with millions of different substances throughout its history, and homeopaths cannot account for the selected homeopathic substance being isolated as a special case in their process.Practitioners also hold that higher dilutions produce stronger medicinal effects.", "This idea is also inconsistent with observed dose-response relationships, where effects are dependent on the concentration of the active ingredient in the body.", "Some contend that the phenomenon of hormesis may support the idea of dilution increasing potency, but the dose-response relationship outside the zone of hormesis declines with dilution as normal, and nonlinear pharmacological effects do not provide any credible support for homeopathy.===Efficacy===+ Explanations for efficacy of homeopathic preparations: The placebo effect The intensive consultation process and expectations for the homeopathic preparations may cause the effect Therapeutic effect of the consultation The care, concern, and reassurance a patient experiences when opening up to a compassionate caregiver can have a positive effect on the patient's well-being.", "Unassisted natural healing Time and the body's ability to heal without assistance can eliminate many diseases of their own accord.", "Unrecognized treatments An unrelated food, exercise, environmental agent, or treatment for a different ailment, may have occurred.", "Regression towards the mean Since many diseases or conditions are cyclical, symptoms vary over time and patients tend to seek care when discomfort is greatest; they may feel better anyway but because of the timing of the visit to the homeopath they attribute improvement to the preparation taken.", "Non-homeopathic treatment Patients may also receive standard medical care at the same time as homeopathic treatment, and the former is responsible for improvement.", "Cessation of unpleasant treatment Often homeopaths recommend patients stop getting medical treatment such as surgery or drugs, which can cause unpleasant side-effects; improvements are attributed to homeopathy when the actual cause is the cessation of the treatment causing side-effects in the first place, but the underlying disease remains untreated and still dangerous to the patient.No individual homeopathic preparation has been unambiguously shown by research to be different from placebo.", "The methodological quality of the early primary research was low, with problems such as weaknesses in study design and reporting, small sample size, and selection bias.", "Since better quality trials have become available, the evidence for efficacy of homeopathy preparations has diminished; the highest-quality trials indicate that the preparations themselves exert no intrinsic effect.", "A review conducted in 2010 of all the pertinent studies of \"best evidence\" produced by the Cochrane Collaboration concluded that \"the most reliable evidence – that produced by Cochrane reviews – fails to demonstrate that homeopathic medicines have effects beyond placebo.", "\"In 2009, the United Kingdom's House of Commons Science and Technology Committee concluded that there was no compelling evidence of effect other than placebo.", "The Australian National Health and Medical Research Council completed a comprehensive review of the effectiveness of homeopathic preparations in 2015, in which it concluded that \"there were no health conditions for which there was reliable evidence that homeopathy was effective.\"", "The European Academies' Science Advisory Council (EASAC) published its official analysis in 2017 finding a lack of evidence that homeopathic products are effective, and raising concerns about quality control.", "In contrast a 2011 book was published, purportedly financed by the Swiss government, that concluded that homeopathy was effective and cost efficient.", "Although hailed by proponents as proof that homeopathy works, it was found to be scientifically, logically and ethically flawed, with most authors having a conflict of interest.", "The Swiss Federal Office of Public Health later released a statement saying the book was published without the consent of the Swiss government.Meta-analyses, essential tools to summarize evidence of therapeutic efficacy, and systematic reviews have found that the methodological quality in the majority of randomized trials in homeopathy have shortcomings and that such trials were generally of lower quality than trials of conventional medicine.", "A major issue has been publication bias, where positive results are more likely to be published in journals.", "This has been particularly marked in alternative medicine journals, where few of the published articles (just 5% during the year 2000) tend to report null results.", "A systematic review of the available systematic reviews confirmed in 2002 that higher-quality trials tended to have less positive results, and found no convincing evidence that any homeopathic preparation exerts clinical effects different from placebo.", "The same conclusion was also reached in 2005 in a meta-analysis published in ''The Lancet''.", "A 2017 systematic review and meta-analysis found that the most reliable evidence did not support the effectiveness of non-individualized homeopathy.Health organizations, including the UK's National Health Service, the American Medical Association, the FASEB, and the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, have issued statements saying that there is no good-quality evidence that homeopathy is effective as a treatment for any health condition.", "In 2009, World Health Organization official Mario Raviglione criticized the use of homeopathy to treat tuberculosis; similarly, another WHO spokesperson argued there was no evidence homeopathy would be an effective treatment for diarrhoea.", "They warned against the use of homeopathy for serious conditions such as depression, HIV and malaria.", "The American College of Medical Toxicology and the American Academy of Clinical Toxicology recommend that no one use homeopathic treatment for disease or as a preventive health measure.", "These organizations report that no evidence exists that homeopathic treatment is effective, but that there is evidence that using these treatments produces harm and can bring indirect health risks by delaying conventional treatment.===Purported effects in other biological systems===While some articles have suggested that homeopathic solutions of high dilution can have statistically significant effects on organic processes including the growth of grain and enzyme reactions, such evidence is disputed since attempts to replicate them have failed.", "In 2001 and 2004, Madeleine Ennis published a number of studies that reported that homeopathic dilutions of histamine exerted an effect on the activity of basophils.", "In response to the first of these studies, ''Horizon'' aired a programme in which British scientists attempted to replicate Ennis' results; they were unable to do so.", "A 2007 systematic review of high-dilution experiments found that none of the experiments with positive results could be reproduced by all investigators.In 1988, French immunologist Jacques Benveniste published a paper in the journal ''Nature'' while working at INSERM.", "The paper purported to have discovered that basophils released histamine when exposed to a homeopathic dilution of anti-immunoglobulin E antibody.", "Skeptical of the findings, ''Nature'' assembled an independent investigative team to determine the accuracy of the research.", "After investigation the team found that the experiments were \"statistically ill-controlled\", \"interpretation has been clouded by the exclusion of measurements in conflict with the claim\", and concluded, \"We believe that experimental data have been uncritically assessed and their imperfections inadequately reported.\"" ], [ "Ethics and safety", "poison ivyThe provision of homeopathic preparations has been described as unethical.", "Michael Baum, professor emeritus of surgery and visiting professor of medical humanities at University College London (UCL), has described homeopathy as a \"cruel deception\".", "Edzard Ernst, the first professor of complementary medicine in the United Kingdom and a former homeopathic practitioner, has expressed his concerns about pharmacists who violate their ethical code by failing to provide customers with \"necessary and relevant information\" about the true nature of the homeopathic products they advertise and sell.", "In 2013 the UK Advertising Standards Authority concluded that the Society of Homeopaths were targeting vulnerable ill people and discouraging the use of essential medical treatment while making misleading claims of efficacy for homeopathic products.", "In 2015 the Federal Court of Australia imposed penalties on a homeopathic company for making false or misleading statements about the efficacy of the whooping cough vaccine and recommending homeopathic remedies as an alternative.belladonna preparation|alt=|leftA 2000 review by homeopaths reported that homeopathic preparations are \"unlikely to provoke severe adverse reactions\".", "In 2012, a systematic review evaluating evidence of homeopathy's possible adverse effects concluded that \"homeopathy has the potential to harm patients and consumers in both direct and indirect ways\".", "A 2016 systematic review and meta-analysis found that, in homeopathic clinical trials, adverse effects were reported among the patients who received homeopathy about as often as they were reported among patients who received placebo or conventional medicine.Some homeopathic preparations involve poisons such as Belladonna, arsenic, and poison ivy.", "In rare cases, the original ingredients are present at detectable levels.", "This may be due to improper preparation or intentional low dilution.", "Serious adverse effects such as seizures and death have been reported or associated with some homeopathic preparations.", "Instances of arsenic poisoning have occurred.", "In 2009, the FDA advised consumers to stop using three discontinued cold remedy Zicam products because it could cause permanent damage to users' sense of smell.", "In 2016 the FDA issued a safety alert to consumers warning against the use of homeopathic teething gels and tablets following reports of adverse events after their use.", "A previous FDA investigation had found that these products were improperly diluted and contained \"unsafe levels of belladonna\" and that the reports of serious adverse events in children using this product were \"consistent with belladonna toxicity\".Patients who choose to use homeopathy rather than evidence-based medicine risk missing timely diagnosis and effective treatment, thereby worsening the outcomes of serious conditions such as cancer.", "The Russian Commission on Pseudoscience has said homeopathy is not safe because \"patients spend significant amounts of money, buying medicines that do not work and disregard already known effective treatment.\"", "Critics have cited cases of patients failing to receive proper treatment for diseases that could have been easily managed with conventional medicine and who have died as a result.", "They have also condemned the \"marketing practice\" of criticizing and downplaying the effectiveness of medicine.", "Homeopaths claim that use of conventional medicines will \"push the disease deeper\" and cause more serious conditions, a process referred to as \"suppression\".", "In 1978, Anthony Campbell, a consultant physician at the Royal London Homeopathic Hospital, criticized statements by George Vithoulkas claiming that syphilis, when treated with antibiotics, would develop into secondary and tertiary syphilis with involvement of the central nervous system.", "Vithoulkas' claims echo the idea that treating a disease with external medication used to treat the symptoms would only drive it deeper into the body and conflict with scientific studies, which indicate that penicillin treatment produces a complete cure of syphilis in more than 90% of cases.The use of homeopathy as a preventive for serious infectious diseases, called homeoprophylaxis, is especially controversial.", "Some homeopaths (particularly those who are non-physicians) advise their patients against immunization.", "Others have suggested that vaccines be replaced with homeopathic \"nosodes\".", "While Hahnemann was opposed to such preparations, modern homeopaths often use them although there is no evidence to indicate they have any beneficial effects.", "Promotion of homeopathic alternatives to vaccines has been characterized as dangerous, inappropriate and irresponsible.", "In December 2014, the Australian homeopathy supplier Homeopathy Plus!", "was found to have acted deceptively in promoting homeopathic alternatives to vaccines.", "In 2019, an investigative journalism piece by the ''Telegraph'' revealed that homeopathy practitioners were actively discouraging patients from vaccinating their children.", "Cases of homeopaths advising against the use of anti-malarial drugs have also been identified, putting visitors to the tropics in severe danger.A 2006 review recommends that pharmacy colleges include a required course where ethical dilemmas inherent in recommending products lacking proven safety and efficacy data be discussed and that students should be taught where unproven systems such as homeopathy depart from evidence-based medicine." ], [ "Regulation and prevalence", "Hampton House, the former site of Bristol Homeopathic HospitalHomeopathy is fairly common in some countries while being uncommon in others; is highly regulated in some countries and mostly unregulated in others.", "It is practiced worldwide and professional qualifications and licences are needed in most countries.", "A 2019 WHO report found that 100 out of 133 Member States surveyed in 2012 acknowledged that their population used homeopathy, with 22 saying the practice was regulated and 13 providing health insurance coverage.", "In some countries, there are no specific legal regulations concerning the use of homeopathy, while in others, licences or degrees in conventional medicine from accredited universities are required.", "In 2001 homeopathy had been integrated into the national health care systems of many countries, including India, Mexico, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and the United Kingdom.=== Regulation ===Some homeopathic treatment is covered by the public health service of several European countries, including Scotland, and Luxembourg.", "It used to be covered in France until 2021.In other countries, such as Belgium, homeopathy is not covered.", "In Austria, the public health service requires scientific proof of effectiveness in order to reimburse medical treatments and homeopathy is listed as not reimbursable, but exceptions can be made; private health insurance policies sometimes include homeopathic treatments.", "In 2018, Austria's Medical University of Vienna stopped teaching homeopathy.", "The Swiss government withdrew coverage of homeopathy and four other complementary treatments in 2005, stating that they did not meet efficacy and cost-effectiveness criteria, but following a referendum in 2009 the five therapies were reinstated for a further 6-year trial period.", "In Germany, homeopathic treatments are covered by 70 percent of government medical plans, and available in almost every pharmacy.", "In January 2024, German health minister Karl Lauterbach announced plans to withdraw all statutory health insurance coverage for homeopathic and anthroposophic treatments, citing a lack of scientific evidence for their efficacy.", "The English NHS recommended against prescribing homeopathic preparations in 2017.In 2018, prescriptions worth £55,000 were written in defiance of the guidelines, representing less than 0.001% of the total NHS prescribing budget.", "In 2016 the UK's Committee of Advertising Practice compliance team wrote to homeopaths in the UK to \"remind them of the rules that govern what they can and can't say in their marketing materials\".", "The letter told homeopaths to \"ensure that they do not make any direct or implied claims that homeopathy can treat medical conditions\" and asks them to review their marketing communications \"including websites and social media pages\" to ensure compliance.", "Homeopathic services offered at Bristol Homeopathic Hospital in the UK ceased in October 2015.Member states of the European Union are required to ensure that homeopathic products are registered, although this process does not require any proof of efficacy.", "In Spain, the Association for the protection of patients from pseudo-scientific therapies is lobbying to get rid of the easy registration procedure for homeopathic remedies.", "In Bulgaria, Hungary, Latvia, Romania and Slovenia homeopathy, by law, can only be practiced by medical practitioners.", "However, in Slovenia if doctors practice homeopathy their medical license will be revoked.", "In Germany, to become a homeopathic physician, one must attend a three-year training program, while France, Austria and Denmark mandate licences to diagnose any illness or dispense of any product whose purpose is to treat any illness.", "Homeopaths in the UK are under no legal regulations, meaning anyone can call themselves homeopaths and administer homeopathic remedies.Homeopathics at a homeopathic pharmacy in Varanasi, IndiaHomeopathic medicines at a store in West Bengal, IndiaThe Indian government recognizes homeopathy as one of its national systems of medicine and they are sold with medical claims.", "It has established the Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy (AYUSH) under the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare.", "The south Indian state of Kerala also has a cabinet-level AYUSH department.", "The Central Council of Homoeopathy was established in 1973 to monitor higher education in homeopathy, and the National Institute of Homoeopathy in 1975.Principals and standards for homeopathic products are covered by the ''Homoeopathic pharmacopoeia of India''.", "A minimum of a recognized diploma in homeopathy and registration on a state register or the Central Register of Homoeopathy is required to practice homeopathy in India.Some medical schools in Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh, offer an undergraduate degree programme in homeopathy.", "Upon completion the college may award a '''' (''B.H.M.S.", "'').In the United States each state is responsible for the laws and licensing requirements for homeopathy.", "In 2015, the FDA held a hearing on homeopathic product regulation.", "At the hearing, representatives from the Center for Inquiry and the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry summarized the harm that is done to the general public from homeopathics and proposed regulatory actions: In 2016 the United States Federal Trade Commission (FTC) issued an \"Enforcement Policy Statement Regarding Marketing Claims for Over-the-Counter Homeopathic Drugs\" which specified that the FTC will apply the same standard to homeopathic drugs that it applies to other products claiming similar benefits.", "A related report concluded that claims of homeopathy effectiveness \"are not accepted by most modern medical experts and do not constitute competent and reliable scientific evidence that these products have the claimed treatment effects.\"", "In 2019, the FDA removed an enforcement policy that permitted unapproved homeopathics to be sold.", "Currently no homeopathic products are approved by the FDA.Homeopathic remedies are regulated as natural health products in Canada.", "Ontario became the first province in the country to regulate the practice of homeopathy, a move that was widely criticized by scientists and doctors.", "Health Canada requires all products to have a licence before being sold and applicants have to submit evidence on \"the safety, efficacy and quality of a homeopathic medicine\".", "In 2015 the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation tested the system by applying for and then receiving a government approved licence for a made-up drug aimed at kids.In Australia, the sale of homeopathic products is regulated by the Therapeutic Goods Administration.", "In 2015, the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia concluded that there is \"no reliable evidence that homeopathy is effective and should not be used to treat health conditions that are chronic, serious, or could become serious\".", "They recommended anyone considering using homeopathy should first get advice from a registered health practitioner.", "A 2017 review into Pharmacy Remuneration and Regulation recommended that products be banned from pharmacies; while noting the concerns the government did not adopt the recommendation.", "In New Zealand there are no regulations specific to homeopathy and the New Zealand Medical Association does not oppose the use of homeopathy, a stance that has been called unethical by some doctors.=== Prevalence ===Homeopathy is one of the most commonly used forms of alternative medicines and it has a large worldwide market.", "The exact size is uncertain, but information available on homeopathic sales suggests it forms a large share of the medical market.In 1999, about 1000 UK doctors practiced homeopathy, most being general practitioners who prescribe a limited number of remedies.", "A further 1500 homeopaths with no medical training are also thought to practice.", "Over ten thousand German and French doctors use homeopathy.", "In the United States a National Health Interview Survey estimated 5 million adults and 1 million children used homeopathy in 2011.An analysis of this survey concluded that most cases were self-prescribed for colds and musculoskeletal pain.", "Major retailers like Walmart, CVS, and Walgreens sell homeopathic products that are packaged to resemble conventional medicines.The homeopathic drug market in Germany is worth about 650 million euro with a 2014 survey finding that 60 percent of Germans reported trying homeopathy.", "A 2009 survey found that only 17 percent of respondents knew how homeopathic medicine was made.", "France spent more than US$408 million on homeopathic products in 2008.In the United States the homeopathic market is worth about $3 billion-a-year; with 2.9 billion spent in 2007.Australia spent US$7.3 million on homeopathic medicines in 2008.In India, a 2014 national health survey found that homeopathy was used by about 3% of the population.", "Homeopathy is used in China, although it arrived a lot later than in many other countries, partly due to the restriction on foreigners that persisted until late in the nineteenth century.", "Throughout Africa there is a high reliance on traditional medicines, which can be attributed to the cost of modern medicines and the relative prevalence of practitioners.", "Many African countries do not have any official training facilities." ], [ "Veterinary use", "Homeopathic cures for small animals on the Isle of ManUsing homeopathy as a treatment for animals is termed \"veterinary homeopathy\" and dates back to the inception of homeopathy; Hahnemann himself wrote and spoke of the use of homeopathy in animals other than humans.", "The use of homeopathy in the organic farming industry is heavily promoted.", "Given that homeopathy's effects in humans are due to the placebo effect and the counseling aspects of the consultation, such treatments are even less effective in animals.", "Studies have also found that giving animals placebos can play active roles in influencing pet owners to believe in the effectiveness of the treatment when none exists.", "This means that animals given homeopathic remedies will continue to suffer, resulting in animal welfare concerns.Little existing research on the subject is of a high enough scientific standard to provide reliable data on efficacy.", "A 2016 review of peer-reviewed articles from 1981 to 2014 by scientists from the University of Kassel, Germany, concluded that there is not enough evidence to support homeopathy as an effective treatment of infectious diseases in livestock.", "The UK's Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) has adopted a robust position against use of \"alternative\" pet preparations including homeopathy.", "The British Veterinary Association's position statement on alternative medicines says that it \"cannot endorse\" homeopathy, and the Australian Veterinary Association includes it on its list of \"ineffective therapies\"." ], [ "See also", "* Fringe science* List of topics characterized as pseudoscience* Scientific skepticism" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Homeopathy (NHS Choices, UK)" ] ]
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[ [ "Hairpin" ], [ "Introduction", "A bobby pin or hair grip, a type of hairpinHairpins (around 600 BC)A golden double-spiral-headed pin from Georgia (3rd millennium BC)A '''hairpin''' or '''hair pin''' is a long device used to hold a person's hair in place.", "It may be used simply to secure long hair out of the way for convenience or as part of an elaborate hairstyle or coiffure.", "The earliest evidence for dressing the hair may be seen in carved \"Venus figurines\" such as the Venus of Brassempouy and the Venus of Willendorf.", "The creation of different hairstyles, especially among women, seems to be common to all cultures and all periods and many past, and current, societies use hairpins.Hairpins made of metal, ivory, bronze, carved wood, etc.", "were used in ancient Egypt.", "for securing decorated hairstyles.", "Such hairpins suggest, as graves show, that many were luxury objects among the Egyptians and later the Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans.", "Major success came in 1901 with the invention of the spiral hairpin by New Zealand inventor Ernest Godward.", "This was a predecessor of the hair clip.The hairpin may be decorative and encrusted with jewels and ornaments, or it may be utilitarian, and designed to be almost invisible while holding a hairstyle in place.", "Some hairpins are a single straight pin, but modern versions are more likely to be constructed from different lengths of wire that are bent in half with a u-shaped end and a few kinks along the two opposite portions.", "The finished pin may vary from two to six inches in last length.", "The length of the wires enables placement in several designs of hairstyles to hold the nature in place.", "The kinks enable retaining the pin during normal movements.A hairpin patent was issued to Kelly Chamandy in 1925." ], [ "Hairpins in Chinese culture", "phoenix hairpin found in the Ming dynasty tomb of Prince Chuang of Liang (梁莊王, 1411–1441), 15th century.Hairpins (generally known as ; ) are an important symbol in Chinese culture.", "In ancient China, hairpins were worn by men as well as women, and they were essential items for everyday hairstyling, mainly for securing and decorating a hair bun.", "Furthermore, hairpins worn by women could also represent their social status.In Han Chinese culture, when young girls reached the age of fifteen, they were allowed to take part in a rite of passage known as (), or \"hairpin initiation\".", "This ceremony marked the coming of age of young women.", "Particularly, before the age of fifteen, girls did not use hairpins as they wore their hair in braids, and they were considered as children.", "When they turned fifteen, they could be considered as young women after the ceremony, and they started to style their hair as buns secured and embellished by hairpins.", "This practice indicated that these young women could now enter into marriage.", "However, if a young woman had not been consented to marriage before age twenty, or she had not yet participated in a coming of age ceremony, she would attend a ceremony when she turned twenty.In comparison with , the male equivalent known as () or \"hat initiation\", usually took place five years later, at the age of twenty.", "In the 21st century hanfu movement, an attempt to revive the traditional Han Chinese coming-of-age ceremonies has been made, and the ideal age to attend the ceremony is twenty years old for all genders.While hairpins can symbolize the transition from childhood to adulthood, they were closely connected to the concept of marriage as well.", "At the time of an engagement, the fiancée may take a hairpin from her hair and give it to her fiancé as a pledge: this can be seen as a reversal of the Western tradition, in which the future groom presents an engagement ring to his betrothed.", "After the wedding ceremony, the husband should put the hairpin back into his spouse's hair.Hair has always carried many psychological, philosophical, romantic, and cultural meanings in Chinese culture.", "In Han culture, people call the union between two people (), literally \"tying hair\".", "During the wedding ceremony, some Chinese couples exchange a lock of hair as a pledge, while others break a hairpin into two parts, and then, each of the betrothed take one part with them for keeping.", "If this couple were ever to get separated in the future, when they reunite, they can piece the two halves together, and the completed hairpin would serve as a proof of their identities as well as a symbol of their reunion.", "In addition, a married couple is sometimes referred to as (), an idiom which implies the relationship between the pair is very intimate and happy, just like how their hair has been tied together." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Hairpin, China, Tang dynasty, 618-907, silver, gilt - Royal Ontario Museum - DSC04137.JPG|Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907) hairpinFile:Ming Dynasty Silver-gilt Hairpin 6.jpg|Chinese Ming dynasty (1368–1644) hairpinFile:Ming Dynasty Silver-gilt Hairpin 7.jpg|Chinese Ming dynasty (1368–1644) hairpinFile:Tomb of Prince Chuang of Liang (梁莊王) - Hairpins 1.jpg|Chinese Ming dynasty hairpins, 15th centuryFile:Tomb of Prince Chuang of Liang (梁莊王) - Hairpins 2.jpg|Chinese Ming dynasty hairpins, 15th centuryFile:Kanzashi1.jpg|Japanese , period unknownFile:Hairpins moscow.jpg|Russian hairpins from Moscow, probably 18th or 19th centuryFile:Modern U-shaped hairpin.jpg|Modern U-shaped hairpin made out of plastic-coated metal" ], [ "See also", "*Bobby pin*Hair stick*Hatpin*Hair clip*" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hate speech" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Hate speech''' is a legal term with varied meaning.", "It has no single, consistent definition.", "It is defined by the ''Cambridge Dictionary'' as \"public speech that expresses hate or encourages violence towards a person or group based on something such as race, religion, sex, or sexual orientation\".", "The ''Encyclopedia of the American Constitution'' states that hate speech is \"usually thought to include communications of animosity or disparagement of an individual or a group on account of a group characteristic such as race, color, national origin, sex, disability, religion, or sexual orientation\".", "There is no single definition of what constitutes \"hate\" or \"disparagement\".", "Legal definitions of hate speech vary from country to country.There has been much debate over freedom of speech, hate speech, and hate speech legislation.", "The laws of some countries describe hate speech as speech, gestures, conduct, writing, or displays that incite violence or prejudicial actions against a group or individuals on the basis of their membership in the group, or that disparage or intimidate a group or individuals on the basis of their membership in the group.", "The law may identify protected groups based on certain characteristics.", "In some countries, hate speech is not a legal term.", "Additionally, in some countries, including the United States, much of what falls under the category of \"hate speech\" is constitutionally protected.", "In other countries, a victim of hate speech may seek redress under civil law, criminal law, or both.Hate speech is generally accepted to be one of the prerequisites for mass atrocities such as genocide.", "Incitement to genocide is an extreme form of hate speech, and has been prosecuted in international courts such as the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda." ], [ "History", "Starting in the 1940s and 50s, various American civil rights groups responded to the atrocities of World War II by advocating for restrictions on hateful speech targeting groups on the basis of race and religion.", "These organizations used group libel as a legal framework for describing the violence of hate speech and addressing its harm.", "In his discussion of the history of criminal libel, scholar Jeremy Waldron states that these laws helped \"vindicate public order, not just by preempting violence, but by upholding against attack a shared sense of the basic elements of each person's status, dignity, and reputation as a citizen or member of society in good standing\".", "A key legal victory for this view came in 1952 when group libel law was affirmed by the United States Supreme Court in Beauharnais v. Illinois.", "However, the group libel approach lost ground due to a rise in support for individual rights within civil rights movements during the 60s.", "Critiques of group defamation laws are not limited to defenders of individual rights.", "Some legal theorists, such as critical race theorist Richard Delgado, support legal limits on hate speech, but claim that defamation is too narrow a category to fully counter hate speech.", "Ultimately, Delgado advocates a legal strategy that would establish a specific section of tort law for responding to racist insults, citing the difficulty of receiving redress under the existing legal system." ], [ "Hate speech laws", "After WWII, Germany criminalized Volksverhetzung (\"incitement of popular hatred\") to prevent resurgence of Nazism.", "Hate speech on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity also is banned in Germany.", "Most European countries have likewise implemented various laws and regulations regarding hate speech, and the European Union's Framework Decision 2008/913/JHA requires member states to criminalize hate crimes and speech (though individual implementation and interpretation of this framework varies by state).International human rights laws from the United Nations Human Rights Committee have been protecting freedom of expression, and one of the most fundamental documents is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) drafted by the U.N. General Assembly in 1948.Article 19 of the UDHR states that \"Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.", "\"While there are fundamental laws in place designed to protect freedom of expression, there are also multiple international laws that expand on the UDHR and pose limitations and restrictions, specifically concerning the safety and protection of individuals.", "* The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) was the first to address hate speech and the need to establish legislation prohibiting inflammatory types of language.", "** The CERD addresses hate speech through the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD) and monitors its implementation by State parties.", "* Article 19(3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) permits restrictions on the human right of freedom of expression only when provided by law, and when necessary to protect \"rights or reputations of others\", or for \"protection of national security or of public order (''ordre public''), or of public health or morals\".", "* Article 20(2) of the ICCPR prohibits national, religious, or racial hatred that incites violence, discrimination, or hostility.", "A majority of developed democracies have laws that restrict hate speech, including Australia, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, India, South Africa, Sweden, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom.", "In the United Kingdom, Article 10 of the Human Rights Act 1998 expands on the UDHR, stating that restrictions on freedom of expression would be permitted when it threatens national security, incites racial or religious hatred, causes individual harm on health or morals, or threatens the rights and reputations of individuals.", "The United States does not have hate speech laws, since the U.S. Supreme Court has repeatedly ruled that laws criminalizing hate speech violate the guarantee to freedom of speech contained in the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.", "Laws against hate speech can be divided into two types: those intended to preserve public order and those intended to protect human dignity.", "The laws designed to protect public order require that a higher threshold be violated, so they are not often enforced.", "For example, a 1992 study found that only one person was prosecuted in Northern Ireland in the preceding 21 years for violating a law against incitement to religious violence.", "The laws meant to protect human dignity have a much lower threshold for violation, so those in Canada, Denmark, France, Germany and the Netherlands tend to be more frequently enforced." ], [ "State-sanctioned hate speech", "A few states, including Saudi Arabia, Iran, Rwanda Hutu factions, actors in the Yugoslav Wars and Ethiopia have been described as spreading official hate speech or incitement to genocide." ], [ "Internet", "The rise of the internet and social media has presented a new medium through which hate speech can spread.", "Hate speech on the internet traces all the way back to its initial years, with a 1983 bulletin board system created by neo-Nazi George Dietz considered the first instance of hate speech online.", "As the internet evolved over time hate speech continued to spread and create it's footprint; the first hate speech website Stormfront was published in 1996, and hate speech has become one of the central challenges for social media platforms.The structure and nature of the internet contribute to both the creation and persistence of hate speech online.", "The widespread use and access to the internet gives hate mongers an easy way to spread their message to wide audiences with little cost and effort.", "According to the International Telecommunication Union, approximately 66% of the world population has access to the internet.", "Additionally, the pseudo-anonymous nature of the internet imboldens many to make statements constituting hate speech that they otherwise wouldn't for fear of social or real life repercussions.", "While some governments and companies attempt to combat this type of behavior by leveraging real name systems, difficulties in verifying identities online, public opposition to such policies, and sites that don't enforce these policies leave large spaces for this behavior to persist.", "Because the internet crosses national borders, comprehensive government regulations on online hate speech can be difficult to implement and enforce.", "Governments who want to regulate hate speech contend with issues around lack of jurisdiction and conflicting viewpoints from other countries.", "In an early example of this, the case of ''Yahoo!", "Inc. v. La Ligue Contre Le Racisme et l'Antisemitisme'' had a French court hold Yahoo!", "liable for allowing Nazi memorabilia auctions to be visible to the public.", "Yahoo!", "Refused to comply with the ruling and ultimately won relief in a U.S. court which found that the ruling was unenforceable in the U.S.", "Disagreements like these make national level regulations difficult, and while there are some international efforts and laws that attempt to regulate hate speech and its online presence, as with most as with most international agreements the implementation and interpretation of these treaties varies by country.Much of the regulation regarding online hate speech is performed voluntarily by individual companies.", "Many major tech companies have adopted terms of service which outline allowed content on their platform, often banning hate speech.", "In a notable step for this, on 31 May 2016, Facebook, Google, Microsoft, and Twitter, jointly agreed to a European Union code of conduct obligating them to review \"the majority of valid notifications for removal of illegal hate speech\" posted on their services within 24 hours.", "Techniques employed by these companies to regulate hate speech include user reporting, Artificial Intelligence flagging, and manual review of content by employees.", "Major search engines like Google Search also tweak their algorithms to try and suppress hateful content from appearing in their results.", "However, despite these efforts hate speech remains a persistent problem online.", "According to a 2021 study by the Anti Defamation League 33% of Americans were the target of identity based harassment in the preceding year, a statistic which has not noticeably shifted downwards despite increasing self regulation by companies." ], [ "Commentary", "Several activists and scholars have criticized the practice of limiting hate speech.", "Civil liberties activist Nadine Strossen says that, while efforts to censor hate speech have the goal of protecting the most vulnerable, they are ineffective and may have the opposite effect: disadvantaged and ethnic minorities being charged with violating laws against hate speech.", "Kim Holmes, Vice President of the conservative Heritage Foundation and a critic of hate speech theory, has argued that it \"assumes bad faith on the part of people regardless of their stated intentions\" and that it \"obliterates the ethical responsibility of the individual\".", "Rebecca Ruth Gould, a professor of Islamic and Comparative Literature at the University of Birmingham, argues that laws against hate speech constitute viewpoint discrimination (which is prohibited by the First Amendment in the United States) as the legal system punishes some viewpoints but not others.", "Other scholars, such as Gideon Elford, argue instead that \"insofar as hate speech regulation targets the consequences of speech that are contingently connected with the substance of what is expressed then it is viewpoint discriminatory in only an indirect sense.\"", "John Bennett argues that restricting hate speech relies on questionable conceptual and empirical foundations and is reminiscent of efforts by totalitarian regimes to control the thoughts of their citizens.Miisa Kreandner and Eriz Henze argue that hate speech laws are arbitrary, as they only protect some categories of people but not others.", "Henze argues the only way to resolve this problem without abolishing hate speech laws would be to extend them to all possible conceivable categories, which Henze argues would amount to totalitarian control over speech.", "Michael Conklin argues that there are benefits to hate speech that are often overlooked.", "He contends that allowing hate speech provides a more accurate view of the human condition, provides opportunities to change people's minds, and identifies certain people that may need to be avoided in certain circumstances.", "According to one psychological research study, a high degree of psychopathy is \"a significant predictor\" for involvement in online hate activity, while none of the other 7 potential factors examined were found to have a statistically significant predictive power.Political philosopher Jeffrey W. Howard considers the popular framing of hate speech as \"free speech vs. other political values\" as a mischaracterization.", "He refers to this as the \"balancing model\", and says it seeks to weigh the benefit of free speech against other values such as dignity and equality for historically marginalized groups.", "Instead, he believes that the crux of debate should be whether or not freedom of expression is inclusive of hate speech.", "Research indicates that when people support censoring hate speech, they are motivated more by concerns about the effects the speech has on others than they are about its effects on themselves.", "Women are somewhat more likely than men to support censoring hate speech due to greater perceived harm of hate speech, which some researchers believe may be due to gender differences in empathy towards targets of hate speech." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* TANDIS (Tolerance and Non-Discrimination Information System), developed by the OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights* Reconciling Rights and Responsibilities of Colleges and Students: Offensive Speech, Assembly, Drug Testing and Safety* From Discipline to Development: Rethinking Student Conduct in Higher Education* Sexual Minorities on Community College Campuses* The Foundation for Individual Rights in Education* Activities to tackle Hate speech* Survivor bashing – bias motivated hate crimes* \"Striking the right balance\" by Agnès Callamard, for Article 19* Hate speech, a factsheet by the European Court of Human Rights, 2015* Recommendation No.", "R (97) 20 Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe 1997" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Henrik Ibsen" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Henrik Johan Ibsen''' (; ; 20 March 1828 – 23 May 1906) was a Norwegian playwright and theatre director.", "As one of the founders of modernism in theatre, Ibsen is often referred to as \"the father of realism\" and one of the most influential playwrights of his time, as well of one of the most influential playwrights in Western literature more generally.", "His major works include ''Brand'', ''Peer Gynt'', ''An Enemy of the People'', ''Emperor and Galilean'', ''A Doll's House'', ''Hedda Gabler'', ''Ghosts'', ''The Wild Duck'', ''When We Dead Awaken'', ''Rosmersholm'', and ''The Master Builder''.", "Ibsen is the most frequently performed dramatist in the world after Shakespeare, and ''A Doll's House'' was the world's most performed play in 2006.Ibsen's early poetic and cinematic play ''Peer Gynt'' has strong surreal elements.", "After ''Peer Gynt'' Ibsen abandoned verse and wrote in realistic prose.", "Several of his later dramas were considered scandalous to many of his era, when European theatre was expected to model strict morals of family life and propriety.", "Ibsen's later work examined the realities that lay behind the façades, revealing much that was disquieting to a number of his contemporaries.", "He had a critical eye and conducted a free inquiry into the conditions of life and issues of morality.", "In many critics' estimates ''The Wild Duck'' and ''Rosmersholm'' are \"vying with each other as rivals for the top place among Ibsen's works\"; Ibsen himself regarded ''Emperor and Galilean'' as his masterpiece.Ibsen is often ranked as one of the most distinguished playwrights in the European tradition, and is widely regarded as the foremost playwright of the nineteenth century.", "He influenced other playwrights and novelists such as George Bernard Shaw, Oscar Wilde, Harley Granville Barker, Arthur Miller, Marguerite Yourcenar, James Joyce, Eugene O'Neill, and Jon Fosse.", "Ibsen was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1902, 1903, and 1904.Ibsen was born into the merchant elite of the port town of Skien and grew up as a member of the Ibsen–Paus extended family.", "Through the Paus family, Ibsen's parents were raised as social \"near-siblings.\"", "Although most of Ibsen's plays are set in Norway—often in places reminiscent of Skien—Ibsen lived for 27 years in Italy and Germany and rarely visited Norway during his most productive years.", "Ibsen's dramas were informed by his background, and he often modelled or named characters after family members.", "Ibsen wrote his plays in Dano-Norwegian, and they were published by the Danish publisher Gyldendal.", "He was the father of Prime Minister Sigurd Ibsen." ], [ "Early life and background", "===Family and childhood===''Charitas'', the ship captained by Henrik's grandfather of the same name when he died at sea outside Grimstad in 1797.The Dannebrog was the common flag of Denmark–Norway.Henrik Johan Ibsen was born on 20 March 1828 in ''Stockmanngården'' into an affluent merchant family in the prosperous port town of Skien in Bratsberg (Telemark).", "He was the son of the merchant Knud Plesner Ibsen (1797–1877) and Marichen Cornelia Martine Altenburg (1799–1869), and he grew up as a member of the Ibsen–Paus extended family, which consisted of the siblings Ole and and their tightly knit families.", "Ibsen's ancestors were primarily merchants and shipowners in cities such as Skien and Bergen, or members of the \"aristocracy of officials\" of Upper Telemark, the region's civil servant elite.", "Henrik Ibsen later wrote that \"my parents were members on both sides of the most respected families in Skien\", and that he was closely related to \"just about all the patrician families who then dominated the place and its surroundings.\"", "He was baptised at home in the Lutheran state church—membership of which was mandatory—on 28 March and the baptism was confirmed in on 19 June.", "When Ibsen was born, Skien had for centuries been one of Norway's most important and internationally oriented cities, and a centre of seafaring, timber exports and early industrialization that had made Norway the developed and prosperous part of Denmark–Norway.A silhouette (ca.", "1820) of the Altenburg/Paus family in Altenburggården, with Ibsen's mother (far right), maternal grandparents (centre) and other relatives.", "It is the only existing portrait of either of Ibsen's parents.Ibsen's parents, Knud and Marichen, grew up as close relatives, sometimes referred to as \"near-siblings,\" and both belonged to the tightly intertwined Paus family at the Rising estate and in Altenburggården – that is, the extended family of the sibling pair Ole Paus (1766–1855) and (1763–1848).", "After Knud's father Henrich Johan Ibsen (1765–1797) died at sea when Knud was newborn in 1797, his mother Johanne Plesner (1770–1847) married captain Ole Paus (1766–1855) the following year.", "Like Henrich Johan Ibsen before him, Paus thus became the brother-in-law of Skien's wealthiest man, Diderik von Cappelen.", "In 1799, Ole Paus sold the Ibsen House in Skien's Løvestrædet (Lion's Street), which he had inherited from his wife's first husband, and bought the estate Rising outside Skien from a sister of his brother-in-law von Cappelen.", "Knud grew up at Rising with most of his many half-siblings, among them the later governor Christian Cornelius Paus and the shipowner Christopher Blom Paus.", "In the 1801 census the Paus family of Rising had seven servants.", "Marichen grew up in the stately Altenburggården in the center of Skien with her parents Hedevig Paus and Johan Andreas Altenburg.", "Altenburg was a shipowner, timber merchant, and owned a large liquor distillery at Lundetangen and a farm outside of town, and after his death, Hedevig took over the business in 1824.The siblings Ole and Hedevig Paus were born in Lårdal in Upper Telemark, where the Paus family belonged to the region's elite, the \"aristocracy of officials,\" and had moved to Skien at a young age with their oldest sister, joining Skien's merchant elite with the support of their relatives in the family Blom.", "The children from Ole's and Hedevig's homes maintained close contact throughout Knud's and Marichen's childhood; notably, Ole's oldest son, Knud's half-brother Henrik Johan Paus, was raised in Hedevig's home.", "Older Ibsen scholars have claimed that Henrik Ibsen was fascinated by his parents' \"strange, almost incestuous marriage\", and he would treat the subject of incestuous relationships in several plays, notably in his masterpiece ''Rosmersholm''.", "On the other hand, Jørgen Haave points out that his parents' close relationship was not that unusual among the Skien elite.The roof and one of the windows of Altenburggården can be seen in the middle of the picture.", "Altenburggården was Marichen Altenburg's childhood home, and Henrik Ibsen lived there aged 3–8.Venstøp outside Skien, originally the Ibsen family's summer house, where they lived permanently 1836–1843.It was a reasonably large farm with large, representative buildings.In 1825, Henrik's father Knud acquired the burghership of Skien and established an independent business as a timber and luxury goods merchant there, with his younger brother, Christopher Blom Paus, then aged 15, as his apprentice.", "The two brothers moved into the Stockmanngården building, where they rented a part of the building and lived with a maid.", "On the first floor the brothers sold foreign wines and a variety of luxury items, while also engaging in wholesale export of timber in cooperation with their first cousin Diderik von Cappelen (1795–1866).", "On 1 December 1825, Knud married his stepfather's niece Marichen, who then moved in with them.", "Henrik was born there in 1828.In 1830, Marichen's mother Hedevig left Altenburggården and her properties and business ventures to her son-in-law Knud, and the Ibsen family moved to Marichen's childhood home in 1831.During the 1820s and 1830s, Knud was a wealthy young merchant in Skien, and he was the city's 16th largest taxpayer in 1833.In his unfinished biography ''From Skien to Rome,'' Henrik Ibsen wrote about the Skien of his childhood:Haave writes that the sources who knew Henrik in childhood described him as \"a boy who was pampered by his father, who enjoyed being creative in solitude, and who provoked peers with his superiority and arrogance.\"", "Henrik engaged in model theater, which was particularly popular among boys from bourgeois homes in Europe in the early 1800s.", "In contrast to his sociable and playful father, Henrik was described as a more introverted personality; Johan Kielland Bergwitz claimed that \"it is with the Paus family that Henrik Ibsen has the most pronounced temperament traits in common.\"", "One of the Cudrio sisters from the neighboring farm, who knew him in childhood, said, \"he was immensely cunning and malicious, and he even beat us.", "But when he grew up, he became incredibly handsome, yet no one liked him because he was so malicious.", "No one wanted to be with him.", "\"When Henrik Ibsen was around seven years old, his father's fortunes took a turn for the worse, and in 1835 the family was forced to sell Altenburggården.", "The following year they moved to their stately summer house, '''', outside of the city.", "They were still relatively affluent, had servants, and socialised with other members of the Skien elite, e.g.", "through lavish parties; their closest neighbours on Southern Venstøp were former shipowner and mayor of Skien Ulrich Frederik Cudrio and his family, who also had been forced to sell their townhouse.", "In 1843, after Henrik left home, the Ibsen family moved to a townhouse at Snipetorp, owned by Knud Ibsen's half-brother and former apprentice Christopher Blom Paus, who had established himself as an independent merchant in Skien in 1836 and who eventually became one of the city's leading shipowners.", "Knud continued to struggle to maintain his business and had some success in the 1840s, but in the 1850s his business ventures and professional activities came to an end, and he became reliant on support from his successful younger half-brothers.===Myths and reassessment===Ibsen scholar Ellen Rees notes that historical and biographical research into Ibsen’s life in the 21st century has been marked by a \"revolution\" that has debunked numerous myths previously taken for granted.", "Older Ibsen historiography has often claimed that Knud Ibsen experienced financial ruin and became an alcoholic tyrant, that the family lost contact with the elite it had belonged to, and that this had a strong influence on Henrik Ibsen's biography and work.", "Newer Ibsen scholarship, in particular Jørgen Haave's book ''The Ibsen Family'' (''Familien Ibsen''), has refuted such claims, and Haave has pointed out that older biographical works have uncritically repeated numerous unfounded myths about both of Ibsen's parents, and about the playwright's childhood and background in general.Haave points out that Knud Ibsen's economic problems in the 1830s were mainly the result of the difficult times and something the Ibsen family had in common with most members of the bourgeoisie; Haave further argues that Henrik Ibsen had a happy and comfortable childhood as a member of the upper class, even after the family moved to Venstøp, and that they were able to maintain their lifestyle and patrician identity with the help of their extended family and accumulated cultural capital.", "Contrary to the incorrect claims that Ibsen had been born in a small or remote town, Haave points out that Skien had been Eastern Norway's leading commercial city for centuries, and a centre of seafaring, timber exports, and early industrialization that had made Norway the developed and prosperous part of Denmark–Norway.Rees characterizes Ibsen's family as upper class rather than middle class, and part of \"the closest thing Norway had to an aristocracy, albeit one that lost most of its power during his lifetime.\"", "Haave points out that virtually all of Ibsen's ancestors had been wealthy burghers and higher government officials, and members of the local and regional elites in the areas they lived, often of continental European ancestry.", "He argues that \"the Ibsen family belonged to an elite that distanced itself strongly from the common farmer population, and considered itself part of an educated European culture\" and that \"it was this patrician class that formed his cultural identity and upbringing.\"", "Haave points to many examples of both Henrik Ibsen and other members of his family having a condescending attitude towards common Norwegian farmers, viewing them as \"some sort of primitive indigenous population,\" and being very conscious of their own identity as members of the sophisticated upper class.", "Haave points out that Ibsen's most immediate family—Knud, Marichen and Henrik's siblings—disintegrated financially and socially in the 1850s, but that it happened after Henrik had left home, at a time when he was establishing himself as a successful man of theatre, while his extended family, such as his uncles Henrik Johan Paus, Christian Cornelius Paus and Christopher Blom Paus, were firmly established in Skien's elite as lawyers, government officials and wealthy shipowners.", "Haave argues that the story of the Ibsen family is the story of the slow collapse of a patrician merchant family amid the emergence of a new democratic society in the 19th century, and that Henrik Ibsen, like others of his class, had to find new opportunities to maintain his social position.===Literary influence of his childhood===Many Ibsen scholars have compared characters and themes in his plays to his family and upbringing; his themes often deal with issues of financial difficulty as well as moral conflicts stemming from dark secrets hidden from society.", "Ibsen himself confirmed that he both modeled and named characters in his plays after his own family.", "Works such as ''Peer Gynt'', ''The Wild Duck'', ''Rosmersholm'', ''Hedda Gabler'', ''An Enemy of the People,'' and ''Ghosts'' include numerous references to Ibsen's relatives, family history, and childhood memories.", "However, despite Ibsen's use of his family as an inspiration for his plays, Haave criticizes the uncritical use of Ibsen's dramas as biographical sources and the \"naive\" readings of them as literal representations of his family members, in particular his father." ], [ "Early career", "===Grimstad years===At fifteen, Ibsen left school.", "He moved to the small town of Grimstad to become an apprentice pharmacist.", "At that time he began writing plays.", "In 1846, when Ibsen was 18, he had a liaison with Else Sophie Jensdatter Birkedalen which produced a son, Hans Jacob Hendrichsen Birkdalen, whose upbringing Ibsen paid for until the boy was fourteen, though Ibsen never saw the child.", "Ibsen went to Christiania (later spelled Kristiania and then renamed Oslo) intending to matriculate at the university.", "He soon rejected the idea (his earlier attempts at entering university were blocked as he did not pass all his entrance exams), preferring to commit himself to writing.", "His first play, the tragedy ''Catilina'' (1850), was published under the pseudonym \"Brynjolf Bjarme\", when he was only 22, but it was not performed.", "His first play to be staged, ''The Burial Mound'' (1850), received little attention.", "Still, Ibsen was determined to be a playwright, although the numerous plays he wrote in the following years remained unsuccessful.", "Ibsen's main inspiration in the early period, right up to ''Peer Gynt'', was apparently the Norwegian author Henrik Wergeland and the Norwegian folk tales as collected by Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe.", "In Ibsen's youth, Wergeland was the most acclaimed, and by far the most read, Norwegian poet and playwright.===Ibsen as a theatre director===Ibsen spent the next several years employed at Det norske Theater (Bergen), where he was involved in the production of more than 145 plays as a writer, director, and producer.", "During this period, he published five new—though largely unremarkable—plays.", "Despite Ibsen's failure to achieve success as a playwright, he gained a great deal of practical experience at the Norwegian Theater, experience that was to prove valuable when he continued writing.Ibsen returned to Christiania in 1858 to become the creative director of the Christiania Theatre.", "He married Suzannah Thoresen on 18 June 1858 and she gave birth to their only child Sigurd on 23 December 1859.The couple lived in difficult financial circumstances and Ibsen became very disenchanted with life in Norway." ], [ "Years in exile", "One of the oldest photographs of Ibsen from ca.", "1863/64, around the time he began writing ''Brand''Ibsen (far left) with friends in Rome, ca.", "1867In 1864, he left Christiania and went to Sorrento in Italy in self-imposed exile.", "He spent the next 27 years in Italy and Germany and only visited Norway a few times during those years.His next play, ''Brand'' (1865), brought him the critical acclaim he sought, along with a measure of financial success, as did the following play, ''Peer Gynt'' (1867), to which Edvard Grieg composed incidental music and songs.", "Although Ibsen read excerpts of the Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard and traces of the latter's influence are evident in ''Brand'', it was not until after ''Brand'' that Ibsen came to take Kierkegaard seriously.", "Initially annoyed with his friend Georg Brandes for comparing Brand to Kierkegaard, Ibsen nevertheless read ''Either/Or'' and ''Fear and Trembling''.", "Ibsen's next play ''Peer Gynt'' was consciously informed by Kierkegaard.With success, Ibsen became more confident and began to introduce more and more of his own beliefs and judgements into the drama, exploring what he termed the \"drama of ideas\".", "His next series of plays are often considered his Golden Age, when he entered the height of his power and influence, becoming the center of dramatic controversy across Europe.Ibsen moved from Italy to Dresden, Germany, in 1868, where he spent years writing the play he regarded as his main work, ''Emperor and Galilean'' (1873), dramatizing the life and times of the Roman emperor Julian the Apostate.", "Although Ibsen himself always looked back on this play as the cornerstone of his entire works, very few shared his opinion, and his next works would be much more acclaimed.", "Ibsen moved to Munich in 1875 and began work on his first contemporary realist drama ''The Pillars of Society'', first published and performed in 1877.", "''A Doll's House'' followed in 1879.This play is a scathing criticism of the marital roles accepted by men and women which characterized Ibsen's society.Ibsen was already in his fifties when ''A Doll's House'' was published.", "He himself saw his latter plays as a series.", "At the end of his career, he described them as \"that series of dramas which began with ''A Doll's House'' and which is now completed with ''When We Dead Awaken''\".", "Furthermore, it was the reception of ''A Doll's House'' which brought Ibsen international acclaim.", "''Ghosts'' followed in 1881, another scathing commentary on the morality of Ibsen's society, in which a widow reveals to her pastor that she had hidden the evils of her marriage for its duration.", "The pastor had advised her to marry her fiancé despite his philandering, and she did so in the belief that her love would reform him.", "But his philandering continued right up until his death, and his vices are passed on to their son in the form of syphilis.", "The mention of venereal disease alone was scandalous, but to show how it could poison a respectable family was considered intolerable.In ''An Enemy of the People'' (1882), Ibsen went even further.", "In earlier plays, controversial elements were important and even pivotal components of the action, but they were on the small scale of individual households.", "In ''An Enemy'', controversy became the primary focus, and the antagonist was the entire community.", "One primary message of the play is that the individual, who stands alone, is more often \"right\" than the mass of people, who are portrayed as ignorant and sheeplike.", "Contemporary society's belief was that the community was a noble institution that could be trusted, a notion Ibsen challenged.", "In ''An Enemy of the People'', Ibsen chastised not only the conservatism of society, but also the liberalism of the time.", "He illustrated how people on both sides of the social spectrum could be equally self-serving.", "''An Enemy of the People'' was written as a response to the people who had rejected his previous work, ''Ghosts''.", "The plot of the play is a veiled look at the way people reacted to the plot of ''Ghosts''.", "The protagonist is a physician in a vacation spot whose primary draw is a public bath.", "The doctor discovers that the water is contaminated by the local tannery.", "He expects to be acclaimed for saving the town from the nightmare of infecting visitors with disease, but instead he is declared an 'enemy of the people' by the locals, who band against him and even throw stones through his windows.", "The play ends with his complete ostracism.", "It is obvious to the reader that disaster is in store for the town as well as for the doctor.As audiences by now expected, Ibsen's next play again attacked entrenched beliefs and assumptions; but this time, his attack was not against society's mores, but against overeager reformers and their idealism.", "Always an iconoclast, Ibsen saw himself as an objective observer of society, \"like a lone franc tireur in the outposts\", playing a lone hand, as he put it.", "Ibsen, perhaps more than any of his contemporaries, relied upon immediate sources such as newspapers and second-hand report for his contact with intellectual thought.", "He claimed to be ignorant of books, leaving them to his wife and son, but, as Georg Brandes described, \"he seemed to stand in some mysterious correspondence with the fermenting, germinating ideas of the day.", "\"''The Wild Duck'' (1884) is by many considered Ibsen's finest work, and it is certainly one of the most complex, alongside ''Rosmersholm''.", "It tells the story of Gregers Werle, a young man who returns to his hometown after an extended exile, and is reunited with his boyhood friend Hjalmar Ekdal.", "Over the course of the play, the many secrets that lie behind the Ekdals' apparently happy home are revealed to Gregers, who insists on pursuing the absolute truth, or the \"Summons of the Ideal\".", "Among these truths: Gregers' father impregnated his servant Gina, then married her off to Hjalmar to legitimize the child.", "Another man has been disgraced and imprisoned for a crime the elder Werle committed.", "Furthermore, while Hjalmar spends his days working on a wholly imaginary \"invention\", his wife is earning the household income.Ibsen displays masterly use of irony: despite his dogmatic insistence on truth, Gregers never says what he thinks but only insinuates, and is never understood until the play reaches its climax.", "Gregers hammers away at Hjalmar through innuendo and coded phrases until he realizes the truth: that Gina's daughter, Hedvig, is not his child.", "Blinded by Gregers' insistence on absolute truth, Hjalmar disavows the child.", "Seeing the damage he has wrought, Gregers determines to repair things, and suggests to Hedvig that she sacrifice the wild duck, her wounded pet, to prove her love for Hjalmar.", "Hedvig, alone among the characters, recognizes that Gregers always speaks in code, and looking for the deeper meaning in the first important statement Gregers makes which does not contain one, kills herself rather than the duck in order to prove her love for him in the ultimate act of self-sacrifice.", "Only too late do Hjalmar and Gregers realize that the absolute truth of the \"ideal\" is sometimes too much for the human heart to bear.Letter from Ibsen to his English reviewer and translator Edmund Gosse: \"30.8.1899.Dear Mr. Edmund Gosse!", "It was to me a hearty joy to receive your letter.", "So I will finally personally meet you and your wife.", "I am at home every day in the morning until 1 o'clock.", "I am happy and surprised at your excellent Norwegian!", "Your amicably obliged Henrik Ibsen.", "\"Late in his career, Ibsen turned to a more introspective drama that had much less to do with denunciations of society's moral values and more to do with the problems of individuals.", "In such later plays as ''Hedda Gabler'' (1890) and ''The Master Builder'' (1892), Ibsen explored psychological conflicts that transcended a simple rejection of current conventions.", "Many modern readers, who might regard anti-Victorian didacticism as dated, simplistic or hackneyed, have found these later works to be of absorbing interest for their hard-edged, objective consideration of interpersonal confrontation.", "''Hedda Gabler'' and ''A Doll's House'' are regularly cited as Ibsen's most popular and influential plays, with the title role of Hedda regarded as one of the most challenging and rewarding for an actress even in the present day.Ibsen had completely rewritten the rules of drama with a realism which was to be adopted by Chekhov and others, and which we see in the theatre to this day.", "From Ibsen forward, challenging assumptions and directly speaking about issues has been considered one of the factors that makes a play art rather than entertainment.", "His works were brought to an English-speaking audience, largely thanks to the efforts of William Archer and Edmund Gosse.", "These in turn had a profound influence on the young James Joyce who venerates Ibsen in his early autobiographical novel ''Stephen Hero''.", "Ibsen returned to Norway in 1891, but it was in many ways not the Norway he had left.", "Indeed, he had played a major role in the changes that had happened across society.", "Modernism was on the rise, not only in the theatre, but across public life..Ibsen intentionally obscured his influences.", "However, asked later what he had read when he wrote ''Catiline'', Ibsen replied that he had read only the Danish Norse saga-inspired Romantic tragedian Adam Oehlenschläger and Ludvig Holberg, \"the Scandinavian Molière\"." ], [ "Critical reception", "Vanity Fair'', 1901At the time when Ibsen was writing, literature was emerging as a formidable force in 19th century society.", "With the vast increase in literacy towards the end of the century, the possibilities of literature being used for subversion struck horror into the heart of the Establishment.", "Ibsen's plays, from ''A Doll's House'' onwards, caused an uproar—not just in Norway, but throughout Europe, and even across the Atlantic in America.", "No other artist, apart from Richard Wagner, had such an effect internationally, inspiring almost blasphemous adoration and hysterical abuse.After the publication of ''Ghosts'', he wrote: \"while the storm lasted, I have made many studies and observations and I shall not hesitate to exploit them in my future writings.\"", "Indeed, his next play, ''An Enemy of the People,'' was initially regarded by the critics to be simply his response to the violent criticism which had greeted ''Ghosts''.", "Ibsen expected criticism; as he wrote to his publisher: \"''Ghosts'' will probably cause alarm in some circles, but it can't be helped.", "If it did not, there would have been no necessity for me to have written it.", "\"Ibsen didn't just read the critical reaction to his plays, he actively corresponded with critics, publishers, theatre directors, and newspaper editors on the subject.", "The interpretation of his work, both by critics and directors, concerned him greatly.", "He often advised directors on which actor or actress would be suitable for a particular role.", "(An example of this is a letter he wrote to Hans Schroder in November 1884, with detailed instructions for the production of ''The Wild Duck''.", ")Ibsen's plays initially reached a far wider audience as read plays rather than in performance.", "It was 20 years, for instance, before the authorities would allow ''Ghosts'' to be performed in Norway.", "Each new play that Ibsen wrote, from 1879 onwards, had an explosive effect on intellectual circles.", "This was greatest for ''A Doll's House'' and ''Ghosts'', and it did lessen with the later plays, but the translation of Ibsen's works into German, French, and English during the decade following the initial publication of each play—as well as frequent new productions as and when permission was granted—meant that Ibsen remained a topic of lively conversation throughout the latter decades of the 19th century.", "When ''A Doll's House'' was published, it had an explosive effect: it was the centre of every conversation at every social gathering in Christiania.", "One hostess even wrote on the invitations to her soirée, \"You are politely requested not to mention Mr Ibsen's new play\"." ], [ "Death", "Ibsen, late in his careerOn 23 May 1906, Ibsen died in his home at Arbins gade 1 in Kristiania (now Oslo) after a series of strokes in March 1900.When, on 22 May, his nurse assured a visitor that he was a little better, Ibsen spluttered his last words \"On the contrary\" (\"Tvertimod!\").", "He died the following day at 2:30 pm.Ibsen was buried in Vår Frelsers gravlund (\"The Graveyard of Our Savior\") in central Oslo.===Centenary===The 100th anniversary of Ibsen's death in 2006 was commemorated with an \"Ibsen year\" in Norway and other countries.", "In 2006, the homebuilding company Selvaag also opened ''Peer Gynt'' Sculpture Park in Oslo, Norway, in Henrik Ibsen's honour, making it possible to follow the dramatic play ''Peer Gynt'' scene by scene.", "Will Eno's adaptation of Ibsen's ''Peer Gynt'', titled ''Gnit'', had its world premiere at the 37th Humana Festival of New American Plays in March 2013.On 23 May 2006, The Ibsen Museum in Oslo re-opened to the public, with the house, where Ibsen had spent his last eleven years, completely restored with the original interior, colours, and decor." ], [ "Political views", "In a letter to George Brandes shortly before the Paris Commune, Ibsen expressed anarchist views that Brandes later positively related to the Paris Commune.", "Ibsen wrote that the state \"is the curse of the individual.… The state must be abolished.\"", "Brandes related that Ibsen \"presented to me as political ideals, conditions and ideas whose nature did not seem to me quite clear, but which were unquestionably akin to those that were proclaimed precisely one month later, in an extremely distorted form, by the Parisian commune.\"", "And in another letter shortly before the Commune came to an end, Ibsen expressed a disappointment with the Commune, insofar as it did not go far enough in its anarchism in its rejection of the state and private property.", "Ibsen wrote, \"Is it not impudent of the commune in Paris to go and destroy my admirable state theory, or rather no state theory?", "The idea is now ruined for a long time to come, and I cannot even set it forth in verse with any propriety.\"", "However, Ibsen nevertheless expressed an optimism, asserting that his \"no state theory\" bears \"within itself a healthy core\" and that some day \"it will be practised without any caricature.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "Plaque to Ibsen, Oslo marking his home from 1828-1906Ivo de Figueiredo argues that \"today, Ibsen belongs to the world.", "But it is impossible to understand Ibsen's path out there without knowing the Danish cultural sphere from which he sprang, from which he liberated himself and which he ended up shaping.", "Ibsen developed as a person and artist in a dialogue with Danish theater and literature that was anything but smooth.", "\"On the occasion of the 100th anniversary of Ibsen's death in 2006, the Norwegian government organised the Ibsen Year, which included celebrations around the world.", "The NRK produced a miniseries on Ibsen's childhood and youth in 2006, ''An Immortal Man''.", "Several prizes are awarded in the name of Henrik Ibsen, among them the International Ibsen Award, the Norwegian Ibsen Award, and the Ibsen Centennial Commemoration Award.Every year, since 2008, the annual \"Delhi Ibsen Festival\", is held in Delhi, India, organized by the Dramatic Art and Design Academy (DADA) in collaboration with The Royal Norwegian Embassy in India.", "It features plays by Ibsen, performed by artists from various parts of the world in varied languages and styles.The Ibsen Society of America (ISA) was founded in 1978 at the close of the Ibsen Sesquicentennial Symposium held in New York City to mark the 150th anniversary of Henrik Ibsen's birth.", "Distinguished Ibsen translator and critic Rolf Fjelde, Professor of Literature at Pratt Institute and the chief organizer of the Symposium, was elected Founding President.", "In December 1979, the ISA was certified as a non-profit corporation under the laws of the State of New York.", "Its purpose is to foster through lectures, readings, performances, conferences, and publications an understanding of Ibsen's works as they are interpreted as texts and produced on stage and in film and other media.", "An annual newsletter, ''Ibsen News and Comment,'' is distributed to all members.On 20 March 2013, Google celebrated Henrik Ibsen's 185th Birthday with a doodle." ], [ "Ancestry", "Monogram of Henrik IbsenIbsen's ancestry has been a much studied subject, due to both his perceived foreignness and the influence of his biography and family on his plays.", "Ibsen often made references to his family in his plays, sometimes by name, or by modelling characters after them.The oldest documented member of the Ibsen family was ship's captain Rasmus Ibsen (1632–1703) from Stege, Denmark.", "His son, ship's captain Peder Ibsen, became a burgher of Bergen in Norway in 1726.Henrik Ibsen had Danish, German, Norwegian, and some distant Scottish ancestry.", "Most of his ancestors belonged to the merchant class of original Danish and German extraction, and many of his ancestors were ship's captains.Ibsen's biographer Henrik Jæger famously wrote in 1888 that Ibsen did not have a drop of Norwegian blood in his veins, stating that \"the ancestral Ibsen was a Dane\".", "This, however, is not completely accurate; notably through his grandmother Hedevig Paus, Ibsen was descended from one of the very few families of the patrician class of original Norwegian extraction, known since the 15th century.", "Ibsen's ancestors had mostly lived in Norway for several generations, even though many had foreign ancestry.The name Ibsen is originally a patronymic, meaning \"son of Ib\" (Ib is a Danish variant of Jacob).", "The patronymic became \"frozen\", i.e.", "it became a permanent family name, in the 17th century.", "The phenomenon of patronymics becoming frozen started in the 17th century in bourgeois families in Denmark, and the practice was only widely adopted in Norway from around 1900." ], [ "Descendants", "From his marriage with Suzannah Thoresen, Ibsen had one son, lawyer, government minister, and Norwegian Prime Minister Sigurd Ibsen.", "Sigurd Ibsen married Bergljot Bjørnson, the daughter of Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson.", "Their son was Tancred Ibsen, who became a film director and was married to Lillebil Ibsen; their only child was diplomat Tancred Ibsen, Jr. His male line together with the male-descended lines of the wider Ibsen family he belonged to will end with the deaths of Tancred Jr.'s two daughters.", "Sigurd Ibsen's daughter, Irene Ibsen, married Josias Bille, a member of the Danish ancient noble Bille family; their son was Danish actor Joen Bille.Ibsen had an illegitimate child early in his life, not entitled to the family name or inheritance.", "This line ended with his biological grandchildren." ], [ "Honours", "Ibsen was decorated Knight in 1873, Commander in 1892, and with the Grand Cross of the Order of St. Olav in 1893.He received the Grand Cross of the Danish Order of the Dannebrog, and the Grand Cross of the Swedish Order of the Polar Star, and was Knight, First Class of the Order of Vasa.Well known stage directors in Austria and Germany such as Theodor Lobe (1833–1905), Paul Barnay (1884–1960), Max Burckhard (1854–1912), Otto Brahm (1856–1912), Carl Heine (1861–1927), Paul Albert Glaeser-Wilken (1874–1942), Victor Barnowsky (1875–1952), Eugen Robert (1877–1944), Leopold Jessner (1878–1945), Ludwig Barnay (1884–1960), Alfred Rotter (1886–1933), Fritz Rotter (1888–1939), (1900–1973) and Peter Zadek (1926–2009), all directed productions of Ibsen’s work.In 1995, the asteroid 5696 Ibsen was named in his memory.In 2011 Håkon Anton Fagerås made two busts in bronze of Ibsen—one for Parco Ibsen in Sorrento, Italy, and one in Skien kommune.", "In 2012, Håkon Anton Fagerås sculpted a statue in marble of Ibsen for the Ibsen Museum in Oslo." ], [ "Works", "===Plays===Plays entirely or partly in verse are marked v.* 1850 ''Catiline'' (''Catilina'')v. First published under pseudonym of Brynjolf Bjarme.", "* 1850 ''The Burial Mound'' also known as ''The Warrior's Barrow'' (''Kjæmpehøjen'')v* 1852 ''St.", "John's Eve'' (''Sancthansnatten'')v* 1854 ''Lady Inger of Oestraat'' (''Fru Inger til Østeraad'')* 1855 ''The Feast at Solhaug'' (''Gildet paa Solhaug'')v* 1856 ''Olaf Liljekrans'' (''Olaf Liljekrans'')v* 1858 ''The Vikings at Helgeland'' (''Hærmændene paa Helgeland'')* 1862 ''Love's Comedy'' (''Kjærlighedens Komedie'')v* 1863 ''The Pretenders'' (''Kongs-Emnerne'')v* 1866 ''Brand'' (''Brand'')v* 1867 ''Peer Gynt'' (''Peer Gynt'')v* 1869 ''The League of Youth'' (''De unges Forbund'')* 1873 ''Emperor and Galilean'' (''Kejser og Galilæer'')* 1877 ''Pillars of Society'' (''Samfundets Støtter'')* 1879 ''A Doll's House'' (''Et Dukkehjem'')* 1881 ''Ghosts'' (''Gengangere'')* 1882 ''An Enemy of the People'' (''En Folkefiende'')* 1884 ''The Wild Duck'' (''Vildanden'')* 1886 ''Rosmersholm'' (''Rosmersholm'')* 1888 ''The Lady from the Sea'' (''Fruen fra Havet'')* 1890 ''Hedda Gabler'' (''Hedda Gabler'')* 1892 ''The Master Builder'' (''Bygmester Solness'')* 1894 ''Little Eyolf'' (''Lille Eyolf'')* 1896 ''John Gabriel Borkman'' (''John Gabriel Borkman'')* 1899 ''When We Dead Awaken'' (''Når vi døde vaagner'')===Other works===* 1851 ''Norma or a Politician's Love'' (''Norma eller en Politikers Kjaerlighed''), an eight-page political parody* 1871 ''Digte'' – only released collection of poetry, included ''Terje Vigen'' (written in 1862 but published in ''Digte'' from 1871)===English translations===Major translation projects include:* ''The Collected Works of Henrik Ibsen'', in twelve volumes, edited by William Archer (Heinemann, 1906-1912).", "21 plays.", "*''The Oxford Ibsen'', edited by James McFarlane (Oxford, 1960-1977).", "The most comprehensive version available.", "*Michael Meyer's translations (1960-1986).", "Fourteen plays.", "*''Ibsen: The Complete Major Prose Plays'', translated by Rolf G. Fjelde (Plume, 1978).", "Twelve plays.", "*''Eight Plays'', translated by Eva Le Gallienne (Modern Library, 1982).", "* ''Ibsen's Selected Plays: A Norton Critical Edition'', edited by Brian Johnston, with translations by Brian Johnston and Rick Davis (W. W. Norton, 2004).", "Five plays.", "* ''Ibsen – 3 Plays'' (Kenneth McLeish & Stephen Mulrine, translators (Nick Hern Books, 2005)*''The New Penguin Ibsen'', in four volumes, edited by Tore Rem, with translations by Anne-Marie Stanton-Ife, Barbara Haveland, Deborah Dawkin, Erik Skuggevik and Geoffrey Hill (Penguin, 2014-2019).", "Fourteen plays." ], [ "See also", "* Centre for Ibsen Studies* Ibsen Studies* Norwegian Ibsen Award* Naturalism (theatre)* Nineteenth-century theatre* Problem play" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Boyesen, Hjalmar Hjorth, ''A Commentary on the Works of Henrik Ibsen'' (New York: Macmillan, 1894)*Ferguson, Robert (2001) ''Henrik Ibsen: A New Biography''.", "New York: Dorset Press.", "*Goldman, Michael, ''Ibsen: The Dramaturgy of Fear'', Columbia University Press, 1998* *Haugan, Jørgen,'' Henrik Ibsens Metode:Den Indre Utvikling Gjennem Ibsens Dramatikk'' (Norwegian: Gyldendal Norsk Forlag.", "1977)*Haave, Jørgen, ''Familien Ibsen'', Museumsforlaget, 2017, .", "*Hjemdahl, Anne-Sofie (ed.", "), ''A Thing or Two About Ibsen: His Possessions, Dramatic Poetry and Life'', Oslo: Andrimne, 2006.", "*Jensen, Morten Høi, \"Escape Artist\" (review of Ivo de Figueiredo, ''Henrik Ibsen: The Man and the Mask'', translated from the Norwegian by Robert Ferguson, Yale University Press, 694 pp.", "), ''The New York Review of Books'', vol.", "LXVI, no.", "17 (7 November 2019), pp. 26–28.", "*Johnston, Brian: ''The Ibsen Cycle'', Pennsylvania State University Press 1992*Johnston, Brian, ''To the Third Empire: Ibsen's Early Plays'', University of Minnesota Press (1980)*Johnston, Brian, ''Text and Supertext in Ibsen's Drama'', Pennsylvania State Press (1988)*Koht, Halvdan.", "''The Life of Ibsen'' translated by Ruth Lima McMahon and Hanna Astrup Larsen.", "W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York, 1931*Krys, Svitlana, '' A Comparative Feminist Reading of Lesia Ukrainka’s and Henrik Ibsen’s Dramas.''", "Canadian Review of Comparative Literature 34.4 (Dec. 2007 Sept 2008): pp.", "389–409*Lucas, F. L. ''The Drama of Ibsen and Strindberg'', Cassell, London, 1962.", "(A useful introduction, giving the biographical background to each play and detailed play-by-play summaries and discussion for the theatre-goer, including the less well-known plays)* Meyer, Michael.", "''Ibsen''.", "History Press Ltd., Stroud, reprinted 2004* Moi, Toril (2006) ''Henrik Ibsen and the Birth of Modernism: Art, Theater, Philosophy''.", "Oxford and New York: Oxford UP.", "* Shaw, George Bernard.", "''The Quintessence of Ibsenism'' (1891).", "The classic introduction, setting the playwright in his time and place.", "*Sprinchorn, Evert, '' Ibsen's Kingdom: The Man and His Works'', Yale University Press, 2021.ISBN 9780300228663" ], [ "External links", ";Digital collections* Digital Scholarly Edition of Henrik Ibsen's complete works at Centre for Ibsen Studies* * * * * Multilingual edition of all Ibsen Plays in the Bibliotheca Polyglotta* Digitized books and manuscripts by Ibsen in the National Library of Norway;Scholarly work* '' Ibsen Studies'': The only international academic journal devoted to Ibsen* Online course by Ibsen scholar Brian Johnston author of ''The Ibsen Cycle'' and ''To the Third Empire: Ibsen's Early Drama''* \"Ibsen and His Discontents\" – a critical, conservative view of Ibsen's works, written by Theodore Dalrymple* ''Henrik Ibsen: Critical Studies'' by Georg Brandes (1899).", "Retrieved 5 January 2017.", "* Ibsen's Kingdom: The Man and His Works - a review of the book of that title, as well as discussions of \"Brand\", \"A Doll's House\", and \"Ghosts\".", ";Other biographies* (the biography by Edmund Gosse)* Henrik Ibsen – A Bibliography of Criticism and Biography, by Ina Ten Eyck Firkins, from Project Gutenberg;Other links* The Ibsen Society of America Official Website* ibsen.nb.no* Extensive resource in several languages from the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs* Ibsen's Influence on Hitler* Ibsen Museum – Former home of the famous playwright is situated in Henrik Ibsen's gate 26, across from the Royal Palace" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hawaiian language" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hawaiian''' ('''', ) is a Polynesian language and critically endangered language of the Austronesian language family that takes its name from Hawaii, the largest island in the tropical North Pacific archipelago where it developed.", "Hawaiian, along with English, is an official language of the US state of Hawaii.", "King Kamehameha III established the first Hawaiian-language constitution in 1839 and 1840.In 1896, the Republic of Hawaii established English as the official language in schools.", "The number of native speakers of Hawaiian gradually decreased during the period from the 1830s to the 1950s.", "English essentially displaced Hawaiian on six of seven inhabited islands.", "In 2001, native speakers of Hawaiian amounted to less than 0.1% of the statewide population.", "Linguists were unsure if Hawaiian and other endangered languages would survive.Nevertheless, from around 1949 to the present day, there has been a gradual increase in attention to and promotion of the language.", "Public Hawaiian-language immersion preschools called Pūnana Leo were established in 1984; other immersion schools followed soon after that.", "The first students to start in immersion preschool have now graduated from college and many are fluent Hawaiian speakers.", "However, the language is still classified as critically endangered by UNESCO.A creole language, Hawaiian Pidgin (or Hawaii Creole English, HCE), is more commonly spoken in Hawaii than Hawaiian.", "Some linguists, as well as many locals, argue that Hawaiian Pidgin is a dialect of American English.", "Born from the increase of immigrants from Japan, China, Puerto Rico, Korea, Portugal, Spain and the Philippines, the pidgin creole language was a necessity in the plantations.", "Hawaiian and immigrant laborers as well as the white ''luna,'' or overseers, found a way to communicate amongst themselves.", "Pidgin eventually made its way off the plantation and into the greater community, where it is still used to this day.The Hawaiian alphabet has 13 letters: five vowels: a e i o u (each with a long pronunciation and a short one) and eight consonants: he ke la mu nu pi we okina (a glottal stop)." ], [ "Name", "The Hawaiian language takes its name from the largest island in the Hawaiian archipelago, Hawaii ('''' in the Hawaiian language).", "The island name was first written in English in 1778 by British explorer James Cook and his crew members.", "They wrote it as \"Owhyhee\" or \"Owhyee\".", "It is written \"Oh-Why-hee\" on the first map of Sandwich Islands engraved by in 1781.", "'''French''': Carte de l'OCÉAN PACIFIQUE au Nord de l'équateur, et des côtes qui le bornent des deux cotes: d'après les dernières découvertes faites par les Espagnols, les Russes et les Anglais jusqu'en 1780.", "'''German''': Charte des STILLEN WELTMEERS nördlichen des Äequators und der Küsten, die es auf beiden Seiten einschränken: Nach den neuesten, von der Spanier, Russen und Engländer bis 1780.", "'''English''' (translation): Chart of the PACIFIC OCEAN north of the Equator and the Coasts that bound it on both sides: according to the latest discoveries made by the Spaniards, Russians and English up to 1780.Explorers Mortimer (1791) and Otto von Kotzebue (1821) used that spelling.The initial \"O\" in the name \"Oh-Why-hee\" is a reflection of the fact that Hawaiian predicates unique identity by using a copula form, ''o'', immediately before a proper noun.", "Thus, in Hawaiian, the name of the island is expressed by saying '''', which means \"This is Hawaii.\"", "The Cook expedition also wrote \"Otaheite\" rather than \"Tahiti\".The spelling \"why\" in the name reflects the pronunciation of ''wh'' in 18th-century English (still used in parts of the English-speaking world).", "''Why'' was pronounced .", "The spelling \"hee\" or \"ee\" in the name represents the sounds , or .Putting the parts together, ''O-why-(h)ee'' reflects , a reasonable approximation of the native pronunciation, .American missionaries bound for Hawaii used the phrases \"Owhihe Language\" and \"Owhyhee language\" in Boston prior to their departure in October 1819 and during their five-month voyage to Hawaii.", "They still used such phrases as late as March 1822.However, by July 1823, they had begun using the phrase \"Hawaiian Language\".In Hawaiian, the language is called '''', since adjectives follow nouns." ], [ "Family and origin", "Hawaiian is a Polynesian member of the Austronesian language family.", "It is closely related to other Polynesian languages, such as Samoan, Marquesan, Tahitian, Māori, Rapa Nui (the language of Easter Island) and Tongan.According to Schütz (1994), the Marquesans colonized the archipelago in roughly 300 CE followed by later waves of immigration from the Society Islands and Samoa-Tonga.", "Their languages, over time, became the Hawaiian language within the Hawaiian Islands.", "Kimura and Wilson (1983) also state: Linguists agree that Hawaiian is closely related to Eastern Polynesian, with a particularly strong link in the Southern Marquesas, and a secondary link in Tahiti, which may be explained by voyaging between the Hawaiian and Society Islands.=== Mutual intelligibility ===Jack H. Ward (1962) conducted a study using basic words and short utterances to determine the level of comprehension between different Polynesian languages.", "The mutual intelligibility of Hawaiian was found to be 41.2% with Marquesan, 37.5% with Tahitian, 25.5% with Samoan and 6.4% with Tongan." ], [ "History", "===First European contact===In 1778, British explorer James Cook made Europe's initial, recorded first contact with Hawaiʻi, beginning a new phase in the development of Hawaiian.", "During the next forty years, the sounds of Spanish (1789), Russian (1804), French (1816), and German (1816) arrived in Hawaii via other explorers and businessmen.", "Hawaiian began to be written for the first time, largely restricted to isolated names and words, and word lists collected by explorers and travelers.The early explorers and merchants who first brought European languages to the Hawaiian islands also took on a few native crew members who brought the Hawaiian language into new territory.", "Hawaiians took these nautical jobs because their traditional way of life changed due to plantations, and although there were not enough of these Hawaiian-speaking explorers to establish any viable speech communities abroad, they still had a noticeable presence.", "One of them, a boy in his teens known as Obookiah (), had a major impact on the future of the language.", "He sailed to New England, where he eventually became a student at the Foreign Mission School in Cornwall, Connecticut.", "He inspired New Englanders to support a Christian mission to Hawaii, and provided information on the Hawaiian language to the American missionaries there prior to their departure for Hawaii in 1819.Adelbert von Chamisso too might have consulted with a native speaker of Hawaiian in Berlin, Germany, before publishing his grammar of Hawaiian ('''') in 1837.====Folk tales====Like all natural spoken languages, the Hawaiian language was originally an oral language.", "The native people of the Hawaiian language relayed religion, traditions, history, and views of their world through stories that were handed down from generation to generation.", "One form of storytelling most commonly associated with the Hawaiian islands is hula.", "Nathaniel B. Emerson notes that \"It kept the communal imagination in living touch with the nation's legendary past\".The islanders' connection with their stories is argued to be one reason why Captain James Cook received a pleasant welcome.", "Marshall Sahlins has observed that Hawaiian folktales began bearing similar content to those of the Western world in the eighteenth century.", "He argues this was caused by the timing of Captain Cook's arrival, which was coincidentally when the indigenous Hawaiians were celebrating the Makahiki festival, which is the annual celebration of the harvest in honor of the god Lono.", "The celebration lasts for the entirety of the rainy season.", "It is a time of peace with much emphasis on amusements, food, games, and dancing.", "The islanders' story foretold of the god Lono's return at the time of the Makahiki festival.===Written Hawaiian===In 1820, Protestant missionaries from New England arrived in Hawaii, and in a few years converted the chiefs to Congregational Protestantism, who in turn converted their subjects.", "To the missionaries, the thorough Christianization of the kingdom necessitated a complete translation of the Bible to Hawaiian, a previously unwritten language, and therefore the creation of a standard spelling that should be as easy to master as possible.", "The orthography created by the missionaries was so straightforward that literacy spread very quickly among the adult population; at the same time, the Mission set more and more schools for children.Headline from May 16, 1834, issue of newspaper published by Lorrin Andrews and students at Lahainaluna SchoolIn 1834, the first Hawaiian-language newspapers were published by missionaries working with locals.", "The missionaries also played a significant role in publishing a vocabulary (1836) grammar (1854) and dictionary (1865) of Hawaiian.", "The Hawaiian Bible was fully completed in 1839; by then, the Mission had such a wide-reaching school network that, when in 1840 it handed it over to the Hawaiian government, the Hawaiian Legislature mandated compulsory state-funded education for all children under 14 years of age, including girls, twelve years before any similar compulsory education law was enacted for the first time in any of the United States.Literacy in Hawaiian was so widespread that in 1842 a law mandated that people born after 1819 had to be literate to be allowed to marry.", "In his ''Report to the Legislature'' for the year 1853 Richard Armstrong, the minister of Public Instruction, bragged that 75% of the adult population could read.", "Use of the language among the general population might have peaked around 1881.Even so, some people worried, as early as 1854, that the language was \"soon destined to extinction.", "\"When Hawaiian King David Kalākaua took a trip around the world, he brought his native language with him.", "When his wife, Queen Kapiolani, and his sister, Princess (later Queen) Liliuokalani, took a trip across North America and on to the British Islands, in 1887, Liliuokalani's composition \"\" was already a famous song in the U.S.===Suppression of Hawaiian===The decline of the Hawaiian language was accelerated by the coup that overthrew the Hawaiian monarchy and dethroned the existing Hawaiian queen.", "Thereafter, a law was instituted that required English as the main language of school instruction.", "The law cited is identified as Act 57, sec.", "30 of the 1896 Laws of the Republic of Hawaii:This law established English as the medium of instruction for the government-recognized schools both \"public and private\".", "While it did not ban or make illegal the Hawaiian language in other contexts, its implementation in the schools had far-reaching effects.", "Those who had been pushing for English-only schools took this law as licence to extinguish the native language at the early education level.", "While the law did not make Hawaiian illegal (it was still commonly spoken at the time), many children who spoke Hawaiian at school, including on the playground, were disciplined.", "This included corporal punishment and going to the home of the offending child to advise them strongly to stop speaking it in their home.", "Moreover, the law specifically provided for teaching languages \"in addition to the English language\", reducing Hawaiian to the status of an extra language, subject to approval by the department.", "Hawaiian was not taught initially in any school, including the all-Hawaiian Kamehameha Schools.", "This is largely because when these schools were founded, like Kamehameha Schools founded in 1887 (nine years before this law), Hawaiian was being spoken in the home.", "Once this law was enacted, individuals at these institutions took it upon themselves to enforce a ban on Hawaiian.", "Beginning in 1900, Mary Kawena Pukui, who was later the co-author of the Hawaiian–English Dictionary, was punished for speaking Hawaiian by being rapped on the forehead, allowed to eat only bread and water for lunch, and denied home visits on holidays.", "Winona Beamer was expelled from Kamehameha Schools in 1937 for chanting Hawaiian.", "Due in part to this systemic suppression of the language after the overthrow, Hawaiian is still considered a critically endangered language.National origin of students in the schools of Hawaii (1890–1920)However, informal coercion to drop Hawaiian would not have worked by itself.", "Just as important was the fact that, in the same period, native Hawaiians were becoming a minority in their own land on account of the growing influx of foreign labourers and their children.", "Whereas in 1890 pure Hawaiian students made 56% of school enrollment, in 1900 their numbers were down to 32% and, in 1910, to 16.9%.", "At the same time, Hawaiians were very prone to intermarriage: the number of \"Part-Hawaiian\" students (i.e., children of mixed White-Hawaiian marriages) grew from 1573 in 1890 to 3718 in 1910.In such mixed households, the low prestige of Hawaiian led to the adoption of English as the family language.", "Moreover, Hawaiians lived mostly in the cities or scattered across the countryside, in direct contact with other ethnic groups and without any stronghold (with the exception of Niʻihau).", "Thus, even pure Hawaiian children would converse daily with their schoolmates of diverse mother tongues in English, which was now not just the teachers' language but also the common language needed for everyday communication among friends and neighbours out of school as well.", "In only a generation English (or rather Pidgin) would become the primary and dominant language of all children, despite the efforts of Hawaiian and immigrant parents to maintain their ancestral languages within the family.===1949 to present===In 1949, the legislature of the Territory of Hawaii commissioned Mary Pukui and Samuel Elbert to write a new dictionary of Hawaiian, either revising the Andrews-Parker work or starting from scratch.", "Pukui and Elbert took a middle course, using what they could from the Andrews dictionary, but making certain improvements and additions that were more significant than a minor revision.", "The dictionary they produced, in 1957, introduced an era of gradual increase in attention to the language and culture.Language revitalization and Hawaiian culture has seen a major revival since the Hawaiian renaissance in the 1970s.", "Forming in 1983, the ʻAha Pūnana Leo, meaning \"language nest\" in Hawaiian, opened its first center in 1984.It was a privately funded Hawaiian preschool program that invited native Hawaiian elders to speak to children in Hawaiian every day.Efforts to promote the language have increased in recent decades.", "Hawaiian-language \"immersion\" schools are now open to children whose families want to reintroduce the Hawaiian language for future generations.", "The Aha Pūnana Leo's Hawaiian language preschools in Hilo, Hawaii, have received international recognition.", "The local National Public Radio station features a short segment titled \"Hawaiian word of the day\" and a Hawaiian language news broadcast.", "Honolulu television station KGMB ran a weekly Hawaiian language program, ''Āhai Ōlelo Ola'', as recently as 2010.Additionally, the Sunday editions of the ''Honolulu Star-Advertiser'', the largest newspaper in Hawaii, feature a brief article called ''Kauakukalahale'' written entirely in Hawaiian by teachers, students, and community members.Today, the number of native speakers of Hawaiian, which was under 0.1% of the statewide population in 1997, has risen to 2,000, out of 24,000 total who are fluent in the language, according to the US 2011 census.", "On six of the seven permanently inhabited islands, Hawaiian has been largely displaced by English, but on Niihau, native speakers of Hawaiian have remained fairly isolated and have continued to use Hawaiian almost exclusively.===Niʻihau===The isolated island of Niʻihau, located off the southwest coast of Kauai, is the one island where Hawaiian (more specifically a local dialect of Hawaiian known as Niihau dialect) is still spoken as the language of daily life.", "states that \"variations in Hawaiian dialects have not been systematically studied\", and that \"the dialect of Niʻihau is the most aberrant and the one most in need of study\".", "They recognized that Niʻihauans can speak Hawaiian in substantially different ways.", "Their statements are based in part on some specific observations made by .", "(See Hawaiian phonological processes)Friction has developed between those on Niʻihau that speak Hawaiian as a first language, and those who speak Hawaiian as a second language, especially those educated by the College of Hawaiian Language at the University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo.", "The university sponsors a Hawaiian Language Lexicon Committee () which coins words for concepts that historically have not existed in the language, like \"computer\" and \"cell phone\".", "These words are generally not incorporated into the Niʻihau dialect, which often coins its own words organically.", "Some new words are Hawaiianized versions of English words, and some are composed of Hawaiian roots and unrelated to English sounds." ], [ "Hawaiian in schools", "=== Hawaiian medium schools ===The Hawaiian medium education system is a combination of charter, public, and private schools.", "K–6 schools operate under coordinated governance of the Department of Education and the charter school, while the pre-K–12 laboratory system is governed by the Department of Education, the ʻAha Pūnana Leo, and the charter school.", "Over 80% of graduates from these laboratory schools attend college, some of which include Ivy-League schools.", "Hawaiian is now an authorized course in the Department of Education language curriculum, though not all schools offer the language.There are two kinds of Hawaiian-immersion medium schools: K–12 total Hawaiian-immersion schools, and grades 7–12 partial Hawaiian immersion schools, the later having some classes are taught in English and others are taught in Hawaiian.", "One of the main focuses of Hawaiian-medium schools is to teach the form and structure of the Hawaiian language by modeling sentences as a \"pepeke\", meaning squid in Hawaiian.", "In this case the pepeke is a metaphor that features the body of a squid with the three essential parts: the poʻo (head), the ʻawe (tentacles) and the piko (where the poʻo and ʻawe meet) representing how a sentence is structured.", "The poʻo represents the predicate, the piko representing the subject and the ʻawe representing the object.", "Hawaiian immersion schools teach content that both adheres to state standards and stresses Hawaiian culture and values.", "The existence of immersion schools in Hawaiʻi has developed the opportunity for intergenerational transmission of Hawaiian at home.=== Higher education ===The Ka Haka ʻUla O Keʻelikōlani College of Hawaiian Language is a college at the University of Hawaii at Hilo dedicated to providing courses and programs entirely in Hawaiian.", "It educates and provides training for teachers and school administrators of Hawaiian medium schools.", "It is the only college in the United States of America that offers a master's and doctorate's degree in an Indigenous language.", "Programs offered at The Ka Haka ʻUla O Keʻelikōlani College of Hawaiian Language are known collectively as the \"Hilo model\" and has been imitated by the Cherokee immersion program and several other Indigenous revitalization programs.Since 1921, the University of Hawaiʻi at Manoa and all of the University of Hawaiʻi Community Colleges also offer Hawaiian language courses to students for credit.", "The university now also offers free online courses not for credit, along with a few other websites and apps such as Duolingo.==Orthography ==Hawaiians had no written language prior to Western contact, except for petroglyph symbols.The modern Hawaiian alphabet, ''ka pīāpā Hawaii'', is based on the Latin script.", "Hawaiian words end ''only'' in vowels, and every consonant must be followed by a vowel.", "The Hawaiian alphabetical order has all of the vowels before the consonants, as in the following chart.", "Aa Ee Ii Oo Uu Hh Kk Ll Mm Nn Pp Ww ===Origin===This writing system was developed by American Protestant missionaries during 1820–1826.It was the first thing they ever printed in Hawaii, on January 7, 1822, and it originally included the consonants ''B, D, R, T,'' and ''V,'' in addition to the current ones (''H, K, L, M, N, P, W''), and it had ''F, G, S, Y'' and ''Z'' for \"spelling foreign words\".", "The initial printing also showed the five vowel letters (''A, E, I, O, U'') and seven of the short diphthongs (''AE, AI, AO, AU, EI, EU, OU'').In 1826, the developers voted to eliminate some of the letters which represented functionally redundant allophones (called \"interchangeable letters\"), enabling the Hawaiian alphabet to approach the ideal state of one-symbol-one-phoneme, and thereby optimizing the ease with which people could teach and learn the reading and writing of Hawaiian.", "For example, instead of spelling one and the same word as ''pule, bule, pure,'' and ''bure'' (because of interchangeable ''p/b'' and ''l/r''), the word is spelled only as ''pule''.", "* Interchangeable B/P.", "''B'' was dropped, ''P'' was kept.", "* Interchangeable L/R.", "''R'' and ''D'' were dropped, ''L'' was kept.", "* Interchangeable K/T.", "''T'' was dropped, ''K'' was kept.", "* Interchangeable V/W.", "''V'' was dropped, ''W'' was kept.However, hundreds of words were very rapidly borrowed into Hawaiian from English, Greek, Hebrew, Latin, and Syriac.", "Although these loan words were necessarily Hawaiianized, they often retained some of their \"non-Hawaiian letters\" in their published forms.", "For example, ''Brazil'' fully Hawaiianized is ''Palakila'', but retaining \"foreign letters\" it is ''Barazila''.", "Another example is ''Gibraltar'', written as ''Kipalaleka'' or ''Gibaraleta''.", "While and are not regarded as Hawaiian sounds, , , and were represented in the original alphabet, so the letters (''b'', ''r'', and ''t'') for the latter are not truly \"non-Hawaiian\" or \"foreign\", even though their post-1826 use in published matter generally marked words of foreign origin.===Glottal stop===''ʻOkina'' (''oki'' 'cut' + ''-na'' '-ing') is the modern Hawaiian name for the symbol (a letter) that represents the glottal stop.", "It was formerly known as ''uina'' (\"snap\").For examples of the okina, consider the Hawaiian words ''Hawaii'' and ''Oahu'' (often simply ''Hawaii'' and ''Oahu'' in English orthography).", "In Hawaiian, these words are pronounced and , and are written with an okina where the glottal stop is pronounced.Elbert & Pukui's ''Hawaiian Grammar'' says \"The glottal stop, ‘, is made by closing the glottis or space between the vocal cords, the result being something like the hiatus in English ''oh-oh''.", "\"====History====As early as 1823, the missionaries made some limited use of the apostrophe to represent the glottal stop, but they did not make it a letter of the alphabet.", "In publishing the Hawaiian Bible, they used it to distinguish ''kou'' ('my') from ''kou'' ('your').", "In 1864, William DeWitt Alexander published a grammar of Hawaiian in which he made it clear that the glottal stop (calling it \"guttural break\") is definitely a true consonant of the Hawaiian language.", "He wrote it using an apostrophe.", "In 1922, the Andrews-Parker dictionary of Hawaiian made limited use of the opening single quote symbol, then called \"reversed apostrophe\" or \"inverse comma\", to represent the glottal stop.", "Subsequent dictionaries and written material associated with the Hawaiian language revitalization have preferred to use this symbol, the ''okina'', to better represent spoken Hawaiian.", "Nonetheless, excluding the ''okina'' may facilitate interface with English-oriented media, or even be preferred stylistically by some Hawaiian speakers, in homage to 19th century written texts.", "So there is variation today in the use of this symbol.====Electronic encoding====quotes, font: Linux Libertine.", "The glyph of the two ʻokinas is clearly different from the one of the opening quote.The okina is written in various ways for electronic uses:* turned comma: '''''', Unicode hex value 02BB (decimal 699).", "This does not always have the correct appearance because it is not supported in some fonts.", "* opening single quote, a.k.a.", "left single quotation mark: '''‘''' Unicode hex value 2018 (decimal 8216).", "In many fonts this character looks like either a left-leaning single quotation mark or a quotation mark thicker at the bottom than at the top.", "In more traditional serif fonts such as Times New Roman it can look like a very small \"6\" with the circle filled in black: '''‘'''.Because many people who want to write the ʻokina are not familiar with these specific characters and/or do not have access to the appropriate fonts and input and display systems, it is sometimes written with more familiar and readily available characters:* the ASCII apostrophe ''''''', Unicode hex value 27 (decimal 39), following the missionary tradition.", "* the ASCII grave accent (often called \"backquote\" or \"backtick\") '''`''', Unicode hex value 60 (decimal 96)* the right single quotation mark, or \"curly apostrophe\" '''’''', Unicode hex value 2019 (decimal 8217)===Macron===A modern Hawaiian name for the macron symbol is ''kahakō'' (''kaha'' 'mark' + ''kō'' 'long').", "It was formerly known as ''mekona'' (Hawaiianization of ''macron'').", "It can be written as a diacritical mark which looks like a hyphen or dash written above a vowel, i.e., ''ā ē ī ō ū'' and ''Ā Ē Ī Ō Ū''.", "It is used to show that the marked vowel is a \"double\", or \"geminate\", or \"long\" vowel, in phonological terms.", "(See: Vowel length)As early as 1821, at least one of the missionaries, Hiram Bingham, was using macrons (and breves) in making handwritten transcriptions of Hawaiian vowels.", "The missionaries specifically requested their sponsor in Boston to send them some type (fonts) with accented vowel characters, including vowels with macrons, but the sponsor made only one response and sent the wrong font size (pica instead of small pica).", "Thus, they could not print ā, ē, ī, ō, nor ū (at the right size), even though they wanted to.===Pronunciation===Owing to extensive allophony, Hawaiian has more than 13 phones.", "Although vowel length is phonemic, long vowels are not always pronounced as such, even though under the rules for assigning stress in Hawaiian, a long vowel will always receive stress." ], [ "Phonology", "===Consonants===+ ConsonantsLabialAlveolarVelarGlottalNasal Plosive ~ Fricative ~ Sonorant ~ Hawaiian is known for having very few consonant phonemes – eight: .", "It is notable that Hawaiian has allophonic variation of with , with , and (in some dialects) with .", "The – variation is quite unusual among the world's languages, and is likely a product both of the small number of consonants in Hawaiian, and the recent shift of historical *t to modern –, after historical *k had shifted to .", "In some dialects, remains as in some words.", "These variations are largely free, though there are conditioning factors.", "tends to especially in words with both and , such as in the island name ''Lānai'' (–), though this is not always the case: ''eleele'' or ''eneene'' \"black\".", "The allophone is almost universal at the beginnings of words, whereas is most common before the vowel .", "is also the norm after and , whereas is usual after and .", "After and initially, however, and are in free variation.===Vowels===Hawaiian has five short and five long vowels, plus diphthongs.====Monophthongs====+ Monophthongs Short Long Front Back Front BackClose Mid ~ Open ~ ~ Hawaiian has five pure vowels.", "The short vowels are , and the long vowels, if they are considered separate phonemes rather than simply sequences of like vowels, are .", "When stressed, short and have been described as becoming and , while when unstressed they are and .", "Parker Jones (2017), however, did not find a reduction of /a/ to outside of function words in the phonetic analysis of a young speaker from Hilo, Hawaiʻi, who had been raised within the Hawaiian language revitalisation movement; so there is at least some variation in how /a/ is realised.", "also tends to become next to , , and another , as in ''Pele'' .", "Some grammatical particles vary between short and long vowels.", "These include ''a'' and ''o'' \"of\", ''ma'' \"at\", ''na'' and ''no'' \"for\".", "Between a back vowel or and a following non-back vowel (), there is an epenthetic , which is generally not written.", "Between a front vowel or and a following non-front vowel (), there is an epenthetic (a ''y'' sound), which is never written.====Diphthongs====+ Short diphthongs Ending with...", "The short-vowel diphthongs are .", "In all except perhaps , these are falling diphthongs.", "However, they are not as tightly bound as the diphthongs of English, and may be considered vowel sequences.", "(The second vowel in such sequences may receive the stress, but in such cases it is not counted as a diphthong.)", "In fast speech, tends to and tends to , conflating these diphthongs with and .There are only a limited number of vowels which may follow long vowels, and some authors treat these sequences as diphthongs as well: .+Long diphthongs Ending with... ===Phonotactics===Hawaiian syllable structure is (C)V. All CV syllables occur except for ''wū''; ''wu'' occurs only in two words borrowed from English.", "As shown by Schütz, Hawaiian word-stress is predictable in words of one to four syllables, but not in words of five or more syllables.", "Hawaiian phonological processes include palatalization and deletion of consonants, as well as raising, diphthongization, deletion, and compensatory lengthening of vowels.===Historical development===Historically, glottal stop developed from *k. Loss of intervocalic consonant phonemes has resulted in Hawaiian long vowels and diphthongs." ], [ "Grammar", "Hawaiian is an analytic language with verb–subject–object word order.", "While there is no use of inflection for verbs, in Hawaiian, like other Austronesian personal pronouns, declension is found in the differentiation between a- and o-class genitive case personal pronouns in order to indicate inalienable possession in a binary possessive class system.", "Also like many Austronesian languages, Hawaiian pronouns employ separate words for inclusive and exclusive we (clusivity), and distinguish singular, dual, and plural.", "The grammatical function of verbs is marked by adjacent particles (short words) and by their relative positions, that indicate tense–aspect–mood.Some examples of verb phrase patterns:* ''ua'' – perfective* ''e'' ''ana'' – imperfective* ''ke'' ''nei'' – present progressive* ''e'' – imperative* ''mai'' – negative imperative* ''i'' – purposive* ''ke'' – infinitiveNouns can be marked with articles:* ''ka honu'' (the turtle)* ''nā honu'' (the turtles)* ''ka hale'' (the house)* ''ke kanaka'' (the person)''ka'' and ''ke'' are singular definite articles.", "''ke'' is used before words beginning with a-, e-, o- and k-, and with some words beginning - and p-.", "''ka'' is used in all other cases.", "''nā'' is the plural definite article.To show part of a group, the word ''kekahi'' is used.", "To show a bigger part, ''mau'' is inserted to pluralize the subject.Examples:* ''kekahi pipi'' (one of the cows)* ''kekahi mau pipi'' (some of the cows)=== Semantic domains ===Hawaiian has thousands of words for elements of the natural world.", "According to the Hawaiian Electronic Library, there are thousands of names for different types of wind, rain, parts of the sea, peaks of mountains, and sky formations, demonstrating the importance of the natural world to Hawaiian culture.", "For example, \"Hoʻomalumalu\" means \"sheltering cloud\" and \"Hoʻoweliweli\" means \"threatening cloud\"." ], [ "Varieties and debates", "There is a marked difference between varieties of the Hawaiian language spoken by most native Hawaiian elders and the Hawaiian Language taught in education, sometimes regarded as \"University Hawaiian\" or \"College Hawaiian\".", "\"University Hawaiian\" is often so different from the language spoken by elders that Native Hawaiian children may feel scared or ashamed to speak Hawaiian at home, limiting the language's domains to academia.", "Language varieties spoken by elders often includes Pidgin Hawaiian, Hawaiian Pidgin, Hawaiian-infused English, or another variety of Hawaiian that is much different from the \"University Hawaiian\" that was standardized and documented by colonists in the 19th century.The divide between \"University Hawaiian\" and varieties spoken by elders has created debate over which variety of Hawaiian should be considered \"real\" or \"authentic\", as neither \"University Hawaiian\" nor other varieties spoken by elders are free from foreign interference.", "Hawaiian cultural beliefs of divine intervention as the driving force of language formation expedites distrust in what might be seen as the mechanical nature of colonial linguistic paradigms of language and its role in the standardized variety of \"University Hawaiian\".", "Hawaiian's authenticity debate could have major implications for revitalization efforts as language attitudes and trends in existing language domains are both UNESCO factors in assessing a language's level of endangerment." ], [ "See also", "* The list of Hawaiian words and list of words of Hawaiian origin at Wiktionary, a free dictionary and Wikipedia sibling project* Languages of the United States* List of English words of Hawaiian origin* Pidgin Hawaiian (not to be confused with Hawaiian Pidgin)" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Reprinted: * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Niuolahiki Distance Learning Program (a moodle-based online study program for Hawaiian)* Ulukau – the Hawaiian electronic library, includes English to/from Hawaiian dictionary* digitized Hawaiian language newspapers published between 1834 and 1948* Hawaiian Vocabulary List (from the World Loanword Database)* Ka Haka ʻUla O Keʻelikōlani, College of Hawaiian Language * Kulaiwi – learn Hawaiian through distance learning courses* Hawaiian.saivus.org  – Detailed Hawaiian Language Pronunciation Guide* Traditional and Neo Hawaiian: The Emergence of a New Form of Hawaiian Language as a Result of Hawaiian Language Regeneration* \"Hale Pa'i\" Article about Hawaiian language newspapers printed at Lahainaluna on Maui.", "''Maui No Ka 'Oi Magazine'' Vol.12 No.3 (May 2008).", "* \"Speak Hawaiian\" Article about Hawaiian language resource on iPhone.", "(May 2010).", "* How to Pronounce \"Hawaiʻi\", Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D., 2008* OLAC Resources in and about the Hawaiian language* Article about Hawaiian Dictionary resource on iPhone in Honolulu Magazine.", "(May 2012)." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Second Polish Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Second Polish Republic''', at the time officially known as the '''Republic of Poland''', was a country in Central and Eastern Europe that existed between 7 October 1918 and 6 October 1939.The state was established in the final stage of World War I.", "The Second Republic ceased to exist in 1939, after Poland was invaded by Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union, and the Slovak Republic, marking the beginning of the European theatre of the Second World War.", "The Polish government-in-exile was established in Paris and later London after the fall of France in 1940.When, after several regional conflicts, most importantly the victorious Polish-Soviet war, the borders of the state were finalised in 1922, Poland's neighbours were Czechoslovakia, Germany, the Free City of Danzig, Lithuania, Latvia, Romania and the Soviet Union.", "It had access to the Baltic Sea via a short strip of coastline known as the Polish Corridor on either side of the city of Gdynia.", "Between March and August 1939, Poland also shared a border with the then-Hungarian governorate of Subcarpathia.", "In 1938, the Second Republic was the sixth largest country in Europe.", "According to the 1921 census, the number of inhabitants was 27.2 million.", "By 1939, just before the outbreak of World War II, this had grown to an estimated 35.1 million.", "Almost a third of the population came from minority groups: 13.9% Ruthenians; 10% Ashkenazi Jews; 3.1% Belarusians; 2.3% Germans and 3.4% Czechs and Lithuanians.", "At the same time, a significant number of ethnic Poles lived outside the country's borders.The Second Republic maintained moderate economic development.", "The cultural hubs of interwar PolandWarsaw, Kraków, Poznań, Wilno, and Lwówbecame major European cities and the sites of internationally acclaimed universities and other institutions of higher education.", "Although Polish Jews were some of the biggest supporters of Second Republic leader Józef Piłsudski, even after he returned to politics and consolidated power in 1926, in the 1930s the Republic began to openly discriminate against its Jewish (and, to a lesser extent, its Ukrainian) citizens, restricting Jewish entry into professions and placing limitations on Jewish businesses." ], [ "Name", "The official name of the state was the ''Republic of Poland''.", "In the Polish language, it was referred to as ''Rzeczpospolita Polska'' (abbr.", "''RP''), with the term ''Rzeczpospolita'' being a traditional name for the ''republic'' when referring to various Polish states, including the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (considered to be the First Polish Republic, ''Pierwsza Rzeczpospolita''), and later, the current Third Polish Republic.", "In other regionally-used official languages, the state was referred to as: ''Republik Polen'' in German, ''Польська Республіка'' (transcription: ''Polʹsʹka Respublika'') in Ukrainian, ''Польская Рэспубліка'' (transcription: ''Poĺskaja Respublika'') in Belarusian, and ''Lenkijos Respublika'', in Lithuanian.Between 14 November 1918 and 13 March 1919, the state was referred to in Polish as ''Republika Polska'', instead of ''Rzeczpospolita Polska''.", "Both terms mean the ''Republic''; however, ''republika'' is a general term, while ''Rzeczpospolita'' traditionally refers exclusively to Polish states.", "Additionally, between 8 November 1918 and 16 August 1919, the ''Journal of Laws of the State of Poland'' referred to the country as the ''State of Poland'' (Polish: ''Państwo Polskie'').Following the end of the Second World War, and the establishment of the later states of the Polish People's Republic and the Third Polish Republic, the historical state is referred to as the ''Second Polish Republic''.", "In the Polish language, the country is traditionally referred to as ''II Rzeczpospolita'' (''Druga Rzeczpospolita''), which means the ''Second Republic''." ], [ "Background", "After more than a century of partitions between the Austrian, the Prussian, and the Russian imperial powers, Poland re-emerged as a sovereign state at the end of the First World War in Europe in 1917–1918.The victorious Allies of the First World War confirmed the rebirth of Poland in the Treaty of Versailles of June 1919.It was one of the great stories of the 1919 Paris Peace Conference.", "Poland solidified its independence in a series of border wars fought by the newly formed Polish Army from 1918 to 1921.The extent of the eastern half of the interwar territory of Poland was settled diplomatically in 1922 and internationally recognised by the League of Nations.===End of the First World War===Over the course of the First World War (1914-1918), the German Empire gradually dominated the Eastern Front as the Imperial Russian Army fell back.", "German and Austro-Hungarian armies seized the Russian-ruled part of what became Poland.", "In a failed attempt to resolve the Polish question as quickly as possible, Berlin set up the puppet Kingdom of Poland on 14 January 1917, with a governing Provisional Council of State and (from 15 October 1917) a Regency Council (''Rada Regencyjna Królestwa Polskiego'').", "The Council administered the country under German auspices (see also Mitteleuropa), pending the election of a king.", "More than a month before Germany surrendered on 11 November 1918 and the war ended, the Regency Council had dissolved the Provisional Council of State and announced its intention to restore Polish independence (7 October 1918).", "With the notable exception of the Marxist-oriented Social Democratic Party of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (''SDKPiL''), most Polish political parties supported this move.", "On 23 October the Regency Council appointed a new government under Józef Świeżyński and began conscription into the Polish Army.===Formation of the Republic===Coat of arms of Poland, 1919-1927In 1918–1919, over 100 workers' councils sprang up on Polish territories; on 5 November 1918, in Lublin, the first Soviet of Delegates was established.", "On 6 November socialists proclaimed the Republic of Tarnobrzeg at Tarnobrzeg in Austrian Galicia.", "The same day the Socialist, Ignacy Daszyński, set up a Provisional People's Government of the Republic of Poland (''Tymczasowy Rząd Ludowy Republiki Polskiej'') in Lublin.", "On Sunday, 10 November at 7 a.m., Józef Piłsudski, newly freed from 16 months in a German prison in Magdeburg, returned by train to Warsaw.", "Piłsudski, together with Colonel Kazimierz Sosnkowski, was greeted at Warsaw's railway station by Regent Zdzisław Lubomirski and by Colonel Adam Koc.", "Next day, due to his popularity and support from most political parties, the Regency Council appointed Piłsudski as Commander in Chief of the Polish Armed Forces.", "On 14 November, the Council dissolved itself and transferred all its authority to Piłsudski as Chief of State (''Naczelnik Państwa'').", "After consultation with Piłsudski, Daszyński's government dissolved itself and a new government formed under Jędrzej Moraczewski.", "In 1918, the Kingdom of Italy became the first country in Europe to recognise Poland's renewed sovereignty.Miłosna, during the decisive Battle of Warsaw, August 1920Centres of government that formed at that time in Galicia (formerly Austrian-ruled southern Poland) included the National Council of the Principality of Cieszyn (established in November 1918), the Republic of Zakopane and the Polish Liquidation Committee (28 October).", "Soon afterward, the Polish–Ukrainian War broke out in Lwów (1 November 1918) between forces of the Military Committee of Ukrainians and the Polish irregular units made up of students known as the Lwów Eaglets, who were later supported by the Polish Army (see Battle of Lwów (1918), Battle of Przemyśl (1918)).", "Meanwhile, in western Poland, another war of national liberation began under the banner of the Greater Poland uprising (1918–1919).", "In January 1919, Czechoslovak forces attacked Polish units in the area of Trans-Olza (see Polish–Czechoslovak War).", "Soon afterwards, the Polish–Lithuanian War (ca 1919–1920) began, and, in August 1919, Polish-speaking residents of Upper Silesia initiated a series of three Silesian Uprisings.", "The most critical military conflict of that period, however, the Polish–Soviet War (1919-1921), ended in a decisive Polish victory." ], [ "Politics and government", "Marshal Józef Piłsudski, Chief of State (''Naczelnik Państwa'') between November 1918 and December 1922The Second Polish Republic was a parliamentary democracy from 1919 (see Small Constitution of 1919) to 1926, with the President having limited powers.", "The Parliament elected him, and he could appoint the Prime Minister as well as the government with the ''Sejm'''s (lower house's) approval, but he could only dissolve the ''Sejm'' with the Senate's consent.", "Moreover, his power to pass decrees was limited by the requirement that the Prime Minister and the appropriate other Minister had to verify his decrees with their signatures.", "Poland was one of the first countries in the world to recognise women's suffrage.", "Women in Poland were granted the right to vote on 28 November 1918 by a decree of General Józef Piłsudski.The major political parties at this time were the Polish Socialist Party, National Democrats, various Peasant Parties, Christian Democrats, and political groups of ethnic minorities (German: German Social Democratic Party of Poland, Jewish: General Jewish Labour Bund in Poland, United Jewish Socialist Workers Party, and Ukrainian: Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance).", "Frequently changing governments (see 1919 Polish legislative election, 1922 Polish legislative election) and other negative publicity the politicians received (such as accusations of corruption or the 1919 Polish coup attempt), made them increasingly unpopular.", "Major politicians at this time, in addition to General Piłsudski, included peasant activist Wincenty Witos (Prime Minister three times) and right-wing leader Roman Dmowski.", "Ethnic minorities were represented in the ''Sejm''; e.g.", "in 1928 – 1930 there was the Ukrainian-Belarusian Club, with 26 Ukrainian and 4 Belarusian members.The May Coup d'État (1926)After the Polish – Soviet war, Marshal Piłsudski led an intentionally modest life, writing historical books for a living.", "After he took power through a military coup in May 1926, he emphasised that he wanted to heal Polish society and politics of excessive partisan politics.", "His regime, accordingly, was called ''Sanacja'' in Polish.", "The 1928 parliamentary elections were still considered free and fair, although the pro-Piłsudski Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government won them.", "The following three parliamentary elections (in 1930, 1935 and 1938) were manipulated, with opposition activists sent to Bereza Kartuska prison (see also Brest trials).", "As a result, the pro-government party Camp of National Unity won huge majorities in them.", "Piłsudski died just after an authoritarian constitution was approved in the spring of 1935.During the last four years of the Second Polish Republic, the major politicians included President Ignacy Mościcki, Foreign Minister Józef Beck and the Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Army, Marshal Edward Rydz-Śmigły.", "The country was divided into 104 electoral districts, and those politicians who were forced to leave Poland founded Front Morges in 1936.The government that ruled the Second Polish Republic in its final years is frequently referred to as Piłsudski's colonels.===Military===The PZL.37 Łoś was a Polish twin-engine medium bomber.Interwar Poland had a large army of 270,000 soldiers on active duty: in 37 infantry divisions, 11 cavalry brigades, and two armored brigades, plus artillery units.", "Another 700,000 men served in the reserves.", "At the outbreak of the war, the Polish Army was able to put in the field almost one million soldiers, 4,300 guns, around 1,000 armored vehicles including in between 200 and 300 tanks (the majority of the armored vehicles were outclassed tankettes) and 745 aircraft (however, only around 450 of them were bombers and fighters available to fight as of 1 September 1939).The training of the Polish Army was thorough.", "The non-commissioned officers were a competent body of men with expert knowledge and high ideals.", "The officers, both senior and junior, constantly refreshed their training in the field and in the lecture hall, where modern technical achievement and the lessons of contemporary wars were demonstrated and discussed.", "The equipment of the Polish Army was less developed technically than that of Nazi Germany and its rearmament was slowed by confidence in Western European military support and by budget difficulties.The Polish command system at the level of the entire Polish military and the armies was obsolete.", "The generals in command of armies had to ask permission from the high command.", "The Polish military attempted to organize fronts made of army groups only when it was already too late during the Polish Defensive War in 1939." ], [ "Economy", "Polish pavilion at Expo 1937 in Paris Polish pavilion at the 1939 World's Fair in New York City After regaining its independence, Poland was faced with major economic difficulties.", "In addition to the devastation brought by the First World War, the exploitation of the Polish economy by the German and Russian occupying powers, and the sabotage performed by retreating armies, the new republic was faced with the task of economically unifying disparate economic regions, which had previously been part of different countries and different empires.", "Within the borders of the Republic were the remnants of three different economic systems, with five different currencies (the German mark, the Imperial Russian rouble, the Austrian krone, the Polish marka and the Ostrubel) and with little or no direct infrastructural links.", "The situation was so bad that neighbouring industrial centres, as well as major cities, lacked direct railway links because they had been parts of different jurisdictions and different empires.", "For example, there was no direct railway connection between Warsaw and Kraków until 1934.This situation was described by Melchior Wańkowicz in his book ''Sztafeta''.In addition to this was the massive destruction left after both the First World War and the Polish–Soviet War.", "There was also a great economic disparity between the eastern (commonly called ''Poland B'') and western (called ''Poland A'') parts of the country, with the western half, especially areas that had belonged to Prussia and the German Empire, being much more developed and prosperous.", "Frequent border closures and a customs war with Germany also had negative economic impacts on Poland.", "In 1924, Prime Minister Władysław Grabski, who was also the Economic Minister, introduced the ''złoty'' as a single common currency for Poland (replacing the marka), which remained a stable currency.", "The currency helped Poland to control the massive hyperinflation.", "It was the only country in Europe able to do this without foreign loans or aid.", "The average annual growth rate (GDP per capita) was 5.24% in 1920–29 and 0.34% in 1929–38.+ Year Int$.1922 1,3821929 2,1171930 1,9941931 1,8231932 1,6581933 1,5901934 1,5931935 1,5971936 1,6261937 1,91519382,182Hostile relations with neighbours were a major problem for the economy of interbellum Poland.", "In the year 1937, foreign trade with all neighbours amounted to only 21% of Poland's total.", "Trade with Germany, Poland's most important neighbour, accounted for 14.3% of Polish exchange.", "Foreign trade with the Soviet Union (0.8%) was virtually nonexistent.", "Czechoslovakia accounted for 3.9%, Latvia for 0.3%, and Romania for 0.8%.", "By mid-1938, after the ''Anschluss'' with Austria, Greater Germany was responsible for as much as 23% of Polish foreign trade.Poland's MS Batory, and MS Piłsudski, at the sea port of Gdynia, 18 December 1937Piłsudski's regime followed the conservative free-market economic tradition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth throughout its existence.", "Poland had one of the lowest taxation rates in Europe, with 9.3% of taxes as a distribution of national income.", "Piłsudski's regime was also heavily dependent on foreign investments and economies, with 45.4% of Polish equity capital controlled by foreign corporations.", "After the Great Depression, the Polish economy crumbled and failed to recover until Ignacy Mościcki's government introduced economic reforms with more government interventions with an increase in tax revenues and public spending after Piłsudski's death.", "These interventionist policies saw Poland's economy recover from the recession.The basis of Poland's gradual recovery after the Great Depression was the mass economic development plans of the new government (see Four Year Plan) under economist Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski, which oversaw the building of three key infrastructural elements.", "The first was the establishment of the Gdynia seaport, which allowed Poland to completely bypass Gdańsk (which was under heavy German pressure to boycott Polish coal exports).", "The second was construction of the 500-kilometre rail connection between Upper Silesia and Gdynia, called the Polish Coal Trunk-Line, which served freight trains with coal.", "The third was the creation of a central industrial district named COP – ''Centralny Okręg Przemysłowy'' (English: Central Industrial Region).", "Unfortunately, these developments were interrupted and largely destroyed by the German and Soviet invasion and the start of the Second World War.", "Other achievements of interbellum Poland included Stalowa Wola (a brand new city, built in a forest around a steel mill), Mościce (now a district of Tarnów, with a large nitrate factory), and the creation of a central bank called the Bank of Poland.", "There were several trade fairs, with the most popular being Poznań International Fair, Lwów's ''Targi Wschodnie'', and Wilno's ''Targi Północne''.", "Polish Radio had ten stations (see Radio stations in interwar Poland), with the eleventh one planned to be opened in the autumn of 1939.Furthermore, in 1935, Polish engineers began working on TV services.", "By early 1939, experts of the Polish Radio built four TV sets.", "The first movie broadcast by experimental Polish TV was ''Barbara Radziwiłłówna'', and by 1940, a regular TV service was scheduled to begin operation.Interbellum Poland was also a country with numerous social problems.", "Unemployment was high, and poverty in the countryside was widespread, which resulted in several cases of social unrest, such as the 1923 Kraków riot, and 1937 peasant strike in Poland.", "There were conflicts with national minorities, such as the Pacification of Ukrainians in Eastern Galicia (1930), relations with Polish neighbours were sometimes complicated (see Soviet raid on Stołpce, Polish–Czechoslovak border conflicts, and the 1938 Polish ultimatum to Lithuania).", "On top of this, there were natural disasters, such as the 1934 flood in Poland.===Major industrial centres===Coal power station in Łaziska Górne in 1939.It was the largest Polish power plant in the years 1927-1953 (Agfacolor).Eastern Trade Fair in Lwów, 1936Gdynia, a modern Polish seaport established in 1926Interbellum Poland was unofficially divided into two parts – better developed \"Poland A\" in the west, and underdeveloped \"Poland B\" in the east.", "Polish industry was concentrated in the west, mostly in Polish Upper Silesia, and the adjacent Lesser Poland's province of Zagłębie Dąbrowskie, where the bulk of coal mines and steel plants was located.", "Furthermore, heavy industry plants were located in Częstochowa (''Huta Częstochowa'', founded in 1896), Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski (''Huta Ostrowiec'', founded in 1837–1839), Stalowa Wola (brand new industrial city, which was built from scratch in 1937 – 1938), Chrzanów (''Fablok'', founded in 1919), Jaworzno, Trzebinia (oil refinery, opened in 1895), Łódź (the seat of Polish textile industry), Poznań (H. Cegielski – Poznań), Kraków and Warsaw (Ursus Factory).", "Further east, in Kresy, industrial centres included two major cities of the region – Lwów and Wilno (Elektrit).Besides coal mining, Poland also had deposits of oil in Borysław, Drohobycz, Jasło and Gorlice (see Polmin), potassium salt (TESP), and basalt (Janowa Dolina).", "Apart from already-existing industrial areas, in the mid-1930s an ambitious, state-sponsored project called the Central Industrial Region was started under Minister Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski.", "One of the characteristic features of the Polish economy in the interbellum was the gradual nationalisation of major plants.", "This was the case for the Ursus Factory (see Państwowe Zakłady Inżynieryjne) and several steelworks, such as ''Huta Pokój'' in Ruda Śląska – Nowy Bytom, ''Huta Królewska'' in Chorzów – Królewska Huta, ''Huta Laura'' in Siemianowice Śląskie, as well as ''Scheibler and Grohman Works'' in Łódź.===Transport===Industry and communications in Poland before the start of the Second World WarAccording to the 1939 ''Statistical Yearbook of Poland'', the total length of the railways in Poland (as of 31 December 1937) was .", "Rail density was per .", "Railways were very dense in the western part of the country, while in the east, especially Polesie, rail was non-existent in some counties.", "During the interbellum period, the Polish Government constructed several new lines, mainly in the central part of the country (see also Polish State Railroads Summer 1939).", "Construction of the extensive Warszawa Główna railway station was never finished due to the war, while Polish railways were famous for their punctuality (see Luxtorpeda, Strzała Bałtyku, Latający Wilnianin).In the interbellum, the road network of Poland was dense, but the quality of the roads was very poor – only 7% of all roads were paved and ready for automobile use, and none of the major cities were connected with each other by a good-quality highway.", "In 1939 the Poles built only one highway: 28 km of straight concrete road connecting the villages of Warlubie and Osiek (mid-northern Poland).", "It was designed by Italian engineer Piero Puricelli.The CWS T-1 ''Torpedo'' was the first serially-built car manufactured in Poland.In the mid-1930s, Poland had of roads, but only 58,000 had a hard surface (gravel, cobblestone or sett), and 2,500 were modern, with an asphalt or concrete surface.", "In different parts of the country, there were sections of paved roads, which suddenly ended, and were followed by dirt roads.", "The poor condition of the roads was the result of both long-lasting foreign dominance and inadequate funding.", "On 29 January 1931, the Polish Parliament created the State Road Fund, the purpose of which was to collect money for the construction and conservation of roads.", "The government drafted a 10-year plan, with road priorities: a highway from Wilno, through Warsaw and Kraków, to Zakopane (called Marshal Piłsudski Highway), asphalt highways from Warsaw to Poznań and Łódź, as well as a Warsaw ring road.", "However, the plan turned out to be too ambitious, with insufficient money in the national budget to pay for it.", "In January 1938, the Polish Road Congress estimated that Poland would need to spend three times as much money on roads to keep up with Western Europe.In 1939, before the outbreak of the war, LOT Polish Airlines, which was established in 1929, had its hub at Warsaw Okęcie Airport.", "At that time, LOT maintained several services, both domestic and international.", "Warsaw had regular domestic connections with Gdynia-Rumia, Danzig-Langfuhr, Katowice-Muchowiec, Kraków-Rakowice-Czyżyny, Lwów-Skniłów, Poznań-Ławica, and Wilno-Porubanek.", "Furthermore, in cooperation with Air France, LARES, Lufthansa, and Malert, international connections were maintained with Athens, Beirut, Berlin, Bucharest, Budapest, Helsinki, Kaunas, London, Paris, Prague, Riga, Rome, Tallinn, and Zagreb.===Agriculture===Manual harvesting in Żarki, Lesser Poland Voivodeship in August 1938 (Agfacolor).", "''Ciągówka Ursus'' was the first Polish farm tractor, produced from 1922 to 1927 in the Ursus Factory.Statistically, the majority of citizens lived in the countryside (75% in 1921).", "Farmers made up 65% of the population.", "In 1929, agricultural production made up 65% of Poland's GNP.", "After 123 years of partitions, regions of the country were very unevenly developed.", "The lands of the former German Empire were the most advanced; in Greater Poland, Upper Silesia and Pomerelia, farming and crops were on a Western European level.", "The situation was much worse in parts of Congress Poland, the Eastern Borderlands, and what was formerly Galicia, where agriculture was quite backward and primitive, with a large number of small farms, unable to succeed in either the domestic or international market.", "Another problem was the overpopulation of the countryside, which resulted in chronic unemployment.", "Living conditions were so bad in several eastern regions, such as the counties inhabited by the Hutsul minority, that there was permanent starvation.", "Farmers rebelled against the government (see: 1937 peasant strike in Poland), and the situation began to change in the late 1930s, due to the construction of several factories for the Central Industrial Region, which gave employment to thousands of rural and small town residents.===German trade===Beginning in June 1925, there was a customs' war, with the revanchist Weimar Republic imposing a trade embargo against Poland for nearly a decade; it involved tariffs and broad economic restrictions.", "After 1933 the trade war ended.", "The new agreements regulated and promoted trade.", "Germany became Poland's largest trading partner, followed by Britain.", "In October 1938, Germany granted a credit of 60,000,000 RM to Poland (120,000,000 ''zloty'', or £4,800,000) which was never realised, due to the outbreak of war.", "Germany would deliver factory equipment and machinery in return for Polish timber and agricultural produce.", "This new trade was to be ''in addition'' to the existing German-Polish trade agreements." ], [ "Education and culture", "Prime Minister Kazimierz Bartel, also a scholar and mathematicianIn 1919, the Polish government introduced compulsory education for all children aged 7 to 14, in an effort to limit illiteracy, which was widespread, especially in the former Russian Partition and the Austrian Partition of eastern Poland.", "In 1921, one-third of citizens of Poland remained illiterate (38% in the countryside).", "The process was slow, but by 1931 the illiteracy level had dropped to 23% overall (27% in the countryside) and further down to 18% in 1937.By 1939, over 90% of children attended school.", "In 1932, Janusz Jędrzejewicz, the Minister for Religion and Education, carried out a major reform which introduced two main levels of education: ''common school'' (''szkoła powszechna''), with three levels – 4 grades + 2 grades + 1 grade; and ''middle school'' (''szkoła średnia''), with two levels – 4 grades of comprehensive middle school and 2 grades of specified high school (classical, humanistic, natural and mathematical).", "A graduate of middle school received a ''small matura'', while a graduate of high school received a ''big matura'', which enabled them to seek university-level education.The National Museum in Warsaw (Polish: ''Muzeum Narodowe w Warszawie'') opened in 1938.Before 1918, Poland had three universities: Jagiellonian University, the University of Warsaw and Lwów University.", "The Catholic University of Lublin was established in 1918; Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, in 1919; and finally, in 1922, after the annexation of the Republic of Central Lithuania, Wilno University became the Republic's sixth university.", "There were also three technical colleges: the Warsaw University of Technology, Lwów Polytechnic and the AGH University of Science and Technology in Kraków, established in 1919.Warsaw University of Life Sciences was an agricultural institute.", "By 1939, there were around 50,000 students enrolled in further education.", "28% of students at universities were women, which was the second highest share in Europe.Polish science in the interbellum was renowned for its mathematicians gathered around the Lwów School of Mathematics, the Kraków School of Mathematics, as well as the Warsaw School of Mathematics.", "There were world-class philosophers in the Lwów–Warsaw school of logic and philosophy.", "Florian Znaniecki founded Polish sociological studies.", "Rudolf Weigl invented a vaccine against typhus.", "Bronisław Malinowski counted among the most important anthropologists of the 20th century.Marian Rejewski, Jerzy Różycki and Henryk Zygalski, Polish mathematicians and cryptologists who worked at breaking the German Enigma ciphers before and during the Second World WarIn Polish literature, the 1920s were marked by the domination of poetry.", "Polish poets were divided into two groups – the Skamanderites (Jan Lechoń, Julian Tuwim, Antoni Słonimski and Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz) and the Futurists (Anatol Stern, Bruno Jasieński, Aleksander Wat, Julian Przyboś).", "Apart from well-established novelists (Stefan Żeromski, Władysław Reymont), new names appeared in the interbellum – Zofia Nałkowska, Maria Dąbrowska, Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz, Jan Parandowski, Bruno Schultz, Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz, Witold Gombrowicz.", "Among other notable artists there were sculptor Xawery Dunikowski, painters Julian Fałat, Wojciech Kossak and Jacek Malczewski, composers Karol Szymanowski, Feliks Nowowiejski, and Artur Rubinstein, singer Jan Kiepura.Theatre was immensely popular in the interbellum, with three main centres in the cities of Warsaw, Wilno and Lwów.", "Altogether, there were 103 theatres in Poland and a number of other theatrical institutions (including 100 folk theatres).", "In 1936, different shows were seen by 5 million people, and main figures of Polish theatre of the time were Juliusz Osterwa, Stefan Jaracz, and Leon Schiller.", "Also, before the outbreak of the war, there were approximately one million radios (see Radio stations in interwar Poland)." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "The administrative division of the Second Republic was based on a three-tier system, referring to the administrative division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.", "On the lowest rung were the ''gminy'', local town and village governments akin to districts or parishes.", "These were then grouped together into ''powiaty'' (akin to counties), which, in turn, were grouped as ''województwa'' (voivodeships, akin to provinces).", "This administrative system passed into the modern Third Polish Republic.", "'''Polish voivodeships (1 April 1937)''' Car plates(starting 1937) Voivodeshipor city Capital Area (1930)in 1,000s km2 Population (1931)in 1,000s00–19 City of Warsaw Warsaw0.14 1,179.585–89 warszawskie Warsaw31.7 2,460.920–24 białostockie Białystok26.0 1,263.325–29 kieleckie Kielce22.2 2,671.030–34 krakowskie Kraków17.6 2,300.135–39 lubelskie Lublin26.6 2,116.240–44 lwowskie Lwów28.4 3,126.345–49 łódzkie Łódź20.4 2,650.150–54 nowogródzkie Nowogródek23.0 1,057.255–59 poleskie (Polesia) Brześć nad Bugiem36.7 1,132.260–64 pomorskie (Pomeranian) Toruń25.7 1,884.465–69 poznańskie Poznań28.1 2,339.670–74 stanisławowskie Stanisławów16.9 1,480.375–79 śląskie (Silesian) Katowice5.1 1,533.580–84 tarnopolskie Tarnopol16.5 1,600.490–94 wileńskie Wilno29.0 1,276.095–99 wołyńskie (Volhynian) Łuck35.7 2,085.6''The borders of several western and central voivodeships were revised on 1 April 1938''" ], [ "Demographics", "Historically, Poland was almost always a multiethnic country.", "This was especially true for the Second Republic, when independence was once again achieved in the wake of the First World War and the subsequent Polish–Soviet War, the latter war being officially ended by the Peace of Riga.", "The census of 1921 shows 30.8% of the population consisted of ethnic minorities, compared with a share of 1.6% (solely identifying with a non-Polish ethnic group) or 3.8% (including those identifying with both the Polish ethnicity and with another ethnic group) in 2011.The first spontaneous flight of about 500,000 Poles from the Soviet Union occurred during the reconstitution of sovereign Poland.", "In the second wave, between November 1919 and June 1924, some 1,200,000 people left the territory of the USSR for Poland.", "It is estimated that some 460,000 of them spoke Polish as the first language.", "According to the 1931 Polish Census: 68.9% of the population was Polish, 13.9% were Ukrainian, around 9% Jewish, 3.1% Belarusian, 2.3% German and 2.8% other, including Lithuanian, Czech, Armenian, Russian, and Romani.", "The situation of minorities was a complex subject and changed during the period.Poland was also a nation of many religions.", "In 1921, 16,057,229 Poles (approx.", "62.5%) were Roman (Latin) Catholics, 3,031,057 citizens of Poland (approx.", "11.8%) were Eastern Rite Catholics (mostly Ukrainian Greek Catholics and Armenian Rite Catholics), 2,815,817 (approx.", "10.95%) were Orthodox, 2,771,949 (approx.", "10.8%) were Jewish, and 940,232 (approx.", "3.7%) were Protestants (mostly Lutheran).By 1931, Poland had the second largest Jewish population in the world, with one-fifth of all the world's Jews residing within its borders (approx.", "3,136,000).", "The urban population of interbellum Poland was rising steadily; in 1921, only 24% of Poles lived in the cities, in the late 1930s, that proportion grew to 30%.", "In more than a decade, the population of Warsaw grew by 200,000, Łódź by 150,000, and Poznań – by 100,000.This was due not only to internal migration, but also to an extremely high birth rate.===Largest cities in the Second Polish Republic===Poland's population density in 1930Contemporary map showing language frequency in 1931 across Poland; red: more than 50% native Polish speakers; green: more than 50% native language other than Polish, including Yiddish, Hebrew, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Russian and less frequent othersPolish Legions in the First World War establishing the Polish-Czechoslovak border; they are pictured near the summit of Popadia in Gorgany during the formation of the Second Republic, 1915.CityPopulationVoivodeship1 Herb Warszawy Warsaw 1,289,000 Warsaw Voivodeship2 Herb Łodzi Łódź 672,000 Łódź Voivodeship3 Herb Lwowa Lwów 318,000 Lwów Voivodeship4 Herb Poznania Poznań 272,000 Poznań Voivodeship5 Herb Krakowa Kraków 259,000 Kraków Voivodeship6 Herb Wilna Wilno 209,000 Wilno Voivodeship7 Herb Bydgoszczy Bydgoszcz 141,000 Poznań Voivodeshiplater Pomeranian Voivodeship8 Herb Częstochowy Częstochowa 138,000 Kielce Voivodeship9 Herb Katowic Katowice 134,000 Silesian Voivodeship10 Herb Sosnowca Sosnowiec 130,000Kielce Voivodeship11 Herb Chorzowa Chorzów128,000 Silesian Voivodeship12 Herb Lublina Lublin122,000 Lublin Voivodeship13 Herb Gdyni Gdynia120,000 Pomeranian Voivodeship14 Herb Białegostoku Białystok 107,000 Białystok Voivodeship15 Herb Kalisza Kalisz 81,000 Poznań Voivodeship16 Herb Radomia Radom 78,000 Kielce Voivodeship17 Herb Torunia Toruń 62,000 Pomeranian Voivodeship18 Herb Stanisławowa Stanisławów 60,000 Stanisławów Voivodeship19 Herb Kielc Kielce 58,000 Kielce Voivodeship20 Herb Włocławka Włocławek 56,000Pomeranian Voivodeship21 Herb Grudziądza Grudziądz 54,000 Pomeranian Voivodeship22 Herb Brześcia nad Bugiem Brześć nad Bugiem 51,000 Polesie Voivodeship23 Herb Piotrkowa Trybunalskiego Piotrków Trybunalski 51,000 Łódź Voivodeship24 Herb Przemyśla Przemyśl 51,000 Lwów Voivodeship===Prewar population density=== Date Population Percentage ofrural population Population density(per km2) Ethnic minorities (total)30 September 1921 (census)27,177,000 75.4% 69.9 30,77%9 December 1931 (census)32,348,000 72.6% 82.6 31.09%31 December 1938 (estimate)34,849,000 70.0% 89.7 ''Upward trend in immigration''" ], [ "Status of ethnic minorities", "===Jews===From the 1920s, the Polish government excluded Jews from receiving government bank loans, public sector employment, and obtaining business licenses.", "From the 1930s, measures were taken against Jewish shops, Jewish export firms, ''Shechita'' as well as limitations being placed on Jewish admission to the medical and legal professions, Jews in business associations and the enrollment of Jews into universities.", "The political movement National Democracy (''Endecja'', from the abbreviation \"ND\") often organised anti-Jewish business boycotts.", "Following the death of Marshal Józef Piłsudski in 1935, the ''Endecja'' intensified their efforts, which triggered violence in extreme cases in smaller towns across the country.", "In 1937, the National Democracy movement passed resolutions that \"its main aim and duty must be to remove the Jews from all spheres of social, economic, and cultural life in Poland\".", "The government in response organised the Camp of National Unity (OZON), which in 1938 took control of the Polish ''Sejm'' and subsequently drafted anti-Semitic legislation similar to the Anti-Jewish laws in Germany, Hungary, and Romania.", "OZON advocated mass emigration of Jews from Poland, numerus clausus (see also Ghetto benches), and other limitations on Jewish rights.", "According to William W. Hagen, by 1939, prior to the war, Polish Jews were threatened with conditions similar to those in Nazi Germany.===Ukrainians===The pre-war government also restricted the rights of people who declared Ukrainian nationality, belonged to the Eastern Orthodox Church and inhabited the Eastern Borderlands of the Second Polish Republic.", "Ukrainian was restricted in every field possible, especially in governmental institutions, and the term \"Ruthenian\" was enforced in an attempt to ban the use of the term \"Ukrainian\".", "Ukrainians were categorised as uneducated second-class peasants or third world people, and rarely settled outside the Eastern Borderland region due to the prevailing Ukrainophobia and restrictions imposed.", "Numerous attempts at restoring the Ukrainian state were suppressed and any existent violence or terrorism initiated by the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists was emphasised to create the image of a \"brutal Eastern savage\"." ], [ "Geography", "The Second Polish Republic was mainly flat with an average elevation of above sea level, except for the southernmost Carpathian Mountains (after the Second World War and its border changes, the average elevation of Poland decreased to ).", "Only 13% of territory, along the southern border, was higher than .", "The highest elevation in the country was Mount Rysy, which rises in the Tatra Range of the Carpathians, approximately south of Kraków.", "Between October 1938 and September 1939, the highest elevation was Lodowy Szczyt (known in Slovak as ''Ľadový štít''), which rises above sea level.", "The largest lake was Lake Narach.Physical map of the Second Polish RepublicThe country's total area, after the annexation of Trans-Olza, was .", "It extended from north to south and from east to west.", "On 1 January 1938, total length of boundaries was , including: of coastline (out of which were made by the Hel Peninsula), the with Soviet Union, 948 kilometers with Czechoslovakia (until 1938), with Germany (together with East Prussia), and with other countries (Lithuania, Romania, Latvia, Danzig).", "The warmest yearly average temperature was in Kraków among major cities of the Second Polish Republic, at in 1938; and the coldest in Wilno ( in 1938).", "Extreme geographical points of Poland included Przeświata River in Somino to the north (located in the Braslaw county of the Wilno Voivodeship); Manczin River to the south (located in the Kosów county of the Stanisławów Voivodeship); Spasibiorki near railway to Połock to the east (located in the Dzisna county of the Wilno Voivodeship); and Mukocinek near Warta River and Meszyn Lake to the west (located in the Międzychód county of the Poznań Voivodeship).===Waters===Almost 75% of the territory of interbellum Poland was drained northward into the Baltic Sea by the Vistula (total area of drainage basin of the Vistula within boundaries of the Second Polish Republic was , the Niemen (), the Oder () and the Daugava ().", "The remaining part of the country was drained southward, into the Black Sea, by the rivers that drain into the Dnieper (Pripyat, Horyn and Styr, all together ) as well as Dniester ()" ], [ "Invasion of Poland in 1939", "Polish infantry marching, 1939Polish soldiers with anti-aircraft artillery near Warsaw Central Station during the first days of September 1939The beginning of the Second World War in September 1939 ended the sovereign Second Polish Republic.", "The German invasion of Poland began on 1 September 1939, one week after Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed the secret Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.", "On that day, Germany and Slovakia attacked Poland, and on 17 September the Soviets attacked eastern Poland.", "Warsaw fell to the Nazis on 28 September after a twenty-day siege.", "Open organised Polish resistance ended on 6 October 1939 after the Battle of Kock, with Germany and the Soviet Union occupying most of the country.", "Lithuania annexed the area of Wilno, and Slovakia seized areas along Poland's southern border – including Górna Orawa and Tatranská Javorina - which Poland had annexed from Czechoslovakia in October 1938.Poland did not surrender to the invaders, but continued fighting under the auspices of the Polish government-in-exile and of the Polish Underground State.", "After the signing of the German–Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Demarcation on 28 September 1939, Polish areas occupied by Nazi Germany either became directly incorporated into Nazi Germany, or became part of the General Government.", "The Soviet Union, following Elections to the People's Assemblies of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus (22 October 1939), annexed eastern Poland partly to the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, and partly to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (November 1939).7TP light tanksPolish war plans (Plan West and Plan East) failed as soon as Germany invaded in 1939.The Polish losses in combat against Germans (killed and missing in action) amounted to ca.", "70,000 men.", "Some 420,000 of them were taken prisoners.", "Losses against the Red Army (which invaded Poland on 17 September) added up to 6,000 to 7,000 of casualties and MIA, 250,000 were taken prisoners.", "Although the Polish Army – considering the inactivity of the Allies – was in an unfavourable position – it managed to inflict serious losses to the enemies: 20,000 German soldiers were killed or MIA, 674 tanks and 319 armored vehicles destroyed or badly damaged, 230 aircraft shot down; the Red Army lost (killed and MIA) about 2,500 soldiers, 150 combat vehicles and 20 aircraft.", "The Soviet invasion of Poland, and lack of promised aid from the Western Allies, contributed to the Polish forces defeat by 6 October 1939.ORP Orzeł was the lead ship of her class of submarines serving in the Polish Navy during the Second World War.A popular myth is that Polish cavalry armed with lances charged German tanks during the September 1939 campaign.", "This often repeated account, first reported by Italian journalists as German propaganda, concerned an action by the Polish 18th Lancer Regiment near Chojnice.", "This arose from misreporting of a single clash on 1 September 1939 near Krojanty, when two squadrons of the Polish 18th Lancers armed with sabers surprised and wiped out a German infantry formation with a mounted saber charge.", "Shortly after midnight the 2nd (Motorized) Division was compelled to withdraw by Polish cavalry, before the Poles were caught in the open by German armored cars.", "The story arose because some German armored cars appeared and gunned down 20 troopers as the cavalry escaped.", "Even this failed to persuade everyone to reexamine their beliefs—there were some who thought Polish cavalry had been improperly employed in 1939.Between 1945 and 1990, the Polish government-in-exile operated in London, presenting itself as the only legal and legitimate representative of the Polish nation and challenging the legitimicy of the communist government in Warsaw 1990, the last president in exile, Ryszard Kaczorowski, handed the presidential insignia to the newly elected President, Lech Wałęsa, signifying continuity between the Second and Third republics." ], [ "See also", "* History of Poland (1918–1939)* 1938 in Poland* 1939 in Poland* Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, also known as the \"First Polish Republic\" and described as a \"republic under the presidency of the King\"" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Davies, Norman.", "''God's Playground.", "A History of Poland.''", "Vol.", "2: 1795 to the Present.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981.pp 393–434* Latawaski, Paul.", "''Reconstruction of Poland 1914–23'' (1992)* Leslie, R. F. et al.", "''The History of Poland since 1863.''", "Cambridge U.", "Press, 1980.494 pp.", "* Lukowski, Jerzy and Zawadzki, Hubert.", "''A Concise History of Poland.''", "Cambridge U.", "Press, 2nd ed 2006.408pp.", "excerpts and search* Pogonowski, Iwo Cyprian.", "''Poland: A Historical Atlas.''", "Hippocrene, 1987.321 pp.", "new designed maps* Stachura, Peter D. ''Poland, 1918–1945: An Interpretive and Documentary History of the Second Republic'' (2004) online * Stachura, Peter D. ed.", "''Poland Between the Wars, 1918–1939'' (1998) essays by scholars* Watt, Richard M. ''Bitter Glory: Poland and Its Fate, 1918–1939'' (1998) excerpt and text search, comprehensive survey===Politics and diplomacy===* Cienciala, Anna M. \" The Foreign Policy of Józef Pi£sudski and Józef Beck, 1926–1939: Misconceptions and Interpretations\", ''The Polish Review'' (2011) 56#1 pp.", "111–151; earlier version.", "* Cienciala, Anna M. (1968), '' Poland the Western Powers, 1938–1939.A Study in the Interdependence of Eastern and Western Europe''.", "PDF, Kansas U.", "Press.", "* Cienciala, Anna M., and Titus Komarnicki (1984), '' From Versailles to Locarno, Keys to Polish Foreign Policy, 1919–1925'' PDF, Kansas U.", "Press.", "* Drzewieniecki, Walter M. \"The Polish Army on the Eve of World War II\", ''Polish Review'' (1981) 26#3 pp 54–64.", "* Garlicki, Andrzej.", "''Józef Piłsudski, 1867–1935'' (New York: Scolar Press 1995), scholarly biography; one-vol version of 4 vol Polish edition* Hetherington, Peter.", "''Unvanquished: Joseph Pilsudski, Resurrected Poland, and the Struggle for Eastern Europe'' (2012) 752pp excerpt and text search* Jędrzejewicz, W. ''Piłsudski.", "A Life for Poland'' (1982), scholarly biography* Kantorosinski, Zbigniew. ''", "Emblem of Good Will: a Polish Declaration of Admiration and Friendship for the United States of America.''", "Washington, DC: Library of Congress (1997)* Polonsky, A.", "''Politics in Independent Poland, 1921–1939: The Crisis of Constitutional Government'' (1972)* Riekhoff, H. von. ''", "German-Polish Relations, 1918–1933'' (Johns Hopkins University Press 1971)* Rothschild, J.", "''Piłsudski's Coup d'État'' (New York: Columbia University Press 1966)* Wandycz, P. S. ''Polish Diplomacy 1914–1945: Aims and Achievements'' (1988)* Wandycz, P. S. ''Soviet-Polish Relations, 1917–1921'' (Harvard University Press 1969)* Wandycz, P. S. ''The United States and Poland'' (1980)* Zamoyski, Adam.", "''Warsaw 1920: Lenin's Failed Conquest of Europe'' (2008) excerpt and text search* Zimmerman, Joshua D. ''Jozef Pilsudski: Founding Father of Modern Poland'' (Harvard University Press, 2022) online review===Social and economic topics===* Abramsky, C. et al.", "eds.", "''The Jews in Poland'' (Oxford: Blackwell 1986)* Blanke, R. ''Orphans of Versailles.", "The Germans in Western Poland, 1918–1939'' (1993)* Gutman, Y. et al.", "eds.", "''The Jews of Poland Between Two World Wars'' (1989).", "* Landau, Z. and Tomaszewski, J.", "''The Polish Economy in the Twentieth Century'' (Routledge, 1985)* Moklak, Jaroslaw.", "''The Lemko Region in the Second Polish Republic: Political and Interdenominational Issues 1918–1939'' (2013); covers Old Rusyns, Moscophiles and National Movement Activists, & the political role of the Greek Catholic and Orthodox Churches* Olszewski, A. K. ''An Outline of Polish Art and Architecture, 1890–1980'' (Warsaw: Interpress 1989.", ")* Roszkowski, W. ''Landowners in Poland, 1918–1939'' (Cambridge University Press, 1991)* Staniewicz, Witold. \"", "The Agrarian Problem in Poland between the Two World Wars\", ''Slavonic and East European Review'' (1964) 43#100 pp. 23–33.", "* Taylor, J. J.", "''The Economic Development of Poland, 1919–1950'' (Cornell University Press 1952)* Wynot, E. D. ''Warsaw Between the Wars.", "Profile of the Capital City in a Developing Land, 1918–1939'' (1983)* Żółtowski, A.", "''Border of Europe.", "A Study of the Polish Eastern Provinces'' (London: Hollis & Carter 1950)* Eva Plach, \"Dogs and dog breeding in interwar Poland\", ''Canadian Slavonic Papers'' 60.no 3–4===Primary sources===* ''Small Statistical Yearbook, 1932'' (''Mały rocznik statystyczny 1932'') complete text * ''Small Statistical Yearbook, 1939'' (''Mały rocznik statystyczny 1939'') complete text ===Historiography===* Kenney, Padraic.", "\"After the Blank Spots Are Filled: Recent Perspectives on Modern Poland\", ''Journal of Modern History'' (2007) 79#1 pp.", "134–61, in JSTOR* Polonsky, Antony.", "\"The History of Inter-War Poland Today\", ''Survey'' (1970) pp.", "143–159." ], [ "External links", "* Polish Tangos: The Unique Inter-War Soundtrack to Poland's Independence* Polish Cinema's Golden Age: The Glamour & Progress Of Poland's Inter-War Films* 'Pakty i Fakty': The Last-Ever Polish Interwar Cabaret Revue* Map of Poland (March 1920) from the Leventhal Map & Education Center at the Boston Public Library* Poland in 1938 just before WW2 early color movie summary by Eve Curie the daughter Marie Sklodowska-Curie" ] ]
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[ [ "Hedwig" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hedwig''' may refer to:" ], [ "People and fictional characters", "* Hedwig (name), a list of people and fictional characters with the given name* Grzegorz Hedwig (born 1988), Polish slalom canoeist* Johann Hedwig, (1730–1799), German botanist* Romanus Adolf Hedwig (1772–1806), German botanist, son of Johann Hedwig* Hedwig Jagiellon (disambiguation), a list of princesses* Hedwig (''Harry Potter''), Harry Potter's owl" ], [ "Other uses", "* Hedwig Fountain, a fountain in Zürich, Switzerland* Hedwig glass, a type of glass* Hedwig, code name of Red Hat Linux version 6.0, released in 1999* 476 Hedwig, a main-belt asteroid* Hedwig's Theme, main theme of the ''Harry Potter'' films" ], [ "See also", "* Hedwig Village, Texas, United States, a city* St. Hedwig (disambiguation)*" ] ]
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[ [ "HMS Resolution" ], [ "Introduction", "''Resolution in a gale'' by Willem van de Velde, the younger depicts the second ''Resolution'' c. 1678Several ships of the Royal Navy have borne the name '''HMS ''Resolution'''''.", "However, the first English warship to bear the name ''Resolution'' was actually the first rate ''Prince Royal'' (built in 1610 and rebuilt in 1641), which was renamed ''Resolution'' in 1650 following the inauguration of the Commonwealth, and continued to bear that name until 1660, when the name ''Prince Royal'' was restored.", "The name ''Resolution'' was bestowed on the first of the vessels listed below:* , a 50-gun third-rate frigate launched 1654 as ''Tredagh''; renamed ''Resolution'' 1660; destroyed after grounding by a Dutch fireship in the St James's Day Battle 4 August 1666.", "* , a 70-gun third-rate ship of the line launched 1667; rebuilt 1698; foundered in 1703.", "* , a 70-gun third rate launched 1705; run ashore to avoid capture 1707.", "* , a 70-gun third rate launched 1708; wrecked 1711.", "* , a 74-gun third rate launched 1758; run aground and lost 1759 at the Battle of Quiberon Bay.", "* , a 74-gun third rate launched 1770; broken up 1813.", "* , the vessel of Captain James Cook in his explorations.", "* , a cutter purchased 1779; went missing in the North Sea June 1797, presumed to have foundered.", "* , a in service from 1893 to 1914.", "* , a in service from 1915 to 1944.", "* , lead ship of the ballistic missile submarines in service from 1966 to 1994." ], [ "Battle honours", "Ships named ''Resolution'' of the Royal Navy have earned the following battle honours:*Kentish Knock, 1652*Gabbard, 1653*Scheveningen, 1653*Lowestoft, 1665*Four Days' Battle, 1666*Orfordness, 1666*Sole Bay, 1672*Schooneveld, 1673*Texel, 1673*Barfleur, 1692*Quiberon Bay, 1759*St Vincent, 1780*St Kitts, 1782*The Saints, 1782*Basque Roads, 1809*Atlantic, 1939−40*Norway, 1940" ], [ "Other British warships named ''Resolution''", "*''Resolution'' was a gunboat that the garrison at Gibraltar launched in June 1782 during the Great Siege of Gibraltar.", "She was one of 12.Each was armed with an 18-pounder gun, and received a crew of 21 men drawn from Royal Navy vessels stationed at Gibraltar.", "provided ''Resolution''s crew.", "* HMS ''Resolution'', a cutter in the West Indies, date of acquisition unknown and date of loss unknown.", "On 10 November 1800 Captain Peter Halkett of captured the Spanish sloop of war ''Resolution'' in the West Indies.", "She was armed with 18 guns and had a crew of 149 men, under the command of Don Francisco Darrichena.", "Halkett reported that she was the former British navy cutter ''Resolution''.", "''Resolution'' was in such an irreparable state that after a few days Halkett destroyed her.", "*''Resolution'', a victualing hoy, of 75 tons, offered for sale on 22 September 1828, lying at Deptford." ], [ "See also", "* , a survey ship of the Royal New Zealand Navy in service between 1997 and 2012.Named after the 1771-launched ''Resolution'' commanded by James Cook." ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* *Drinkwater, John (1905) ''A History of the Siege of Gibraltar, 1779–1783: With a Description and Account of that Garrison from the Earliest Times''.", "(J.", "Murray).", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Helen Keller" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Helen Adams Keller''' (June 27, 1880 – June 1, 1968) was an American author, disability rights advocate, political activist and lecturer.", "Born in West Tuscumbia, Alabama, she lost her sight and her hearing after a bout of illness when she was 19 months old.", "She then communicated primarily using home signs until the age of seven, when she met her first teacher and life-long companion Anne Sullivan.", "Sullivan taught Keller language, including reading and writing.", "After an education at both specialist and mainstream schools, Keller attended Radcliffe College of Harvard University and became the first deafblind person in the United States to earn a Bachelor of Arts degree.Keller was also a prolific author, writing 14 books and hundreds of speeches and essays on topics ranging from animals to Mahatma Gandhi.", "Keller campaigned for those with disabilities, for women's suffrage, labor rights, and world peace.", "In 1909, she joined the Socialist Party of America (SPA).", "She was a founding member of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU).Keller's autobiography, ''The Story of My Life'' (1903), publicized her education and life with Sullivan.", "It was adapted as a play by William Gibson, and this was also adapted as a film under the same title, ''The Miracle Worker''.", "Her birthplace has been designated and preserved as a National Historic Landmark.", "Since 1954 it has been operated as a house museum and sponsors an annual \"Helen Keller Day\".Keller was posthumously inducted into the Alabama Women's Hall of Fame in 1971.She was one of twelve inaugural inductees to the Alabama Writers Hall of Fame on June 8, 2015." ], [ "Early childhood and illness", "Keller's birthplace in Tuscumbia, AlabamaAnne Sullivan vacationing on Cape Cod in July 1888Keller was born on June 27, 1880, in Tuscumbia, Alabama, the daughter of Arthur Henley Keller (1836–1896), and Catherine Everett (Adams) Keller (1856–1921), known as \"Kate\".", "Her family lived on a homestead, Ivy Green, that Helen's paternal grandfather had built decades earlier.", "She had four siblings: two full siblings, Mildred Campbell (Keller) Tyson and Phillip Brooks Keller; and two older half-brothers from her father's first marriage, James McDonald Keller and William Simpson Keller.Keller's father worked for many years as an editor of the Tuscumbia ''North Alabamian''.", "He had served as a captain in the Confederate Army.The family was part of the slaveholding elite before the American Civil War, but lost status later.", "Her mother was the daughter of Charles W. Adams, a Confederate general.Keller's paternal lineage was traced to Casper Keller, a native of Switzerland.", "One of Helen's Swiss ancestors was the first teacher for the deaf in Zürich.", "Keller reflected on this fact in her first autobiography, asserting that \"there is no king who has not had a slave among his ancestors, and no slave who has not had a king among his\".At 19 months old, Keller contracted an unknown illness described by doctors as \"an acute congestion of the stomach and the brain\".", "Contemporary doctors believe it might have been meningitis, caused by the bacterium ''Neisseria meningitidis'' (meningococcus), or possibly ''Haemophilus influenzae''.", "(This could have caused the same symptoms, but is a less likely cause due to its 97% juvenile mortality rate at that time.)", "The illness left Keller both deaf and blind.", "She lived, as she recalled in her autobiography, \"at sea in a dense fog\".At that time, Keller was able to communicate somewhat with Martha Washington, who was two years older and the daughter of the family cook, and understood the girl's signs; by the age of seven, Keller had more than 60 home signs to communicate with her family, and could distinguish people by the vibration of their footsteps.In 1886, Keller's mother, inspired by an account in Charles Dickens' ''American Notes'' of the successful education of Laura Bridgman, a deaf and blind woman, dispatched the young Keller and her father to consult physician J. Julian Chisolm, an eye, ear, nose, and throat specialist in Baltimore, for advice.", "Chisholm referred the Kellers to Alexander Graham Bell, who was working with deaf children at the time.", "Bell advised them to contact the Perkins Institute for the Blind, the school where Bridgman had been educated.", "It was then located in South Boston.", "Michael Anagnos, the school's director, asked Anne Sullivan, a 20-year-old alumna of the school who was visually impaired, to become Keller's instructor.", "It was the beginning of a nearly 50-year-long relationship: Sullivan developed as Keller's governess and later her companion.Sullivan arrived at Keller's house on March 5, 1887, a day Keller would forever remember as \"my soul's birthday\".", "Sullivan immediately began to teach Helen to communicate by spelling words into her hand, beginning with \"d-o-l-l\" for the doll that she had brought Keller as a present.", "Keller initially struggled with lessons since she could not comprehend that every object had a word identifying it.", "When Sullivan was trying to teach Keller the word for \"mug\", Keller became so frustrated she broke the mug.", "Keller remembered how she soon began imitating Sullivan's hand gestures: \"I did not know that I was spelling a word or even that words existed.", "I was simply making my fingers go in monkey-like imitation.", "\"The next month Keller made a breakthrough, when she realized that the motions her teacher was making on the palm of her hand, while running cool water over her other hand, symbolized the idea of \"water\".", "Writing in her autobiography, ''The Story of My Life'', Keller recalled the moment: Keller quickly demanded that Sullivan sign the names of all the other familiar objects in her world.Helen Keller was viewed as isolated but was very in touch with the outside world.", "She was able to enjoy music by feeling the beat and she was able to have a strong connection with animals through touch.", "She was delayed at picking up language, but that did not stop her from having a voice." ], [ "Formal education", "In May 1888, Keller started attending the Perkins Institute for the Blind.", "In 1893, Keller, along with Sullivan, attended William Wade House and Finishing School.", "In 1894, Keller and Sullivan moved to New York to attend the Wright-Humason School for the Deaf, and to learn from Sarah Fuller at the Horace Mann School for the Deaf.", "In 1896, they returned to Massachusetts, and Keller entered The Cambridge School for Young Ladies before gaining admittance, in 1900, to Radcliffe College of Harvard University, where she lived in Briggs Hall, South House.", "Her admirer, Mark Twain, had introduced her to Standard Oil magnate Henry Huttleston Rogers, who, with his wife Abbie, paid for her education.", "In 1904, at the age of 24, Keller graduated as a member of Phi Beta Kappa from Radcliffe, becoming the first deaf-blind person to earn a Bachelor of Arts degree.", "She maintained a correspondence with the Austrian philosopher and pedagogue Wilhelm Jerusalem, who was one of the first to discover her literary talent.Determined to communicate with others as conventionally as possible, Keller learned to speak and spent much of her life giving speeches and lectures on aspects of her life.", "She learned to \"hear\" people's speech using the Tadoma method, which means using her fingers to feel the lips and throat of the speaker.", "She became proficient at using braille and using fingerspelling to communicate.", "Shortly before World War I, with the assistance of the Zoellner Quartet, she determined that by placing her fingertips on a resonant tabletop she could experience music played close by." ], [ "Companions", "Helen Keller in 1899 with lifelong companion and teacher Anne Sullivan.", "Photo taken by Alexander Graham Bell at his School of Vocal Physiology and Mechanics of Speech.Anne Sullivan stayed as a companion to Helen Keller long after she taught her.", "Sullivan married John Macy in 1905, and her health started failing around 1914.Polly Thomson (February 20, 1885 – March 21, 1960) was hired to keep house.", "She was a young woman from Scotland who had no experience with deaf or blind people.", "She progressed to working as a secretary as well, and eventually became a constant companion to Keller.Keller moved to Forest Hills, Queens, together with Sullivan and Macy, and used the house as a base for her efforts on behalf of the American Foundation for the Blind.", "\"While in her thirties Helen had a love affair, became secretly engaged, and defied her teacher and family by attempting an elopement with the man she loved.\"", "He was the fingerspelling socialist \"Peter Fagan, a young ''Boston Herald'' reporter who was sent to Helen's home to act as her private secretary when lifelong companion, Anne, fell ill.\"At the time, her father had died and Sullivan was recovering in Lake Placid and Puerto Rico.Keller had moved with her mother in Montgomery, Alabama.Anne Sullivan died in 1936, with Keller holding her hand, after falling into a coma as a result of coronary thrombosis.", "Keller and Thomson moved to Connecticut.", "They traveled worldwide and raised funds for the blind.", "Thomson had a stroke in 1957 from which she never fully recovered and died in 1960.Winnie Corbally, a nurse originally hired to care for Thomson in 1957, stayed on after Thomson's death and was Keller's companion for the rest of her life." ], [ "Career, writing and political activities", "glass replicas for \"medical and cosmetic reasons\".On January 22, 1916, Keller and Sullivan traveled to the small town of Menomonie in western Wisconsin to deliver a lecture at the Mabel Tainter Memorial Building.", "Details of her talk were provided in the weekly ''Dunn County News'' on January 22, 1916:Keller became a world-famous speaker and author.", "She was an advocate for people with disabilities, amid numerous other causes.", "She traveled to twenty-five different countries giving motivational speeches about Deaf people's conditions.", "She was a suffragist, pacifist, radical socialist, birth control supporter, and opponent of Woodrow Wilson.", "In 1915, she and George A. Kessler founded the Helen Keller International (HKI) organization.", "This organization is devoted to research in vision, health, and nutrition.In 1916, she sent money to the NAACP, as she was ashamed of the Southern un-Christian treatment of \"colored people\".In 1920, Keller helped to found the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU).", "She traveled to over 40 countries with Sullivan, making several trips to Japan and becoming a favorite of the Japanese people.", "Keller met every U.S. president from Grover Cleveland to Lyndon B. Johnson and was friends with many famous figures, including Alexander Graham Bell, Charlie Chaplin and Mark Twain.", "Keller and Twain were both considered political radicals allied with leftist politics.Keller, who believed that the poor were \"ground down by industrial oppression\", wanted children born into poor families to have the same opportunities to succeed that she had enjoyed.", "She wrote, \"I owed my success partly to the advantages of my birth and environment.", "I have learned that the power to rise is not within the reach of everyone.", "\"In 1909 Keller became a member of the Socialist Party; she actively campaigned and wrote in support of the working class from 1909 to 1921.Many of her speeches and writings were about women's right to vote and the effects of war; in addition, she supported causes that opposed military intervention.", "She had speech therapy to have her voice understood better by the public.", "When the Rockefeller-owned press refused to print her articles, she protested until her work was finally published.She supported Socialist Party candidate Eugene V. Debs in each of his campaigns for the presidency.", "Before reading ''Progress and Poverty'' by Henry George, Helen Keller was already a socialist who believed that Georgism was a good step in the right direction.", "She later wrote of finding \"in Henry George's philosophy a rare beauty and power of inspiration, and a splendid faith in the essential nobility of human nature\".Keller claimed that newspaper columnists who had praised her courage and intelligence before she expressed her socialist views now called attention to her disabilities.", "The editor of the ''Brooklyn Eagle'' wrote that her \"mistakes sprung out of the manifest limitations of her development\".", "Keller responded to that editor, referring to having met him before he knew of her political views:In 1912, Keller joined the Industrial Workers of the World (the IWW, known as the Wobblies), saying that parliamentary socialism was \"sinking in the political bog\".", "She wrote for the IWW between 1916 and 1918.In ''Why I Became an IWW'', Keller explained that her motivation for activism came in part from her concern about blindness and other disabilities:The last sentence refers to prostitution and syphilis, the former a \"life of shame\" that women used to support themselves, which contributed to their contracting syphilis.", "Untreated, it was a leading cause of blindness.", "In the same interview, Keller also cited the 1912 strike of textile workers in Lawrence, Massachusetts for instigating her support of socialism.Keller supported eugenics which had become popular with new understandings (as well as misapprehensions) of principles of biological inheritance.", "In 1915, she wrote in favor of refusing life-saving medical procedures to infants with severe mental impairments or physical deformities, saying that their lives were not worthwhile and they would likely become criminals.", "Keller also expressed concerns about human overpopulation.From 1946 to 1957 Keller visited 35 countries.", "In 1948 she went to New Zealand and visited deaf schools in Christchurch and Auckland.", "She met Deaf Society of Canterbury Life Member Patty Still in Christchurch." ], [ "Works", "Helen Keller, c. November 1912Keller wrote a total of 12 published books and several articles.One of her earliest pieces of writing, at age 11, was ''The Frost King'' (1891).", "There were allegations that this story had been plagiarized from ''The Frost Fairies'' by Margaret Canby.", "An investigation into the matter revealed that Keller may have experienced a case of cryptomnesia, which was that she had Canby's story read to her but forgot about it, while the memory remained in her subconscious.At age 22, Keller published her autobiography, ''The Story of My Life'' (1903), with help from Sullivan and Sullivan's husband, John Macy.", "It recounts the story of her life up to age 21 and was written during her time in college.In an article Keller wrote in 1907, she brought to public attention the fact that many cases of childhood blindness could be prevented by washing the eyes of every newborn baby with a disinfectant solution.", "At the time, only a fraction of doctors and midwives were doing this.", "Thanks to Keller's advocacy, this commonsense public health measure was swiftly and widely adopted.Keller wrote ''The World I Live In'' in 1908, giving readers an insight into how she felt about the world.", "''Out of the Dark'', a series of essays on socialism, was published in 1913.When Keller was young, Anne Sullivan introduced her to Phillips Brooks, who introduced her to Christianity, Keller famously saying: \"I always knew He was there, but I didn't know His name!", "\"Her spiritual autobiography, ''My Religion'', was published in 1927 and then in 1994 extensively revised and re-issued under the title ''Light in My Darkness''.", "It advocates the teachings of Emanuel Swedenborg, the Christian theologian and mystic who gave a spiritual interpretation of the teachings of the Bible and who claimed that the Second Coming of Jesus Christ had already taken place.Keller described the core of her belief in these words:* \"The Frost King\" (1891)* ''The Story of My Life'' (1903)* ''Optimism: an essay'' (1903) T. Y. Crowell and company* ''My Key of Life: Optimism'' (1904), Isbister* ''The World I Live In'' (1908)* ''The miracle of life'' (1909) Hodder and Stoughton* ''The song of the stone wall'' (1910) The Century co.* ''Out of the Dark'', a series of essays on socialism (1913)* ''Uncle Sam Is Calling'' (set to music by Pauline B.", "Story) (1917)* ''My Religion'' (1927; also called ''Light in My Darkness'')* ''Midstream: my later life'' (1929) Doubleday, Doran & company* ''We bereaved.", "''(1929) L. Fulenwider, Inc* ''Peace at eventide'' (1932) Methuen & co. ltd* ''Helen Keller in Scotland: a personal record written by herself'' (1933) Methuen, 212pp* ''Helen Keller's journal'' (1938) M. Joseph, 296pp* ''Let us have faith'' (1940), Doubleday, & Doran & co., inc.* ''Teacher: Anne Sullivan Macy: a tribute by the foster-child of her mind.''", "(1955), Doubleday (publisher)* ''The open door'' (1957), Doubleday, 140pp* ''The faith of Helen Keller'' (1967)* ''Helen Keller: her socialist years, writings and speeches'' (1967)===Archival material===The Helen Keller Archives in New York are owned by the American Foundation for the Blind.", "Archival material of Helen Keller stored in New York was lost when the Twin Towers were destroyed in the September 11 attacks." ], [ "Later life and death", "Keller had a series of strokes in 1961 and spent the last years of her life at her home.On September 14, 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom, one of the United States' two highest civilian honors.", "In 1965 she was elected to the National Women's Hall of Fame at the New York World's Fair.Keller devoted much of her later life to raising funds for the American Foundation for the Blind.", "She died in her sleep on June 1, 1968, at her home, Arcan Ridge, located in Easton, Connecticut, a few weeks short of her eighty-eighth birthday.", "A service was held at the Washington National Cathedral in Washington, D.C., and her body was cremated in Bridgeport, Connecticut.", "Her ashes were buried at the Washington National Cathedral next to her constant companions, Anne Sullivan and Polly Thomson." ], [ "Portrayals", "''Anne Sullivan – Helen Keller Memorial''—a bronze sculpture in Tewksbury, MassachusettsKeller's life has been interpreted many times.", "She and her companion Anne Sullivan appeared in a silent film, ''Deliverance'' (1919), which told her story in a melodramatic, allegorical style.She was also the subject of the Academy Award-winning 1954 documentary ''Helen Keller in Her Story'', narrated by her friend and noted theatrical actress Katharine Cornell.", "She was also profiled in ''The Story of Helen Keller'', part of the Famous Americans series produced by Hearst Entertainment.", "''The Miracle Worker'' is a cycle of dramatic works ultimately derived from her autobiography, ''The Story of My Life''.", "The various dramas each describe the relationship between Keller and Sullivan, depicting how the teacher led her from a state of almost feral wildness into education, activism, and intellectual celebrity.", "The common title of the cycle echoes Mark Twain's description of Sullivan as a \"miracle worker\".", "Its first realization was the 1957 ''Playhouse 90'' teleplay of that title by William Gibson, starring Patty McCormack as Helen and Teresa Wright as Sullivan.", "He adapted it for a Broadway production in 1959 and an Oscar-winning feature film in 1962, starring Anne Bancroft and Patty Duke.", "It was remade for television in 1979 and 2000.", "\"Helen Keller with Patty Duke, who portrayed Keller in both the play and film ''The Miracle Worker'' (1962).", "In a 1979 remake, Patty Duke played Anne Sullivan.An anime movie called ''The Story of Helen Keller: Angel of Love and Light'' was made in 1981.In 1984, Keller's life story was made into a TV movie called ''The Miracle Continues''.", "This film, a semi-sequel to ''The Miracle Worker'', recounts her college years and her early adult life.", "None of the early movies hint at the social activism that would become the hallmark of Keller's later life, although a Disney version produced in 2000 states in the credits that she became an activist for social equality.The Bollywood movie ''Black'' (2005) was largely based on Keller's story, from her childhood to her graduation.A documentary called ''Shining Soul: Helen Keller's Spiritual Life and Legacy'' was produced by the Swedenborg Foundation in the same year.", "The film focuses on the role played by Emanuel Swedenborg's spiritual theology in her life and how it inspired Keller's triumph over her triple disabilities of blindness, deafness and a severe speech impediment.On March 6, 2008, the New England Historic Genealogical Society announced that a staff member had discovered a rare 1888 photograph showing Helen and Anne, which, although previously published, had escaped widespread attention.", "Depicting Helen holding one of her many dolls, it is believed to be the earliest surviving photograph of Anne Sullivan Macy.Video footage showing Helen Keller speaking also exists.A biography of Helen Keller was written by the German Jewish author Hildegard Johanna Kaeser.A painting titled ''The Advocate: Tribute to Helen Keller'' was created by three artists from Kerala, India as a tribute to Helen Keller.", "The Painting was created in association with a non-profit organization Art d'Hope Foundation, artists groups Palette People and XakBoX Design & Art Studio.", "This painting was created for a fundraising event to help blind students in India and was inaugurated by M. G. Rajamanikyam, IAS (District Collector Ernakulam) on Helen Keller day (June 27, 2016).", "The painting depicts the major events of Helen Keller's life and is one of the biggest paintings done based on Helen Keller's life.In 2020, the documentary essay ''Her Socialist Smile'' by John Gianvito evolves around Keller's first public talk in 1913 before a general audience, when she started speaking out on behalf of progressive causes." ], [ "Posthumous honors", "state quarter.", "The braille on the coin is English Braille for HELEN KELLER.In 1999, Keller was listed in Gallup's Most Widely Admired People of the 20th century.In 1999, Keller was named one of ''Time'' magazine's 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century.In 2003, Alabama honored its native daughter on its state quarter.", "The Alabama state quarter is the only circulating U.S. coin to feature braille.The Helen Keller Hospital in Sheffield, Alabama, is dedicated to her.Streets are named after Helen Keller in Zürich, Switzerland; in the US; in Getafe, Spain; in Vienna, Austria; in Lod, Israel; in Lisbon, Portugal; and in Caen, France.A preschool for the deaf and hard of hearing in Mysore, India, was originally named after Helen Keller by its founder, K. K. Srinivasan.In 1973, Helen Keller was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame.A stamp was issued in 1980 by the United States Postal Service depicting Keller and Sullivan, to mark the centennial of Keller's birth.", "That year her birth was also recognized by a presidential proclamation from U.S. President Jimmy Carter.", "Pennsylvania annually commemorates her June 27 birthday as Helen Keller Day.On October 7, 2009, the State of Alabama donated a bronze statue of Keller to the National Statuary Hall Collection, as a replacement for its 1908 statue of education reformer Jabez Lamar Monroe Curry." ], [ "See also", "* Helen Keller Services for the Blind* Laura Bridgman* List of peace activists* Perkins School for the Blind* Ragnhild Kåta" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Further reading", "* Einhorn, Lois J.", "(1998).", "''Helen Keller, Public Speaker: Sightless But Seen, Deaf But Heard'' (Great American Orators)* Harrity, Richard and Martin, Ralph G. (1962).", "''The Three Lives of Helen Keller''.", "* Herrmann, Dorothy (1998).", "''Helen Keller: A Life''.", "New York: Knopf.", ".", "* * Lash, Joseph P. (1980).", "''Helen and Teacher: The Story of Helen Keller and Anne Sullivan Macy''.", "New York: Delacorte Press.", ".", "* * Brooks, Van Wyck (1956).", "''Helen Keller Sketch for a Portrait''.===Primary sources===* Keller, Helen with Anne Sullivan and John A. Macy (1903).", "''The Story of My Life''.", "New York: Doubleday, Page & Co." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * * Helen Keller and Anne Sullivan Collections at Perkins School for the Blind" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Haddocks' Eyes" ], [ "Introduction", "Illustration by John Tenniel \"'''Haddocks' Eyes'''\" is the nickname of the name of a song sung by The White Knight from Lewis Carroll's 1871 novel ''Through the Looking-Glass'', chapter VIII.", "\"Haddocks' Eyes\" is an example used to elaborate on the symbolic status of the concept of \"name\": a name as identification marker may be assigned to anything, including another name, thus introducing different levels of symbolization.", "It has been discussed in several works on logic and philosophy." ], [ "Naming", "The White Knight explains to Alice a confusing nomenclature for the song.To summarize:*The song's '''name''' is '''called''' ''Haddocks' Eyes''*The song's '''name''' is ''The Aged Aged Man''*The song is '''called''' ''Ways and Means''*The song '''is''' ''A-sitting on a Gate''The complicated terminology distinguishing between 'the song, what the song is called, the name of the song, and what the name of the song is called' both uses and mentions the use–mention distinction." ], [ "The song", "The White Knight sings the song to a tune he claims as his own invention, but which Alice recognises as \"I give thee all, I can no more\".", "By the time Alice heard it, she was already tired of poetry.The song parodies the plot, but not the style or metre, of \"Resolution and Independence\" by William Wordsworth." ], [ "Upon the Lonely Moor", "Like \"Jabberwocky,\" another poem published in ''Through the Looking Glass,'' \"Haddocks’ Eyes\" appears to have been revised over the course of many years.", "In 1856, Carroll published the following poem anonymously under the name ''Upon the Lonely Moor''.", "It bears an obvious resemblance to \"Haddocks' Eyes.\"" ], [ "See also", "*Nonsense verse" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hoosier" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hoosier''' is the official demonym for the people of the U.S. state of Indiana.", "The origin of the term remains a matter of debate, but \"Hoosier\" was in general use by the 1840s, having been popularized by Richmond resident John Finley's 1833 poem \"The Hoosier's Nest\".", "Indiana adopted the nickname \"The Hoosier State\" more than 150 years ago.", "\"Hoosier\" is used in the names of numerous Indiana-based businesses and organizations.", "\"Hoosiers\" is also the name of the Indiana University athletic teams.", "As there is no accepted embodiment of a Hoosier, the IU schools are represented through their letters and colors alone.", "In addition to universal acceptance by residents of Indiana, the term is also the official demonym according to the U.S. Government Publishing Office (GPO) as of 2017 (the GPO previously identified Indiana residents as \"Indianians\")." ], [ "Origin", "In addition to \"The Hoosier's Nest,\" the term also appeared in the ''Indianapolis Journal''s \"Carrier's Address\" on January 1, 1833.There are many suggestions for the derivation of the word but none is universally accepted.", "In 1833 the Pittsburgh ''Statesman'' said the term had been in use for \"some time past\" and suggested it originated from census workers calling \"Who's here?\".", "Also in 1833, former Indiana Governor James B. Ray began publishing a newspaper titled ''The Hoosier''.===Scholarship===In 1900, Meredith Nicholson wrote ''The Hoosiers'', an early attempt to study the etymology of the word as applied to Indiana residents.", "Jacob Piatt Dunn, longtime secretary of the Indiana Historical Society, published ''The Word Hoosier'', a similar attempt, in 1907.Both chronicled some of the popular and satirical etymologies circulating at the time and focused much of their attention on the use of the word in the Upland South to refer to woodsmen, yokels, and rough people.", "Dunn traced the word back to the Cumbrian , meaning anything unusually large, derived from the Old English ''hoo'' (as at Sutton Hoo), meaning \"high\" and \"hill\".", "The importance of immigrants from northern England and southern Scotland was reflected in numerous placenames including the Cumberland Mountains, the Cumberland River, and the Cumberland Gap.", "Nicholson defended the people of Indiana against such an association, while Dunn concluded that the early settlers had adopted the nickname self-mockingly and that it had lost its negative associations by the time of Finley's poem.Johnathan Clark Smith subsequently showed that Nicholson and Dunn's earliest sources within Indiana were mistaken.", "A letter by James Curtis cited by Dunn and others as the earliest known use of the term was actually written in 1846, not 1826.Similarly, the use of the term in an 1859 newspaper item quoting an 1827 diary entry by Sandford Cox was more likely an editorial comment and not from the original diary.", "Smith's earliest sources led him to argue that the word originated as a term along the Ohio River for flatboatmen from Indiana and did not acquire its pejorative meanings until 1836, ''after'' Finley's poem.William Piersen, a history professor at Fisk University, argued for a connection to the Methodist minister Rev.", "Harry Hosier (–May 1806), who evangelized the American frontier at the beginning of the 19th century as part of the Second Great Awakening.", "\"Black Harry\" had been born a slave in North Carolina and sold north to Baltimore, Maryland, before gaining his freedom and beginning his ministry around the end of the American Revolution.", "He was a close associate and personal friend of Bishop Francis Asbury, the \"Father of the American Methodist Church\".", "Benjamin Rush said of him that \"making allowances for his illiteracy, he was the greatest orator in America\".", "His sermons called on Methodists to reject slavery and to champion the common working man.", "Piersen proposed that Methodist communities inspired by his example took or were given a variant spelling of his name (possibly influenced by the \"yokel\" slang) during the decades after his ministry.According to Washington County newspaper reports of the time, Abraham Stover was Colonel of the Indiana Militia.", "He was a colorful figure in early Washington County history.", "Along with his son-in-law, John B. Brough, he was considered one of the two strongest men in Washington County.", "He was always being challenged to prove his might, and seems to have won several fights over men half his age.", "After whipping six or eight men in a fist fight in Louisville, Kentucky, he cracked his fists and said, \"Ain't I a husher\", which was changed in the news to \"Hoosier\", and thus originated the name of Hoosier in connection with Indiana men.Jorge Santander Serrano, a PhD student from Indiana University, has also suggested that ''Hoosier'' might come from the French words for 'redness', , or 'red-faced', .", "According to this hypothesis, the early pejorative use of the word ''Hoosier'' may have a link to the color red (\"rouge\" in French) which is associated with indigenous peoples, pejoratively called \"red men\" or \"red-skins\", and also with poor white people by calling them \"red-necks\".===Folk etymologies=======\"Who'sh 'ere?", "\"====Humorous folk etymologies for the term \"hoosier\" have a long history, as recounted by Dunn in ''The Word Hoosier''.One account traces the word to the necessary caution of approaching houses on the frontier.", "In order to avoid being shot, a traveler would call out from afar to let themselves be known.", "The inhabitants of the cabin would then reply \"Who's here?\"", "which in the Appalachian English of the early settlers slurred into \"Who'sh 'ere?\"", "and thence into \"Hoosier?\"", "A variant of this account had the Indiana pioneers calling out \"Who'sh 'ere?\"", "as a general greeting and warning when hearing someone in the bushes and tall grass, to avoid shooting a relative or friend in error.The poet James Whitcomb Riley facetiously suggested that the fierce brawling that took place in Indiana involved enough biting that the expression \"Whose ear?\"", "became notable.", "This arose from or inspired the story of two 19th-century French immigrants brawling in a tavern in the foothills of southern Indiana.", "One was cut and a third Frenchman walked in to see an ear on the dirt floor of the tavern, prompting him to slur out \"Whosh ear?\"====Mr.", "Hoosier's men====One possible origin of the term \"Hoosier\" came from the construction of the Louisville and Portland Canal (1826–1833).Two related stories trace the origin of the term to gangs of workers from Indiana under the direction of a Mr. Hoosier.The account related by Dunn is that a Louisville contractor named Samuel Hoosier preferred to hire workers from communities on the Indiana side of the Ohio River like New Albany rather than Kentuckians.", "During the excavation of the first canal around the Falls of the Ohio from 1826 to 1833, his employees became known as \"Hoosier's men\" and then simply \"Hoosiers\".", "The usage spread from these hard-working laborers to all of the Indiana boatmen in the area and then spread north with the settlement of the state.", "The story was told to Dunn in 1901 by a man who had heard it from a Hoosier relative while traveling in southern Tennessee.", "Dunn could not find any family of the given name in any directory in the region or anyone else in southern Tennessee who had heard the story and accounted himself dubious.", "This version was subsequently retold by Gov.", "Evan Bayh and Sen. Vance Hartke, who introduced the story into the ''Congressional Record'' in 1975, and matches the timing and location of Smith's subsequent research.", "However, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has been unable to find any record of a Hoosier or Hosier in surviving canal company records." ], [ "Other uses", "The word \"hoosier\" has been used in Greater St. Louis as a pejorative for an unintelligent or uncultured person.", "The word is also encountered in sea shanties.", "In the book ''Shanties from the Seven Seas'' by Stan Hugill, in reference to its former use to denote cotton-stowers, who would move bales of cotton to and from the holds of ships and force them in tightly by means of jackscrews.A Hoosier cabinet, often shortened to \"hoosier\", is a type of free-standing kitchen cabinet popular in the early decades of the twentieth century.", "Almost all of these cabinets were produced by companies located in Indiana and the name derives from the largest of them, the Hoosier Manufacturing Co. of New Castle, Indiana.", "Other Indiana businesses include Hoosier Racing Tire and the Hoosier Bat Company, manufacturer of wooden baseball bats.The RCA Dome, former home of the Indianapolis Colts, was known as the \"Hoosier Dome\" before RCA purchased the naming rights in 1994.The RCA Dome was replaced by Lucas Oil Stadium in 2008." ], [ "In popular culture", " * Indiana native Kurt Vonnegut's book ''Cat's Cradle'' describes this identification as an example of a granfalloon.", "*In the movie ''The Outlaw Josey Wales'' (starring Clint Eastwood), a shopkeeper states \"I'm a Hoosier\" to the disgust of an elderly customer.", "* The HBO miniseries ''The Pacific'' refers to PFC Bill Smith by the nickname \"Hoosier\", as do the two Marine memoirs on which the series is based.", "* Adam Savage, host of the Discovery Channel series ''MythBusters'', often refers to co-host Jamie Hyneman as a Hoosier, the latter having been raised on a farm in Indiana, and attended Indiana University.", "*Serial killer Carl Panzram's last words were reportedly, \"Hurry it up, you Hoosier bastard!", "I could kill 10 men while you're fooling around!", "\"*In the movie ''We're No Angels'', Sean Penn's character says when asked to wear work clothes as a disguise, \"Whaddya think I am, a Hoosier or something?", "\"*In the book ''Donnie Brasco: My Undercover Life in the Mafia'', gangster Benjamin \"Lefty Guns\" Ruggiero uses Hoosier as an epithet.", "*''Hoosiers'', a 1986 sports film about a small-town Indiana high school basketball team that wins the state championship.", "*The Frugal Hoosier is a fictional discount grocery store depicted in the ABC sitcom ''The Middle'', based in the fictional Indiana town of Orson.", "*In the NBC sitcom ''Parks and Recreation'' episode \"Soulmates,\" a fictional online dating site called \"hoosiermate.com\" was the main subject.", "The series is set in Indiana.", "* The US Secret Service has designated the code name \"Hoosier\" for former US Vice President, former Indiana Governor, and Indiana native Mike Pence.", "* On his podcast, retired Indianapolis Colts punter Pat McAfee defined the term as \"a human who is willing to stand up in the face of adversity, chug two beers, and do anything he can to make America a better place.", "That's what a Hoosier is.", "\"* In 1987, then-United States Senator Dan Quayle of Indiana requested of the Merriam-Webster dictionary to redefine the term \"Hoosier\" to mean \"someone who is smart, resourceful, skillful, a winner, unique and brilliant.\"", "The dictionary denied the request." ], [ "See also", "*" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* \" What is a Hoosier?", "\", by the Indiana Historical Bureau* \" Hoosier\", by the Indiana University Alumni Association * \" What is a 'Hoosier'\", by Hoosier National Forest * \" Explanation of 'Hoosiers'\", by Dave Barry" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Horner's method" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics and computer science, '''Horner's method''' (or '''Horner's scheme''') is an algorithm for polynomial evaluation.", "Although named after William George Horner, this method is much older, as it has been attributed to Joseph-Louis Lagrange by Horner himself, and can be traced back many hundreds of years to Chinese and Persian mathematicians.", "After the introduction of computers, this algorithm became fundamental for computing efficiently with polynomials.The algorithm is based on '''Horner's rule''', in which a polynomial is written in ''nested form''::This allows the evaluation of a polynomial of degree with only multiplications and additions.", "This is optimal, since there are polynomials of degree that cannot be evaluated with fewer arithmetic operations.Alternatively, '''Horner's method''' also refers to a method for approximating the roots of polynomials, described by Horner in 1819.It is a variant of the Newton–Raphson method made more efficient for hand calculation by the application of Horner's rule.", "It was widely used until computers came into general use around 1970." ], [ "Polynomial evaluation and long division", "Given the polynomial:where are constant coefficients, the problem is to evaluate the polynomial at a specific value of For this, a new sequence of constants is defined recursively as follows::Then is the value of .To see why this works, the polynomial can be written in the form:Thus, by iteratively substituting the into the expression,: Now, it can be proven that;:This expression constitutes Horner's practical application, as it offers a very quick way of determining the outcome of;:with (which is equal to ) being the division's remainder, as is demonstrated by the examples below.", "If is a root of , then (meaning the remainder is ), which means you can factor as .", "To finding the consecutive -values, you start with determining , which is simply equal to .", "Then you then work recursively using the formula;:till you arrive at .=== Examples ===Evaluate for .We use synthetic division as follows: ''x''│ ''x'' ''x'' ''x'' ''x'' 3 │ 2 −6 2 −1 │ 6 0 6 └──────────────────────── 2 0 2 5The entries in the third row are the sum of those in the first two.", "Each entry in the second row is the product of the -value ( in this example) with the third-row entry immediately to the left.", "The entries in the first row are the coefficients of the polynomial to be evaluated.", "Then the remainder of on division by is .But by the polynomial remainder theorem, we know that the remainder is .", "Thus, .In this example, if we can see that , the entries in the third row.", "So, synthetic division is based on Horner's method.As a consequence of the polynomial remainder theorem, the entries in the third row are the coefficients of the second-degree polynomial, the quotient of on division by .", "The remainder is .", "This makes Horner's method useful for polynomial long division.Divide by : 2 │ 1 −6 11 −6 │ 2 −8 6 └──────────────────────── 1 −4 3 0The quotient is .Let and .", "Divide by using Horner's method.", "0.5 │ 4 -6 0 3 -5 │ 2 -2 -1 1 └─────────────────────── 2 -2 -1 1 -4The third row is the sum of the first two rows, divided by .", "Each entry in the second row is the product of with the third-row entry to the left.", "The answer is:=== Efficiency ===Evaluation using the monomial form of a degree polynomial requires at most additions and multiplications, if powers are calculated by repeated multiplication and each monomial is evaluated individually.", "The cost can be reduced to additions and multiplications by evaluating the powers of by iteration.", "If numerical data are represented in terms of digits (or bits), then the naive algorithm also entails storing approximately times the number of bits of : the evaluated polynomial has approximate magnitude , and one must also store itself.", "By contrast, Horner's method requires only additions and multiplications, and its storage requirements are only times the number of bits of .", "Alternatively, Horner's method can be computed with fused multiply–adds.", "Horner's method can also be extended to evaluate the first derivatives of the polynomial with additions and multiplications.Horner's method is optimal, in the sense that any algorithm to evaluate an arbitrary polynomial must use at least as many operations.", "Alexander Ostrowski proved in 1954 that the number of additions required is minimal.", "Victor Pan proved in 1966 that the number of multiplications is minimal.", "However, when is a matrix, Horner's method is not optimal.This assumes that the polynomial is evaluated in monomial form and no preconditioning of the representation is allowed, which makes sense if the polynomial is evaluated only once.", "However, if preconditioning is allowed and the polynomial is to be evaluated many times, then faster algorithms are possible.", "They involve a transformation of the representation of the polynomial.", "In general, a degree- polynomial can be evaluated using only +2 multiplications and additions.====Parallel evaluation====A disadvantage of Horner's rule is that all of the operations are sequentially dependent, so it is not possible to take advantage of instruction level parallelism on modern computers.", "In most applications where the efficiency of polynomial evaluation matters, many low-order polynomials are evaluated simultaneously (for each pixel or polygon in computer graphics, or for each grid square in a numerical simulation), so it is not necessary to find parallelism within a single polynomial evaluation.If, however, one is evaluating a single polynomial of very high order, it may be useful to break it up as follows::More generally, the summation can be broken into ''k'' parts::where the inner summations may be evaluated using separate parallel instances of Horner's method.", "This requires slightly more operations than the basic Horner's method, but allows ''k''-way SIMD execution of most of them.", "Modern compilers generally evaluate polynomials this way when advantageous, although for floating-point calculations this requires enabling (unsafe) reassociative math.===Application to floating-point multiplication and division===Horner's method is a fast, code-efficient method for multiplication and division of binary numbers on a microcontroller with no hardware multiplier.", "One of the binary numbers to be multiplied is represented as a trivial polynomial, where (using the above notation) , and .", "Then, ''x'' (or ''x'' to some power) is repeatedly factored out.", "In this binary numeral system (base 2), , so powers of 2 are repeatedly factored out.====Example====For example, to find the product of two numbers (0.15625) and ''m''::====Method====To find the product of two binary numbers ''d'' and ''m''::1.A register holding the intermediate result is initialized to ''d''.", ":2.Begin with the least significant (rightmost) non-zero bit in ''m''.::2b.", "Count (to the left) the number of bit positions to the next most significant non-zero bit.", "If there are no more-significant bits, then take the value of the current bit position.::2c.", "Using that value, perform a left-shift operation by that number of bits on the register holding the intermediate result:3.If all the non-zero bits were counted, then the intermediate result register now holds the final result.", "Otherwise, add d to the intermediate result, and continue in step 2 with the next most significant bit in ''m''.====Derivation====In general, for a binary number with bit values () the product is:At this stage in the algorithm, it is required that terms with zero-valued coefficients are dropped, so that only binary coefficients equal to one are counted, thus the problem of multiplication or division by zero is not an issue, despite this implication in the factored equation::The denominators all equal one (or the term is absent), so this reduces to:or equivalently (as consistent with the \"method\" described above):In binary (base-2) math, multiplication by a power of 2 is merely a register shift operation.", "Thus, multiplying by 2 is calculated in base-2 by an arithmetic shift.", "The factor (2−1) is a right arithmetic shift, a (0) results in no operation (since 20 = 1 is the multiplicative identity element), and a (21) results in a left arithmetic shift.The multiplication product can now be quickly calculated using only arithmetic shift operations, addition and subtraction.The method is particularly fast on processors supporting a single-instruction shift-and-addition-accumulate.", "Compared to a C floating-point library, Horner's method sacrifices some accuracy, however it is nominally 13 times faster (16 times faster when the \"canonical signed digit\" (CSD) form is used) and uses only 20% of the code space.=== Other applications ===Horner's method can be used to convert between different positional numeral systems – in which case ''x'' is the base of the number system, and the ''a''''i'' coefficients are the digits of the base-''x'' representation of a given number – and can also be used if ''x'' is a matrix, in which case the gain in computational efficiency is even greater.", "However, for such cases faster methods are known." ], [ "Polynomial root finding", "Using the long division algorithm in combination with Newton's method, it is possible to approximate the real roots of a polynomial.", "The algorithm works as follows.", "Given a polynomial of degree with zeros make some initial guess such that .", "Now iterate the following two steps:# Using Newton's method, find the largest zero of using the guess .# Using Horner's method, divide out to obtain .", "Return to step 1 but use the polynomial and the initial guess .These two steps are repeated until all real zeros are found for the polynomial.", "If the approximated zeros are not precise enough, the obtained values can be used as initial guesses for Newton's method but using the full polynomial rather than the reduced polynomials.=== Example ===Polynomial root finding using Horner's methodConsider the polynomial: which can be expanded to: From the above we know that the largest root of this polynomial is 7 so we are able to make an initial guess of 8.Using Newton's method the first zero of 7 is found as shown in black in the figure to the right.", "Next is divided by to obtain: which is drawn in red in the figure to the right.", "Newton's method is used to find the largest zero of this polynomial with an initial guess of 7.The largest zero of this polynomial which corresponds to the second largest zero of the original polynomial is found at 3 and is circled in red.", "The degree 5 polynomial is now divided by to obtain: which is shown in yellow.", "The zero for this polynomial is found at 2 again using Newton's method and is circled in yellow.", "Horner's method is now used to obtain: which is shown in green and found to have a zero at −3.This polynomial is further reduced to: which is shown in blue and yields a zero of −5.The final root of the original polynomial may be found by either using the final zero as an initial guess for Newton's method, or by reducing and solving the linear equation.", "As can be seen, the expected roots of −8, −5, −3, 2, 3, and 7 were found." ], [ "Divided difference of a polynomial", "Horner's method can be modified to compute the divided difference Given the polynomial (as before):proceed as follows:At completion, we have:This computation of the divided difference is subject to lessround-off error than evaluating and separately, particularly when.", "Substituting in this method gives , the derivative of ." ], [ "History", "Qin Jiushao's algorithm for solving the quadratic polynomial equationresult: x=840Horner's paper, titled \"A new method of solving numerical equations of all orders, by continuous approximation\", was read before the Royal Society of London, at its meeting on July 1, 1819, with a sequel in 1823.Horner's paper in Part II of ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London'' for 1819 was warmly and expansively welcomed by a reviewer in the issue of ''The Monthly Review: or, Literary Journal'' for April, 1820; in comparison, a technical paper by Charles Babbage is dismissed curtly in this review.", "The sequence of reviews in ''The Monthly Review'' for September, 1821, concludes that Holdred was the first person to discover a direct and general practical solution of numerical equations.", "Fuller showed that the method in Horner's 1819 paper differs from what afterwards became known as \"Horner's method\" and that in consequence the priority for this method should go to Holdred (1820).Unlike his English contemporaries, Horner drew on the Continental literature, notably the work of Arbogast.", "Horner is also known to have made a close reading of John Bonneycastle's book on algebra, though he neglected the work of Paolo Ruffini.Although Horner is credited with making the method accessible and practical, it was known long before Horner.", "In reverse chronological order, Horner's method was already known to:* Paolo Ruffini in 1809 (see Ruffini's rule)* Isaac Newton in 1669* the Chinese mathematician Zhu Shijie in the 14th century* the Chinese mathematician Qin Jiushao in his ''Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections'' in the 13th century* the Persian mathematician Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī in the 12th century (the first to use that method in a general case of cubic equation)* the Chinese mathematician Jia Xian in the 11th century (Song dynasty)* ''The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art'', a Chinese work of the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) edited by Liu Hui (fl.", "3rd century).Qin Jiushao, in his ''Shu Shu Jiu Zhang'' (''Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections''; 1247), presents a portfolio of methods of Horner-type for solving polynomial equations, which was based on earlier works of the 11th century Song dynasty mathematician Jia Xian; for example, one method is specifically suited to bi-quintics, of which Qin gives an instance, in keeping with the then Chinese custom of case studies.", "Yoshio Mikami in ''Development of Mathematics in China and Japan'' (Leipzig 1913) wrote:Ulrich Libbrecht concluded: ''It is obvious that this procedure is a Chinese invention ... the method was not known in India''.", "He said, Fibonacci probably learned of it from Arabs, who perhaps borrowed from the Chinese.", "The extraction of square and cube roots along similar lines is already discussed by Liu Hui in connection with Problems IV.16 and 22 in ''Jiu Zhang Suan Shu'', while Wang Xiaotong in the 7th century supposes his readers can solve cubics by an approximation method described in his book Jigu Suanjing." ], [ "See also", "*Clenshaw algorithm to evaluate polynomials in Chebyshev form*De Boor's algorithm to evaluate splines in B-spline form*De Casteljau's algorithm to evaluate polynomials in Bézier form*Estrin's scheme to facilitate parallelization on modern computer architectures*Lill's method to approximate roots graphically*Ruffini's rule and synthetic division to divide a polynomial by a binomial of the form x − r" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "** Read before the Southwestern Section of the American Mathematical Society on November 26, 1910.", "******: Holdred's method is in the supplement following page numbered 45 (which is the 52nd page of the pdf version).", "**: Directly available online via the link, but also reprinted with appraisal in D.E.", "Smith: ''A Source Book in Mathematics'', McGraw-Hill, 1929; Dover reprint, 2 vols, 1959.", "***** ****** * *: Reprinted from issues of ''The North China Herald'' (1852)." ], [ "External links", "* * Qiu Jin-Shao, Shu Shu Jiu Zhang (Cong Shu Ji Cheng ed.", ")* For more on the root-finding application see" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hapworth 16, 1924" ], [ "Introduction", "\"Hapworth 16, 1924\" is an uncollected work of short fiction by J. D. Salinger that appeared in the June 19, 1965, issue of ''The New Yorker''.The story is the last original work Salinger published during his lifetime, and filled almost the entire magazine.", "It is the \"youngest\" of his Glass family stories, in the sense that the narrated events happen chronologically before those in the rest of the series." ], [ "Plot", "46-year-old Buddy Glass reproduces the contents of a letter written by his older brother Seymour, deceased since his suicide 17 years earlier in 1948.Seymour wrote the letter to their parents while he and Buddy (two years his junior) were attending Camp Simon Hapworth, Maine, in 1924.The literary voice conveyed in the letter is that of a highly articulate and strikingly precocious boy of seven.", "The letter, written from the camp infirmary (Seymour has injured his leg) is a wide-ranging commentary on the camp personnel, the camp attendees, and his relationships with his family, humanity and God.", "Seymour and Buddy largely prefer to occupy themselves writing poems and short stories rather than participate in group activities.", "They therefore meet with some hostility.Seymour devotes a large part of the letter to enumerating his reading list and requests for further reading material from his parents.", "He offers critical appraisals of a number of major literary figures.", "The letter closes with a lengthy discourse on the significance of God." ], [ "Publishing history", "The circumstances and considerations that led chief fiction editor William Shawn at ''The New Yorker'' to devote virtually the entire June 19, 1965, edition to \"Hapworth 16, 1924\" are obscure.", "Biographer Kenneth Slawenki writes, \"the files of ''The New Yorker'' are unusually silent on the details of the novella's reception by the editorial staff and its eventual reception by William Shawn.\"", "The correspondence between Salinger and Shawn chronicling the decision may have been deliberately suppressed.", "Slawenski speculates that the appearance of Salinger's piece in the journal was \"a ''fait accompli'' rather than a topic of debate\".After the story's appearance in ''The New Yorker'', Salinger—who had already withdrawn to his New Hampshire home—stopped publishing altogether.", "Since the story never appeared in book form, readers had to seek out that issue or find it on microfilm.", "Finally, with the release of ''The Complete New Yorker'' on DVD in 2005, the story was once again widely available.In 1996, Orchises Press, a small Virginia publishing house, started a process of publishing \"Hapworth\" in book form.", "Orchises Press owner Roger Lathbury has described the effort in ''The Washington Post'' and, three months after Salinger's death, in ''New York'' magazine''.''", "According to Lathbury, Salinger was deeply concerned with the proposed book's appearance, even visiting Washington to examine the cloth for the binding.", "Salinger also sent Lathbury numerous \"infectious and delightful and loving\" letters.Following publishing norms, Lathbury applied for Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data, unaware of how publicly available the information would be.", "A writer in Seattle, researching an article on Jeff Bezos, came across the \"Hapworth\" publication date, and told his sister, a journalist for the ''Washington Business Journal'', who wrote an article about the upcoming book.", "This led to substantial coverage in the press.", "Shortly before the books were to be shipped, Salinger changed his mind, and Orchises withdrew the book.", "New publication dates were repeatedly announced, but it never appeared.", "Lathbury said, \"I never reached back out.", "I thought about writing some letters, but it wouldn't have done any good.\"" ], [ "Reception and assessment", "Both contemporary and later literary critics harshly panned \"Hapworth 16, 1924\"; writing in ''The New York Times'', Michiko Kakutani called it \"a sour, implausible and, sad to say, completely charmless story .... filled with digressions, narcissistic asides and ridiculous shaggy-dog circumlocutions.", "\"Calling it \"virtually unreadable\" and \"an enigma\", critic John Wenke compares \"Hapworth\" to viewing a neighbor's unedited family home movies.", "He writes:Wenke adds that the story is a striking departure from the \"urbane, pithy and wry\" short fiction ''The New Yorker'''s editors and readership favored.Biographer Kenneth Slawenski considers the piece \"professionally, a disaster\" and ponders what may have motivated Salinger to submit the work for publication:Biographer Ian Hamilton concurs that Salinger appears to abandon his loyal readership and retreat into the exclusive realm of his characters.", "He writes, \"The Glass family has, in this last story, become Salinger's subject and his readership, his creatures and his companions.", "His life is finally made one with art.", "\"Salinger is said to have considered the story a \"high point of his writing\" and made tentative steps to have it reprinted, though those came to nothing." ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Sources", "*Hamiton, Ian.", "1988.In Search of J. D. Salinger.", "Random House, 1988.", "*Slawenski, Kenneth.", "2010.''J.", "D. Salinger: A Life.''", "Random House, New York.", "*Wenke, John.", "1991.''J.", "D. Salinger: A Study of the Short Fictio''n.", "Twaynes Studies in Short Fiction, Gordon Weaver, General Editor.", "Twayne Publishers, New York.", "**Lathbury, Roger \" Betraying Salinger\", ''New York'', April 4, 2010.Retrieved on May 22, 2010.", "*Lundegaard, Karen M. (2010) \" J. D. Salinger resurfaces ... in Alexandria?", "\", ''Washington Business Journal'', November 15, 1996.Retrieved on August 13, 2008.", "*Lundegaard, Erik (1996) Three Stories with J. D. Salinger*Noah, Timothy. \"", "Hapworth 16, 1924: A Chatterbox Investigation\", ''Slate'', September 11, 2000.Retrieved on August 10, 2008.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Abstract at ''The New Yorker'' site* Still Paging Mr. Salinger at ''The New York Times''* \"Hapworth 16, 1924\" Revisited at ''The Satirist: America's Most Critical Journal''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hypnotic" ], [ "Introduction", "Zolpidem tartrate, a common but potent sedative–hypnotic drug.", "Used for severe insomnia.", "'''Hypnotic''' (from Greek ''Hypnos'', sleep), or '''soporific''' drugs, commonly known as '''sleeping pills''', are a class of (and umbrella term for) psychoactive drugs whose primary function is to induce sleep (or surgical anesthesia) and to treat insomnia (sleeplessness).This group of drugs is related to sedatives''.", "''Whereas the term sedative describes drugs that serve to calm or relieve anxiety, the term hypnotic generally describes drugs whose main purpose is to initiate, sustain, or lengthen sleep.", "Because these two functions frequently overlap, and because drugs in this class generally produce dose-dependent effects (ranging from anxiolysis to loss of consciousness), they are often referred to collectively as '''sedative–hypnotic''' drugs.Hypnotic drugs are regularly prescribed for insomnia and other sleep disorders, with over 95% of insomnia patients being prescribed hypnotics in some countries.", "Many hypnotic drugs are habit-forming and—due to many factors known to disturb the human sleep pattern—a physician may instead recommend changes in the environment before and during sleep, better sleep hygiene, the avoidance of caffeine and alcohol or other stimulating substances, or behavioral interventions such as cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I), before prescribing medication for sleep.", "When prescribed, hypnotic medication should be used for the shortest period of time necessary.Among individuals with sleep disorders, 13.7% are taking or prescribed nonbenzodiazepines, while 10.8% are taking benzodiazepines, as of 2010, in the USA.", "Early classes of drugs, such as barbiturates, have fallen out of use in most practices but are still prescribed for some patients.", "In children, prescribing hypnotics is not yet acceptable—unless used to treat night terrors or sleepwalking.", "Elderly people are more sensitive to potential side effects of daytime fatigue and cognitive impairments, and a meta-analysis found that the risks generally outweigh any marginal benefits of hypnotics in the elderly.", "A review of the literature regarding benzodiazepine hypnotics and Z-drugs concluded that these drugs can have adverse effects, such as dependence and accidents, and that optimal treatment uses the lowest effective dose for the shortest therapeutic time period, with gradual discontinuation in order to improve health without worsening of sleep.Falling outside the above-mentioned categories, the neurohormone melatonin and its analogues (such as ramelteon) serve a hypnotic function." ], [ "History", "Séducteur'' by .", "(A corrupt old man tries to seduce a woman by urging her to take a hypnotic draught in her drink)'''Hypnotica''' was a class of somniferous drugs and substances tested in medicine of the 1890s and later.", "These include Urethan, Acetal, Methylal, Sulfonal, paraldehyde, Amylenhydrate, Hypnon, Chloralurethan and Ohloralamid or Chloralimid.Research about using medications to treat insomnia evolved throughout the last half of the 20th century.", "Treatment for insomnia in psychiatry dates back to 1869, when chloral hydrate was first used as a soporific.", "Barbiturates emerged as the first class of drugs in the early 1900s, after which chemical substitution allowed derivative compounds.", "Although they were the best drug family at the time (with less toxicity and fewer side effects), they were dangerous in overdose and tended to cause physical and psychological dependence.During the 1970s, quinazolinones and benzodiazepines were introduced as safer alternatives to replace barbiturates; by the late 1970s, benzodiazepines emerged as the safer drug.Benzodiazepines are not without their drawbacks; substance dependence is possible, and deaths from overdoses sometimes occur, especially in combination with alcohol and/or other depressants.", "Questions have been raised as to whether they disturb sleep architecture.Nonbenzodiazepines are the most recent development (1990s–present).", "Although it is clear that they are less toxic than barbiturates, their predecessors, comparative efficacy over benzodiazepines have not been established.", "Such efficacy is hard to determine without longitudinal studies.", "However, some psychiatrists recommend these drugs, citing research suggesting they are equally potent with less potential for abuse.Other sleep remedies that may be considered \"sedative–hypnotics\" exist; psychiatrists will sometimes prescribe medicines off-label if they have sedating effects.", "Examples of these include mirtazapine (an antidepressant), clonidine (an older antihypertensive drug), quetiapine (an antipsychotic), and the over-the-counter allergy and antiemetic medications doxylamine and diphenhydramine.", "Off-label sleep remedies are particularly useful when first-line treatment is unsuccessful or deemed unsafe (as in patients with a history of substance abuse)." ], [ "Types", "===Barbiturates===Barbiturates are drugs that act as central nervous system depressants, and can therefore produce a wide spectrum of effects, from mild sedation to total anesthesia.", "They are also effective as anxiolytics, hypnotics, and anticonvulsalgesic effects; however, these effects are somewhat weak, preventing barbiturates from being used in surgery in the absence of other analgesics.", "They have dependence liability, both physical and psychological.", "Barbiturates have now largely been replaced by benzodiazepines in routine medical practice – such as in the treatment of anxiety and insomnia – mainly because benzodiazepines are significantly less dangerous in overdose.", "However, barbiturates are still used in general anesthesia, for epilepsy, and for assisted suicide.", "Barbiturates are derivatives of barbituric acid.The principal mechanism of action of barbiturates is believed to be positive allosteric modulation of GABAA receptors.Examples include amobarbital, pentobarbital, phenobarbital, secobarbital, and sodium thiopental.===Quinazolinones===Quinazolinones are also a class of drugs which function as hypnotic/sedatives that contain a 4-quinazolinone core.", "Their use has also been proposed in the treatment of cancer.Examples of quinazolinones include cloroqualone, diproqualone, etaqualone (Aolan, Athinazone, Ethinazone), mebroqualone, Afloqualone (Arofuto), mecloqualone (Nubarene, Casfen), and methaqualone (Quaalude).===Benzodiazepines===Benzodiazepines can be useful for short-term treatment of insomnia.", "Their use beyond 2 to 4 weeks is not recommended due to the risk of dependence.", "It is preferred that benzodiazepines be taken intermittently—and at the lowest effective dose.", "They improve sleep-related problems by shortening the time spent in bed before falling asleep, prolonging the sleep time, and, in general, reducing wakefulness.", "Like alcohol, benzodiazepines are commonly used to treat insomnia in the short-term (both prescribed and self-medicated), but worsen sleep in the long-term.", "While benzodiazepines can put people to sleep (i.e., inhibit NREM stage 1 and 2 sleep), while asleep, the drugs disrupt sleep architecture by decreasing sleep time, delaying time to REM sleep, and decreasing deep slow-wave sleep (the most restorative part of sleep for both energy and mood).Other drawbacks of hypnotics, including benzodiazepines, are possible tolerance to their effects, rebound insomnia, and reduced slow-wave sleep and a withdrawal period typified by rebound insomnia and a prolonged period of anxiety and agitation.", "The list of benzodiazepines approved for the treatment of insomnia is fairly similar among most countries, but which benzodiazepines are officially designated as first-line hypnotics prescribed for the treatment of insomnia can vary distinctly between countries.", "Longer-acting benzodiazepines such as nitrazepam and diazepam have residual effects that may persist into the next day and are, in general, not recommended.It is not clear as to whether the new nonbenzodiazepine hypnotics (Z-drugs) are better than the short-acting benzodiazepines.", "The efficacy of these two groups of medications is similar.", "According to the US Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, indirect comparison indicates that side-effects from benzodiazepines may be about twice as frequent as from nonbenzodiazepines.", "Some experts suggest using nonbenzodiazepines preferentially as a first-line long-term treatment of insomnia.", "However, the UK National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) did not find any convincing evidence in favor of Z-drugs.", "A NICE review pointed out that short-acting Z-drugs were inappropriately compared in clinical trials with long-acting benzodiazepines.", "There have been no trials comparing short-acting Z-drugs with appropriate doses of short-acting benzodiazepines.", "Based on this, NICE recommended choosing the hypnotic based on cost and the patient's preference.Older adults should not use benzodiazepines to treat insomnia—unless other treatments have failed to be effective.", "When benzodiazepines are used, patients, their caretakers, and their physician should discuss the increased risk of harms, including evidence which shows twice the incidence of traffic collisions among driving patients, as well as falls and hip fracture for all older patients.Their mechanism of action is primarily at GABAA receptors.===Nonbenzodiazepines===Nonbenzodiazepines are a class of psychoactive drugs that are very \"benzodiazepine-like\" in nature.", "Nonbenzodiazepine pharmacodynamics are almost entirely the same as benzodiazepine drugs, and therefore entail similar benefits, side-effects and risks.", "Nonbenzodiazepines, however, have dissimilar or entirely different chemical structures, and therefore are unrelated to benzodiazepines on a molecular level.Examples include zopiclone (Imovane, Zimovane), eszopiclone (Lunesta), zaleplon (Sonata), and zolpidem (Ambien, Stilnox, Stilnoct).Research on nonbenzodiazepines is new and conflicting.", "A review by a team of researchers suggests the use of these drugs for people that have trouble falling asleep (but not staying asleep), as next-day impairments were minimal.", "The team noted that the safety of these drugs had been established, but called for more research into their long-term effectiveness in treating insomnia.", "Other evidence suggests that tolerance to nonbenzodiazepines may be slower to develop than with benzodiazepines.", "A different team was more skeptical, finding little benefit over benzodiazepines.===Others=======Melatonin====Melatonin, the hormone produced in the pineal gland in the brain and secreted in dim light and darkness, among its other functions, promotes sleep in diurnal mammals.", "Ramelteon and tasimelteon are synthetic analogues of melatonin which are also used for sleep-related indications.====Antihistamines====In common use, the term ''antihistamine'' refers only to compounds that inhibit action at the H1 receptor (and not H2, etc.", ").Clinically, H1 antagonists are used to treat certain allergies.", "Sedation is a common side-effect, and some H1 antagonists, such as diphenhydramine (Benadryl) and doxylamine, are also used to treat insomnia.Second-generation antihistamines cross the blood–brain barrier to a much lower degree than the first ones.", "This results in their primarily affecting peripheral histamine receptors, and therefore having a much lower sedative effect.", "High doses can still induce the central nervous system effect of drowsiness.====Antidepressants====Some antidepressants have sedating effects.Examples include:; Serotonin antagonists and reuptake inhibitors* Trazodone; Tricyclic antidepressants* Amitriptyline* Doxepin* Trimipramine; Tetracyclic antidepressants* Mianserin* Mirtazapine====Antipsychotics====While some of these drugs are frequently prescribed for insomnia, such use is not recommended unless the insomnia is due to an underlying mental health condition treatable by antipsychotics as the risks frequently outweigh the benefits.", "Some of the more serious adverse effects have been observed to occur at the low doses used for this off-label prescribing, such as dyslipidemia and neutropenia, and a recent network meta-analysis of 154 double-blind, randomized controlled trials of drug therapies vs. placebo for insomnia in adults found that quetiapine did not demonstrated any short-term benefits in sleep quality.", "Examples of antipsychotics with sedation as a side effect that are occasionally used for insomnia:; First-generation* Chlorpromazine; Second-generation* Clozapine* Olanzapine* Quetiapine* Risperidone* Zotepine====Miscellaneous drugs====; Alpha-adrenergic agonist* Clonidine* Guanfacine; Cannabinoids* Cannabidiol* Tetrahydrocannabinol; Orexin receptor antagonist* Suvorexant* Lemborexant* Daridorexant; Gabapentinoids* Gabapentin* Pregabalin* Phenibut" ], [ "Effectiveness", "A major systematic review and network meta-analysis of medications for the treatment of insomnia was published in 2022.It found a wide range of effect sizes (standardized mean difference (SMD)) in terms of efficacy for insomnia.", "The assessed medications included benzodiazepines (e.g., temazepam, triazolam, many others) (SMDs 0.58 to 0.83), Z-drugs (eszopiclone, zaleplon, zolpidem, zopiclone) (SMDs 0.03 to 0.63), sedative antidepressants and antihistamines (doxepin, doxylamine, trazodone, trimipramine) (SMDs 0.30 to 0.55), the antipsychotic quetiapine (SMD 0.07), orexin receptor antagonists (daridorexant, lemborexant, seltorexant, suvorexant) (SMDs 0.23 to 0.44), and melatonin receptor agonists (melatonin, ramelteon) (SMDs 0.00 to 0.13).", "The certainty of evidence varied and ranged from high to very low depending on the medication.", "Certain medications often used as hypnotics, including the antihistamines diphenhydramine, hydroxyzine, and promethazine and the antidepressants amitriptyline and mirtazapine, were not included in analyses due to insufficient data." ], [ "Risks", "The use of sedative medications in older people generally should be avoided.", "These medications are associated with poorer health outcomes, including cognitive decline.Therefore, sedatives and hypnotics should be avoided in people with dementia, according to the clinical guidelines known as the Medication Appropriateness Tool for Comorbid Health Conditions in Dementia (MATCH-D).", "The use of these medications can further impede cognitive function for people with dementia, who are also more sensitive to side effects of medications." ], [ "See also", "* Sleep induction § Alcohol* Somnifacient" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* discusses Barbs vs. benzos* * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Sleeping pills overview" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "HMS Dunraven" ], [ "Introduction", "'''HMS ''Dunraven''''' was a Q-Ship of the Royal Navy during World War I.On 8 August 1917, 130 miles southwest of Ushant in the Bay of Biscay, disguised as the collier ''Boverton'' and commanded by Gordon Campbell, VC, ''Dunraven'' spotted , commanded by ''Oberleutnant zur See'' Reinhold Saltzwedel.", "Saltzwedel believed the disguised ship was a merchant vessel.", "The U-boat submerged and closed with ''Dunraven'' before surfacing astern at 11:43 am and opening fire at long range.", "''Dunraven'' made smoke and sent off a panic party (a small number of men who \"abandon ship\" during an attack to continue the impersonation of a merchant).Shells began hitting ''Dunraven'', detonating her depth charges and setting her stern afire.", "Her crew remained hidden letting the fires burn.", "Then a 4-inch (102 mm) gun and crew were blown away revealing ''Dunraven''s identity as a warship, and ''UC-71'' submerged.", "A second \"panic party\" abandoned ship.", "''Dunraven'' was hit by a torpedo.", "A third \"panic party\" went over the side, leaving only two guns manned.", "''UC-71'' surfaced, shelled ''Dunraven'' and again submerged.", "Campbell replied with two torpedoes that missed, and around 3 pm, the undamaged U-boat left that area.", "Only one of ''Dunraven''s crew was killed, but the Q-Ship was sinking.The British destroyer HMS ''Christopher'' picked up ''Dunraven''s survivors and took her in tow for Plymouth, but ''Dunraven'' sank at 1:30 am early on 10 August 1917 to the north of Ushant.In recognition, two Victoria Crosses were awarded, one to the ship's First Lieutenant, Lt. Charles George Bonner RNR, and the other, by ballot, to a gunlayer, Petty Officer Ernest Herbert Pitcher.Captain Campbell later wrote::\"It had been a fair and honest fight, and I lost it.", "Referring to my crew, words cannot express what I am feeling.", "No one let me down.", "No one could have done better.", "\"Captain Campbell had been previously awarded the Victoria Cross, in February 1917, for the sinking of ." ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "External links", "* illustrated account of Gordon Campbell, \"the most famous Q-ship officer\", including his time with HMS ''Dunraven''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hacker ethic" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''hacker ethic''' is a philosophy and set of moral values within hacker culture.", "Practitioners believe that sharing information and data with others is an ethical imperative.", "The hacker ethic is related to the concept of freedom of information, as well as the political theories of anti-authoritarianism, socialism, liberalism, anarchism, and libertarianism.While some tenets of the hacker ethic were described in other texts like ''Computer Lib/Dream Machines'' (1974) by Ted Nelson, the term ''hacker ethic'' is generally attributed to journalist Steven Levy, who appears to have been the first to document both the philosophy and the founders of the philosophy in his 1984 book titled ''Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution.''" ], [ "History", "The hacker ethic originated at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the 1950s–1960s.", "The term \"hacker\" has long been used there to describe college pranks that MIT students would regularly devise, and was used more generally to describe a project undertaken or a product built to fulfill some constructive goal, but also out of pleasure for mere involvement.MIT housed an early IBM 704 computer inside the Electronic Accounting Machinery (EAM) room in 1959.This room became the staging grounds for early hackers, as MIT students from the Tech Model Railroad Club sneaked inside the EAM room after hours to attempt programming the 30-ton, computer.The Hacker Ethic originated at MIT.Hackers in ActionThe hacker ethic was described as a \"new way of life, with a philosophy, an ethic and a dream\".", "However, the elements of the hacker ethic were not openly debated and discussed; rather they were implicitly accepted and silently agreed upon.The Free software movement was born in the early 1980s from followers of the hacker ethic.", "Its founder, Richard Stallman, is referred to by Steven Levy as \"the last true hacker\".Richard Stallman describes:\"The hacker ethic refers to the feelings of right and wrong, to the ethical ideas this community of people had—that knowledge should be shared with other people who can benefit from it, and that important resources should be utilised rather than wasted.", "\"and states more precisely that hacking (which Stallman defines as playful cleverness) and ethics are two separate issues:\"Just because someone enjoys hacking does not mean he has an ethical commitment to treating other people properly.", "Some hackers care about ethics—I do, for instance—but that is not part of being a hacker, it is a separate trait.", "... Hacking is not primarily about an ethical issue.", "... hacking tends to lead a significant number of hackers to think about ethical questions in a certain way.", "I would not want to completely deny all connection between hacking and views on ethics.", "\"The hacker culture has been compared to early Protestantism.", "Protestant sectarians emphasized individualism and loneliness, similar to hackers who have been considered loners and nonjudgmental individuals.", "The notion of moral indifference between hackers characterized the persistent actions of computer culture in the 1970s and early 1980s.", "According to Kirkpatrick, author of ''The Hacker Ethic'', the \"computer plays the role of God, whose requirements took priority over the human ones of sentiment when it came to assessing one's duty to others.", "\"Where Protestant ideals and mannerisms became popular.According to Kirkpatrick's ''The Hacker Ethic:''\"Exceptional single-mindedness and determination to keep plugging away at a problem until the optimal solution had been found are well-documented traits of the early hackers.", "Willingness to work right through the night on a single programming problem are widely cited as features of the early 'hacker' computer culture.\"", "The hacker culture is placed in the context of 1960s youth culture when American youth culture challenged the concept of capitalism and big, centralized structures.", "The hacker culture was a subculture within 1960s counterculture.", "The hackers' main concern was challenging the idea of technological expertise and authority.", "The 1960s hippy period attempted to \"overturn the machine.\"", "Although hackers appreciated technology, they wanted regular citizens, and not big corporations, to have power over technology \"as a weapon that might actually undermine the authority of the expert and the hold of the monolithic system.\"" ], [ "The hacker ethics", "As Levy summarized in the preface of ''Hackers'', the general tenets or principles of hacker ethic include:* Sharing* Openness* Decentralization* Free access to computers* World Improvement (foremost, upholding democracy and the fundamental laws we all live by, as a society)In addition to those principles, Levy also described more specific hacker ethics and beliefs in chapter 2, ''The Hacker Ethic'': The ethics he described in chapter 2 are:;1.", "\"Access to computers—and anything which might teach you something about the way the world works—should be unlimited and total.", "Always yield to the Hands-On Imperative!", "\": Levy is recounting hackers' abilities to learn and build upon pre-existing ideas and systems.", "He believes that access gives hackers the opportunity to take things apart, fix, or improve upon them and to learn and understand how they work.", "This gives them the knowledge to create new and even more interesting things.", "Access aids the expansion of technology.;2.", "\"All information should be free\": Linking directly with the principle of access, information needs to be free for hackers to fix, improve, and reinvent systems.", "A free exchange of information allows for greater overall creativity.", "In the hacker viewpoint, any system could benefit from an easy flow of information, a concept known as transparency in the social sciences.", "As Stallman notes, \"free\" refers to unrestricted access; it does not refer to price.;3.", "\"Mistrust authority—promote decentralization\": The best way to promote the free exchange of information is to have an open system that presents no boundaries between a hacker and a piece of information or an item of equipment that they need in their quest for knowledge, improvement, and time on-line.", "Hackers believe that bureaucracies, whether corporate, government, or university, are flawed systems.;4.", "\"Hackers should be judged by their hacking, not bogus criteria such as degrees, age, race, or position\": Inherent in the hacker ethic is a meritocratic system where superficiality is disregarded in esteem of skill.", "Levy articulates that criteria such as age, race, position, and qualification are deemed irrelevant within the hacker community.", "Hacker skill is the ultimate determinant of acceptance.", "Such a code within the hacker community fosters the advance of hacking and software development.;5.", "\"You can create art and beauty on a computer\": Hackers deeply appreciate innovative techniques which allow programs to perform complicated tasks with few instructions.", "A program's code was considered to hold a beauty of its own, having been carefully composed and artfully arranged.", "Learning to create programs which used the least amount of space almost became a game between the early hackers.;6.", "\"Computers can change your life for the better\": Hackers felt that computers had enriched their lives, given their lives focus, and made their lives adventurous.", "Hackers regarded computers as Aladdin's lamps that they could control.", "They believed that everyone in society could benefit from experiencing such power and that if everyone could interact with computers in the way that hackers did, then the hacker ethic might spread through society and computers would improve the world.", "The hackers succeeded in turning dreams of endless possibilities into realities.", "The hacker's primary object was to teach society that \"the world opened up by the computer was a limitless one\" (Levy 230:1984)===Sharing===From the early days of modern computing through to the 1970s, it was common for computer users to have the freedoms provided by an ethic of open sharing and collaboration.", "Software, including source code, was commonly shared by individuals who used computers.", "Most companies had a business model based on hardware sales, and provided or bundled the associated software free of charge.", "According to Levy's account, sharing was the norm and expected within the non-corporate hacker culture.", "The principle of sharing stemmed from the open atmosphere and informal access to resources at MIT.", "During the early days of computers and programming, the hackers at MIT would develop a program and share it with other computer users.If the hack was deemed particularly outstanding, then the program may have been posted on a board somewhere near one of the computers.", "Other programs that could be built upon it and improved it were saved to tapes and added to a drawer of programs, readily accessible to all the other hackers.", "At any time, a fellow hacker may reach into the drawer, pick out the program, and begin adding to it or \"bumming\" it to improve it.", "Bumming referred to the process of making the code more concise so that more can be done in fewer instructions, saving precious memory for further enhancements.In the second generation of hackers, sharing was about sharing with the general public in addition to sharing with other hackers.", "A particular organization of hackers that was concerned with sharing computers with the general public was a group called Community Memory.", "This group of hackers and idealists put computers in public places for anyone to use.", "The first community computer was placed outside of Leopold's Records in Berkeley, California.Another sharing of resources occurred when Bob Albrecht provided considerable resources for a non-profit organization called the People's Computer Company (PCC).", "PCC opened a computer center where anyone could use the computers there for fifty cents per hour.This second generation practice of sharing contributed to the battles of free and open software.", "For example, when Bill Gates' version of BASIC for the Altair was shared among the hacker community, Gates claimed to have lost a considerable sum of money because few users paid for the software.", "As a result, Gates wrote an Open Letter to Hobbyists.", "This letter was published by several computer magazines and newsletters, most notably that of the Homebrew Computer Club where much of the sharing occurred.According to Brent K. Jesiek in ''\"Democratizing Software: Open Source, the Hacker Ethic, and Beyond,''\" technology is being associated with social views and goals.", "Jesiek refers to Gisle Hannemyr's views on open source vs. commercialized software.", "Hannemyr concludes that when a hacker constructs software, the software is flexible, tailorable, modular in nature and is open-ended.", "A hacker's software contrasts mainstream hardware which favors control, a sense of being whole, and be immutable (Hannemyr, 1999).Furthermore, he concludes that 'the difference between the hacker's approach and those of the industrial programmer is one of outlook: between an agoric, integrated and holistic attitude towards the creation of artifacts and a proprietary, fragmented and reductionist one' (Hannemyr, 1999).", "As Hannemyr's analysis reveals, the characteristics of a given piece of software frequently reflect the attitude and outlook of the programmers and organizations from which it emerges.", "\"===Copyright and patents===As copyright and patent laws limit the ability to share software, opposition to software patents is widespread in the hacker and free software community.===Hands-On Imperative===Many of the principles and tenets of hacker ethic contribute to a common goal: the Hands-On Imperative.", "As Levy described in Chapter 2, \"Hackers believe that essential lessons can be learned about the systems—about the world—from taking things apart, seeing how they work, and using this knowledge to create new and more interesting things.", "\"Employing the Hands-On Imperative requires free access, open information, and the sharing of knowledge.", "To a true hacker, if the Hands-On Imperative is restricted, then the ends justify the means to make it unrestricted ''so that improvements can be made''.", "When these principles are not present, hackers tend to work around them.", "For example, when the computers at MIT were protected either by physical locks or login programs, the hackers there systematically worked around them in order to have access to the machines.", "Hackers assumed a \"willful blindness\" in the pursuit of perfection.This behavior was not malicious in nature: the MIT hackers did not seek to harm the systems or their users.", "This deeply contrasts with the modern, media-encouraged image of hackers who crack secure systems in order to steal information or complete an act of cyber-vandalism.===Community and collaboration===Throughout writings about hackers and their work processes, a common value of community and collaboration is present.", "For example, in Levy's ''Hackers'', each generation of hackers had geographically based communities where collaboration and sharing occurred.", "For the hackers at MIT, it was the labs where the computers were running.", "For the hardware hackers (second generation) and the game hackers (third generation) the geographic area was centered in Silicon Valley where the Homebrew Computer Club and the People's Computer Company helped hackers network, collaborate, and share their work.The concept of community and collaboration is still relevant today, although hackers are no longer limited to collaboration in geographic regions.", "Now collaboration takes place via the Internet.", "Eric S. Raymond identifies and explains this conceptual shift in ''The Cathedral and the Bazaar'':Before cheap Internet, there were some geographically compact communities where the culture encouraged Weinberg's egoless programming, and a developer could easily attract a lot of skilled kibitzers and co-developers.", "Bell Labs, the MIT AI and LCS labs, UC Berkeley: these became the home of innovations that are legendary and still potent.Raymond also notes that the success of Linux coincided with the wide availability of the World Wide Web.", "The value of community is still in high practice and use today." ], [ "Levy's \"true hackers\"", "Levy identifies several \"true hackers\" who significantly influenced the hacker ethic.", "Some well-known \"true hackers\" include:* Bill Gosper: Mathematician and hacker* Richard Greenblatt: Programmer and early designer of LISP machines* John McCarthy: Co-founder of the MIT Artificial Intelligence Lab and Stanford AI Laboratory* Jude Milhon: Founder of the cypherpunk movement, senior editor at ''Mondo 2000'', and co-founder of Community Memory* Richard Stallman: Programmer and political activist who is well known for GNU, Emacs and the Free Software MovementLevy also identified the \"hardware hackers\" (the \"second generation\", mostly centered in Silicon Valley) and the \"game hackers\" (or the \"third generation\").", "All three generations of hackers, according to Levy, embodied the principles of the hacker ethic.", "Some of Levy's \"second-generation\" hackers include:* Steve Dompier: Homebrew Computer Club member and hacker who worked with the early Altair 8800* John Draper: A legendary figure in the computer programming world.", "He wrote EasyWriter, the first word processor.", "* Lee Felsenstein: A hardware hacker and co-founder of Community Memory and Homebrew Computer Club; a designer of the Sol-20 computer* Bob Marsh: A designer of the Sol-20 computer* Fred Moore: Activist and founder of the Homebrew Computer Club* Steve Wozniak: One of the founders of Apple ComputerLevy's \"third generation\" practitioners of hacker ethic include:* John Harris: One of the first programmers hired at On-Line Systems (which later became Sierra Entertainment)* Ken Williams: Along with wife Roberta, founded On-Line Systems after working at IBM – the company would later achieve mainstream popularity as Sierra." ], [ "Other descriptions", "In 2001, Finnish philosopher Pekka Himanen promoted the hacker ethic in opposition to the Protestant work ethic.", "In Himanen's opinion, the hacker ethic is more closely related to the virtue ethics found in the writings of Plato and of Aristotle.", "Himanen explained these ideas in a book, ''The Hacker Ethic and the Spirit of the Information Age'', with a prologue contributed by Linus Torvalds and an epilogue by Manuel Castells.In this manifesto, the authors wrote about a hacker ethic centering on passion, hard work, creativity and joy in creating software.", "Both Himanen and Torvalds were inspired by the Sampo in Finnish mythology.", "The Sampo, described in the Kalevala saga, was a magical artifact constructed by Ilmarinen, the blacksmith god, that brought good fortune to its holder; nobody knows exactly what it was supposed to be.", "The Sampo has been interpreted in many ways: a world pillar or world tree, a compass or astrolabe, a chest containing a treasure, a Byzantine coin die, a decorated Vendel period shield, a Christian relic, etc.", "Kalevala saga compiler Lönnrot interpreted it to be a \"quern\" or mill of some sort that made flour, salt, and wealth." ], [ "See also", "* Hacks at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology* Hacker (programmer subculture)* Hacker (term)* Hacktivism* Tech Model Railroad Club* The Cathedral and the Bazaar* Free software movement* Free software philosophy" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "* *" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Gabriella Coleman, an anthropologist at McGill University, studies hacker cultures and has written extensively on the hacker ethic and culture * Tom Chance's essay on The Hacker Ethic and Meaningful Work* Hacker ethic from the Jargon file* Directory of free software* ITERATIVE DISCOURSE AND THE FORMATION OF NEW SUBCULTURES by Steve Mizrach describes the hacker terminology, including the term cracker.", "* Richard Stallman's Personal Website* ''Is there a Hacker Ethic for 90s Hackers?''", "by Steven Mizrach* ''The Hacker's Ethics'' by the Cyberpunk Project" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hotel" ], [ "Introduction", "The Peninsula New York hotel, located at the corner of Fifth Avenue and 55th Street in Midtown ManhattanA '''hotel''' is an establishment that provides paid lodging on a short-term basis.", "Facilities provided inside a hotel room may range from a modest-quality mattress in a small room to large suites with bigger, higher-quality beds, a dresser, a refrigerator, and other kitchen facilities, upholstered chairs, a flat-screen television, and en-suite bathrooms.", "Small, lower-priced hotels may offer only the most basic guest services and facilities.", "Larger, higher-priced hotels may provide additional guest facilities such as a swimming pool, a business center with computers, printers, and other office equipment, childcare, conference and event facilities, tennis or basketball courts, gymnasium, restaurants, day spa, and social function services.", "Hotel rooms are usually numbered (or named in some smaller hotels and B&Bs) to allow guests to identify their room.", "Some boutique, high-end hotels have custom decorated rooms.", "Some hotels offer meals as part of a room and board arrangement.", "In Japan, capsule hotels provide a tiny room suitable only for sleeping and shared bathroom facilities.The precursor to the modern hotel was the inn of medieval Europe.", "For a period of about 200 years from the mid-17th century, coaching inns served as a place for lodging for coach travelers.", "Inns began to cater to wealthier clients in the mid-18th century.", "One of the first hotels in a modern sense was opened in Exeter in 1768.Hotels proliferated throughout Western Europe and North America in the early 19th century, and luxury hotels began to spring up in the later part of the 19th century, paricularly in the United States.Hotel operations vary in size, function, complexity, and cost.", "Most hotels and major hospitality companies have set industry standards to classify hotel types.", "An upscale full-service hotel facility offers luxury amenities, full-service accommodations, an on-site restaurant, and the highest level of personalized service, such as a concierge, room service, and clothes-ironing staff.", "Full-service hotels often contain upscale full-service facilities with many full-service accommodations, an on-site full-service restaurant, and a variety of on-site amenities.", "Boutique hotels are smaller independent, non-branded hotels that often contain upscale facilities.", "Small to medium-sized hotel establishments offer a limited amount of on-site amenities.", "Economy hotels are small to medium-sized hotel establishments that offer basic accommodations with little to no services.", "Extended stay hotels are small to medium-sized hotels that offer longer-term full-service accommodations compared to a traditional hotel.Timeshare and destination clubs are a form of property ownership involving ownership of an individual unit of accommodation for seasonal usage.", "A motel is a small-sized low-rise lodging with direct access to individual rooms from the car parking area.", "Boutique hotels are typically hotels with a unique environment or intimate setting.", "A number of hotels and motels have entered the public consciousness through popular culture.", "Some hotels are built specifically as destinations in themselves, for example casinos and holiday resorts.Most hotel establishments are run by a general manager who serves as the head executive (often referred to as the \"hotel manager\"), department heads who oversee various departments within a hotel (e.g., food service), middle managers, administrative staff, and line-level supervisors.", "The organizational chart and volume of job positions and hierarchy varies by hotel size, function and class, and is often determined by hotel ownership and managing companies." ], [ "Etymology", "A typical hotel room with a bed, desk, and televisionThe word ''hotel'' is derived from the French ''hôtel'' (coming from the same origin as ''hospital''), which referred to a French version of a building seeing frequent visitors, and providing care, rather than a place offering accommodation.", "In contemporary French usage, ''hôtel'' now has the same meaning as the English term, and ''hôtel particulier'' is used for the old meaning, as well as \"hôtel\" in some place names such as Hôtel-Dieu (in Paris), which has been a hospital since the Middle Ages.", "The French spelling, with the circumflex, was also used in English, but is now rare.", "The circumflex replaces the 's' found in the earlier ''hostel'' spelling, which over time took on a new, but closely related meaning.", "Grammatically, hotels usually take the definite article – hence \"The Astoria Hotel\" or simply \"The Astoria\"." ], [ "History", "Southwark, LondonFacilities offering hospitality to travellers featured in early civilizations.", "In Greco-Roman culture and in ancient Persia, hospitals for recuperation and rest were built at thermal baths.", "Guinness World Records officially recognised Japan's Nishiyama Onsen Keiunkan, founded in 705, as the oldest hotel in the world.", "During the Middle Ages, various religious orders at monasteries and abbeys would offer accommodation for travellers on the road.The precursor to the modern hotel was the inn of medieval Europe, possibly dating back to the rule of Ancient Rome.", "These would provide for the needs of travellers, including food and lodging, stabling and fodder for the traveller's horses and fresh horses for mail coaches.", "Famous London examples of inns include the George and the Tabard.", "A typical layout of an inn featured an inner court with bedrooms on the two sides, with the kitchen and parlour at the front and the stables at the back.For a period of about 200 years from the mid-17th century, coaching inns served as a place for lodging for coach travellers (in other words, a roadhouse).", "Coaching inns stabled teams of horses for stagecoaches and mail coaches and replaced tired teams with fresh teams.", "Traditionally they were seven miles apart, but this depended very much on the terrain.Tremont House in Boston, United States, a luxury hotel, the first to provide indoor plumbingThe Boody House Hotel in Toledo, OhioSome English towns had as many as ten such inns and rivalry between them became intense, not only for the income from the stagecoach operators but for the revenue from the food and drink supplied to the wealthy passengers.", "By the end of the century, coaching inns were being run more professionally, with a regular timetable being followed and fixed menus for food.Inns began to cater to richer clients in the mid-18th century, and consequently grew in grandeur and in the level of service provided.", "Sudhir Andrews traces \"the birth of an organised hotel industry\" to Europe's chalets and small hotels which catered primarily to aristocrats.One of the first hotels in a modern sense, the Royal Clarence, opened in Exeter in 1768, although the idea only really caught on in the early-19th century.", "In 1812 Mivart's Hotel opened its doors in London, later changing its name to Claridge's.Hotels proliferated throughout Western Europe and North America in the 19th century.", "Luxury hotels, including the 1829 Tremont House in Boston, the 1836 Astor House in New York City, the 1889 Savoy Hotel in London, and the Ritz chain of hotels in London and Paris in the late 1890s, catered to an ever more-wealthy clientele.Title II of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 is part of a United States law that prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, religion, or national origin in places of public accommodation.", "Hotels are included as types of public accommodation in the Act." ], [ "International scale", "Hotels cater to travelers from many countries and languages, since no one country dominates the travel industry.", "Country Hotel rooms in 2011–12 Average rooms per hotel Overnight tourists traveling from each country, annual United States 4,900,000 93 58,000,000 China 1,500,000 132 83,000,000 Japan 1,370,000 27 18,000,000 Italy 1,100,000 32 29,000,000 Germany 950,000 27 72,000,000 Spain 900,000 47 12,000,000 Mexico 660,000 37 16,000,000 United Kingdom 650,000 17 57,000,000 France 620,000 36 26,000,000 Thailand 530,000 NA 6,000,000 Indonesia 410,000 25 7,000,000 Greece 400,000 41 5,000,000 Brazil 400,000 40 8,000,000 Turkey 330,000 117 16,000,000 Austria 290,000 22 11,000,000 Russia 260,000 33 44,000,000 '''Global total''' '''21,000,000''' '''41''' '''876,000,000'''" ], [ "Types", "Hotel operations vary in size, function, and cost.", "Most hotels and major hospitality companies that operate hotels have set widely accepted industry standards to classify hotel types.", "General categories include the following:===International luxury===Four Seasons Hotel Moscow, RussiaMandarin Oriental, Bangkok, Thailand Rosewood London, EnglandInternational luxury hotels offer high-quality amenities, full-service accommodations, on-site full-service restaurants, and the highest level of personalized and professional service in major or capital cities.", "International luxury hotels are classified with at least a Five Diamond rating or Five Star hotel rating depending on the country and local classification standards.", "Example brands include: Grand Hyatt, Conrad, InterContinental, Sofitel, Mandarin Oriental, Four Seasons, The Peninsula, Rosewood, JW Marriott and The Ritz-Carlton.===Lifestyle luxury resorts===Shangri-La's Fijian Resort in Yanuca Island, FijiJumeirah Beach Hotel in Dubai, United Arab EmiratesRaffles Praslin, SeychellesLifestyle luxury resorts are branded hotels that appeal to a guest with lifestyle or personal image in specific locations.", "They are typically full-service and classified as luxury.", "A key characteristic of lifestyle resorts is focus on providing a unique guest experience as opposed to simply providing lodging.", "Lifestyle luxury resorts are classified with a Five Star hotel rating depending on the country and local classification standards.", "Example brands include: Waldorf Astoria, St. Regis, Shangri-La, Oberoi, Belmond, Jumeirah, Aman, Taj Hotels, Hoshino, Raffles, Fairmont, Banyan Tree, Regent and Park Hyatt.===Upscale full-service===Upscale full-service hotels often provide a wide array of guest services and on-site facilities.", "Commonly found amenities may include: on-site food and beverage (room service and restaurants), meeting and conference services and facilities, fitness center, and business center.", "Upscale full-service hotels range in quality from upscale to luxury.", "This classification is based upon the quality of facilities and amenities offered by the hotel.", "Examples include: W Hotels, Sheraton, Langham, Kempinski, Pullman,Kimpton Hotels, Hilton, Swissôtel, Lotte, Renaissance, Marriott and Hyatt Regency brands.===Boutique===Boutique hotels are smaller independent non-branded hotels that often contain mid-scale to upscale facilities of varying size in unique or intimate settings with full-service accommodations.", "These hotels are generally 100 rooms or fewer.===Focused or select service===Small to medium-sized hotel establishments that offer a limited number of on-site amenities that only cater and market to a specific demographic of travelers, such as the single business traveler.", "Most focused or select service hotels may still offer full-service accommodations but may lack leisure amenities such as an on-site restaurant or a swimming pool.", "Examples include Hyatt Place, Holiday Inn, Courtyard by Marriott and Hilton Garden Inn.===Economy and limited service===Small to medium-sized hotel establishments that offer a very limited number of on-site amenities and often only offer basic accommodations with little to no services, catering to the budget-minded traveler seeking a \"no frills\" accommodation.", "Limited service hotels often lack an on-site restaurant but in return may offer a limited complimentary food and beverage amenity such as on-site continental breakfast service.", "Examples include Ibis Budget, Hampton Inn, Aloft, Holiday Inn Express, Fairfield Inn, and Four Points by Sheraton.===Extended stay===Extended stay hotels are small to medium-sized hotels that offer longer-term full-service accommodations compared to a traditional hotel.", "Extended stay hotels may offer non-traditional pricing methods such as a weekly rate that caters towards travelers in need of short-term accommodations for an extended period of time.", "Similar to limited and select service hotels, on-site amenities are normally limited and most extended stay hotels lack an on-site restaurant.", "Examples include Staybridge Suites, Candlewood Suites, Homewood Suites by Hilton, Home2 Suites by Hilton, Residence Inn by Marriott, Element, and Extended Stay America.===Timeshare and destination clubs===Timeshare and destination clubs are a form of property ownership also referred to as a vacation ownership involving the purchase and ownership of an individual unit of accommodation for seasonal usage during a specified period of time.", "Timeshare resorts often offer amenities similar that of a full-service hotel with on-site restaurants, swimming pools, recreation grounds, and other leisure-oriented amenities.", "Destination clubs on the other hand may offer more exclusive private accommodations such as private houses in a neighborhood-style setting.", "Examples of timeshare brands include Hilton Grand Vacations, Marriott Vacation Club International, Westgate Resorts, Disney Vacation Club, and Holiday Inn Club Vacations.===Motel===A motel, an abbreviation for \"motor hotel\", is a small-sized low-rise lodging establishment similar to a limited service, lower-cost hotel, but typically with direct access to individual rooms from the car park.", "Motels were built to serve road travellers, including travellers on road trip vacations and workers who drive for their job (travelling salespeople, truck drivers, etc.).", "Common during the 1950s and 1960s, motels were often located adjacent to a major highway, where they were built on inexpensive land at the edge of towns or along stretches of freeway.New motel construction is rare in the 2000s as hotel chains have been building economy-priced, limited-service franchised properties at freeway exits which compete for largely the same clientele, largely saturating the market by the 1990s.", "Motels are still useful in less populated areas for driving travelers, but the more populated an area becomes, the more hotels move in to meet the demand for accommodation.", "While many motels are unbranded and independent, many of the other motels which remain in operation joined national franchise chains, often rebranding themselves as hotels, inns or lodges.", "Some examples of chains with motels include EconoLodge, Motel 6, Super 8, and Travelodge.Motels in some parts of the world are more often regarded as places for romantic assignations where rooms are often rented by the hour.", "This is fairly common in parts of Latin America.===Microstay===Hotels may offer rooms for microstays, a type of booking for less than 24 hours where the customer chooses the check in time and the length of the stay.", "This allows the hotel increased revenue by reselling the same room several times a day.", "They first gained popularity in Europe but are now common in major global tourist centers." ], [ "Management", "Hotel management is a globally accepted professional career field and academic field of study.", "Degree programs such as hospitality management studies, a business degree, and/or certification programs formally prepare hotel managers for industry practice.Most hotel establishments consist of a general manager who serves as the head executive (often referred to as the \"hotel manager\"), department heads who oversee various departments within a hotel, middle managers, administrative staff, and line-level supervisors.", "The organizational chart and volume of job positions and hierarchy varies by hotel size, function, and is often determined by hotel ownership and managing companies." ], [ "{{anchor|Unique}}Unique and specialty hotels", "=== Historic inns and boutique hotels ===Hotel Astoria and statue of Tsar Nicholas I in Saint Petersburg, RussiaGrand Hotel Viljandi in winter in Viljandi, EstoniaBoutique hotels are typically hotels with a unique environment or intimate setting.Some hotels have gained their renown through tradition, by hosting significant events or persons, such as Schloss Cecilienhof in Potsdam, Germany, which derives its fame from the Potsdam Conference of the World War II allies Winston Churchill, Harry Truman and Joseph Stalin in 1945.The Taj Mahal Palace & Tower in Mumbai is one of India's most famous and historic hotels because of its association with the Indian independence movement.", "Some establishments have given name to a particular meal or beverage, as is the case with the Waldorf Astoria in New York City, United States where the Waldorf Salad was first created or the Hotel Sacher in Vienna, Austria, home of the Sachertorte.", "Others have achieved fame by association with dishes or cocktails created on their premises, such as the Hotel de Paris where the crêpe Suzette was invented or the Raffles Hotel in Singapore, where the Singapore Sling cocktail was devised.Hôtel Ritz Paris in FranceA number of hotels have entered the public consciousness through popular culture, such as the Ritz Hotel in London, through its association with Irving Berlin's song, \"Puttin' on the Ritz\".", "The Algonquin Hotel in New York City is famed as the meeting place of the literary group, the Algonquin Round Table, and Hotel Chelsea, also in New York City, has been the subject of a number of songs and the scene of the stabbing of Nancy Spungen (allegedly by her boyfriend Sid Vicious).===Resort hotels===Wynn Palace, Macau Shanghai Disneyland Hotel, China Some hotels are built specifically as a destination in itself to create a captive trade, example at casinos, amusement parks and holiday resorts.", "Though hotels have always been built in popular destinations, the defining characteristic of a resort hotel is that it exists purely to serve another attraction, the two having the same owners.On the Las Vegas Strip there is a tradition of one-upmanship with luxurious and extravagant hotels in a concentrated area.", "This trend now has extended to other resorts worldwide, but the concentration in Las Vegas is still the world's highest: nineteen of the world's twenty-five largest hotels by room count are on the Strip, with a total of over 67,000 rooms.===Bunker hotels===The Null Stern Hotel in Teufen, Appenzellerland, Switzerland, and the Concrete Mushrooms in Albania are former nuclear bunkers transformed into hotels.===Cave hotels===The Cuevas Pedro Antonio de Alarcón (named after the author) in Guadix, Spain, as well as several hotels in Cappadocia, Turkey, are notable for being built into natural cave formations, some with rooms underground.", "The Desert Cave Hotel in Coober Pedy, South Australia, is built into the remains of an opal mine.===Cliff hotels===On top of the cliff, the Riosol Hotel in MogánLocated on the coast but high above sea level, these hotels offer unobstructed panoramic views and a great sense of privacy without the feeling of total isolation.", "Some examples from around the globe are the Riosol Hotel in Gran Canaria, Caruso Belvedere Hotel in Amalfi Coast (Italy), Aman Resorts Amankila in Bali, Birkenhead House in Hermanus (South Africa), The Caves in Jamaica and Caesar Augustus in Capri.===Capsule hotels===Interior of a capsule hotel in Osaka, JapanCapsule hotels are a type of economical hotel first introduced in Japan, where people sleep in stacks of rectangular containers.", "In the sleeping capsules, beside the bed, the customer can watch TV, put the valuable items in the mini safes, and the customers also can use the wireless internet.===Day room hotels===Some hotels fill daytime occupancy with day rooms, for example, Rodeway Inn and Suites near Port Everglades in Fort Lauderdale, Florida.", "Day rooms are booked in a block of hours typically between 8 am and 5 pm, before the typical night shift.", "These are similar to transit hotels in that they appeal to travelers, however, unlike transit hotels, they do not eliminate the need to go through Customs.===Garden hotels===Garden hotels, famous for their gardens before they became hotels, include Gravetye Manor, the home of garden designer William Robinson, and Cliveden, designed by Charles Barry with a rose garden by Geoffrey Jellicoe.===Ice, snow and igloo hotels===Ice Hotel in Jukkasjärvi, SwedenThe Ice Hotel in Jukkasjärvi, Sweden, was the first ice hotel in the world; first built in 1990, it is built each winter and melts every spring.", "The Hotel de Glace in Duschenay, Canada, opened in 2001 and it is North America's only ice hotel.", "It is redesigned and rebuilt in its entirety every year.", "Ice hotels can also be included within larger ice complexes; for example, the Mammut Snow Hotel in Finland is located within the walls of the Kemi snow castle; and the Lainio Snow Hotel is part of a snow village near Ylläs, Finland.", "There is an arctic snowhotel in Rovaniemi in Lapland, Finland, along with glass igloos.", "The first glass igloos were built in 1999 in Finland, they became the Kakslauttanen Arctic Resort with 65 buildings, 53 small ones for two people and 12 large ones for four people.", "Glass igloos, with their roof made of thermal glass, allow guests to admire auroras comfortably from their beds.===Love hotels===A love hotel (also 'love motel', especially in Taiwan) is a type of short-stay hotel found around the world, operated primarily for the purpose of allowing guests privacy for sexual activities, typically for one to three hours, but with overnight as an option.", "Styles of premises vary from extremely low-end to extravagantly appointed.", "In Japan, love hotels have a history of over 400 years.===Portable modular hotels===In 2021 a New York-based company introduced new modular and movable hotel rooms which allow landowners and hospitality groups to create and easily scale hotel accommodations.", "The portable units can be built in three to five months and can be stacked to create multi-floor units.===Referral hotel===A referral hotel is a hotel chain that offers branding to independently operated hotels; the chain itself is founded by or owned by the member hotels as a group.", "Many former referral chains have been converted to franchises; the largest surviving member-owned chain is Best Western.===Railway hotels===The first recorded purpose-built railway hotel was the Great Western Hotel, which opened adjacent to Reading railway station in 1844, shortly after the Great Western Railway opened its line from London.", "The building still exists, and although it has been used for other purposes over the years, it is now again a hotel and a member of the Malmaison hotel chain.Frequently, expanding railway companies built grand hotels at their termini, such as the Midland Hotel, Manchester next to the former Manchester Central Station, and in London the ones above St Pancras railway station and Charing Cross railway station.", "London also has the Chiltern Court Hotel above Baker Street tube station, there are also Canada's grand railway hotels.", "They are or were mostly, but not exclusively, used by those traveling by rail.=== Straw bale hotels ===The Maya Guesthouse in Nax Mont-Noble in the Swiss Alps, is the first hotel in Europe built entirely with straw bales.", "Due to the insulation values of the walls it needs no conventional heating or air conditioning system, although the Maya Guesthouse is built at an altitude of in the Alps.===Transit hotels===Transit hotels are short stay hotels typically used at international airports where passengers can stay while waiting to change airplanes.", "The hotels are typically on the airside and do not require a visa for a stay or re-admission through security checkpoints.===Treehouse hotels===Some hotels are built with living trees as structural elements, for example the Treehotel near Piteå, Sweden, the Costa Rica Tree House near the Jairo Mora Sandoval Gandoca-Manzanillo Mixed Wildlife Refuge, Costa Rica; the Treetops Hotel in Aberdare National Park, Kenya; the Ariau Towers near Manaus, Brazil, on the Rio Negro in the Amazon; and Bayram's Tree Houses in Olympos, Turkey.===Underwater hotels===Ithaa, the first undersea restaurant at the Conrad Maldives Rangali Island resortSome hotels have accommodation underwater, such as Utter Inn in Lake Mälaren, Sweden.", "Hydropolis, project in Dubai, would have had suites on the bottom of the Persian Gulf, and Jules' Undersea Lodge in Key Largo, Florida, requires scuba diving to access its rooms.===Overwater hotels===An overwater bungalow on the island resort in the MaldivesA resort island is an island or an archipelago that contains resorts, hotels, overwater bungalows, restaurants, tourist attractions and its amenities.", "Maldives has the most overwater bungalows resorts.===Yurt hotels===Yurts are circular, self-supporting structures with long rafters coalescing toward a central dome.", "During the day, the dome allows sunlight to illuminate the entire yurt interior, while moonlight and starlight shine through the dome at night.===Other specialty hotels===Burj Al Arab stands on an artificial island from Jumeirah Beach and is connected to the mainland by a private curving bridgeLobby on 103rd floor at The Ritz-Carlton, Hong Kong* The Burj al-Arab hotel in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, built on an artificial island, is structured in the shape of a boat's sail.", "*The Library Hotel in New York City, is unique in that each of its ten floors is assigned one category from the Dewey Decimal System.", "* The Jailhotel Löwengraben in Lucerne, Switzerland is a converted prison now used as a hotel.", "* The Luxor, a hotel and casino on the Las Vegas Strip in Paradise, Nevada, United States is unusual due to its pyramidal structure.", "*The Ritz-Carlton opened the highest hotel in the world in 2011, The Ritz-Carlton, Hong Kong on floors 102-118 of the International Commerce Centre in Tsim Sha Tsui on Kowloon Peninsula, Hong Kong.", "The lobby is above the ground.", "* The Liberty Hotel in Boston used to be the Charles Street Jail.", "* Hotel Kakslauttanen in Finland, a collection of glass igloos in Lapland that allow you to watch the Northern Lights* Built in Scotland and completed in 1936, The former ocean liner in Long Beach, California, United States uses its first-class staterooms as a hotel, after retiring in 1967 from Transatlantic service.", "* The Wigwam Motels used patented novelty architecture in which each motel room was a free-standing concrete wigwam or teepee.", "* The Bus Collective in Singapore was built from 20 retired public buses, and opened in 2023.", "* Various Caboose Motel or Red Caboose Inn properties are built from decommissioned rail cars.", "*Throughout the world there are several hotels built from converted airliners." ], [ "Records", "=== Largest ===In 2006, ''Guinness World Records'' listed the First World Hotel in Genting Highlands, Malaysia, as the world's largest hotel with a total of 6,118 rooms (and which has now expanded to 7,351 rooms).", "The Izmailovo Hotel in Moscow has the most beds, with 7,500, followed by The Venetian and The Palazzo complex in Las Vegas (7,117 rooms) and MGM Grand Las Vegas complex (6,852 rooms).===Oldest===According to the Guinness Book of World Records, the oldest hotel in operation is the Nisiyama Onsen Keiunkan in Yamanashi, Japan.", "The hotel, first opened in AD 707, has been operated by the same family for forty-six generations.", "The title was held until 2011 by the Hoshi Ryokan, in the Awazu Onsen area of Komatsu, Japan, which opened in the year 718, as the history of the Nisiyama Onsen Keiunkan was virtually unknown.=== Highest ===The Rosewood Guangzhou located on the top floors of the 108-story Guangzhou CTF Finance Centre in Tianhe District, Guangzhou, China.", "Soaring to 530-meters at its highest point, earns the singular status as the world's highest hotel.=== Most expensive purchase ===In October 2014, the Anbang Insurance Group, based in China, purchased the Waldorf Astoria New York in Manhattan for US$1.95 billion, making it the world's most expensive hotel ever sold.The Waldorf Astoria New York, the most expensive hotel ever sold, cost US$1.95 billion in 2014." ], [ "Long term residence", "A number of public figures have notably chosen to take up semi-permanent or permanent residence in hotels.", "*Fashion designer Coco Chanel lived in the Hôtel Ritz, Paris, on and off for more than 30 years.", "*Inventor Nikola Tesla lived the last ten years of his life at the New Yorker Hotel until he died in his room in 1943.", "*Larry Fine (of The Three Stooges) and his family lived in hotels, due to his extravagant spending habits and his wife's dislike for housekeeping.", "They first lived in the President Hotel in Atlantic City, New Jersey, where his daughter Phyllis was raised, then the Knickerbocker Hotel in Hollywood.", "Not until the late 1940s did Fine buy a home in the Los Feliz area of Los Angeles.", "*The Waldorf-Astoria Hotel and its affiliated Waldorf Towers has been the home of many famous persons over the years including former President Herbert Hoover who lived there from the end of his presidency in 1933 until his death in 1964.General Douglas MacArthur lived his last 14 years in the penthouse of the Waldorf Towers.", "Composer Cole Porter spent the last 25 years of his life in an apartment at the Waldorf Towers.", "*Billionaire Howard Hughes lived in hotels during the last ten years of his life (1966–76), primarily in Las Vegas, as well as Acapulco, Beverly Hills, Boston, Freeport, London, Managua, Nassau, Vancouver, and others.", "*Vladimir Nabokov and his wife Vera lived in the Montreux Palace Hotel in Montreux, Switzerland, from 1961 until his death in 1977.", "*Actor Richard Harris lived at the Savoy Hotel while in London.", "Hotel archivist Susan Scott recounts an anecdote that, when he was being taken out of the building on a stretcher shortly before his death in 2002, he raised his hand and told the diners \"it was the food.", "\"*Egyptian actor Ahmed Zaki lived his last 15 years in Ramses Hilton Hotel – Cairo.", "*British entrepreneur Jack Lyons lived in the Hotel Mirador Kempinski in Switzerland for several years until his death in 2008.", "*American actress Ethel Merman lived in the Berkshire Hotel in Manhattan for many years but was evicted in 1978 by new ownership who did not want permanent residents.", "*American actress Elaine Stritch lived in the Savoy Hotel in London for over a decade.", "*Uruguayan-Argentinian tango composer Horacio Ferrer lived almost 40 years, from 1976 until his death in 2014, in an apartment inside the Alvear Palace Hotel, in Buenos Aires, one of the most exclusive hotels in the city." ], [ "See also", "* Lists of hotels* List of chained-brand hotels* List of defunct hotel chains* Casino hotel* List of casino hotels* Niche tourism markets* Resort===Industry and careers===* Bellhop* Concierge* Front desk clerk, a type of clerk* General manager* GOPPAR, RevPAR, TRevPAR – hotel profitability equations.", "* Hospitality industry* Hotel rating* Innkeeper* Night auditor* Property caretaker* Tourism===Human habitation types===* Apartment hotel* Boutique hotel* Caravanserai* Cruise ship* Dharamshala* Dak bungalow* Eco hotel* Guest house* Glamping* Homestay* Hostal* Human habitats* Inn* Serviced apartment* Vacation rental* Pop-up hotel" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "***" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hugh Hefner" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Hugh Marston Hefner''' (April 9, 1926 – September 27, 2017) was an American magazine publisher.", "He was the founder and editor-in-chief of ''Playboy'' magazine, a publication with revealing photographs and articles.Hefner extended the ''Playboy'' brand into a world network of Playboy Clubs.", "He also resided in luxury mansions where ''Playboy'' Playmates shared his wild partying life, fueling media interest.", "He was an advocate for the causes of First Amendment rights, animal rescue, and the restoration of the Hollywood Sign.", "He was a controversial figure in popular culture, accused of perpetrating and fostering sexual abuse and exploitation stretching back decades, and ''Playboy'' has since distanced itself from association with him." ], [ "Early life", "Hefner was born in Chicago on April 9, 1926, the first child of Glenn Lucius Hefner (1896–1976), an accountant, and his wife Grace Caroline (Swanson) Hefner (1895–1997) who worked as a teacher.", "His parents were from Nebraska.", "He had a younger brother, Keith (1929–2016).", "His mother was of Swedish ancestry, and his father was German and English.Through his father's line, Hefner was a descendant of Plymouth governor William Bradford.", "He described his family as \"conservative, Midwestern, and Methodist\".", "His mother had wanted him to become a missionary.He attended Sayre Elementary School and Steinmetz High School, then served from 1944 to 1946 as a U.S. Army writer for a military newspaper.", "Hefner graduated from the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign in 1949 with a Bachelor of Arts in psychology and a double minor in creative writing and art, having earned his degree in two and a half years.", "After graduation, he took a semester of graduate courses in sociology at Northwestern University, but dropped out soon after." ], [ "Career", "In January 1952, Hefner left his job as a copywriter for ''Esquire'' after he was denied a $5 raise.", "In 1953, he took out a mortgage loan of $600 and raised $8,000 from 45 investors (including $1,000 from his mother—\"not because she believed in the venture,\" he told ''E!''", "in 2006, \"but because she believed in her son\") to launch ''Playboy'', which was initially going to be called ''Stag Party''.", "The first issue was published in December 1953 and featured Marilyn Monroe from a 1949 nude calendar shoot she did under a pseudonym.", "That first issue sold more than 50,000 copies, but Monroe was not paid by Playboy or Hefner for the photos.", "(Hefner never met Monroe, but he bought the crypt next to hers at the Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in 1992 for $75,000.", ")''Esquire'' magazine rejected Charles Beaumont's science fiction story \"The Crooked Man\" in 1955, so Hefner agreed to publish it in ''Playboy.''", "The story highlighted straight men being persecuted in a world where homosexuality was the norm.", "The magazine received angry letters, so Hefner responded, \"If it was wrong to persecute heterosexuals in a homosexual society then the reverse was wrong, too.\"", "In 1961, Hefner watched Dick Gregory perform at the Herman Roberts Show Bar in Chicago, and he hired Gregory to work at the Chicago Playboy Club.", "Gregory attributed the launch of his career to that night.Hefner promoted a ''bon vivant'' lifestyle in his magazine and in the television shows that he hosted ''Playboy's Penthouse'' (1959–1960) and ''Playboy After Dark'' (1969–1970).", "He was also the chief creative officer of Playboy Enterprises, the publishing group which operates the magazine.On June 4, 1963, Hefner was arrested for promoting obscene literature after he published an issue of ''Playboy'' featuring nude shots of Jayne Mansfield in bed with a man present.", "The case went to trial and resulted in a hung jury.In the 1960s, Hefner created \"private key\" clubs that were racially diverse.", "During the civil rights movement in 1966, Hefner sent Alex Haley to interview American Nazi Party founder George Lincoln Rockwell, much to Rockwell's shock because Haley was black.", "Rockwell agreed to meet with Haley only after gaining assurance that he was not Jewish, although Rockwell kept a handgun on the table throughout the interview.", "In ''Roots: The Next Generations'' (1979), the interview was recreated with James Earl Jones as Haley and Marlon Brando as Rockwell.", "Haley had also interviewed Malcolm X in 1963 and Martin Luther King Jr. in 1966 for the newly established 1962 \"playboy interview\".Hefner with his trademark Playboy Pipe in 1966In 1970, Hefner stated that \"militant feminists\" are \"unalterably opposed to the romantic boy-girl society that ''Playboy'' promotes\" and ordered an article in his magazine against them.In his later years, Hefner's star dimmed, but he remained a well-known personality, often appearing in cameo roles.", "In the 1993 ''The Simpsons'' episode \"Krusty Gets Kancelled\", Hefner voiced himself.", "In 1999, Hefner financed the Clara Bow documentary ''Discovering the It Girl''.", "\"Nobody has what Clara had,\" he said.", "\"She defined an era and made her mark on the nation\".", "Hefner guest-starred as himself in the 2000 ''Sex and the City'' episode \"Sex and Another City\".", "In 2005, he guest-starred on the HBO shows ''Curb Your Enthusiasm'' and ''Entourage''.", "He guest-starred as himself in a 2006 episode of Seth Green's ''Robot Chicken'' on the late-night programming block Adult Swim.", "In the 2007 ''Family Guy'' episode \"Airport '07\", he voiced himself.", "He has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for television and made several movie appearances as himself.", "In 2009, he received a \"worst supporting actor\" nomination for a Razzie award for his performance as himself in ''Miss March''.", "On his official Twitter account, he joked about this nomination: \"Maybe I didn't understand the character.", "\"Brigitte Berman's documentary ''Hugh Hefner: Playboy, Activist and Rebel'' was released on July 30, 2010.He had previously granted full access to documentary filmmaker and television producer Kevin Burns for the A&E ''Biography'' special ''Hugh Hefner: American Playboy'' in 1996.Hefner and Burns later collaborated on numerous other television projects, most notably on ''The Girls Next Door'', a reality series that ran for six seasons (2005–2009) and 90 episodes.", "Hefner also made a voice-only appearance as himself in the 2011 film ''Hop''.In 2012, Hefner announced that his youngest son Cooper would succeed him as the public face of ''Playboy''." ], [ "Personal life", "Sylvester Stallone's movie ''F.I.S.T.", "'', 1978Hefner with his partners Holly Madison (left) and Bridget Marquardt, 2007Hefner was known to friends and family simply as \"Hef\".", "He married Northwestern University student Mildred (\"Millie\") Williams in 1949.They had a daughter named Christie (b.", "1952) and a son, David (b.", "1955).", "Before the wedding, Mildred confessed that she'd had an affair while he was away in the army.", "He called the admission \"the most devastating moment of my life.\"", "A 2006 ''E!", "True Hollywood Story'' profile of Hefner revealed that Mildred allowed him to have sex with other women, out of guilt for her own infidelity and in the hope that it would preserve their marriage.", "The couple divorced in 1959.Hefner remade himself as a ''bon vivant'' and man about town, a lifestyle that he promoted in his magazine and TV shows.", "He admitted to being \"'involved' with maybe eleven out of twelve months' worth of Playmates\" during some years.", "Donna Michelle, Marilyn Cole, Lillian Müller, Shannon Tweed, Barbi Benton, Karen Christy, Sondra Theodore, and Carrie Leigh were a few of his many lovers; Leigh filed a $35 million palimony suit against him.", "In 1971, he acknowledged that he experimented in bisexuality.", "Also in 1971, he established a second residence in Los Angeles with the acquisition of Playboy Mansion West, and moved there permanently from Chicago in 1975.On March 7, 1985, Hefner had a minor stroke at age 58, whereupon he re-evaluated his lifestyle, making several changes.", "He toned down the wild, all-night parties; also, daughter Christie took over the operation of Playboy's commercial operations in 1988.The following year, he married Playmate of the Year Kimberley Conrad; they were 36 years apart in age.", "The couple had sons Marston Glenn (b.", "1990) and Cooper (b.", "1991).", "The ''E!", "True Hollywood Story'' profile noted that the Playboy Mansion had been transformed into a family-friendly homestead.", "He and Conrad separated in 1998, after which she moved into the house next door to the mansion.", "Hefner filed for divorce from Conrad in 2009 after an 11-year separation, citing irreconcilable differences.", "He stated that he only remained nominally married to her for the sake of their children, and their youngest child had just turned 18.The divorce was finalized in 2010.Hefner became known for moving an ever-changing coterie of young women into the Playboy Mansion, including twins Mandy and Sandy Bentley.", "He dated as many as seven women concurrently.", "He also dated Brande Roderick, Izabella St. James, Tina Marie Jordan, Holly Madison, Bridget Marquardt, and Kendra Wilkinson.", "Madison, Wilkinson, and Marquardt appeared on ''The Girls Next Door'' depicting their lives at the Playboy Mansion.", "In October 2008, all three of them decided to leave the mansion.In January 2009, Hefner began a relationship with Crystal Harris; she joined the Shannon Twins after his previous \"number one girlfriend\" Holly Madison had ended their seven-year relationship.", "On December 24, 2010, he became engaged to Harris, but she broke off their engagement on June 14, 2011, five days before their planned wedding.", "The July issue of ''Playboy'' reached store shelves and customers' homes within days of the wedding date; it featured Harris on the cover, and in a photo spread as well.", "The headline on the cover read \"Introducing America's Princess, Mrs.", "Crystal Hefner\".", "Hefner and Harris subsequently reconciled and married on December 31, 2012.Hefner was very distantly related to the 41st and 43rd presidents of the United States, George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush, respectively.", "Hefner's brother Keith died at age 87 on April 8, 2016, one day before Hefner's 90th birthday." ], [ "Playboy Mansion", "Playboy Mansion WestIn January 2016, the Playboy Mansion was put on the market for $200 million, on condition that Hugh Hefner would continue to work and live in the mansion.", "Later that year it was sold to Daren Metropoulos, a principal at private equity firm Metropoulos & Company, for $100 million.", "Metropoulos planned to reconnect the Playboy Mansion property with a neighboring estate that he purchased in 2009, combining the two for a 7.3 acre (3-hectare) compound as his own private residence.In May 2017, Eugena Washington was the last Playmate of the Year to be announced by Hugh Hefner at the Playboy Mansion." ], [ "Politics and philanthropy", "Tom Bradley and Otis Chandler, 1980Hefner debated ''The Playboy Philosophy'' with William F. Buckley Jr., on ''Firing Line'' in Episode 26, recorded on September 12, 1966.The Hugh M. Hefner First Amendment Award was created by Christie Hefner \"to honor individuals who have made significant contributions in the vital effort to protect and enhance First Amendment rights for Americans.", "\"He donated and raised money for the Democratic Party.", "In 2011, he referred to himself as an independent due to dissatisfaction with both the Democratic and Republican parties.", "Nonetheless, in 2012, he supported Barack Obama's reelection campaign.In 1978, Hefner helped organize fund-raising efforts that led to the restoration of the Hollywood Sign.", "He hosted a gala fundraiser at the Playboy Mansion and contributed $27,000 (or 1/9 of the total restoration costs) by purchasing the letter Y in a ceremonial auction.Hefner stated in a 2000 interview with ''Playboy'', \"It’s perfectly clear to me that religion is a myth.", "It’s something we have invented to explain the inexplicable.\"", "Lee Strobel, a Christian author who interviewed Hefner regarding his theological positions, later described Hefner as having a \"very minimalistic, deistic view of God.", "\"Hefner donated $100,000 to the University of Southern California's School of Cinematic Arts to create a course called \"Censorship in Cinema\", and $2 million to endow a chair for the study of American film.", "In 2007, the university's audiovisual archive at the Norris Theater received a donation from Hefner and was renamed to the Hugh M. Hefner Moving Image Archive in his honor.Both through his charitable foundation and individually, Hefner also contributed to charities and other organizations outside the sphere of politics and publishing, throwing fundraiser events for Much Love Animal Rescue as well as Generation Rescue, an anti-vaccinationist campaign organization supported by Jenny McCarthy.On November 18, 2010, Children of the Night founder and president Dr. Lois Lee presented Hefner with the organization's first-ever Founder's Hero of the Heart Award in appreciation for his unwavering dedication, commitment and generosity.On April 26, 2010, Hefner donated the last $900,000 sought by a conservation group for a land purchase needed to stop the development of the vista of the Hollywood Sign.", "''Sylvilagus palustris hefneri'', an endangered subspecies of marsh rabbit, is named after him in honor of financial support that he provided.The Barbi Twins, who are among a notable cohort of celebrity Playmates, including Pamela Anderson and Hefner's third wife Crystal Harris, praised the publishing icon for providing centerfolds and extended members of the Playboy family with a platform for activism and advocacy on behalf of animal populations in need.Hefner supported legalizing same-sex marriage, calling it \"a fight for all our rights.", "Without it, we will turn back the sexual revolution and return to an earlier, puritanical time.\"" ], [ "Death", "Hefner died at the Playboy Mansion on September 27, 2017, at the age of 91.The cause was sepsis brought on by an ''E.", "coli'' infection.He is interred at Westwood Memorial Park in Los Angeles, in the crypt beside Marilyn Monroe, for which he paid $75,000 in 1992.", "\"Spending eternity next to Marilyn is an opportunity too sweet to pass up,\" Hefner had told the ''Los Angeles Times'' in 2009." ], [ "Reputation", "Suzanne Moore wrote in ''The Guardian'' that Hefner threatened to file a lawsuit against her for calling him a \"pimp\".", "Defending her position, Moore argued that \"he was a man who bought and sold women to other men\".", "She further stated that \"part of Hefner's business acumen was to make the selling of female flesh respectable and hip, to make soft porn acceptable.\"", "Julie Bindel argued in ''The Independent'' that Hefner \"caused immeasurable damage by turning porn—and therefore the buying and selling of women's bodies—into a legitimate business.", "\"Robin Abcarian wrote in the ''Los Angeles Times'', Quoting Wendy Hamilton, that Hefner \"probably did more to mainstream the exploitation of women's bodies than any other figure in American history,\" adding that he \"managed to convince many women that taking off their clothes for men's pleasure was not just empowering, but a worthy goal in itself.\"", "She further stated that Hefner \"embodied the aesthetic notion that images of women—and women themselves—exist to please men.", "\"Hefner's former girlfriend Holly Madison said that he \"would encourage competition—and body image issues—between his multiple live-in girlfriends.", "His legacy is full of evidence of the exploitation of women for professional gain.\"", "Ed Stetzer wrote in ''Christianity Today'' that Hefner would have the residence systematically cleaned whenever Christie Hefner visited in order \"to keep the realities from his own daughter\".", "Stetzer further lamented the consequences of Hefner's role as a \"general\" of the \"sexual revolution\":A 12-part television documentary series, ''Secrets of Playboy'', debuted on A&E January 24, 2022, in which Hefner's former male and female employees and partners made claims of systematic sexual misconduct and manipulation, recreational and manipulative drug use, peer pressure, sextortion blackmail, rape, forced and violent anal sex, sexual assault without consent and/or while victims were in a state of drug-induced stupor or unconsciousness, spying, video taping without consent, and illegal sex with minors by Hefner and his celebrity friends and guests at the Playboy Mansion and other locations.", "The PLBY group, now publicly owned, distanced itself from Hefner in a statement released shortly before the first episode was broadcast, saying, \"Today's Playboy is not Hugh Hefner's Playboy.", "We trust and validate these women and their stories and we strongly support those individuals who have come forward to share their experiences.", "\"In 2024, Hefner's widow Crystal, who previously brushed away criticism, wrote a memoir where she alleged she experienced a hostile environment while at the Playboy Mansion, even claiming that she was \"imprisoned\" while there." ], [ "Depictions", "The Amazon original series ''American Playboy: The Hugh Hefner Story'' was released in April 2017.It stars Matt Whelan in the title role, along with Emmett Skilton and Chelsie Preston Crayford.", "The first season was released on April 7, composed of ten episodes.", "The series is a combination of interviews, archival footage (including moments found in Hefner's vast personal collection), and cinematic re-enactments that cover the launch of the magazine as well as the next six decades of Hefner's personal life and career.", "The series was filmed in Auckland.On October 3, 2017, Playboy Enterprises announced that a Hugh Hefner biopic directed by Brett Ratner with the screenplay by Jeff Nathanson was greenlit with Jared Leto rumored to play Hefner.", "It was indefinitely put on hold following sexual harassment allegations against Ratner on November 2, 2017, and Leto's representatives stated that reports of him being attached to the film at any point were false." ], [ "Filmography", "+FilmYearFilmRoleNotes1981''History of the World, Part I''Ancient Roman Entrepreneur1982''The Comeback Trail''Himself 1987''Beverly Hills Cop II''Himself2005''The Aristocrats''HimselfArchive Footage2011''Hop''Voice at Playboy Mansion+TelevisionYearShowRoleNotes1969-1970''Playboy After Dark''Himself/Host1974''The Odd Couple''HimselfEpisode: One for the Bunny1977''Saturday Night Live''Himself/Host1993''The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air''HimselfEpisode: Fresh Prince After Dark''The Simpsons''HimselfEpisode: Krusty Gets Kancelled1993''The Larry Sanders Show''HimselfEpisode: Broadcast Nudes1996''Roseanne''HimselfEpisode: What a Day for a Daydream, credited as Hugh M. Hefner2000''The Daily Show''Himself2003''The Bronx Bunny Show''Himself2005''Entourage''HimselfEpisode: Aquamansion''Curb Your Enthusiasm''HimselfEpisode: The Smoking Jacket2006''The Boondocks''HimselfEpisode: The Real''The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson''Himself''Robot Chicken''HimselfEpisode: Drippy Pony2007''Family Guy''HimselfEpisode: Airport '07" ], [ "Books", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Hugh M. Hefner Foundation* \"Hef the Politician: Playboy's History in Politics\" on Playboy.com* * Hugh Hefner on Biography.com*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hafizullah Amin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hafizullah Amin''' (; 1 August 192927 December 1979) was an Afghan communist head of state, who served from September 1979 until his assassination.", "He organized the Saur Revolution of 1978 and co-founded the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA), ruling Afghanistan as General Secretary of the People's Democratic Party.Born in the town of Paghman in Kabul Province, Amin studied at Kabul University and started his career as a teacher before he twice went to the United States to study.", "During this time, Amin became attracted to Marxism and became involved in radical student movements at the University of Wisconsin.", "Upon his return to Afghanistan, he used his teaching position to spread socialist ideologies to students, and he later joined the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), a new far-left organization co-founded by Nur Muhammad Taraki and Babrak Karmal.", "He ran as a candidate in the 1965 parliamentary election but failed to secure a seat, but in 1969 became the only Khalqist elected to parliament, increasing his standing within the party.Amin was the main organizer of the April 1978 Saur Revolution, which overthrew the government of Mohammad Daoud Khan and formed a pro-Soviet state based on socialist ideals.", "Being second in chief of the Democratic Republic, Amin soon became the regime's strongman, the main architect of the state's programs including mass persecution of those deemed counter-revolutionary.", "A growing personal struggle with General Secretary Taraki eventually led to Amin wrestling power away then successfully deposing him and later ordering his execution; on 16 September 1979, Amin named himself Chairman of the Council of Ministers (head of government), Chairman of the Revolutionary Council (head of state), and General Secretary of the PDPA Central Committee (supreme leader).Amin's short-lived leadership featured controversies from beginning to end.", "His government failed to solve the problem of the population revolting against the regime as the situation rapidly worsened and army desertions and defections continued.", "He tried to change things with friendly overtures to the United States, however his reputation in Washington was tarnished by his role in the assassination of Adolph Dubs.", "Some Afghans, especially those from minority ethnic groups such as the Hazaras, held Amin responsible for the regime's harshest measures, such as ordering thousands of executions, more then 7,000 of which were from the Hazara minority.", "Thousands of people disappeared without trace during his time in office.", "The Soviet Union under Leonid Brezhnev was dissatisfied with and mistrusted Amin; they intervened in Afghanistan, invoking the 1978 Twenty-Year Treaty of Friendship between Afghanistan and the Soviet Union.", "Soviet operatives assassinated Amin at the Tajbeg Palace on 27 December 1979 as part of Operation Storm-333, kickstarting the 10-year Soviet–Afghan War; he had ruled for a little more than three months." ], [ "Early life and career", "Hafizullah Amin was born to a Ghilzai Pashtun family in the Qazi Khel village in Paghman on 1 August 1929.His father, a civil servant, died in 1937 when he was 8.Thanks to his brother Abdullah, a primary school teacher, Amin was able to attend both primary and secondary school, which in turn allowed him to attend Kabul University (KU).", "After studying mathematics there, he also graduated from the Darul Mualimeen Teachers College in Kabul, and became a teacher.", "Amin later became vice-principal of the Darul Mualimeen College, and then principal of the prestigious Avesina High School, and in 1957 left Afghanistan for Columbia University in New York City, where he earned MA in education.", "It was at Columbia that Amin became attracted to Marxism, and in 1958 he became a member of the university's Socialist Progressive Club.", "When he returned to Afghanistan, Amin became a teacher at Kabul University, and later, for the second time, the principal of Avesina High School.", "During this period Amin became acquainted with Nur Muhammad Taraki, a communist.", "Around this time, Amin quit his position as principal of Avesina High School to become principal of the Darul Mualimeen College.It is alleged that Amin became radicalised during his second stay in the United States in 1962, when he enrolled in a work-study group at the University of Wisconsin.", "Amin studied in the doctoral programme at the Columbia University Teachers College, but started to neglect his studies in favour of politics; in 1963 he became head of the Afghan students' association at the college.", "The association was funded by the Asia Foundation, known to be a CIA pass-through group, or front.", "When he returned to Afghanistan in the mid-1960s, the route flew to Afghanistan by way of Moscow.", "There, Amin met the Afghan ambassador to the Soviet Union, his old friend Ali Ahmad Popel, a previous Afghan Minister of Education.", "During his short stay, Amin became even more radicalised.", "Some people, Nabi Misdaq for instance, do not believe he travelled through Moscow, but rather West Germany and Lebanon.", "By the time he had returned to Afghanistan, the Communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) had already held its founding congress, which was in 1965.Amin ran as a candidate for the PDPA in the 1965 parliamentary election, and lost by a margin of less than fifty votes.In 1966, when the PDPA Central Committee was expanded, Amin was elected as a non-voting member, and in the spring of 1967 he gained full membership.", "Amin's standing in the Khalq faction of the PDPA increased when he was the only Khalqist elected to parliament in the 1969 parliamentary election.", "When the PDPA split along factional lines in 1967, between Khalqists led by Nur and Parchamites led by Babrak Karmal, Amin joined the Khalqists.", "As a member of parliament, Amin tried to win over support from the Pashtun people in the armed forces.", "According to a biography about Amin, he used his position as member of parliament to fight against imperialism, feudalism, and Reactionary tendencies, and fought against the \"rotten\" regime, the monarchy.", "Amin himself said that he used his membership in parliament to pursue the class struggle against the bourgeoisie.", "Relations between Khalqists and Parchamites deteriorated during this period.", "Amin, the only Khalq member of parliament, and Babrak Karmal, the only Parcham member of parliament, did not cooperate with each other.", "Amin would later, during his short stint in power, mention these events with bitterness.", "Following the arrest of fellow PDPA members Dastagir Panjsheri and Saleh Mohammad Zeary in 1969, Amin became one of the party's leading members, and was still a pre-eminent party member by the time of their release in 1973.===The Daoud era===From 1973 until the PDPA unification in 1977, Amin was second only to Taraki in the Khalqist PDPA.", "When the PDPA ruled Afghanistan, their relationship was referred to as a disciple (Amin) following his mentor (Taraki).", "This official portrayal of the situation was misleading; their relationship was more work-oriented.", "Taraki needed Amin's \"tactical and strategic talents\"; Amin's motivations are more uncertain, but it is commonly believed that he associated with Taraki to protect his own position.", "Amin had attracted many enemies during his career, the most notable being Karmal.", "According to the official version of events, Taraki protected Amin from party members or others who wanted to hurt the PDPA and the country.", "When Mohammed Daoud Khan ousted the monarchy, and established the Republic of Afghanistan, the Khalqist PDPA offered its support for the new regime if it established a National Front which presumably included the Khalqist PDPA itself.", "The Parchamite PDPA had already established an alliance with Daoud at the beginning of his regime, and Karmal called for the dissolution of the Khalqist PDPA.", "Karmal's call for dissolution only worsened relations between the Khalqist and Parchamite PDPA.", "However, Taraki and Amin were lucky; Karmal's alliance actually hurt the Parchamites' standing in Afghan politics.", "Some communists in the armed forces became disillusioned with the government of Daoud, and turned to the Khalqist PDPA because of its apparent independence.", "Parchamite association with the Daoud government indirectly led to the Khalqist-led PDPA coup of 1978, popularly referred to as the Saur Revolution.", "From 1973 until the 1978 coup, Amin was responsible for organising party work in the Afghan armed forces.", "According to the official version, Amin \"met patriotic liaison officers day or night, in the desert or the mountains, in the fields or the forests, enlightening them on the basis of the principles of the working class ideology.\"", "Amin's success in recruiting military officers lay in the fact that Daoud \"betrayed the left\" soon after taking power.", "When Amin began recruiting military officers for the PDPA, it was not difficult for him to find disgruntled military officers.", "In the meantime, relations between the Parchamite and Khalqist PDPA deteriorated; in 1973 it was rumoured that Major Zia Mohammadzai, a Parchamite and head of the Republican Guard, planned to assassinate the entire Khalqist leadership.", "The plan, if true, failed because the Khalqists found out about it.The assassination attempt proved to be a further blow to relations between the Parchamites and Khalqists.", "The Parchamites deny that they ever planned to assassinate the Khalqist leadership, but historian Beverley Male argues that Karmal's subsequent activities give credence to the Khalqist view of events.", "Because of the Parchamite assassination attempt, Amin pressed the Khalqist PDPA to seize power in 1976 by ousting Daoud.", "The majority of the PDPA leadership voted against such a move.", "The following year, in 1977, the Parchamites and Khalqists officially reconciled, and the PDPA was unified.", "The Parchamite and Khalqist PDPAs, which had separate general secretaries, politburos, central committees and other organisational structures, were officially unified in the summer of 1977.One reason for unification was that the international communist movement, represented by the Communist Party of India, Iraqi Communist Party and the Communist Party of Australia, called for party unification.===Saur Revolution=== On 18 April 1978 Mir Akbar Khyber, the chief ideologue of the Parcham faction, was killed; he was commonly believed to have been assassinated by the Daoud government.", "Khyber's assassination initiated a chain of events which led to the PDPA taking power eleven days later, on 27 April.", "The assassin was never caught, but Anahita Ratebzad, a Parchamite, believed that Amin had ordered the assassination.", "Khyber's funeral evolved into a large anti-government demonstration.", "Daoud, who did not understand the significance of the events, began a mass arrest of PDPA members seven days after Khyber's funeral.", "Amin, who organised the subsequent revolution against Daoud, was one of the last Central Committee members to be arrested by the authorities.", "His late arrest can be considered as proof of the regime's lack of information; Amin was the leading revolutionary party organiser.", "The government's lack of awareness was proven by the arrest of Taraki – Taraki's arrest was the pre-arranged signal for the revolution to commence.", "When Amin found out that Taraki had been arrested, he ordered the revolution to begin at 9 am on 27 April.", "Amin, in contrast to Taraki, was not imprisoned, but instead put under house arrest.", "His son, Abdur Rahman, was still allowed freedom of movement.", "The revolution was successful, thanks to overwhelming support from the Afghan military; for instance, it was supported by Defence Minister Ghulam Haidar Rasuli, Aslam Watanjar the commander of the ground forces, and the Chief of Staff of the Afghan Air Force, Abdul Qadir." ], [ "PDPA rule", "===Khalq–Parcham break===After the Saur revolution, Taraki was appointed Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council and Chairman of the Council of Ministers, and retained his post as PDPA general secretary.", "Taraki initially formed a government which consisted of both Khalqists and Parchamites; Karmal became Deputy Chairman of the Revolutionary Council while Amin became Minister of Foreign Affairs and a Deputy Prime Minister, and Mohammad Aslam Watanjar became a Deputy Prime Minister.", "The two Parchamites Abdul Qadir and Mohammad Rafi became Minister of National Defence and Minister of Public Works respectively.", "According to Angel Rasanayagam, the appointment of Amin, Karmal and Watanjar as Deputy Prime Ministers led to the establishment of three cabinets; the Khalqists were answerable to Amin, the Parchamites were answerable to Karmal, and the military officers (who were Parchamites) were answerable to Watanjar.", "The first conflict between the Khalqists and Parchamites arose when the Khalqists wanted to give PDPA Central Committee membership to the military officers who participated in the Saur Revolution.", "Amin, who had previously opposed the appointment of military officers to the PDPA leadership, switched sides; he now supported their elevation.", "The PDPA Politburo voted in favour of giving membership to the military officers; the victors (the Khalqists) portrayed the Parchamites as opportunists, implying that the Parchamites had ridden the revolutionary wave, but not actually participated in the revolution.", "To make matters worse for the Parchamites, the term Parcham was, according to Taraki, a word synonymous with factionalism.On 27 June 1978, three months after the revolution, Amin managed to outmaneuver the Parchamites at a Central Committee meeting.", "The meeting decided that the Khalqists had exclusive rights to formulate and decide policy, a policy which left the Parchamites impotent.", "Karmal was exiled, but was able to establish a network with the remaining Parchamites in government.", "A coup to overthrow Amin was planned for September.", "Its leading members in Afghanistan were Qadir, the defence minister, and Army Chief of Staff General Shahpur Ahmedzai.", "The coup was planned for 4 September, on the Festival of Eid, because soldiers and officers would be off duty.", "The conspiracy failed when the Afghan ambassador to India told the Afghan leadership about the plan.", "A purge was initiated, and Parchamite ambassadors were recalled; few returned, for example Karmal and Mohammad Najibullah both stayed in their assigned countries.===Amin–Taraki break===The Afghan people revolted against the PDPA government when the government introduced several socialist reforms, including land reforms.", "By early 1979, twenty-five out of Afghanistan's twenty-eight provinces were unsafe because of armed resistance against the government.", "On 29 March 1979, the Herat uprising began; the uprising turned the revolt into an open war between the Afghan government and anti-regime resistance.", "It was during this period that Amin became Kabul's strongman.", "Shortly after the Herat uprising had been crushed, the Revolutionary Council convened to ratify the new Five-Year Plan, the Afghan–Soviet Friendship Treaty, and to vote on whether or not to reorganise the cabinet and to enhance the power of the executive (the Chairman of the Revolutionary Council).", "While the official version of events said that all issues were voted on democratically at the meeting, the Revolutionary Council held another meeting the following day to ratify the new Five-Year Plan and to discuss the reorganisation of the cabinet.Alexander Puzanov, the Soviet ambassador to Afghanistan, was able to persuade Aslam Watanjar, Sayed Mohammad Gulabzoy and Sherjan Mazdoryar to become part of a conspiracy against Amin.", "These three men put pressure on Taraki, who by this time believed that \"he really was the 'great leader'\", to sack Amin from office.", "It is unknown if Amin knew anything about the conspiracy against him, but it was after the cabinet reorganisation that he talked about his dissatisfaction.", "On 26 March the PDPA Politburo and the Council of Ministers approved the extension of the powers of the executive branch, and the establishment of the Homeland Higher Defence Council (HHDC) to handle security matters.", "Many analysts of the day regarded Amin's appointment as Prime Minister as an increase in his powers at the expense of Taraki.", "However, the reorganisation of the cabinet and the strengthening of Taraki's position as Chairman of the Revolutionary Council, had reduced the authority of the Prime Minister.", "The Prime Minister was, due to the strengthening of the executive, now appointed by the Chairman of the Revolutionary Council.", "While Amin could appoint and dismiss new ministers, he needed Taraki's consent to actually do so.", "Another problem for Amin was that while the Council of Ministers was responsible to the Revolutionary Council and its chairman, individual ministers were only responsible to Taraki.", "When Amin became Prime Minister, he was responsible for planning, finance and budgetary matters, the conduct of foreign policy, and for order and security.", "The order and security responsibilities had been taken over by the HHDC, which was chaired by Taraki.", "While Amin was HHDC Deputy chairman, the majority of HHDC members were members of the anti-Amin faction.", "For instance, the HHDC membership included Watanjar the Minister of National Defence, Interior Minister Mazdoryar, the President of the Political Affairs of the Armed Forces Mohammad Iqbal, Mohammad Yaqub, the Chief of the General Staff, the Commander of the Afghan Air Force Nazar Mohammad and Assadullah Sarwari the head of ASGA, the Afghan secret police.", "Amin cabinet (1979)OfficeIncumbentTook  officeLeft  officeDeputy Chairman of the Council of MinistersShah Wali1 April27 DecemberMinister of Foreign Affairs1 April27 DecemberMinister of AgricultureSaleh Muhammad Zarei1 April28 JulyAbdul Rashid Jalili28 July27 DecemberMinister of FinanceAbdul Karim Misaq1 April27 DecemberMinister of Higher EducationMahmud Suma1 April27 DecemberMinister of National DefenceMuhammad Aslam Watanjar1 April28 JulyHafizullah Amin28 July27 DecemberMinister of EducationAbdul Rashid Jalili1 April28 JulyMuhammad Salim Masudi28 July27 DecemberMinister of Justice, Attorney GeneralAbdul Hakim Shara'i1 April27 DecemberMinister of Water, PowerMahmud Hashemi1 April27 DecemberMinister of Information, CultureKhial Katawazi1 April27 DecemberMinister of Mines, IndustriesMuhammad Isma'il Danesh1 April27 DecemberMinister of CommerceAbdul Quddus Ghorbandi1 April27 DecemberMinister of TransportHasan Bareq-Shafi'i1 April27 DecemberMinister of Border AffairsSahibjan Sahra'i1 April28 JulySherjan Mazdoryar28 July14 SeptemberUnknownMinister of Post, Telegraph and TelephoneSayed Mohammad Gulabzoy28 July14 SeptemberMohammad Zarif14 September27 DecemberMinister of InteriorMuhammad Aslam Watanjar28 July14 SeptemberFaqir Mohammad Faqir14 September27 DecemberMinister of PlanningMuhammad Siddig Alemyar28 July27 DecemberMinister of HealthSaleh Muhammad Zirai28 July27 DecemberMinister of Public WorksDastagir Panjsheri28 July27 DecemberThe order of precedence had been institutionalised, whereby Taraki was responsible for defence and Amin responsible for assisting Taraki in defence related matters.", "Amin's position was given a further blow by the democratisation of the decision-making process, which allowed its members to contribute; most of them were against Amin.", "Another problem for Amin was that the office of HHDC Deputy chairman had no specific functions or powers, and the appointment of a new defence minister who opposed him drastically weakened his control over the Ministry of National Defence.", "The reorganisation of ministers was a further blow to Amin's position; he had lost control of the defence ministry, the interior ministry and the ASGA.", "Amin still had allies at the top, many of them in strategically important positions, for instance, Yaqub was his brother-in-law and the Security Chief in the Ministry of Interior was Sayed Daoud Taroon, who was also later appointed to the HHDC as an ordinary member in April.", "Amin succeeded in appointing two more of his allies to important positions; Mohammad Sediq Alemyar as Minister of Planning and Khayal Mohammad Katawazi as Minister of Information and Culture; and Faqir Mohammad Faqir was appointed Deputy Prime Minister in April 1978.Amin's political position was not secure when Alexei Yepishev, the Head of the Main Political Directorate of the Soviet Army and Navy, visited Kabul.", "Yepishev met personally with Taraki on 7 April, but never met with Amin.", "The Soviets were becoming increasingly worried about Amin's control over the Afghan military.", "Even so, during Yepishev's visit Amin's position was actually strengthened; Taroon was appointed Taraki's aide-de-camp.Soon after, at two cabinet meetings, the strengthening of the executive powers of the Chairman of the Revolutionary Council was proven.", "Even though Amin was Prime Minister, Taraki chaired the meetings instead of him.", "Amin's presence at these two meetings was not mentioned at all, and it was made clear that Taraki, through his office as Chairman of the Revolutionary Council, also chaired the Council of Ministers.", "Another problem facing Amin was Taraki's policy of autocracy; he tried to deprive the PDPA Politburo of its powers as a party and state decision-making organ.", "The situation deteriorated when Amin personally warned Taraki that \"the prestige and popularity of leaders among the people has no common aspect with a personality cult.", "\"Factionalism within the PDPA made it ill-prepared to handle the intensified counter-revolutionary activities in the country.", "Amin tried to win support for the communist government by depicting himself as a devout Muslim.", "Taraki and Amin blamed different countries for helping the counter-revolutionaries; Amin attacked the United Kingdom and the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) and played down American and Chinese involvement, while Taraki blamed American imperialism and Iran and Pakistan for supporting the uprising.", "Amin's criticism of the United Kingdom and the BBC fed on the traditional anti-British sentiments held by rural Afghans.", "In contrast to Taraki, \"Amin bent over backwards to avoid making hostile reference to\", China, the United States or other foreign governments.", "Amin's cautious behavior was in deep contrast to the Soviet Union's official stance on the situation; it seemed, according to Beverley Male, that the Soviet leadership tried to force a confrontation between Afghanistan and its enemies.", "Amin also tried to appease the Shia communities by meeting with their leaders; despite this, a section of the Shia leadership called for the continuation of the resistance.", "Subsequently, a revolt broke out in a Shia populated district in Kabul; this was the first sign of unrest in Kabul since the Saur Revolution.", "To add to the government's problems, Taraki's ability to lead the country was questioned – he was a heavy drinker and was not in good health.", "Amin on the other hand was characterised in this period by portrayals of strong self-discipline.", "In the summer of 1979 Amin began to disassociate himself from Taraki.", "On 27 June Amin became a member of the PDPA Politburo, the leading decision-making body in Afghanistan.===Rise to power===In-mid July the Soviets made their view official when ''Pravda'' wrote an article about the situation in Afghanistan; the Soviets did not wish to see Amin become leader of Afghanistan.", "This triggered a political crisis in Afghanistan, as Amin initiated a policy of extreme repression, which became one of the main reasons for the Soviet intervention later that year.", "On 28 July, a vote in the PDPA Politburo approved Amin's proposal of creating a collective leadership with collective decision-making; this was a blow to Taraki, and many of his supporters were replaced by pro-Amin PDPA members.", "Ivan Pavlovsky, the Commander of the Soviet Ground Forces, visited Kabul in mid-August to study the situation in Afghanistan.", "Amin, in a speech just a few days after Pavlovsky's arrival, said that he wanted closer relations between Afghanistan and the People's Republic of China; in the same speech he hinted that he had reservations about Soviet meddling in Afghanistan.", "He likened Soviet assistance to Afghanistan with Vladimir Lenin's assistance to the Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919.Taraki, a delegate to the conference held by the Non-Aligned Movement in Havana, met personally with Andrei Gromyko, the Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs, to discuss the Afghanistan situation on 9 September.", "Shah Wali, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, who was a supporter of Amin, did not participate in the meeting.", "This, according to Beverley Male, \"suggested that some plot against Amin was in preparation\".Taraki was instructed to stop-over in Moscow, where the Soviet leaders urged him to remove Amin from power as per the KGB's decision, because Amin posed danger.", "Amin's trusted aid, Daoud Taroon, informed Amin of the meeting and the KGB's plan.", "In Kabul, Taraki's aides, the Gang of Four (consisting of Watanjar, Mazdoryar, Gulabzoi and Sarwari), planned to assassinate Amin but failed as Amin was informed of their plot.", "Within hours of Taraki's return to Kabul on 11 September, Taraki convened the cabinet \"ostensibly to report on the Havana Summit\".", "Instead of reporting on the summit, Taraki tried to dismiss Amin as Prime Minister.", "Amin, aware of the murder plot, demanded the Gang of Four to be removed from their posts, but Taraki laughed it off.", "Taraki sought to neutralise Amin's power and influence by requesting that he serve overseas as an ambassador.", "Amin turned down the proposal, shouting \"You are the one who should quit!", "Because of drink and old age you have taken leave of your senses.", "\"On 13 September, Taraki invited Amin to the presidential palace for lunch with him and the Gang of Four.", "Amin turned down the offer, stating he would prefer their resignation rather than lunching with them.", "Soviet ambassador Puzanov persuaded Amin to make the visit to the Presidential Palace along with Taroon, the Chief of Police, and Nawab Ali, an intelligence officer.", "Inside the palace on 14 September, bodyguards within the building opened fire on the visitors.", "Taroon was killed but Amin only sustained an injury and escaped.", "Amin drove to the Ministry of Defence building, put the Army on high alert and ordered Taraki's arrest.", "At 6:30 pm tanks from the 4th Armoured Corps entered the city and stood at government buildings.", "Shortly afterwards, Amin returned to the palace with a contingent of Army officers, and placed Taraki under arrest.", "The Gang of Four, however, had \"disappeared\" and sought refuge in the Soviet Embassy.After Taraki's arrest, the Soviets tried to rescue Taraki (or, according to other sources, kidnap Amin) via the embassy or Bagram Air Base but the strength of Amin's officers repelled their decision to make a move.", "Amin was told by the Soviets not to punish Taraki and strip him and his comrades of their positions, but Amin ignored them.", "Amin reportedly discussed the incident with Leonid Brezhnev, and indirectly asked for the permission to kill Taraki, to which Brezhnev replied that it was his choice.", "Amin, who now believed he had the full support of the Soviets, ordered the death of Taraki.", "It is believed Taraki was suffocated with pillows on 8 October 1979.The Afghan media would report that the ailing Taraki had died, omitting any mention of his murder.", "Taraki's murder shocked and upset Brezhnev.===Leadership=======Domestic policies====Following Taraki's fall from power, Amin was elected Chairman of the Presidum of the Revolutionary Council and General Secretary of the PDPA Central Committee by the PDPA Politburo.", "The election of Amin as PDPA General Secretary and the removal of Taraki from all party posts was unanimous.", "The only members of the cabinet replaced when Amin took power were the Gang of Four – Beverley Male saw this as \"a clear indication that he had their the ministers' support\".", "Amin's rise to power was followed by a policy of moderation, and attempts to persuade the Afghan people that the regime was not anti-Islamic.", "Amin's government began to invest in the reconstruction, or reparation, of mosques.", "He also promised the Afghan people freedom of religion.", "Religious groups were given copies of the Quran, and Amin began to refer to Allah in speeches.", "He even claimed that the Saur Revolution was \"totally based on the principles of Islam\".", "The campaign proved to be unsuccessful, and many Afghans held Amin responsible for the regime's totalitarian behavior.", "Amin's rise to power was officially endorsed by the Jamiatul Ulama on 20 September 1979.Their endorsement led to the official announcement that Amin was a pious Muslim – Amin thus scored a point against the counter-revolutionary propaganda which claimed the communist regime was atheist.", "Amin also tried to increase his popularity with tribal groups, a feat Taraki had been unable or unwilling to achieve.", "In a speech to tribal elders Amin was defensive about the Western way he dressed; an official biography was published which depicted Amin in traditional Pashtun clothes.", "During his short stay in power, Amin became committed to establishing a collective leadership; when Taraki was ousted, Amin promised \"from now on there will be no one-man government...\"Attempting to pacify the population, Amin released a list of 18,000 people who had been executed, and blamed the executions on Taraki.", "The total number of arrested during Taraki's and Amin's combined reign number between 17,000 and 45,000.Amin was not liked by the Afghan people.", "During his rule, opposition to the communist regime increased, and the government lost control of the countryside.", "The state of the Afghan military deteriorated; due to desertions the number of military personnel in the Afghan army decreased from 100,000 in the immediate aftermath of the Saur Revolution, to somewhere between 50,000 and 70,000.Another problem Amin faced was the KGB's penetration of the PDPA, the military and the government bureaucracy.", "While Amin's position in Afghanistan was becoming more perilous by the day, his enemies who were exiled in the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc were agitating for his removal.", "Babrak Karmal, the Parchamite leader, met several leading Eastern Bloc figures during this period, and Mohammad Aslam Watanjar, Sayed Mohammad Gulabzoy and Assadullah Sarwari wanted to exact revenge upon Amin.====Foreign policy====In July of 1979, Hafizullah Amin announced that the DRA was not bound by old treaties with Iran regarding the distribution of water from the Helmand River.", "Iran interpreted this as Afghanistan using Soviet backing to assert themselves in the region.", "When Amin became leader, he tried to reduce Afghanistan's dependence on the Soviet Union.", "The Soviets were concerned when they received reports that Amin had met personally with Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, one of the leading anti-communists in Afghanistan.", "His general untrustworthiness and his unpopularity amongst Afghans made it more difficult for Amin to find new \"foreign patrons\".", "Amin's involvement in the death of Adolph Dubs, the American Ambassador to Afghanistan, strained his relations with the United States.", "He tried to improve relations by reestablishing contact, met with three different American chargé d'affaires, and was interviewed by an American correspondent.", "But this did not improve Afghanistan's standing in the eyes of the United States Government.", "After the third meeting with Amin, J. Bruce Amstutz, the American Ambassador to Afghanistan from 1979 to 1980, believed the wisest thing to do was to maintain \"a low profile, trying to avoid issues, and waiting to see what happens\".", "In early December 1979, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs proposed a joint summit meeting between Amin and Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, the President of Pakistan.", "The Pakistani Government, accepting a modified version of the offer, agreed to send Agha Shahi, the Pakistani foreign minister, to Kabul for talks.", "In the meanwhile, the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), Pakistani's secret police, continued to train Mujahideen fighters who opposed Amin's regime.====Afghan-Soviet relations====Contrary to popular belief, the Soviet leadership headed by Leonid Brezhnev, Alexei Kosygin and the Politburo, were not eager to send troops to Afghanistan.", "The Soviet Politburo decisions were guided by a Special Commission on Afghanistan, which consisted of Yuri Andropov the KGB chairman, Andrei Gromyko the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Defence Minister Dmitriy Ustinov, and Boris Ponomarev, the head of the International Department of the Central Committee.", "The Politburo was opposed to the removal of Taraki and his subsequent murder.", "According to Brezhnev, the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, \"Events developed so swiftly in Afghanistan that essentially there was little opportunity to somehow interfere in them.", "Right now our mission is to determine our further actions, so as to preserve our position in Afghanistan and to secure our influence there.\"", "Although Afghan–Soviet relations deteriorated during Amin's short stint in power, he was invited on an official visit to Moscow by Alexander Puzanov, the Soviet ambassador to Afghanistan, because of the Soviet leadership's satisfaction with his party and state-building policy.", "Not everything went as planned, and Andropov talked about \"the undesirable turn of events\" taking place in Afghanistan under Amin's rule.", "Andropov also brought up the ongoing political shift in Afghanistan under Amin; the Soviets were afraid that Amin would move Afghanistan's foreign policy from a pro-Soviet position to a pro-United States position.", "By early-to-mid December 1979, the Soviet leadership had established an alliance with Babrak Karmal and Assadullah Sarwari.Amin kept a portrait of Joseph Stalin on his desk.", "When Soviet officials criticized him of his brutality, Amin replied \"Comrade Stalin showed us how to build socialism in a backward country.", "\"As it turned out, the relationship between Puzanov and Amin broke down.", "Amin started a smear campaign to discredit Puzanov.", "This in turn led to an assassination attempt against Amin, in which Puzanov participated.", "The situation was worsened by the KGB accusing Amin of misrepresenting the Soviet position on Afghanistan in the PDPA Central Committee and the Revolutionary Council.", "The KGB also noted an increase in anti-Soviet agitation by the government during Amin's rule, and harassment against Soviet citizens increased under Amin.", "A group of senior politicians reported to the Soviet Central Committee that it was necessary to do \"everything possible\" to prevent a change in political orientation in Afghanistan.", "However, the Soviet leadership did not advocate intervention at this time, and instead called for increasing its influence in the Amin leadership to expose his \"true intentions\".", "A Soviet Politburo assessment referred to Amin as \"a power-hungry leader who is distinguished by brutality and treachery\".", "Amongst the many sins they alleged were his \"insincerity and duplicity\" when dealing with the Soviet Union, creating fictitious accusations against PDPA-members who opposed him, indulging in a policy of nepotism, and his tendency to conduct a more \"balanced policy\" towards First World countries.", "According to the former senior Soviet diplomat, Oleg Grinevsky, the KGB was becoming increasingly convinced that Amin couldn't be counted on to effectively deal with the insurgency and preserve the survival of the Afghan Marxist state.By the end of October the Special Commission on Afghanistan, which consisted of Andropov, Gromyko, Ustinov and Ponomarev, wanted to end the impression that the Soviet government supported Amin's leadership and policy.", "The KGB's First Chief Directorate was put under orders that something had to be done about Afghanistan, and several of its personnel were assembled to deal with the task.", "Andropov fought hard for Soviet intervention, saying to Brezhnev that Amin's policies had destroyed the military and the government's capabilities to handle the crisis by use of mass repression.", "The plan, according to Andropov, was to assemble a small force to intervene and remove Amin from power and replace him with Karmal.", "The Soviet Union declared its plan to intervene in Afghanistan on 12 December 1979; large numbers of Soviet airborne troops landed in Kabul on 25 December, with the approval of Amin who miscalculated their intentions.", "Soviet leadership initiated Operation Storm-333 (the first phase of the intervention) on 27 December 1979.====Attempted poisoning by Amin's chef====The leadership of the USSR had no need for Amin to remain alive.", "Andropov's special representative in Afghanistan, General Boris Ivanov, recommended for Amin to attend a conciliatory dinner with his political mentor, who had become an enemy of Amin, so that Amin's chef could poison Amin.", "However, Amin survived the poisoning after being treated by doctors at the Soviet embassy, who did not know that \"special reconnaissance officers\" were trying to kill Amin.", "Since Amin, who was very loyal to the USSR, had survived two attempted assassinations that had been approved by the USSR, the decision was made to eliminate him through a bloody coup at Amin's residence, the Taj Beck Palace.====Death====The Tajbeg Palace on 27 December 1979, where Amin was killedAmin trusted the Soviet Union until the very end, despite the deterioration of official relations, and was unaware that the tide in Moscow had turned against him since he ordered Taraki's death.", "When the Afghan intelligence service handed Amin a report that the Soviet Union would invade the country and topple him, Amin claimed that the report was a product of imperialism.", "His view can be explained by the fact that the Soviet Union, after several months, finally gave in to Amin's demands and sent troops into Afghanistan to secure the PDPA government.", "Contrary to common Western belief, Amin was informed of the Soviet decision to send troops into Afghanistan.", "General Tukharinov, commander of the 40th Army, met with Afghan Major General Babadzhan to talk about Soviet troop movements before the Soviet army's intervention.", "On 25 December, Dmitry Ustinov issued a formal order, stating that \"the state frontier of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan is to be crossed on the ground and in the air by forces of the 40th Army and the Air Force at 1500 hrs on 25 December\".", "This was the formal beginning of the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan.Concerned for his safety, on 20 December Amin moved from the Presidential Palace, located in the centre of Kabul, to the Tajbeg Palace, which had previously been the headquarters of the Central Corps of the Afghan Army.", "The palace was formidable, with walls strong enough to withstand artillery fire.", "According to Rodric Braithwaite, \"its defences had been carefully and intelligently organised\".", "All roads to the palace had been mined, with the exception of one, which had heavy machine guns and artillery positioned to defend it.", "To make matters worse for the Soviets, the Afghans had established a second line of defence which consisted of seven posts, \"each manned by four sentries armed with a machine gun, a mortar, and automatic rifles\".", "The external defences of the palace were handled by the Presidential Guard, which consisted of 2,500 troops and three T-54 tanks.", "Several Soviet commanders involved in the assassination of Amin thought the plan to attack the palace was \"crazy\".", "Although the military had been informed by the Soviet leadership through their commanders, Yuri Drozdov and Vasily Kolesnik, that the leader was a \"CIA agent\" who had betrayed the Saur Revolution, many Soviet soldiers hesitated; despite what their commanders had told them, it seemed implausible that Amin, the leader of the PDPA government, was an American double agent.", "Despite several objections, the plan to assassinate Amin went ahead.Before resorting to killing Amin by brute force, the Soviets had tried to poison him as early as 13 December (but nearly killed his nephew instead) and to kill him with a sniper shot on his way to work (this proved impossible as the Afghans had improved their security measures).", "They even tried to poison Amin just hours before the assault on the Presidential Palace on 27 December.", "Amin had organised a lunch for party members to show guests his palace and to celebrate Ghulam Dastagir Panjsheri's return from Moscow.", "Panjsheri's return improved the mood even further; he boasted that he and Gromyko always kept in contact with each other.", "During the meal, Amin and several of his guests lost consciousness as they had been poisoned.", "Amin survived his encounter with death, because the carbonation of the Coca-Cola he was drinking diluted the toxic agent.", "Mikhail Talybov, a KGB agent, was given responsibility for the poisonings.The assault on the palace began shortly afterward.", "During the attack Amin still believed the Soviet Union was on his side, and told his adjutant, \"The Soviets will help us\".", "The adjutant replied that it was the Soviets who were attacking them; Amin initially replied that this was a lie.", "Only after he tried but failed to contact the Chief of the General Staff, he muttered, \"I guessed it.", "It's all true\".", "There are various accounts of how Amin died, but the exact details have never been confirmed.", "Amin was either killed by a deliberate attack or died by a \"random burst of fire\".", "Amin's son was fatally wounded and died shortly after.", "His daughter was wounded, but survived.", "It was Gulabzoy who had been given orders to kill Amin and Watanjar who later confirmed his death.", "The men of Amin's family were all executed either immediately or shortly thereafter (his brother Abdullah and nephew Asadullah were executed in June 1980) The women including his daughter were imprisoned at Pul-e-Charkhi prison until being released by President Najibullah in early 1992.After Amin's death on 27 December 1979, Radio Kabul broadcast Babrak Karmal's pre-recorded speech to the Afghan people, saying: \"Today the torture machine of Amin has been smashed\".", "Karmal was installed by the Soviets as the new leader while the Soviet Army began its intervention in Afghanistan that would last for nine years." ], [ "Post-death", "On 2 January 1980 on the PDPA's 15th anniversary, Karmal who was now the new General Secretary called Amin a \"conspirator, professional criminal and recognised spy of the U.S.\", as reported in the ''Kabul New Times''.", "Anahita Ratebzad, the education minister, said about Amin:: ...this wrathy, cruel and criminal murderer who had made terror and suppression and crushing of every opposition force part and parcel of his way of rule, and started every day with new acts of destruction, putting opponents of his bloody regime, group by group, to places of torture, jails, and slaughterhouses." ], [ "Quotes", "— Hafizullah Amin when questioned on his extreme ways of building a new country.", "\"Comrade Stalin showed us how to build socialism in a backward country; it's painful to begin with, but afterwards everything turns out just fine\" — Hafizullah Amin's response to Soviet criticism" ], [ "See also", "* A special report about the family of Hafizullah Amin -BBC Pashto* Hafizullah Amin's son Babri Amin answers challenging questions about his father -BBC Pashto* Assadullah Amin" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Soviet documentation gathered before the Soviet intervention" ] ]
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[ [ "Hubris" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hubris''' (; ), or less frequently '''hybris''' (), describes a personality quality of extreme or excessive pride or dangerous overconfidence and complacency, often in combination with (or synonymous with) arrogance.", "The term ''arrogance'' comes from the Latin '''', meaning \"to feel that one has a right to demand certain attitudes and behaviors from other people\".", "To ''arrogate'' means \"to claim or seize without justification... To make undue claims to having\", or \"to claim or seize without right... to ascribe or attribute without reason\".", "The term ''pretension'' is also associated with the term ''hubris'', but is not synonymous with it.According to studies, hubris, arrogance, and pretension are related to the need for victory (even if it does not always mean winning) instead of reconciliation, which \"friendly\" groups might promote.", "Hubris is usually perceived as a characteristic of an individual rather than a group, although the group the offender belongs to may suffer collateral consequences from wrongful acts.", "Hubris often indicates a loss of contact with reality and an overestimation of one's own competence, accomplishments, or capabilities.", "The adjectival form of the noun ''hubris''/''hybris'' is ''hubristic''/''hybristic''.The term ''hubris'' originated in Ancient Greek, where it had several different meanings depending on the context.", "In legal usage, it meant assault or sexual crimes and theft of public property, and in religious usage it meant emulation of divinity or transgression against a god." ], [ "Ancient Greek origin", "In ancient Greek, ''hubris'' referred to \"outrage\": actions that violated natural order, or which shamed and humiliated the victim, sometimes for the pleasure or gratification of the abuser.", "=== Mythological usage ===Black-figure pottery (550 BC) depicting Prometheus serving his sentence, tied to a columnHesiod and Aeschylus used the word \"hubris\" to describe transgressions against the gods.", "A common way that hubris was committed was when a mortal claimed to be better than a god in a particular skill or attribute.", "Claims like these were rarely left unpunished, and so Arachne, a talented young weaver, was transformed into a spider when she said that her skills exceeded those of the goddess Athena, even though her claim was true.", "Additional examples include Icarus, Phaethon, Salmoneus, Niobe, Cassiopeia, Tantalus, and Tereus.", "The goddess Hybris is described in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition as having \"insolent encroachment upon the rights of others\".These events were not limited to myth, and certain figures in history were considered to have been punished for committing hubris through their arrogance.", "One such person was king Xerxes as portrayed in Aeschylus's play ''The Persians'', and who allegedly threw chains to bind the Hellespont sea as punishment for daring to destroy his fleet.What is common to all these examples is the breaching of limits, as the Greeks believed that the Fates (Μοῖραι) had assigned each being with a particular area of freedom, an area that even the gods could not breach.=== Legal usage ===In ancient Athens, hubris was defined as the use of violence to shame the victim (this sense of hubris could also characterize rape).", "In legal terms, hubristic violations of the law included what might today be termed assault-and-battery, sexual crimes, or the theft of public or sacred property.", "In some contexts, the term had a sexual connotation.", "Shame was frequently reflected upon the perpetrator, as well.Crucial to this definition are the ancient Greek concepts of honour (τιμή, ''timē'') and shame (αἰδώς, ''aidōs'').", "The concept of honour included not only the exaltation of the one receiving honour, but also the shaming of the one overcome by the act of hubris.", "This concept of honour is akin to a zero-sum game.", "Rush Rehm simplifies this definition of hubris to the contemporary concept of \"insolence, contempt, and excessive violence\".Two well-known cases are found in the speeches of Demosthenes, a prominent statesman and orator in ancient Greece.", "These two examples occurred when first Midias punched Demosthenes in the face in the theatre (''Against Midias''), and second when (in ''Against Conon'') a defendant allegedly assaulted a man and crowed over the victim.", "Yet another example of hubris appears in Aeschines' ''Against Timarchus'', where the defendant, Timarchus, is accused of breaking the law of hubris by submitting himself to prostitution and anal intercourse.", "Aeschines brought this suit against Timarchus to bar him from the rights of political office and his case succeeded.Aristotle defined hubris as shaming the victim, not because of anything that happened to the committer or might happen to the committer, but merely for that committer's own gratification:to cause shame to the victim, not in order that anything may happen to you, nor because anything has happened to you, but merely for your own gratification.", "Hubris is not the requital of past injuries; this is revenge.", "As for the pleasure in hubris, its cause is this: naive men think that by ill-treating others they make their own superiority the greater.=== Early Christianity===Illustration for John Milton's ''Paradise Lost'' by Gustave Doré (1866).", "The spiritual descent of Lucifer into Satan, one of the most famous examples of hubris.In the Septuagint, the \"hubris is overweening pride, superciliousness or arrogance, often resulting in fatal retribution or nemesis\".", "The word ''hubris'' as used in the New Testament parallels the Hebrew word ''pesha'', meaning \"transgression\".", "It represents a pride that \"makes a man defy God\", sometimes to the degree that he considers himself an equal." ], [ "Modern usage", "In its modern usage, hubris denotes overconfident pride combined with arrogance.", "Hubris is also referred to as \"pride that blinds\" because it often causes a committer of hubris to act in foolish ways that belie common sense.", "Hubris has also been presented as a positive trait: Larry Wall promoted \"the three great virtues of a programmer: ''laziness'', ''impatience'', and ''hubris''\".=== Arrogance ===The Oxford English Dictionary defines \"arrogance\" in terms of \"high or inflated opinion of one's own abilities, importance, etc., that gives rise to presumption or excessive self-confidence, or to a feeling or attitude of being superior to others ....\" Adrian Davies sees arrogance as more generic and less severe than hubris." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Nicolas R. E. Fisher, ''Hybris: A Study in the Values of Honour and Shame in Ancient Greece'', Warminster, Aris & Phillips, 1992.", "* * * Michael DeWilde, \"The Psychological and Spiritual Roots of a Universal Affliction\"* Hubris on 2012's ''Encyclopædia Britannica''* * Robert A. Stebbins, ''From Humility to Hubris among Scholars and Politicians: Exploring Expressions of Self-Esteem and Achievement''.", "Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing, 2017." ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Heavy water" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Heavy water''' ('''deuterium oxide''', '''''', '''''') is a form of water whose hydrogen atoms are all deuterium ( or D, also known as ''heavy hydrogen'') rather than the common hydrogen-1 isotope ( or H, also called ''protium'') that makes up most of the hydrogen in normal water.", "The presence of the heavier hydrogen isotope gives the water different nuclear properties, and the increase in mass gives it slightly different physical and chemical properties when compared to normal water.Deuterium is a heavy hydrogen isotope.", "Heavy water contains deuterium atoms and is used in nuclear reactors.", "Semiheavy water (HDO) is more common than pure heavy water, while heavy-oxygen water is denser but lacks unique properties.", "Tritiated water is radioactive due to tritium content.Heavy water () has different physical properties than regular water, such as being 10.6% denser and having a higher melting point.", "Heavy water is less dissociated at a given temperature, and it does not have the slightly blue color of regular water.", "While it has no significant taste difference, it can taste slightly sweet.", "Heavy water affects biological systems by altering enzymes, hydrogen bonds, and cell division in eukaryotes.", "It can be lethal to multicellular organisms at concentrations over 50%.", "However, some prokaryotes like bacteria can survive in a heavy hydrogen environment.", "Heavy water can be toxic to humans, but a large amount would be needed for poisoning to occur.Deuterated water (HDO) occurs naturally in normal water and can be separated through distillation, electrolysis, or chemical exchange processes.", "The most cost-effective process for producing heavy water is the Girdler sulfide process.", "Heavy water is used in various industries and is sold in different grades of purity.", "Some of its applications include nuclear magnetic resonance, infrared spectroscopy, neutron moderation, neutrino detection, metabolic rate testing, neutron capture therapy, and the production of radioactive materials such as plutonium and tritium." ], [ "Composition", "Deuterium is a hydrogen isotope with a nucleus containing a neutron and a proton; the nucleus of a protium (normal hydrogen) atom consists of just a proton.", "The additional neutron makes a deuterium atom roughly twice as heavy as a protium atom.A molecule of heavy water has two deuterium atoms in place of the two protium atoms of ordinary \"light\" water.", "The term heavy water as defined by the IUPAC Gold Book can also refer to water in which a higher than usual proportion of hydrogen atoms are deuterium rather than protium.", "For comparison, ordinary water (the \"ordinary water\" used for a deuterium standard) contains only about 156 deuterium atoms per million hydrogen atoms, meaning that 0.0156% of the hydrogen atoms are of the heavy type.", "Thus heavy water as defined by the Gold Book includes hydrogen-deuterium oxide (HDO) and other mixtures of , , and HDO in which the proportion of deuterium is greater than usual.", "For instance, the heavy water used in CANDU reactors is a highly enriched water mixture that contains mostly deuterium oxide , but also some hydrogen-deuterium oxide and a smaller amount of ordinary hydrogen oxide .", "It is 99.75% enriched by hydrogen atom-fraction—meaning that 99.75% of the hydrogen atoms are of the heavy type; however, heavy water in the Gold Book sense need not be so highly enriched.", "The weight of a heavy water molecule, however, is not substantially different from that of a normal water molecule, because about 89% of the molecular weight of water comes from the single oxygen atom rather than the two hydrogen atoms.Heavy water is not radioactive.", "In its pure form, it has a density about 11% greater than water, but is otherwise physically and chemically similar.", "Nevertheless, the various differences in deuterium-containing water (especially affecting the biological properties) are larger than in any other commonly occurring isotope-substituted compound because deuterium is unique among heavy stable isotopes in being twice as heavy as the lightest isotope.", "This difference increases the strength of water's hydrogen–oxygen bonds, and this in turn is enough to cause differences that are important to some biochemical reactions.", "The human body naturally contains deuterium equivalent to about five grams of heavy water, which is harmless.", "When a large fraction of water (> 50%) in higher organisms is replaced by heavy water, the result is cell dysfunction and death.Heavy water was first produced in 1932, a few months after the discovery of deuterium.", "With the discovery of nuclear fission in late 1938, and the need for a neutron moderator that captured few neutrons, heavy water became a component of early nuclear energy research.", "Since then, heavy water has been an essential component in some types of reactors, both those that generate power and those designed to produce isotopes for nuclear weapons.", "These heavy water reactors have the advantage of being able to run on natural uranium without using graphite moderators that pose radiological and dust explosion hazards in the decommissioning phase.", "The graphite moderated Soviet RBMK design tried to avoid using either enriched uranium or heavy water (being cooled with ordinary \"light\" water instead) which produced the positive void coefficient that was one of a series of flaws in reactor design leading to the Chernobyl disaster.", "Most modern reactors use enriched uranium with ordinary water as the moderator." ], [ "Other heavy forms of water", "===Semiheavy water===Structure of semiheavy waterSemiheavy water, HDO, exists whenever there is water with light hydrogen (protium, ) and deuterium (D or ) in the mix.", "This is because hydrogen atoms (hydrogen-1 and deuterium) are rapidly exchanged between water molecules.", "Water containing 50% H and 50% D in its hydrogen actually contains about 50% HDO and 25% each of and , in dynamic equilibrium.In normal water, about 1 molecule in 3,200 is HDO (one hydrogen in 6,400 is in the form of D), and heavy water molecules () only occur in a proportion of about 1 molecule in 41 million (i.e.", "one in 6,4002).", "Thus semiheavy water molecules are far more common than \"pure\" (homoisotopic) heavy water molecules.===Heavy-oxygen water===Water enriched in the heavier oxygen isotopes and is also commercially available.", "It is \"heavy water\" as it is denser than normal water ( is approximately as dense as , is about halfway between and )—but is rarely called heavy water, since it does not contain the deuterium that gives D2O its unusual nuclear and biological properties.", "It is more expensive than D2O due to the more difficult separation of 17O and 18O.", "H218O is also used for production of fluorine-18 in radiopharmaceuticals and radiotracers, and positron emission tomography.", "Small amounts of and are naturally present in water, and most processes enriching heavy water also enrich heavier isotopes of oxygen as a side-effect.", "This is undesirable if the heavy water is to be used as a neutron moderator in nuclear reactors, as can undergo neutron capture, followed by emission of an alpha particle, producing radioactive .", "However, doubly labeled water, containing both a heavy oxygen and hydrogen, is useful as a non-radioactive isotopic tracer.Compared to the isotopic change of hydrogen atoms, the isotopic change of oxygen has a smaller effect on the physical properties.===Tritiated water===Tritiated water contains tritium (3H) in place of protium (1H) or deuterium (2H), and, as tritium itself is radioactive, tritiated water is also radioactive." ], [ "Physical properties", "+Physical properties of isotopologues of water Property D2O (Heavy water) HDO (Semiheavy water) H2O (Light water) Melting point (standard pressure) Boiling point Density at STP (g/mL) 1.1056 1.054 0.9982 Temp.", "of maximum density 11.6 °C Unverified 3.98 °C Dynamic viscosity (at 20 °C, mPa·s) 1.2467 1.1248 1.0016 Surface tension (at 25 °C, N/m) 0.07187 0.07193 0.07198 Heat of fusion (kJ/mol) 6.132 6.227 6.00678 Heat of vaporisation (kJ/mol) 41.521 Unverified 40.657 pH (at 25 °C) 7.44 (\"pD\") 7.266 (\"pHD\") 7.0 p''K''b (at 25 °C) 7.44 (\"p''K''b D2O\") Unverified 7.0 Refractive index (at 20 °C, 0.5893 μm) 1.32844 Unverified 1.33335The physical properties of water and heavy water differ in several respects.", "Heavy water is less dissociated than light water at given temperature, and the true concentration of D+ ions is less than ions would be for a light water sample at the same temperature.", "The same is true of OD− vs. ions.", "For heavy water Kw D2O (25.0 °C) = 1.35 × 10−15, and D+ must equal OD− for neutral water.", "Thus pKw D2O = pOD− + pD+ = 7.44 + 7.44 = 14.87 (25.0 °C), and the pD+ of neutral heavy water at 25.0 °C is 7.44.The pD of heavy water is generally measured using pH electrodes giving a pH (apparent) value, or pHa, and at various temperatures a true acidic pD can be estimated from the directly pH meter measured pHa, such that pD+ = pHa (apparent reading from pH meter) + 0.41.The electrode correction for alkaline conditions is 0.456 for heavy water.", "The alkaline correction is then pD+ = pHa(apparent reading from pH meter) + 0.456.These corrections are slightly different from the differences in pD+ and pOD- of 0.44 from the corresponding ones in heavy water.Heavy water is 10.6% denser than ordinary water, and heavy water's physically different properties can be seen without equipment if a frozen sample is dropped into normal water, as it will sink.", "If the water is ice-cold the higher melting temperature of heavy ice can also be observed: it melts at 3.7 °C, and thus does not melt in ice-cold normal water.A 1935 experiment reported not the \"slightest difference\" in taste between ordinary and heavy water.", "However, a more recent study appears to confirm anecdotal observation that heavy water tastes slightly sweet to humans, with the effect mediated by the TAS1R2/TAS1R3 taste receptor.", "Rats given a choice between distilled normal water and heavy water were able to avoid the heavy water based on smell, and it may have a different taste.", "Some people report that minerals in water affect taste, e.g.", "potassium lending a sweet taste to hard water, but there are many factors of a perceived taste in water besides mineral contents.Heavy water lacks the characteristic blue color of light water; this is because the molecular vibration harmonics, which in light water cause weak absorption in the red part of the visible spectrum, are shifted into the infrared and thus heavy water does not absorb red light.No physical properties are listed for \"pure\" semi-heavy water, because it is unstable as a bulk liquid.", "In the liquid state, a few water molecules are always in an ionised state, which means the hydrogen atoms can exchange among different oxygen atoms.", "Semi-heavy water could, in theory, be created via a chemical method, but it would rapidly transform into a dynamic mixture of 25% light water, 25% heavy water, and 50% semi-heavy water.", "However, if it were made in the gas phase and directly deposited into a solid, semi-heavy water in the form of ice could be stable.", "This is due to collisions between water vapor molecules being almost completely negligible in the gas phase at standard temperatures, and once crystallized, collisions between the molecules cease altogether due to the rigid lattice structure of solid ice." ], [ "History", "The US scientist and Nobel laureate Harold Urey discovered the isotope deuterium in 1931 and was later able to concentrate it in water.", "Urey's mentor Gilbert Newton Lewis isolated the first sample of pure heavy water by electrolysis in 1933.George de Hevesy and Erich Hofer used heavy water in 1934 in one of the first biological tracer experiments, to estimate the rate of turnover of water in the human body.", "The history of large-quantity production and use of heavy water, in early nuclear experiments, is described below.Emilian Bratu and Otto Redlich studied the autodissociation of heavy water in 1934." ], [ "Effect on biological systems", "Different isotopes of chemical elements have slightly different chemical behaviors, but for most elements the differences are far too small to have a biological effect.", "In the case of hydrogen, larger differences in chemical properties among protium (light hydrogen), deuterium, and tritium occur, because chemical bond energy depends on the reduced mass of the nucleus–electron system; this is altered in heavy-hydrogen compounds (hydrogen-deuterium oxide is the most common species) more than for heavy-isotope substitution involving other chemical elements.", "The isotope effects are especially relevant in biological systems, which are very sensitive to even the smaller changes, due to isotopically influenced properties of water when it acts as a solvent.To perform their tasks, enzymes rely on their finely tuned networks of hydrogen bonds, both in the active center with their substrates, and outside the active center, to stabilize their tertiary structures.", "As a hydrogen bond with deuterium is slightly stronger than one involving ordinary hydrogen, in a highly deuterated environment, some normal reactions in cells are disrupted.Particularly hard-hit by heavy water are the delicate assemblies of mitotic spindle formations necessary for cell division in eukaryotes.", "Plants stop growing and seeds do not germinate when given only heavy water, because heavy water stops eukaryotic cell division.", "The deuterium cell is larger and is a modification of the direction of division.", "The cell membrane also changes, and it reacts first to the impact of heavy water.", "In 1972, it was demonstrated that an increase in the percentage content of deuterium in water reduces plant growth.", "Research conducted on the growth of prokaryote microorganisms in artificial conditions of a heavy hydrogen environment showed that in this environment, all the hydrogen atoms of water could be replaced with deuterium.", "Experiments showed that bacteria can live in 98% heavy water.", "Concentrations over 50% are lethal to multicellular organisms, however a few exceptions are known such as switchgrass (''Panicum virgatum'') which is able to grow on 50% D2O; the plant ''Arabidopsis thaliana'' (70% D2O); the plant ''Vesicularia dubyana'' (85% D2O);the plant ''Funaria hygrometrica'' (90% D2O); and the anhydrobiotic species of nematode ''Panagrolaimus superbus'' (nearly 100% D2O).", "A comprehensive study of heavy water on the fission yeast ''Schizosaccharomyces pombe'' showed that the cells displayed an altered glucose metabolism and slow growth at high concentrations of heavy water.", "In addition, the cells activated the heat-shock response pathway and the cell integrity pathway, and mutants in the cell integrity pathway displayed increased tolerance to heavy water.Heavy water affects the period of circadian oscillations, consistently increasing the length of each cycle.", "The effect has been demonstrated in unicellular organisms, green plants, isopods, insects, birds, mice, and hamsters.", "The mechanism is unknown.Despite its toxicity at high levels, heavy water has also been observed to extend lifespan of certain yeasts by up to 85%, with the hypothesized mechanism being the reduction of reactive oxygen species turnover.===Effect on animals===Experiments with mice, rats, and dogs have shown that a degree of 25% deuteration causes (sometimes irreversible) sterility, because neither gametes nor zygotes can develop.", "High concentrations of heavy water (90%) rapidly kill fish, tadpoles, flatworms, and ''Drosophila''.", "The only known exception is the anhydrobiotic nematode ''Panagrolaimus superbus'', which is able to survive and reproduce in 99.9% D2O.", "Mammals (for example, rats) given heavy water to drink die after a week, at a time when their body water approaches about 50% deuteration.", "The mode of death appears to be the same as that in cytotoxic poisoning (such as chemotherapy) or in acute radiation syndrome (though deuterium is not radioactive), and is due to deuterium's action in generally inhibiting cell division.", "It is more toxic to malignant cells than normal cells, but the concentrations needed are too high for regular use.", "As may occur in chemotherapy, deuterium-poisoned mammals die of a failure of bone marrow (producing bleeding and infections) and of intestinal-barrier functions (producing diarrhea and loss of fluids).Despite the problems of plants and animals in living with too much deuterium, prokaryotic organisms such as bacteria, which do not have the mitotic problems induced by deuterium, may be grown and propagated in fully deuterated conditions, resulting in replacement of all hydrogen atoms in the bacterial proteins and DNA with the deuterium isotope.In higher organisms, full replacement with heavy isotopes can be accomplished with other non-radioactive heavy isotopes (such as carbon-13, nitrogen-15, and oxygen-18), but this cannot be done for deuterium.", "This is a consequence of the ratio of nuclear masses between the isotopes of hydrogen, which is much greater than for any other element.Deuterium oxide is used to enhance boron neutron capture therapy, but this effect does not rely on the biological or chemical effects of deuterium, but instead on deuterium's ability to moderate (slow) neutrons without capturing them.Recent experimental evidence indicates that systemic administration of deuterium oxide (30% drinking water supplementation) suppresses tumor growth in a standard mouse model of human melanoma, an effect attributed to selective induction of cellular stress signaling and gene expression in tumor cells.===Toxicity in humans===Because it would take a very large amount of heavy water to replace 25% to 50% of a human being's body water (water being in turn 50–75% of body weight) with heavy water, accidental or intentional poisoning with heavy water is unlikely to the point of practical disregard.", "Poisoning would require that the victim ingest large amounts of heavy water without significant normal water intake for many days to produce any noticeable toxic effects.Oral doses of heavy water in the range of several grams, as well as heavy oxygen 18O, are routinely used in human metabolic experiments.", "(See doubly labeled water testing.)", "Since one in about every 6,400 hydrogen atoms is deuterium, a human containing of body water would normally contain enough deuterium (about ) to make of pure heavy water, so roughly this dose is required to double the amount of deuterium in the body.A loss of blood pressure may partially explain the reported incidence of dizziness upon ingestion of heavy water.", "However, it is more likely that this symptom can be attributed to altered vestibular function.===Heavy water radiation contamination confusion===Although many people associate heavy water primarily with its use in nuclear reactors, pure heavy water is not radioactive.", "Commercial-grade heavy water is slightly radioactive due to the presence of minute traces of natural tritium, but the same is true of ordinary water.", "Heavy water that has been used as a coolant in nuclear power plants contains substantially more tritium as a result of neutron bombardment of the deuterium in the heavy water (tritium is a health risk when ingested in large quantities).In 1990, a disgruntled employee at the Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating Station in Canada obtained a sample (estimated as about a \"half cup\") of heavy water from the primary heat transport loop of the nuclear reactor, and loaded it into a cafeteria drink dispenser.", "Eight employees drank some of the contaminated water.", "The incident was discovered when employees began leaving bioassay urine samples with elevated tritium levels.", "The quantity of heavy water involved was far below levels that could induce heavy water toxicity, but several employees received elevated radiation doses from tritium and neutron-activated chemicals in the water.", "This was not an incident of heavy water poisoning, but rather radiation poisoning from other isotopes in the heavy water.Some news services were not careful to distinguish these points, and some of the public were left with the impression that heavy water is normally radioactive and more severely toxic than it actually is.", "Even if pure heavy water had been used in the water cooler indefinitely, it is not likely the incident would have been detected or caused harm, since no employee would be expected to get much more than 25% of their daily drinking water from such a source." ], [ "Production", "On Earth, deuterated water, HDO, occurs naturally in normal water at a proportion of about 1 molecule in 3,200.This means that 1 in 6,400 hydrogen atoms in water is deuterium, which is 1 part in 3,200 by weight (hydrogen weight).", "The HDO may be separated from normal water by distillation or electrolysis and also by various chemical exchange processes, all of which exploit a kinetic isotope effect, with the partial enrichment also occurring in natural bodies of water under particular evaporation conditions.", "(For more information about the isotopic distribution of deuterium in water, see Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water.)", "In theory, deuterium for heavy water could be created in a nuclear reactor, but separation from ordinary water is the cheapest bulk production process.The difference in mass between the two hydrogen isotopes translates into a difference in the zero-point energy and thus into a slight difference in the speed of the reaction.", "Once HDO becomes a significant fraction of the water, heavy water becomes more prevalent as water molecules trade hydrogen atoms very frequently.", "Production of pure heavy water by distillation or electrolysis requires a large cascade of stills or electrolysis chambers and consumes large amounts of power, so the chemical methods are generally preferred.The most cost-effective process for producing heavy water is the dual temperature exchange sulfide process (known as the Girdler sulfide process) developed in parallel by Karl-Hermann Geib and Jerome S. Spevack in 1943.An alternative process, patented by Graham M. Keyser, uses lasers to selectively dissociate deuterated hydrofluorocarbons to form deuterium fluoride, which can then be separated by physical means.", "Although the energy consumption for this process is much less than for the Girdler sulfide process, this method is currently uneconomical due to the expense of procuring the necessary hydrofluorocarbons.As noted, modern commercial heavy water is almost universally referred to, and sold as, deuterium oxide.", "It is most often sold in various grades of purity, from 98% enrichment to 99.75–99.98% deuterium enrichment (nuclear reactor grade) and occasionally even higher isotopic purity.===Argentina===Argentina was the main producer of heavy water, using an ammonia/hydrogen exchange based plant supplied by Switzerland's Sulzer company.", "It was also a major exporter to Canada, Germany, the US and other countries.", "The heavy water production facility located in Arroyito was the world's largest heavy water production facility.", "Argentina produced of heavy water per year in 2015 using the ''monothermal ammonia-hydrogen isotopic exchange'' method.", "Since 2017, the Arroyito plant has not been operational.===Soviet Union===In October 1939, Soviet physicists Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich and Yulii Borisovich Khariton concluded that heavy water and carbon were the only feasible moderators for a natural uranium reactor, and in August 1940, along with Georgy Flyorov, submitted a plan to the Russian Academy of Sciences calculating that 15 tons of heavy water were needed for a reactor.", "With the Soviet Union having no uranium mines at the time, young Academy workers were sent to Leningrad photographic shops to buy uranium nitrate, but the entire heavy water project was halted in 1941 when German forces invaded during Operation Barbarossa.By 1943, Soviet scientists had discovered that all scientific literature relating to heavy water had disappeared from the West, which Flyorov in a letter warned Soviet leader Joseph Stalin about, and at which time there was only 2–3 kg of heavy water in the entire country.", "In late 1943, the Soviet purchasing commission in the U.S. obtained 1 kg of heavy water and a further 100 kg in February 1945, and upon World War II ending, the NKVD took over the project.In October 1946, as part of the Russian Alsos, the NKVD deported to the Soviet Union from Germany the German scientists who had worked on heavy water production during the war, including Karl-Hermann Geib, the inventor of the Girdler sulfide process.", "These German scientists worked under the supervision of German physical chemist Max Volmer at the Institute of Physical Chemistry in Moscow with the plant they constructed producing large quantities of heavy water by 1948.===United States===During the Manhattan Project the United States constructed three heavy water production plants as part of the P-9 Project at Morgantown Ordnance Works, near Morgantown, West Virginia; at the Wabash River Ordnance Works, near Dana and Newport, Indiana; and at the Alabama Ordnance Works, near Childersburg and Sylacauga, Alabama.", "Heavy water was also acquired from the Cominco plant in Trail, British Columbia, Canada.", "The Chicago Pile-3 experimental reactor used heavy water as a moderator and went critical in 1944.The three domestic production plants were shut down in 1945 after producing around 81,470lb of product.", "The Wabash plant resumed heavy water production in 1952.In 1953, the United States began using heavy water in plutonium production reactors at the Savannah River Site.", "The first of the five heavy water reactors came online in 1953, and the last was placed in cold shutdown in 1996.The SRS reactors were heavy water reactors so that they could produce both plutonium and tritium for the US nuclear weapons program.The U.S. developed the Girdler sulfide chemical exchange production process—which was first demonstrated on a large scale at the Dana, Indiana plant in 1945 and at the Savannah River Plant, South Carolina, in 1952.DuPont operated the SRP for the USDOE until 1 April 1989, when Westinghouse took it over.===India===India is one of the world's largest producers of heavy water through its Heavy Water Board.", "It exports heavy water to countries including the Republic of Korea, China, and the United States.===Empire of Japan===In the 1930s, it was suspected by the United States and Soviet Union that Austrian chemist Fritz Johann Hansgirg built a pilot plant for the Empire of Japan in Japanese ruled northern Korea to produce heavy water by using a new process he had invented.===Norway===\"Heavy water\" made by Norsk HydroIn 1934, Norsk Hydro built the first commercial heavy water plant at Vemork, Tinn, eventually producing per day.", "From 1940 and throughout World War II, the plant was under German control and the Allies decided to destroy the plant and its heavy water to inhibit German development of nuclear weapons.", "In late 1942, a planned raid called Operation Freshman by British airborne troops failed, both gliders crashing.", "The raiders were killed in the crash or subsequently executed by the Germans.On the night of 27 February 1943 Operation Gunnerside succeeded.", "Norwegian commandos and local resistance managed to demolish small, but key parts of the electrolytic cells, dumping the accumulated heavy water down the factory drains.On 16 November 1943, the Allied air forces dropped more than 400 bombs on the site.", "The Allied air raid prompted the Nazi government to move all available heavy water to Germany for safekeeping.", "On 20 February 1944, a Norwegian partisan sank the ferry M/F ''Hydro'' carrying heavy water across Lake Tinn, at the cost of 14 Norwegian civilian lives, and most of the heavy water was presumably lost.", "A few of the barrels were only half full, hence buoyant, and may have been salvaged and transported to Germany.Recent investigation of production records at Norsk Hydro and analysis of an intact barrel that was salvaged in 2004 revealed that although the barrels in this shipment contained water of pH 14—indicative of the alkaline electrolytic refinement process—they did not contain high concentrations of D2O.", "Despite the apparent size of the shipment, the total quantity of pure heavy water was quite small, most barrels only containing 0.5–1% pure heavy water.", "The Germans would have needed a total of about 5 tons of heavy water to get a nuclear reactor running.", "The manifest clearly indicated that there was only half a ton of heavy water being transported to Germany.", "''Hydro'' was carrying far too little heavy water for one reactor, let alone the 10 or more tons needed to make enough plutonium for a nuclear weapon.", "The German nuclear weapons program was much less advanced than the Manhattan project and no reactor constructed in Nazi Germany ever came close to reaching criticality.", "No amount of heavy water would have changed that.Israel admitted running the Dimona reactor with Norwegian heavy water sold to it in 1959.Through re-export using Romania and Germany, India probably also used Norwegian heavy water.===Sweden===During the second World War, the company Fosfatbolaget in Ljungaverk, Sweden, produced 2,300 liters per year of heavy water.", "The heavy water was then sold both to Germany and to the Manhattan project in the US for the price of 1,40 SEK per gram of heavy water.===Canada===As part of its contribution to the Manhattan Project, Canada built and operated a to per month (design capacity) electrolytic heavy water plant at Trail, British Columbia, which started operation in 1943.The Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL) design of power reactor requires large quantities of heavy water to act as a neutron moderator and coolant.", "AECL ordered two heavy water plants, which were built and operated in Atlantic Canada at Glace Bay, Nova Scotia (by Deuterium of Canada Limited) and Point Tupper, Richmond County, Nova Scotia (by Canadian General Electric).", "These plants proved to have significant design, construction and production problems.", "The Glace Bay plant reached full production in 1984 after being taken over by AECL in 1971.The Point Tupper plant reached full production in 1974 and AECL purchased the plant in 1975.Design changes from the Point Tupper plant were carried through as AECL built the Bruce Heavy Water Plant (), which it later sold to Ontario Hydro, to ensure a reliable supply of heavy water for future power plants.", "The two Nova Scotia plants were shut down in 1985 when their production proved unnecessary.The Bruce Heavy Water Plant (BHWP) in Ontario was the world's largest heavy water production plant with a capacity of 1600 tonnes per year at its peak (800 tonnes per year per full plant, two fully operational plants at its peak).", "It used the Girdler sulfide process to produce heavy water, and required 340,000 tonnes of feed water to produce one tonne of heavy water.", "It was part of a complex that included eight CANDU reactors, which provided heat and power for the heavy water plant.", "The site was located at Douglas Point/Bruce Nuclear Generating Station near Tiverton, Ontario, on Lake Huron where it had access to the waters of the Great Lakes.AECL issued the construction contract in 1969 for the first BHWP unit (BHWP A).", "Commissioning of BHWP A was done by Ontario Hydro from 1971 through 1973, with the plant entering service on 28 June 1973, and design production capacity being achieved in April 1974.Due to the success of BHWP A and the large amount of heavy water that would be required for the large numbers of upcoming planned CANDU nuclear power plant construction projects, Ontario Hydro commissioned three additional heavy water production plants for the Bruce site (BHWP B, C, and D).", "BHWP B was placed into service in 1979.These first two plants were significantly more efficient than planned, and the number of CANDU construction projects ended up being significantly lower than originally planned, which led to the cancellation of construction on BHWP C & D. In 1984, BHWP A was shut down.", "By 1993 Ontario Hydro had produced enough heavy water to meet all of its anticipated domestic needs (which were lower than expected due to improved efficiency in the use and recycling of heavy water), so they shut down and demolished half of the capacity of BHWP B.", "The remaining capacity continued to operate in order to fulfil demand for heavy water exports until it was permanently shut down in 1997, after which the plant was gradually dismantled and the site cleared.AECL is currently researching other more efficient and environmentally benign processes for creating heavy water.", "This is relevant for CANDU reactors since heavy water represented about 15–20% of the total capital cost of each CANDU plant in the 1970s and 1980s.===Iran===Since 1996 a plant for production of heavy water was being constructed at Khondab near Arak.", "On 26 August 2006, Iranian President Ahmadinejad inaugurated the expansion of the country's heavy-water plant.", "Iran has indicated that the heavy-water production facility will operate in tandem with a 40 MW research reactor that had a scheduled completion date in 2009.Iran produced deuterated solvents in early 2011 for the first time.The core of the IR-40 is supposed to be re-designed based on the nuclear agreement in July 2015.Iran is permitted to store only of heavy water.", "Iran exports excess production after exceeding their allotment making Iran the world's third largest exporter of heavy water.In 2023, Iran sells heavy water; customers have proposed a price over 1000 dollars per liter.===Pakistan===In Pakistan, there are two heavy water production sites that are based in Punjab in Pakistan.", "Commissioned in 1997–98, the Khushab Nuclear Complex is a central element of Pakistan's stockpile program for production of weapon-grade plutonium, deuterium, and tritium for advanced compact warheads (i.e.", "thermonuclear weapons).", "Another heavy water facility for such producing the heavy is located in Multan, that it sells to nuclear power plants in Karachi and Chashma.In early 1980s, Pakistan succeeded in acquiring a tritium purification and storage plant and deuterium and tritium precursor materials from two former East German firms.", "Unlike India and Iran, the heavy water produced by Pakistan is not exported nor available for purchase to any nation and is solely used for its weapons complex and energy generation at its local nuclear power plants.===Other countries===Romania produced heavy water at the now-decommissioned Drobeta Girdler sulfide plant for domestic and export purposes.France operated a small plant during the 1950s and 1960s.Heavy water exists in elevated concentration in the hypolimnion of Lake Tanganyika in East Africa.", "It is likely that similar elevated concentrations exist in lakes with similar limnology, but this is only 4% enrichment (24 vs. 28) and surface waters are usually enriched in by evaporation to an even greater extent by faster evaporation." ], [ "Applications", "===Nuclear magnetic resonance===Deuterium oxide is used in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy when using water as solvent if the nuclide of interest is hydrogen.", "This is because the signal from light-water (1H2O) solvent molecules interferes with the signal from the molecule of interest dissolved in it.", "Deuterium has a different magnetic moment and therefore does not contribute to the 1H-NMR signal at the hydrogen-1 resonance frequency.For some experiments, it may be desirable to identify the labile hydrogens on a compound, that is hydrogens that can easily exchange away as H+ ions on some positions in a molecule.", "With addition of D2O, sometimes referred to as a ''D2O shake'', labile hydrogens exchange between the compound of interest and the solvent, leading to replacement of those specific 1H atoms in the compound with 2H.", "These positions in the molecule then do not appear in the 1H-NMR spectrum.===Organic chemistry===Deuterium oxide is often used as the source of deuterium for preparing specifically labelled isotopologues of organic compounds.", "For example, C-H bonds adjacent to ketonic carbonyl groups can be replaced by C-D bonds, using acid or base catalysis.", "Trimethylsulfoxonium iodide, made from dimethyl sulfoxide and methyl iodide can be recrystallized from deuterium oxide, and then dissociated to regenerate methyl iodide and dimethyl sulfoxide, both deuterium labelled.", "In cases where specific double labelling by deuterium and tritium is contemplated, the researcher must be aware that deuterium oxide, depending upon age and origin, can contain some tritium.===Infrared spectroscopy===Deuterium oxide is often used instead of water when collecting FTIR spectra of proteins in solution.", "H2O creates a strong band that overlaps with the amide I region of proteins.", "The band from D2O is shifted away from the amide I region.===Neutron moderator===Heavy water is used in certain types of nuclear reactors, where it acts as a neutron moderator to slow down neutrons so that they are more likely to react with the fissile uranium-235 than with uranium-238, which captures neutrons without fissioning.The CANDU reactor uses this design.", "Light water also acts as a moderator, but because light water absorbs more neutrons than heavy water, reactors using light water for a reactor moderator must use enriched uranium rather than natural uranium, otherwise criticality is impossible.", "A significant fraction of outdated power reactors, such as the RBMK reactors in the USSR, were constructed using normal water for cooling but graphite as a moderator.", "However, the danger of graphite in power reactors (graphite fires in part led to the Chernobyl disaster) has led to the discontinuation of graphite in standard reactor designs.The breeding and extraction of plutonium can be a relatively rapid and cheap route to building a nuclear weapon, as chemical separation of plutonium from fuel is easier than isotopic separation of U-235 from natural uranium.Among current and past nuclear weapons states, Israel, India, and North Korea first used plutonium from heavy water moderated reactors burning natural uranium, while China, South Africa and Pakistan first built weapons using highly enriched uranium.The Nazi nuclear program, operating with more modest means than the contemporary Manhattan Project and hampered by many leading scientists having been driven into exile (many of them ending up working for the Manhattan Project), as well as continuous infighting, wrongly dismissed graphite as a moderator due to not recognizing the effect of impurities.", "Given that isotope separation of uranium was deemed too big a hurdle, this left heavy water as a potential moderator.", "Other problems were the ideological aversion regarding what propaganda dismissed as \"Jewish physics\" and the mistrust between those who had been enthusiastic Nazis even before 1933 and those who were ''Mitläufer'' or trying to keep a low profile.", "In part due to allied sabotage and commando raids on Norsk Hydro (then the world's largest producer of heavy water) as well as the aforementioned infighting, the German nuclear program never managed to assemble enough uranium and heavy water in one place to achieve criticality despite possessing enough of both by the end of the war.In the U.S., however, the first experimental atomic reactor (1942), as well as the Manhattan Project Hanford production reactors that produced the plutonium for the Trinity test and Fat Man bombs, all used pure carbon (graphite) neutron moderators combined with normal water cooling pipes.", "They functioned with neither enriched uranium nor heavy water.", "Russian and British plutonium production also used graphite-moderated reactors.There is no evidence that civilian heavy water power reactors—such as the CANDU or Atucha designs—have been used to produce military fissile materials.", "In nations that do not already possess nuclear weapons, nuclear material at these facilities is under IAEA safeguards to discourage any diversion.Due to its potential for use in nuclear weapons programs, the possession or import/export of large industrial quantities of heavy water are subject to government control in several countries.", "Suppliers of heavy water and heavy water production technology typically apply IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) administered safeguards and material accounting to heavy water.", "(In Australia, the ''Nuclear Non-Proliferation (Safeguards) Act 1987''.)", "In the U.S. and Canada, non-industrial quantities of heavy water (i.e., in the gram to kg range) are routinely available without special license through chemical supply dealers and commercial companies such as the world's former major producer Ontario Hydro.===Neutrino detector===The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) in Sudbury, Ontario uses 1,000 tonnes of heavy water on loan from Atomic Energy of Canada Limited.", "The neutrino detector is underground in a mine, to shield it from muons produced by cosmic rays.", "SNO was built to answer the question of whether or not electron-type neutrinos produced by fusion in the Sun (the only type the Sun should be producing directly, according to theory) might be able to turn into other types of neutrinos on the way to Earth.", "SNO detects the Cherenkov radiation in the water from high-energy electrons produced from electron-type neutrinos as they undergo charged current (CC) interactions with neutrons in deuterium, turning them into protons and electrons (however, only the electrons are fast enough to produce Cherenkov radiation for detection).SNO also detects neutrino electron scattering (ES) events, where the neutrino transfers energy to the electron, which then proceeds to generate Cherenkov radiation distinguishable from that produced by CC events.", "The first of these two reactions is produced only by electron-type neutrinos, while the second can be caused by all of the neutrino flavors.", "The use of deuterium is critical to the SNO function, because all three \"flavours\" (types) of neutrinos may be detected in a third type of reaction as well, neutrino-disintegration, in which a neutrino of any type (electron, muon, or tau) scatters from a deuterium nucleus (deuteron), transferring enough energy to break up the loosely bound deuteron into a free neutron and proton via a neutral current (NC) interaction.This event is detected when the free neutron is absorbed by 35Cl− present from NaCl deliberately dissolved in the heavy water, causing emission of characteristic capture gamma rays.", "Thus, in this experiment, heavy water not only provides the transparent medium necessary to produce and visualize Cherenkov radiation, but it also provides deuterium to detect exotic mu type (μ) and tau (τ) neutrinos, as well as a non-absorbent moderator medium to preserve free neutrons from this reaction, until they can be absorbed by an easily detected neutron-activated isotope.===Metabolic rate and water turnover testing in physiology and biology===Heavy water is employed as part of a mixture with H218O for a common and safe test of mean metabolic rate in humans and animals undergoing their normal activities.The elimination rate of deuterium alone is a measure of body water turnover.", "This is highly variable between individuals and depends on environmental conditions as well as subject size, sex, age and physical activity.===Tritium production===Tritium is the active substance in self-powered lighting and controlled nuclear fusion, its other uses including autoradiography and radioactive labeling.", "It is also used in nuclear weapon design for boosted fission weapons and initiators.", "Tritium undergoes beta decay into Helium-3, which is a stable, but rare, isotope of Helium that is itself highly sought after.", "Some tritium is created in heavy water moderated reactors when deuterium captures a neutron.", "This reaction has a small cross-section (probability of a single neutron-capture event) and produces only small amounts of tritium, although enough to justify cleaning tritium from the moderator every few years to reduce the environmental risk of tritium escape.", "Given that Helium-3 is a neutron poison with orders of magnitude higher capture cross section than any component of heavy or tritiated water, its accumulation in a heavy water neutron moderator or target for tritium production must be kept to a minimum.Producing a lot of tritium in this way would require reactors with very high neutron fluxes, or with a very high proportion of heavy water to nuclear fuel and very low neutron absorption by other reactor material.", "The tritium would then have to be recovered by isotope separation from a much larger quantity of deuterium, unlike production from lithium-6 (the present method), where only chemical separation is needed.Deuterium's absorption cross section for thermal neutrons is 0.52 millibarns (5.2 × 10−32 m2; 1 barn = 10−28 m2), while those of oxygen-16 and oxygen-17 are 0.19 and 0.24 millibarns, respectively.", "17O makes up 0.038% of natural oxygen, making the overall cross section 0.28 millibarns.", "Therefore, in D2O with natural oxygen, 21% of neutron captures are on oxygen, rising higher as 17O builds up from neutron capture on 16O.", "Also, 17O may emit an alpha particle on neutron capture, producing radioactive carbon-14." ], [ "See also", "* Cold fusion* Deuterium-depleted water* Interstellar ice" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Heavy Water and Heavy Water – Part II at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)* Heavy Water Production, Federation of American Scientists* Heavy Water: A Manufacturer's Guide for the Hydrogen Century* Is \"heavy water\" dangerous?", "Straight Dope Staff Report.", "9 December 2003* Annotated bibliography for heavy water from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues* Ice is supposed to float, but with a little heavy water, you can make cubes that sink* Isotopic Effects of Heavy Water in Biological Objects Oleg Mosin, Ignat Ignatov* J. Chem.", "Phys.", "41, 1964* MOU between HWB and M/s Clearsynth MOU between HWB and M/s Clearsynth, Mumbai for sale of 20 tonnes of Heavy Water in a year for its non-nuclear applications." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of science and technology" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''history of science and technology''' ('''HST''') is a field of history that examines the understanding of the natural world (science) and the ability to manipulate it (technology) at different points in time.", "This academic discipline also studies the cultural, economic, and political impacts of and contexts for scientific practices." ], [ "Academic study of history of science", "History of science is an academic discipline with an international community of specialists.", "Main professional organizations for this field include the History of Science Society, the British Society for the History of Science, and the European Society for the History of Science.Much of the study of the history of science has been devoted to answering questions about what science ''is'', how it ''functions'', and whether it exhibits large-scale patterns and trends.=== History of the academic study of history of science ===Histories of science were originally written by practicing and retired scientists, starting primarily with William Whewell's ''History of the Inductive Sciences'' (1837), as a way to communicate the virtues of science to the public.Auguste Comte proposed that there should be a specific discipline to deal with the history of science.The development of the distinct academic discipline of the history of science and technology did not occur until the early 20th century.", "Historians have suggested that this was bound to the changing role of science during the same time period.After World War I, extensive resources were put into teaching and researching the discipline, with the hopes that it would help the public better understand both Science and Technology as they came to play an exceedingly prominent role in the world.In the decades since the end of World War II, history of science became an academic discipline, with graduate schools, research institutes, public and private patronage, peer-reviewed journals, and professional societies.==== Formation of academic departments ====In the United States, a more formal study of the history of science as an independent discipline was initiated by George Sarton's publications, ''Introduction to the History of Science'' (1927) and the journal ''Isis'' (founded in 1912).", "Sarton exemplified the early 20th-century view of the history of science as the history of great men and great ideas.", "He shared with many of his contemporaries a Whiggish belief in history as a record of the advances and delays in the march of progress.The study of the history of science continued to be a small effort until the rise of Big Science after World War II.", "With the work of I. Bernard Cohen at Harvard, the history of science began to become an established subdiscipline of history in the United States.In the United States, the influential bureaucrat Vannevar Bush, and the president of Harvard, James Conant, both encouraged the study of the history of science as a way of improving general knowledge about how science worked, and why it was essential to maintain a large scientific workforce." ], [ "Universities with history of science and technology programs", "=== Argentina ===* Buenos Aires Institute of Technology, Argentina, has been offering courses on History of the Technology and the Science.", "** National Technological University, Argentina, has a complete history program on its offered careers.=== Australia ===* The University of Sydney offers both undergraduate and postgraduate programmes in the History and Philosophy of Science, run by the Unit for the History and Philosophy of Science, within the Science Faculty.", "Undergraduate coursework can be completed as part of either a Bachelor of Science or a Bachelor of Arts Degree.", "Undergraduate study can be furthered by completing an additional Honours year.", "For postgraduate study, the Unit offers both coursework and research-based degrees.", "The two course-work based postgraduate degrees are the Graduate Certificate in Science (HPS) and the Graduate Diploma in Science (HPS).", "The two research based postgraduate degrees are a Master of Science (MSc) and Doctor of Philosophy (PhD).=== Belgium ===* University of Liège, has a Department called Centre d'histoire des Sciences et Techniques.=== Canada ===* Carleton University Ottawa offer courses in Ancient Science and Technology in its Technology, Society and Environment program.", "* University of Toronto has a program in History and Philosophy of Science and Technology.", "* Huron University College offers a course in the History of Science which follows the development and philosophy of science from 10,000 BCE to the modern day.", "* University of King's College in Halifax, Nova Scotia has a History of Science and Technology Program.=== France ===* Nantes University has a dedicated Department called Centre François Viète.", "* Paris Diderot University (Paris 7) has a Department of History and Philosophy of Science.", "* A CNRS research center in History and Philosophy of Science SPHERE, affiliated with Paris Diderot University, has a dedicated history of technology section.", "* Pantheon-Sorbonne University (Paris 1) has a dedicated Institute of History and Philosophy of Science and Technics.", "* The École Normale Supérieure de Paris has a history of science department.=== Germany ===* Technische Universität Berlin, has a program in the History of Science and Technology.=== Greece ===* The University of Athens has a Department of Philosophy and History of Science=== India ===History of science and technology is a well-developed field in India.", "At least three generations of scholars can be identified.The first generation includes D.D.Kosambi, Dharmpal, Debiprasad Chattopadhyay and Rahman.", "The second generation mainly consists of Ashis Nandy, Deepak Kumar, Dhruv Raina, S. Irfan Habib, Shiv Visvanathan, Gyan Prakash, Stan Lourdswamy, V.V.", "Krishna, Itty Abraham, Richard Grove, Kavita Philip, Mira Nanda and Rob Anderson.", "There is an emergent third generation that includes scholars like Abha Sur and Jahnavi Phalkey.", "'''''Departments and Programmes'''''The National Institute of Science, Technology and Development Studies had a research group active in the 1990s which consolidated social history of science as a field of research in India.", "Currently there are several institutes and university departments offering HST programmes.", "*Jawaharlal Nehru University has an Mphil-PhD program that offer specialisation in Social History of Science.", "It is at the History of Science and Education group of the Zakir Husain Centre for Educational Studies (ZHCES) in the School of Social Sciences.", "Renowned Indian science historians Deepak Kumar and Dhruv Raina teach here.", "Also, *Centre for Studies in Science Policy has an Mphil-PhD program that offers specialization in Science, Technology, and Society along with various allied subdisciplines.", "*Central University of Gujarat has an MPhil-PhD programme in Studies in Science, Technology & Innovation Policy at the Centre for Studies in Science, Technology & Innovation Policy (CSSTIP), where Social History of Science and Technology in India is a major emphasis for research and teaching.", "* Banaras Hindu University has programs: one in History of Science and Technology at the Faculty of Science and one in Historical and Comparative Studies of the Sciences and the Humanities at the Faculty of Humanities.", "* Andhra University has now set History of Science and Technology as a compulsory subject for all the First year B-Tech students.=== Israel ===*Tel Aviv University.", "The Cohn Institute for the History and Philosophy of Science and Ideas is a research and graduate teaching institute within the framework of the School of History of Tel Aviv University.", "*Bar-Ilan University has a graduate program in Science, Technology, and Society.=== Japan ===*Kyoto University has a program in the Philosophy and History of Science.", "*Tokyo Institute of Technology has a program in the History, Philosophy, and Social Studies of Science and Technology.", "*The University of Tokyo has a program in the History and Philosophy of Science.=== Netherlands ===* Utrecht University, has two co-operating programs: one in History and Philosophy of Science at the Faculty of Natural Sciences and one in Historical and Comparative Studies of the Sciences and the Humanities at the Faculty of Humanities.=== Poland ===* Institute for the History of Science of the Polish Academy of Sciences offers PhD programmes and habilitation degrees in the fields of History of Science, Technology and Ideas.=== Russia ====== Spain ===*University of the Basque Country, offers a master's degree and PhD programme in History and Philosophy of Science and runs since 1952 ''THEORIA.", "International Journal for Theory, History and Foundations of Science''.", "The university also sponsors the Basque Museum of the History of Medicine and Science, the only open museum of History of Science of Spain, that in the past offered also PhD courses.", "* Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, offers a master's degree and PhD programme in HST together with the Universitat de Barcelona.", "* Universitat de València, offers a master's degree and PhD programme in HST together with the Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas.=== Sweden ===* Linköpings universitet, has a Science, Technology, and Society program which includes HST.=== Switzerland ===* University of Bern, has an undergraduate and a graduate program in the History and Philosophy of Science.", "'''Ukraine'''* State University of Infrastructure and Technologies, has a Department of Philosophy and History of Science and technology.=== United Kingdom ===* University of Bristol has a masters and PhD program in the Philosophy and History of Science.", "* University of Cambridge has an undergraduate course and a large masters and PhD program in the History and Philosophy of Science (including the History of Medicine).", "* University of Durham has several undergraduate History of Science modules in the Philosophy department, as well as Masters and PhD programs in the discipline.", "* University of Kent has a Centre for the History of the Sciences, which offers Masters programmes and undergraduate modules.", "* University College London's Department of Science and Technology Studies offers undergraduate programme in History and Philosophy of Science, including two BSc single honour degrees (UCAS V550 and UCAS L391), plus both major and minor streams in history, philosophy and social studies of science in UCL's Natural Sciences programme.", "The department also offers MSc degrees in History and Philosophy of Science and in the study of contemporary Science, Technology, and Society.", "An MPhil/PhD research degree is offered, too.", "UCL also contains a Centre for the History of Medicine.", "This operates a small teaching programme in History of Medicine.", "* University of Leeds has both undergraduate and graduate programmes in History and Philosophy of Science in the Department of Philosophy.", "*University of Manchester offers undergraduate modules and postgraduate study in History of Science, Technology and Medicine and is sponsored by the Wellcome Trust.", "*University of Oxford has a one-year graduate course in 'History of Science: Instruments, Museums, Science, Technology' associated with the Museum of the History of Science.", "* The London Centre for the History of Science, Medicine, and Technology – this Centre closed in 2013.It was formed in 1987 and ran a taught MSc programme, jointly taught by University College London's Department of Science and Technology Studies and Imperial College London.", "The Masters programme transferred to UCL.=== United States ===Academic study of the history of science as an independent discipline was launched by George Sarton at Harvard with his book ''Introduction to the History of Science'' (1927) and the ''Isis'' journal (founded in 1912).", "Sarton exemplified the early 20th century view of the history of science as the history of great men and great ideas.", "He shared with many of his contemporaries a Whiggish belief in history as a record of the advances and delays in the march of progress.", "The History of Science was not a recognized subfield of American history in this period, and most of the work was carried out by interested Scientists and Physicians rather than professional Historians.", "With the work of I. Bernard Cohen at Harvard, the history of Science became an established subdiscipline of history after 1945.", "* Arizona State University's Center for Biology and Society offers several paths for MS or PhD students who are interested in issues surrounding the history and philosophy of the science.", "* California Institute of Technology offers courses in the History and Philosophy of Science to fulfill its core humanities requirements.", "* Case Western Reserve University has an undergraduate interdisciplinary program in the History and Philosophy of Science and a graduate program in the History of Science, Technology, Environment, and Medicine (STEM).", "* Cornell University offers a variety of courses within the Science and Technology course.", "* Georgia Institute of Technology has an undergraduate and graduate program in the History of Technology and Society.", "* Harvard has an undergraduate and graduate program in History of Science* Indiana University offers undergraduate courses and a masters and PhD program in the History and Philosophy of Science.", "* Johns Hopkins University has an undergraduate and graduate program in the History of Science, Medicine, and Technology.", "* Lehigh University offers an undergraduate level STS concentration (founded in 1972) and a graduate program with emphasis on the History of Industrial America.", "* Massachusetts Institute of Technology has a Science, Technology, and Society program which includes HST.", "* Michigan State University offers an undergraduate major and minor in History, Philosophy, and Sociology of Science through its Lyman Briggs College.", "* New Jersey Institute of Technology has a Science, Technology, and Society program which includes the History of Science and Technology* Oregon State University offers a Masters and Ph.D. in History of Science through its Department of History.", "* Princeton University has a program in the History of Science.", "* Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute has a Science and Technology Studies department* Rutgers has a graduate Program in History of Science, Technology, Environment, and Health.", "* Stanford has a History and Philosophy of Science and Technology program.", "* Stevens Institute of Technology has an undergraduate and graduate program in the History of Science.", "* University of California, Berkeley offers a graduate degree in HST through its History program, and maintains a separate sub-department for the field.", "* University of California, Los Angeles has a relatively large group History of Science and Medicine faculty and graduate students within its History department, and also offers an undergraduate minor in the History of Science.", "* University of California, Santa Barbara has an interdisciplinary graduate program emphasis in Technology & Society through the Center for Information Technology & Society.", "* University of Chicago offers a B.A.", "program in the History, Philosophy, and Social Studies of Science and Medicine as well as M.A.", "and Ph.D. degrees through its Committee on the Conceptual and Historical Studies of Science.", "* University of Florida has a Graduate Program in 'History of Science, Technology, and Medicine' at the University of Florida provides undergraduate and graduate degrees.", "* University of Minnesota has a Ph.D. program in History of Science, Technology, and Medicine as well as undergraduate courses in these fields.", "* University of Oklahoma has an undergraduate minor and a graduate degree program in History of Science.", "* University of Pennsylvania has a program in History and Sociology of Science.", "* University of Pittsburgh's Department of History and Philosophy of Science offers graduate and undergraduate courses.", "* University of Puget Sound has a Science, Technology, and Society program, which includes the history of Science and Technology.", "* University of Wisconsin–Madison has a program in History of Science, Medicine and Technology.", "It offers M.A.", "and Ph.D. degrees as well as an undergraduate major.", "*Wesleyan University has a Science in Society program.", "* Yale University has a program in the History of Science and Medicine." ], [ "Prominent historians of the field", "*Wiebe Bijker*Peter J. Bowler*Janet Browne*Stephen G. Brush*James Burke*Edwin Arthur Burtt (1892–1989)*Johann Beckmann (1739–1811)*Jim Bennett*Herbert Butterfield (1900–1979)*Martin Campbell-Kelly*Georges Canguilhem (1904–1995)*Allan Chapman*I. Bernard Cohen (1914–2003)*A. C. Crombie (1915–1996)*E. J. Dijksterhuis (1892–1965)*Pierre Duhem (1861–1916)*A.", "Hunter Dupree (1921–2019)*George Dyson*Jacques Ellul (1912–1994)*Eugene S. Ferguson (1916–2004)*Peter Galison*Sigfried Giedion*Charles Coulston Gillispie*Robert Gunther (1869–1940)*Paul Forman (historian)*Donna Haraway*Peter Harrison*Ahmad Y Hassan*John L. Heilbron*Boris Hessen*Reijer Hooykaas*David A. Hounshell*Thomas P. Hughes*Evelyn Fox Keller*Daniel Kevles*Alexandre Koyré (1892–1964)*Melvin Kranzberg*Thomas Kuhn*Deepak Kumar*Gilbert LaFreniere*Bruno Latour*David C. Lindberg*G. E. R. Lloyd*Jane Maienschein*Anneliese Maier*Leo Marx*Lewis Mumford (1895–1990)*John E. Murdoch (1927–2010)*Otto Neugebauer (1899–1990)*William R. Newman*David Noble*Ronald Numbers*David E. Nye*Abraham Pais (1918–2000)*Trevor Pinch*Theodore Porter*Lawrence M. Principe*Raúl Rojas*Michael Ruse*A. I. Sabra*Jan Sapp*George Sarton (1884–1956)*Simon Schaffer*Howard Segal (1948–2020)*Steven Shapin*Wolfgang Schivelbusch*Charles Singer (1876–1960)*Merritt Roe Smith*Stephen Snobelen*M. Norton Wise*Frances A. Yates (1899–1981)" ], [ "Journals and periodicals", "*''Annals of Science''*''The British Journal for the History of Science''*''Centaurus''*''Dynamis''*''History and Technology (magazine)''*''History of Science and Technology (journal)''*''History of Technology (book series)''*''Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences'' (HSPS)*''Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences'' (HSNS)* ''HoST - Journal of History of Science and Technology''*''ICON''*''IEEE Annals of the History of Computing''*''Isis''*''Journal of the History of Biology''*''Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences''*''Notes and Records of the Royal Society''*''Osiris''*''Science & Technology Studies''*''Science in Context''*''Science, Technology, & Human Values''*''Social History of Medicine''*''Social Studies of Science''*''Technology and Culture''*''Transactions of the Newcomen Society''*''Historia Mathematica''*''Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society''" ], [ "See also", "* History of science* History of technology* Ancient Egyptian technology* History of science and technology in China* History of science and technology in Japan* History of science and technology in France* History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent* Mesopotamian science* Productivity improving technologies (historical)* Science and technology in Argentina* Science and technology in Canada* Science and technology in Iran* Science and technology in the United States* Science in the medieval Islamic world* Science tourism* Technological and industrial history of the United States* Timeline of science and engineering in the Islamic world" ], [ "Professional societies", "* The British Society for the History of Science (BSHS)* History of Science Society (HSS)* Newcomen Society * Society for the History of Technology (SHOT)* Society for the Social Studies of Science (4S)* Scientific Instrument Society" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "'''Historiography of science'''*H. Floris Cohen, ''The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry'', University of Chicago Press 1994 – Discussion on the origins of modern science has been going on for more than two hundred years.", "Cohen provides an excellent overview.", "*Ernst Mayr, ''The Growth of Biological Thought'', Belknap Press 1985*Michel Serres,(ed.", "), ''A History of Scientific Thought'', Blackwell Publishers 1995*''Companion to Science in the Twentieth Century'', John Krige (Editor), Dominique Pestre (Editor), Taylor & Francis 2003, 941pp*The Cambridge History of Science, Cambridge University Press**Volume 4, Eighteenth-Century Science, 2003**Volume 5, The Modern Physical and Mathematical Sciences, 2002'''History of science as a discipline'''*J.", "A. Bennett, 'Museums and the Establishment of the History of Science at Oxford and Cambridge', British Journal for the History of Science 30, 1997, 29–46*Dietrich von Engelhardt, ''Historisches Bewußtsein in der Naturwissenschaft : von der Aufklärung bis zum Positivismus'', Freiburg u.a.", ": Alber, 1979*A.-K. Mayer, 'Setting up a Discipline: Conflicting Agendas of the Cambridge History of Science Committee, 1936–1950.'", "Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 31, 2000" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Holographic principle" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''holographic principle''' is a property of string theories and a supposed property of quantum gravity that states that the description of a volume of space can be thought of as encoded on a lower-dimensional boundary to the region — such as a light-like boundary like a gravitational horizon.", "First proposed by Gerard 't Hooft, it was given a precise string theoretic interpretation by Leonard Susskind, who combined his ideas with previous ones of 't Hooft and Charles Thorn.", "Leonard Susskind said, “The three-dimensional world of ordinary experience––the universe filled with galaxies, stars, planets, houses, boulders, and people––is a hologram, an image of reality coded on a distant two-dimensional surface.\"", "As pointed out by Raphael Bousso, Thorn observed in 1978 that string theory admits a lower-dimensional description in which gravity emerges from it in what would now be called a holographic way.", "The prime example of holography is the AdS/CFT correspondence.The holographic principle was inspired by black hole thermodynamics, which conjectures that the maximum entropy in any region scales with the radius ''squared'', and not cubed as might be expected.", "In the case of a black hole, the insight was that the information content of all the objects that have fallen into the hole might be entirely contained in surface fluctuations of the event horizon.", "The holographic principle resolves the black hole information paradox within the framework of string theory.However, there exist classical solutions to the Einstein equations that allow values of the entropy larger than those allowed by an area law (radius squared), hence in principle larger than those of a black hole.", "These are the so-called \"Wheeler's bags of gold\".", "The existence of such solutions conflicts with the holographic interpretation, and their effects in a quantum theory of gravity including the holographic principle are not yet fully understood." ], [ "High-level summary", "The physical universe is widely seen to be composed of \"matter\" and \"energy\".", "In his 2003 article published in Scientific American magazine, Jacob Bekenstein speculatively summarized a current trend started by John Archibald Wheeler, which suggests scientists may \"regard the physical world as made of information, with energy and matter as incidentals\".", "Bekenstein asks \"Could we, as William Blake memorably penned, 'see a world in a grain of sand', or is that idea no more than 'poetic license'?", "\", referring to the holographic principle.===Unexpected connection===Bekenstein's topical overview \"A Tale of Two Entropies\" describes potentially profound implications of Wheeler's trend, in part by noting a previously unexpected connection between the world of information theory and classical physics.", "This connection was first described shortly after the seminal 1948 papers of American applied mathematician Claude E. Shannon introduced today's most widely used measure of information content, now known as Shannon entropy.", "As an objective measure of the quantity of information, Shannon entropy has been enormously useful, as the design of all modern communications and data storage devices, from cellular phones to modems to hard disk drives and DVDs, rely on Shannon entropy.In thermodynamics (the branch of physics dealing with heat), entropy is popularly described as a measure of the \"disorder\" in a physical system of matter and energy.", "In 1877, Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann described it more precisely in terms of the number of distinct microscopic states that the particles composing a macroscopic \"chunk\" of matter could be in, while still \"looking\" like the same macroscopic \"chunk\".", "As an example, for the air in a room, its thermodynamic entropy would equal the logarithm of the count of all the ways that the individual gas molecules could be distributed in the room, and all the ways they could be moving.===Energy, matter, and information equivalence===Shannon's efforts to find a way to quantify the information contained in, for example, a telegraph message, led him unexpectedly to a formula with the same form as Boltzmann's.", "In an article in the August 2003 issue of Scientific American titled \"Information in the Holographic Universe\", Bekenstein summarizes that \"Thermodynamic entropy and Shannon entropy are conceptually equivalent: the number of arrangements that are counted by Boltzmann entropy reflects the amount of Shannon information one would need to implement any particular arrangement\" of matter and energy.", "The only salient difference between the thermodynamic entropy of physics and Shannon's entropy of information is in the units of measure; the former is expressed in units of energy divided by temperature, the latter in essentially dimensionless \"bits\" of information.The holographic principle states that the entropy of ordinary mass (not just black holes) is also proportional to surface area and not volume; that volume itself is illusory and the universe is really a hologram which is isomorphic to the information \"inscribed\" on the surface of its boundary." ], [ "The AdS/CFT correspondence", "The '''anti-de Sitter/conformal field theory correspondence''', sometimes called '''Maldacena duality''' (after ref.)", "or '''gauge/gravity duality''', is a conjectured relationship between two kinds of physical theories.", "On one side are anti-de Sitter spaces (AdS) which are used in theories of quantum gravity, formulated in terms of string theory or M-theory.", "On the other side of the correspondence are conformal field theories (CFT) which are quantum field theories, including theories similar to the Yang–Mills theories that describe elementary particles.The duality represents a major advance in our understanding of string theory and quantum gravity.", "This is because it provides a non-perturbative formulation of string theory with certain boundary conditions and because it is the most successful realization of the holographic principle.It also provides a powerful toolkit for studying strongly coupled quantum field theories.", "Much of the usefulness of the duality results from the fact that it is a strong-weak duality: when the fields of the quantum field theory are strongly interacting, the ones in the gravitational theory are weakly interacting and thus more mathematically tractable.", "This fact has been used to study many aspects of nuclear and condensed matter physics by translating problems in those subjects into more mathematically tractable problems in string theory.The AdS/CFT correspondence was first proposed by Juan Maldacena in late 1997.Important aspects of the correspondence were elaborated in articles by Steven Gubser, Igor Klebanov, and Alexander Markovich Polyakov, and by Edward Witten.", "By 2015, Maldacena's article had over 10,000 citations, becoming the most highly cited article in the field of high energy physics." ], [ "Black hole entropy", "An object with relatively high entropy is microscopically random, like a hot gas.", "A known configuration of classical fields has zero entropy: there is nothing random about electric and magnetic fields, or gravitational waves.", "Since black holes are exact solutions of Einstein's equations, they were thought not to have any entropy either.But Jacob Bekenstein noted that this leads to a violation of the second law of thermodynamics.", "If one throws a hot gas with entropy into a black hole, once it crosses the event horizon, the entropy would disappear.", "The random properties of the gas would no longer be seen once the black hole had absorbed the gas and settled down.", "One way of salvaging the second law is if black holes are in fact random objects with an entropy that increases by an amount greater than the entropy of the consumed gas.Given a fixed volume, a black hole whose event horizon encompasses that volume should be the object with the highest amount of entropy.", "Otherwise, suppose we have something with a larger entropy, then by throwing more mass into that something, we obtain a black hole with less entropy, violating the second law.In a sphere of radius ''R'', the entropy in a relativistic gas increases as the energy increases.", "The only known limit is gravitational; when there is too much energy the gas collapses into a black hole.", "Bekenstein used this to put an upper bound on the entropy in a region of space, and the bound was proportional to the area of the region.", "He concluded that the black hole entropy is directly proportional to the area of the event horizon.", "Gravitational time dilation causes time, from the perspective of a remote observer, to stop at the event horizon.", "Due to the natural limit on maximum speed of motion, this prevents falling objects from crossing the event horizon no matter how close they get to it.", "Since any change in quantum state requires time to flow, all objects and their quantum information state stay imprinted on the event horizon.", "Bekenstein concluded that from the perspective of any remote observer, the black hole entropy is directly proportional to the area of the event horizon.Stephen Hawking had shown earlier that the total horizon area of a collection of black holes always increases with time.", "The horizon is a boundary defined by light-like geodesics; it is those light rays that are just barely unable to escape.", "If neighboring geodesics start moving toward each other they eventually collide, at which point their extension is inside the black hole.", "So the geodesics are always moving apart, and the number of geodesics which generate the boundary, the area of the horizon, always increases.", "Hawking's result was called the second law of black hole thermodynamics, by analogy with the law of entropy increase.", "At first, Hawking did not take the analogy too seriously.", "He argued that the black hole must have zero temperature, since black holes do not radiate and therefore cannot be in thermal equilibrium with any black body of positive temperature.", "Then he discovered that black holes do radiate.", "When heat is added to a thermal system, the change in entropy is the increase in mass–energy divided by temperature:::(Here the term ''δM c2'' is substituted for the thermal energy added to the system, generally by non-integrable random processes, in contrast to d''S'', which is a function of a few \"state variables\" only, i.e.", "in conventional thermodynamics only of the Kelvin temperature ''T'' and a few additional state variables, such as the pressure.", ")If black holes have a finite entropy, they should also have a finite temperature.", "In particular, they would come to equilibrium with a thermal gas of photons.", "This means that black holes would not only absorb photons, but they would also have to emit them in the right amount to maintain detailed balance.Time-independent solutions to field equations do not emit radiation, because a time-independent background conserves energy.", "Based on this principle, Hawking set out to show that black holes do not radiate.", "But, to his surprise, a careful analysis convinced him that they do, and in just the right way to come to equilibrium with a gas at a finite temperature.", "Hawking's calculation fixed the constant of proportionality at 1/4; the entropy of a black hole is one quarter its horizon area in Planck units.The entropy is proportional to the logarithm of the number of microstates, the enumerated ways a system can be configured microscopically while leaving the macroscopic description unchanged.", "Black hole entropy is deeply puzzling – it says that the logarithm of the number of states of a black hole is proportional to the area of the horizon, not the volume in the interior.Later, Raphael Bousso came up with a covariant version of the bound based upon null sheets." ], [ "Black hole information paradox", "Hawking's calculation suggested that the radiation which black holes emit is not related in any way to the matter that they absorb.", "The outgoing light rays start exactly at the edge of the black hole and spend a long time near the horizon, while the infalling matter only reaches the horizon much later.", "The infalling and outgoing mass/energy interact only when they cross.", "It is implausible that the outgoing state would be completely determined by some tiny residual scattering.Hawking interpreted this to mean that when black holes absorb some photons in a pure state described by a wave function, they re-emit new photons in a thermal mixed state described by a density matrix.", "This would mean that quantum mechanics would have to be modified because, in quantum mechanics, states which are superpositions with probability amplitudes never become states which are probabilistic mixtures of different possibilities.Troubled by this paradox, Gerard 't Hooft analyzed the emission of Hawking radiation in more detail.", "He noted that when Hawking radiation escapes, there is a way in which incoming particles can modify the outgoing particles.", "Their gravitational field would deform the horizon of the black hole, and the deformed horizon could produce different outgoing particles than the undeformed horizon.", "When a particle falls into a black hole, it is boosted relative to an outside observer, and its gravitational field assumes a universal form.", "'t Hooft showed that this field makes a logarithmic tent-pole shaped bump on the horizon of a black hole, and like a shadow, the bump is an alternative description of the particle's location and mass.", "For a four-dimensional spherical uncharged black hole, the deformation of the horizon is similar to the type of deformation which describes the emission and absorption of particles on a string-theory world sheet.", "Since the deformations on the surface are the only imprint of the incoming particle, and since these deformations would have to completely determine the outgoing particles, 't Hooft believed that the correct description of the black hole would be by some form of string theory.This idea was made more precise by Leonard Susskind, who had also been developing holography, largely independently.", "Susskind argued that the oscillation of the horizon of a black hole is a complete description of both the infalling and outgoing matter, because the world-sheet theory of string theory was just such a holographic description.", "While short strings have zero entropy, he could identify long highly excited string states with ordinary black holes.", "This was a deep advance because it revealed that strings have a classical interpretation in terms of black holes.This work showed that the black hole information paradox is resolved when quantum gravity is described in an unusual string-theoretic way assuming the string-theoretical description is complete, unambiguous and non-redundant.", "The space-time in quantum gravity would emerge as an effective description of the theory of oscillations of a lower-dimensional black-hole horizon, and suggest that any black hole with appropriate properties, not just strings, would serve as a basis for a description of string theory.In 1995, Susskind, along with collaborators Tom Banks, Willy Fischler, and Stephen Shenker, presented a formulation of the new M-theory using a holographic description in terms of charged point black holes, the D0 branes of type IIA string theory.", "The matrix theory they proposed was first suggested as a description of two branes in 11-dimensional supergravity by Bernard de Wit, Jens Hoppe, and Hermann Nicolai.", "The later authors reinterpreted the same matrix models as a description of the dynamics of point black holes in particular limits.", "Holography allowed them to conclude that the dynamics of these black holes give a complete non-perturbative formulation of M-theory.", "In 1997, Juan Maldacena gave the first holographic descriptions of a higher-dimensional object, the 3+1-dimensional type IIB membrane, which resolved a long-standing problem of finding a string description which describes a gauge theory.", "These developments simultaneously explained how string theory is related to some forms of supersymmetric quantum field theories." ], [ "Limit on information density", "Information content is defined as the logarithm of the reciprocal of the probability that a system is in a specific microstate, and the information entropy of a system is the expected value of the system's information content.", "This definition of entropy is equivalent to the standard Gibbs entropy used in classical physics.", "Applying this definition to a physical system leads to the conclusion that, for a given energy in a given volume, there is an upper limit to the density of information (the Bekenstein bound) about the whereabouts of all the particles which compose matter in that volume.", "In particular, a given volume has an upper limit of information it can contain, at which it will collapse into a black hole.This suggests that matter itself cannot be subdivided infinitely many times and there must be an ultimate level of fundamental particles.", "As the degrees of freedom of a particle are the product of all the degrees of freedom of its sub-particles, were a particle to have infinite subdivisions into lower-level particles, the degrees of freedom of the original particle would be infinite, violating the maximal limit of entropy density.", "The holographic principle thus implies that the subdivisions must stop at some level.The most rigorous realization of the holographic principle is the AdS/CFT correspondence by Juan Maldacena.", "However, J. David Brown and Marc Henneaux had rigorously proved already in 1986, that the asymptotic symmetry of 2+1 dimensional gravity gives rise to a Virasoro algebra, whose corresponding quantum theory is a 2-dimensional conformal field theory." ], [ "Experimental tests", "The Fermilab physicist Craig Hogan claims that the holographic principle would imply quantum fluctuations in spatial position that would lead to apparent background noise or \"holographic noise\" measurable at gravitational wave detectors, in particular GEO 600.However these claims have not been widely accepted, or cited, among quantum gravity researchers and appear to be in direct conflict with string theory calculations.Analyses in 2011 of measurements of gamma ray burst GRB 041219A in 2004 by the INTEGRAL space observatory launched in 2002 by the European Space Agency shows that Craig Hogan's noise is absent down to a scale of 10−48 meters, as opposed to the scale of 10−35 meters predicted by Hogan, and the scale of 10−16 meters found in measurements of the GEO 600 instrument.", "Research continued at Fermilab under Hogan as of 2013.Jacob Bekenstein claimed to have found a way to test the holographic principle with a tabletop photon experiment." ], [ "See also", "* Bekenstein bound* Beyond black holes* Bousso's holographic bound* Brane cosmology* Digital physics* Entropic gravity* Implicate and explicate order* Margolus–Levitin theorem* Physical cosmology* Quantum foam" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", ";Citations;Sources* * .", "'t Hooft's original paper." ], [ "External links", "* Alfonso V. Ramallo: ''Introduction to the AdS/CFT correspondence'', , pedagogical lecture.", "For the holographic principle: see especially Fig.", "1.", "* UC Berkeley's Raphael Bousso gives an introductory lecture on the holographic principle - Video.", "* ''Scientific American'' article on holographic principle by Jacob Bekenstein*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hamilton, Ontario" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hamilton''' is a port city in the Canadian province of Ontario.", "Hamilton has a population of 569,353, and its census metropolitan area, which encompasses Burlington and Grimsby, has a population of 785,184.The city is situated approximately southwest of Toronto in the Greater Toronto and Hamilton Area (GTHA).Conceived by George Hamilton when he purchased the Durand farm shortly after the War of 1812, the town of Hamilton became the centre of a densely populated and industrialized region at the west end of Lake Ontario known as the Golden Horseshoe.", "On January 1, 2001, the current boundaries of Hamilton were created through the amalgamation of the original city with other municipalities of the Regional Municipality of Hamilton–Wentworth.", "Residents of the city are known as Hamiltonians.Traditionally, the local economy has been led by the steel and heavy manufacturing industries.", "During the 2010s, a shift toward the service sector occurred, such as health and sciences.", "Hamilton is home to the Royal Botanical Gardens, the Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum, the Bruce Trail, McMaster University, Mohawk College, and Redeemer University.", "McMaster University is ranked 4th in Canada and 69th in the world by Times Higher Education Rankings 2021." ], [ "History", "In pre-colonial times, the Neutral First Nation used much of the land.", "They were gradually driven out by the Five (later Six) Nations (Iroquois) who were allied with the British against the Huron and their French allies.", "The hamlet of Westover was built in an area that was originally a Seneca Iroquois tribal village, Tinawatawa, which was first visited by the French in September 1699.After the American Revolutionary War, about 10,000 United Empire Loyalists left the United States to settle in Upper Canada, now southern Ontario.", "In 1792, the Crown purchased the land on which Hamilton now stands from the Mississaugas in Treaty 3, also known as the Between the Lakes Purchase.", "The Crown granted the Loyalists lands from this purchase to encourage settlement in the region.", "These new settlers were soon followed by many more Americans, attracted by the availability of inexpensive, arable land.", "At the same time, large numbers of Iroquois who had allied with Britain arrived from the United States and were settled on reserves west of Lake Ontario as compensation for lands they lost in what was now the United States.", "During the War of 1812, British regulars and local militia defeated invading American troops at the Battle of Stoney Creek, fought in what is now a park in eastern Hamilton.The town of Hamilton was conceived by George Hamilton (a son of a Queenston entrepreneur and founder, Robert Hamilton), when he purchased farm holdings of James Durand, the local member of the Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada, shortly after the War of 1812.Nathaniel Hughson, a property owner to the north, cooperated with George Hamilton to prepare a proposal for a courthouse and jail on Hamilton's property.", "Hamilton offered the land to the crown for the future site.", "Durand was empowered by Hughson and Hamilton to sell property holdings which later became the site of the town.", "As he had been instructed, Durand circulated the offers at York during a session of the Legislative Assembly, which established a new Gore District, of which the Hamilton townsite was a member.Initially, this town was not the most important centre of the Gore District.", "An early indication of Hamilton's sudden prosperity occurred in 1816 when it was chosen over Ancaster, Ontario to be the new Gore District's administrative centre.", "Another dramatic economic turnabout for Hamilton occurred in 1832 when a canal was finally cut through the outer sand bar that enabled Hamilton to become a major port.", "A permanent jail was not constructed until 1832, when a cut-stone design was completed on Prince's Square, one of the two squares created in 1816.Subsequently, the first police board and the town limits were defined by statute on February 13, 1833.Official city status was achieved on June 9, 1846, by an act of Parliament of the Province of Canada.By 1845, the population was 6,475.In 1846, there were useful roads to many communities as well as stagecoaches and steamboats to Toronto, Queenston, and Niagara.", "Eleven cargo schooners were owned in Hamilton.", "Eleven churches were in operation.", "A reading room provided access to newspapers from other cities and from England and the U.S.", "In addition to stores of all types, four banks, tradesmen of various types, and sixty-five taverns, industry in the community included three breweries, ten importers of dry goods and groceries, five importers of hardware, two tanneries, three coachmakers, and a marble and a stone works.", "As the city grew, several prominent buildings were constructed in the late 19th century, including the Grand Lodge of Canada in 1855, West Flamboro Methodist Church in 1879 (later purchased by Dufferin Masonic Lodge in 1893), a public library in 1890, and the Right House department store in 1893.The first commercial telephone service in Canada, the first telephone exchange in the British Empire, and the second telephone exchange in all of North America were each established in the city between 1877 and 1878.The city had several interurban electric street railways and two inclines, all powered by the Cataract Power Co.Though suffering through the Hamilton Street Railway strike of 1906, with industrial businesses expanding, Hamilton's population doubled between 1900 and 1914.Two steel manufacturing companies, Stelco and Dofasco, were formed in 1910 and 1912, respectively.", "Procter & Gamble and the Beech-Nut Packing Company opened manufacturing plants in 1914 and 1922, respectively, their first outside the US.", "In June and July 1916, the a strike of up to 2,000 machinists was caused by a failure of employers to improve working conditions or pay during a booming World War I economy.", "The strike disrupted production at many of the largest manufacturers and was the largest dispute in the city's history.", "Population and economic growth continued until the 1960s.", "In 1929 the city's first high-rise building, the Pigott Building, was constructed; in 1930 McMaster University moved from Toronto to Hamilton, in 1934 the second Canadian Tire store in Canada opened here; in 1940 the airport was completed; and in 1948, the Studebaker assembly line was constructed.", "Infrastructure and retail development continued, with the Burlington Bay James N. Allan Skyway opening in 1958, and the first Tim Hortons store in 1964.Since then, many of the large industries have moved or shut down operations in a restructuring that also affected the United States.", "In 1997, there was a devastating fire at the Plastimet plastics plant.", "Approximately 300 firefighters battled the blaze, and many sustained severe chemical burns and inhaled volatile organic compounds when at least 400 tonnes of PVC plastic were consumed in the fire.On January 1, 2001, the new city of Hamilton was formed from the amalgamation of Hamilton and its five neighbouring municipalities: Ancaster, Dundas, Flamborough, Glanbrook, and Stoney Creek.", "Before amalgamation, the \"old\" City of Hamilton had 331,121 residents and was divided into 100 neighbourhoods.", "The former region of Hamilton-Wentworth had a population of 490,268.The amalgamation created a single-tier municipal government ending subsidization of its suburbs.", "The new amalgamated city had 519,949 people in more than 100 neighbourhoods, and surrounding communities.The city was impacted by a widespread blackout in 2003 and a tornado in 2005.In 2007, the Red Hill Valley Parkway opened after extensive delays.", "The Stelco mills were idled in 2010 and permanently closed in 2013.This closure capped a significant shift in the city's economy: the percentage of the population employed in manufacturing declined from 22 to 12 percent between 2003 and 2013." ], [ "Geography", "Hamilton is in Southern Ontario on the western end of the Niagara Peninsula and wraps around the westernmost part of Lake Ontario; most of the city, including the downtown section, is on the south shore.", "Hamilton is in the geographic centre of the Golden Horseshoe.", "Its major physical features are Hamilton Harbour, marking the northern limit of the city, and the Niagara Escarpment running through the middle of the city across its entire breadth, bisecting the city into \"upper\" and \"lower\" parts.", "The maximum high point is 250m (820') above the level of Lake Ontario.According to all records from local historians, this district was called ''Attiwandaronia'' by the native Neutral people.", "Hamilton is one of 11 cities showcased in the book, ''Green City: People, Nature & Urban Places'' by Quebec author Mary Soderstrom, which examines the city as an example of an industrial powerhouse co-existing with nature.", "Soderstrom credits Thomas McQuesten and family in the 1930s who \"became champions of parks, greenspace and roads\" in Hamilton.Hamilton Harbour is a natural harbour with a large sandbar called the Beachstrip.", "This sandbar was deposited during a period of higher lake levels during the last ice age and extends southeast through the central lower city to the escarpment.", "Hamilton's deep sea port is accessed by ship canal through the beach strip into the harbour and is traversed by two bridges, the QEW's Burlington Bay James N. Allan Skyway and the lower Canal Lift Bridge.Webster's Falls at Spencer Gorge Conservation Area.", "There are more than 100 waterfalls in the city.Between 1788 and 1793, the townships at the Head-of-the-Lake were surveyed and named.", "The area was first known as The Head-of-the-Lake for its location at the western end of Lake Ontario.", "John Ryckman, born in Barton township (where present day downtown Hamilton is), described the area in 1803 as he remembered it: \"The city in 1803 was all forest.", "The shores of the bay were difficult to reach or see because they were hidden by a thick, almost impenetrable mass of trees and undergrowth\".George Hamilton, a settler and local politician, established a town site in the northern portion of Barton Township in 1815.He kept several east–west roads which were originally Indian trails, but the north–south streets were on a regular grid pattern.", "Streets were designated \"East\" or \"West\" if they crossed James Street or Highway 6.Streets were designated \"North\" or \"South\" if they crossed King Street or Highway 8.The townsite's design, likely conceived in 1816, was commonplace.", "George Hamilton employed a grid street pattern used in most towns in Upper Canada and throughout the American frontier.", "The eighty original lots had frontages of fifty feet; each lot faced a broad street and backed onto a twelve-foot lane.", "It took at least a decade to sell all the original lots, but the construction of the Burlington Canal in 1823, and a new court-house in 1827 encouraged Hamilton to add more blocks around 1828–9.At this time he included a market square in an effort to draw commercial activity onto his lands, but the town's natural growth occurred to the north of Hamilton's plot.The Hamilton Conservation Authority owns, leases or manages about of land with the city operating of parkland at 310 locations.", "Many of the parks are along the Niagara Escarpment, which runs from Tobermory at the tip of the Bruce Peninsula in the north, to Queenston at the Niagara River in the south, and provides views of the cities and towns at Lake Ontario's western end.", "The hiking path Bruce Trail runs the length of the escarpment.", "Hamilton is home to more than 100 waterfalls and cascades, most of which are on or near the Bruce Trail as it winds through the Niagara Escarpment.", "Visitors can often be seen swimming in the waterfalls during the summertime, although it is strongly recommended to stay away from the water: much of the watershed of the Chedoke and Red Hill creeks originates in storm sewers running beneath neighbourhoods atop the Niagara escarpment, and water quality in many of Hamilton's waterfalls is seriously degraded.", "High ''e.", "coli'' counts are regularly observed through testing by McMaster University near many of Hamilton's waterfalls, sometimes exceeding the provincial limits for recreational water use by as much as 400 times.", "The storm sewers in upstream neighbourhoods carry polluted runoff from streets and parking lots, as well as occasional raw sewage from sanitary lines that were improperly connected to the storm sewers instead of the separate sanitary sewer system.", "Notably, in March 2020, it was revealed that as much as 24 billion litres of untreated wastewater has been leaking into the Chedoke creek and Cootes' Paradise areas since at least 2014 due to insufficiencies in the city's sewerage and storm water management systems.===Climate===Hamilton Harbour during the winter.Hamilton's climate is humid-continental, characterized by changeable weather patterns.", "In the Köppen classification, Hamilton it is on the Dfb/Dfa border found in southern Ontario because the average temperature in July is .", "However, its climate is moderate compared with most of Canada.", "The airport's open, rural location and higher altitude results in lower temperatures, generally windier conditions, and higher snowfall amounts than lower, built-up areas of the city.", "The highest temperature ever recorded in Hamilton was 41.1 °C (106 °F) on July 14, 1868.The coldest temperature ever recorded was −30.6 °C (−23 °F) on January 25, 1884.In 2023, it was found that the city has areas of poor air quality with a high concentration of benzo(a)pyrene, particularly in neighbourhoods near industrial sites." ], [ "Economy", "View of Downtown Hamilton from atop the Niagara Escarpment.Manufacturing is important to Ontario's economy, and the Toronto–Hamilton region is Canada's most industrialized area.", "The area from Oshawa, Ontario around the west end of Lake Ontario to Niagara Falls, with Hamilton at its centre, is known as the Golden Horseshoe and had a population of approximately 8.1 million people in 2006.With sixty percent of Canada's steel produced in Hamilton by Stelco and Dofasco, the city has become known as the Steel Capital of Canada.", "After nearly declaring bankruptcy, Stelco returned to profitability in 2004.On August 26, 2007 United States Steel Corporation acquired Stelco for C$38.50 in cash per share, owning more than 76 percent of Stelco's outstanding shares.", "On September 17, 2014, US Steel Canada announced it was applying for bankruptcy protection and it would close its Hamilton operations.A stand-alone subsidiary of ArcelorMittal, the world's largest steel producer, Dofasco produces products for the automotive, construction, energy, manufacturing, pipe and tube, appliance, packaging, and steel distribution industries.", "It has approximately 7,300 employees at its Hamilton plant, and the four million tons of steel it produces each year is about 30% of Canada's flat-rolled sheet steel shipments.", "Dofasco was North America's most profitable steel producer in 1999, the most profitable in Canada in 2000, and a long-time member of the Dow Jones Sustainability World Index.", "Ordered by the U.S. Department of Justice to divest itself of the Canadian company, ArcelorMittal has been allowed to retain Dofasco provided it sells several of its American assets." ], [ "Demographics", "Cathedral Basilica of Christ the King is the seat for the Roman Catholic Diocese of Hamilton.", "Catholicism is the largest religious denomination in the city.In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Hamilton had a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of .", "With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.At the census metropolitan area (CMA) level in the 2021 census, the Hamilton CMA had a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of .", "With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.In the 2016 Canadian census, 24.69% of the city's population was not born in Canada.", "Hamilton is home to 26,330 immigrants who arrived in Canada between 2001 and 2010 and 13,150 immigrants who arrived between 2011 and 2016.In February 2014, the city's council voted to declare Hamilton a sanctuary city, offering municipal services to undocumented immigrants at risk of deportation.Children aged 14 years and under accounted for 16.23% of the city's population, a decline of 1.57% from the 2011 census.", "Hamiltonians aged 65 years and older constituted 17.3% of the population, an increase of 2.4% since 2011.The city's average age is 41.3 years.", "54.9% of Hamiltonians are married or in a common-law relationship, while 6.4% of city residents are divorced.", "Same-sex couples (married or in common-law relationships) constitute 0.8% (2,710 individuals) of the partnered population in Hamilton.Environics Analytics, a geodemographic marketing firm that created 66 different \"clusters\" of people complete with profiles of how they live, what they think and what they consume, sees a future Hamilton with younger upscale Hamiltonians — who are tech-savvy and university-educated — choosing to live in the downtown and surrounding areas rather than just visiting intermittently.", "More two and three-storey townhouses and apartments will be built on downtown lots; small condos will be built on vacant spaces in areas such as Dundas, Ainslie Wood and Westdale to accommodate newly retired seniors.", "Furthermore, additional retail and commercial zones will be created.=== Ethnicity ===Hamilton maintains significant Italian, English, Scottish, German and Irish ancestry.", "130,705 Hamiltonians claim English heritage, while 98,765 indicate their ancestors arrived from Scotland, 87,825 from Ireland, 62,335 from Italy, and 50,400 from Germany.", "The top countries of birth for the newcomers living in Hamilton in the 1990s were: former Yugoslavia, Poland, India, China, the Philippines, and Iraq.Hamilton also has a notable French community for which provincial services are offered in French.", "In Ontario, urban centres where there are at least 5,000 Francophones are designated areas where bilingual provincial services have to be offered.", "As per the 2016 census, the Francophone community maintains a population of 6,760, while 30,530 residents, or 5.8% of the city's population, have knowledge of both official languages.", "The Franco-Ontarian community of Hamilton boasts two school boards, the public ''Conseil scolaire Viamonde'' and the Catholic ''Conseil scolaire catholique MonAvenir'', which operate five schools (2 secondary and 3 elementary).", "Additionally, the city maintains a Francophone community health centre that is part of the LHIN (Centre de santé communautaire Hamilton/Niagara), a cultural centre (Centre français Hamilton), three daycare centres, a provincially funded employment centre (Options Emploi), a community college site (Collège Boréal) and a community organization that supports the development of the francophone community in Hamilton (ACFO Régionale Hamilton).+ Panethnic groups in the City of Hamilton (2001−2021)Panethnicgroup20212016201120062001 European 407,445 415,735 419,345 421,925 425,410 South Asian 34,790 22,105 17,240 14,765 11,000 African 28,415 20,245 16,110 13,900 10,455 Middle Eastern 22,855 15,130 11,335 8,840 5,765 Southeast Asian 20,175 14,655 13,045 10,035 8,880 East Asian 14,470 13,220 11,335 11,825 9,715 Indigenous 12,520 12,135 10,320 7,625 6,270 Latin American 11,145 8,425 7,335 5,585 4,250 Other/Multiracial 9,095 6,275 3,570 2,890 2,625 Total responses 560,915 527,930 509,635 497,395 484,385 Total population 569,353 536,917 519,949 504,559 490,268 ===Religion===According to the 2021 census, religious groups in Hamilton included:* Christianity (309,780 persons or 55.2%)* Irreligion (183,965 persons or 32.8%)* Islam (37,980 persons or 6.8%)* Hinduism (10,200 persons or 1.8%)* Sikhism (7,270 persons or 1.3%)* Buddhism (4,765 persons or 0.8%)* Judaism (3,045 persons or 0.5%)* Indigenous Spirituality (375 persons or 0.1%)* Other (3,535 persons or 0.6%)The most described religion in Hamilton is Christianity although other religions brought by immigrants are also growing.", "The 2011 census indicates that 67.6% of the population adheres to a Christian denomination, with Catholics being the largest at 34.3% of the city's population.", "The Christ the King Cathedral is the seat of the Diocese of Hamilton.", "Other denominations include the United Church (6.5%), Anglican (6.4%), Presbyterian (3.1%), Christian Orthodox (2.9%), and other denominations (9.8%).", "Other religions with significant populations include Islam (3.7%), Buddhist (0.9%), Sikh (0.8%), Hindu (0.8%), and Jewish (0.7%).", "Those with no religious affiliation accounted for 24.9% of the population." ], [ "Government", "Citizens of Hamilton are represented at all three levels of Canadian government: federal, provincial, and municipal.", "Hamilton is represented in the Parliament of Canada by five members of Parliament and in the Legislature of Ontario by five members of Provincial Parliament.+ Federal MPs for Hamilton, OntarioParty Name Electoral District First electedDan MuysFlamborough—Glanbrook 2021Matthew GreenHamilton Centre 2019Chad CollinsHamilton East—Stoney Creek 2021Lisa HepfnerHamilton Mountain 2021Filomena TassiHamilton West—Ancaster—Dundas 2015Ref:+ Provincial MPPs for Hamilton, OntarioParty Name Electoral District First electedDonna SkellyFlamborough—Glanbrook 2018Sarah JamaHamilton Centre 2023Neil LumsdenHamilton East—Stoney Creek 2022Monique TaylorHamilton Mountain 2011Sandy ShawHamilton West—Ancaster—Dundas 2018Ref:Hamilton City Hall is the seat of municipal government.Hamilton's municipal government has a mayor, elected citywide, and 15 city councillors—one per city ward—to serve on the Hamilton City Council.", "The province grants the Hamilton City Council authority to govern through the Municipal Act of Ontario.", "Hamilton's current mayor is Andrea Horwath, elected on October 24, 2022.Hamilton's next municipal election will be held in 2026.Hamilton is served by four school boards: the English language Hamilton-Wentworth District School Board and Hamilton-Wentworth Catholic District School Board and the French language Conseil scolaire Viamonde and Conseil scolaire catholique MonAvenir.", "Each school board is governed by trustees.", "The English language school boards are represented by trustees elected from wards in Hamilton.", "The HWDSB has 11 trustees and the HWCDB has 9 trustees.", "The French language school boards are represented by one trustee each from Hamilton and the surrounding area.John Weir Foote V.C.", "Armoury is a Canadian Forces facility that houses several regiments based in Hamilton.The Canadian Military maintains a presence in Hamilton, with the John Weir Foote Armoury in the downtown core on James Street North, housing the Royal Hamilton Light Infantry as well as the 11th Field Hamilton-Wentworth Battery and the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders of Canada.", "The Hamilton Reserve Barracks on Pier Nine houses the naval reserve division , 23 Service Battalion and the 23 Field Ambulance.===Crime===The Criminal Code of Canada is the chief piece of legislation defining criminal conduct and penalty.", "The Hamilton Police Service is chiefly responsible for the enforcement of federal and provincial law.", "Although the Hamilton Police Service has authority to enforce, bylaws passed by the Hamilton City Council are mainly enforced by Provincial Offences Officers employed by the City of Hamilton.In 2020, the city saw 18 murders and 51 shootings (up from 47 in 2019), the most shootings the city seen in at least a decade.", "2021 saw the homicides in the city increase to 20, giving the city a rate of around 3.5 per 100,000 residents.", "Hamilton ranked first in Canada for police-reported hate crimes in 2016, with 12.5 hate crimes per 100,000 population.", "Organized crime also has a notable presence in Hamilton with three centralized Mafia organizations: the Luppino crime family, the Papalia crime family, and the Musitano crime family.", "Street gangs such as the Original/Oriental Blood Brothers & the Oriole Crescent Crips, and biker crews such as Satan's Choice MC and the Hells Angels also have presence in Hamilton." ], [ "Culture", "neoclassical mansion.", "It is presently a major attraction and landmark for the city.Hamilton's local attractions include the Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum, the National Historic Site, Dundurn Castle (the residence of an Allan MacNab, the 8th Premier of Canada West), the Royal Botanical Gardens, the Canadian Football Hall of Fame, the African Lion Safari Park, the Cathedral of Christ the King, the Workers' Arts and Heritage Centre, and the Hamilton Museum of Steam & Technology., there are 40 pieces in the city's Public Art Collection.", "The works are owned and maintained by the city.", "Founded in 1914, the Art Gallery of Hamilton is Ontario's third largest public art gallery.", "The gallery has over 9,000 works in its permanent collection that focus on three areas: 19th-century European, Historical Canadian and Contemporary Canadian.", "The McMaster Museum of Art (MMA), founded at McMaster University in 1967, houses and exhibits the university's art collection of more than 7,000 objects.Supercrawl is a large community arts and music festival that takes place in September in the James Street North area of the city.", "In 2018, Supercrawl celebrated its 10th anniversary with over 220,000 visitors.", "In March 2015, Hamilton was host to the JUNO Awards.Growth in the arts and culture sector has garnered media attention for Hamilton.", "A 2006 article in ''The Globe and Mail'', entitled \"Go West, Young Artist\", focused on Hamilton's growing art scene.", "The Factory: Hamilton Media Arts Centre, opened a new home on James Street North in 2006.Art galleries have sprung up on streets across the city: James Street, King William Street, Locke Street and King Street.", "The opening of the Downtown Arts Centre on Rebecca Street has spurred creative activities in the core.", "The Community Centre for Media Arts (CCMA) continues to operate in downtown Hamilton.", "The CCMA works with marginalized populations and combines new media services with arts education and skills development programming.===Sports===Tim Hortons Field is a multi-purpose stadium in Hamilton.", "It is presently used as the home stadium for the CFL's Hamilton Tiger-Cats.Hamilton hosted Canada's first major international athletic event, the first Commonwealth Games (then called the British Empire Games) in 1930.Hamilton bid for the Commonwealth Games in 2010 but lost to New Delhi.", "On November 7, 2009, in Guadalajara, Mexico, it was announced Toronto would host the 2015 Pan Am Games after beating out two rival South American cities, Lima, Peru, and Bogotá, Colombia.", "The city of Hamilton co-hosted the Games with Toronto.", "Hamilton Mayor Fred Eisenberger said \"the Pan Am Games will provide a 'unique opportunity for Hamilton to renew major sport facilities giving Hamiltonians a multi-purpose stadium, a 50-metre swimming pool, and an international-calibre velodrome to enjoy for generations to come'.\"", "Hamilton's major sports complexes include Tim Hortons Field and FirstOntario Centre.Hamilton is represented by the Tiger-Cats in the Canadian Football League.", "The team traces its origins to the 1869 \"Hamilton Foot Ball Club\".", "Hamilton is also home to the Canadian Football Hall of Fame museum.", "The museum hosts an annual induction event in a week-long celebration that includes school visits, a golf tournament, a formal induction dinner and concludes with the Hall of Fame game involving the local CFL Hamilton Tiger-Cats at Tim Hortons Field.", "The 109th championship game of the Canadian Football League, the Grey Cup, is scheduled to be played in Hamilton in 2021.FirstOntario Centre is an indoor arena and home arena for the OHL's Hamilton Bulldogs.In 2019, Forge FC debuted as Hamilton's soccer team in the Canadian Premier League.", "The team plays at Tim Hortons Field and shares the venue with the Tiger-Cats.", "They finished their inaugural season as champions of the league.In 2019, the Hamilton Honey Badgers debuted as Hamilton's basketball team in the Canadian Elite Basketball League.", "The team played its home games at the FirstOntario Centre.", "In 2022, the Honey Badgers relocated to Brampton, Ontario due to the renovations occurring at FirstOntarioCentre.Since 1958, the Hamilton Cardinals have been Hamilton's baseball team in the Intercounty Baseball League.", "The team has played its home games at Bernie Arbour Memorial Stadium since 1971.The Around the Bay Road Race circumnavigates Hamilton Harbour.", "Although it is not a marathon distance, it is the longest continuously held long-distance foot race in North America.", "The local newspaper also hosts the amateur Spectator Indoor Games.In addition to team sports, Hamilton is home to an auto race track, Flamboro Speedway and Canada's fastest half-mile harness horse racing track, Flamboro Downs.", "Another auto race track, Cayuga International Speedway, is near Hamilton in the Haldimand County community of Nelles Corners, between Hagersville and Cayuga.+ Professional teams Club League Venue Established Championships Forge FC Canadian Premier League Tim Hortons Field 2017 4 Hamilton Cardinals Intercounty Baseball League Bernie Arbour Memorial Stadium 1958 1 Hamilton Tiger-Cats Canadian Football League Tim Hortons Field 1950 8Toronto RockNational Lacrosse LeagueFirstOntario Centre19986" ], [ "Education", "McMaster University is the only university whose main campus is in the city.Hamilton is home to several post-secondary institutions.", "* McMaster University moved to the city in 1930 and now has some 30,000 students, of which almost two-thirds come from outside the Hamilton region.", "* Brock University of St. Catharines, Ontario has a satellite campus used primarily for teacher education in Hamilton.", "* McMaster Divinity College, a Christian seminary affiliated with the Baptist Convention of Ontario and Quebec since 1957.It is located on the McMaster University campus and it is affiliated with the university.", "* Mohawk College of Applied Arts and Technology since 1967 with 10,000 full-time, 40,000 part-time, and 3,000 apprentice students.", "* Redeemer University, a private Christian liberal arts and science university opened in 1982.Four school boards administer public education for students from kindergarten through high school.", "The Hamilton-Wentworth District School Board manages 93 public schools, while the Hamilton-Wentworth Catholic District School Board operates 57 schools in the greater Hamilton area.", "The Conseil scolaire Viamonde operates one elementary and one secondary school (École secondaire Georges-P.-Vanier) in the area, and the Conseil scolaire catholique MonAvenir operates two elementary schools and one secondary school.Calvin Christian School, Providence Christian School and Timothy Christian School are independent Christian elementary schools.", "Hamilton District Christian High School, Rehoboth Christian High School and Guido de Bres Christian High School are independent Christian high schools in the area.", "Both HDCH and Guido de Brès participate in the city's interscholastic athletics.", "Hillfield Strathallan College is on the West Hamilton mountain and is a CAIS member, non-profit school for children from early Montessori ages through grade twelve and has around 1,300 students.", "Columbia International College is Canada's largest private boarding high school, with 1,700 students from 73 countries.The Dundas Valley School of Art is an independent art school founded in the city in 1964.In 1998, as a joint venture with McMaster University, a full-time diploma program was launched for students.", "The Hamilton Conservatory for the Arts is home to many of the area's young actors, dancers, musicians, singers and visual artists.", "The school is known for having a keyboard studio, dance studios, art and sculpting studios, gallery space and a 300-seat recital hall.Hamilton is home to two think tanks, the Centre for Cultural Renewal and Cardus, which deals with social architecture, culture, urbanology, economics and education and also publishes the ''LexView Policy Journal'' and ''Comment Magazine''." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Transportation===The primary highways serving Hamilton are Highway 403, the QEW, the Lincoln M. Alexander Parkway, and the Red Hill Valley Parkway.", "Other highways connecting Hamilton include Highway 5, Highway 6 and Highway 8.Public transportation is provided by the Hamilton Street Railway, which operates an extensive local bus system.", "Hamilton and Metrolinx will build a provincially-funded LRT line (Hamilton LRT) in the early 2020s.", "Intercity public transportation, including frequent service to Toronto, is provided by GO Transit.", "The Hamilton GO Centre, formerly the Toronto, Hamilton and Buffalo Railway station, is a commuter rail station on the Lakeshore West line of GO Transit.", "While Hamilton is not directly served by intercity rail, the Lakeshore West line does offer an off-peak bus connection and a peak-hours rail connection to Aldershot station in Burlington, which doubles as the VIA Rail station for both Burlington and Hamilton.In the 1940s, the John C. Munro Hamilton International Airport was a wartime air force training station.", "Today, managed by TradePort International Corporation, passenger traffic at the Hamilton terminal has grown from 90,000 in 1996 to approximately 900,000 in 2002 with mostly domestic and vacation destinations in the United States, Mexico and Central America.", "The airport's mid-term growth target for its passenger service is five million air travellers annually.", "The airport's air cargo sector has 24–7 operational capability and strategic geographic location, allowing its capacity to increase by 50% since 1996; 91,000 metric tonnes (100,000 tons) of cargo passed through the airport in 2002.Courier companies with operations at the airport include United Parcel Service and Cargojet Canada.", "In 2003, the city began developing a 30-year growth management strategy which called, in part, for a massive aerotropolis industrial park centred on Hamilton Airport.", "Advocates of the aerotropolis proposal, now known as the ''Airport Employment Growth District'', tout it as a solution to the city's shortage of employment lands.", "The closest other international airport to Hamilton is Toronto Pearson International Airport, located northeast of the city in Mississauga.A report by Hemson Consulting identified an opportunity to develop of greenfields (the size of the Royal Botanical Gardens) that could create an estimated 90,000 jobs by 2031.A proposed aerotropolis industrial park at Highway 6 and 403, has been debated at City Hall for years.", "Opponents feel the city needs to do more investigation about the cost to taxpayers.Hamilton also plays a major role in Ontario's marine shipping industry as the Port of Hamilton is Ontario's busiest port handling between 9 and 12 million tonnes of cargo annually.====Major highways====* * * 32x32px Red Hill Valley Parkway * 32x32px Lincoln M. Alexander Parkway* * * ===Health===Margaret & Charles Juravinski Centre for Integrated Healthcare at the West 5th Campus; 2016.The city is served by the Hamilton Health Sciences hospital network of five hospitals with more than 1,100 beds: Hamilton General Hospital, Juravinski Hospital, McMaster University Medical Centre (which includes McMaster Children's Hospital), St. Peter's Hospital and West Lincoln Memorial Hospital.", "Other buildings under Hamilton Health Sciences include Juravinski Cancer Centre, Regional Rehabilitation Centre, Ron Joyce Children's Health Centre, and the West End Clinic and Urgent Care Centre.", "Hamilton Health Sciences is the largest employer in the Hamilton area and serves as academic teaching hospital affiliated with McMaster University and Mohawk College.", "The only hospital in Hamilton not under Hamilton Health Sciences is St. Joseph's Healthcare Hamilton, which has 777 beds and three campuses.", "This healthcare group provides inpatient and outpatient services, and mental illness or addiction help." ], [ "Sister cities", "The City of Hamilton is twinned with ten sister cities:* Shawinigan, Quebec, Canada (1958)* Kaga, Ishikawa, Japan (1968)** Sister City agreement originally with Dundas, Ontario.", "** Converted to sister city agreement with the City of Hamilton following Dundas's amalgamation into Hamilton.", "* Mangalore, Karnataka, India (1968)* Fukuyama, Hiroshima, Japan (1975)* Racalmuto, Sicily, Italy (1987)* Ma'Anshan, Anhui, China (1987)* Flint, Michigan, United States (1987)* Sarasota, Florida, United States (1991)* Valle Peligna, Abruzzo, Italy (1991)* Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico (1993)" ], [ "See also", "* Hamilton City Council* Auchmar House* List of people from Hamilton" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hussites" ], [ "Introduction", "Catholic crusaders in the 15th centuryThe Lands of the Bohemian Crown during the Hussite Wars.", "The movement began in Prague and quickly spread south and then through the rest of the Kingdom of Bohemia.", "Eventually, it expanded into the remaining domains of the Bohemian Crown as well.The '''Hussites''' (Czech: ''Husité'' or ''Kališníci'' \"Chalice People\"; Latin: ''Hussitae'' or ''Calixtinism'') were a Czech proto-Protestant Christian movement that followed the teachings of reformer Jan Hus (fl.", "1401-1415), a part of the Bohemian Reformation.After the execution of Hus at the Council of Constance, a series of crusades, civil wars, victories and compromises between various factions with different theological agendas broke out.", "At the end of the Hussite Wars (1420–1434), the now Catholic-supported Utraquist side came out victorious from conflict with the Taborites and became the dominant Hussite group in Bohemia.Catholics and Utraquists were given legal equality in Bohemia after the religious peace of Kutná Hora in 1485.Bohemia and Moravia, or what is now the territory of the Czech Republic, remained majority Hussite for two centuries until Roman Catholicism was reimposed by the Holy Roman Emperor after the 1620 Battle of White Mountain during the Thirty Years' War.The Hussite tradition continues in the Moravian Church, Unity of the Brethren and the refounded Czechoslovak Hussite churches." ], [ "History", "The Hussite movement began in the Kingdom of Bohemia and quickly spread throughout the remaining Lands of the Bohemian Crown, including Moravia and Silesia.", "It also made inroads into the northern parts of the Kingdom of Hungary (now Slovakia), but was rejected and gained infamy for the plundering behaviour of the Hussite soldiers.", "There were also very small temporary communities in Poland-Lithuania and Transylvania which moved to Bohemia after being confronted with religious intolerance.", "It was a regional movement that failed to expand anywhere farther.", "Hussites emerged as a majority Utraquist movement with a significant Taborite faction, and smaller regional ones that included Adamites, Orebites and Orphans.Major Hussite theologians included Petr Chelčický, Jerome of Prague.", "A number of Czech national heroes were Hussite, including Jan Žižka, who led a fierce resistance to five consecutive crusades proclaimed on Hussite Bohemia by the Papacy.", "Hussites were one of the most important forerunners of the Protestant Reformation.", "This predominantly religious movement was propelled by social issues and strengthened Czech national awareness.=== Hus's death === Execution of Jan Hus (1415) that sparked outrage in the Kingdom of BohemiaThe Council of Constance lured Jan Hus in with a letter of indemnity, then tried him for heresy and put him to death at the stake on 6 July 1415.The arrest of Hus in 1414 caused considerable resentment in Czech lands.", "The authorities of both countries appealed urgently and repeatedly to King Sigismund to release Jan Hus.When news of his death at the Council of Constance arrived, disturbances broke out, directed primarily against the clergy and especially against the monks.", "Even the Archbishop narrowly escaped from the effects of this popular anger.", "The treatment of Hus was felt to be a disgrace inflicted upon the whole country and his death was seen as a criminal act.", "King Wenceslaus IV., prompted by his grudge against Sigismund, at first gave free vent to his indignation at the course of events in Constance.", "His wife openly favoured the friends of Hus.", "Avowed Hussites stood at the head of the government.A league was formed by certain lords, who pledged themselves to protect the free preaching of the Gospel upon all their possessions and estates and to obey the power of the Bishops only where their orders accorded with the injunctions of the Bible.", "The university would arbitrate any disputed points.", "The entire Hussite nobility joined the league.", "Other than verbal protest of the council's treatment of Hus, there was little evidence of any actions taken by the nobility until 1417.At that point several of the lesser nobility and some barons, signatories of the 1415 protest letter, removed Catholic priests from their parishes, replacing them with priests willing to give communion in both wine and bread.", "The chalice of wine became the central identifying symbol of the Hussite movement.", "If the king had joined, its resolutions would have received the sanction of the law; but he refused, and approached the newly formed Roman Catholic League of lords, whose members pledged themselves to support the king, the Catholic Church, and the council.", "The prospect of a civil war began to emerge.Prior to becoming pope, Martin V, then known as Cardinal Otto of Colonna had attacked Hus with relentless severity.", "He energetically resumed the battle against Hus's teaching after the enactments of the Council of Constance.", "He wished to eradicate completely the doctrine of Hus, for which purpose the co-operation of King Wenceslaus had to be obtained.", "In 1418, Sigismund succeeded in winning his brother over to the standpoint of the council by pointing out the inevitability of a religious war if the heretics in Bohemia found further protection.", "Hussite statesmen and army leaders had to leave the country and Roman Catholic priests were reinstated.", "These measures caused a general commotion which hastened the death of King Wenceslaus by a paralytic stroke in 1419.His heir was Sigismund.=== Hussite Wars (1419–1434) ===The Battle of Kratzau between Hussites and Catholic forces led by Hans von PolenzThe Hussite WagenburgRecreation of Hussite pavise from an original in the Museum of PragueThe news of the death of King Wenceslaus in 1419 produced a great commotion among the people of Prague.", "A revolution swept over the country: churches and monasteries were destroyed, and church property was seized by the Hussite nobility.", "It was then, and remained till much later, in question whether Bohemia was a hereditary or an elective monarchy, especially as the line through which Sigismund claimed the throne had accepted that the Kingdom of Bohemia was an elective monarchy elected by the nobles, and thus the regent of the kingdom (Čeněk of Wartenberg) also explicitly stated that Sigismund had not been elected as reason for Sigismund's claim to not be accepted.", "Sigismund could get possession of \"his\" kingdom only by force of arms.", "Pope Martin V called upon Catholics of the West to take up arms against the Hussites, declaring a crusade, and there followed twelve years of warfare.The Hussites initially campaigned defensively, but after 1427 they assumed the offensive.", "Apart from their religious aims, they fought for the national interests of the Czechs.", "The moderate and radical parties were united, and they not only repelled the attacks of the army of crusaders but crossed the borders into neighboring countries.", "On March 23, 1430, Joan of Arc dictated a letter that threatened to lead a crusading army against the Hussites unless they returned to the Catholic faith, but her capture by English and Burgundian troops two months later would keep her from carrying out this threat.=== Council of Basel and Compacta of Prague ===Eventually, the opponents of the Hussites found themselves forced to consider an amicable settlement.", "The Hussites were sent an invitation to attend the ecumenical Council of Basel on October 15, 1431.The discussions began on 10 January 1432, focusing chiefly on the four articles of Prague.", "No agreement emerged.", "After repeated negotiations between the Basel Council and Bohemia, a Bohemian–Moravian state assembly in Prague accepted the ''\"Compactata\"'' of Prague on 30 November 1433.The agreement granted communion in both kinds to all who desired it, but with the understanding that Christ was entirely present in each kind, though on the condition that the rest of the Hussite reforms would no longer be emphasised.", "Free preaching was granted conditionally: the Church hierarchy had to approve and place priests, and the power of the bishop must be considered.", "The article which prohibited the secular power of the clergy was almost reversed.The Taborites refused to conform.", "The Calixtines united with the Roman Catholics and destroyed the Taborites at the Battle of Lipany on 30 May 1434.From that time, the Taborites lost their importance, though the Hussite movement would continue in Poland for another five years, until the Royalist forces of Poland defeated the Polish Hussites at the Battle of Grotniki.", "The state assembly of Jihlava in 1436 confirmed the ''\"Compactata\"'' and gave them the sanction of law.", "This accomplished the reconciliation of Bohemia with Rome and the Western Church, and at last Sigismund obtained possession of the Bohemian crown.", "His reactionary measures caused a ferment in the whole country, but he died in 1437.The state assembly in Prague rejected Wyclif's doctrine of the Lord's Supper, which was obnoxious to the Utraquists, as heresy in 1444.Most of the Taborites now went over to the party of the Utraquists; the rest joined the \"Brothers of the Law of Christ\" () (see history of the Moravian Church).=== Hussite Bohemia, Luther and the Reformation (1434–1618) ===Painting celebrating the Catholic victory at the Battle of White Mountain (1620).", "In the coming years, Bohemia and Moravia were converted from Hussitism to Roman Catholicism by the Habsburgs.In 1462, Pope Pius II declared the ''\"Compacta\"'' null and void, prohibited communion in both kinds, and acknowledged King George of Podebrady as king on condition that he would promise an unconditional harmony with the Roman Church.", "This he refused, leading to the Bohemian–Hungarian War (1468–1478).", "His successor, King Vladislaus II, favored the Roman Catholics and proceeded against some zealous clergymen of the Calixtines.", "The troubles of the Utraquists increased from year to year.", "In 1485, at the Diet of Kutná Hora, an agreement was made between the Roman Catholics and Utraquists that lasted for thirty-one years.", "It was only later, at the Diet of 1512, that the equal rights of both religions were permanently established.", "The appearance of Martin Luther was hailed by the Utraquist clergy, and Luther himself was astonished to find so many points of agreement between the doctrines of Hus and his own.", "But not all Utraquists approved of the German Reformation; a schism arose among them, and many returned to the Roman doctrine, while other elements had organised the ''\"Unitas Fratrum\"'' already in 1457.=== Bohemian Revolt and harsh persecution under the Habsburgs (1618–1918) ===Under Emperor Maximilian II, the Bohemian state assembly established the ''\"Confessio Bohemica\"'', upon which Lutherans, Reformed, and Bohemian Brethren agreed.", "From that time forward Hussitism began to die out.", "After the Battle of White Mountain on 8 November 1620 the Roman Catholic Faith was re-established with vigour, which fundamentally changed the religious conditions of the Czech lands.Leaders and members of Unitas Fratrum were forced to choose to either leave the many and varied southeastern principalities of what was the Holy Roman Empire (mainly Austria, Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia and parts of Germany and its many states), or to practice their beliefs secretly.", "As a result, members were forced underground and dispersed across northwestern Europe.", "The largest remaining communities of the Brethren were located in Lissa (Leszno) in Poland, which had historically strong ties with the Czechs, and in small, isolated groups in Moravia.", "Some, among them Jan Amos Comenius, fled to western Europe, mainly the Low Countries.", "A settlement of Hussites in Herrnhut, Saxony, now Germany, in 1722 caused the emergence of the Moravian Church.=== Post-Habsburg era and modern times (1918–present) ===The modern Hussite flagIn 1918, as a result of World War I, the Czech lands regained independence from Austria-Hungary controlled by the Habsburg monarchy as Czechoslovakia (due to Masaryk and Czechoslovak legions with Hussite tradition, in the name of the troops).Today, the Hussite tradition is represented in the Moravian Church, Unity of the Brethren, and Czechoslovak Hussite Church." ], [ "Factions", "Hussitism organised itself during the years 1415–1419.Hussites were not a unitary movement, but a diverse one with multiple factions that held different views and opposed each other in the Hussite Wars.", "From the beginning, there formed two parties, with a smaller number of people withdrawing from both parties around the pacifist Petr Chelčický, whose teachings would form the foundation of the Unitas Fratrum.", "Hussites can be divided into:* Moderate Hussites** Prague Hussites** Bohemian Hussite nobility** Hussites of Žatec and Louny** Other Utraquists/Calixtines* Radical Hussites** Taborites** Orebites** Adamites** Orphans** Other Radical Hussites===Moderates ===The more conservative Hussites (the moderate party, or Ultraquists), who followed Hus more closely, sought to conduct reform while leaving the whole hierarchical and liturgical order of the Church untouched.Their programme is contained in the Four Articles of Prague, which were written by Jacob of Mies and agreed upon in July 1420, promulgated in the Latin, Czech, and German languages.", "The full text is about two pages long, but they are often summarized as:* Freedom to preach the word of God* Celebration of the communion under both kinds (bread and wine to priests and laity alike)* Poverty of the clergy and expropriation of church property;* Punishment for mortal sins regardless of stature.The views of the moderate Hussites were widely represented at the university and among the citizens of Prague; they were therefore called the Prague Party, but also Calixtines (Latin ''calix'' chalice) or Utraquists (Latin ''utraque'' both), because they emphasized the second article of Prague, and the chalice became their emblem.===Radicals===The more radical parties, the Taborites, Orebites and Orphans, identified itself more boldly with the doctrines of John Wycliffe, sharing his passionate hatred of the monastic clergy, and his desire to return the Church to its supposed condition during the time of the apostles.", "This required the removal of the existing hierarchy and the secularisation of ecclesiastical possessions.", "Above all they clung to Wycliffe's doctrine of the Lord's Supper, denying transubstantiation, and this is the principal point by which they are distinguished from the moderate party, the Ultraquists.The radicals preached the ''\"sufficientia legis Christi\"''—the divine law (i.e.", "the Bible) is the sole rule and canon for human society, not only in the church, but also in political and civil matters.", "They rejected therefore, as early as 1416, everything that they believed had no basis in the Bible, such as the veneration of saints and images, fasts, superfluous holidays, the oath, intercession for the dead, auricular Confession, indulgences, the sacraments of Confirmation and the Anointing of the Sick, and chose their own priests.The radicals had their gathering-places all around the country.", "Their first armed assault fell on the small town of Ústí, on the river Lužnice, south of Prague (today's Sezimovo Ústí).", "However, as the place did not prove to be defensible, they settled in the remains of an older town upon a hill not far away and founded a new town, which they named Tábor (a play on words, as \"Tábor\" not only meant \"camp\" or \"encampment\" in Czech, but is also the traditional name of the mountain on which Jesus was expected to return; see Mark 13); hence they were called Táborité (Taborites).", "They comprised the essential force of the radical Hussites.Their aim was to destroy the enemies of the law of God, and to defend his kingdom (which had been expected to come in a short time) by the sword.", "Their end-of-world visions did not come true.", "In order to preserve their settlement and spread their ideology, they waged bloody wars; in the beginning they observed a strict regime, inflicting the severest punishment equally for murder, as for less severe faults as adultery, perjury and usury, and also tried to apply rigid Biblical standards to the social order of the time.", "The Taborites usually had the support of the Orebites (later called Orphans), an eastern Bohemian sect of Hussitism based in Hradec Králové." ], [ "See also", "* Arnoldists* Hussite Bible* Lollards* Pavel Kravař* Restorationism* Jistebnice hymn book* Waldensians* War wagon" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Michael Van Dussen and Pavel Soukup (eds.).", "2020.''", "A Companion to the Hussites''.", "Brill.", "* Kaminsky, H. (1967) ''A History of the Hussite Revolution'' University of California Press: Los Angeles.", "* Fudge, Thomas A.", "(1998) ''The Magnificent Ride: The First Reformation in Hussite Bohemia'', Ashgate.", "* Fudge, Thomas A.", "(2002) ''The Crusade against Heretics in Bohemia'', Ashgate.", "* Ondřej, Brodu, \"Traktát mistra Ondřeje z Brodu o původu husitů\" (), Muzem husitského revolučního hnutí, Tábor, 1980, in with introduction in * Mathies, Christiane, \"Kurfürstenbund und Königtum in der Zeit der Hussitenkriege: die kurfürstliche Reichspolitik gegen Sigmund im Kraftzentrum Mittelrhein,\" Selbstverlag der Gesellschaft für Mittelrheinische Kirchengeschichte, Mainz, 1978, in * Bezold, Friedrich von, \"König Sigmund und die Reichskriege gegen die Husiten,\" G. Olms, Hildesheim, 1978, in * Denis, Ernest, \"Huss et la Guerre des Hussites,\" AMS Press, New York, 1978, in * Klassen, John (1998) \"Hus, the Hussites, and Bohemia\" in ''New Cambridge Medieval History'' Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.", "* Macek, Josef, \"Jean Huss et les Traditions Hussites: XVe–XIXe siècles,\" Plon, Paris, 1973, in" ], [ "External links", "* Hussite Museum, Tabor" ] ]
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[ [ "HMS Ark Royal" ], [ "Introduction", "Five ships of the Royal Navy have borne the name '''HMS ''Ark Royal''''':* , the flagship of the English fleet during the Spanish Armada campaign of 1588* , planned as freighter, built as seaplane carrier during the First World War, renamed ''Pegasus'' in 1934* , British aircraft carrier launched in 1937 that participated in the Second World War and was sunk by a U-boat in 1941* , an launched in 1950, decommissioned in 1979* , an , launched in 1981, decommissioned in 2011" ], [ "Battle honours", "* Armada 1588* Cádiz 1596* Dardanelles 1915* Norway 1940* Spartivento 1940* Mediterranean 1940–1941* ''Bismarck'' 1941* Malta Convoys 1941* Al Faw 2003" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Herman of Alaska" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Herman of Alaska''' (; 1756 – November 15, 1837) was a Russian Orthodox monk and missionary to Alaska, which was then part of Russian America.", "His gentle approach and ascetic life earned him the love and respect of both the native Alaskans and the Russian colonists.", "He is considered by many Orthodox Christians to be the patron saint of North America." ], [ "Early life", "Biographers disagree about Herman's early life.", "His official biography, which Valaam Monastery published in 1867, said that his pre-monastic name was unknown, but that Herman was born into a merchant's family in Serpukhov, a city in Moscow Governorate.", "He was said to later become a novice at the Trinity-St. Sergius Hermitage near St. Petersburg before going to Valaam to complete his training and receive full tonsure as a monk.", "But, modern biographer Sergei Korsun found this account to be based on erroneous information provided by Semyon Yanovsky, an administrator from 1818 through part of 1820 of the Russian-American Company (RAC) in Alaska.", "He confused Herman's biographical information with that of another monk, Joseph (Telepnev).Another former RAC Chief Manager, Ferdinand von Wrangel, stated Herman was originally from a prosperous peasant family in the Voronezh Governorate and served in the military.", "He then entered monastic life as a novice at Sarov Monastery.", "This concurred with testimony of Archimandrite Theophan (Sokolov), and a letter written by Herman himself.", "These agree that Herman began his monastic life as a novice at Sarov, and later received the full tonsure at Valaam.", "A young military clerk named '''Egor Ivanovich Popov''', from the Voronezh Governorate, was tonsured with the name 'Herman' at Valaam in 1782.All biographers agree that at Valaam, Herman studied under Abbot Nazarius, previously of Sarov Monastery.", "The abbot had been influenced by the hesychastic tradition of Paisius Velichkovsky.", "Herman undertook various obediences and was well-liked by the brethren, but wanted a more solitary life.", "He became a hermit with Abbot Nazarius' blessing.", "His hermitage, which later became known as \"Herman's field\" or Germanovo, was two kilometers from the monastery.", "Metropolitan Gabriel of St. Petersburg offered to ordain Herman to the priesthood and twice offered to send him to lead the Russian Orthodox Mission in China, but he refused, preferring the solitary life and remaining a simple monk.", "Years after he left for North America, Herman continued to keep in touch with his spiritual home.", "In a letter to Abbot Nazarius, he wrote, \"in my mind I imagine my beloved Valaam, and constantly behold it across the great ocean.\"" ], [ "Mission in Alaska", "Grigory Shelikhov, the founder of the Kodiak Island settlement, invited the first Russian Orthodox missionaries to the New World.The Russian colonization of the Americas began when Vitus Bering and Aleksei Chirikov discovered Alaska on behalf of the Russian Empire in 1741.The expedition harvested 1,500 sea otter pelts, which Chinese merchants bought for 1,000 rubles each at their trading post near Lake Baikal.", "This spurred a \"fur rush\" from 1741 to 1798 in which frontiersmen known as ''promyshlenniki'' explored Alaska and the Aleutian Islands.", "They alternately fought with and intermarried the native peoples.", "Grigory Shelikhov, a fur-trader, subjugated the native population of Kodiak Island.", "With Ivan Golikov, he founded a fur-trading company that eventually received a monopoly from the Imperial government; it became known as the Russian-American Company.", "Shelikhov founded a school for the natives, and many were converted to Russian Orthodox Christianity.The Shelikhov-Golikov Company appealed to the Most Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church to provide a priest for the natives.", "Catherine the Great decided instead to send an entire mission to America.", "She entrusted the task of recruiting missionaries to Metropolitan Gabriel of St. Petersburg, who sent ten monks from Valaam, including Herman.", "The missionaries arrived on Kodiak on September 24, 1794.Herman and the other missionaries encountered a harsh reality at Kodiak that did not correspond to Shelikhov's rosy descriptions.", "The native Kodiak population, called \"Americans\" by the Russian settlers, were subject to harsh treatment by the Russian-American Company, which was being overseen by Shelikhov's manager Alexander Baranov.", "He later became the first governor of the colony.", "The men were forced to hunt for sea otter even during harsh weather, and women and children were abused.", "The monks were also shocked at the widespread alcoholism in the Russian population, and the fact that most of the settlers had taken native mistresses.", "The monks themselves were not given the supplies that Shelikhov promised them, and had to till the ground with wooden implements.", "Despite these difficulties, the monks baptized more than 7,000 natives in the Kodiak region, and set about building a church and monastery.", "Herman was assigned in the bakery and acted as the mission's steward (''ekonom'').The monks became the defenders of the native Kodiak population.", "Herman was especially noted for his zeal in protecting them from the excessive demands of the RAC, and Baranov disparaged him in a letter as a \"hack writer and chatterer.\"", "A contemporary historian compares him to Bartolomé de las Casas, the Roman Catholic friar who defended the rights of native South Americans against the Spanish colonists.After over a decade spent in Alaska, Herman became the head of the mission in 1807, although he was not ordained to the priesthood.", "The local population loved and respected him, and he had established good relations with Baranov.", "Herman ran the mission school, where he taught church subjects such as singing and catechism, alongside reading and writing.", "He also taught agriculture on Spruce Island.", "But, because he still longed for the life of a hermit, he retired from active duty in the mission and moved to Spruce Island." ], [ "Life on Spruce Island", "Herman moved to Spruce Island around 1811 to 1817.The island is separated from Kodiak by a mile-wide strait, making it ideal for eremitic life.", "Herman named his hermitage \"New Valaam.\"", "He wore simple clothes and slept on a bench covered with a deerskin.", "When asked how he could bear to be alone in the forest, he replied, \"I am not alone.", "God is here, as God is everywhere.", "\"Despite his solitary life, he soon gained a following.", "He received many visitors—especially native Aleuts —on Sundays and church feasts.", "Soon a chapel and guesthouse were built next to his hermitage, and then a school for orphans.", "Herman had a few disciples, including the Creole orphan Gerasim Ivanovich Zyrianov, a young Aleut woman named Sofia Vlasova, and others.", "Entire families moved to the island in order to be closer to the Elder, who helped to sort out their disputes.", "Herman had a deep love for the native Aleuts: he stood up for them against the excesses of the Russian-American Company, and once during an epidemic, he was the only Russian to visit them, working tirelessly to care for the sick and console the dying.", "Herman spent the rest of his life on Spruce Island, where he died on November 15, 1837." ], [ "Sainthood", "Sergius and Herman of Valaam Chapel, built in 1898 over the site where Herman was buried on Spruce Island in December 1836.Located near Monk's Lagoon, in the immediate vicinity of St. Herman's hermitage.On March 11, 1969, the bishops of the Orthodox Church in America (OCA) formally declared their intention to canonize Herman, \"as a sublime example of the Holy Life, for our spiritual benefit, inspiration, comfort, and the confirmation of our Faith.\"", "On August 9, 1970, Metropolitan Ireney (Bekish) of the OCA along with Archbishop Paul (Olmari) of Finland and other hierarchs and clergy presided over the canonization service, which was held at Holy Resurrection Cathedral on Kodiak Island.", "His relics were transferred from his grave underneath the Sts.", "Sergius and Herman of Valaam Chapel (i.e., the Saints Sergius and Herman of Valaam Chapel), on Spruce Island, to the Holy Resurrection Cathedral.On the same date, the bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia (ROCOR) also canonized Herman at the Holy Virgin Cathedral (\"Joy of All Who Sorrow\") in San Francisco.", "At the all-night vigil, the canon to Herman was read for the first time by Gleb Podmoshensky, one of the founding brothers of the St. Herman of Alaska Serbian Orthodox Brotherhood in 1963.He, Eugene (Seraphim) Rose, and Lawrence Campbell gathered material for the Synod of Bishops in order to support the glorification of Herman, and also helped compose the liturgical service in his honor.There are several feast days throughout the year on which Saint Herman of Alaska is commemorated.", "Since there are two different calendars currently in use among various Orthodox churches, two dates are listed: the first date is the date on the traditional Julian Calendar, the second date, after the slash, is the same day on the modern Gregorian Calendar:*'''July 27/August 9—Glorification:''' This is the anniversary of the joint-glorification (canonization) of Herman of Alaska as a saint in 1970.", "*'''November 15/28—Repose:''' This is the anniversary of the actual death of Herman.", "*'''December 13/26—Repose:''' Due to an error in record keeping, this was originally thought to be the day of Herman's death, and because of the long-established tradition of celebrating his memory on this day, it has remained a feast day.", "It is more likely that this is the day he was buried.", "For those Orthodox Christians who follow the Julian Calendar, this day falls on December 25 of the Gregorian Calendar.", "*'''Second Sunday after Pentecost:''', as one of the saints commemorated on the Synaxis of the Saints of North America—this is a moveable feast of the ecclesiastical year, and the date of its observance will change from year to year.The major portion of his relics are preserved at Holy Resurrection Cathedral in Kodiak, Alaska, His burial site at the Sts.", "Sergius and Herman Chapel, Spruce Island, Alaska is an important pilgrimage site.", "The devout will often take soil from his grave and water from the spring named in his honour.", "A portion of his relics are enshrined at the St. Ignatius Chapel at the Antiochan Village in Pennsylvania, a conference and retreat center of the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America.", "He is regarded as one of their patron saints.In 1963, with the blessing of John Maximovitch, Archbishop of Shanghai and San Francisco, a community of Orthodox booksellers and publishers called the St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood was formed to publish Orthodox missionary information in English.", "One of the founders was Father Seraphim Rose.", "The Brotherhood did much to advance the cause of Herman's glorification as a saint.", "Saint Herman's Orthodox Theological Seminary in Kodiak, Alaska is named in his honor, as are numerous parish churches throughout the world.On Tuesday, August 4, 1970, the 91st Congress of the United States acknowledged the glorification of Herman of Alaska with a speech in the Senate, and his biography was formally entered into the Congressional Record.In 1993, Patriarch Alexis II visited Kodiak to venerate the relics of Saint Herman.", "He left as a gift an ornate ''lampada'' (oil lamp) which burns constantly over the reliquary.", "Pilgrims from all over the world are anointed with holy oil from this ''lampada''.In 2022, Herman was officially added to the Episcopal Church liturgical calendar with a feast day on 15 November.Finnish Orthodox Espoo Church in Tapiola, Espoo, is dedicated to St. Herman of Alaska." ], [ "See also", "* List of American Eastern Orthodox saints* Peter the Aleut" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*********" ], [ "External links", "** – A documentary about St. Herman* The Life of Our Holy Father Saint Herman of Alaska* Life of Monk Herman of Valaam, American Missionary" ] ]
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[ [ "Hausdorff dimension" ], [ "Introduction", "Example of non-integer dimensions.", "The first four iterations of the Koch curve, where after each iteration, all original line segments are replaced with four, each a self-similar copy that is 1/3 the length of the original.", "One formalism of the Hausdorff dimension uses the scale factor (S = 3) and the number of self-similar objects (N = 4) to calculate the dimension, D, after the first iteration to be D = (log N)/(log S) = (log 4)/(log 3) ≈ 1.26.In mathematics, '''Hausdorff dimension''' is a measure of ''roughness'', or more specifically, fractal dimension, that was introduced in 1918 by mathematician Felix Hausdorff.", "For instance, the Hausdorff dimension of a single point is zero, of a line segment is 1, of a square is 2, and of a cube is 3.That is, for sets of points that define a smooth shape or a shape that has a small number of corners—the shapes of traditional geometry and science—the Hausdorff dimension is an integer agreeing with the usual sense of dimension, also known as the topological dimension.", "However, formulas have also been developed that allow calculation of the dimension of other less simple objects, where, solely on the basis of their properties of scaling and self-similarity, one is led to the conclusion that particular objects—including fractals—have non-integer Hausdorff dimensions.", "Because of the significant technical advances made by Abram Samoilovitch Besicovitch allowing computation of dimensions for highly irregular or \"rough\" sets, this dimension is also commonly referred to as the ''Hausdorff–Besicovitch dimension.", "''More specifically, the Hausdorff dimension is a dimensional number associated with a metric space, i.e.", "a set where the distances between all members are defined.", "The dimension is drawn from the extended real numbers, , as opposed to the more intuitive notion of dimension, which is not associated to general metric spaces, and only takes values in the non-negative integers.In mathematical terms, the Hausdorff dimension generalizes the notion of the dimension of a real vector space.", "That is, the Hausdorff dimension of an ''n''-dimensional inner product space equals ''n''.", "This underlies the earlier statement that the Hausdorff dimension of a point is zero, of a line is one, etc., and that irregular sets can have noninteger Hausdorff dimensions.", "For instance, the Koch snowflake shown at right is constructed from an equilateral triangle; in each iteration, its component line segments are divided into 3 segments of unit length, the newly created middle segment is used as the base of a new equilateral triangle that points outward, and this base segment is then deleted to leave a final object from the iteration of unit length of 4.That is, after the first iteration, each original line segment has been replaced with N=4, where each self-similar copy is 1/S = 1/3 as long as the original.", "Stated another way, we have taken an object with Euclidean dimension, D, and reduced its linear scale by 1/3 in each direction, so that its length increases to N=SD.", "This equation is easily solved for D, yielding the ratio of logarithms (or natural logarithms) appearing in the figures, and giving—in the Koch and other fractal cases—non-integer dimensions for these objects.The Hausdorff dimension is a successor to the simpler, but usually equivalent, box-counting or Minkowski–Bouligand dimension." ], [ "Intuition", "The intuitive concept of dimension of a geometric object ''X'' is the number of independent parameters one needs to pick out a unique point inside.", "However, any point specified by two parameters can be instead specified by one, because the cardinality of the real plane is equal to the cardinality of the real line (this can be seen by an argument involving interweaving the digits of two numbers to yield a single number encoding the same information).", "The example of a space-filling curve shows that one can even map the real line to the real plane surjectively (taking one real number into a pair of real numbers in a way so that all pairs of numbers are covered) and ''continuously'', so that a one-dimensional object completely fills up a higher-dimensional object.Every space-filling curve hits some points multiple times and does not have a continuous inverse.", "It is impossible to map two dimensions onto one in a way that is continuous and continuously invertible.", "The topological dimension, also called Lebesgue covering dimension, explains why.", "This dimension is the greatest integer ''n'' such that in every covering of ''X'' by small open balls there is at least one point where ''n'' + 1 balls overlap.", "For example, when one covers a line with short open intervals, some points must be covered twice, giving dimension ''n'' = 1.But topological dimension is a very crude measure of the local size of a space (size near a point).", "A curve that is almost space-filling can still have topological dimension one, even if it fills up most of the area of a region.", "A fractal has an integer topological dimension, but in terms of the amount of space it takes up, it behaves like a higher-dimensional space.The Hausdorff dimension measures the local size of a space taking into account the distance between points, the metric.", "Consider the number ''N''(''r'') of balls of radius at most ''r'' required to cover ''X'' completely.", "When ''r'' is very small, ''N''(''r'') grows polynomially with 1/''r''.", "For a sufficiently well-behaved ''X'', the Hausdorff dimension is the unique number ''d'' such that N(''r'') grows as 1/''rd'' as ''r'' approaches zero.", "More precisely, this defines the box-counting dimension, which equals the Hausdorff dimension when the value ''d'' is a critical boundary between growth rates that are insufficient to cover the space, and growth rates that are overabundant.For shapes that are smooth, or shapes with a small number of corners, the shapes of traditional geometry and science, the Hausdorff dimension is an integer agreeing with the topological dimension.", "But Benoit Mandelbrot observed that fractals, sets with noninteger Hausdorff dimensions, are found everywhere in nature.", "He observed that the proper idealization of most rough shapes you see around you is not in terms of smooth idealized shapes, but in terms of fractal idealized shapes:Clouds are not spheres, mountains are not cones, coastlines are not circles, and bark is not smooth, nor does lightning travel in a straight line.For fractals that occur in nature, the Hausdorff and box-counting dimension coincide.", "The packing dimension is yet another similar notion which gives the same value for many shapes, but there are well-documented exceptions where all these dimensions differ." ], [ "Formal definition", "The formal definition of the Hausdorff dimension is arrived at by defining first the d-dimensional Hausdorff measure, a fractional-dimension analogue of the Lebesgue measure.", "First, an outer measure is constructed:Let be a metric space.", "If and ,:where the infimum is taken over all countable covers of .", "The Hausdorff d-dimensional outer measure is then defined as , and the restriction of the mapping to measurable sets justifies it as a measure, called the -dimensional Hausdorff Measure.===Hausdorff dimension===The '''Hausdorff dimension''' of is defined by:This is the same as the supremum of the set of such that the -dimensional Hausdorff measure of is infinite (except that when this latter set of numbers is empty the Hausdorff dimension is zero).===Hausdorff content===The -dimensional '''unlimited Hausdorff content''' of is defined by:In other words, has the construction of the Hausdorff measure where the covering sets are allowed to have arbitrarily large sizes (Here, we use the standard convention that ).", "The Hausdorff measure and the Hausdorff content can both be used to determine the dimension of a set, but if the measure of the set is non-zero, their actual values may disagree." ], [ "Examples", "Dimension of a further fractal example.", "The Sierpinski triangle, an object with Hausdorff dimension of log(3)/log(2)≈1.58.", "* Countable sets have Hausdorff dimension 0.", "* The Euclidean space has Hausdorff dimension , and the circle has Hausdorff dimension 1.", "* Fractals often are spaces whose Hausdorff dimension strictly exceeds the topological dimension.", "For example, the Cantor set, a zero-dimensional topological space, is a union of two copies of itself, each copy shrunk by a factor 1/3; hence, it can be shown that its Hausdorff dimension is ln(2)/ln(3) ≈ 0.63.The Sierpinski triangle is a union of three copies of itself, each copy shrunk by a factor of 1/2; this yields a Hausdorff dimension of ln(3)/ln(2) ≈ 1.58.These Hausdorff dimensions are related to the \"critical exponent\" of the Master theorem for solving recurrence relations in the analysis of algorithms.", "* Space-filling curves like the Peano curve have the same Hausdorff dimension as the space they fill.", "* The trajectory of Brownian motion in dimension 2 and above is conjectured to be Hausdorff dimension 2.coast of Great Britain* Lewis Fry Richardson has performed detailed experiments to measure the approximate Hausdorff dimension for various coastlines.", "His results have varied from 1.02 for the coastline of South Africa to 1.25 for the west coast of Great Britain." ], [ "Properties of Hausdorff dimension", "=== Hausdorff dimension and inductive dimension ===Let ''X'' be an arbitrary separable metric space.", "There is a topological notion of inductive dimension for ''X'' which is defined recursively.", "It is always an integer (or +∞) and is denoted dimind(''X'').'''Theorem'''.", "Suppose ''X'' is non-empty.", "Then :Moreover,:where ''Y'' ranges over metric spaces homeomorphic to ''X''.", "In other words, ''X'' and ''Y'' have the same underlying set of points and the metric ''d''''Y'' of ''Y'' is topologically equivalent to ''d''''X''.These results were originally established by Edward Szpilrajn (1907–1976), e.g., see Hurewicz and Wallman, Chapter VII.=== Hausdorff dimension and Minkowski dimension ===The Minkowski dimension is similar to, and at least as large as, the Hausdorff dimension, and they are equal in many situations.", "However, the set of rational points in 0, 1 has Hausdorff dimension zero and Minkowski dimension one.", "There are also compact sets for which the Minkowski dimension is strictly larger than the Hausdorff dimension.=== Hausdorff dimensions and Frostman measures ===If there is a measure μ defined on Borel subsets of a metric space ''X'' such that ''μ''(''X'') > 0 and ''μ''(''B''(''x'', ''r'')) ≤ ''rs'' holds for some constant ''s'' > 0 and for every ball ''B''(''x'', ''r'') in ''X'', then dimHaus(''X'') ≥ ''s''.", "A partial converse is provided by Frostman's lemma.=== Behaviour under unions and products ===If is a finite or countable union, then:This can be verified directly from the definition.If ''X'' and ''Y'' are non-empty metric spaces, then the Hausdorff dimension of their product satisfies:This inequality can be strict.", "It is possible to find two sets of dimension 0 whose product has dimension 1.In the opposite direction, it is known that when ''X'' and ''Y'' are Borel subsets of '''R'''''n'', the Hausdorff dimension of ''X'' × ''Y'' is bounded from above by the Hausdorff dimension of ''X'' plus the upper packing dimension of ''Y''.", "These facts are discussed in Mattila (1995)." ], [ "Self-similar sets", "Many sets defined by a self-similarity condition have dimensions which can be determined explicitly.", "Roughly, a set ''E'' is self-similar if it is the fixed point of a set-valued transformation ψ, that is ψ(''E'') = ''E'', although the exact definition is given below.'''Theorem'''.", "Suppose:are each a contraction mapping on '''R'''''n'' with contraction constant ''ri'' The theorem follows from Stefan Banach's contractive mapping fixed point theorem applied to the complete metric space of non-empty compact subsets of '''R'''''n'' with the Hausdorff distance.===The open set condition===To determine the dimension of the self-similar set ''A'' (in certain cases), we need a technical condition called the ''open set condition'' (OSC) on the sequence of contractions ψ''i''.There is an open set ''V'' with compact closure, such that:where the sets in union on the left are pairwise disjoint.The open set condition is a separation condition that ensures the images ψ''i''(''V'') do not overlap \"too much\".'''Theorem'''.", "Suppose the open set condition holds and each ψ''i'' is a similitude, that is a composition of an isometry and a dilation around some point.", "Then the unique fixed point of ψ is a set whose Hausdorff dimension is ''s'' where ''s'' is the unique solution of:The contraction coefficient of a similitude is the magnitude of the dilation.In general, a set ''E'' which is carried onto itself by a mapping: is self-similar if and only if the intersections satisfy the following condition::where ''s'' is the Hausdorff dimension of ''E'' and ''Hs'' denotes s-dimensional Hausdorff measure.", "This is clear in the case of the Sierpinski gasket (the intersections are just points), but is also true more generally:'''Theorem'''.", "Under the same conditions as the previous theorem, the unique fixed point of ψ is self-similar." ], [ "See also", "* List of fractals by Hausdorff dimension Examples of deterministic fractals, random and natural fractals.", "* Assouad dimension, another variation of fractal dimension that, like Hausdorff dimension, is defined using coverings by balls* Intrinsic dimension* Packing dimension* Fractal dimension" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * Several selections from this volume are reprinted in See chapters 9,10,11* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Hausdorff dimension at Encyclopedia of Mathematics* Hausdorff measure at Encyclopedia of Mathematics" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Heckler & Koch" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Heckler & Koch GmbH''' ('''HK'''; ) is a German armaments manufacturing company that manufactures handguns, rifles, submachine guns, and grenade launchers.", "The company is located in Oberndorf am Neckar in the German state of Baden-Württemberg, and also has subsidiaries in the United Kingdom, France and the United States.The Heckler & Koch Group comprises Heckler & Koch GmbH, Heckler & Koch Defense, NSAF Ltd., and Heckler & Koch France SAS.", "The company's motto is \"''Keine Kompromisse!''\"", "(No Compromises!).", "HK has provided firearms for many military and paramilitary units, including the SAS, KMar, the US Navy SEALs, Delta Force, HRT, Canada's Joint Task Force 2, the German KSK and GSG 9, and many other counter-terrorist and hostage rescue teams.Their products include the MP5, UMP submachine guns, the G3, HK417 battle rifles, the HK33, G36, HK416 assault rifles, the MG5, HK21 General-purpose machine guns, the MP7 personal defense weapon, the USP series of handguns, and the PSG1 sniper rifle.", "All HK firearms are named by a prefix and the official designation, with suffixes used for variants.HK has a history of innovation in firearms, such as the use of polymers in weapon designs and the use of an integral rail for flashlights on handguns.", "HK also developed modern polygonal rifling, noted for its high accuracy, increased muzzle velocity and barrel life.", "Not all its technologically ambitious designs have become commercially successful products (for instance, the prototype G11 military rifle, which fired caseless high-velocity ammunition).", "In its extensive product range, HK has used the following operating systems for small arms: blowback operation, short-recoil, roller-delayed blowback, gas-delayed blowback, and gas operation (via short-stroke piston)." ], [ "History", "With the fall of Germany at the end of World War II, Oberndorf came under French control, and the entire Waffenfabrik Mauser AG factory was dismantled by French occupying forces.", "All factory records were destroyed on orders of the local French Army commander.", "In 1948, three former Mauser engineers, Edmund Heckler, Theodor Koch, and Alex Seidel, saved what they could from the factory and used what they salvaged to start a machine tool plant in the vacant factory that became known as the Engineering Office Heckler & Co.On December 28, 1949, the Engineering Office Heckler & Co. changed its name and was registered officially as Heckler & Koch GmbH.", "Initially the new company manufactured machine tools, bicycle and sewing machine parts, gauges and other precision parts.In 1956, Heckler & Koch responded to the West German government's tender for a new infantry rifle for the (German Federal Army) with the proposal of the G3 battle rifle, which was based on the Spanish CETME rifle.", "The German government awarded Heckler & Koch the tender and by 1959 declared the G3 the standard rifle of the .", "Later on in 1961, Heckler & Koch developed the 7.62×51mm HK21 general-purpose machine gun, based on the G3 battle rifle.In 1966, Heckler & Koch introduced the HK54 machine pistol, which eventually launched in 1969 as the MP5 submachine gun.", "Two years later, the company introduced the 5.56×45mm HK33 assault rifle, a smaller version of the G3 battle rifle chambered in 5.56mm NATO.===Diversification===In 1974, Heckler & Koch diversified into two more areas, HK Defense and Law Enforcement Technology and HK Hunting and Sports Firearms.", "Since then HK has designed and manufactured more than 100 different types of firearms and devices for the world's military and law enforcement organizations as well as sports shooters and hunters.In 1990, Heckler & Koch completed two decades of development of their revolutionary caseless weapon system and produced prototypes of the Heckler & Koch G11.The company also produced prototypes of the Heckler & Koch G41 intended for the .", "Due to the international political climate at the time (East and West Germany uniting and defense budget cuts) the company was unable to secure funded contracts from the German government to support production of either weapon system and became financially vulnerable.", "The next year, Heckler & Koch was sold to British Aerospace's Royal Ordnance division.During 1994 and 1995, the German government awarded Heckler & Koch contracts for producing an updated standard assault rifle and updated standard sidearm for the .", "Heckler & Koch developed and produced the Project HK50, a lightweight carbon fiber assault rifle, which became the HK G36 assault rifle.", "In addition, Heckler & Koch produced the Heckler & Koch USP derived as a variant of its ''Universale Selbstladepistole'' (USP) series of handguns (which had been in production since 1989).", "The P8 was adopted as the standard handgun for the in 1994 and the G36 in 1995.As the result of a 1999 merger between British Aerospace and Marconi Electronic Systems, Heckler & Koch was owned by the resulting BAE Systems; it was contracted to refurbish the British Army's SA80 rifles (which had been built by Royal Ordnance) This contract entailed a modification programme to the SA80 series of rifles to address a number of reliability issues with the design.", "In 2002, BAE Systems restructured and sold Heckler & Koch to a group of private investors, who created the German group holding company ''HK Beteiligungs'' GmbH.In 2003, HK Beteiligungs GmbH's business organization restructured as Heckler & Koch ''Jagd und Sportwaffen'' GmbH (HKJS) and its business was separated into the two business areas similar to the 1974 business mission areas, Defense and Law Enforcement and Sporting Firearms.In 2004, Heckler & Koch was awarded a major handgun contract for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, worth a potential $26.2 million for up to 65,000 handguns.", "This contract ranks as the single largest handgun procurement contract in US law enforcement history.Heckler & Koch facility in Oberndorf am NeckarHK was contracted by the United States Army to produce the kinetic energy subsystem (see: kinetic projectiles or kinetic energy penetrator) of the Objective Individual Combat Weapon, a planned replacement for the M16/M203 grenade launcher combination.", "The OICW was designed to fire 5.56 mm bullets and 25 mm grenades.", "The kinetic energy component was also developed separately as the XM8, though both the OICW and XM8 are now indefinitely suspended.Heckler & Koch developed an AR-15/M4 carbine variant, marketed as the HK416.HK replaced the direct impingement system used by the Stoner design on the original M16 with a short-stroke piston operating system.", "The civilian models are named the MR223 and, in the US, the MR556A1.There is no indication that the rifle will be adopted by the United States Armed Forces other than in the Marine Corps as the IAR or M27, but the elite Delta Force and other United States special operations units have fielded the HK416 in combat, and Oklahoma Senator Tom Coburn has called for \"free and open competition\" to determine whether the army should buy the HK416 or continue to purchase more M4 carbines.", "Incoming United States Secretary of the Army Pete Geren agreed in July 2007 to hold a \"dust chamber\" test pitting the M4 against the Heckler & Koch HK416 and XM8, as well as the rival FN SCAR design.", "Coburn had threatened to stop Geren's Senate confirmation if he did not agree to the test.", "The Heckler & Koch XM8 and FN SCAR had the fewest failures in the test, closely followed by the HK416, while the M4 had by far the most.", "In 2007, the Norwegian Army became the first to field the HK416 as a standard-issue rifle.HK sells its pistols in the United States to both law enforcement and civilian markets.", "The company has locations in Virginia, New Hampshire, and Georgia." ], [ "Trafficking", "H&K has been accused of shipping small arms to conflict regions such as Bosnia and Nepal, and has licensed its weapons for production by governments with poor human rights records such as Sudan, Thailand and Myanmar.", "It has been argued that the company effectively evaded EU export restrictions when these licensees sold HK weapons to conflict zones including Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Sierra Leone.According to the newspaper ''Stuttgarter Nachrichten'' (31 August 2011), as well as the state broadcaster ARD, a large stockpile of G36 assault rifles fell into rebel hands during the August 2011 attack on Muammar Gaddafi's compound in Tripoli.", "It is unclear how many were exported to Libya and by whom.=== Illegal arms sales to Mexico ===On December 11, 2011, federal, state and local Mexican police officers used battle rifles to fire on Ayotzinapa Rural Teachers' College students and peasant organizations to disperse a blockade on Mexican Federal Highway 95D, resulting in the deaths of students Jorge Alexis Herrera and Gabriel Echeverría de Jesús.", "According to media reports, 7.62×51mm NATO round cases were found at the crime scene which were of the same caliber as rounds spent by H&K G3 rifles.In Iguala and Cocula, corrupt police officers and cartelmen are known to have used H&K G36 rifles during the 2014 Iguala mass kidnapping on September 26–27, 2013.At least six teaching students were murdered by cartelmen and corrupt local police, and 43 others are missing and presumed dead.", "Other than the six identified persons, no other bodies have been found, and they are believed to have been incinerated.As a result of efforts by civil society and human rights organizations in Mexico and Germany, H&K and two of its former employees were brought before the Provincial Court of Stuttgart.", "After ten months of trial, on February 21, 2019, the court convicted them of illegally selling arms to Mexican governmental institutions which failed to acknowledge their due observance of human rights.", "The two former employees (sales manager Sahlmann and administrative employee Beuter) had been found to have used fraudulent permits in the sale of 4,700 rifles and large quantities of ammunition.", "H&K was issued a fine of 3.7 million euros, and the two men received suspended sentences of 17 and 22 months.", "The spokesman of the Presidency of the Republic of Mexico, Jesús Ramírez Cuevas, said that the amount of the fine should go to the victims and their families.", "On March 30, 2021, Germany's Federal Court of Justice (BGH) upheld the lower court's decision, finding that H&K employees knowingly falsified information on the nature and destination of arms sold by the company in order to attain federal export licenses." ], [ "''Werknummern'' designations", "The ''Werknummern'' system dates back to the first HK rifles.", "It uses two or three digits, and as such is also referred to as the \"HK 3-digit system\" Exceptions like the Heckler & Koch HK416 exist, but those are almost always for marketing reasons, and do actually have in-house designations that fit the system.", "For example, the HK416 (originally marketed as the HK M4 and HK M16) was intended to replace the M4 and M16, and so, the different models were amalgamated into simply the HK416, but internally was the HK333.The M320 Grenade Launcher Module is a designation assigned by the US military, the HK product name is the HK 269 and 279.'''", "First digit: generation'''* '''No digit''' = First generation* '''1''' = Second generation* '''2''' = Third generation* '''3''' = Fourth generation* '''4''' = Fifth generation'''Second digit: form factor '''* '''1''' = Magazine fed machine gun* '''2''' = Belt fed machine gun* '''3''' = Full sized rifle* '''4''' = Semi-automatic military rifle* '''5''' = Select fire carbine* '''6''' = Shoulder fired standalone grenade launcher* '''7''' = Underbarrel mounted grenade launcher* '''8''' = Hunting and repeating weapons for civilian market'''Third digit: caliber'''* '''1''' - 7.62×51mm NATO* '''2''' - 7.62×39mm* '''3''' - 5.56×45mm NATO* '''4''' - 9×19mm Parabellum/.40 S&W/.45 ACP* '''5''' - .50 BMG* '''6''' - HK 4.6×30mm* '''7''' - .300 AAC Blackout* '''8''' - 37mm Grenade* '''9''' - 40 mm grenade" ], [ "Abbreviations", "Format: '''Abbreviation''' = ''German Text'' (\"English Text\")*'''A''' = '''' (\"version\")*'''G''' = '' (\"rifle\")*'''K''' = Either '''' (\"short\") for pistols and submachine guns or '''' (\"Carbine\") for rifles and battle rifles.", "*'''AG''' = Either stands for '''' (\"attached device\") or '''' (\"attached grenade launcher\")*'''GMG''' = Grenade Machine Gun*'''GMW''' = '''' (automatic grenade launcher)*'''MG''' = '''' (Machine Gun)*'''MP''' = '''' (Machine Pistol or Submachine Gun)*'''PSG''' = '''' (\"precision sharp shooter rifle\")*'''PSP''' = '''' (\"police self-loading pistol\")*'''SD''' = '''' (\"sound dampener\", \"suppressor\"); In the case of the MP5 having an integral suppressor, in the case of the USP, an extended threaded barrel for attaching a suppressor.", "*'''SG''' = '''' (\"sharpshooters rifle\")*'''SK''' = '''' (\"sub compact\")*'''SL''' = '''' (\"Autoloader\")*'''UMP''' = Universal Machine Pistol*'''UCP''' = Universal Combat Pistol*'''USC''' = Universal Self-loading Carbine*'''USP''' = '''' (\"universal self-loading pistol\")*'''VP''' = '''' (\"people's pistol\")*'''ZF''' = '''' (\"telescopic sight\")" ], [ "Date and country codes", "H&K uses a letter combination to represent the year a pistol is manufactured.", "*'''A''' = 0*'''B''' = 1*'''C''' = 2*'''D''' = 3*'''E''' = 4*'''F''' = 5*'''G''' = 6*'''H''' = 7*'''I''' = 8*'''K''' = 9The letter J is not used as a date marker.", "If an H&K pistol has the letter combination of BH it was manufactured in 2017 or CA in 2020.The letter combination of DE represents manufacturing in the country of Germany.", "Pistols manufactured in Germany before 2008 and those produced at US facilities do not incorporate these letter combinations." ], [ "See also", "*List of Heckler & Koch products*List of modern armament manufacturers" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * HK USA website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Heckler & Koch MP5" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Heckler & Koch MP5''' () is a submachine gun that fires 9x19mm Parabellum cartridges, developed in the 1960s by Heckler & Koch.", "There are over 100 variants and clones of the MP5, including some semi-automatic versions.", "The MP5 is one of the most widely used submachine guns in the world, having been adopted by over forty nations and numerous military, law enforcement, intelligence, and security organizations.In 1999, Heckler & Koch developed the UMP, the MP5's successor.", ", despite its higher cost, the MP5 remained the more successful of the two options, as its roller-delayed system was considered better at \"reducing recoil... making it easier to stay on target\" than the UMP's straight blowback system." ], [ "History", "Heckler & Koch, encouraged by the success of the G3 automatic rifle, developed a family of small arms consisting of four types of firearms all based on a common G3 design layout and operating principle.", "The first type was chambered for 7.62×51mm NATO, the second for the 7.62×39mm M43 round, the third for the intermediate 5.56×45mm NATO caliber, and the fourth type for the 9×19mm Parabellum pistol cartridge.", "The MP5 was created within the fourth group of firearms and was initially known as the '''HK54'''.Work on the MP5 began in 1964 and two years later it was adopted by the German Federal Police, border guard and army special forces, referring to as the \"MP64\" or later \"MP5\".", "The MP5A1 was introduced in the late '60s, which is the first model to have the iconic ring front sight and the slimline handguard.", "In 1970, the MP5A2 and MP5A3 were introduced.", "In 1974, the MP5SD was introduced, which is a suppressed variant of the MP5.In 1976, the MP5K was introduced as a request for a variant for South America.", "In 1977, the standard 20 & 30 round, curved steel magazines were introduced for the MP5A2 and MP5A3 design.", "In 1978, the Tropical forearm was introduced to be produced with the MP5.In 1980, the MP5 achieved iconic status as a result of British special forces regiment the SAS when they stormed the Iranian Embassy in London, live on television, rescuing hostages and killing five terrorists during Operation Nimrod.The MP5 has become a mainstay of SWAT units of law enforcement agencies in the United States since then.", "However, in the late 1990s, as a result of the North Hollywood shootout, police special response teams replaced most MP5s with AR-15-based rifles.The MP5 is manufactured under license in several nations including Greece (formerly at EBO – Hellenic Arms Industry, currently at EAS - Hellenic Defence Systems), Iran (Defense Industries Organization), Mexico (SEDENA), Pakistan (Pakistan Ordnance Factories), Saudi Arabia, Sudan (Military Industry Corporation), Turkey (MKEK), and the United Kingdom (initially at Royal Ordnance, later diverted to Heckler & Koch Great Britain)." ], [ "Design details", "The primary version of the MP5 family is the '''MP5A2''', which is a lightweight, air-cooled, selective fire delayed blowback operated 9×19mm Parabellum weapon with a roller-delayed bolt.", "It fires from a closed bolt (bolt forward) position.The fixed, free-floating, cold hammer-forged barrel has six right-hand grooves with a 1 in 250 mm (1:10 in) rifling twist rate and is pressed and pinned into the receiver.=== Features ===A view through the weapon's aperture sightThe first MP5 models used a double-column straight box magazine, but since 1977, slightly curved, steel magazines have been used with a 15-round capacity (weighing 0.12 kg) or a 30-round capacity (0.17 kg empty).The adjustable iron sights (closed type) consist of a rotating rear diopter drum and a front post installed in a hooded ring.", "The rear sight is mechanically adjustable for both windage and elevation with the use of a special tool, being adjusted at the factory for firing at with standard FMJ 9×19mm NATO ammunition.", "The rear sight drum provides four apertures of varying diameters used to adjust the diopter system, according to the user's preference and tactical situation.", "Changing between apertures does not change the point of impact down range.MP5 insigniaThe MP5 has a hammer firing mechanism.", "The trigger group is housed inside an interchangeable polymer trigger module (with an integrated pistol grip) and equipped with a three-position fire mode selector that serves as the manual safety toggle.", "The \"S\" or ''Sicher'' position in white denotes weapon safe, \"E\" or ''Einzelfeuer'' in red represents single fire, and \"F\" or ''Feuerstoß'' (also marked in red) designates continuous fire.", "The SEF symbols appear on both sides of the plastic trigger group.", "The selector lever is actuated with the thumb of the shooting hand and is located only on the left side of the original SEF trigger group or on both sides of the ambidextrous trigger groups.", "The safety/selector is rotated into the various firing settings or safety position by depressing the tail end of the lever.", "Tactile clicks (stops) are present at each position to provide a positive stop and prevent inadvertent rotation.", "The \"safe\" setting disables the trigger by blocking the hammer release with a solid section of the safety axle located inside the trigger housing.The non-reciprocating cocking handle is located above the handguard and protrudes from the cocking handle tube at approximately a 45° angle.", "This rigid control is attached to a tubular piece within the cocking lever housing called the cocking lever support, which in turn makes contact with the forward extension of the bolt group.", "It is not however connected to the bolt carrier and therefore cannot be used as a forward assist to fully seat the bolt group.", "The cocking handle is held in a forward position by a spring detent located in the front end of the cocking lever support which engages in the cocking lever housing.", "The lever is locked back by pulling it fully to the rear and rotating it slightly clockwise where it can be hooked into an indent in the cocking lever tube.=== Operating mechanism ===The roller-delayed blowback mechanism originated from the aborted StG 45(M) assault rifle prototypes developed in Nazi Germany at the end of World War II.The bolt rigidly engages the barrel extension—a cylindrical component welded to the receiver into which the barrel is pinned.", "The delay mechanism is of the same design as that used in the G3 rifle.", "The two-part bolt consists of a bolt head with rollers and a bolt carrier.", "The heavier bolt carrier lies up against the bolt head when the weapon is ready to fire and inclined planes on the front locking piece lie between the rollers and force them out into recesses in the barrel extension.When fired, expanding propellant gases produced from the burning powder in the cartridge exert rearward pressure on the bolt head transferred through the base of the cartridge case as it is propelled out of the chamber.", "A portion of this force is transmitted through the rollers projecting from the bolt head, which are cammed inward against the inclined flanks of the locking recesses in the barrel extension and to the angled shoulders of the locking piece.", "The selected angles of the recesses and the incline on the locking piece produce a velocity ratio of about 4:1 between the bolt carrier and the bolt head.", "This results in a calculated delay, allowing the projectile to exit the barrel and gas pressure to drop to a safe level before the case is extracted from the chamber.The delay results from the amount of time it takes for enough recoil energy to be transferred through to the bolt carrier in a sufficient quantity for it to be driven to the rear against the force of inertia of the bolt carrier and the forward pressure exerted against the bolt by the recoil spring.", "As the rollers are forced inward they displace the locking piece and propel the bolt carrier to the rear.", "The bolt carrier's rearward velocity is four times that of the bolt head since the cartridge remains in the chamber for a short period of time during the initial recoil impulse.", "After the bolt carrier has travelled rearward 4 mm, the locking piece is withdrawn fully from the bolt head and the rollers are compressed into the bolt head.", "Only once the locking rollers are fully cammed into the bolt head can the entire bolt group continue its rearward movement in the receiver, breaking the seal in the chamber and continuing the feeding cycle.Since the 9×19mm Parabellum cartridge is relatively low powered, the bolt does not have an anti-bounce device like the G3, but instead the bolt carrier contains of tungsten granules that prevent the bolt group from bouncing back after impacting the barrel extension.", "The weapon has a fluted chamber that enhances extraction reliability by bleeding gases backwards into the shallow flutes running along the length of the chamber to prevent the cartridge case from expanding and sticking to the chamber walls (since the bolt is opened under relatively high barrel pressure).", "A spring extractor is installed inside the bolt head and holds the case securely until it strikes the ejector arm and is thrown out of the ejection port to the right of the receiver.", "The lever-type ejector is located inside the trigger housing (activated by the movement of the recoiling bolt).=== Accessories ===In the early 1970s, HK introduced a conversion kit for the MP5 that enables it to use rimfire ammunition (.22 LR).", "This unit consists of a barrel insert, a bolt group and two 20-round magazines.", "This modification reduces the cyclic rate to 650 rounds per minute.", "It was sold mostly to law enforcement agencies as a way to train recruits on handling the MP5.It used ammunition that was cheaper and had a lower recoil than 9×19mm Parabellum.", "This reduced training costs and built up skill and confidence in the operators before transitioning them to the full-bore model.====Barrel accessories====Cross section diagram of an MP5SD early model suppressor, from 1971 patent.", "Vented barrel surrounded by metal mesh packing in the expansion chambers, followed by conical baffles in the forward chambers.Threading is provided at the muzzle to work with certain muzzle devices made by Heckler & Koch, including: a slotted flash suppressor, blank firing attachment (marked with a red-painted band denoting use with blank ammunition only), an adapter for launching rifle grenades (for use with rifle-style grenades with an inside diameter of 22 mm using a special grenade launching cartridge) and a cup-type attachment used to launch tear gas grenades.", "An optional three-lugged barrel is also available for mounting a quick-detachable suppressor.====Receiver====The receiver housing has a proprietary claw-rail mounting system that permits the attachment of a standard Heckler & Koch quick-detachable scope mount (also used with the G3, HK33 and G3SG/1).", "It can be used to mount daytime optical sights (telescopic 4×24), night sights, reflex sights and laser pointers.", "The mount features two spring-actuated bolts, positioned along the base of the mount, which exert pressure on the receiver to hold the mount in the same position at all times assuring zero retention.", "All versions of the quick-detachable scope mount provide a sighting tunnel through the mount so that the shooter can continue to use the fixed iron sights with the scope mount attached to the top of the receiver.A Picatinny rail adapter can be placed on top that locks into the claw rails.", "This allows the mounting of STANAG scopes and has a lower profile than the claw-rail system.====Handguard====Aftermarket replacement handguards with Picatinny rails are available.", "Single-rail models have a Picatinny rail along the bottom and triple-rail models have rails along the bottom and sides.", "They allow the mounting of accessories like flashlights, laser pointers, target designators, vertical foregrips, and bipods." ], [ "Variants", "The stockless ''MP5A1'' has a buttcap with a sling mount for concealed carry; the MP5K series was a further development of this idea.", "The MP5A2 has a fixed buttstock (made of a synthetic polymer), whereas the compact ''MP5A3'' has a retractable metal stock.The ''MP5A4'' (fixed stock) and ''MP5A5'' (sliding stock) models, which were introduced in 1974, are available with four-position trigger groups.", "The pistol grips are straight, lacking the contoured grip and thumb groove of the ''MP5A1'', ''MP5A2'', and ''MP5A3''.", "The selector lever stops are marked with bullet pictograms rather than letters or numbers (each symbol represents the number of bullets that will be fired when the trigger is pulled and held rearward with a full magazine inserted in the weapon) and are fully ambidextrous (the selector lever is present on each side of the trigger housing).", "The additional setting of the fire selector, one place before the fully automatic setting, enables a two or three-shot burst firing mode.Heckler & Koch offers dedicated training variants of these weapons, designated ''MP5A4PT'' and ''MP5A5PT'' (PT—Plastic Training), modified to fire a plastic 9×19mm PT training cartridge produced by Dynamit Nobel of Germany.", "These weapons operate like the standard MP5 but have a floating chamber and both rollers have been omitted from the bolt to function properly when firing the lighter plastic projectiles.", "To help identify these weapons blue dots were painted on their cocking handles and additional lettering provided.", "The PT variant can be configured with various buttstocks and trigger groups and was developed for the West German Police and Border Guard.U.S.", "Marine Corps Military Police using the MP5-N variantA variant with the last trigger group designated the '''MP5-N''' (N—Navy) was developed in 1986 for the United States Navy.", "This model has a collapsible stock, a tritium-illuminated front sight post and a threaded barrel for use with a stainless steel sound suppressor made by Knight's Armament Company together with quieter subsonic ammunition.", "It had ambidextrous controls, a straight pistol grip, pictogram markings, and originally had a four-position selector (Safe, Semi-Auto, 3-Round Burst, Full Auto).", "This was replaced with a similar three-position ambidextrous selector after an improperly-reassembled trigger group spontaneously fired during an exercise.", "The \"Navy\"-style ambidextrous trigger group later became standard, replacing the classic \"SEF\" trigger group.In late 2013, Heckler & Koch unveiled the '''MLI''' (Mid Life Improvement) version of the MP5.It is fitted with a tri-rail foregrip, a quick-release-optic mount, an MP5F stock standard, and comes in with the new RAL8000 (Yellow-Brown) colour scheme.=== MP5 ===* '''HK54''': The original model that was produced in 1964.The ''54'' designation is from the Heckler & Koch company's old system that indicates that it is a submachine gun/assault carbine (5-) chambered for the 9×19mm cartridge (-4).", "It had a charcoal-gray phosphated finish rather than the matte-black lacquered finish used on later models and had narrow slotted metal handguards.", "Its major differences were that it had a longer and heavier bolt carrier than the MP5 and a flip up \"ladder\"-style rear sight (like the early G3 rifle) rather than the MP5's aperture sight.", "Its original 15- or 30-round steel magazines were straight rather than curved, had a plastic follower, and were reinforced with ribs (thus their nickname of \"waffle\"-type magazines).", "* '''MP5''': A slightly modified version of the HK54 first created in 1966.A matte-black lacquered finish instead of the grayish phosphated finish was introduced for export models in 1977.It originally had the narrow checkered metal \"Slimline\" handguards in the place of the HK54's narrow slotted metal ones.", "These were later replaced by the thicker \"Tropical\" handguards in 1978.The proprietary Heckler & Koch \"claw mount\" rails for mounting optical and electronic scopes were added around 1973.The improved 15- and 30-round magazines were adopted in 1977; they were curved, had unribbed sides, and had chromed-steel followers.", "The ''MP5SFA2'' (SF – single-fire) was developed in 1986 in response to the American FBI solicitation for a \"9 mm Single-fire Carbine\".", "It is the same as the MP5A2 but is fitted with an ambidextrous semi-automatic only trigger group.", "The ''MP5SFA3'' is similar except it has a retractable metal stock like the MP5A3.Versions delivered after December 1991 are assembled with select-fire bolt carriers allowing fully automatic operation when used with the appropriate trigger module.", "The semi-automatic \"MP5SF\" models are widely used by British police forces including London's Metropolitan Police Service Specialist Firearms Command, Diplomatic Protection Group, authorised firearms officers, and the Police Service of Northern Ireland to name a few.", "The two-position trigger unit was also used in the semi-automatic ''HK94'' carbine that was produced specifically for the civilian market with a barrel.", "**'''MP5A1''': No buttstock (endplate/receiver cap in place of buttstock), \"SEF\" trigger group.", "** '''MP5A2''': Fixed buttstock, \"SEF\" trigger group.", "** '''MP5SFA2''': Fixed buttstock, single-fire (SE) trigger group.", "** '''MP5A3''': Retractable buttstock, \"SEF\" trigger group.", "** '''MP5SFA3''': Semi-automatic carbine version of MP5A3.Retractable buttstock and single-fire (SE) trigger group.", "** '''MP5A4''': Fixed buttstock, 3-round burst trigger group.", "** '''MP5A5''': Retractable buttstock, 3-round burst trigger group.", "** '''MP5-N''': Model developed specifically for the U.S. Navy.", "Ambidextrous \"Navy\" trigger group, 3-lug/threaded barrel for attaching a sound suppressor; rubber-padded retractable stock.", "** '''MP5F''': Model developed in 1999 specifically for the French military.", "Rubber-padded retractable stock, ambidextrous sling loops/bolts and internal modifications to handle high-pressure ammunition.", "** '''MP5 MLI''': Modernised variant of the MP5.Suitable MLI components can be retrofitted to any MP5 model.+ Trigger group Type Positions Settings Location SEF 3-position Safe (''Sicher''), semi-auto (''Einzelfeuer''), fully automatic (''Feuerstoß'') Left-side SE 2-position Safe & semi-auto (''Fire'') Ambidextrous Navy 4-position Safe, semi-auto, 2- or 3-round burst, fully automatic Ambidextrous Navy 3-position Safe, semi-auto, fully automatic Ambidextrous+ Trigger group settings Setting Marking system Number Letter Pictogram Safe Marked by a white numeral \"0\" Marked by a white letter \"S\" Marked by a white pictogram of a bullet symbol inside a closed rectangle with an \"X\" through it.", "Semi-automatic fire Marked by a red numeral \"1\" Marked by a red letter \"E\" Marked by a red pictogram of a bullet symbol inside a closed rectangle.", "Burst fire Marked by a red numeral \"2\" or \"3\" Marked by a red numeral \"2\" or \"3\" Marked by a red pictogram of 2 or 3 bullets in a line inside a closed rectangle.", "Fully automatic fire Marked by a red numeral \"30\" Marked by a red letter \"F\" Marked by a red pictogram of 7 bullets in a line inside a rectangle with an open end facing the muzzle.=== MP5SD ===The '''MP5SD''' was created in 1974, Heckler & Koch initiated design work on a sound-suppressed variant of the MP5, designated the MP5SD (SD—''Schalldämpfer'', German for \"sound suppressor\"), which features an integral but detachable aluminium sound suppressor and a lightweight bolt.", "The weapon's barrel has 30 ports drilled forward of the chamber through which escaping gases are diverted to the surrounding sealed tubular casing that is screwed onto threading on the barrel's external surface just prior to the ported segment.", "The suppressor itself is divided into two stages; the initial segment surrounding the ported barrel serves as an expansion chamber for the propellant gases, reducing gas pressure to slow down the acceleration of the projectile.", "The second, decompression stage occupies the remaining length of the suppressor tube and contains a stamped metal helix separator with several compartments which increase the gas volume and decrease its temperature, deflecting the gases as they exit the muzzle, so muffling the exit report.", "The bullet leaves the muzzle at subsonic velocity, so it does not generate a sonic shock wave in flight.", "As a result of reducing the barrel's length and venting propellant gases into the suppressor, the bullet's muzzle velocity was lowered anywhere from 16% to 26% (depending on the ammunition used) while maintaining the weapon's automation and reliability.", "The weapon was designed to be used with standard supersonic ammunition with the suppressor on at all times.", "The cyclic rate of fire of the MP5SD is around 700 rounds per minute.The MP5SD is produced exclusively by Heckler & Koch in several versions: the MP5SD1 and MP5SD4 (both have a receiver end cap instead of a buttstock), MP5SD2 and MP5SD5 (equipped with a fixed synthetic buttstock) and the MP5SD3 and MP5SD6 (fitted with a collapsible metal stock).", "The MP5SD1, MP5SD2 and MP5SD3 use a standard 'SEF' trigger group (from the MP5A2 and MP5A3), while the MP5SD4, MP5SD5, and MP5SD6 use the 'Navy' trigger group—a trigger module with a mechanically limited 3-round burst mode and ambidextrous selector controls (from the MP5A4 and MP5A5).", "A suppressed version was produced for the U.S. Navy—designated the MP5SD-N, which is a version of the MP5SD3 with a retractable metal stock, front sight post with tritium-illuminated dot and a stainless steel suppressor.", "This model has a modified cocking handle support to account for the slightly larger outside diameter of the suppressor.", "The design of the suppressor allows the weapon to be fired with water inside, should water enter the device during operation in or near water.MP5SD3* '''MP5SD1''': No buttstock (endplate/receiver cap in place of buttstock), \"SEF\" trigger group, integrated suppressor* '''MP5SD2''': Fixed buttstock, \"SEF\" trigger group, integrated suppressor.", "* '''MP5SD3''': Retractable buttstock, \"SEF\" trigger group, integrated suppressor.", "* '''MP5SD4''': No buttstock (endplate/receiver cap in place of buttstock), 3-round burst trigger group, integrated suppressor.", "* '''MP5SD5''': Fixed buttstock, 3-round burst trigger group, integrated suppressor.", "* '''MP5SD6''': Retractable buttstock, 3-round burst trigger group, integrated suppressor.", "* '''MP5SD-N1''': Retractable buttstock, \"Navy\" trigger group, KAC stainless steel suppressor.", "* '''MP5SD-N2''': Fixed buttstock, \"Navy\" trigger group, KAC stainless steel suppressor.=== MP5K ===In 1976, a shortened version of the MP5A2 was introduced; the '''MP5K''' (K from the German word ''Kurz'' = \"short\") was designed for close quarters battle use by clandestine operations and special services.", "The MP5K does not have a shoulder stock (the receiver end was covered with a flat end cap, featuring a buffer on the inside and a sling loop on the outside), and the bolt and receiver were shortened at the rear.", "There are no ''MP5KA2'' or ''MP5KA3'' models because it does not come with a fixed or retractable stock.", "The resultant lighter bolt led to a higher rate of fire than the standard MP5 at around 900 rounds per minute.", "It has a shortened barrel, a shorter trigger group frame, the charging handle and its cover were shortened and a vertical foregrip was used to replace the standard handguard.", "The barrel ends at the base of the front sight, which prevents the use of any sort of muzzle device.The MP5K is produced (by Heckler & Koch and under license in Iran and Turkey) in four different versions: the MP5K, ''MP5KA4'', ''MP5KA1'', ''MP5KA5'', where the first two variants have adjustable, open-type iron sights (with a notched rotary drum), and the two remaining variants – fixed open sights; however, the front sight post was changed and a notch was cut into the receiver top cover.", "The MP5K retained the capability to use optical sights through the use of an adapter.A civilian semiautomatic derivative of the MP5K known as the '''SP89''' was produced that had a foregrip with a muzzle guard in place of the vertical grip.In 1991, a further variant of the MP5K was developed, designated the ''MP5K-PDW'' (PDW—Personal Defense Weapon) that retained the compact dimensions of the MP5K but restored the fire handling characteristics of the full-size MP5A2.The MP5K-PDW uses a side-folding synthetic shoulder stock (made by the U.S. company Choate Machine and Tool), a \"Navy\" trigger group, a front sight post with a built-in tritium insert and a slightly lengthened threaded, three-lug barrel (analogous to the MP5-N).", "The stock can be removed and replaced with a receiver endplate; a rotary drum with apertures from the MP5A2 can also be used.MP5K* '''MP5K Prototype''': A stockless, cut-down MP5A2 with regular iron sights and an open vertical foregrip.", "It was created in 1976.", "* '''MP5KA1''': MP5K with smooth upper surface and small low-profile iron sights; \"SEF\" trigger group.", "* '''MP5KA4''': MP5K with regular iron sights; four-position 3-round burst trigger group.", "* '''MP5KA5''': MP5K with smooth upper surface and small low-profile iron sights; four-position 3-round burst trigger group.", "* '''MP5K-N''': MP5K with \"Navy\" trigger group and 3-lug/threaded barrel for mounting suppressors or other muzzle attachments.", "* '''MP5K-PDW''': Personal Defense Weapon; MP5K-N variant introduced in 1991 for issue to special operations aircraft or vehicle crews.", "It adds a Choate side-folding stock, 5-inch 3-lug barrel for mounting a quick-detachable Qual-A-Tec suppressor, and an ambidextrous 4-position trigger group with a 3-round burst mode.", "A shoulder cross-draw or thigh quick-draw holster is available.", "*'''MP5K Operational Briefcase''': MP5K mounted with a STANAG claw mount inside a plastic hard shell Special Briefcase (''Spezialkoffer''), with an external trigger mounted in the briefcase handgrip released in 1978.An earlier version called the Special Bag (''Spezialtasche'') included a large opening in the rear of a soft side leather case to grasp the pistol grip and manually actuate the trigger.", "The briefcase was sold preconfigured with the MP5K as well as separately.", "A third version known as the Zerfallkoffer was also released in 1978.It worked by having a button release that caused the briefcase to fall away from the gun.=== MP5/10 and MP5/40 ===MP5/40 with polymer, 30-round magazine in .40 S&WIn 1992, Heckler & Koch introduced the ''MP5/10'' (chambered in 10mm Auto) and ''MP5/40'' (chambered for the .40 S&W cartridge), which are based on the MP5A4 and MP5A5.These weapons were assembled in fixed and retractable stock configurations (without a separate designation) and are fed from translucent 30-round polymer box magazines.", "These weapons include a bolt hold-open device, which captures the bolt group in its rear position after expending the last cartridge from the magazine.", "The bolt is then released by pressing a lever positioned on the left side of the receiver.", "Both weapons use a barrel with 6 right-hand grooves and a 380 mm (1:15 in) twist rate, and like the MP5-N, both have a 3-lugged muzzle device and a tritium-illuminated front sight aiming dot.Problems with the MP5/10 and MP5/40 led to their discontinuation in 2000, although Heckler & Koch continues to provide support and spare parts.", "* '''MP5/10''': Chambered in 10mm Auto, available in various stock/trigger group configurations.", "It was produced from 1992 to 2000.", "* '''MP5/40''': Chambered in .40 S&W, available in various stock/trigger group configurations.", "It was produced from 1992 to 2000.=== Civilian variants ===* '''HK94''': American import model of the MP5 with an exposed 16.54-inch 420mm barrel and special SF (safe/semi-automatic) trigger group, designed for civilian use.", "The ''94'' factory designation code indicates that it is a semi-auto only Sporting Rifle (9-) chambered for the 9x19mm Parabellum cartridge (-4).", "A barrel-mounted vertical foregrip and a ventilated barrel shroud were available for the stock HK94.The HK94 was imported from 1983 to 1989, in three different configurations:**The '''HK94A2''' had a fixed stock, an overall length of 34.59 inches 829 mm, and weighed 6.43 lbs.", "2.92 kg..", "In 1991, the state of California imported 420 HK-94A2s, mostly for their state Department of Corrections; it was the last batch of HK-94s imported into the United States.", "**The '''HK94A3''' had a retractable stock, an overall length of 27.58 inches 700 mm collapsed and 34.05 inches 865 mm extended and weighed 7.18 lbs.", "3.26 kg.", "**The '''HK94/SG-1''' (''Scharfschützengewehr'', \"sharp-shooting rifle\") was designed for short-range sniping in built-up areas like cities or prisons.", "It proved to be unsuitable for its designed purpose, due to its poor penetration and stopping power, and most went to target shooters and collectors.", "It had a fixed match stock with a rubber buttpad and an adjustable cheekpiece, folding bipod, flash hider, and a 6 × 42mm Leupold VIII Adjustable Objective scope.", "It had an overall length of 40.39 inches 1026mm and a weight of 9.25 lbs.", "4.2 kg.", "Its mean standard retail price (MSRP) in 1986 was US$1,525; this was more than twice what a stock HK94A2 (US$650) or HK94A3 (US$720) cost.", "Only 50 were imported into the United States; authentic models have serial numbers running in the 43XX range.As an aftermarket modification, a PSG-1 trigger pack with target pistol grip and match trigger could be added by a gunsmith by changing the ejector and hammer spring.", "The 6× Leupold scope was calibrated for .223 Remington rounds, so other scopes were often substituted.", "* '''SP89''': ''Sportpistole M1989''.", "Semi-automatic only version of the MP5K designed for civilian use.", "It lacked a vertical foregrip to make it compliant with the National Firearms Act.", "It was made from 1989 to 1994.", "* '''SP5K''': First introduced in 2016, the SP5K is an updated version of the SP89.It features a Picatinny rail mounted on the top of the receiver for mounting accessories.", "As with the SP89, it is semi-automatic only and the forward handguard does not have a vertical foregrip.", "*'''SP5''': Introduced in 2019, the SP5 is a semi-automatic only version.", "With an 8.86 inch 225mm barrel, the same length as that of the original MP5A2.It features the Navy barrel with the threaded adaptor available in the MP5K, paddle magazine release, and fluted chamber.=== Rechambering kit ===A rechambering kit for 6.5×25mm CBJ which only required a barrel change was proposed." ], [ "Manufacturers", "* : Norinco makes unlicensed copies of the MP5A4, as the '''NR-08''' and '''NR-08A''', and the MP5A5, as the '''CS/LS3'''.", "* : Manufactured under licence by Hellenic Defence Systems (''EASEllinika Amyntika Systimata'').", "* : Indian Ordnance Factory makes unlicensed copies of MP5A3, known as the '''OFB Anamika 9mm'''.", "* : Manufactured under licence by DIO as the '''Tondar''' (MP5A3) and '''Tondar Light''' (MP5K).", "* : Manufactured under licence by SEDENA.", "* : Manufactured under licence by Pakistan Ordnance Factories as the '''MP5P''' and also as '''POF4''' and'''POF-5'''.", "* : Manufactured under licence by Al Kharj Arsenal, Military Industries Corporation.", "* : Manufactured by Military Industry Corporation as the '''Tihraga''' (MP5A3), a clone of the Iranian '''Tondar'''.", "* : Manufactured under licence by Brügger & Thomet.", "* : Manufactured by MKEK.", "Their trigger groups are marked: '''E''' (Safe), '''T''' (Semi-Auto) and '''S''' (Full Auto) instead of '''SEF'''.", "* : Manufactured under licence by Royal Small Arms Factory." ], [ "Users", "Worldwide users of the MP5 (former and current) Country/Region Organization name Model Caliber Reference Afghan National Army Pakistani-made (after 2001)West German _ Zahir Qadir's Frontier Force ''Garda e Republikës'' _ _ ''Batalioni i Operacioneve Speciale'' (BOS) MP5K _ Algerian Police MP5SD6, MP5SD3, MP5K, MP5A3, MP5A5 9mm Algerian Special Forces9mm Argentine Navy _ _ Argentine National Gendarmerie _ _ Argentine Federal Police _ _ Argentine Naval Prefecture MP5A2 _ Airfield Defence Guards of the Royal Australian Air Force MP5A3 9mm Special Operations Command MP5A3, MP5K, MP5SD 9mm Police Tactical Groups _ 9mm _ _ _ Bangladesh Army _ _ Bangladesh SWAT Police _ _ Rapid Action Battalion, _ _ Special Warfare Diving And Salvage of the Bangladesh Navy _ _ \"Almaz\" anti-terrorist group MP5A3MP5K 9mm KGB Alpha Group MP5A3 9mm Various Police units _ 9mm Federal Police MP5A2, MP5A3, MP5A5, MP5SD3 9mm BOPE MP5A5, MP5K 9mm 1º Batalhão de Forças EspeciaisMP5KA4, MP5SD1, MP5SD69mm Brasilia Police MP5A3 9mm Civil Police of Rio de Janeiro StateComando de Operações Taticas MP5A5, MP5SD6 9mm COMANF MP5KA4, MP5SD6 9mm Special Force of the Royal Brunei Police Force _ 9mm Specialized Anti-Terrorism Task Force MP5SD3 9mm _ _ _ Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Royal Canadian Navy & the Intervention group of the Sûreté du Québec MP5A3MP5A2 _ _ _ _ Chongqing & Guangxi police tactical unit NR-08 or CS/LS3 _ UEA (Unidad Especial de Apoyo) Special Police Unit _ _ Lučko Anti-Terrorist Unit MP5SD3 _ Black Wasp (Cuban Special Forces) MP5A3 _ Special Unit of MININT Police of the Czech Republic (standard-issue PDW for general patrols) MP5A5, MP5SD6, MP5SA3, MP5K _ Military of Czech Republic _ _ _ _ Frogman Corps, Danish Police _ _ Special units GOE (Grupo de Operaciones Especiales) and GIR (Grupo de Intervención y Rescate) of the National Police _ _ Egyptian military counter terrorism Unit 777 And Police Special Unit Black Cobra MP5KMP5A3MP5A5MP5SD _ Salvadoran Army _ _ National Civil Police _ _Estonian Defence Forces MP5A2 9mm _ _ Special operations forces and military police of the Finnish Defence Forces MP5A3 9mm Groupe d'Intervention de la Gendarmerie Nationale (GIGN) MP5K _ Certain specialized units within the French Army MP5A5, MP5SD3 9mm Georgian Special ForcesSpecial State Protection Service (SSPS)Coast Guard of Georgia MP5K, MP5SD, MP5A3, MP5A1 9mm Bundespolizei (Federal Police) _ _ Landespolizei (State Police) _ _ German Army _ _ Feldjäger (Military Police) _ _ GSG 9 police tactical unit _ _ German Navy _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Airport Security Unit _ _ Counter Terrorism Response Unit _ _ Emergency Unit _ _ Small Boat Unit _ _ Special Duties Unit _ _ Surveillance Support Unit _ _ VIP Protection Unit _ _ Witness Protection Unit _ _ Icelandic Coast Guard MP5A2N 9 mm Víkingasveitin _ _ Icelandic National Police _ _ Indian Army _ _ MARCOS _ _ National Security Guards _ _ Force One counter-terrorism group of the Mumbai Police _ _ Tactical unit of the Mizoram Police _ _ _ Special Protection Group before replaced with the FN P90 _ _ All-Female tactical unit of the Delhi Police _ _ _ ''Komando Pasukan Katak'' (KOPASKA) tactical diver group of Indonesian Navy _ 9mm Counter Terrorist Service MP5A3 Iranian Army MPT-9 _ Army Ranger Wing MP5A3, MP5SD6, MP5F, MP5K 9mm Directorate of Military Intelligence _ _ Garda Special Detective Unit _ _ Garda Emergency Response Unit _ _ ''Carabinieri'' _ _ Unknown users MP5A5 9mm Jamaica Constabulary Force _ _ Special Boarding Unit MP5A5, MP5SD6 9mm Special Assault Teams, Anti-firearms squads of prefectural police departments MP5A4, MP5A5MP5SD4, MP5SD6 _ Special Investigation Teams of prefectural police departments MP5SFK _ Special Security Team of the Japan Coast Guard _ _ Japanese Special Forces Group MP5SD6 9mm Japanese Imperial Guard _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Kenya Police _ _ Latvian Land Forces MP5A3 9mm Marine Commandos MP5A3 _ _ _ Special Police Unit _ _ Security Corps _ _ Lithuanian Armed Forces _ _ Aras _ _ ''Unité Spéciale de la Police'' intervention unit of the Grand Ducal Police _ _ Malaysian Army MP5A2, MP5A3, MP5K 9mm Royal Malaysia Police Royal Malaysian Customs 10 Paratrooper Brigade commando of the Malaysian Army MP5A3, MP5SD2, MP5SD3 National Special Operations Force (NSOF) _ ''Unit Gempur Marin (UNGERIN)'' tactical diver group of the Royal Malaysia Police MP5A3, MP5K,MP5SD2, MP5SD3 ''Trup Tindakan Cepat'' special operations unit of the Malaysian Prison Department MP5A3,MP5SD3 Armed Forces of Malta _ _ _ _ _ Mexican Army MP5A4 9mm Royal Moroccan Army MP5A2 9mm Royal Moroccan Navy _ _ Royal Moroccan Gendarmerie MP5A2 9mm Armed Forces of Montenegro MP5SD6, MP5SD3, MP5SD2, MP5A5, MP5A3, MP5A2, MP5K-PDW 9mm Protivteroristička Jedinica Policije (Counter-Terrorist Police Unit) (PTJ) MP5SD3, MP5A3, MP5A2, MP5K 9mm Posebna Jedinica Policije (Special Police Unit) (PJP) MP5SD3, MP5A3, MP5A2, MP5K 9mm Nepalese Army _ _ Dutch Royal and Diplomatic security (DKDB) _ _ Koninklijke Marechaussee MP5A3 9mm Arrestatieteam ( AT ) _ _ Special Air Service Commandos of the New Zealand Army _ _ Special Tactics Group of the New Zealand Police _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Norwegian Armed Forces, replaced by the MP7 MP5A2N, MP5A3N 9mm Norwegian Police Service _ _ Pakistan Army _ _ Airports Security Force _ _ Personal security detail of VIP's _ _Peruvian Army special forces MP5SD3 _ Armed Forces of the Philippines _ _ Special Action Force and other police and tactical units of the Philippine National Police _ _ Police of PolandMP5A3, MP5A5, MP5SD6, MP5KA4 9mm Portuguese Army (Special Operations Troops Centre) MP5A5, MP5SD6, MP5KA4 9mmPortuguese Marine Corps MP5A5 9mm National Republican Guard (GIOE)_ 9mm Polícia de Segurança Pública_ 9mm _ _ _ Republic of Korea Naval Special Warfare Brigade _ _ Romanian Special Operations Forces MP5-N 9mm Romanian Intelligence Service (SRI) Counter Terrorist Brigade (Brigada Antiteroristă) _ 9mm ''Brigada Specială de Intervenție a Jandarmeriei'' _ 9mm ''Detașamentul Special de Protecție și Intervenție'' _ 9mm FSB Alpha Group MP5A3 9mm Royal Saudi Land Forces MP5A2, MP5A3 9mm 72nd Reconnaissance-Commando Battalion MP5SD3 _ Singapore Armed Forces Commando Formation _ 9mm Singapore Police Force _ Gurkha Contingent of the Singapore Police Force _ Police Coast Guard of the Singapore Police Force _ Special Operations Command of the Singapore Police Force _ Special Tactics And Rescue (STAR) of the Singapore Police Force _ Slovak Police _ _ Military Police of Slovenian Armed Forces _ _ SEP SWAT Special Police Unit of Slovenian Police _ _ Special Task Force of the South African Police Service MP5-N 9mm South African Special Forces MP5SD3 -8 South African Army Maritime Reaction Squadron ''Grupo Especial de Operaciones'' (GEO) _ _ Sudanese Army _ _ Swedish Police Authority MP5A5 _ Swiss Army MP5A5 _ Republic of China Army, Republic of China Marine Corps, Coast Guard Administration, National Police Agency _ _ Royal Thai Police/Department of Corrections (Thailand) MP5A2, MP5A3 9mm Turkish Armed Forces MP5A2, MP5A3MP5SD3, MP5K 9mm General Directorate of Security Rapid Operational Response Unit (KORD) MP5A3 (made by MKEK) 9mm _ _ _ United Kingdom Special Forces (UKSF) _ 9mm Police Service of Northern Ireland MP5SF 9mm Metropolitan Police Specialist Firearms Command (SCO-19) MP5SF 9mm Other British police Authorised Firearms Officers MP5SF 9mm Special Operations Command (SOCOM) MP5N, MP5K-N, MP5SD-N 9mm Secret Service _ _ FBI Hostage Rescue Team MP5/10 10mm Various police SWAT units _ _ Uruguayan Navy Special Forces MP5A5 9mm Swiss Guard _ _ Used by Mobile Police Command (CSCĐ) teams and quick reaction force (113) police MP5A3, MP5K-A4 9mm _ _ _ ===Former users===* : Used by Diensteinheit IX." ], [ "Gallery", "File:AKM and MP5K.JPEG| An Australian Air Traffic Control Detachment range officer fires an MP5K at the Baghdad International Airport firing range.File:US Navy SEALs in from water.jpg| U.S. Navy SEALs armed with MP5-Ns on a training exercise.File:SEAL MP5N.JPEG| A member of SEAL Team 8 with an MP5-N variant in February 1991.File:Bangladesh Army Counter Terrorism unit.", "(31527384851).jpg|Bangladesh Army Counter Terrorism unit with MP5A3 in Victory Day Parade 2016.File:Rapid Action Battalion (04).jpg|Rapid Action Battalion of Bangladesh armed with MP5K (except the second from right).", "File:Iranian green beret commandos (7).jpg|NOHED Brigade of Iran training with their MP5 along with their sidearm.File:RATS operators parading.jpg|Anti-Firearms Squad of Japan armed with MP5 submachine guns, some are equipped with Brügger & Thomet Foldable Visor Helmet Stocks.File:PDRM with MP5.jpg| Recruits of the Royal Malaysia Police training with their MP5s.File:Topkapı sarayında nöbetçi Jandarma Eri.jpg| A Turkish gendarme with an MP5 at Topkapı Palace in Istanbul.File:Police.gun.1.london.arp.jpg| Police officer from Met police London England Uk at Downing Street security holding an MP5A3.File:RAF-Logo.svg|The West German communist militant group Red Army Faction (RAF) depicted the MP5 in their insignia, shown here." ], [ "See also", "* IMI Uzi* Colt M635" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===********" ], [ "External links", "* * 2008 Heckler & Koch Military and LE brochure* HKPRO: MP5, MP5K, MP5SD, MP5/10 & MP5/40* REMTEK: MP5, MP5K, MP5K PDW, MP5SD, MP5/10* HECKLER & KOCH MP5 SUB MACHINE GUN FAMILY OPERATOR'S MANUAL* HK MP5 Armorers Manual" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Henry Middleton" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Henry Middleton''' (1717 – June 13, 1784) was a planter, public official from South Carolina.", "A member of the colonial legislature, during the American Revolution he attended the First Continental Congress and served as that body's president for four days in 1774 after the passage of the Continental Association, which he signed.", "He left the Second Continental Congress before it declared independence.", "Back in South Carolina, he served as president of the provincial congress and senator in the newly created state government.", "After his capture by the British in 1780, he accepted defeat and returned to the status of a British subject until the end of the war." ], [ "Early life", "Henry Middleton was born in 1717 on the family plantation, \"The Oaks\", near Charleston, Province of South Carolina.", "He was the second son of Susan (née Amory) Middleton (1690-1722) and Arthur Middleton (1681–1737), a wealthy planter who had served as an acting governor of South Carolina.", "His grandfather, Edward Middleton, emigrated from England via Barbados.", "He was educated in England before returning to South Carolina to inherit his father's plantation.", "He became one of the largest landowners in the colony, owning and about 800 slaves." ], [ "Public career", "Middleton served in a variety of public offices in South Carolina.", "He was a justice of the peace and a member of the Commons House of Assembly, where he was elected speaker in 1747, 1754, and 1755.He was a member of provincial council but resigned in 1770 in opposition to British policy.In 1774, at the outset of the American Revolution, Middleton was selected as a delegate to the Continental Congress.", "He served as that body's president during the last few days of the First Continental Congress, following the departure of Peyton Randolph.", "Middleton opposed declaring independence from Great Britain and resigned from the Second Continental Congress in February 1776 when more radical delegates began pushing for independence.", "He was succeeded in Congress by his son Arthur who was more radical than his father and became a signer of the Declaration of Independence.After Middleton's return to South Carolina, he was elected president of the provincial congress and, beginning on November 16, 1775, served on the council of safety.", "In 1776, he and his son Arthur helped frame a temporary state constitution.", "In 1779, he became a state senator in the new government.When Charleston was captured by the British at the Siege of Charleston in 1780, Middleton accepted defeat and status as a British subject.", "This reversal apparently did not damage his reputation in the long run, because of his previous support of the Revolution, and he did not suffer the fate of having his estates confiscated, as many Loyalists did after the war." ], [ "Personal life", "In 1741, Middleton was married to Mary Baker Williams (1721–1761), the daughter of John Williams, an early South Carolina planter who began building what is today known as Middleton Place around 1730.Together, Henry and Mary were the parents of five sons and seven daughters, seven of whom survived to adulthood, including:* Arthur Middleton (1742–1787), a signer of the Declaration of Independence who married Mary Izard (1747–1814).", "* Henrietta Middleton (1750–1792), who married Governor Edward Rutledge.", "* Thomas Middleton (1753–1797), who married Anne Manigault.", "* Hester Middleton (1754–1789), who married Charles Drayton.", "* Sarah Middleton (1756–1784), who married Charles Cotesworth Pinckney.", "* Mary Middleton (1757-1825), who married Peter Smith.", "* Susannah Middleton (1760–1834), who married Continental Congressman John Parker.After his wife's death in 1761, Middleton would go on to marry twice more.", "His second marriage was to Maria Henrietta Bull (1722–1772), daughter of William Bull Sr., the lieutenant governor of South Carolina, in 1762.His second wife's sister, Charlotta (née Bull) Drayton, was the mother of Continental Congressman William Henry Drayton, and her brother, William Bull II, served as governor of South Carolina before leaving the colony in 1782 when British troops were evacuated at the end of the War.After his second wife's death in 1772, he married for the third time, although it was her fourth marriage, to Lady Mary McKenzie, the daughter of George Mackenzie, 3rd Earl of Cromartie, in 1776.Among Lady Mary's brothers were John Mackenzie, Lord MacLeod and George Mackenzie.", "Her father was a Scottish nobleman who followed Charles Edward Stuart, the Jacobite Pretender.", "The Earl of Cromartie was tried and sentenced to death, but he obtained a conditional pardon although his peerage was forfeited.Middleton died on June 13, 1784, in Charleston.", "He was buried at Goosecreek Churchyard, St. James Parish, Berkeley County, South Carolina.===Descendants===His grandson, also named Henry (1770–1846), had a long career in politics.", "He was governor of South Carolina (1810–1812), U.S. Representative (1815–1819), and the minister to Russia (1820–1830).", "Henry had fourteen children, including Williams Middleton and Edward Middleton." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Middleton Place" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Ham" ], [ "Introduction", "Typical slice of ham'''Ham''' is pork from a leg cut that has been preserved by wet or dry curing, with or without smoking.", "As a processed meat, the term \"ham\" includes both whole cuts of meat and ones that have been mechanically formed.Ham is made around the world, including a number of regional specialties.", "In addition, numerous ham products have specific geographical naming protection." ], [ "History", "The preserving of pork leg as ham has a long history, with traces of production of cured ham among the Etruscan civilization known in the 6th and 5th century BC.Cato the Elder wrote about the \"salting of hams\" in his '''' tome around 160 BC.There are claims that the Chinese were the first people to mention the production of cured ham. ''''", "claims an origin from Gaul.", "It was certainly well established by the Roman period, as evidenced by an import trade from Gaul mentioned by Marcus Terentius Varro in his writings.The modern word \"ham\" is derived from the Old English '''' or '''' meaning the hollow or bend of the knee, from a Germanic base where it meant \"crooked\".", "It began to refer to the cut of pork derived from the hind leg of a pig around the 15th century.Because of the preservation process, ham is a compound foodstuff or ingredient, being made up of the original meat, as well as the remnants of the preserving agent(s), such as salt, but it is still recognised as a food in its own right." ], [ "Methods", "Ham is produced by curing raw pork by salting, also known as dry curing, or brining, also known as wet curing.", "Additionally, smoking may be employed, and seasonings may be added.=== Dry-cured ===Sea salt being added to raw pork leg as part of a dry cure processTraditional dry cure hams may use only salt as the curative agent, although this is comparatively rare.", "This process involves cleaning the raw meat, covering it in salt while it is gradually pressed draining all the blood.", "Specific herbs and spices may be used to add flavour during this step.", "The hams are then washed and hung in a dark, temperature-regulated place until dry.", "It is then hung to air for another period of time.The duration of the curing process varies by the type of ham.", "For example, Jinhua ham takes approximately 8 to 10 months to complete, Serrano ham cures in 9–12 months, Parma ham takes more than 12 months, and Iberian ham can take up to 2 years to reach the desired flavor characteristics.Most modern dry cure hams also use nitrites (either sodium nitrite or potassium nitrite), which are added along with the salt.", "Nitrites are used because they prevent bacterial growth and, in a reaction with the meat's myoglobin, give the product a desirable dark red color.", "The amount and mixture of salt and nitrites used have an effect on the shrinkage of the meat.", "Because of the toxicity of nitrite, some areas specify a maximum allowable content of nitrite in the final product.", "Under certain conditions, especially during cooking, nitrites in meat can react with degradation products of amino acids, forming nitrosamines, which are known carcinogens.The dry curing of ham involves a number of enzymatic reactions.", "The enzymes involved are proteinases (cathepsins – B, D, H & L, and calpains) and exopeptidases (peptidase and aminopeptidase).", "These enzymes cause proteolysis of muscle tissue, which creates large numbers of small peptides and free amino acids, while the adipose tissue undergoes lipolysis to create free fatty acids.", "Salt and phosphates act as strong inhibitors of proteolytic activity.", "Animal factors influencing enzymatic activity include age, weight, and breed.", "During the process itself, conditions such as temperature, duration, water content, redox potential, and salt content all have an effect on the meat.The salt content in dry-cured ham varies throughout a piece of meat, with gradients determinable through sampling and testing or non-invasively through CT scanning.Dry-cured ham is usually eaten without being cooked.=== Wet-cured ===Wet-cured hams are brined, which involves the immersion of the meat in a brine, sometimes with other ingredients such as sugar also added for flavour.", "The meat is typically kept in the brine for around 3 to 14 days.", "Wet curing also has the effect of increasing volume and weight of the finished product, by about 4%.The wet curing process can also be achieved by pumping the curing solution into the meat.", "This can be quicker, increase the weight of the finished product by more than immersion, and ensure a more even distribution of salt through the meat.", "This process is quicker than traditional brining, normally being completed in a few days.Wet-cured ham is usually cooked, either during processing, or after ageing.", "It is first brined, then cooked in a container and finally surface pasteurized.", "Italian regulations allow it to contain salt, nitrites, sugar, dextrose, fructose, lactose, maltodextrin, milk protein, soy protein, natural or modified starches, spices, gelatin, and flavorings.=== Smoking ===Ham can also be additionally preserved through smoking, in which the meat is placed in a smokehouse (or equivalent) to be cured by the action of smoke.The main flavor compounds of smoked ham are guaiacol, and its 4-, 5-, and 6-methyl derivatives as well as 2,6-dimethylphenol.", "These compounds are produced by combustion of lignin, a major constituent of wood used in the smokehouse." ], [ "Labeling", "Mazerolles, Béarn, Pyrénées-AtlantiquesIn many countries the term is now protected by statute, with a specific definition.", "For instance, in the United States, the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) says that \"the word 'ham', without any prefix indicating the species of animal from which derived, shall be used in labeling only in connection with the hind legs of swine\".In addition to the main categories, some processing choices can affect legal labeling.", "For instance, in the United States, a \"smoked\" ham must have been smoked by hanging over burning wood chips in a smokehouse or an atomized spray of liquid smoke such that the product appearance is equivalent; a \"hickory-smoked\" ham must have been smoked using only hickory.", "However, injecting \"smoke flavor\" is not legal grounds for claiming the ham was \"smoked\"; these are labeled \"smoke flavor added\".", "Hams can only be labeled \"honey-cured\" if honey was at least 50% of the sweetener used, is at least 3% of the formula, and has a discernible effect on flavor.", "So-called \"lean\" and \"extra lean\" hams must adhere to maximum levels of fat and cholesterol per 100 grams of product.Whole fresh pork leg can be labeled as ''fresh ham'' in the United States.", "=== Protected designations ===A number of hams worldwide have some level of protection of their unique characteristics, usually relating to their method of preservation or location of production or processing.", "Dependent on jurisdiction, rules may prevent any other product being sold with the particular appellation, such as through the European protected geographical indication.", ";Belgium*Jambon d'Ardenne – Wallonia;Bulgaria*Elenski but – Elena;China*Anfu ham- Jiangxi*Jinhua ham – Jinhua*Rugao ham – Rugao*Xuanwei ham – Xuanwei;Czech Republic*Pražká Šunka (\"Prague Ham\") – Prague;Croatia*Pršut;France*Jambon noir de Bigorre (PDO) made from black gascon pigs.", "*Jambon de kintoa (PDO) made from basque pigs.", "*Jambon de Corse (PDO) made from black nustrale pigs.", "*Jambon de Bayonne (PGI).", "*Jambon d'Auvergne (PGI).", "*Jambon de l'Ardèche (PGI).", "*Jambon de Lacaune (PGI).", "*Jambon de Vendée (PGI).", "*Jambon sec des Ardennes (PGI).", "*Jambon de Luxeuil.", "*Jambon du Limousin made from black cul-noir pigs.", "*Jambon de Savoie.", "*Jambon du Périgord.", "*Jambon des Pyrénées.", ";Germany*Ammerländer Schinken – Ammerland*Schwarzwälder Schinken – Black Forest*Westfälischer Schinken – Westphalia;Italy*Prosciutto di Parma – Parma*Prosciutto di San Daniele – San Daniele del Friuli*Speck Alto Adige – South Tyrol*Vallée d’Aoste Jambon de Bosses – Saint-Rhémy-en-Bosses, Aosta Valley;Luxembourg*Éisleker ham – Oesling region;Montenegro*Njeguška pršuta – Njeguši, Montenegro;Portugal*Portuguese Fiambre (not to be confused with Guatemalan fiambre)*Presunto*Jamón Ibérico;Slovenia*Kraški pršut;Spain* Jamón serrano* Jamón Ibérico, made from the Black Iberian pig breeds.", "* Lacón Gallego, from Galicia;United Kingdom*Wiltshire cure ham;United States*Smithfield ham – Smithfield, Virginia" ], [ "Uses", "A platter of ham and cheese sliced for sandwichesFinnish Christmas hamHam is typically used in its sliced form, often as a filling for sandwiches and similar foods, such as in the ham sandwich and ham and cheese sandwich.", "Other variations include toasted sandwiches such as the croque-monsieur and the Cubano.", "It is also a popular topping for pizza in the United States.In the United Kingdom, a pork leg cut, either whole or sliced, that has been cured but requires additional cooking is known as gammon.", "Gammons were traditionally cured before being cut from a side of pork along with bacon.", "When cooked, gammon is ham.", "Such roasts are a traditional part of British Christmas dinners." ], [ "Health effects", "As a processed meat, there has been concern over the health effects of ham consumption.", "A meta-analysis study from 2012 has shown a statistically relevant correlation between processed meat consumption and the risk of pancreatic cancer, with an increase in consumption of per day leading to a 19% increase in risk.This supported earlier studies, including the 2007 study \"Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective\", by the World Cancer Research Fund and the American Institute for Cancer Research, which reviewed more than 7,000 studies published worldwide.", "Among the recommendations was that, except for very rare occasions, people should avoid eating ham or other processed meats – cured, smoked, salted or chemically preserved meat products such as bacon, hot dogs, sausage, salami, and pastrami.", "The report states that once an individual reaches the weekly limit for red meat, every of processed meat consumed a day increases cancer risk by 21%.A European cohort study from 2013 also positively correlated processed meat consumption with higher all-cause mortality, with an estimation that 3.3% of the deaths amongst participants could have been prevented by consuming an average of less than of processed meat per day over the course of the study." ], [ "See also", "* Christmas ham* Ham and eggs* List of ham dishes* List of hams* List of smoked foods* Spam* Turkey ham" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Ham history * Ham and food safety at the United States Department of Agriculture* ''The Cook's Thesaurus'': \"ham\"" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Henry Laurens" ], [ "Introduction", "Portrait of Laurens by John Singleton Copley (U.S. National Portrait Gallery NPG.65.45)'''Henry Laurens''' (December 8, 1792) was an American Founding Father, merchant, slave trader, and rice planter from South Carolina who became a political leader during the Revolutionary War.", "A delegate to the Second Continental Congress, Laurens succeeded John Hancock as its president.", "He was a signatory to the Articles of Confederation and, as president, presided over its passage.Laurens had earned great wealth as a partner in the largest slave-trading house in North America, Austin and Laurens.", "In the 1750s alone, this Charleston firm oversaw the sale of more than 8,000 enslaved Africans.", "Laurens served for a time as vice president of South Carolina and as the United States minister to the Netherlands during the Revolutionary War.", "He was captured at sea by the British and imprisoned for a little more than a year in the Tower of London.", "His oldest son, John Laurens, was an ''aide-de-camp'' to George Washington and a colonel in the Continental Army." ], [ "Early life and education", "Laurens' forebears were Huguenots who fled France after the Edict of Nantes was revoked in 1685.His grandfather Andre Laurens left earlier, in 1682, and eventually made his way to America, settling first in New York City and then Charleston, South Carolina.", "Andre's son John married Hester (or Esther) Grasset, also a Huguenot refugee.", "Henry was their third child and eldest son.", "John Laurens became a saddler, and his business eventually grew to be the largest of its kind in the colonies.In 1744, Laurens was sent to London to augment his business training.", "This took place in the company of Richard Oswald.", "His father died in 1747, bequeathing a considerable estate to 23-year-old Henry." ], [ "Marriage and family", "Laurens married Eleanor Ball, also of a South Carolina rice planter family, on June 25, 1750.They had thirteen children, many of whom died in infancy or childhood.", "Eleanor died in 1770, one month after giving birth to their last child.", "Laurens took their three sons to England for their education, encouraging their oldest, John Laurens, to study law.", "Instead of completing his studies, John Laurens returned to the United States in 1776 to serve in the American Revolutionary War." ], [ "Political career", "1784 engraving of Laurens as President of the Continental CongressLaurens served in the militia, as did most able-bodied men in his time.", "He rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel in the campaigns against the Cherokee Indians in 1757–1761, during the French and Indian War (also known as the Seven Years' War).Treaty of Paris'', by Benjamin West, 1783 (left to right: John Jay, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Henry Laurens, and William Temple Franklin)Austin, Laurens & Appleby : ''Advertisement for the Sale of Slaves''In 1757, he was elected to South Carolina's colonial assembly.", "Laurens was elected again every year but one until the Revolution replaced the assembly with a state convention as an interim government.", "The year he missed was 1773, when he visited England to arrange for his sons' educations.", "He was named to the colony's council in 1764 and 1768 but declined both times.", "In 1772, he joined the American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia and carried on extensive correspondence with other members.As the American Revolution neared, Laurens was at first inclined to support reconciliation with the British Crown.", "But as conditions deteriorated, he came to fully support the American position.", "When Carolina began to create a revolutionary government, Laurens was elected to the Provincial Congress, which first met on January 9, 1775.He was president of the Committee of Safety and presiding officer of that congress from June until March 1776.When South Carolina installed a fully independent government, he served as the vice president of South Carolina from March 1776 to June 27, 1777.Laurens was first named a delegate to the Continental Congress on January 10, 1777.He served in the Congress until 1780.He was the president of the Continental Congress from November 1, 1777, to December 9, 1778.In the fall of 1779, the Congress named Laurens their minister to the Netherlands.", "In early 1780, he took up that post and successfully negotiated Dutch support for the war.", "But on his return voyage to Amsterdam that fall, the British frigate intercepted his ship, the continental packet ''Mercury'', off the banks of Newfoundland.", "Although his dispatches were tossed in the water, they were retrieved by the British, who discovered the draft of a possible U.S.-Dutch treaty prepared in Aix-la-Chapelle in 1778 by William Lee and the Amsterdam banker Jean de Neufville.", "This prompted Britain to declare war on the Dutch Republic, becoming known as the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War.The British charged Laurens with treason, transported him to England, and imprisoned him in the Tower of London (he is the only American to have been held prisoner in the tower).", "His imprisonment was protested by the Americans.", "In the field, most captives were regarded as prisoners of war, and while conditions were frequently appalling, prisoner exchanges and mail privileges were accepted practice.", "During his imprisonment, Laurens was assisted by Richard Oswald, his former business partner and the principal owner of Bunce Island, a slave-trading island base in the Sierra Leone River.", "Oswald argued on Laurens' behalf to the British government.", "Finally, on December 31, 1781, he was released in exchange for General Lord Cornwallis and completed his voyage to Amsterdam.", "He helped raise funds for the American effort.Laurens' oldest son, Colonel John Laurens, was killed in 1782 in the Battle of the Combahee River, as one of the last casualties of the Revolutionary War.", "He had supported enlisting and freeing slaves for the war effort and suggested to his father that he begin with the 40 he stood to inherit.", "He had urged his father to free the family's slaves, but although conflicted, Henry Laurens never manumitted his 260 slaves.In 1783, Laurens was sent to Paris as one of the peace commissioners for the negotiations leading to the Treaty of Paris.", "While he was not a signatory of the primary treaty, he was instrumental in reaching the secondary accords that resolved issues related to the Netherlands and Spain.", "Richard Oswald, a former partner of Laurens in the slave trade, was the principal negotiator for the British during the Paris peace talks.Laurens generally retired from public life in 1784.He was sought for a return to the Continental Congress, the Constitutional Convention in 1787 and the state assembly, but he declined all of these positions.", "He did serve in the state convention of 1788, where he voted to ratify the United States Constitution.Boston Magazine,'' 1784; engraving by John NormanBritish forces, during their occupation of Charleston, had burned the Laurens home at Mepkin during the war.", "When Laurens and his family returned in 1784, they lived in an outbuilding while the great house was rebuilt.", "He lived on the estate the rest of his life, working to recover the estimated £40,000 that the revolution had cost him (equivalent to about $ in )." ], [ "Death and legacy", "Laurens suffered from gout starting in his 40s and the affliction plagued him throughout the rest of his life.", "Laurens died on December 8, 1792, at his estate, Mepkin, in South Carolina.", "In his will he stated he wished to be cremated and his ashes be interred at his estate.", "It is reported that he was the first Caucasian cremation in the United States, which he chose because of a fear of being buried alive.", "Afterward, the estate passed through several hands.", "Large portions of the estate still exist.", "Part of the original estate was donated to the Roman Catholic Church in 1949 and is now the location of Mepkin Abbey, a monastery of the Order of Cistercians of the Strict Observance (Trappist monks).The city of Laurens, South Carolina, and its county are named for him.", "The town and the village of Laurens, New York, are named for him.", "Laurens County, Georgia, is named for his son John.", "General Lachlan McIntosh, who worked for Laurens as a clerk and became close friends with him, named Fort Laurens in Ohio after him." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "***" ], [ "Sources", "* Kirschke, James J., and Victor J. Sensenig.", "\"Steps toward nationhood: Henry Laurens (1724–92) and the American Revolution in the South\" ''Historical Research'' 78.200 (2005): 180–192* * , 16 vols.", "; Collection Inventory available at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.", "* McDonough, Daniel J.", "''Christopher Gadsden and Henry Laurens: The Parallel Lives of Two American Patriots'' (Susquehanna University Press, 2001)* Neville, Gabriel.", "\"The Tragedy of Henry Laurens.\"", "''Journal of the American Revolution'', Aug. 1, 2019*" ], [ "External links", "* * National Park Service: Henry Laurens Biography* Forgotten Founders Biography site* Henry Laurens, South Carolina Hall of Fame, South Carolina Educational Television* – cenotaph* Henry Laurens Account Book, 1766-1773, Lowcountry Digital Library* Friends of Fort Laurens" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "British Aerospace HOTOL" ], [ "Introduction", "'''HOTOL''', for '''Horizontal Take-Off and Landing''', was a 1980s British design for a single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) spaceplane that was to be powered by an airbreathing jet engine.", "Development was being conducted by a consortium led by Rolls-Royce and British Aerospace (BAe).Designed as a single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) reusable winged launch vehicle, HOTOL was to be fitted with a unique air-breathing engine, the RB545 or Swallow, that was under development by British engine manufacturer Rolls-Royce.", "The propellant for the engine technically consisted of a combination of liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen; however, it was to employ a new means of dramatically reducing the amount of oxidizer needed to be carried on board by utilising atmospheric oxygen as the spacecraft climbed through the lower atmosphere.", "Since the oxidizer typically represents the majority of the takeoff weight of a rocket, HOTOL was to be considerably smaller than normal pure-rocket designs, roughly the size of a medium-haul airliner such as the McDonnell Douglas DC-9/MD-80.While HOTOL's proof-of-concept design study was being carried out, attempts were made by both industry and the British government to establish international cooperation to develop, produce, and deploy the spacecraft.", "In spite of American interest in the programme, there was little appetite amongst the members of the European Space Agency (ESA), and the British government was not prepared to depart from ESA cooperation.", "Additionally, technical issues were encountered, and there were allegations that comparisons with alternative launch systems such as conventional rocket vehicle using similar construction techniques failed to show much advantage to HOTOL.", "In 1989, funding for the project ended.", "The termination of development work on HOTOL led to the formation of Reaction Engines Limited (REL) to develop and produce Skylon, a proposed spacecraft based on HOTOL technologies, including its air-breathing engine." ], [ "Development", "===Origins===The ideas behind HOTOL originated from work done by British engineer Alan Bond in the field of pre-cooled jet engines.", "Bond had specifically performed this research with the intention of producing a viable engine for powering a space launch system.", "In 1982, British Aerospace (BAe), which was Europe's principal satellite-builder, began studying a prospective new launch system with the aim of providing launch costs that were 20 per cent of the American Space Shuttle operated by NASA.", "BAe became aware of work by British engine manufacturer Rolls-Royce on a suitable engine, and soon conceived of an unmanned, fully reusable single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) winged spaceplane as a launch vehicle.Thus, the project had soon become a joint venture between BAe and Rolls-Royce, led by John Scott-Scott and Bob Parkinson.", "Early on, there was an ambition to 'Europeanise' the project and to involve other nations in its development and manufacture as it was recognised that an estimated £4 billion would be needed to fund full-scale development.", "In August 1984, BAe unveiled a public display of the HOTOL satellite launcher project and released details on its proposed operations.In December 1984, a Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) memorandum noted that West Germany was interested in the programme, while France had adopted a critical attitude towards HOTOL, which the ministry viewed as potentially due to it being seen as a competitor to French-led projects.", "According to Minister of Trade and Industry Geoffrey Pattie, French diplomatic pressure to gather support for its own proposed Hermes space vehicle had inadvertently generated support and interest amongst European Space Agency (ESA) members in the HOTOL project.", "Despite this climate of tentative interest and possible European support, there was a general attitude of reluctance within the British government to take the lead on a new space launcher.===American interest and design study===In March 1985, there were claims that Rolls-Royce was in the process of conducting licensing talks for HOTOL engine technology with American propulsion company Rocketdyne.", "In April 1985, Pattie wrote to Secretary of State for Defence Michael Heseltine to propose a two-year £3 million proof of concept study be performed under a public-private partnership arrangement, consisting of £1 million provided by the UK government and the remainder being financed by Rolls-Royce and BAe themselves.", "Pattie reasoned that the project would serve Britain's \"strategic capability\", and that tests of key technologies could foster international collaboration.", "According to aerospace publication ''Flight International'', the support of the Ministry of Defense (MoD) was critical as the design of HOTOL's engine had been classified.In July 1985, Rolls-Royce's technical director Gordon Lewis stated that the firm sought the involvement of the Royal Aircraft Establishment's (RAE) propulsion group, and that Rolls-Royce was not prepared to invest its own funds into engine development for HOTOL.", "By the second half of 1985, work had commenced on the two-year concept-of-proof study.", "Early on, there was considerable pressure to demonstrate the project's feasibility and credibility in advance of final decisions being taken by ESA on the Hermes and what would become the Ariane 5 launch system, thus the work concentrated on the validation of critical technologies involved.By November 1985, DTI and RAE discussions noted that Rolls-Royce were seeking American data on ramjet technology to support their work on the engine, which it referred to by the name ''Swallow''.", "Reportedly, the United States Air Force were interested in the technology used in the Swallow engine for its own purposes.", "In November 1985, discussions between Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, Minister without portfolio David Young and US President Ronald Reagan's scientific advisor George Keyworth noted American interest in collaboration on developing hypersonic vehicles such as HOTOL, and that a prototype could be flying as early as 1990.According to British government files, neither BAe nor the MoD were enthusiastic for the prospects of American involvement in the programme, expressing reluctance out of a belief that the outcome of such a move could result in the UK becoming a junior member in a project that it once led.", "There was also a belief that if Britain chose to pair up with the United States, it would find itself frozen out of work on future European launchers.", "However, Rolls-Royce viewed transatlantic cooperation as necessary.", "BAe's head of future business, Peter Conchie, stated that, if possible, HOTOL should become a part of the European space framework.", "In early 1986, the British government formally approved the two-year study.===Problems and criticism===In December 1984, project management consultant David Andrews issued an eight-page critique of the programme, noting that the design was optimised for the ascent while exposing itself to extended thermal loads during descent due to a low level of drag.", "He also claimed that the vehicle offered no capability that was not already available; BAe responded that the criticisms made had been answered.", "In April 1985, the Ministry of Defence's research and development department deputy controller James Barnes claimed that HOTOL lacked a justification, and that there was no defence requirement for such vehicles.", "He also noted that the \"engineering problems are considerable\" and that it was unlikely to enter service until the 2020s; Barnes also observed the HOTOL engine to be \"ingenious\".In November 1985, the RAE issued an assessment of HOTOL's study proposal; the organisation believed that HOTOL would take up to 20 years to develop, rather than the 12-year timetable that had been envisioned by industry.", "The RAE also projected that the project would have an estimated total cost of £5 billion (as of its value in 1985), £750 million of which would be required in a six-year definition phase and an estimated £25 million in a pre-definition feasibility study.During development, it was found that the comparatively heavy rear-mounted engine moved the centre of mass of the vehicle rearwards.", "This meant that the vehicle had to be designed to push the centre of drag as far rearward as possible to ensure stability during the entire flight regime.", "Redesign of the vehicle to do this required a large mass of hydraulic systems, which cost a significant proportion of the payload, and made the economics unclear.", "In particular, some of the analysis seemed to indicate that similar technology applied to a pure rocket approach would give approximately the same performance at less cost.===Shutdown===By 1989, the outlook for HOTOL had become bleak; from the onset of the project, support between the British government and industrial partners had been uneven, while the United States had emerged as the only foreign nation that showed willingness to contribute to the programme, in part because of the secrecy surrounding it.", "There was little prospect for European involvement, ESA having elected to pursue development of what would become the Ariane 5, a conventional space launch system.", "Rolls-Royce withdrew from the project, judging the eventual market for the engine was unlikely to be large enough to repay the development costs.", "The British government declined to offer further funding for HOTOL.", "The project was almost at the end of its design phase while much of the plans remained in a speculative state; the craft was reportedly still dogged with aerodynamic problems and operational disadvantages at this point.===Successors===A cheaper redesign, '''Interim HOTOL''' or '''HOTOL 2''', which was to be launched from the back of a modified Antonov An-225 transport aircraft, specifically was promoted by BAe in 1991; however, this proposal was rejected as well.", "The design for Interim HOTOL was to have dispensed with an air-breathing engine cycle and was designed to use a more conventional mix of LOX and liquid hydrogen as fuel instead.In 1989, HOTOL co-creator Alan Bond and engineers John Scott-Scott and Richard Varvill formed Reaction Engines Limited (REL) which has since been working on a new air-breathing engine, SABRE, which used alternative designs to work around (and improve upon) the Rolls-Royce patents, and the Skylon vehicle intended to solve the problems of HOTOL.", "They first published these engine and spacecraft concepts in 1993, and have since been developing the core technologies, particularly the engine and its frost-controlled pre-cooler; initially supported by private funding, but latterly with support from the European Space Agency, the British National Space Centre, the United Kingdom Space Agency, BAe, and the Air Force Research Laboratory.", "REL plan to demonstrate a flight-ready pre-cooler operating under simulated flight conditions in 2018, and statically test a demonstration engine core in 2020." ], [ "Design", "===Overview===HOTOL was envisioned as an unmanned, fully reusable single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) winged spaceplane.", "The unmanned craft was intended to put a payload of around 7 to 8 tonnes in orbit, at 300 km altitude.", "It was intended to take off from a runway, mounted on the back of a large rocket-boosted trolley that would help get the craft up to \"working speed\".", "The engine was intended to switch from jet propulsion to pure rocket propulsion at 26–32 km high, by which time the craft would be travelling at Mach 5 to 7.After reaching low Earth orbit (LEO), HOTOL was intended to re-enter the atmosphere and glide down to land on a conventional runway (approx 1,500 metres minimum).", "Only a single payload would have been carried at a time as BAe had judged this to be more economic as it removed any need for satellite interfacing and allowed for missions to be tailored to individual requirements.During its high-altitude phase, its flight control system would have been linked to ground stations and to space-based global navigation system navigation, while radar would have been used during the take-off and landing phases.", "In addition to the placing of satellites into geosynchronous orbit or LOE, HOTOL was also projected as being able to also perform the retrieval of satellites and hardware from LOE.", "BAe promotional material depicts HOTOL docking with the International Space Station (ISS), a feat that the company claimed would have required manned operation as automated systems were not capable of performing such docking manoeuvres at that time.", "HOTOL was designed to conduct fully automated unmanned flights; however, it had been intended at a later stage to potentially re-introduce a pilot.", "Manned operations would have required the installation of a dedicated pressurised module within the payload bay.As designed, HOTOL would have been 62 metres long, 12.8 metres high, a fuselage diameter of 5.7 metres and a wingspan of 19.7 metres.", "It featured a wing design that had been derived from that of Concorde; its large area resulted in relatively low wing loading, which would have resulted in lower reentry temperatures (never rising above 1,400 °C).", "Built out of carbon composite materials, there would have been no need for the use of insulating tiles akin to those that comprised the Space Shuttle thermal protection system.", "The internally stowed landing gear would have been too small to carry the weight of the fully fuelled rocket, so emergency landings would have required the fuel to be dumped.===Engine===The RB545, which was given the name \"Swallow\" by its manufacturer, British engine maker Rolls-Royce, was an air-breathing rocket engine.", "It would have functioned as an integrated dual-role powerplant, having been capable of air-breathing while operating within the atmosphere and operating in a similar manner to that of a rocket when having attained close to and within LEO.", "This engine would have also been capable of powering the spacecraft to hypersonic speeds.", "It was a crucial element of the programme, having been publicly attributed as \"the heart of Hotol's very low launch costs\".The exact details of this engine were covered by the Official Secrets Act of the United Kingdom; consequently, there is relatively little public information about its development and on its operation.", "However, material was later declassified when government policy changed to prevent the keeping of secret patents without an attributed justification.Within the atmosphere, air is taken in through two vertically mounted intake ramps, then the flow would be split, passing the correct amount to the pre-coolers, and the excess to spill ducts.", "Hydrogen from the fuel tanks would be passed through two heat exchangers to pre-cool the air prior to entering a high overall pressure-ratio turbojet-like engine cycle — the heated hydrogen driving a turbine to compress and feed the cooled air into the rocket engine, where it was combusted with some of the hydrogen used to cool the air.", "The majority of the remaining hot hydrogen was released from the back of the engine, with a small amount drawn off to reheat the air in the spill ducts in a ramjet arrangement to produce \"negative intake momentum drag\".To prevent the pre-coolers from icing up, the first pre-cooler cooled the air to around 10 degrees above freezing point, to liquefy the water vapour in the air.", "Then liquid oxygen (LOX) would have been injected into the airflow to drop the temperature to flash freezing the water into microscopic ice crystals, sufficiently cold that they wouldn't melt due to kinetic heating if they struck the second pre-cooler elements.", "A water trap could have been added after the first pre-cooler if operating conditions resulted in an excess of moisture.When it was no longer possible to use the atmosphere for combustion, the RB545 would switch to using on-board LOX to burn with the hydrogen as a high-efficiency hydrogen/oxygen rocket." ], [ "See also", "* Rockwell X-30 – a scramjet vehicle with which HOTOL would have competed* Reaction Engines LAPCAT A2 – a design for a hypersonic antipodal airliner* Liquid air cycle engine – a related engine cycle that liquifies the air" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===**" ], [ "External links", "* * HOTOL-related patent on jetisonable control surfaces" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hammerhead shark" ], [ "Introduction", "The hammer-like shape of the head means that hammerhead sharks can sweep for prey more effectively.The '''hammerhead sharks''' are a group of sharks that form the family '''Sphyrnidae''', named for the unusual and distinctive form of their heads, which are flattened and laterally extended into a cephalofoil (a T-shape or \"hammer\").", "The shark's eyes are placed one on either end of this T-shaped structure, with their small mouths directly centered and underneath.", "Most hammerhead species are placed in the genus ''Sphyrna'', while the winghead shark is placed in its own genus, ''Eusphyra''.", "Many different— but not necessarily mutually exclusive—functions have been postulated for the cephalofoil, including sensory reception, manoeuvering, and prey manipulation.", "The cephalofoil gives the shark superior binocular vision and depth perception.Hammerheads are found worldwide, preferring life in warmer waters along coastlines and continental shelves.", "Unlike most sharks, some hammerhead species will congregate and swim in large schools during the day, becoming solitary hunters at night." ], [ "Description", "The known species range from in length and weigh .", "One specimen caught off the Florida coast in 1906 weighed over .", "They are usually light gray and have a greenish tint.", "Their bellies are white, which allows them to blend into the background when viewed from below and sneak up to their prey.", "Their heads have lateral projections that give them a hammer-like shape.", "While overall similar, this shape differs somewhat between species; examples are: a distinct T-shape in the great hammerhead, a rounded head with a central notch in the scalloped hammerhead, and an unnotched rounded head in the smooth hammerhead.Hammerheads have disproportionately small mouths compared to other shark species.", "Some species are also known to form schools.", "In the evening, like most other sharks, they become solitary hunters.", "''National Geographic'' explained that hammerheads can be found in warm, tropical waters, but during the summer, they participate in a mass migration to search for cooler waters." ], [ "Taxonomy and evolution", "A hammerhead shark gliding along the sea bedSince sharks do not have mineralized bones and rarely fossilize, only their teeth are commonly found as fossils.", "Their closest relatives are the requiem sharks (Carcharinidae).", "Based on DNA studies and fossils, the ancestor of the hammerheads probably lived in the Early Miocene epoch about 20 million years ago.Using mitochondrial DNA, a phylogenetic tree of the hammerhead sharks showed the winghead shark as its most basal member.", "As the winghead shark has proportionately the largest \"hammer\" of the hammerhead sharks, this suggests that the first ancestral hammerhead sharks also had large hammers.=== Cephalofoil ===The hammer-like shape of the head may have evolved at least in part to enhance the animal's vision.", "The positioning of the eyes, mounted on the sides of the shark's distinctive hammer head, allows 360° of vision in the vertical plane, meaning the animals can see above and below them at all times.", "They also have an increased binocular vision and depth of visual field as a result of the cephalofoil.", "The shape of the head was previously thought to help the shark find food, aiding in close-quarters maneuverability, and allowing sharp turning movement without losing stability.", "The unusual structure of its vertebrae, though, has been found to be instrumental in making the turns correctly, more often than the shape of its head, though it would also shift and provide lift.", "From what is known about the winghead shark, the shape of the hammerhead apparently has to do with an evolved sensory function.", "Like all sharks, hammerheads have electroreceptory sensory pores called ampullae of Lorenzini.", "The pores on the shark's head lead to sensory tubes, which detect electric fields generated by other living creatures.", "By distributing the receptors over a wider area, like a larger radio antenna, hammerheads can sweep for prey more effectively." ], [ "Reproduction", "Reproduction occurs only once a year for hammerhead sharks, and usually occurs with the male shark biting the female shark violently until she agrees to mate with him.", "The hammerhead sharks exhibit a viviparous mode of reproduction with females giving birth to live young.", "Like other sharks, fertilization is internal, with the male transferring sperm to the female through one of two intromittent organs called claspers.", "The developing embryos are at first sustained by a yolk sac.", "When the supply of yolk is exhausted, the depleted yolk sac transforms into a structure analogous to a mammalian placenta (called a \"yolk sac placenta\" or \"pseudoplacenta\"), through which the mother delivers sustenance until birth.", "Once the baby sharks are born, they are not taken care of by the parents in any way.", "Usually, a litter consists of 12 to 15 pups, except for the great hammerhead, which gives birth to litters of 20 to 40 pups.", "These baby sharks huddle together and swim toward warmer water until they are old enough and large enough to survive on their own.In 2007, the bonnethead shark was found to be capable of asexual reproduction via automictic parthenogenesis, in which a female's ovum fuses with a polar body to form a zygote without the need for a male.", "This was the first shark known to do this." ], [ "Diet", "Hammerhead sharks eat a large range of prey such as fish (including other sharks), squid, octopus, and crustaceans.", "Stingrays are a particular favorite, with the positioning of their (comparatively) smaller, crescent-shaped mouths underneath their T-shaped heads allowing for skilled skate, ray, and flounder hunting, among other seafloor-dwellers.", "These sharks will often be found swimming above the sand along the bottom of the ocean, stalking their prey.", "Their unique heads are further utilized as a tool (or weapon) if hunting rays and flatfishes; the shark uses its head to pin down and briefly stun the prey, and only eats once their quarry is clearly weakened and in shock.", "The great hammerhead, tending to be larger and more aggressive to its own kind than other hammerheads, occasionally engages in cannibalism, eating other hammerhead sharks, including mothers consuming their own young.", "In addition to the typical animal prey, bonnetheads have been found to feed on seagrass, which sometimes makes up as much as half their stomach contents.", "They may swallow it unintentionally, but they are able to partially digest it.", "At the time of discovery, this was the only known case of a potentially omnivorous species of shark (since then, whale sharks were also found to be omnivorous)." ], [ "Species", "There are nine distinct species of Hammerhead shark in the wild:SpeciesCommon namesIUCN Red List statusPopulation trendReferencesframeless''Eusphyra blochii''Winghead sharkFile:EN IUCN 3 1.svg EndangeredDecreasingframeless''Sphyrna corona''Scalloped bonnetheadFile:CR IUCN 3 1.svg Critically EndangeredDecreasingframeless''Sphyrna gilberti''Carolina hammerheadFile:DD IUCN 3 1.svg Data DeficientUnknownframeless''Sphyrna lewini''Scalloped hammerheadFile:CR IUCN 3 1.svg Critically EndangeredDecreasingframeless''Sphyrna media''ScoopheadFile:CR IUCN 3 1.svg Critically EndangeredDecreasingframeless''Sphyrna mokarran''Great hammerheadFile:CR IUCN 3 1.svg Critically EndangeredDecreasingframeless''Sphyrna tiburo''BonnetheadFile:EN IUCN 3 1.svg EndangeredDecreasingframeless''Sphyrna tudes''Smalleye hammerheadFile:CR IUCN 3 1.svg Critically EndangeredDecreasingframeless''Sphyrna zygaena''Smooth hammerheadFile:VU IUCN 3 1.svg VulnerableDecreasing" ], [ "Relationship with humans", "A hammerhead shark in shallow waterAccording to the International Shark Attack File, humans have been subjects of 17 documented, unprovoked attacks by hammerhead sharks within the genus ''Sphyrna'' since AD 1580.No human fatalities have been recorded.", "Most hammerhead shark species are too small to inflict serious damage to humans.Man carrying a hammerhead shark along a street in Mogadishu, SomaliaThe great and the scalloped hammerheads are listed on the World Conservation Union's (IUCN) 2008 Red List as endangered, whereas the smalleye hammerhead is listed as vulnerable.", "The status given to these sharks is as a result of overfishing and demand for their fins, an expensive delicacy.", "Among others, scientists expressed their concern about the plight of the scalloped hammerhead at the American Association for the Advancement of Science annual meeting in Boston.", "The young swim mostly in shallow waters along shores all over the world to avoid predators.Shark fins are prized as a delicacy in certain countries in Asia (such as China), and overfishing is putting many hammerhead sharks at risk of extinction.", "Fishermen who harvest the animals typically cut off the fins and toss the remainder of the fish, which is often still alive, back into the sea.", "This practice, known as finning, is lethal to the shark.Scalloped hammerhead swimming=== In captivity ===The relatively small bonnethead is regular at public aquariums, as it has proven easier to keep in captivity than the larger hammerhead species, and it has been bred at a handful of facilities.", "Nevertheless, at up to in length and with highly specialized requirements, very few private aquarists have the experience and resources necessary to maintain a bonnethead in captivity.", "The larger hammerhead species can reach more than twice that size and are considered difficult, even compared to most other similar-sized sharks (such as ''Carcharhinus'' species, lemon shark, and sand tiger shark) regularly kept by public aquariums.", "They are particularly vulnerable during transport between facilities, may rub on surfaces in tanks, and may collide with rocks, causing injuries to their heads, so they require very large, specially adapted tanks.", "As a consequence, relatively few public aquaria have kept them for long periods.", "The scalloped hammerhead is the most frequently maintained large species, and it has been kept long term at public aquaria in most continents, but primarily in North America, Europe, and Asia.", "In 2014, fewer than 15 public aquaria in the world kept scalloped hammerheads.", "Great hammerheads have been kept at a few facilities in North America, including Atlantis Paradise Island Resort (Bahamas), Adventure Aquarium (New Jersey), Georgia Aquarium (Atlanta), Mote Marine Laboratory (Florida), and the Shark Reef at Mandalay Bay (Las Vegas).", "Smooth hammerheads have also been kept in the past." ], [ "Protection", "Most, if not all, hammerhead shark species are threatened with extinction.Humans are the number one threat to hammerhead sharks.", "Although they are not usually the primary target, hammerhead sharks are caught in fisheries all over the world.", "Tropical fisheries are the most common place for hammerheads to be caught because of their preference to reside in warm waters.", "The total number of hammerheads caught in fisheries is recorded in the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Global Capture Production dataset.", "The number steadily increased from 75 metric tons in 1990, to 6,313 metric tons by 2010.Shark fin traders say that hammerheads have some of the best quality fin needles which makes them good to eat when prepared properly.", "Hong Kong is the world's largest fin trade market and accounts for about 1.5% of the total annual amount of fins traded.", "It is estimated that around 375,000 great hammerhead sharks alone are traded per year which is equivalent to 21,000 metric tons of biomass.", "However, it is important to note that most sharks that are caught are only used for their fins and then discarded.", "The actual meat of hammerheads is generally unwanted.", "Consumption of regular hammerhead meat has been recorded in countries such as Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela, Kenya, and Japan.In March 2013, three endangered, commercially valuable sharks, the hammerheads, the oceanic whitetip, and porbeagle, were added to Appendix II of CITES, bringing shark fishing and commerce of these species under licensing and regulation." ], [ "Cultural significance", "Among Torres Strait Islanders, the hammerhead shark, known as the ''beizam'', is a common family totem and often represented in cultural artefacts such as the elaborate headdresses worn for ceremonial dances, known as dhari (dari).", "They are associated with law and order.", "Renowned artist Ken Thaiday Snr is known for his representations of'' beizam'' in his sculptural ''dari'' and other works.In native Hawaiian culture, sharks are considered to be gods of the sea, protectors of humans, and cleaners of excessive ocean life.", "Some of these sharks are believed to be family members who died and have been reincarnated into shark form, but others are considered man-eaters, also known as ''niuhi''.", "These sharks include great white sharks, tiger sharks, and bull sharks.", "The hammerhead shark, also known as ''mano kihikihi'', is not considered a man-eater or ''niuhi''; it is considered to be one of the most respected sharks of the ocean, an ''aumakua''.", "Many Hawaiian families believe that they have an ''aumakua'' watching over them and protecting them from the ''niuhi''.", "The hammerhead shark is thought to be the birth animal of some children.", "Hawaiian children who are born with the hammerhead shark as an animal sign are believed to be warriors and are meant to sail the oceans.", "Hammerhead sharks rarely pass through the waters of Maui, but many Maui natives believe that their swimming by is a sign that the gods are watching over the families, and the oceans are clean and balanced." ], [ "See also", "* List of hammerhead sharks* List of prehistoric cartilaginous fish" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Animal Diversity Web Genus ''Sphyrna'' with species sub-pages* \"Electroreception in juvenile scalloped hammerhead and sandbar sharks\" by Stephen M. Kajiura and Kim N. Holland, ''The Journal of Experimental Biology'' (2002).", "Attempts to explain the \"hammer\" shape.", "* Great hammerhead shark, ''Sphyrna mokarran'', MarineBio.org* * Hammerhead Sharks, Australian Marine Conservation Society* Hammerhead Shark - Video on Check123 - Video Encyclopedia" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hall effect" ], [ "Introduction", "In diagram '''A''', the flat conductor possesses a negative charge on the top (symbolized by the blue color) and a positive charge on the bottom (red color).", "In '''B''' and '''C''', the direction of the electrical and the magnetic fields are changed respectively which switches the polarity of the charges around.", "In '''D''', both fields change direction simultaneously which results in the same polarity as in diagram '''A'''.The '''Hall effect''' is the production of a potential difference (the '''Hall voltage''') across an electrical conductor that is transverse to an electric current in the conductor and to an applied magnetic field perpendicular to the current.", "It was discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879.The ''Hall coefficient'' is defined as the ratio of the induced electric field to the product of the current density and the applied magnetic field.", "It is a characteristic of the material from which the conductor is made, since its value depends on the type, number, and properties of the charge carriers that constitute the current." ], [ "Discovery", "Wires carrying current in a magnetic field experience a mechanical force perpendicular to both the current and magnetic field.", "André-Marie Ampère in the 1820s observed this underlying mechanism that led to the discovery of the Hall effect.But it wasn't until a solid mathematical basis for electromagnetism was systematized by James Clerk Maxwell's \"On Physical Lines of Force\" (published in 1861–1862) that details of the interaction between magnets and electric current could be understood.Edwin Hall then explored the question of whether magnetic fields interacted with the conductors ''or'' the electric current, and reasoned that if the force was specifically acting on the current, it should crowd current to one side of the wire, producing a small measurable voltage.", "In 1879, he discovered this ''Hall effect'' while he was working on his doctoral degree at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland.", "Eighteen years before the electron was discovered, his measurements of the tiny effect produced in the apparatus he used were an experimental tour de force, published under the name \"On a New Action of the Magnet on Electric Currents\"." ], [ "Hall effect within voids", "The term '''ordinary Hall effect''' can be used to distinguish the effect described in the introduction from a related effect which occurs across a void or hole in a semiconductor or metal plate when current is injected via contacts that lie on the boundary or edge of the void.", "The charge then flows outside the void, within the metal or semiconductor material.", "The effect becomes observable, in a perpendicular applied magnetic field, as a Hall voltage appearing on either side of a line connecting the current-contacts.", "It exhibits apparent sign reversal in comparison to the \"ordinary\" effect occurring in the simply connected specimen.", "It depends only on the current injected from within the void.=== Hall effect superposition ===Superposition of these two forms of the effect, the ordinary and void effects, can also be realized.", "First imagine the \"ordinary\" configuration, a simply connected (void-less) thin rectangular homogeneous element with current-contacts on the (external) boundary.", "This develops a Hall voltage, in a perpendicular magnetic field.", "Next, imagine placing a rectangular void within this ordinary configuration, with current-contacts, as mentioned above, on the interior boundary of the void.", "(For simplicity, imagine the contacts on the boundary of the void lined up with the ordinary-configuration contacts on the exterior boundary.)", "In such a combined configuration, the two Hall effects may be realized and observed simultaneously in the same doubly connected device: A Hall effect on the external boundary that is proportional to the current injected only via the outer boundary, and an apparently sign-reversed Hall effect on the interior boundary that is proportional to the current injected only via the interior boundary.", "The superposition of multiple Hall effects may be realized by placing multiple voids within the Hall element, with current and voltage contacts on the boundary of each void.Further \"Hall effects\" may have additional physical mechanisms but are built on these basics." ], [ "Theory", "The Hall effect is due to the nature of the current in a conductor.", "Current consists of the movement of many small charge carriers, typically electrons, holes, ions (see Electromigration) or all three.", "When a magnetic field is present, these charges experience a force, called the Lorentz force.", "When such a magnetic field is absent, the charges follow approximately straight paths between collisions with impurities, phonons, etc.", "However, when a magnetic field with a perpendicular component is applied, their paths between collisions are curved; thus, moving charges accumulate on one face of the material.", "This leaves equal and opposite charges exposed on the other face, where there is a scarcity of mobile charges.", "The result is an asymmetric distribution of charge density across the Hall element, arising from a force that is perpendicular to both the straight path and the applied magnetic field.", "The separation of charge establishes an electric field that opposes the migration of further charge, so a steady electric potential is established for as long as the charge is flowing.In classical electromagnetism electrons move in the opposite direction of the current (by convention \"current\" describes a theoretical \"hole flow\").", "In some metals and semiconductors it ''appears'' \"holes\" are actually flowing because the direction of the voltage is opposite to the derivation below.Hall effect measurement setup for electrons.", "Initially, the electrons follow the curved arrow, due to the magnetic force.", "At some distance from the current-introducing contacts, electrons pile up on the left side and deplete from the right side, which creates an electric field in the direction of the assigned .", "is negative for some semiconductors where \"holes\" appear to flow.", "In steady-state, will be strong enough to exactly cancel out the magnetic force, thus the electrons follow the straight arrow (dashed).The animation shows the action of a magnetic field on a beam of electric charges in vacuum, or in other terms, exclusively the action of the Lorentz force.", "This animation is an illustration of a typical error performed in the framework of the interpretation of the Hall effect.", "Indeed, at stationary regime and inside a Hall-bar, the electric current is longitudinal whatever the magnetic field and there is no transverse current (in contrast to the case of the corbino disc).", "Only the electric field is modified by a transverse component .For a simple metal where there is only one type of charge carrier (electrons), the Hall voltage can be derived by using the Lorentz force and seeing that, in the steady-state condition, charges are not moving in the -axis direction.", "Thus, the magnetic force on each electron in the -axis direction is cancelled by a -axis electrical force due to the buildup of charges.", "The term is the drift velocity of the current which is assumed at this point to be holes by convention.", "The term is negative in the -axis direction by the right hand rule.In steady state, , so , where is assigned in the direction of the -axis, (and not with the arrow of the induced electric field as in the image (pointing in the direction), which tells you where the field caused by the electrons is pointing).In wires, electrons instead of holes are flowing, so and .", "Also .", "Substituting these changes givesThe conventional \"hole\" current is in the negative direction of the electron current and the negative of the electrical charge which gives where is charge carrier density, is the cross-sectional area, and is the charge of each electron.", "Solving for and plugging into the above gives the Hall voltage:If the charge build up had been positive (as it appears in some metals and semiconductors), then the assigned in the image would have been negative (positive charge would have built up on the left side).The Hall coefficient is defined asorwhere is the current density of the carrier electrons, and is the induced electric field.", "In SI units, this becomes(The units of are usually expressed as m3/C, or Ω·cm/G, or other variants.)", "As a result, the Hall effect is very useful as a means to measure either the carrier density or the magnetic field.One very important feature of the Hall effect is that it differentiates between positive charges moving in one direction and negative charges moving in the opposite.", "In the diagram above, the Hall effect with a negative charge carrier (the electron) is presented.", "But consider the same magnetic field and current are applied but the current is carried inside the Hall effect device by a positive particle.", "The particle would of course have to be moving in the opposite direction of the electron in order for the current to be the same—down in the diagram, not up like the electron is.", "And thus, mnemonically speaking, your thumb in the Lorentz force law, representing (conventional) current, would be pointing the ''same'' direction as before, because current is the same—an electron moving up is the same current as a positive charge moving down.", "And with the fingers (magnetic field) also being the same, interestingly ''the charge carrier gets deflected to the left in the diagram regardless of whether it is positive or negative.''", "But if positive carriers are deflected to the left, they would build a relatively ''positive voltage'' on the left whereas if negative carriers (namely electrons) are, they build up a negative voltage on the left as shown in the diagram.", "Thus for the same current and magnetic field, the electric polarity of the Hall voltage is dependent on the internal nature of the conductor and is useful to elucidate its inner workings.This property of the Hall effect offered the first real proof that electric currents in most metals are carried by moving electrons, not by protons.", "It also showed that in some substances (especially p-type semiconductors), it is contrarily more appropriate to think of the current as positive \"holes\" moving rather than negative electrons.", "A common source of confusion with the Hall effect in such materials is that holes moving one way are really electrons moving the opposite way, so one expects the Hall voltage polarity to be the same as if electrons were the charge carriers as in most metals and n-type semiconductors.", "Yet we observe the opposite polarity of Hall voltage, indicating positive charge carriers.", "However, of course there are no actual positrons or other positive elementary particles carrying the charge in p-type semiconductors, hence the name \"holes\".", "In the same way as the oversimplistic picture of light in glass as photons being absorbed and re-emitted to explain refraction breaks down upon closer scrutiny, this apparent contradiction too can only be resolved by the modern quantum mechanical theory of quasiparticles wherein the collective quantized motion of multiple particles can, in a real physical sense, be considered to be a particle in its own right (albeit not an elementary one).Unrelatedly, inhomogeneity in the conductive sample can result in a spurious sign of the Hall effect, even in ideal van der Pauw configuration of electrodes.", "For example, a Hall effect consistent with positive carriers was observed in evidently n-type semiconductors.", "Another source of artefact, in uniform materials, occurs when the sample's aspect ratio is not long enough: the full Hall voltage only develops far away from the current-introducing contacts, since at the contacts the transverse voltage is shorted out to zero.===Hall effect in semiconductors===When a current-carrying semiconductor is kept in a magnetic field, the charge carriers of the semiconductor experience a force in a direction perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the current.", "At equilibrium, a voltage appears at the semiconductor edges.The simple formula for the Hall coefficient given above is usually a good explanation when conduction is dominated by a single charge carrier.", "However, in semiconductors and many metals the theory is more complex, because in these materials conduction can involve significant, simultaneous contributions from both electrons and holes, which may be present in different concentrations and have different mobilities.", "For moderate magnetic fields the Hall coefficient isor equivalentlywithHere is the electron concentration, the hole concentration, the electron mobility, the hole mobility and the elementary charge.For large applied fields the simpler expression analogous to that for a single carrier type holds.===Relationship with star formation===Although it is well known that magnetic fields play an important role in star formation, research models indicate that Hall diffusion critically influences the dynamics of gravitational collapse that forms protostars.===Quantum Hall effect===For a two-dimensional electron system which can be produced in a MOSFET, in the presence of large magnetic field strength and low temperature, one can observe the quantum Hall effect, in which the Hall conductance undergoes quantum Hall transitions to take on the quantized values.===Spin Hall effect===The spin Hall effect consists in the spin accumulation on the lateral boundaries of a current-carrying sample.", "No magnetic field is needed.", "It was predicted by Mikhail Dyakonov and V. I. Perel in 1971 and observed experimentally more than 30 years later, both in semiconductors and in metals, at cryogenic as well as at room temperatures.The quantity describing the strength of the Spin Hall effect is known as Spin Hall angle, and it is defined as:Where is the spin current generated by the applied current density .===Quantum spin Hall effect===For mercury telluride two dimensional quantum wells with strong spin-orbit coupling, in zero magnetic field, at low temperature, the quantum spin Hall effect has been observed in 2007.===Anomalous Hall effect===In ferromagnetic materials (and paramagnetic materials in a magnetic field), the Hall resistivity includes an additional contribution, known as the '''anomalous Hall effect''' (or the '''extraordinary Hall effect'''), which depends directly on the magnetization of the material, and is often much larger than the ordinary Hall effect.", "(Note that this effect is ''not'' due to the contribution of the magnetization to the total magnetic field.)", "For example, in nickel, the anomalous Hall coefficient is about 100 times larger than the ordinary Hall coefficient near the Curie temperature, but the two are similar at very low temperatures.", "Although a well-recognized phenomenon, there is still debate about its origins in the various materials.", "The anomalous Hall effect can be either an ''extrinsic'' (disorder-related) effect due to spin-dependent scattering of the charge carriers, or an ''intrinsic'' effect which can be described in terms of the Berry phase effect in the crystal momentum space (-space).=== Hall effect in ionized gases ===The Hall effect in an ionized gas (plasma) is significantly different from the Hall effect in solids (where the '''Hall parameter''' is always much less than unity).", "In a plasma, the Hall parameter can take any value.", "The Hall parameter, , in a plasma is the ratio between the electron gyrofrequency, , and the electron-heavy particle collision frequency, :where* is the elementary charge (approximately )* is the magnetic field (in teslas)* is the electron mass (approximately ).The Hall parameter value increases with the magnetic field strength.Physically, the trajectories of electrons are curved by the Lorentz force.", "Nevertheless, when the Hall parameter is low, their motion between two encounters with heavy particles (neutral or ion) is almost linear.", "But if the Hall parameter is high, the electron movements are highly curved.", "The current density vector, , is no longer collinear with the electric field vector, .", "The two vectors and make the '''Hall angle''', , which also gives the Hall parameter:=== Other Hall effects ===The Hall Effects family has expanded to encompass other quasi-particles in semiconductor nanostructures.", "Specifically, a set of Hall Effects has emerged based on excitons and exciton-polaritons n 2D materials and quantum wells." ], [ "Applications", "Hall sensors amplify and use the Hall effect for a variety of sensing applications." ], [ "Corbino effect", "Corbino disc – dashed curves represent 225x225pxThe Corbino effect, named after its discoverer Orso Mario Corbino, is a phenomenon involving the Hall effect, but a disc-shaped metal sample is used in place of a rectangular one.", "Because of its shape the Corbino disc allows the observation of Hall effect–based magnetoresistance without the associated Hall voltage.A radial current through a circular disc, subjected to a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the disc, produces a \"circular\" current through the disc.The absence of the free transverse boundaries renders the interpretation of the Corbino effect simpler than that of the Hall effect." ], [ "See also", "* Electromagnetic induction* Nernst effect* Thermal Hall effect" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Introduction to Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, Volume 1, Plasma Physics, Second Edition, 1984, Francis F. Chen" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Annraoi M. de Paor.", "''Correction to the classical two-species Hall Coefficient using twoport network theory''.", "International Journal of Electrical Engineering Education 43/4.", "* The Hall effect - The Feynman Lectures on Physics* University of Washington The Hall Effect" ], [ "External links", "* , P. H. Craig, ''System and apparatus employing the Hall effect''* , J. T. Maupin, E. A. Vorthmann, ''Hall effect contactless switch with prebiased Schmitt trigger''* * Understanding and Applying the Hall Effect* Hall Effect Thrusters Alta Space* Hall effect calculators* Interactive Java tutorial on the Hall effect National High Magnetic Field Laboratory* Science World (wolfram.com) article.", "* \" The Hall Effect\".", "nist.gov.", "* Table with Hall coefficients of different elements at room temperature .", "* Simulation of the Hall effect as a Youtube video* Hall effect in electrolytes*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hoover Dam" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hoover Dam''' is a concrete arch-gravity dam in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River, on the border between the U.S. states of Nevada and Arizona.", "Constructed between 1931 and 1936, during the Great Depression, it was dedicated on September 30, 1935, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.", "Its construction was the result of a massive effort involving thousands of workers, and cost over 100 lives.", "In bills passed by Congress during its construction, it was referred to as the Hoover Dam, after President Herbert Hoover, but was named the '''Boulder Dam''' by the Roosevelt administration.", "In 1947, the name Hoover Dam was restored by Congress.Since about 1900, the Black Canyon and nearby Boulder Canyon had been investigated for their potential to support a dam that would control floods, provide irrigation water and produce hydroelectric power.", "In 1928, Congress authorized the project.", "The winning bid to build the dam was submitted by a consortium named Six Companies, Inc., which began construction in early 1931.Such a large concrete structure had never been built before, and some of the techniques used were unproven.", "The torrid summer weather and lack of facilities near the site also presented difficulties.", "Nevertheless, Six Companies turned the dam over to the federal government on March 1, 1936, more than two years ahead of schedule.Hoover Dam impounds Lake Mead and is located near Boulder City, Nevada, a municipality originally constructed for workers on the construction project, about south-east of Las Vegas, Nevada.", "The dam's generators provide power for public and private utilities in Nevada, Arizona, and California.", "Hoover Dam is a major tourist attraction, with 7 million tourists a year.", "The heavily traveled U.S. Route 93 (US 93) ran along the dam's crest until October 2010, when the Hoover Dam Bypass opened." ], [ "Background", "=== Search for resources ===River view of the future dam site, As the United States developed the Southwest, the Colorado River was seen as a potential source of irrigation water.", "An initial attempt at diverting the river for irrigation purposes occurred in the late 1890s, when land speculator William Beatty built the Alamo Canal just north of the Mexican border; the canal dipped into Mexico before running to a desolate area Beatty named the Imperial Valley.", "Though water from the Alamo Canal allowed for the widespread settlement of the valley, the canal proved expensive to operate.", "After a catastrophic breach that caused the Colorado River to fill the Salton Sea, the Southern Pacific Railroad spent $3 million in 1906–07 to stabilize the waterway, an amount it hoped in vain that it would be reimbursed for by the federal government.", "Even after the waterway was stabilized, it proved unsatisfactory because of constant disputes with landowners on the Mexican side of the border.As the technology of electric power transmission improved, the Lower Colorado was considered for its hydroelectric-power potential.", "In 1902, the Edison Electric Company of Los Angeles surveyed the river in the hope of building a rock dam which could generate .", "However, at the time, the limit of transmission of electric power was , and there were few customers (mostly mines) within that limit.", "Edison allowed land options it held on the river to lapse—including an option for what became the site of Hoover Dam.In the following years, the Bureau of Reclamation (BOR), known as the Reclamation Service at the time, also considered the Lower Colorado as the site for a dam.", "Service chief Arthur Powell Davis proposed using dynamite to collapse the walls of Boulder Canyon, north of the eventual dam site, into the river.", "The river would carry off the smaller pieces of debris, and a dam would be built incorporating the remaining rubble.", "In 1922, after considering it for several years, the Reclamation Service finally rejected the proposal, citing doubts about the unproven technique and questions as to whether it would, in fact, save money.=== Planning and agreements ===In 1922, the Reclamation Service presented a report calling for the development of a dam on the Colorado River for flood control and electric power generation.", "The report was principally authored by Davis and was called the Fall-Davis report after Interior Secretary Albert Fall.", "The Fall-Davis report cited use of the Colorado River as a federal concern because the river's basin covered several states, and the river eventually entered Mexico.", "Though the Fall-Davis report called for a dam \"at or near Boulder Canyon\", the Reclamation Service (which was renamed the Bureau of Reclamation the following year) found that canyon unsuitable.", "One potential site at Boulder Canyon was bisected by a geologic fault; two others were so narrow there was no space for a construction camp at the bottom of the canyon or for a spillway.", "The Service investigated Black Canyon and found it ideal; a railway could be laid from the railhead in Las Vegas to the top of the dam site.", "Despite the site change, the dam project was referred to as the \"Boulder Canyon Project\".Sketch of the proposed dam site and reservoir, With little guidance on water allocation from the Supreme Court, proponents of the dam feared endless litigation.", "Delph Carpenter, a Colorado attorney, proposed that the seven states which fell within the river's basin (California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, New Mexico, Colorado and Wyoming) form an interstate compact, with the approval of Congress.", "Such compacts were authorized by Article I of the United States Constitution but had never been concluded among more than two states.", "In 1922, representatives of seven states met with then-Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover.", "Initial talks produced no result, but when the Supreme Court handed down the ''Wyoming v. Colorado'' decision undermining the claims of the upstream states, they became anxious to reach an agreement.", "The resulting Colorado River Compact was signed on November 24, 1922.Legislation to authorize the dam was introduced repeatedly by two California Republicans, Representative Phil Swing and Senator Hiram Johnson, but representatives from other parts of the country considered the project as hugely expensive and one that would mostly benefit California.", "The 1927 Mississippi flood made Midwestern and Southern congressmen and senators more sympathetic toward the dam project.", "On March 12, 1928, the failure of the St. Francis Dam, constructed by the city of Los Angeles, caused a disastrous flood that killed up to 600 people.", "As that dam was a curved-gravity type, similar in design to the arch-gravity as was proposed for the Black Canyon dam, opponents claimed that the Black Canyon dam's safety could not be guaranteed.", "Congress authorized a board of engineers to review plans for the proposed dam.", "The Colorado River Board found the project feasible, but warned that should the dam fail, every downstream Colorado River community would be destroyed, and that the river might change course and empty into the Salton Sea.", "The Board cautioned: \"To avoid such possibilities, the proposed dam should be constructed on conservative if not ultra-conservative lines.", "\"On December 21, 1928, President Coolidge signed the bill authorizing the dam.", "The Boulder Canyon Project Act appropriated $165 million for the project along with the downstream Imperial Dam and All-American Canal, a replacement for Beatty's canal entirely on the U.S. side of the border.", "It also permitted the compact to go into effect when at least six of the seven states approved it.", "This occurred on March 6, 1929, with Utah's ratification; Arizona did not approve it until 1944.=== Design, preparation and contracting ===Hoover Dam architectural plansEven before Congress approved the Boulder Canyon Project, the Bureau of Reclamation was considering what kind of dam should be used.", "Officials eventually decided on a massive concrete arch-gravity dam, the design of which was overseen by the Bureau's chief design engineer John L. Savage.", "The monolithic dam would be thick at the bottom and thin near the top and would present a convex face towards the water above the dam.", "The curving arch of the dam would transmit the water's force into the abutments, in this case the rock walls of the canyon.", "The wedge-shaped dam would be thick at the bottom, narrowing to at the top, leaving room for a highway connecting Nevada and Arizona.On January 10, 1931, the Bureau made the bid documents available to interested parties, at five dollars a copy.", "The government was to provide the materials, and the contractor was to prepare the site and build the dam.", "The dam was described in minute detail, covering 100 pages of text and 76 drawings.", "A $2 million bid bond was to accompany each bid; the winner would have to post a $5 million performance bond.", "The contractor had seven years to build the dam, or penalties would ensue.The Wattis Brothers, heads of the Utah Construction Company, were interested in bidding on the project, but lacked the money for the performance bond.", "They lacked sufficient resources even in combination with their longtime partners, Morrison-Knudsen, which employed the nation's leading dam builder, Frank Crowe.", "They formed a joint venture to bid for the project with Pacific Bridge Company of Portland, Oregon; Henry J. Kaiser & W. A. Bechtel Company of San Francisco; MacDonald & Kahn Ltd. of Los Angeles; and the J.F.", "Shea Company of Portland, Oregon.", "The joint venture was called Six Companies, Inc. as Bechtel and Kaiser were considered one company for purposes of Six in the name.", "The name was descriptive and was an inside joke among the San Franciscans in the bid, where \"Six Companies\" was also a Chinese benevolent association in the city.", "There were three valid bids, and Six Companies' bid of $48,890,955 was the lowest, within $24,000 of the confidential government estimate of what the dam would cost to build, and five million dollars less than the next-lowest bid.The city of Las Vegas had lobbied hard to be the headquarters for the dam construction, closing its many speakeasies when the decision maker, Secretary of the Interior Ray Wilbur, came to town.", "Instead, Wilbur announced in early 1930 that a model city was to be built in the desert near the dam site.", "This town became known as Boulder City, Nevada.", "Construction of a rail line joining Las Vegas and the dam site began in September 1930." ], [ "Construction", "=== Labor force ===Workers on a \"Jumbo Rig\"; used for drilling the Hoover Dam's tunnels\"Apache Indians employed as high-scalers on the construction of Hoover Dam.\"", "– NARASoon after the dam was authorized, increasing numbers of unemployed people converged on southern Nevada.", "Las Vegas, then a small city of some 5,000, saw between 10,000 and 20,000 unemployed descend on it.", "A government camp was established for surveyors and other personnel near the dam site; this soon became surrounded by a squatters' camp.", "Known as McKeeversville, the camp was home to men hoping for work on the project, together with their families.", "Another camp, on the flats along the Colorado River, was officially called Williamsville, but was known to its inhabitants as \"Ragtown\".", "When construction began, Six Companies hired large numbers of workers, with more than 3,000 on the payroll by 1932 and with employment peaking at 5,251 in July 1934.", "\"Mongolian\" (Chinese) labor was prevented by the construction contract, while the number of black people employed by Six Companies never exceeded thirty, mostly lowest-pay-scale laborers in a segregated crew, who were issued separate water buckets.As part of the contract, Six Companies, Inc. was to build Boulder City to house the workers.", "The original timetable called for Boulder City to be built before the dam project began, but President Hoover ordered work on the dam to begin in March 1931 rather than in October.", "The company built bunkhouses, attached to the canyon wall, to house 480 single men at what became known as River Camp.", "Workers with families were left to provide their own accommodations until Boulder City could be completed, and many lived in Ragtown.", "The site of Hoover Dam endures extremely hot weather, and the summer of 1931 was especially torrid, with the daytime high averaging .", "Sixteen workers and other riverbank residents died of heat prostration between June 25 and July 26, 1931.General Superintendent Frank Crowe ''(right)'' with Bureau of Reclamation engineer Walker Young in 1935The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW or \"Wobblies\"), though much-reduced from their heyday as militant labor organizers in the early years of the century, hoped to unionize the Six Companies workers by capitalizing on their discontent.", "They sent eleven organizers, several of whom were arrested by Las Vegas police.", "On August 7, 1931, the company cut wages for all tunnel workers.", "Although the workers sent the organizers away, not wanting to be associated with the \"Wobblies\", they formed a committee to represent them with the company.", "The committee drew up a list of demands that evening and presented them to Crowe the following morning.", "He was noncommittal.", "The workers hoped that Crowe, the general superintendent of the job, would be sympathetic; instead, he gave a scathing interview to a newspaper, describing the workers as \"malcontents\".On the morning of the 9th, Crowe met with the committee and told them that management refused their demands, was stopping all work, and was laying off the entire work force, except for a few office workers and carpenters.", "The workers were given until 5 p.m. to vacate the premises.", "Concerned that a violent confrontation was imminent, most workers took their paychecks and left for Las Vegas to await developments.", "Two days later, the remainder were talked into leaving by law enforcement.", "On August 13, the company began hiring workers again, and two days later, the strike was called off.", "While the workers received none of their demands, the company guaranteed there would be no further reductions in wages.", "Living conditions began to improve as the first residents moved into Boulder City in late 1931.A second labor action took place in July 1935, as construction on the dam wound down.", "When a Six Companies manager altered working times to force workers to take lunch on their own time, workers responded with a strike.", "Emboldened by Crowe's reversal of the lunch decree, workers raised their demands to include a $1-per-day raise.", "The company agreed to ask the Federal government to supplement the pay, but no money was forthcoming from Washington.", "The strike ended.=== River diversion ===Overview of dam mechanisms; diversion tunnels shownBefore the dam could be built, the Colorado River needed to be diverted away from the construction site.", "To accomplish this, four diversion tunnels were driven through the canyon walls, two on the Nevada side and two on the Arizona side.", "These tunnels were in diameter.", "Their combined length was nearly 16,000 ft, or more than .", "The contract required these tunnels to be completed by October 1, 1933, with a $3,000-per-day fine to be assessed for any delay.", "To meet the deadline, Six Companies had to complete work by early 1933, since only in late fall and winter was the water level in the river low enough to safely divert.Tunneling began at the lower portals of the Nevada tunnels in May 1931.Shortly afterward, work began on two similar tunnels in the Arizona canyon wall.", "In March 1932, work began on lining the tunnels with concrete.", "First the base, or invert, was poured.", "Gantry cranes, running on rails through the entire length of each tunnel were used to place the concrete.", "The sidewalls were poured next.", "Movable sections of steel forms were used for the sidewalls.", "Finally, using pneumatic guns, the overheads were filled in.", "The concrete lining is thick, reducing the finished tunnel diameter to .", "The river was diverted into the two Arizona tunnels on November 13, 1932; the Nevada tunnels were kept in reserve for high water.", "This was done by exploding a temporary cofferdam protecting the Arizona tunnels while at the same time dumping rubble into the river until its natural course was blocked.Following the completion of the dam, the entrances to the two outer diversion tunnels were sealed at the opening and halfway through the tunnels with large concrete plugs.", "The downstream halves of the tunnels following the inner plugs are now the main bodies of the spillway tunnels.", "The inner diversion tunnels were plugged at approximately one-third of their length, beyond which they now carry steel pipes connecting the intake towers to the power plant and outlet works.", "The inner tunnels' outlets are equipped with gates that can be closed to drain the tunnels for maintenance.=== Groundworks, rock clearance and grout curtain ===To protect the construction site from the Colorado River and to facilitate the river's diversion, two cofferdams were constructed.", "Work on the upper cofferdam began in September 1932, even though the river had not yet been diverted.", "The cofferdams were designed to protect against the possibility of the river's flooding a site at which two thousand men might be at work, and their specifications were covered in the bid documents in nearly as much detail as the dam itself.", "The upper cofferdam was high, and thick at its base, thicker than the dam itself.", "It contained of material.Looking down at \"high scalers\" above the Colorado RiverWhen the cofferdams were in place and the construction site was drained of water, excavation for the dam foundation began.", "For the dam to rest on solid rock, it was necessary to remove accumulated erosion soils and other loose materials in the riverbed until sound bedrock was reached.", "Work on the foundation excavations was completed in June 1933.During this excavation, approximately of material was removed.", "Since the dam was an arch-gravity type, the side-walls of the canyon would bear the force of the impounded lake.", "Therefore, the side-walls were also excavated to reach virgin rock, as weathered rock might provide pathways for water seepage.", "Shovels for the excavation came from the Marion Power Shovel Company.The men who removed this rock were called \"high scalers\".", "While suspended from the top of the canyon with ropes, the high-scalers climbed down the canyon walls and removed the loose rock with jackhammers and dynamite.", "Falling objects were the most common cause of death on the dam site; the high scalers' work thus helped ensure worker safety.", "One high scaler was able to save a life in a more direct manner: when a government inspector lost his grip on a safety line and began tumbling down a slope towards almost certain death, a high scaler was able to intercept him and pull him into the air.", "The construction site had become a magnet for tourists.", "The high scalers were prime attractions and showed off for the watchers.", "The high scalers received considerable media attention, with one worker dubbed the \"Human Pendulum\" for swinging co-workers (and, at other times, cases of dynamite) across the canyon.", "To protect themselves against falling objects, some high scalers dipped cloth hats in tar and allowed them to harden.", "When workers wearing such headgear were struck hard enough to inflict broken jaws, they sustained no skull damage.", "Six Companies ordered thousands of what initially were called \"hard boiled hats\" (later \"hard hats\") and strongly encouraged their use.The cleared, underlying rock foundation of the dam site was reinforced with grout, forming a grout curtain.", "Holes were driven into the walls and base of the canyon, as deep as into the rock, and any cavities encountered were to be filled with grout.", "This was done to stabilize the rock, to prevent water from seeping past the dam through the canyon rock, and to limit \"uplift\"—upward pressure from water seeping under the dam.", "The workers were under severe time constraints due to the beginning of the concrete pour.", "When they encountered hot springs or cavities too large to readily fill, they moved on without resolving the problem.", "A total of 58 of the 393 holes were incompletely filled.", "After the dam was completed and the lake began to fill, large numbers of significant leaks caused the Bureau of Reclamation to examine the situation.", "It found that the work had been incompletely done, and was based on less than a full understanding of the canyon's geology.", "New holes were drilled from inspection galleries inside the dam into the surrounding bedrock.", "It took nine years (1938–47) under relative secrecy to complete the supplemental grout curtain.=== Concrete ===Columns of Hoover Dam being filled with concrete, February 1934 ''(looking upstream from the Nevada rim)''The first concrete was poured into the dam on June 6, 1933, 18 months ahead of schedule.", "Since concrete heats and contracts as it cures, the potential for uneven cooling and contraction of the concrete posed a serious problem.", "Bureau of Reclamation engineers calculated that if the dam were to be built in a single continuous pour, the concrete would take 125 years to cool, and the resulting stresses would cause the dam to crack and crumble.", "Instead, the ground where the dam would rise was marked with rectangles, and concrete blocks in columns were poured, some as large as and high.", "Each five-foot form contained a set of steel pipes; cool river water would be poured through the pipes, followed by ice-cold water from a refrigeration plant.", "When an individual block had cured and had stopped contracting, the pipes were filled with grout.", "Grout was also used to fill the hairline spaces between columns, which were grooved to increase the strength of the joints.The concrete was delivered in huge steel buckets and almost 7 feet in diameter; Crowe was awarded two patents for their design.", "These buckets, which weighed when full, were filled at two massive concrete plants on the Nevada side, and were delivered to the site in special railcars.", "The buckets were then suspended from aerial cableways which were used to deliver the bucket to a specific column.", "As the required grade of aggregate in the concrete differed depending on placement in the dam (from pea-sized gravel to stones), it was vital that the bucket be maneuvered to the proper column.", "When the bottom of the bucket opened up, disgorging of concrete, a team of men worked it throughout the form.", "Although there are myths that men were caught in the pour and are entombed in the dam to this day, each bucket deepened the concrete in a form by only , and Six Companies engineers would not have permitted a flaw caused by the presence of a human body.A total of of concrete was used in the dam before concrete pouring ceased on May 29, 1935.In addition, were used in the power plant and other works.", "More than of cooling pipes were placed within the concrete.", "Overall, there is enough concrete in the dam to pave a two-lane highway from San Francisco to New York.", "Concrete cores were removed from the dam for testing in 1995; they showed that \"Hoover Dam's concrete has continued to slowly gain strength\" and the dam is composed of a \"durable concrete having a compressive strength exceeding the range typically found in normal mass concrete\".", "Hoover Dam concrete is not subject to alkali–silica reaction (ASR), as the Hoover Dam builders happened to use nonreactive aggregate, unlike that at downstream Parker Dam, where ASR has caused measurable deterioration.=== Dedication and completion ===The upstream face of Hoover Dam slowly disappears as Lake Mead fills, May 1935 ''(looking downstream from the Arizona rim)''With most work finished on the dam itself (the powerhouse remained uncompleted), a formal dedication ceremony was arranged for September 30, 1935, to coincide with a western tour being made by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.", "The morning of the dedication, it was moved forward three hours from 2 p.m. Pacific time to 11 a.m.; this was done because Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes had reserved a radio slot for the President for 2 p.m. but officials did not realize until the day of the ceremony that the slot was for 2 p.m. Eastern Time.", "Despite the change in the ceremony time, and temperatures of , 10,000 people were present for the President's speech, in which he avoided mentioning the name of former President Hoover, who was not invited to the ceremony.", "To mark the occasion, a three-cent stamp was issued by the United States Post Office Department—bearing the name \"Boulder Dam\", the official name of the dam between 1933 and 1947.After the ceremony, Roosevelt made the first visit by any American president to Las Vegas.Most work had been completed by the dedication, and Six Companies negotiated with the government through late 1935 and early 1936 to settle all claims and arrange for the formal transfer of the dam to the Federal Government.", "The parties came to an agreement and on March 1, 1936, Secretary Ickes formally accepted the dam on behalf of the government.", "Six Companies was not required to complete work on one item, a concrete plug for one of the bypass tunnels, as the tunnel had to be used to take in irrigation water until the powerhouse went into operation.=== Construction deaths ===Oskar J. W. Hansen's memorial at the dam which reads in part \"They died to make the desert bloom.", "\"There were 112 deaths reported as associated with the construction of the dam.", "The first was Bureau of Reclamation employee Harold Connelly who died on May 15, 1921, after falling from a barge while surveying the Colorado River for an ideal spot for the dam.", "Surveyor John Gregory (\"J.G.\")", "Tierney, who drowned on December 20, 1922, in a flash flood while looking for an ideal spot for the dam was the second person.", "The official list's final death occurred on December 20, 1935, when Patrick Tierney, electrician's helper and the son of J.G.", "Tierney, fell from one of the two Arizona-side intake towers.", "Included in the fatality list are three workers who took their own lives on site, one in 1932 and two in 1933.Of the 112 fatalities, 91 were Six Companies employees, three were Bureau of Reclamation employees, and one was a visitor to the site; the remainder were employees of various contractors not part of Six Companies.Ninety-six of the deaths occurred during construction at the site.", "Not included in the official number of fatalities were deaths that were recorded as pneumonia.", "Workers alleged that this diagnosis was a cover for death from carbon monoxide poisoning (brought on by the use of gasoline-fueled vehicles in the diversion tunnels), and a classification used by Six Companies to avoid paying compensation claims.", "The site's diversion tunnels frequently reached , enveloped in thick plumes of vehicle exhaust gases.", "A total of 42 workers were recorded as having died from pneumonia and were not included in the above total; none were listed as having died from carbon monoxide poisoning.", "No deaths of non-workers from pneumonia were recorded in Boulder City during the construction period.=== Architectural style ===The initial plans for the facade of the dam, the power plant, the outlet tunnels and ornaments clashed with the modern look of an arch dam.", "The Bureau of Reclamation, more concerned with the dam's functionality, adorned it with a Gothic-inspired balustrade and eagle statues.", "This initial design was criticized by many as being too plain and unremarkable for a project of such immense scale, so Los Angeles-based architect Gordon B. Kaufmann, then the supervising architect to the Bureau of Reclamation, was brought in to redesign the exteriors.", "Kaufmann greatly streamlined the design and applied an elegant Art Deco style to the entire project.", "He designed sculpted turrets rising seamlessly from the dam face and clock faces on the intake towers set for the time in Nevada and Arizona—both states are in different time zones, but since Arizona does not observe daylight saving time, the clocks display the same time for more than half the year.Tile floor designed by Allen Tupper TrueHansen's bas-relief on the Nevada elevatorAt Kaufmann's request, Denver artist Allen Tupper True was hired to handle the design and decoration of the walls and floors of the new dam.", "True's design scheme incorporated motifs of the Navajo and Pueblo tribes of the region.", "Although some were initially opposed to these designs, True was given the go-ahead and was officially appointed consulting artist.", "With the assistance of the National Laboratory of Anthropology, True researched authentic decorative motifs from Indian sand paintings, textiles, baskets and ceramics.", "The images and colors are based on Native American visions of rain, lightning, water, clouds, and local animals—lizards, serpents, birds—and on the Southwestern landscape of stepped mesas.", "In these works, which are integrated into the walkways and interior halls of the dam, True also reflected on the machinery of the operation, making the symbolic patterns appear both ancient and modern.With the agreement of Kaufmann and the engineers, True also devised for the pipes and machinery an innovative color-coding which was implemented throughout all BOR projects.", "True's consulting artist job lasted through 1942; it was extended so he could complete design work for the Parker, Shasta and Grand Coulee dams and power plants.", "True's work on the Hoover Dam was humorously referred to in a poem published in ''The New Yorker'', part of which read, \"lose the spark, and justify the dream; but also worthy of remark will be the color scheme\".Complementing Kaufmann and True's work, sculptor Oskar J. W. Hansen designed many of the sculptures on and around the dam.", "His works include the monument of dedication plaza, a plaque to memorialize the workers killed and the bas-reliefs on the elevator towers.", "In his words, Hansen wanted his work to express \"the immutable calm of intellectual resolution, and the enormous power of trained physical strength, equally enthroned in placid triumph of scientific accomplishment\", because \"the building of Hoover Dam belongs to the sagas of the daring.\"", "Hansen's dedication plaza, on the Nevada abutment, contains a sculpture of two winged figures flanking a flagpole.Hoover Dam memorial star map floor, center areaSurrounding the base of the monument is a terrazzo floor embedded with a \"star map\".", "The map depicts the Northern Hemisphere sky at the moment of President Roosevelt's dedication of the dam.", "This is intended to help future astronomers, if necessary, calculate the exact date of dedication.", "The bronze figures, dubbed \"Winged Figures of the Republic\", were both formed in a continuous pour.", "To put such large bronzes into place without marring the highly polished bronze surface, they were placed on ice and guided into position as the ice melted.", "Hansen's bas-relief on the Nevada elevator tower depicts the benefits of the dam: flood control, navigation, irrigation, water storage, and power.", "The bas-relief on the Arizona elevator depicts, in his words, \"the visages of those Indian tribes who have inhabited mountains and plains from ages distant.\"" ], [ "Operation", "=== Power plant and water demands ===Water is released from the jet-flow gates for testing in 1998.Excavation for the powerhouse was carried out simultaneously with the excavation for the dam foundation and abutments.", "The excavation of this U-shaped structure located at the downstream toe of the dam was completed in late 1933 with the first concrete placed in November 1933.Filling of Lake Mead began February 1, 1935, even before the last of the concrete was poured that May.", "The powerhouse was one of the projects uncompleted at the time of the formal dedication on September 30, 1935; a crew of 500 men remained to finish it and other structures.", "To make the powerhouse roof bombproof, it was constructed of layers of concrete, rock, and steel with a total thickness of about , topped with layers of sand and tar.In the latter half of 1936, water levels in Lake Mead were high enough to permit power generation, and the first three Allis Chalmers built Francis turbine-generators, all on the Nevada side, began operating.", "In March 1937, one more Nevada generator went online and the first Arizona generator by August.", "By September 1939, four more generators were operating, and the dam's power plant became the largest hydroelectricity facility in the world.", "The final generator was not placed in service until 1961, bringing the maximum generating capacity to 1,345 megawatts at the time.", "Original plans called for 16 large generators, eight on each side of the river, but two smaller generators were installed instead of one large one on the Arizona side for a total of 17.The smaller generators were used to serve smaller communities at a time when the output of each generator was dedicated to a single municipality, before the dam's total power output was placed on the grid and made arbitrarily distributable.alt=Before water from Lake Mead reaches the turbines, it enters the intake towers and then four gradually narrowing penstocks which funnel the water down towards the powerhouse.", "The intakes provide a maximum hydraulic head (water pressure) of as the water reaches a speed of about .", "The entire flow of the Colorado River usually passes through the turbines.", "The spillways and outlet works (jet-flow gates) are rarely used.", "The jet-flow gates, located in concrete structures above the river and also at the outlets of the inner diversion tunnels at river level, may be used to divert water around the dam in emergency or flood conditions, but have never done so, and in practice are used only to drain water from the penstocks for maintenance.", "Following an uprating project from 1986 to 1993, the total gross power rating for the plant, including two 2.4 megawatt Pelton turbine-generators that power Hoover Dam's own operations is a maximum capacity of 2080 megawatts.", "The annual generation of Hoover Dam varies.", "The maximum net generation was 10.348 TWh in 1984, and the minimum since 1940 was 2.648 TWh in 1956.The average power generated was 4.2 TWh/year for 1947–2008.In 2015, the dam generated 3.6 TWh.The amount of electricity generated by Hoover Dam has been decreasing along with the falling water level in Lake Mead due to the prolonged drought since year 2000 and high demand for the Colorado River's water.", "By 2014 its generating capacity was downrated by 23% to 1592 MW and was providing power only during periods of peak demand.", "Lake Mead fell to a new record low elevation of on July 1, 2016, before beginning to rebound slowly.", "Under its original design, the dam would no longer be able to generate power once the water level fell below , which might have occurred in 2017 had water restrictions not been enforced.", "To lower the minimum power pool elevation from , five wide-head turbines, designed to work efficiently with less flow, were installed.", "Water levels were maintained at over in 2018 and 2019, but fell to a new record low of on June 10, 2021 and were projected to fall below by the end of 2021.Decline in electricity generation since year 2000.Control of water was the primary concern in the building of the dam.", "Power generation has allowed the dam project to be self-sustaining: proceeds from the sale of power repaid the 50-year construction loan, and those revenues also finance the multimillion-dollar yearly maintenance budget.", "Power is generated in step with and only with the release of water in response to downstream water demands.Lake Mead and downstream releases from the dam also provide water for both municipal and irrigation uses.", "Water released from the Hoover Dam eventually reaches several canals.", "The Colorado River Aqueduct and Central Arizona Project branch off Lake Havasu while the All-American Canal is supplied by the Imperial Dam.", "In total, water from Lake Mead serves 18 million people in Arizona, Nevada, and California and supplies the irrigation of over of land.In 2018, the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (LADWP) proposed a $3 billion pumped-storage hydroelectricity project—a \"battery\" of sorts—that would use wind and solar power to recirculate water back up to Lake Mead from a pumping station downriver.==== Power distribution ====Electricity from the dam's powerhouse was originally sold pursuant to a fifty-year contract, authorized by Congress in 1934, which ran from 1937 to 1987.In 1984, Congress passed a new statute which set power allocations to southern California, Arizona, and Nevada from the dam from 1987 to 2017.The powerhouse was run under the original authorization by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power and Southern California Edison; in 1987, the Bureau of Reclamation assumed control.", "In 2011, Congress enacted legislation extending the current contracts until 2067, after setting aside 5% of Hoover Dam's power for sale to Native American tribes, electric cooperatives, and other entities.", "The new arrangement began on October 1, 2017.The Bureau of Reclamation reports that the energy generated under the contracts ending in 2017 was allocated as follows: Area Percentage Metropolitan Water District of Southern California 28.53% State of Nevada 23.37% State of Arizona 18.95% Los Angeles, California 15.42% Southern California Edison 5.54% Boulder City, Nevada 1.77% Glendale, California 1.59% Pasadena, California 1.36% Anaheim, California 1.15% Riverside, California 0.86% Vernon, California 0.62% Burbank, California 0.59% Azusa, California 0.11% Colton, California 0.09% Banning, California 0.05%File:Tourgroup1940.jpg|Tourists gather around one of the generators in the Nevada wing of the powerhouse to hear its operation explained, September 1940.File:Hoover Dam Penstock Header.tif|A worker stands by the diameter Nevada penstock before its junction with another penstock that delivers water to a turbine.=== Spillways ===Water enters the Arizona spillway ''(left)'' during the 1983 floods.", "Lake Mead water level was The dam is protected against over-topping by two spillways.", "The spillway entrances are located behind each dam abutment, running roughly parallel to the canyon walls.", "The spillway entrance arrangement forms a classic side-flow weir with each spillway containing four and steel-drum gates.", "Each gate weighs and can be operated manually or automatically.", "Gates are raised and lowered depending on water levels in the reservoir and flood conditions.", "The gates cannot entirely prevent water from entering the spillways but can maintain an extra of lake level.Water flowing over the spillways falls dramatically into , spillway tunnels before connecting to the outer diversion tunnels and reentering the main river channel below the dam.", "This complex spillway entrance arrangement combined with the approximate elevation drop from the top of the reservoir to the river below was a difficult engineering problem and posed numerous design challenges.", "Each spillway's capacity of was empirically verified in post-construction tests in 1941.The large spillway tunnels have only been used twice, for testing in 1941 and because of flooding in 1983.Both times, when inspecting the tunnels after the spillways were used, engineers found major damage to the concrete linings and underlying rock.", "The 1941 damage was attributed to a slight misalignment of the tunnel invert (or base), which caused cavitation, a phenomenon in fast-flowing liquids in which vapor bubbles collapse with explosive force.", "In response to this finding, the tunnels were patched with special heavy-duty concrete and the surface of the concrete was polished mirror-smooth.", "The spillways were modified in 1947 by adding flip buckets, which both slow the water and decrease the spillway's effective capacity, in an attempt to eliminate conditions thought to have contributed to the 1941 damage.", "The 1983 damage, also due to cavitation, led to the installation of aerators in the spillways.", "Tests at Grand Coulee Dam showed that the technique worked, in principle.=== Roadway and tourism ===View of Hoover Dam from Mike O'Callaghan–Pat Tillman Memorial BridgeThe bypass in front of the damMike O'Callaghan–Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge as visible from Hoover DamThere are two lanes for automobile traffic across the top of the dam, which formerly served as the Colorado River crossing for U.S. Route 93.In the wake of the September 11 terrorist attacks, authorities expressed security concerns and the Hoover Dam Bypass project was expedited.", "Pending the completion of the bypass, restricted traffic was permitted over Hoover Dam.", "Some types of vehicles were inspected prior to crossing the dam while semi-trailer trucks, buses carrying luggage, and enclosed-box trucks over long were not allowed on the dam at all, and were diverted to U.S. Route 95 or Nevada State Routes 163/68.The four-lane Hoover Dam Bypass opened on October 19, 2010.It includes a composite steel and concrete arch bridge, the Mike O'Callaghan–Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge, downstream from the dam.With the opening of the bypass, through traffic is no longer allowed across Hoover Dam; dam visitors are allowed to use the existing roadway to approach from the Nevada side and cross to parking lots and other facilities on the Arizona side.Hoover Dam opened for tours in 1937 after its completion but following Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, it was closed to the public when the United States entered World War II, during which only authorized traffic, in convoys, was permitted.", "After the war, it reopened September 2, 1945, and by 1953, annual attendance had risen to 448,081.The dam closed on November 25, 1963, and March 31, 1969, days of mourning in remembrance of Presidents Kennedy and Eisenhower.", "In 1995, a new visitors' center was built, and the following year, visits exceeded one million for the first time.", "The dam closed again to the public on September 11, 2001; modified tours were resumed in December and a new \"Discovery Tour\" was added the following year.", "Today, nearly a million people per year take the tours of the dam offered by the Bureau of Reclamation.", "Increased security concerns by the government have led to most of the interior structure's being inaccessible to tourists.", "As a result, few of True's decorations can now be seen by visitors.", "Visitors can only purchase tickets on-site and have the options of a guided tour of the whole facility or only the power plant area.", "The only self-guided tour option is for the visitor center itself, where visitors can view various exhibits and enjoy a 360-degree view of the dam." ], [ "Environmental impact", "View upstream from Hoover Dam, October 2021, during the Southwestern North American megadroughtThe changes in water flow and use caused by Hoover Dam's construction and operation have had a large impact on the Colorado River Delta.", "The construction of the dam has been implicated in causing the decline of this estuarine ecosystem.", "For six years after the construction of the dam, while Lake Mead filled, virtually no water reached the mouth of the river.", "The delta's estuary, which once had a freshwater-saltwater mixing zone stretching south of the river's mouth, was turned into an inverse estuary where the level of salinity was higher close to the river's mouth.The Colorado River had experienced natural flooding before the construction of the Hoover Dam.", "The dam eliminated the natural flooding, threatening many species adapted to the flooding, including both plants and animals.", "The construction of the dam devastated the populations of native fish in the river downstream from the dam.", "Four species of fish native to the Colorado River, the Bonytail chub, Colorado pikeminnow, Humpback chub, and Razorback sucker, are listed as endangered." ], [ "Naming controversy", "1933 ''Los Angeles Times'' political cartoon commenting on the attempts of Ickes to keep \"Hoover\" off the dam.During the years of lobbying leading up to the passage of legislation authorizing the dam in 1928, the press generally referred to the dam as \"Boulder Dam\" or as \"Boulder Canyon Dam\", even though the proposed site had shifted to Black Canyon.", "The Boulder Canyon Project Act of 1928 (BCPA) never mentioned a proposed name or title for the dam.", "The BCPA merely allows the government to \"construct, operate, and maintain a dam and incidental works in the main stream of the Colorado River at Black Canyon or Boulder Canyon\".When Secretary of the Interior Ray Wilbur spoke at the ceremony starting the building of the railway between Las Vegas and the dam site on September 17, 1930, he named the dam \"Hoover Dam\", citing a tradition of naming dams after Presidents, though none had been so honored during their terms of office.", "Wilbur justified his choice on the ground that Hoover was \"the great engineer whose vision and persistence ... has done so much to make possible\".", "One writer complained in response that \"the Great Engineer had quickly drained, ditched, and dammed the country.", "\"After Hoover's election defeat in 1932 and the accession of the Roosevelt administration, Secretary Ickes ordered on May 13, 1933, that the dam be referred to as Boulder Dam.", "Ickes stated that Wilbur had been imprudent in naming the dam after a sitting president, that Congress had never ratified his choice, and that it had long been referred to as Boulder Dam.", "Unknown to the general public, Attorney General Homer Cummings informed Ickes that Congress had indeed used the name \"Hoover Dam\" in five different bills appropriating money for construction of the dam.", "The official status this conferred to the name \"Hoover Dam\" had been noted on the floor of the House of Representatives by Congressman Edward T. Taylor of Colorado on December 12, 1930, but was likewise ignored by Ickes.When Ickes spoke at the dedication ceremony on September 30, 1935, he was determined, as he recorded in his diary, \"to try to nail down for good and all the name Boulder Dam.\"", "At one point in the speech, he spoke the words \"Boulder Dam\" five times within thirty seconds.", "Further, he suggested that if the dam were to be named after any one person, it should be for California Senator Hiram Johnson, a lead sponsor of the authorizing legislation.", "Roosevelt also referred to the dam as Boulder Dam, and the Republican-leaning ''Los Angeles Times'', which at the time of Ickes' name change had run an editorial cartoon showing Ickes ineffectively chipping away at an enormous sign \"HOOVER DAM\", reran it showing Roosevelt reinforcing Ickes, but having no greater success.In the following years, the name \"Boulder Dam\" failed to fully take hold, with many Americans using both names interchangeably and mapmakers divided as to which name should be printed.", "Memories of the Great Depression faded, and Hoover to some extent rehabilitated himself through good works during and after World War II.", "In 1947, a bill passed both Houses of Congress unanimously restoring the name \"Hoover Dam.\"", "Ickes, who was by then a private citizen, opposed the change, stating, \"I didn't know Hoover was that small a man to take credit for something he had nothing to do with.\"" ], [ "Recognition", "Hoover Dam was recognized as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1984.It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1981 and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1985, cited for its engineering innovations." ], [ "See also", "* Ralph Luther Criswell, lobbyist on behalf of the dam* Glen Canyon Dam* Hoover Dam Police* List of dams in the Colorado River system* List of largest hydroelectric power stations* List of largest hydroelectric power stations in the United States* List of National Historic Landmarks in Arizona* List of National Historic Landmarks in Nevada* St. Thomas, Nevada, ghost town with site now under Lake Mead.", "* Water in California* Hoover Dam in popular culture*" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Bibliography", "=== Cited works ===* * * * * * * * === Other sources ===* Arrigo, Anthony F. (2014).", "''Imaging Hoover Dam: The Making of a Cultural Icon''.", "Reno, NV: University of Nevada Press.", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Hoover Dam – Visitors Site* Historic Construction Company Project – Hoover Dam* * * * * * '' Hoover Dam'' – An ''American Experience'' Documentary* Boulder City/Hoover Dam Museum official site* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Holger Pedersen" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Holger Pedersen''' may refer to:* Holger Pedersen (linguist) (1867–1953), Danish linguist* Holger Pedersen (astronomer) (born 1946), Danish astronomer, at the European Southern Observatory" ], [ "See also", "* Holger Petersen (disambiguation)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn''''' is a novel by American author Mark Twain, which was first published in the United Kingdom in December 1884 and in the United States in February 1885.Commonly named among the Great American Novels, the work is among the first in major American literature to be written throughout in vernacular English, characterized by local color regionalism.", "It is told in the first person by Huckleberry \"Huck\" Finn, the narrator of two other Twain novels (''Tom Sawyer Abroad'' and ''Tom Sawyer, Detective'') and a friend of Tom Sawyer.", "It is a direct sequel to ''The Adventures of Tom Sawyer''.The book is noted for \"changing the course of children's literature\" in the United States for the \"deeply felt portrayal of boyhood\".", "It is also known for its colorful description of people and places along the Mississippi River.", "Set in a Southern antebellum society that had ceased to exist over 20 years before the work was published, ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' is an often scathing satire on entrenched attitudes, particularly racism and freedom.Perennially popular with readers, ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' has also been the continued object of study by literary critics since its publication.", "The book was widely criticized upon release because of its extensive use of coarse language and racial epithets.", "Throughout the 20th century, and despite arguments that the protagonist and the tenor of the book are anti-racist, criticism of the book continued due to both its perceived use of racial stereotypes and its frequent use of the racial slur \"nigger\"." ], [ "Plot", "Huckleberry Finn, as depicted by E. W. Kemble in the original 1884 edition of the bookIn St. Petersburg, Missouri, on the shore of the Mississippi River, during the 1830s–1840s, Huckleberry \"Huck\" Finn has come into a considerable sum of money following ''The Adventures of Tom Sawyer'' and is placed under the strict guardianship of the Widow Douglas and her sister, Miss Watson who attempt to civilize him.", "Despite missing the liberty of his life as a errant boy, Huck stays with the Widow Douglas to be a part of Tom Sawyer's gang.", "His father, \"Pap\", an abusive alcoholic, returns to town and tries to appropriate Huck's fortune.", "When this fails, Pap kidnaps Huck and imprisons him in a cabin in the woods.", "After a delirium tremens crisis, in which Pap tries to kill Huck, he decides to escape him.", "To escape his father, Huck elaborately fakes his own murder and sets off downriver.", "He settles on Jackson's Island, where he reunites with Miss Watson's slave Jim, who ran away after overhearing she was planning to sell him.", "Huck decides to go downriver with Jim to Cairo, in the free state of Illinois.", "After heavy flooding, the two find a timber raft and an entire house floating down the river.", "Inside, Jim finds a body that has been shot to death but prevents Huck from viewing the corpse.", "Huck sneaks into town and discovers there is a reward out for Jim, who is suspected of killing Huck; the two flee on their raft.Huck and Jim come across a grounded steamer, the ''Walter Scott'', where two thieves are discussing murdering a third.", "Finding that their own raft has drifted away, Huck and Jim flee in the thieves' boat before being noticed.", "They find their own raft again and sink the thieves' boat, keeping their loot.", "Huck tricks a watchman into going to rescue the stranded thieves to assuage his conscience.", "Huck and Jim are separated in a fog, and when they reunite, Huck tricks Jim into thinking he dreamed the entire incident.", "Jim is disappointed when Huck admits the truth.", "Huck is surprised by Jim's strong feelings and apologizes.Jim and Huck on their raft, by E. W. Kemble|leftHuck is conflicted about supporting a runaway slave, which he has been taught is a sin.", "He decides to turn Jim in, but when two white men seeking runaway slaves come upon the raft, he lies to them and they leave.", "Jim and Huck realize they have passed Cairo.", "With no way of getting back upriver, they decide to continue downriver.", "The raft is struck by a passing steamship, again separating the two.", "On the riverbank, Huck meets the Grangerford family, who are engaged in a 30-year blood feud with the Shepherdson family, although no one remembers why the feud originally started.", "After a Grangerford daughter elopes with a Shepherdson boy, the feud boils over and all the Grangerford males are shot and killed in a Shepherdson ambush.", "Huck escapes and is reunited with Jim, who has recovered and repaired the raft.Downriver, Jim and Huck are joined by two confidence men claiming to be a King and a Duke.", "The swindlers rope Huck and Jim into playing along with a series of scams.", "In one town, the swindlers scam the townsfolk with a short and overpriced performance.", "On the third night, the grifters flee before the townsfolk can take revenge.", "In the next town, the swindlers impersonate brothers of recently-deceased Peter Wilks to steal his estate.", "Huck tries to retrieve the money for Wilks's orphaned nieces.", "Two men claiming to be Wilks' real brothers arrive, causing an uproar.", "Huck tries to flee in the confusion, but is caught by the grifters.", "Eventually he escapes, but finds that the swindlers have sold Jim to the Phelps family plantation.", "Huck vows to free Jim, despite believing he will go to hell as a consequence.The Phelps family mistakes Huck for their nephew Tom, who is expected for a visit, and Huck plays along.", "It turns out their nephew is Tom Sawyer.", "When he arrives, he plays along with Huck's story and develops a theatrical plan to free Jim.", "During the escape, Tom is wounded.", "Jim tends to him instead of escaping, and is arrested and returned to the plantation.", "Tom's Aunt Polly arrives and reveals the boys' true identities.", "She explains that Miss Watson has died, freeing Jim in her will.", "Tom admits he knew this, but wanted to \"rescue\" Jim in style.", "Jim says that Huck's father was the dead man they found in the floating house, so Huck may return safely to St. Petersburg.", "Huck declares that he intends to flee west to Indian Territory to escape being adopted by the Phelps family." ], [ "Characters", "Tom Sawyer stealing spoons on the Phelpses' farmThe \"King\" and the \"Duke\", by E. W. KembleIn order of appearance:*Tom Sawyer is Huck's best friend and peer, the main character of other Twain novels and the leader of the town boys in adventures.", "He is mischievous, good-hearted, and \"the best fighter and the smartest kid in town\".", "* Huckleberry Finn, \"Huck\" to his friends, is a boy about \"thirteen or fourteen or along there\" years old (Chapter 17).", "He has been brought up by his father, the town drunk, and has a difficult time fitting into society.", "In the novel, Huck's good nature offers a contrast to the inadequacies and inequalities in society.", "* Widow Douglas is the kind woman who takes Huck in after he helped save her from a violent home invasion.", "She tries her best to \"sivilize\" (civilize) Huck, believing it is her Christian duty to do so.", "* Miss Watson is the widow's sister, a tough old spinster who also lives with them.", "She is fairly hard on Huck, causing him to resent her a good deal.", "Mark Twain may have drawn inspiration for this character from several people he knew in his life.", "* Jim is Miss Watson's physically large but mild-mannered slave.", "Huck becomes very close to Jim when they reunite after Jim flees Miss Watson's household to seek refuge from slavery, and Huck and Jim become fellow travelers on the Mississippi River.", "Jim is shown to be honorable, perceptive, and intelligent, despite his lack of education and prejudice he faces.", "* \"Pap\" Finn is Huck's father, a brutal alcoholic drifter.", "He resents Huck getting any kind of education.", "His only genuine interest in his son involves begging or extorting money to feed his alcohol addiction.", "* Judith Loftus plays a small part in the novel — being the kind and perceptive woman whom Huck talks to in order to find out about the search for Jim — but many critics believe her to be the best drawn female character in the novel.", "* The Grangerfords, an aristocratic Kentuckian family headed by the sexagenarian Colonel Saul Grangerford, take Huck in after he is separated from Jim on the Mississippi.", "Huck becomes close friends with the youngest male of the family, Buck Grangerford, who is Huck's age.", "By the time Huck meets them, the Grangerfords have been engaged in an age-old blood feud with another local family, the Shepherdsons.", "* The Duke and the King are two otherwise unnamed con artists whom Huck and Jim take aboard their raft just before the start of their Arkansas adventures.", "They pose as the long-lost Duke of Bridgewater and the long-dead Louis XVII of France in an attempt to over-awe Huck and Jim, who quickly come to recognize them for what they are, but cynically pretend to accept their claims to avoid conflict.", "* Doctor Robinson is the only man who recognizes that the King and Duke are phonies when they pretend to be British.", "He warns the townspeople, but they ignore him.", "* Mary Jane, Joanna, and Susan Wilks are the three young nieces of their wealthy guardian, Peter Wilks, who has recently died.", "The Duke and the King try to steal their inheritance by posing as Peter's estranged brothers from England but are eventually thwarted.", "* Aunt Sally and Uncle Silas Phelps buy Jim from the Duke and the King.", "She is a loving, high-strung \"farmer's wife\", and he a plodding old man, both a farmer and a preacher.", "Huck poses as their nephew, Tom Sawyer, after he parts from the conmen.", "His intention is to try and help Jim escape." ], [ "Themes", "''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' explores themes of race and identity; what it means to be free and civilized; and the ideas of humanity and social responsibility in the changing landscape of America.", "A complexity exists concerning Jim's character.", "While some scholars point out that Jim is good-hearted and moral, and he is not unintelligent (in contrast to several of the more negatively depicted white characters), others have criticized the novel as racist, citing the use of the word \"nigger\" and emphasizing the stereotypically \"comic\" treatment of Jim's lack of education, superstition and ignorance.", "This argument is supported by incidents early in the novel where Huck deliberately \"tricks\" Jim, taking advantage of his gullibility and Jim still remains loyal to him.But this novel is also Huck's 'coming of age' story where he overcomes his initial biases and forms a deeper bond with Jim.", "Throughout the story, Huck is in moral conflict with the received values of the society in which he lives.", "Huck is unable consciously to rebut those values even in his thoughts but he makes a moral choice based on his own valuation of Jim's friendship and human worth, a decision in direct opposition to the things he has been taught.", "Twain, in his lecture notes, proposes that \"a sound heart is a surer guide than an ill-trained conscience\" and goes on to describe the novel as \"a book of mine where a sound heart and a deformed conscience come into collision and conscience suffers defeat\".To highlight the hypocrisy required to condone slavery within an ostensibly moral system, Twain has Huck's father enslave his son, isolate him and beat him.", "When Huck escapes, he immediately encounters Jim \"illegally\" doing the same thing.", "The treatments both of them receive are radically different, especially in an encounter with Mrs. Judith Loftus who takes pity on who she presumes to be a runaway apprentice, Huck, yet boasts about her husband sending the hounds after a runaway slave, Jim.Some scholars discuss Huck's own character, and the novel itself, in the context of its relation to African-American culture as a whole.", "John Alberti quotes Shelley Fisher Fishkin, who writes in her 1990s book ''Was Huck Black?", ": Mark Twain and African-American Voices'', \"by limiting their field of inquiry to the periphery,\" white scholars \"have missed the ways in which African-American voices shaped Twain's creative imagination at its core.\"", "It is suggested that the character of Huckleberry Finn illustrates the correlation, and even interrelatedness, between white and Black culture in the United States." ], [ "Illustrations", "The original illustrations were done by E. W. Kemble, at the time a young artist working for ''Life'' magazine.", "Kemble was hand-picked by Twain, who admired his work.", "Hearn suggests that Twain and Kemble had a similar skill, writing that:Whatever he may have lacked in technical grace ... Kemble shared with the greatest illustrators the ability to give even the minor individual in a text his own distinct visual personality; just as Twain so deftly defined a full-rounded character in a few phrases, so too did Kemble depict with a few strokes of his pen that same entire personage.As Kemble could afford only one model, most of his illustrations produced for the book were done by guesswork.", "When the novel was published, the illustrations were praised even as the novel was harshly criticized.", "E.W.", "Kemble produced another set of illustrations for Harper's and the American Publishing Company in 1898 and 1899 after Twain lost the copyright." ], [ "Publication's effect on literary climate", "Mark TwainTwain initially conceived of the work as a sequel to ''The Adventures of Tom Sawyer'' that would follow Huckleberry Finn through adulthood.", "Beginning with a few pages he had removed from the earlier novel, Twain began work on a manuscript he originally titled ''Huckleberry Finn's Autobiography.''", "Twain worked on the manuscript off and on for the next several years, ultimately abandoning his original plan of following Huck's development into adulthood.", "He appeared to have lost interest in the manuscript while it was in progress, and set it aside for several years.", "After making a trip down the Hudson River, Twain returned to his work on the novel.", "Upon completion, the novel's title closely paralleled its predecessor's: ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (Tom Sawyer's Comrade)''.Mark Twain composed the story in pen on notepaper between 1876 and 1883.Paul Needham, who supervised the authentication of the manuscript for Sotheby's books and manuscripts department in New York in 1991, stated, \"What you see is Clemens' attempt to move away from pure literary writing to dialect writing\".", "For example, Twain revised the opening line of ''Huck Finn'' three times.", "He initially wrote, \"You will not know about me\", which he changed to, \"You do not know about me\", before settling on the final version, \"You don't know about me, without you have read a book by the name of 'The Adventures of Tom Sawyer'; but that ain't no matter.\"", "The revisions also show how Twain reworked his material to strengthen the characters of Huck and Jim, as well as his sensitivity to the then-current debate over literacy and voting.A later version was the first typewritten manuscript delivered to a printer.Demand for the book spread outside of the United States.", "''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' was eventually published on December 10, 1884, in Canada and the United Kingdom, and on February 18, 1885, in the United States.", "The illustration on page 283 became a point of issue after an engraver, whose identity was never discovered, made a last-minute addition to the printing plate of Kemble's picture of old Silas Phelps, which drew attention to Phelps' groin.", "Thirty thousand copies of the book had been printed before the obscenity was discovered.", "A new plate was made to correct the illustration and repair the existing copies.In 1885, the Buffalo Public Library's curator, James Fraser Gluck, approached Twain to donate the manuscript to the library.", "Twain did so.", "Later it was believed that half of the pages had been misplaced by the printer.", "In 1991, the missing first half turned up in a steamer trunk owned by descendants of Gluck's.", "The library successfully claimed possession and, in 1994, opened the Mark Twain Room to showcase the treasure.In relation to the literary climate at the time of the book's publication in 1885, Henry Nash Smith describes the importance of Mark Twain's already established reputation as a \"professional humorist\", having already published over a dozen other works.", "Smith suggests that while the \"dismantling of the decadent Romanticism of the later nineteenth century was a necessary operation,\" ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' illustrated \"previously inaccessible resources of imaginative power, but also made vernacular language, with its new sources of pleasure and new energy, available for American prose and poetry in the twentieth century.\"" ], [ "Critical reception and banning", "In this scene illustrated by E. W. Kemble, Jim has given Huck up for dead and when he reappears thinks he must be a ghost.While it is clear that ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' was controversial from the outset, Norman Mailer, writing in ''The New York Times'' in 1984, concluded that Twain's novel was not initially \"too unpleasantly regarded.\"", "In fact, Mailer writes: \"the critical climate could hardly anticipate T. S. Eliot and Ernest Hemingway's encomiums 50 years later,\" reviews that would remain longstanding in the American consciousness.Alberti suggests that the academic establishment responded to the book's challenges both dismissively and with confusion.", "During Twain's time and today, defenders of ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' \"lump all nonacademic critics of the book together as extremists and 'censors', thus equating the complaints about the book's 'coarseness' from the genteel bourgeois trustees of the Concord Public Library in the 1880s with more recent objections based on race and civil rights.", "\"Upon issue of the American edition in 1885, several libraries banned it from their shelves.", "The early criticism focused on what was perceived as the book's crudeness.", "One incident was recounted in the newspaper the ''Boston Transcript'':The Concord (Mass.)", "Public Library committee has decided to exclude Mark Twain's latest book from the library.", "One member of the committee says that, while he does not wish to call it immoral, he thinks it contains but little humor, and that of a very coarse type.", "He regards it as the veriest trash.", "The library and the other members of the committee entertain similar views, characterizing it as rough, coarse, and inelegant, dealing with a series of experiences not elevating, the whole book being more suited to the slums than to intelligent, respectable people.Writer Louisa May Alcott criticized the book's publication as well, saying that if Twain \"could not think of something better to tell our pure-minded lads and lasses he had best stop writing for them\".In 1905, New York's Brooklyn Public Library also banned the book due to \"bad word choice\" and Huck's having \"not only itched but scratched\" within the novel, which was considered obscene.", "When asked by a Brooklyn librarian about the situation, Twain sardonically replied: I am greatly troubled by what you say.", "I wrote 'Tom Sawyer' & 'Huck Finn' for adults exclusively, & it always distressed me when I find that boys and girls have been allowed access to them.", "The mind that becomes soiled in youth can never again be washed clean.", "I know this by my own experience, & to this day I cherish an unappeased bitterness against the unfaithful guardians of my young life, who not only permitted but compelled me to read an unexpurgated Bible through before I was 15 years old.", "None can do that and ever draw a clean sweet breath again on this side of the grave.Many subsequent critics, Ernest Hemingway among them, have deprecated the final chapters, claiming the book \"devolves into little more than minstrel-show satire and broad comedy\" after Jim is detained.", "Although Hemingway declared, \"All modern American literature comes from\" ''Huck Finn'', and hailed it as \"the best book we've had\", he cautioned, \"If you must read it you must stop where the Nigger Jim is stolen from the boys .", "That is the real end.", "The rest is just cheating.\"", "The African-American writer Ralph Ellison argued that \"Hemingway missed completely the structural, symbolic and moral necessity for that part of the plot in which the boys rescue Jim.", "Yet it is precisely this part which gives the novel its significance.\"", "Pulitzer Prize winner Ron Powers states in his Twain biography (''Mark Twain: A Life'') that \"Huckleberry Finn endures as a consensus masterpiece despite these final chapters\", in which Tom Sawyer leads Huck through elaborate machinations to rescue Jim." ], [ "Controversy", "In his introduction to ''The Annotated Huckleberry Finn'', Michael Patrick Hearn writes that Twain \"could be uninhibitedly vulgar\", and quotes critic William Dean Howells, a Twain contemporary, who wrote that the author's \"humor was not for most women\".", "However, Hearn continues by explaining that \"the reticent Howells found nothing in the proofs of Huckleberry Finn so offensive that it needed to be struck out\".=== Racial stereotyping ===Much of modern scholarship of ''Huckleberry Finn'' has focused on its treatment of race.", "Many Twain scholars have argued that the book, by humanizing Jim and exposing the fallacies of the racist assumptions of slavery, is an attack on racism.", "Others have argued that the book falls short on this score, especially in its depiction of Jim.", "According to Professor Stephen Railton of the University of Virginia, Twain was unable to fully rise above the stereotypes of Black people that White readers of his era expected and enjoyed, and, therefore, resorted to minstrel show-style comedy to provide humor at Jim's expense, and ended up confirming rather than challenging late 19th-century racist stereotypes.In one instance, the controversy caused a drastically altered interpretation of the text: in 1955, CBS tried to avoid controversial material in a televised version of the book, by deleting all mention of slavery and omitting the character of Jim entirely.=== Use of the word \"nigger\" ===Because of this controversy over whether ''Huckleberry Finn'' is racist or anti-racist, and because the word \"nigger\" is frequently used in the novel (a commonly used word in Twain's time that has since become vulgar and taboo), many have questioned the appropriateness of teaching the book in the U.S. public school system—this questioning of the word \"nigger\" is illustrated by a school administrator of Virginia in 1982 calling the novel the \"most grotesque example of racism I've ever seen in my life\".", "According to the American Library Association, ''Huckleberry Finn'' was the fifth-most frequently challenged book in the United States during the 1990s.There have been several more recent cases involving protests for the banning of the novel.", "In 2003, high school student Calista Phair and her grandmother, Beatrice Clark, in Renton, Washington, proposed banning the book from classroom learning in the Renton School District, though not from any public libraries, because of the word \"nigger\".", "The two curriculum committees that considered her request eventually decided to keep the novel on the 11th grade curriculum, though they suspended it until a panel had time to review the novel and set a specific teaching procedure for the novel's controversial topics.In 2009, a white Washington state high school teacher, John Foley, called for replacing ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' with a more modern novel.", "In an opinion column that Foley wrote in the ''Seattle Post Intelligencer'', he states that all \"novels that use the 'N-word' repeatedly need to go.\"", "He states that teaching the novel is not only unnecessary, but difficult due to the offensive language within the novel with many students becoming uncomfortable at \"just hearing the N-word.", "\"In 2016, ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' was removed from a public school district in Virginia, along with the novel ''To Kill a Mockingbird'', due to their use of racial slurs.==== Expurgated editions ====Publishers have made their own attempts at easing the controversy by way of releasing editions of the book with the word \"nigger\" replaced by less controversial words.", "A 2011 edition of the book, published by NewSouth Books, employed the word \"slave\" (although the word is not properly applied to a freed man).", "Their argument for making the change was to offer the reader a choice of reading a \"sanitized\" version if they were not comfortable with the original.", "Mark Twain scholar Alan Gribben said he hoped the edition would be more friendly for use in classrooms, rather than have the work banned outright from classroom reading lists due to its language.According to publisher Suzanne La Rosa, \"At NewSouth, we saw the value in an edition that would help the works find new readers.", "If the publication sparks good debate about how language impacts learning or about the nature of censorship or the way in which racial slurs exercise their baneful influence, then our mission in publishing this new edition of Twain's works will be more emphatically fulfilled.\"", "Another scholar, Thomas Wortham, criticized the changes, saying the new edition \"doesn't challenge children to ask, 'Why would a child like Huck use such reprehensible language?'\"" ], [ "Adaptations", "=== Film ===* ''Huck and Tom'' (1918 silent) by Famous Players–Lasky; directed by William Desmond Taylor; starring Jack Pickford as Tom, Robert Gordon as Huck and Clara Horton as Becky* ''Huckleberry Finn'' (1920 silent) by Famous Players–Lasky; directed by William Desmond Taylor; starring Lewis Sargent as Huck, Gordon Griffith as Tom and Thelma Salter as Becky* ''Huckleberry Finn'' (1931) by Paramount Pictures; directed by Norman Taurog; starring Jackie Coogan as Tom, Junior Durkin as Huck, and Mitzi Green as Becky* ''The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' (1939) by MGM; directed by Richard Thorpe; starring Mickey Rooney as Huck* ''The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' (1955), starring Thomas Mitchell and John Carradine* ''The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' (1960), directed by Michael Curtiz, starring Eddie Hodges and Archie Moore* ''Hopelessly Lost'' (1973), a Soviet film* ''Huckleberry Finn'' (1974), a musical film* ''Huckleberry Finn'' (1975), an ABC movie of the week with Ron Howard as Huck Finn* ''The Adventures of Con Sawyer and Hucklemary Finn'' (1985), an ABC movie of the week with Drew Barrymore as Con Sawyer* ''The Adventures of Huck Finn'' (1993), starring Elijah Wood and Courtney B. Vance* ''Tom and Huck'' (1995), starring Jonathan Taylor Thomas as Tom and Brad Renfro as Huck* ''Tomato Sawyer and Huckleberry Larry's Big River Rescue'' (2008), a ''VeggieTales'' parody* '''' (2012), a German film starring Leon Seidel and directed by Hermine Huntgeburth* ''Tom Sawyer & Huckleberry Finn'' (2014), starring Joel Courtney as Tom Sawyer, Jake T. Austin as Huckleberry Finn, Katherine McNamara as Becky Thatcher=== Television ===* ''Huckleberry no Bōken'', a 1976 Japanese anime with 26 episodes* ''Huckleberry Finn and His Friends'', a 1979 series starring Ian Tracey* ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'', a 1985 PBS TV adaptation directed by Peter H. Hunt, starring Patrick Day and Samm-Art Williams, with 4 one hour episodes(240 minutes)* ''Huckleberry Finn Monogatari'' (ハックルベリー・フィン物語), a 1994 Japanese anime with 26 episodes, produced by NHK=== Other ===* ''The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' (1973), by Robert James Dixson – a simplified version* ''Big River: The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'', a 1985 Broadway musical with lyrics and music by Roger Miller* ''Manga Classics: Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' published by UDON Entertainment's Manga Classics imprint was released in November 2017." ], [ "Related works", "=== Literature ===* ''Finn: A Novel'' (2007), by Jon Clinch – a novel about Huck's father, Pap Finn ()* ''Huck Out West'' (2017), by Robert Coover – continues Huck's and Tom's adventures during the 1860s and 1870s ()* ''The Further Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' (1983) by Greg Matthews – continues Huck's and Jim's adventures as they \"light out for the territory\" and wind up in the throes of the California Gold Rush of 1849* ''My Jim'' (2005), by Nancy Rawles – a novel narrated largely by Sadie, Jim's enslaved wife ()=== Music ===* ''Mississippi Suite'' (1926), by Ferde Grofe: the second movement is a lighthearted whimsical piece entitled \"Huckleberry Finn\"* ''Huckleberry Finn EP'' (2009), comprising five songs from Kurt Weill's unfinished musical, by Duke Special=== Television ===* ''The New Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'', a 1968 children's series produced by Hanna-Barbera combining live-action and animation" ], [ "See also", "* Mark Twain bibliography* List of films featuring slavery* ''The Story of a Bad Boy''" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Further reading", "* Beaver, Harold, et al., eds.", "\"The Role of Structure in Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn.\"", "''Huckleberry Finn''.", "Vol.", "1.No.", "8.", "(New York: Johns Hopkins Textual Studies, 1987) pp. 1–57.", "* Brown, Clarence A.", "\"Huckleberry Finn: A Study in Structure and Point of View.\"", "''Mark Twain Journal'' 12.2 (1964): 10–15.Online* Buchen, Callista.", "\"Writing the Imperial Question at Home: Huck Finn and Tom Sawyer Among the Indians Revisited.\"", "''Mark Twain Annual'' 9 (2011): 111–129.online* Gribben, Alan.", "\"Tom Sawyer, Tom Canty, and Huckleberry Finn: The Boy Book and Mark Twain.\"", "''Mark Twain Journal'' 55.1/2 (2017): 127–144 online* Levy, Andrew, ''Huck Finn's America: Mark Twain and the Era that Shaped His Masterpiece.''", "New York: Simon and Schuster, 2015.", "* Quirk, Tom.", "\"The Flawed Greatness of Huckleberry Finn.\"", "''American Literary Realism'' 45.1 (2012): 38–48.", "* Saunders, George.", "\"The United States of Huck: Introduction to ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn''.\"", "In ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' (Modern Library Classics, 2001) , reprinted in Saunders, George, ''The Braindead Megaphone: Essays'' (New York: Riverhead Books, 2007) * * Tibbetts, John C. and James M. Welsh, eds.", "''The Encyclopedia of Novels Into Film'' (2005) pp 1–3.=== Study and teaching tools ===* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'', with all the original illustrations – Free Online – Mark Twain Project (printed 2003 University of California Press, online 2009 MTPO) Rich editorial material accompanies text, including detailed historical notes, glossaries, maps, and documentary appendixes, which record the author's revisions as well as unauthorized textual variations.", "* ''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn''.", "Digitized copy of the first American edition from Internet Archive (1885).", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Harpsichord" ], [ "Introduction", "Harpsichord with double keyboard.", "The inside of the lid is decorated with two original paintings depicting the battle between Apollo and Pan based on ''The Judgment of Midas'' by Hendrick Goltzius (1590).", "The front cover shows Apollo and the Muses on Mount Helicon.", "The exterior was repainted with red chinoiserie decoration in the 18th century.A '''harpsichord''' (; ; ; ; ; ; ; ) is a musical instrument played by means of a keyboard.", "This activates a row of levers that turn a trigger mechanism that plucks one or more strings with a small plectrum made from quill or plastic.", "The strings are under tension on a soundboard, which is mounted in a wooden case; the soundboard amplifies the vibrations from the strings so that the listeners can hear it.", "Like a pipe organ, a harpsichord may have more than one keyboard manual, and even a pedal board.", "Harpsichords may also have stop buttons which add or remove additional octaves.", "Some harpsichords may have a buff stop, which brings a strip of buff leather or other material in contact with the strings, muting their sound to simulate the sound of a plucked lute.The term denotes the whole family of similar plucked-keyboard instruments, including the smaller virginals, muselar, and spinet.", "The harpsichord was widely used in Renaissance and Baroque music, both as an accompaniment instrument and as a soloing instrument.", "During the Baroque era, the harpsichord was a standard part of the continuo group.", "The basso continuo part acted as the foundation for many musical pieces in this era.", "During the late 18th century, with the development of the fortepiano (and then the increasing use of the piano in the 19th century) the harpsichord gradually disappeared from the musical scene (except in opera, where it continued to be used to accompany recitative).", "In the 20th century, it made a resurgence, being used in historically informed performances of older music, in new compositions, and, in rare cases, in certain styles of popular music (e.g., Baroque pop)." ], [ "History", "An early diagram of a vertical harpsichord (clavicytherium) by Arnault de Zwolle, The harpsichord was most likely invented in the late Middle Ages.", "By the 16th century, harpsichord makers in Italy were making lightweight instruments with low tension brass stringing.", "A different approach was taken in the Southern Netherlands starting in the late 16th century, notably by the Ruckers family.", "Their harpsichords used a heavier construction and produced a more powerful and distinctive tone with higher tension steel treble stringing.", "These included the first harpsichords with two keyboards, used for transposition.The Flemish instruments served as the model for 18th-century harpsichord construction in other nations.", "In France, the double keyboards were adapted to control different choirs of strings, making a more musically flexible instrument (so-called 'expressive doubles').", "Instruments from the peak of the French tradition, by makers such as the Blanchet family and Pascal Taskin, are among the most widely admired of all harpsichords, and are frequently used as models for the construction of modern instruments.", "In England, the Kirkman and Shudi firms produced sophisticated harpsichords of great power and sonority.", "German builders such as Hieronymus Albrecht Hass extended the sound repertoire of the instrument by adding sixteen-foot and two-foot choirs; these instruments have recently served as models for modern builders.Around the year 1700 the first fortepiano was built by Bartolomeo Cristofori.", "The early fortepiano uses percussion, the strings being struck with leathered paper hammers instead of being plucked.", "The fortepiano is capable of changes in dynamic volume, giving it its name.", "This is unlike the harpsichord.", "By the late 18th century the harpsichord was supplanted by the piano and almost disappeared from view for most of the 19th century: an exception was its continued use in opera for accompanying recitative, but the piano sometimes displaced it even there.Twentieth-century efforts to revive the harpsichord began with instruments that used piano technology, with heavy strings and metal frames.", "Starting in the middle of the 20th century, ideas about harpsichord making underwent a major change, when builders such as Frank Hubbard, William Dowd, and Martin Skowroneck sought to re-establish the building traditions of the Baroque period.", "Harpsichords of this type of historically informed building practice dominate the current scene." ], [ "Mechanism", "Detail of the mechanism of the Harpsichord by Christian Zell, at Museu de la Música de BarcelonaHarpsichords vary in size and shape, but all have the same basic mechanism.", "The player depresses a key that rocks over a pivot in the middle of its length.", "The other end of the key lifts a jack (a long strip of wood) that holds a small plectrum (a wedge-shaped piece of quill, often made of plastic in the 21st century), which plucks the string.", "When the player releases the key, the far end returns to its rest position, and the jack falls back; the plectrum, mounted on a tongue mechanism that can swivel backwards away from the string, passes the string without plucking it again.", "As the key reaches its rest position, a felt damper atop the jack stops the string's vibrations.", "These basic principles are explained in detail below.Figure 1: schematic view of a 2 × 8 single manual harpsichord* The ''keylever'' is a simple pivot, which rocks on a ''balance pin'' that passes through a hole drilled through the keylever.", "* The ''jack'' is a thin, rectangular piece of wood that sits upright on the end of the keylever.", "The jacks are held in place by the ''registers''.", "These are two long strips of wood (the upper movable, the lower fixed), which run in the gap between pinblock and bellyrail.", "The registers have rectangular mortises (holes) through which the jacks pass as they can move up and down.", "The registers hold the jacks in the precise location needed to pluck the string.Figure 2: upper part of a jack* In the jack, a ''plectrum'' juts out almost horizontally (normally the plectrum is angled upwards a tiny amount) and passes just under the string.", "Historically, plectra were made of bird quill or leather; many modern harpsichords have plastic (delrin or celcon) plectra.", "* When the front of the key is pressed, the back of the key rises, the jack is lifted, and the plectrum plucks the string.", "* The vertical motion of the jack is then stopped by the ''jackrail'' (also called the ''upper rail''), which is covered with soft felt to muffle the impact.Figure 3: how the harpsichord action works* When the key is released, the jack falls back down under its own weight, and the plectrum passes back under the string.", "This is made possible by having the plectrum held in a tongue attached with a pivot and a spring to the body of the jack.", "The bottom surface of the plectrum is cut at a slant; thus when the descending plectrum touches the string from above, the angled lower surface provides enough force to push the tongue backward.", "* When the jack arrives in fully lowered position, the felt damper touches the string, causing the note to cease." ], [ "Strings, tuning, and soundboard", "Sound board of a harpsichord with Chladni patternsDetail of the harpsichord by Karl Conrad Fleischer; Hamburg, 1720 in Museu de la Música de Barcelona.", "A decorative rose descends below the soundboard in which it is mounted; the soundboard itself is adorned with floral painting around the rose.", "The bridge is at lower right.Each string is wound around a ''tuning pin'' (also known as a ''wrest pin'') at the end nearest the player.", "When rotated with a wrench or tuning hammer, the tuning pin adjusts the tension so that the string sounds the correct pitch.", "Tuning pins are held tightly in holes drilled in the ''pinblock'' or ''wrestplank'', an oblong hardwood plank.", "Proceeding from the tuning pin, a string next passes over the ''nut'', a sharp edge that is made of hardwood and is normally attached to the wrestplank.", "The section of the string beyond the nut forms its ''vibrating length'', which is plucked and creates sound.At the other end of its vibrating length, the string passes over the bridge, another sharp edge made of hardwood.", "As with the nut, the horizontal position of the string along the bridge is determined by a vertical metal pin inserted into the bridge, against which the string rests.", "The bridge itself rests on a ''soundboard'', a thin panel of wood usually made of spruce, fir or—in some Italian harpsichords—cypress.", "The soundboard efficiently transmits the vibrations of the strings into vibrations in the air; without a soundboard, the strings would produce only a very feeble sound.", "A string is attached at its far end by a loop to a ''hitchpin'' that secures it to the case." ], [ "Multiple manuals and choirs of strings", "A two manual harpsichordWhile many harpsichords have one string per note, more elaborate harpsichords can have two or more strings for each note.", "When there are multiple strings for each note, these additional strings are called \"choirs\" of strings.", "This provides two advantages: the ability to vary volume and ability to vary tonal quality.", "Volume is increased when the mechanism of the instrument is set up by the player (see below) so that the press of a single key plucks more than one string.", "Tonal quality can be varied in two ways.", "First, different choirs of strings can be designed to have distinct tonal qualities, usually by having one set of strings plucked closer to the nut, which emphasizes the higher harmonics, and produces a \"nasal\" sound quality.", "The mechanism of the instrument, called \"stops\" (following the use of the term in pipe organs) permits the player to select one choir or the other.", "Second, having one key pluck two strings at once changes not just volume but also tonal quality; for instance, when two strings tuned to the same pitch are plucked simultaneously, the note is not just louder but also richer and more complex.A particularly vivid effect is obtained when the strings plucked simultaneously are an octave apart.", "This is normally heard by the ear not as two pitches but as one: the sound of the higher string is blended with that of the lower one, and the ear hears the lower pitch, enriched in tonal quality by the additional strength in the upper harmonics of the note sounded by the higher string.When describing a harpsichord it is customary to specify its choirs of strings, often called its disposition.", "To describe the pitch of the choirs of strings, pipe organ terminology is used.", "Strings at eight-foot pitch (8') sound at the normal expected pitch, strings at four-foot pitch (4') sound an octave higher.", "Harpsichords occasionally include a sixteen-foot (16') choir (one octave lower than eight-foot) or a two-foot (2') choir (two octaves higher; quite rare).", "When there are multiple choirs of strings, the player is often able to control which choirs sound.", "This is usually done by having a set of jacks for each choir, and a mechanism for \"turning off\" each set, often by moving the upper register (through which the jacks slide) sideways a short distance, so that their plectra miss the strings.", "In simpler instruments this is done by manually moving the registers, but as the harpsichord evolved, builders invented levers, knee levers and pedal mechanisms to make it easier to change registration.Harpsichords with more than one keyboard (this usually means two keyboards, stacked one on top of the other in a step-wise fashion, as with pipe organs) provide flexibility in selecting which strings play, since each manual can be set to control the plucking of a different set of strings.", "This means that a player can have, for instance, an 8' manual and a 4' manual ready for use, enabling him to switch between them to obtain higher (or lower) pitches or different tone.", "In addition, such harpsichords often have a mechanism (the \"coupler\") that couples manuals together, so that a single manual plays both sets of strings.The most flexible system is the French \"shove coupler\", in which the lower manual slides forward and backward.", "In the backward position, \"dogs\" attached to the upper surface of the lower manual engage the lower surface of the upper manual's keys.", "Depending on choice of keyboard and coupler position, the player can select any of the sets of jacks labeled in \"figure 4\" as A, or B and C, or all three.Figure 4.French shove coupler.", "To the left: uncoupled keyboards.", "The depressed upper key lifts the jack A upwards.", "The depressed lower key lifts jacks B and C. To the right: The upper keyboard is coupled to the lower one by pulling the latter.", "The depressed upper key lifts the jack A upwards.", "The depressed lower key lifts jacks A, B and C.The English \"dogleg\" jack system (also used in Baroque Flanders) does not require a coupler.", "The jacks labeled A in Figure 5 have a \"dogleg\" shape that permits either keyboard to play A.", "If the player wishes to play the upper 8' from the upper manual only and not from the lower manual, a stop handle disengages the jacks labeled A and engages instead an alternative row of jacks called \"lute stop\" (not shown in the Figure).", "A lute stop is used to imitate the gentle sound of a plucked lute.Figure 5.Dogleg jack, English coupler system.", "When depressed, the upper key lifts the \"dogleg\" jack (jack A) upwards.", "The lower key lifts all three jacks A, B, and C. The use of multiple manuals in a harpsichord was not originally provided for the flexibility in choosing which strings would sound, but rather for transposition of the instrument to play in different keys (see ''History of the harpsichord'').Some early harpsichords and organs had a short octave in the lowest register.", "It replaced rarely used bass notes with more widely used notes.Some early harpsichords used a short octave for the lowest register.", "The rationale behind this system was that the low notes F and G are seldom needed in early music.", "Deep bass notes typically form the root of the chord, and F and G chords were seldom used at this time.", "In contrast, low C and D, both roots of very common chords, are sorely missed if a harpsichord with lowest key E is tuned to match the keyboard layout.", "When scholars specify the pitch range of instruments with this kind of short octave, they write \"C/E\", meaning that the lowest note is a C, played on a key that normally would sound E. In another arrangement, known as \"G/B', the apparent lowest key B is tuned to G, and apparent C-sharp and D-sharp are tuned to A and B respectively." ], [ "Case", "The wooden case holds in position all of the important structural members: pinblock, soundboard, hitchpins, keyboard, and the jack action.", "It usually includes a solid bottom, and also internal bracing to maintain its form without warping under the tension of the strings.", "Cases vary greatly in weight and sturdiness: Italian harpsichords are often of light construction; heavier construction is found in the later Flemish instruments and those derived from them.A false inner–outer harpsichord from the Deutsches Museum in Munich.", "The false inner case begins to the right of the keyboard, and continues backward only far enough to provide a slot to support the jack rail.The case also gives the harpsichord its external appearance and protects the instrument.", "A large harpsichord is, in a sense, a piece of furniture, as it stands alone on legs and may be styled in the manner of other furniture of its place and period.", "Early Italian instruments, on the other hand, were so light in construction that they were treated rather like a violin: kept for storage in a protective outer case, and played after taking it out of its case and placing it on a table.", "Such tables were often quite high – until the late 18th century people usually played standing up.", "Eventually, harpsichords came to be built with just a single case, though an intermediate stage also existed: the ''false inner–outer'', which for purely aesthetic reasons was built to look as if the outer case contained an inner one, in the old style.", "Even after harpsichords became self-encased objects, they often were supported by separate stands, and some modern harpsichords have separate legs for improved portability.Many harpsichords have a lid that can be raised, a cover for the keyboard, and a music stand for holding sheet music and scores.Harpsichords have been decorated in a great many different ways: with plain buff paint (e.g.", "some Flemish instruments), with paper printed with patterns, with leather or velvet coverings, with chinoiserie, or occasionally with highly elaborate painted artwork." ], [ "Variants", "===Virginals===Jan Vermeer's famous painting ''Lady Standing at a Virginal'' shows a characteristic practice of his time, with the instrument mounted on a table and the player standing.The virginal is a smaller and simpler rectangular form of the harpsichord having only one string per note; the strings run parallel to the keyboard, which is on the long side of the case.===Spinet===A spinet is a harpsichord with the strings set at an angle (usually about 30 degrees) to the keyboard.", "The strings are too close together for the jacks to fit between them.", "Instead, the strings are arranged in pairs, and the jacks are in the larger gaps between the pairs.", "The two jacks in each gap face in opposite directions, and each plucks a string adjacent to the gap.The English diarist Samuel Pepys mentions his \"tryangle\" several times.", "This was not the percussion instrument that we call triangle today; rather, it was a name for octave-pitched spinets, which were triangular in shape.===Clavicytherium===A clavicytherium is a harpsichord with the soundboard and strings mounted vertically facing the player, the same space-saving principle as an upright piano.", "In a clavicytherium, the jacks move horizontally without the assistance of gravity, so that clavicytherium actions are more complex than those of other harpsichords.An ottavino built by Arnold Dolmetsch in 1923, and modeled after a 1698 instrument by Joannes Carcassi===Ottavino===Ottavini are small spinets or virginals at four-foot pitch.", "Harpsichords at octave pitch were more common in the early Renaissance, but lessened in popularity later on.", "However, the ottavino remained very popular as a domestic instrument in Italy until the 19th century.", "In the Low Countries, an ottavino was commonly paired with an 8' virginals, encased in a small cubby under the soundboard of the larger instrument.", "The ottavino could be removed and placed on top of the virginal, making, in effect, a double manual instrument.", "These are sometimes called 'mother-and-child' or 'double' virginals.===Pedal harpsichord===Occasionally, harpsichords were built which included another set or sets of strings underneath and played by foot-operated pedal keyboard which trigger the plucking of the lowest-pitched keys of the harpsichord.", "Although there are no known extant pedal harpsichords from the 18th century or before, from Adlung (1758): the lower set of usually 8' strings \"...is built like an ordinary harpsichord, but with an extent of two octaves only.", "The jacks are similar, but they will benefit from being arranged back to back, since the two bass octaves take as much space as four in an ordinary harpsichord Prior to 1980 when Keith Hill introduced his design for a pedal harpsichord, most pedal harpsichords were built based on the designs of extant pedal pianos from the 19th century, in which the instrument is as wide as the pedalboard.", "While these were mostly intended as practice instruments for organists, a few pieces are believed to have been written specifically for the pedal harpsichord.", "However, the set of pedals can augment the sound from any piece performed on the instrument, as demonstrated on several albums by E. Power Biggs.===Other variants===The archicembalo, built in the 16th century, had an unusual keyboard layout, designed to accommodate variant tuning systems demanded by compositional practice and theoretical experimentation.", "More common were instruments with split sharps, also designed to accommodate the tuning systems of the time.The folding harpsichord was an instrument that could be folded up to make it more compact, thus facilitating travelling with it." ], [ "Compass and pitch range", "On the whole, earlier harpsichords have smaller ranges than later ones, although there are many exceptions.", "The largest harpsichords have a range of just over five octaves, and the smallest have under four.", "Usually, the shortest keyboards were given extended range in the bass with a \"short octave\".", "The traditional pitch range for a 5-octave instrument is F1–F6 (FF–f‴).Tuning pitch is often taken to be A4 = 415 Hz, roughly a semitone lower than the modern standard concert pitch of A4 = 440 Hz.", "An accepted exception is for French baroque repertoire, which is often performed with a = 392 Hz, approximately a semitone lower again.", "See Jean-Philippe Rameau's ''Treatise on Harmony'' (1722) Dover Publications, Book One, chapter five, for insight into French baroque tuning; \"Since most of these semitones are absolutely necessary in the tuning of organs and other similar instruments, the following chromatic system has been drawn up.\"", "Tuning an instrument nowadays usually starts with setting an A; historically it would commence from a C or an F.Some modern instruments are built with keyboards that can shift sideways, allowing the player to align the mechanism with strings at either A = 415 Hz or A = 440 Hz.", "If a tuning other than equal temperament is used, the instrument requires retuning once the keyboard is shifted." ], [ "Music", "===Classical period===Little Prelude in C major being played on a harpsichordThe great bulk of the standard repertoire for the harpsichord was written during its first historical flowering, the Renaissance and Baroque eras.The first music written specifically for solo harpsichord was published around the early 16th century.", "Composers who wrote solo harpsichord music were numerous during the whole Baroque era in European countries including Italy, Germany, England and France.", "Solo harpsichord compositions included dance suites, fantasias, and fugues.", "Among the most famous composers who wrote for the harpsichord were the members of English virginal school of the late Renaissance, notably William Byrd ( 1540–1623).", "In France, a great number of highly characteristic solo works were created and compiled into four books of ''ordres'' by François Couperin (1668–1733).", "Domenico Scarlatti (1685–1757) began his career in Italy but wrote most of his solo harpsichord works in Spain; his most famous work is his series of 555 harpsichord sonatas.", "Perhaps the most celebrated composers who wrote for the harpsichord were Georg Friedrich Händel (1685–1759), who composed numerous suites for harpsichord, and especially J. S. Bach (1685–1750), whose solo works (for instance, ''The Well-Tempered Clavier'' and the ''Goldberg Variations''), continue to be performed very widely, often on the piano.", "Bach was also a pioneer of the harpsichord concerto, both in works designated as such, and in the harpsichord part of his Fifth Brandenburg Concerto.Two of the most prominent composers of the Classical era, Joseph Haydn (1732–1809) and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791), wrote harpsichord music.", "For both, the instrument featured in the earlier period of their careers, ===Revival===Modern harpsichord, made by Colzani in 2021Through the 19th century, the harpsichord was almost completely supplanted by the piano.", "In the 20th century, composers returned to the instrument, as they sought out variation in the sounds available to them.", "Under the influence of Arnold Dolmetsch, the harpsichordists Violet Gordon-Woodhouse (1872–1951) and in France, Wanda Landowska (1879–1959), were at the forefront of the instrument's renaissance.", "Concertos for the instrument were written by Francis Poulenc (the ''Concert champêtre'', 1927–28), and Manuel de Falla.", "Elliott Carter's ''Double Concerto'' is scored for harpsichord, piano and two chamber orchestras.", "For a detailed account of music composed for the revived harpsichord, see Contemporary harpsichord." ], [ "See also", "* List of historical harpsichord makers* Clavichord*List of keyboard instruments" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * An authoritative survey by a leading builder of how early harpsichords were built and how the harpsichord evolved over time in different national traditions.", "* * An extensive survey by a leading contemporary scholar.", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Boalch, Donald H. (1995) ''Makers of the Harpsichord and Clavichord, 1440–1840'', 3rd ed., with updates by Andreas H. Roth and Charles Mould, Oxford University Press, .", "A catalogue, originating with work by Boalch in the 1950s, of all extant historical instruments.", "* O'Brien, Grant (1990) ''Ruckers, a Harpsichord and Virginal Building Tradition'', Cambridge University Press, .", "Covers the innovations of the Ruckers family, the founders of the Flemish tradition.", "* Skowroneck, Martin (2003) ''Cembalobau: Erfahrungen und Erkenntnisse aus der Werkstattpraxis'' Harpsichord construction: a craftsman's workshop experience and insight, Fachbuchreihe Das Musikinstrument '''83''', Bergkirchen : Bochinsky, .", "A study (written in English and German) of harpsichord building by a leading figure in the modern revival of historically authentic methods of building.", "* Zuckermann, Wolfgang (1969) ''The Modern Harpsichord: Twentieth Century Instruments and Their Makers'', New York : October House, * ''The New Grove: Early Keyboard Instruments''.", "Macmillan, 1989 .", "(material from here is also available online in ''Grove Music Online'')* Beurmann, Andreas (2012) ''Harpsichords and More.", "Harpsichords, Spinets, Clavichords, Virginals.", "Portraits of a Collection.", "The Beurmann Collection in the Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe, Hamburg, and at the Estate of Hasselburg in East Holstein, Germany'', Hildesheim/Zürich/New York, 2012, ." ], [ "External links", "'''Instruments'''* * A few historic harpsichords from the collection at the Metropolitan Museum of Art** Double virginal by Hans Ruckers, Antwerp, 1581** Harpsichord by Jan Couchet, Antwerp, 1650** Octave virginal, Augsburg, c. 1600** Spinetta or Virginal, Venice, c. 1540** Golden Harpsichord by Michele Todini, Rome, c. 1675** Harpsichord, Italy, late 17th century** Harpsichord by Pleyel et Cie, Paris, 1928* Three historic harpsichords from the Hans Adler Memorial collection at Witwatersrand University* Harpsichord attributed to Girolama Zenti, Viterbo, 1622 (Cobb Collection)* More than 450 Harpsichords at the MIMO (Musical Instruments Museums Online) portal'''Craftsman insights'''* Interview with harpsichord builder Craig Tomlinson'''Music'''*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hair" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hair''' is a protein filament that grows from follicles found in the dermis.", "Hair is one of the defining characteristics of mammals.The human body, apart from areas of glabrous skin, is covered in follicles which produce thick terminal and fine vellus hair.", "Most common interest in hair is focused on hair growth, hair types, and hair care, but hair is also an important biomaterial primarily composed of protein, notably alpha-keratin.Attitudes towards different forms of hair, such as hairstyles and hair removal, vary widely across different cultures and historical periods, but it is often used to indicate a person's personal beliefs or social position, such as their age, gender, or religion." ], [ "Overview", "Anatomy of the hair shaft and bulb.The word \"hair\" usually refers to two distinct structures: #the part beneath the skin, called the hair follicle, or, when pulled from the skin, the bulb or root.", "This organ is located in the dermis and maintains stem cells, which not only re-grow the hair after it falls out, but also are recruited to regrow skin after a wound.# the hair shaft, which is the hard filamentous part that extends above the skin surface.", "A cross section of the hair shaft may be divided roughly into three zones.Hair fibers have a structure consisting of several layers, starting from the outside:# the cuticle, which consists of several layers of flat, thin cells laid out overlapping one another as roof shingles# the cortex, which contains the keratin bundles in cell structures that remain roughly rod-like# the medulla, a disorganized and open area at the fiber's center" ], [ "Description", "Hair follicle of Felidae.Each strand of hair is made up of the medulla, cortex, and cuticle.", "The innermost region, the medulla, is an open and unstructured region which is not always present.", "The highly structural and organized cortex, or second of three layers of the hair, is the primary source of mechanical strength and water uptake.", "The cortex contains melanin, which colors the fiber based on the number, distribution and types of melanin granules.", "The melanin may be evenly spaced or cluster around the edges of the hair.", "The shape of the follicle determines the shape of the cortex, and the shape of the fiber is related to how straight or curly the hair is.", "People with straight hair have round hair fibers.", "Oval and other shaped fibers are generally more wavy or curly.", "The cuticle is the outer covering.", "Its complex structure slides as the hair swells and is covered with a single molecular layer of lipid that makes the hair repel water.", "The diameter of human hair varies from .", "Some of these characteristics in humans' head hair vary by race: people of mostly African ancestry tend to have hair with a diameter of 60-90 μm and a flat cross-section, while people of mostly European or Middle Eastern ancestry tend to have hair with a diameter of 70-100 μm and an oval cross-section, and people of mostly Asian or Native American ancestry tend to have hair with a diameter of 90-120 μm and a round cross-section.", "There are roughly two million small, tubular glands and sweat glands that produce watery fluids that cool the body by evaporation.", "The glands at the opening of the hair produce a fatty secretion that lubricates the hair.Hair growth begins inside the hair follicle.", "The only \"living\" portion of the hair is found in the follicle.", "The hair that is visible is the hair shaft, which exhibits no biochemical activity and is considered \"dead\".", "The base of a hair's root (the \"bulb\") contains the cells that produce the hair shaft.", "Other structures of the hair follicle include the oil producing sebaceous gland which lubricates the hair and the arrector pili muscles, which are responsible for causing hairs to stand up.", "In humans with little body hair, the effect results in goose bumps.===Root of the hair===The ''root of the hair'' ends in an enlargement, the ''hair bulb'', which is whiter in color and softer in texture than the shaft and is lodged in a follicular involution of the epidermis called the hair follicle.", "The bulb of hair consists of fibrous connective tissue, glassy membrane, external root sheath, internal root sheath composed of epithelium stratum (Henle's layer) and granular stratum (Huxley's layer), cuticle, cortex and medulla.===Natural color===Human hair contains melanin which provides dark coloration and protection from UV radiation.", "Human hair can absorb and emit light across a wide range of wavelengths.", "The image above depicts melanin autofluorescence at 365-400 nm excitation from a strand of dark brown human hair.A woman with dark blonde hair.", "The basal color appears brown due to higher levels of brownish eumelanin.All natural hair colors are the result of two types of hair pigments.", "Both of these pigments are melanin types, produced inside the hair follicle and packed into granules found in the fibers.", "Eumelanin is the dominant pigment in brown hair and black hair, while pheomelanin is dominant in red hair.", "Blond hair is the result of having little pigmentation in the hair strand.", "Gray hair occurs when melanin production decreases or stops, while poliosis is white hair (and often the skin to which the hair is attached), typically in spots that never possessed melanin at all, or ceased for natural reasons, generally genetic, in the first years of life.===Human hair growth===Hair grows everywhere on the external body except for mucus membranes and glabrous skin, such as that found on the palms of the hands, soles of the feet, and lips.The body has different types of hair, including vellus hair and androgenic hair, each with its own type of cellular construction.", "The different construction gives the hair unique characteristics, serving specific purposes, mainly, warmth and protection.Hair-follicle cyclingHair grows at different speeds and different lengths.", "Its composition causes different colors and textures, which influence how long the hair strands grow.Marianne Ernst, a German \"Long hair model\".The three stages of hair growth are the anagen, catagen, and telogen phases.", "Each strand of hair on the human body is at its own stage of development.", "Once the cycle is complete, it restarts and a new strand of hair begins to form.", "The growth rate of hair varies from individual to individual depending on their age, genetic predisposition and a number of environmental factors.", "It is commonly stated that hair grows about 1 cm per month on average; however reality is more complex, since not all hair grows at once.", "Scalp hair was reported to grow between 0.6 cm and 3.36 cm per month.", "The growth rate of scalp hair somewhat depends on age (hair tends to grow more slowly with age), sex, and ethnicity.", "Thicker hair (>60 µm) grows generally faster (11.4 mm per month) than thinner (20-30 µm) hair (7.6 mm per month).It was previously thought that Caucasian hair grew more quickly than Asian hair and that the growth rate of women's hair was faster than that of men.", "However, more recent research has shown that the growth rate of hair in men and women does not significantly differ and that the hair of Chinese people grew more quickly than the hair of French Caucasians and West and Central Africans.", "The quantity of hair hovers in a certain range depending on hair colour.", "An average blonde person has 150,000 hairs, a brown-haired person has 110,000, a black-haired person has 100,000, and a redhead has 90,000.Hair growth stops after a human's death.", "Visible growth of hair on the dead body happens only because of skin drying out due to water loss.The world record for longest hair on a living person stands with Smita Srivastava of Uttar Pradesh, India.", "At 7 feet and 9 inches long, she broke a Guinness World Record in November 2023, having grown her hair for 32 years.===Texture===Hair type 4cHair exists in a variety of textures.", "Three main aspects of hair texture are the curl pattern, volume, and consistency.", "All mammalian hair is composed of keratin, so the make-up of hair follicles is not the source of varying hair patterns.", "There are a range of theories pertaining to the curl patterns of hair.", "Scientists have come to believe that the shape of the hair shaft has an effect on the curliness of the individual's hair.", "A very round shaft allows for fewer disulfide bonds to be present in the hair strand.", "This means the bonds present are directly in line with one another, resulting in straight hair.Toddler with curly hairThe flatter the hair shaft becomes, the curlier hair gets, because the shape allows more cysteines to become compacted together resulting in a bent shape that, with every additional disulfide bond, becomes curlier in form.", "As the hair follicle shape determines curl pattern, the hair follicle size determines thickness.", "While the circumference of the hair follicle expands, so does the thickness of the hair follicle.", "An individual's hair volume, as a result, can be thin, normal, or thick.", "The consistency of hair can almost always be grouped into three categories: fine, medium, and coarse.", "This trait is determined by the hair follicle volume and the condition of the strand.", "Fine hair has the smallest circumference, coarse hair has the largest circumference, and medium hair is anywhere between the other two.", "Coarse hair has a more open cuticle than thin or medium hair causing it to be the most porous.====Classification systems====There are various systems that people use to classify their curl patterns.", "Being knowledgeable of an individual's hair type is a good start to knowing how to take care of one's hair.", "There is not just one method to discovering one's hair type.", "Additionally it is possible, and quite normal to have more than one kind of hair type, for instance having a mixture of both type 3a & 3b curls.", "; The Andre Walker Hair Typing System is the most widely used system to classify hair.", "The system was created by the hairstylist of Oprah Winfrey, Andre Walker.", "According to this system there are four types of hair: straight, wavy, curly, kinky.", "* Type 1 is '''straight hair''', which reflects the most sheen and also the most resilient hair of all of the hair types.", "It is hard to damage and immensely difficult to curl this hair texture.", "Because the sebum easily spreads from the scalp to the ends without curls or kinks to interrupt its path, it is the most oily hair texture of all.", "* Type 2 is '''wavy hair''', whose texture and sheen ranges somewhere between straight and curly hair.", "Wavy hair is also more likely to become frizzy than straight hair.", "While type A waves can easily alternate between straight and curly styles, type B and C Wavy hair is resistant to styling.", "* Type 3 is curly hair known to have an S-shape.", "The curl pattern may resemble a lowercase \"s\", uppercase \"S\", or sometimes an uppercase \"Z\" or lowercase \"z\".", "Lack of proper care causes less defined curls.", "* Type 4 is kinky hair, which features a tightly coiled curl pattern (or no discernible curl pattern at all) that is often fragile with a very high density.", "This type of hair shrinks when wet and because it has fewer cuticle layers than other hair types it is more susceptible to damage.Andre Walker hair types Type 1: Straight 1a Straight (Fine/Thin)  Hair tends to be very soft, thin, shiny, oily, poor at holding curls, difficult to damage.", "1b Straight (Medium) Hair characterized by volume and body.", "1c Straight (Coarse) Hair tends to be bone-straight, coarse, difficult to curl.", "Type 2: Wavy 2a Wavy (Fine/Thin) Hair has definite \"S\" pattern, can easily be straightened or curled, usually receptive to a variety of styles.", "2b Wavy (Medium) Can tend to be frizzy and a little resistant to styling.", "2c Wavy (Coarse) Fairly coarse, frizzy or very frizzy with thicker waves, often more resistant to styling.", "Type 3: Curly 3a Curly (Loose) Presents a definite \"S\" pattern, tends to combine thickness, volume, and/or frizziness.", "3b Curly (Tight) Presents a definite \"S\" pattern, curls ranging from spirals to spiral-shaped corkscrew Type 4: Kinky 4a Kinky (Soft) Hair tends to be very wiry and fragile, tightly coiled and can feature curly patterning.", "4b Kinky (Wiry) As 4a but with less defined pattern of curls, looks more like a \"Z\" with sharp angles; This is a method which classifies the hair by curl pattern, hair-strand thickness and overall hair volume.FIA hair classificationCurliness '''''Straight''''' 1a Stick-straight.", "1b Straight but with a slight body wave adding some volume.", "1c Straight with body wave and one or two visible S-waves (e.g.", "at nape of neck or temples).", "'''''Wavy''''' 2a Loose with stretched S-waves throughout.", "2b Shorter with more distinct S-waves (resembling e.g.", "braided damp hair).", "2c Distinct S-waves, some spiral curling.", "'''''Curly''''' 3a Big, loose spiral curls.", "3b Bouncy ringlets.", "3c Tight corkscrews.", "'''''Very''' (\"Really\") '''curly''''' 4a Tightly coiled S-curls.", "4b Z-patterned (tightly coiled, sharply angled) 4c Mostly Z-patterned (tightly kinked, less definition)Strands F FineThin strands that sometimes are almost translucent when held up to the light.", "Shed strands can be hard to see even against a contrasting background.", "Fine hair is difficult to feel or it feels like an ultra-fine strand of silk.", "M MediumStrands are neither fine nor coarse.", "Medium hair feels like a cotton thread, but is not stiff or rough.", "It is neither fine nor coarse.", "C CoarseThick strands whose shed strands usually are easily identified.", "Coarse hair feels hard and wiry.Volume i Thin Circumference less than 2 inches (5 centimetres) ii Normal ... from 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 centimetres) iii Thick ... more than 4 inches (10 centimetres)" ], [ "Composition", "Hair is mainly composed of keratin proteins and keratin-associated proteins (KRTAPs).", "The human genome encodes 54 different keratin proteins which are present in various amounts in hair.", "Similarly, humans encode more than 100 different KRTAPs which crosslink keratins in hair.", "The content of KRTAPs ranges from less than 3% in human hair to 30–40% in echidna quill." ], [ "Functions", "Many mammals have fur and other hairs that serve different functions.", "Hair provides thermal regulation and camouflage for many animals; for others it provides signals to other animals such as warnings, mating, or other communicative displays; and for some animals hair provides defensive functions and, rarely, even offensive protection.", "Hair also has a sensory function, extending the sense of touch beyond the surface of the skin.", "Guard hairs give warnings that may trigger a recoiling reaction.===Warmth===Polar bears use their fur for warmth and while their skin is black, their transparent fur appears white and provides camouflage while hunting and serves as protection by hiding cubs in the snow.While humans have developed clothing and other means of keeping warm, the hair found on the head serves primarily as a source of heat insulation and cooling (when sweat evaporates from soaked hair) as well as protection from ultra-violet radiation exposure.", "The function of hair in other locations is debated.", "Hats and coats are still required while doing outdoor activities in cold weather to prevent frostbite and hypothermia, but the hair on the human body does help to keep the internal temperature regulated.", "When the body is too cold, the arrector pili muscles found attached to hair follicles stand up, causing the hair in these follicles to do the same.", "These hairs then form a heat-trapping layer above the epidermis.", "This process is formally called piloerection, derived from the Latin words 'pilus' ('hair') and 'erectio' ('rising up'), but is more commonly known as 'having goose bumps' in English.", "This is more effective in other mammals whose fur fluffs up to create air pockets between hairs that insulate the body from the cold.", "The opposite actions occur when the body is too warm; the arrector muscles make the hair lie flat on the skin which allows heat to leave.===Protection===In some mammals, such as hedgehogs and porcupines, the hairs have been modified into hard spines or quills.", "These are covered with thick plates of keratin and serve as protection against predators.", "Thick hair such as that of the lion's mane and grizzly bear's fur do offer some protection from physical damages such as bites and scratches.===Touch sense===Displacement and vibration of hair shafts are detected by hair follicle nerve receptors and nerve receptors within the skin.", "Hairs can sense movements of air as well as touch by physical objects and they provide sensory awareness of the presence of ectoparasites.", "Some hairs, such as eyelashes, are especially sensitive to the presence of potentially harmful matter.====Eyebrows and eyelashes====Eyelashes and eyebrows help to protect the eyes from dust, dirt, and sweat.The eyebrows provide moderate protection to the eyes from dirt, sweat and rain.", "They also play a key role in non-verbal communication by displaying emotions such as sadness, anger, surprise and excitement.", "In many other mammals, they contain much longer, whisker-like hairs that act as tactile sensors.The eyelash grows at the edges of the eyelid and protects the eye from dirt.", "The eyelash is to humans, camels, horses, ostriches etc., what whiskers are to cats; they are used to sense when dirt, dust, or any other potentially harmful object is too close to the eye.", "The eye reflexively closes as a result of this sensation." ], [ "Evolution", "Hair has its origins in the common ancestor of mammals, the synapsids, about 300 million years ago.", "It is currently unknown at what stage the synapsids acquired mammalian characteristics such as body hair and mammary glands, as the fossils only rarely provide direct evidence for soft tissues.", "Skin impression of the belly and lower tail of a pelycosaur, possibly ''Haptodus'' shows the basal synapsid stock bore transverse rows of rectangular scutes, similar to those of a modern crocodile, so the age of acquirement of hair logically could not have been earlier than ~299 ma, based on the current understanding of the animal's phylogeny.", "An exceptionally well-preserved skull of ''Estemmenosuchus'', a therapsid from the Upper Permian, shows smooth, hairless skin with what appears to be glandular depressions, though as a semi-aquatic species it might not have been particularly useful to determine the integument of terrestrial species.", "The oldest undisputed known fossils showing unambiguous imprints of hair are the Callovian (late middle Jurassic) ''Castorocauda'' and several contemporary haramiyidans, both near-mammal cynodonts, giving the age as no later than ~220 ma based on the modern phylogenetic understanding of these clades.", "More recently, studies on terminal Permian Russian coprolites may suggest that non-mammalian synapsids from that era had fur.", "If this is the case, these are the oldest hair remnants known, showcasing that fur occurred as far back as the latest Paleozoic.Some modern mammals have a special gland in front of each orbit used to preen the fur, called the harderian gland.", "Imprints of this structure are found in the skull of the small early mammals like ''Morganucodon'', but not in their cynodont ancestors like ''Thrinaxodon''.The hairs of the fur in modern animals are all connected to nerves, and so the fur also serves as a transmitter for sensory input.", "Fur could have evolved from sensory hair (whiskers).", "The signals from this sensory apparatus is interpreted in the neocortex, a section of the brain that expanded markedly in animals like ''Morganucodon'' and ''Hadrocodium''.", "The more advanced therapsids could have had a combination of naked skin, whiskers, and scutes.", "A full pelage likely did not evolve until the therapsid-mammal transition.", "The more advanced, smaller therapsids could have had a combination of hair and scutes, a combination still found in some modern mammals, such as rodents and the opossum.The high interspecific variability of the size, color, and microstructure of hair often enables the identification of species based on single hair filaments.Naked mole-rat (''Heterocephalus glaber'') in a zoo.In varying degrees most mammals have some skin areas without natural hair.", "On the human body, glabrous skin is found on the ventral portion of the fingers, palms, soles of feet and lips, which are all parts of the body most closely associated with interacting with the world around us, as are the labia minora and glans penis.", "There are four main types of mechanoreceptors in the glabrous skin of humans: Pacinian corpuscles, Meissner's corpuscles, Merkel's discs, and Ruffini corpuscles.The naked mole-rat (''Heterocephalus glaber'') has evolved skin lacking in general, pelagic hair covering, yet has retained long, very sparsely scattered tactile hairs over its body.", "Glabrousness is a trait that may be associated with neoteny.The soft, fine hair found on many nonhuman mammals is typically called fur.=== Human hairlessness ======Evolutionary variation===Primates are relatively hairless compared to other mammals, and hominini such as chimpanzees, have less dense hair than would be expected given their body size for a primate.", "Evolutionary biologists suggest that the genus ''Homo'' arose in East Africa approximately 2 million years ago.", "Part of this evolution was the development of endurance running and venturing out during the hot times of the day that required efficient thermoregulation through perspiration.", "The loss of heat through heat of evaporation by means of sweat glands is aided by air currents next to the skin surface, which are facilitated by the loss of body hair.Another factor in human evolution that also occurred in the prehistoric past was a preferential selection for neoteny, particularly in females.", "The idea that adult humans exhibit certain neotenous (juvenile) features, not evinced in the other great apes, is about a century old.", "Louis Bolk made a long list of such traits, and Stephen Jay Gould published a short list in ''Ontogeny and Phylogeny''.", "In addition, paedomorphic characteristics in women are often acknowledged as desirable by men in developed countries.", "For instance, vellus hair is a juvenile characteristic.", "However, while men develop longer, coarser, thicker, and darker terminal hair through sexual differentiation, women do not, leaving their vellus hair visible.===Texture=======Curly hair====Yellow curly hair and scalp from body which had long black wig over hair.", "Parts of wig plait remains.", "From Egypt, Gurob, probably tomb 23.18th–19th Dynasty.", "The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, LondonMan with curly hair (David Luiz, Brazilian footballer)Global hair texture mapJablonski asserts head hair was evolutionarily advantageous for pre-humans to retain because it protected the scalp as they walked upright in the intense African (equatorial) UV light.", "While some might argue that, by this logic, humans should also express hairy shoulders because these body parts would putatively be exposed to similar conditions, the protection of the head, the seat of the brain that enabled humanity to become one of the most successful species on the planet (and which also is very vulnerable at birth) was arguably a more urgent issue (axillary hair in the underarms and groin were also retained as signs of sexual maturity).", "Sometime during the gradual process by which ''Homo erectus'' began a transition from furry skin to the naked skin expressed by ''Homo sapiens'', hair texture putatively gradually changed from straight hair (the condition of most mammals, including humanity's closest cousins—chimpanzees) to Afro-textured hair or 'kinky' (i.e.", "tightly coiled).", "This argument assumes that curly hair better impedes the passage of UV light into the body relative to straight hair (thus curly or coiled hair would be particularly advantageous for light-skinned hominids living at the equator).It is substantiated by Iyengar's findings (1998) that UV light can enter into straight human hair roots (and thus into the body through the skin) via the hair shaft.", "Specifically, the results of that study suggest that this phenomenon resembles the passage of light through fiber optic tubes (which do not function as effectively when kinked or sharply curved or coiled).", "In this sense, when hominids (i.e.", "''Homo erectus'') were gradually losing their straight body hair and thereby exposing the initially pale skin underneath their fur to the sun, straight hair would have been an adaptive liability.", "By inverse logic, later, as humans traveled farther from Africa and/or the equator, straight hair may have (initially) evolved to aid the entry of UV light into the body during the transition from dark, UV-protected skin to paler skin.Jablonski's assertions suggest that the adjective \"woolly\" in reference to Afro-hair is a misnomer in connoting the high heat insulation derivable from the true wool of sheep.", "Instead, the relatively sparse density of Afro-hair, combined with its springy coils actually results in an airy, almost sponge-like structure that in turn, Jablonski argues, more likely facilitates an increase in the circulation of cool air onto the scalp.", "Further, wet Afro-hair does not stick to the neck and scalp unless totally drenched and instead tends to retain its basic springy puffiness because it less easily responds to moisture and sweat than straight hair does.", "In this sense, the trait may enhance comfort levels in intense equatorial climates more than straight hair (which, on the other hand, tends to naturally fall over the ears and neck to a degree that provides slightly enhanced comfort levels in cold climates relative to tightly coiled hair).Further, it is notable that the most pervasive expression of this hair texture can be found in sub-Saharan Africa; a region of the world that abundant genetic and paleo-anthropological evidence suggests, was the relatively recent (≈200,000-year-old) point of origin for modern humanity.", "In fact, although genetic findings (Tishkoff, 2009) suggest that sub-Saharan Africans are the most genetically diverse continental group on Earth, Afro-textured hair approaches ubiquity in this region.", "This points to a strong, long-term selective pressure that, in stark contrast to most other regions of the genomes of sub-Saharan groups, left little room for genetic variation at the determining loci.", "Such a pattern, again, does not seem to support human sexual aesthetics as being the sole or primary cause of this distribution.Straight black hair==== The EDAR locus ====A group of studies have recently shown that genetic patterns at the EDAR locus, a region of the modern human genome that contributes to hair texture variation among most individuals of East Asian descent, support the hypothesis that (East Asian) straight hair likely developed in this branch of the modern human lineage subsequent to the original expression of tightly coiled natural afro-hair.", "Specifically, the relevant findings indicate that the EDAR mutation coding for the predominant East Asian 'coarse' or thick, straight hair texture arose within the past ≈65,000 years, which is a time frame that covers from the earliest of the 'Out of Africa' migrations up to now." ], [ "Disease", "Ringworm is a fungal disease that targets hairy skin.Premature greying of hair is another condition that results in greying before the age of 20 years in Europeans, before 25 years in Asians, and before 30 years in Africans." ], [ "Hair care", "Hair care involves the hygiene and cosmetology of hair including hair on the scalp, facial hair (beard and moustache), pubic hair and other body hair.", "Hair care routines differ according to an individual's culture and the physical characteristics of one's hair.", "Hair may be colored, trimmed, shaved, plucked, or otherwise removed with treatments such as waxing, sugaring, and threading.===Removal practices===Depilation is the removal of hair from the surface of the skin.", "This can be achieved through methods such as shaving.", "Epilation is the removal of the entire hair strand, including the part of the hair that has not yet left the follicle.", "A popular way to epilate hair is through waxing.====Shaving====Many razors have multiple blades purportedly to ensure a close shave.", "While shaving initially will leave skin feeling smooth and hair free, new hair growth can appear a few hours after hair removal.Shaving is accomplished with bladed instruments, such as razors.", "The blade is brought close to the skin and stroked over the hair in the desired area to cut the terminal hairs and leave the skin feeling smooth.", "Depending upon the rate of growth, one can begin to feel the hair growing back within hours of shaving.", "This is especially evident in men who develop a five o'clock shadow after having shaved their faces.", "This new growth is called stubble.", "Stubble typically appears to grow back thicker because the shaved hairs are blunted instead of tapered off at the end, although the hair never actually grows back thicker.====Waxing====Waxing involves using a sticky wax and strip of paper or cloth to pull hair from the root.", "Waxing is the ideal hair removal technique to keep an area hair-free for long periods of time.", "It can take three to five weeks for waxed hair to begin to resurface again.", "Hair in areas that have been waxed consistently is known to grow back finer and thinner, especially compared to hair that has been shaved with a razor.====Laser removal====Laser hair removal is a cosmetic method where a small laser beam pulses selective heat on dark target matter in the area that causes hair growth without harming the skin tissue.", "This process is repeated several times over the course of many months to a couple of years with hair regrowing less frequently until it finally stops; this is used as a more permanent solution to waxing or shaving.", "Laser removal is practiced in many clinics along with many at-home products.====Cutting and trimming====Because the hair on one's head is normally longer than other types of body hair, it is cut with scissors or clippers.", "People with longer hair will most often use scissors to cut their hair, whereas shorter hair is maintained using a trimmer.", "Depending on the desired length and overall health of the hair, periods without cutting or trimming the hair can vary.Cut hair may be used in wigs.", "Global imports of hair in 2010 was worth $US 1.24 billion." ], [ "Social role", "''Portrait of a Woman'' by Alessandro Allori (1535–1607) at Uffizi Gallery.", "It shows a plucked hairline that gives a fashionably noble brow.Hair has great social significance for human beings.", "It can grow on most external areas of the human body, except on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet (among other areas).", "Hair is most noticeable on most people in a small number of areas, which are also the ones that are most commonly trimmed, plucked, or shaved.", "These include the face, ears, head, eyebrows, legs, and armpits, as well as the pubic region.", "The highly visible differences between male and female body and facial hair are a notable secondary sex characteristic.The world's longest documented hair belongs to Xie Qiuping (in China), at 5.627 m (18 ft 5.54 in) when measured on 8 May 2004.She has been growing her hair since 1973, from the age of 13.===Indication of status===Healthy hair indicates health and youth (important in evolutionary biology).", "Hair color and texture can be a sign of ethnic ancestry.", "Facial hair is a sign of puberty in men.", "White or gray hair is a sign of age or genetics, which may be concealed with hair dye (not easily for some), although many prefer to assume it (especially if it is a poliosis characteristic of the person since childhood).", "Pattern baldness in men is usually seen as a sign of aging that may be concealed with a toupee, hats, or religious and cultural adornments; however, the condition can be triggered by various hormonal factors at any age following puberty and is not uncommon in younger men.", "Although pattern baldness can be slowed down by drugs such as Finasteride and Minoxidil or treated with hair transplants, many men see this as unnecessary effort for the sake of vanity and instead shave their heads.", "In early modern China, the queue was a male hairstyle in which the hair at the front and top was shaved every 10 days in a style mimicking pattern baldness, while the remaining hair at the back was braided into a long pigtail.A hairstyle may be an indicator of group membership.", "During the English Civil War, followers of Oliver Cromwell cropped their hair close to their head in an act of defiance against the curls and ringlets of the king's men, which led to them being nicknamed Roundheads.", "Recent isotopic analysis of hair is helping to shed further light on sociocultural interaction, giving information on food procurement and consumption in the 19th century.", "Having bobbed hair was popular among the flappers in the 1920s as a sign of rebellion against traditional roles for women.", "Female art students known as the Cropheads also adopted the style, notably at the Slade School in London.", "Regional variations in hirsutism has caused practices regarding hair on the arms and legs to differ.", "Some religious groups may follow certain rules regarding hair as part of religious observance.", "The rules often differ for men and women.Many subcultures have hairstyles which may indicate an unofficial membership.", "Many hippies, metalheads, and Indian sadhus have long hair, as well many older hipsters.", "Many punks wear a hairstyle known as a mohawk or other spiked and dyed hairstyles, while skinheads have short-cropped or completely shaved heads.", "Long stylized bangs were very common for emos, scene kids, and younger hipsters in the 2000s and early 2010s.Heads were shaved in concentration camps, and head-shaving has been used as punishment, especially for women with long hair.", "The shaven head is common in military haircuts, while Western monks are known for the tonsure.", "By contrast, among some Indian holy men, the hair is worn extremely long.In the time of Confucius (5th century BCE), the Chinese grew out their hair and often tied it, as a symbol of filial piety.", "Regular hairdressing in some cultures is considered a sign of wealth or status.", "The dreadlocks of the Rastafari movement were despised early in the movement's history.", "In some cultures, having one's hair cut can symbolize a liberation from one's past, usually after a trying time in one's life.", "Cutting the hair also may be a sign of mourning.Tightly coiled hair in its natural state may be worn in an Afro.", "This hairstyle was once worn among African Americans as a symbol of racial pride.", "Given that the coiled texture is the natural state of some African Americans' hair, or perceived as being more \"African\", this simple style is now often seen as a sign of self-acceptance and an affirmation that the beauty norms of the (eurocentric) dominant culture are not absolute.", "African Americans as a whole have a variety of hair textures, as they are not an ethnically homogeneous group, but an ad-hoc of different racial admixtures.The film ''Easy Rider'' (1969) includes the assumption that the two main characters could have their long hairs forcibly shaved with a rusty razor when jailed, symbolizing the intolerance of some conservative groups toward members of the counterculture.", "At the conclusion of England's 1971 ''Oz'' trials, the defendants had their heads shaved by the police, causing public outcry.", "During the appeal trial, they appeared in the dock wearing wigs.", "A case where a 14-year-old student was expelled from school in Brazil in the mid-2000s, allegedly because of his fauxhawk haircut, sparked national debate and legal action resulting in compensation.===Religious practices===Women's hair may be hidden using headscarves, a common part of the ''hijab'' in Islam and a symbol of modesty required for certain religious rituals in Eastern Orthodoxy.", "Russian Orthodox Church requires all married women to wear headscarves inside the church; this tradition is often extended to all women, regardless of marital status.", "Orthodox Judaism also commands the use of scarves and other head coverings for married women for modesty reasons.", "Certain Hindu sects also wear head scarves for religious reasons.", "Sikhs have an obligation not to cut hair (a Sikh cutting hair becomes 'apostate' which means fallen from religion) and men keep it tied in a bun on the head, which is then covered appropriately using a turban.", "Multiple religions, both ancient and contemporary, require or advise one to allow their hair to become dreadlocks, though people also wear them for fashion.", "For men, Islam, Orthodox Judaism, Orthodox Christianity, Roman Catholicism, and other religious groups have at various times recommended or required the covering of the head and sections of the hair of men, and some have dictates relating to the cutting of men's facial and head hair.", "Some Christian sects throughout history and up to modern times have also religiously proscribed the cutting of women's hair.", "For some Sunni madhabs, the donning of a kufi or topi is a form of sunnah.===In Arabic poetry===Since ancient times, women's long, thick, wavy hair has featured prominently in Arabic poetry.", "Pre-Islamic poets used only limited imagery to describe women's hair.", "For example, al-A'sha wrote a verse comparing a lover's hair to \"a garden whose grapes dangle down upon me\", but Bashar ibn Burd considered this unusual.", "One comparison used by early poets, such as Imru al-Qays, was to bunches of dates.", "In Abbasid times, however, the imagery for hair expanded significantly - particularly for the then-fashionable \"love-locks\" (''sudgh'') framing the temples, which came into style at the court of the caliph al-Amin.", "Hair curls were compared to hooks and chains, letters (such as ''fa'', ''waw'', ''lam'', and ''nun''), scorpions, annelids, and polo sticks.", "An example was the poet Ibn al-Mu'tazz, who compared a lock of hair and a birthmark to a polo stick driving a ball." ], [ "See also", "* List of hairstyles* Body hair* Chaetophobia – the fear of hair* Hair analysis (alternative medicine)* Hypertrichosis – the state of having an excess of hair on the head or body* Hypotrichosis – the state of having a less than normal amount of hair on the head or body* Lanugo* Seta – hair-like structures in insects* Bristle sensilla – tactile hairs in insects* Trichotillomania – hair pulling" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* * * *" ], [ "External links", "*** How to measure the diameter of your own hair using a laser pointer* Instant insight outlining the chemistry of hair from the Royal Society of Chemistry*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hawker Siddeley Harrier" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Hawker Siddeley Harrier''' is a jet-powered attack aircraft designed and produced by the British aerospace company Hawker Siddeley.", "It was the first operational ground attack and reconnaissance aircraft with vertical/short takeoff and landing (V/STOL) capabilities and the only truly successful V/STOL design of that era.It was the first of the Harrier series of aircraft, being developed directly from the Hawker Siddeley Kestrel prototype aircraft following the cancellation of a more advanced supersonic aircraft, the Hawker Siddeley P.1154.In the mid 1960s, the ''Harrier GR.1'' and ''GR.3'' variants were ordered by the British government for the Royal Air Force (RAF).", "The Harrier GR.1 made its first flight on 28 December 1967, and entered RAF service in April 1967.During the 1970s, the United States opted to procure the aircraft as the ''AV-8A'', it was operated by the US Marine Corps (USMC).Introduced to service amid the Cold War, the RAF positioned the bulk of their Harriers across West Germany to defend against a potential invasion of Western Europe by the Warsaw Pact forces; the unique abilities of the Harrier allowed the RAF to disperse their forces away from vulnerable airbases.", "The USMC used their Harriers primarily for close air support, operating from amphibious assault ships, and, if needed, forward operating bases.", "Harrier squadrons saw several deployments overseas.", "Its ability to operate with minimal ground facilities and very short runways allowed it to be used at locations unavailable to other fixed-wing aircraft.", "The Harrier received criticism for having a high accident rate and for a time-consuming maintenance process.In the 1970s, the British Aerospace Sea Harrier was developed from the Harrier for use by the Royal Navy (RN) on s. Both the Sea Harrier and the Harrier fought in the 1982 Falklands War, in which the aircraft proved to be crucial and versatile.", "The RN Sea Harriers provided fixed-wing air defence while the RAF Harriers focused on ground-attack missions in support of the advancing British land force.", "The Harrier was also extensively redesigned as the AV-8B Harrier II and British Aerospace Harrier II by the team of McDonnell Douglas and British Aerospace.", "During the late 1980s and 1990s, the first-generation aircraft were gradually replaced by the newer Harrier IIs." ], [ "Development", "===Origins===The Harrier's design was derived from the Hawker P.1127.Prior to developing the P.1127, Hawker Aircraft had been working on a replacement for the Hawker Hunter, the Hawker P.1121.The P.1121 was cancelled after the release of the British Government's 1957 Defence White Paper, which advocated a policy shift away from manned aircraft and towards missiles.", "This policy resulted in the termination of the majority of aircraft development projects then underway for the British military.", "Hawker sought to quickly move on to a new project and became interested in Vertical Take Off/Landing (VTOL) aircraft, which did not need runways.", "According to Air Chief Marshal Sir Patrick Hine this interest may have been stimulated by the presence of Air Staff Requirement 345, which sought a V/STOL ground attack fighter for the Royal Air Force.Design work on the P.1127 was formally started in 1957 by Sir Sydney Camm, Ralph Hooper of Hawker Aircraft, and Stanley Hooker (later Sir Stanley Hooker) of the Bristol Engine Company.", "The close cooperation between Hawker, the airframe company, and Bristol, the engine company, was viewed by project engineer Gordon Lewis as one of the key factors that allowed the development of the Harrier to continue in spite of technical obstacles and political setbacks.", "Rather than using rotors or a direct jet thrust, the P.1127 had an innovative vectored thrust turbofan engine, the Pegasus.", "The Pegasus I was rated at of thrust and first ran in September 1959.A contract for two development prototypes was signed in June 1960 and the first flight followed in October 1960.Of the six prototypes built, three crashed, including one during an air display at the 1963 Paris Air Show.===Tripartite evaluation===Hawker Siddeley XV-6A Kestrel in later alt=An aircraft landed on a runwayIn 1961, the United Kingdom, the United States and West Germany jointly agreed to purchase nine aircraft developed from the P.1127, for the evaluation of the performance and potential of V/STOL aircraft.", "These aircraft were built by Hawker Siddeley and were designated ''Kestrel FGA.1'' by the UK.", "The Kestrel was strictly an evaluation aircraft and to save money the Pegasus 5 engine was not fully developed as intended, only having of thrust instead of the projected .", "The Tripartite Evaluation Squadron numbered ten pilots; four each from the UK and US and two from West Germany.", "The Kestrel's first flight took place on 7 March 1964.A total of 960 sorties had been made during the trials, including 1,366 takeoffs and landings, by the end of evaluations in November 1965.One aircraft was destroyed in an accident and six others were transferred to the United States, assigned the US designation ''XV-6A Kestrel'', and underwent further testing.", "The two remaining British-based Kestrels were assigned to further trials and experimentation at RAE Bedford with one being modified to use the uprated Pegasus 6 engine.===P.1154===At the time of the development of the P.1127 Hawker and Bristol had also undertaken considerable development work on a supersonic version, the Hawker Siddeley P.1154, to meet a North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) requirement issued for such an aircraft.", "The design used a single Bristol Siddeley BS100 engine with four swivelling nozzles, in a fashion similar to the P.1127, and required the use of plenum chamber burning (PCB) to achieve supersonic speeds.", "The P.1154 won the competition to meet the requirement against strong competition from other aircraft manufacturers such as Dassault Aviation's Mirage IIIV.", "The French government did not accept the decision and withdrew; the NATO requirement was cancelled shortly after in 1965.The Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy planned to develop and introduce the supersonic P.1154 independently of the cancelled NATO requirement.", "This ambition was complicated by the conflicting requirements between the two services—while the RAF wanted a low-level supersonic strike aircraft, the Navy sought a twin-engine air defence fighter.", "Following the election of the Labour Government of 1964 the P.1154 was cancelled, as the Royal Navy had already begun procurement of the McDonnell Douglas Phantom II and the RAF placed a greater importance on the BAC TSR-2's ongoing development.", "Work continued on elements of the project, such as a supersonic PCB-equipped Pegasus engine, with the intention of developing a future Harrier variant for the decades following cancellation.AV-8C Harrier taking off from an alt= A Harrier on the deck of a small aircraft carrier, with its nose wheel off the deck===Production===Following the collapse of the P.1154's development the RAF began considering a simple upgrade of the existing subsonic Kestrel and issued Requirement ASR 384 for a V/STOL ground attack jet.", "Hawker Siddeley received an order for six pre-production aircraft in 1965, designated ''P.1127 (RAF)'', of which the first made its maiden flight on 31 August 1966.An order for 60 production aircraft, designated as Harrier GR.1, was received in early 1967.The aircraft was named after the Harrier, a small bird of prey.The Harrier GR.1 made its first flight on 28 December 1967.It officially entered service with the RAF on 1 April 1969 and the Harrier Conversion Unit at RAF Wittering received its first aircraft on 18 April.", "The aircraft were built in two factories—one in Kingston upon Thames, southwest London, and the other at Dunsfold Aerodrome, Surrey—and underwent initial testing at Dunsfold.", "The ski-jump technique for launching Harriers from Royal Navy aircraft carriers was extensively trialled at RNAS Yeovilton from 1977.Following these tests ski-jumps were added to the flight decks of all RN carriers from 1979 onwards, in preparation for the new variant for the navy, the Sea Harrier.In the late 1960s the British and American governments held talks on producing Harriers in the United States.", "Hawker Siddeley and McDonnell Douglas formed a partnership in 1969 in preparation for American production, but Congressman Mendel Rivers and the House Appropriations Committee held that it would be cheaper to produce the AV-8A on the pre-existing production lines in the United Kingdom—hence all AV-8A Harriers were purchased from Hawker Siddeley.", "Improved Harrier versions with better sensors and more powerful engines were developed in later years.", "The USMC received 102 AV-8A and 8 TAV-8A Harriers between 1971 and 1976." ], [ "Design", "===Overview===The Harrier was typically used as a ground attack aircraft, though its manoeuvrability also allows it to effectively engage other aircraft at short ranges.", "The Harrier is powered by a single Pegasus turbofan engine mounted in the fuselage.", "The engine is fitted with two air intakes and four vectoring nozzles for directing the thrust generated: two for the bypass flow and two for the jet exhaust.", "Several small reaction nozzles are also fitted, in the nose, tail and wingtips, for the purpose of balancing during vertical flight.", "It has two landing gear units on the fuselage and two outrigger landing gear units, one near each wing tip.", "The Harrier is equipped with four wing and three fuselage pylons for carrying a variety of weapons and external fuel tanks.alt=A Harrier in flight, with large weapons loadout underneathThe Kestrel and the Harrier were similar in appearance, though approximately 90 per cent of the Kestrel's airframe was redesigned for the Harrier.", "The Harrier was powered by the more powerful Pegasus 6 engine; new air intakes with auxiliary blow-in doors were added to produce the required airflow at low speed.", "Its wing was modified to increase area and the landing gear was strengthened.", "Several hardpoints were installed, two under each wing and one underneath the fuselage; two ADEN cannon gun pods could also be fitted to the underside of the fuselage.", "The Harrier was outfitted with updated avionics to replace the basic systems used in the Kestrel; a navigational-attack system incorporating an inertial navigation system, originally for the P.1154, was installed and information was presented to the pilot by a head-up display and a moving map display.The Harrier's VTOL abilities allowed it to be deployed from very small prepared clearings or helipads as well as normal airfields.", "It was believed that, in a high-intensity conflict, air bases would be vulnerable and likely to be quickly knocked out.", "The capability to scatter Harrier squadrons to dozens of small \"alert pads\" on the front lines was highly prized by military strategists and the USMC procured the aircraft because of this ability.", "Hawker Siddeley noted that STOL operation provided additional benefits over VTOL operation, saving fuel and allowing the aircraft to carry more ordnance.The Harrier, while serving for many decades in various forms, has been criticised on multiple issues; in particular a high accident rate, though Nordeen notes that several conventional single-engine strike aircraft like the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk and LTV A-7 Corsair II had worse accident rates.", "The ''Los Angeles Times'' reported in 2003 that the Harrier \"...has amassed the highest major accident rate of any military plane now in service.", "Forty-five Marines have died in 148 noncombat accidents\".", "Colonel Lee Buland of the USMC declared the maintenance of a Harrier to be a \"challenge\"; the need to remove the wings before performing most work upon the engine, including engine replacements, meant the Harrier required considerable man-hours in maintenance, more than most aircraft.", "Buland noted however that the maintenance difficulties were unavoidable in order to create a V/STOL aircraft.===Engine===alt=Aircraft engine, partially uncovered as an exhibitThe Pegasus turbofan jet engine, developed in tandem with the P.1127 then the Harrier, was designed specifically for V/STOL manoeuvring.", "Bristol Siddeley developed it from their earlier conventional Orpheus turbofan engine as the core with Olympus compressor blades for the fan.", "The engine's thrust is directed through the four rotatable nozzles.", "The engine is equipped for water injection to increase thrust and takeoff performance in hot and high altitude conditions; in normal V/STOL operations the system would be used in landing vertically with a heavy weapons load.", "The water injection function had originally been added following the input of US Air Force Colonel Bill Chapman, who worked for the Mutual Weapons Development Team.", "Water injection was necessary in order to generate maximum thrust, if only for a limited time, and was typically used during landing, especially in high ambient temperatures.The aircraft was initially powered by the Pegasus 6 engine which was replaced by the more powerful Pegasus 11 during the Harrier GR.1 to GR.3 upgrade process.", "The primary focus throughout the engine's development was on achieving high performance with as little weight as possible, tempered by the amount of funding that was available.", "Following the Harrier's entry to service the focus switched to improving reliability and extending engine life; a formal joint US–UK Pegasus Support Program operated for many years and spent a £3-million annual budget to develop engine improvements.", "Several variants have been released; the latest is the Pegasus 11–61 (Mk 107), which provides 23,800 lbf (106 kN) thrust, more than any previous engine.===Controls and handling===alt=Nozzel of a Harrier, used to direct the engine's thrustLocations of the four nozzles on the sides of the engineThe Harrier has been described by pilots as \"unforgiving\".", "The aircraft is capable of both forward flight (where it behaves in the manner of a typical fixed-wing aircraft above its stall speed), as well as VTOL and STOL manoeuvres (where the traditional lift and control surfaces are useless) requiring skills and technical knowledge usually associated with helicopters.", "Most services demand great aptitude and extensive training for Harrier pilots, as well as experience in piloting both types of aircraft.", "Trainee pilots are often drawn from highly experienced and skilled helicopter pilots.In addition to normal flight controls, the Harrier has a lever for controlling the direction of the four vectoring nozzles.", "It is viewed by senior RAF officers as a significant design success, that to enable and control the aircraft's vertical flight required only a single lever added in the cockpit.", "For horizontal flight, the nozzles are directed rearwards by shifting the lever to the forward position; for short or vertical takeoffs and landings, the lever is pulled back to point the nozzles downwards.The Harrier has two control elements not found in conventional fixed-wing aircraft: the thrust vector and the reaction control system.", "The thrust vector refers to the slant of the four engine nozzles and can be set between 0° (horizontal, pointing directly backwards) and 98° (pointing down and slightly forwards).", "The 90° vector is normally deployed for VTOL manoeuvring.", "The reaction control is achieved by manipulating the control stick and is similar in action to the cyclic control of a helicopter.", "While irrelevant during forward flight mode, these controls are essential during VTOL and STOL manoeuvres.The wind direction is a critical factor in VTOL manoeuvres.", "The procedure for vertical takeoff involves facing the aircraft into the wind.", "The thrust vector is set to 90° and the throttle is brought up to maximum, at which point the aircraft leaves the ground.", "The throttle is trimmed until a hover state is achieved at the desired altitude.", "The short-takeoff procedure involves proceeding with normal takeoff and then applying a thrust vector (less than 90°) at a runway speed below normal takeoff speed; usually the point of application is around .", "For lower takeoff speeds the thrust vector is greater.", "The reaction control system involves a thrusters at key points in the aircraft's fuselage and nose, also the wingtips.", "Thrust from the engine can be temporarily syphoned to control and correct the aircraft's pitch and roll during vertical flight.Rotating the vectored thrust nozzles into a forward-facing position during normal flight is called vectoring in forward flight, or \"VIFFing\".", "This is a dog-fighting tactic, allowing for more sudden braking and higher turn rates.", "Braking could cause a chasing aircraft to overshoot and present itself as a target for the Harrier it was chasing, a combat technique formally developed by the USMC for the Harrier in the early 1970s.===Differences between versions===The two largest users of the Harrier were the Royal Air Force and the United States Marine Corps (USMC).", "The exported model of the aircraft operated by the USMC was designated the AV-8A Harrier, which was broadly similar to the RAF's Harrier GR.1.Changes included the removal of all magnesium components, which corroded quickly at sea, and the integration of American radios and Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) systems; furthermore the outer pylons, unlike the RAF aircraft, were designed from delivery to be equipped with self-defence AIM-9 Sidewinder heat-seeking air-to-air missiles.", "Most of the AV-8As had been delivered with the more powerful Pegasus engine used in the GR.3 instead of the one used in the earlier GR.1.Two-seat Harriers were operated for training purposes; the body was stretched and a taller tail fin added.", "The RAF trained in the T.2 and T.4 versions, while T.4N and T.8 were training versions the Navy's Sea Harrier, with appropriate fittings.", "The US and Spain flew the TAV-8A and TAV-8S, respectively.All RAF GR.1s and the initial AV-8As were fitted with the Ferranti FE541 inertial navigation/attack suite, but these were replaced in the USMC Harriers by a simpler Interface/Weapon Aiming Computer to aid quick turnaround between missions.", "The Martin-Baker ejection seats were also replaced by the Stencel SEU-3A in the American aircraft.", "The RAF had their GR.1 aircraft upgraded to the GR.3 standard, which featured improved sensors, a nose-mounted laser tracker, the integration of electronic countermeasure (ECM) systems and a further upgraded Pegasus Mk 103.The USMC upgraded their AV-8As to the AV-8C configuration; this programme involved the installation of ECM equipment and adding a new inertial navigation system to the aircraft's avionics.", "Substantial changes were the Lift Improvement Devices, to increase VTOL performance; at the same time several airframe components were restored or replaced to extend the life of the aircraft.", "Spain's Harriers, designated AV-8S or VA.1 Matador for the single-seater and TAV-8S or VAE.1 for the two-seater, were almost identical to USMC Harriers differing only in the radios fitted.The Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm (FAA) operated a substantially modified variant of the Harrier, the British Aerospace Sea Harrier.", "The Sea Harrier was intended for multiple naval roles and was equipped with radar and Sidewinder missiles for air combat duties as part of fleet air defence.", "The Sea Harrier was also fitted with navigational aids for carrier landings, modifications to reduce corrosion by seawater and a raised bubble-canopy covered cockpit for better visibility.", "The aircraft were later equipped to use AIM-120 AMRAAM beyond-visual-range anti-aircraft missiles and the more advanced Blue Vixen radar for longer range air-to-air combat, as well as Sea Eagle missiles for conducting anti-ship missions.The McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II is the latest Harrier variant, a second-generation series to replace the first generation of Harrier jets already in service; all the above variants of the Harrier have mainly been retired with the Harrier II taking their place in the RAF, USMC and FAA.", "In the 1970s the United Kingdom considered two options for replacing their existing Harriers: joining McDonnell Douglas (MDC) in developing the BAE Harrier II, or the independent development of a \"Big Wing\" Harrier.", "This proposal would have increased the wing area from , allowing for significant increases in weapons load and internal fuel reserves.", "The option of cooperation with MDC was chosen in 1982 over the more risky isolated approach.", "The original Harrier served as the basis for the British Aerospace Sea Harrier as it was required to fill the fighter role." ], [ "Operational history", "===Royal Air Force===The first RAF squadron to be equipped with the Harrier GR.1, No.", "1 Squadron, started to convert to the aircraft at RAF Wittering in April 1969.An early demonstration of the Harrier's capabilities was the participation of two aircraft in the ''Daily Mail'' Transatlantic Air Race in May 1969, flying between St Pancras railway station, London and central Manhattan with the use of aerial refuelling.", "The Harrier completed the journey in 6 hours 11 minutes.", "Two Harrier squadrons were established in 1970 at the RAF's air base in Wildenrath to be part of its air force in Germany; another squadron was formed there two years later.", "In 1977, these three squadrons were moved forward to the air base at Gütersloh, closer to the prospective front line in the event of an outbreak of a European war.", "One of the squadrons was disbanded and its aircraft distributed between the other two.alt=Harrier at an airfieldIn RAF service, the Harrier was used in close air support (CAS), reconnaissance, and other ground-attack roles.", "The flexibility of the Harrier led to a long-term heavy deployment in West Germany as a conventional deterrent and potential strike weapon against Soviet aggression; from camouflaged rough bases the Harrier was expected to launch attacks on advancing armour columns from East Germany.", "Harriers were also deployed to bases in Norway and Belize, a former British colony.", "No.", "1 Squadron was specifically earmarked for Norwegian operations in the event of war, operating as part of Allied Forces Northern Europe.", "The Harrier's capabilities were necessary in the Belize deployment, as it was the only RAF combat aircraft capable of safely operating from the airport's short runway; British forces had been stationed in Belize for several years due to tensions over a Guatemalan claim to Belizean territory; the forces were withdrawn in 1993, two years after Guatemala recognized the independence of Belize.In the Falklands War () in 1982, 10 Harrier GR.3s of No.", "1 Squadron operated from the aircraft carrier .", "As the RAF Harrier GR.3 had not been designed for naval service, the 10 aircraft had to be rapidly modified prior to the departure of the task force.", "Special sealants against corrosion were applied and a new deck-based inertial guidance aid was devised to allow the RAF Harrier to land on a carrier as easily as the Sea Harrier.", "Transponders to guide aircraft back to the carriers during night-time operations were also installed, along with flares and chaff dispensers.As there was little space on the carriers, two requisitioned merchant container ships, and , were modified with temporary flight decks and used to carry Harriers and helicopters to the South Atlantic.", "The Harrier GR.3s focused on providing close air support to the ground forces on the Falklands and attacking Argentine positions; suppressing enemy artillery was often a high priority.", "Sea Harriers were also used in the war, primarily conducting fleet air defence and combat air patrols against the threat of attacking Argentine fighters.", "However, both Sea Harriers and Harrier GR.3s were used in ground-attack missions against the main airfield and runway at Stanley.If most of the Sea Harriers had been lost, the GR.3s would have replaced them in air patrol duties, even though the Harrier GR.3 was not designed for air defence operations; as such the GR.3s quickly had their outboard weapons pylons modified to take air-to-air Sidewinder missiles.", "From 10 to 24 May 1982, prior to British forces landing in the Falklands, a detachment of three GR.3s provided air defence for Ascension Island until three F-4 Phantom IIs arrived to take on this responsibility.", "During the Falklands War, the greatest threats to the Harriers were deemed to be surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) and small arms fire from the ground.", "In total, four Harrier GR.3s and six Sea Harriers were lost to ground fire, accidents, or mechanical failure.", "More than 2,000 Harrier sorties were conducted during the conflict—equivalent to six sorties per day per aircraft.alt=A Harrier stored at an airfieldFollowing the Falklands War, British Aerospace explored the Skyhook, a new technique to operate Harriers from smaller ships.", "Skyhook would have allowed the launching and landing of Harriers from smaller ships by holding the aircraft in midair by a crane; secondary cranes were to hold weapons for rapid re-arming.", "This would potentially have saved fuel and allowed for operations in rougher seas.", "The system was marketed to foreign customers, and it was speculated that Skyhook could be applied to large submarines such as the Russian , but the system attracted no interest.The first generation of Harriers did not see further combat with the RAF after the Falklands War, although they continued to serve for years afterwards.", "As a deterrent against further Argentine invasion attempts, No.", "1453 Flight RAF was deployed to the Falkland Islands from August 1983 to June 1985.However the second generation Harrier IIs saw action in Bosnia, Iraq, and Afghanistan.", "The first generation Hawker Siddeley airframes were replaced by the improved Harrier II, which had been developed jointly between McDonnell Douglas and British Aerospace.===United States Marine Corps===The United States Marine Corps began showing a significant interest in the aircraft around the time the first RAF Harrier squadron was established in 1969, and this motivated Hawker Siddeley to further develop the aircraft to encourage a purchase.", "Although there were concerns in Congress about multiple coinciding projects in the close air support role, the Marine Corps were enthusiastic about the Harrier and managed to overcome efforts to obstruct its procurement.The Marine Corps accepted its first AV-8A on 6 January 1971, at the Dunsfold Aerodrome, England and began testing it at Naval Air Station Patuxent River on 26 January.", "The AV-8A entered service with the Marine Corps in 1971, replacing other aircraft in the Marines' attack squadrons.", "The service became interested in performing ship-borne operations with the Harrier.", "Admiral Elmo Zumwalt promoted the concept of a Sea Control Ship, a 15,000-ton light carrier equipped with Harriers and helicopters, to supplement the larger aircraft carriers of the US Navy.", "An amphibious assault ship, , was converted into the ''Interim Sea Control Ship'' and operated as such between 1971 and 1973 with the purpose of studying the limits and possible obstacles for operating such a vessel.", "Since then the Sea Control Ship concept has been subject to periodic re-examinations and studies, often in the light of budget cuts and questions over the use of supercarriers.alt=Two Harriers flyingOther exercises were performed to demonstrate the AV-8A's suitability for operating from various amphibious assault ships and aircraft carriers, including a deployment of 14 Harriers aboard for six months in 1976.The tests showed, amongst other things, that the Harrier was capable of performing in weather where conventional carrier aircraft could not.", "In support of naval operations, the USMC devised and studied several methods to further integrate the Harrier.", "One result was ''Arapaho'', a stand-by system to rapidly convert civilian cargo ships into seagoing platforms for operating and maintaining a handful of Harriers, to be used to augment the number of available ships to deploy upon.When the reactivation of the s was under consideration, a radical design for a battleship-carrier hybrid emerged that would have replaced the ship's rear turret with a flight deck, complete with a hangar and two ski jumps, for operating several Harriers.", "However, the USMC considered the need for naval gunfire support to be a greater priority than additional platforms for carrier operations, while the cost and delay associated with such elaborate conversions was significant, and the concept was dropped.The Marines Corps' concept for deploying the Harriers in a land-based expeditionary role focused on aggressive speed.", "Harrier forward bases and light maintenance facilities were to be set up in under 24 hours on any prospective battle area.", "The forward bases, containing one to four aircraft, were to be located from the forward edge of battle (FEBA), while a more established permanent airbase would be located around from the FEBA.", "The close proximity of forward bases allowed for a far greater sortie rate and reduced fuel consumption.A pair of USMC AV-8A Harriers refuelling from a alt=Harriers flying behind a tanker aircraftThe AV-8A's abilities in air-to-air combat were tested by the Marine Corps by conducting mock dogfights with McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom IIs; these exercises trained pilots to use the vectoring-in-forward-flight (VIFF) capability to outmanoeuvre their opponents and showed that the Harriers could act as effective air-to-air fighters at close range.", "The success of Harrier operations countered scepticism of V/STOL aircraft, which had been judged to be expensive failures in the past.", "Marine Corps officers became convinced of the military advantages of the Harrier and pursued extensive development of the aircraft.Starting in 1979, the USMC began upgrading their AV-8As to the AV-8C configuration—the work focused mainly on extending useful service lives and improving VTOL performance.", "The AV-8C and the remaining AV-8A Harriers were retired by 1987.These were replaced by the Harrier II, designated as the AV-8B, which was introduced into service in 1985.The performance of the Harrier in USMC service led to calls for the United States Air Force to procure Harrier IIs in addition to the USMC's own plans, but these never resulted in Air Force orders.", "Since the late 1990s, the AV-8B has been slated to be replaced by the F-35B variant of the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, a more modern V/STOL jet aircraft.Like the next generation AV-8Bs, nevertheless, the AV-8A/C Harriers suffered many accidents, with around 40 aircraft lost and some 30 pilots killed during the 1970s and 1980s.===Other operators===alt=A parked HarrierDue to the Harrier's unique characteristics it attracted a large amount of interest from other nations, often as attempts to make their own V/STOL jets were unsuccessful, such as in the cases of the American XV-4 Hummingbird and the German VFW VAK 191B.", "Operations by the USMC aboard in 1981 and by British Harriers and Sea Harriers in the Falklands War proved that the aircraft was highly effective in combat.", "These operations also demonstrated that \"Harrier Carriers\" provided a powerful presence at sea without the expense of big deck carriers.Following the display of Harrier operations from small carriers, the navies of Spain and later Thailand bought the Harrier for use as their main carrier-based fixed-wing aircraft.", "Spain's purchase of Harriers was complicated by long-standing political friction between the British and Spanish governments of the era; even though the Harriers were manufactured in the UK they were sold to Spain with the US acting as an intermediary.", "During tests in November 1972, the British pilot John Farley showed that the wooden deck of ''Dédalo'' was able to withstand the temperature of the gases generated by the Harrier.", "Since 1976, the Spanish Navy operated the AV-8S Matador from their aircraft carrier (formerly the ); the aircraft provided both air defence and strike capabilities for the Spanish fleet.", "Spain later purchased five Harriers directly from the British government mainly to replace losses.Hawker Siddeley aggressively marketed the Harrier for export.", "At one point the company was holding talks with Australia, Brazil, Switzerland, India and Japan.", "Of these only India became a customer, purchasing the Sea Harrier.", "At one point China came very close to becoming an operator of the first generation Harrier.", "Following an overture by the UK in the early 1970s, when relations with the West were warming, China became interested in the aircraft as it sought to modernise its armed forces; British Prime Minister James Callaghan noted significant hostility from the USSR over the sales bid.", "The deal was later cancelled by the UK as part of a diplomatic backlash after China invaded Vietnam in 1979.The Spanish Navy, Thai Navy, Royal Air Force, and U.S. Marine Corps have all retired their first-generation Harriers.", "Spain sold seven single-seat and two twin-seat Harriers to Thailand in 1998.The Royal Thai Navy's AV-8S Matadors were delivered as part of the air wing deployed on the new light aircraft carrier .", "The Thai Navy had from the start significant logistical problems keeping the Harriers operational due to a shortage of funds for spare parts and equipment, leaving only a few Harriers serviceable at a time.", "In 1999, two years after being delivered, only one airframe was in airworthy condition.", "Around 2003, Thailand considered acquiring former Royal Navy Sea Harriers, which were more suitable for maritime operations and better equipped for air defence, to replace their AV-8S Harriers; this investigation did not progress to a purchase.", "The last first-generation Harriers were retired by Thailand in 2006.=== Potential operators ===Some countries almost purchased Harriers.", "British Aerospace held talks with Argentina, Australia, Brazil, China, Switzerland, India, and Japan.==== Argentina ====When the Argentinian Navy looked for newer fighters in 1968 the US government only offered old A-4A planes instead of the A-4Fs Argentina wanted.", "Argentina contacted the British government in 1969 and expressed interest in buying from six to twelve Harrier GR.1s.", "In 1969 the Argentinian Navy received its second carrier, ARA ''Veinticinco de Mayo'', from the Netherlands.", "On her voyage home, Hawker Siddeley demonstrated a RAF Harrier GR.Mk.1 (XV757) but Argentina opted for the A-4Q Skyhawk instead.", "There were several problems to supply Argentina with Harrier jets and engines that prevented the deal from being closed, and when the US learned of the Harrier negotiations they quickly offered a better deal to Argentina.", "Some years later, before the 1982 war, British officials again offered Argentina an aircraft carrier and Sea Harrier aircraft.==== Australia ====Planning for a ''HMAS Melbourne'' aircraft carrier replacement began in 1981.After considering American, Italian, and Spanish designs, the Australian government accepted a British offer to sell , which would be operated with Harriers and helicopters.", "However, the Royal Navy withdrew the offer after the Falklands War, and the 1983 election of the Australian Labor Party led to the cancellation of plans to replace ''Melbourne''.==== China ====As early as 1972 the Chinese government started negotiating a purchase of up to 200 Harrier aircraft.", "Due to internal political issues, China put the negotiations on hold.", "In 1977 Li Chiang, the Chinese Minister of Foreign Trade, visited the UK and British Aerospace organised a Harrier flying demonstration.", "In November 1978, the Harrier-demonstration was repeated for the Chinese Vice-Premier Wang Chen during his UK visit.", "The Harrier deal would have meant British Government ignored United States laws that prohibited such sales to communist countries.", "The Soviet Union was also actively opposed to the UK selling weapons to the Chinese.", "In spite of that, British Aerospace convinced China that the Harrier was an effective close-support fighter and was good enough to act in a defensive role.", "In 1979, the Anglo-Sino deal was nearly finalised before being cancelled by the Sino-Vietnamese War.==== Switzerland ====The Swiss Air Force was interested in purchasing some Harriers as its doctrine was to operate in hidden and dispersed locations during the Cold War.", "British Aerospace held talks with Switzerland offering AV-8s to replace De Havilland Venoms.", "A demonstration was made by test pilot John Farley and XV742/G-VSTO in 1971." ], [ "Variants", "A Royal Air Force Harrier GR.3 aircraft parked on the flight line during Air Fete '84 at alt=An aircraft on display;Harrier GR.1, GR.1A, GR.3: Single-seat versions for the RAF.", "The RAF ordered 118 of the GR.1/GR.3 series, with the last production aircraft delivery in December 1986.122 built.", ";AV-8A, AV-8C Harrier: Single-seat versions for the US Marine Corps.", "The USMC ordered 102 AV-8As (company designation: Harrier Mk.", "50).", "The AV-8C was an upgrade to the AV-8A.", "110 built.", ";AV-8S Matador : Export version of the AV-8A Harrier for the Spanish Navy, who designated them as VA-1 Matador; later sold to the Royal Thai Navy.", "10 built.", ";Harrier T.2, T.2A, T.4, T.4A: Two-seat training versions for the RAF, with a stretched body and taller tail fin.", "25 built.", ";Harrier T.4N, T.8, T.60: Two-seat training versions for the Royal Navy and Indian Navy with avionics based on the Sea Harrier.", ";TAV-8A Harrier : Two-seat training version for the USMC, powered by a Pegasus Mk 103.;TAV-8S Matador: Two-seat training version for the Spanish Navy and later sold to the Royal Thai Navy." ], [ "Operators", ";* Indian Navy (see Sea Harrier)alt=An aircraft ready for takeoff;* Spanish Navy;* Royal Thai Navy;* Royal Air Force* Royal Navy;* United States Marine Corps" ], [ "Aircraft on display", "alt=Museum display of a Harrier===Belize===;GR.3* ZD669 – Philip S. W. Goldson International Airport, Ladyville, BelizeNo.", "1417 Flight RAF===Canada===;AV-8A* 158966 – Canada Aviation and Space Museum, Ottawa, Ontario===China===Harrier GR3 in Beijing Air and Space Museum;GR.3* XZ965 – Beijing Air and Space Museum===Germany===;GR.1* XV278 – Luftwaffenmuseum der Bundeswehr, Gatow;GR.3* XZ998 – Flugausstellung Hermeskeil at Hermeskeil===Poland===;GR.3* XW919 – Polish Aviation Museum, Kraków, Poland===New Zealand===;GR.3* XZ129 – Ashburton Aviation Museum, Ashburton, New Zealand===Thailand===AV-8S Royal Thai Navy in Royal Thai Air Force Museum;AV-8S* 3109 – Royal Thai Air Force Museum===United Kingdom===;GR.1* XV277 – National Museum of Flight, East Fortune* XV281 (Under Restoration) – South Yorkshire Aircraft Museum, Doncaster, South Yorkshire* XV741 – Brooklands Museum, Surrey;GR.3* XV744 – Tangmere Military Aviation Museum, Chichester, West Sussex* XV748 – Yorkshire Air Museum, Elvington* XV751 – Gatwick Aviation Museum, Surrey* XV752 – South Yorkshire Aircraft Museum, Doncaster, South Yorkshire* XV753 – Classic Air Force, St Mawgan, Newquay, Cornwall* XV779 – RAF Wittering (Gate Guardian)* XZ133 – Imperial War Museum, Duxford* XZ964 – Royal Engineers Museum, Gillingham, Kent* XZ968 – Muckleburgh Collection, Norfolk* XZ997 – RAF Museum, Hendon* XZ971 – MoD Donnington, Telford* ZD667 – Bentwaters Cold War Museum, Suffolk;Mk.52 G-VTOL* ZA250 – Brooklands Museum, Surrey;T.2* XW269 – Caernarfon Airworld Aviation Museum, Gwynedd;T.4* XW934 – Farnborough Air Sciences Trust, Farnborough, Hampshire* XW268 – Coventry University, Engineering and computing building, Coventry, West Midlands* XW268 – City of Norwich Aviation Museum, Norfolk;AV-8A* 159233 – Imperial War Museum North===United States===;AV-8A* 158695 – Air Park, MCAS Yuma, Yuma, Arizona* 159239 – San Diego Air and Space Museum, San Diego, California* 158963 – Craven County Regional Airport, Grantham, North Carolina* 158976 – City of Havelock, Havelock, North Carolina* Cockpit on display at Moffett Historical Museum, Moffett Federal Airfield, California;TAV-8A* 159381 – Oakland Aviation Museum, Oakland, California* 159382 – Pima Air & Space Museum, Tucson, Arizona;AV-8C* 158387 – Fort Worth Aviation Museum, Fort Worth, Texas* 158710 – Quonset Air Museum, North Kingstown, Rhode Island* 158959 – Pacific Coast Air Museum, Santa Rosa, California* 158975 – National Naval Aviation Museum, NAS Pensacola, Pensacola, Florida* 158977 – Museum of Flight, Seattle, Washington* 159232 – Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum, New York City, New York* 159238 – Hangar 25 Museum, Webb AFB (formerly), Big Spring, Texas* 159241 – Pima Air & Space Museum, Tucson, Arizona* 159247 – Naval Inventory Control Point (NAVICP) Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania* 159249 – United States Naval Museum of Armament and Technology, NCC China Lake (North), Ridgecrest, California" ], [ "Specifications (Harrier GR.3)" ], [ "Popular culture" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* Bishop, Chris and Chris Chant.", "''Aircraft Carriers''.", "Grand Rapids, Michigan, US: Zenith Imprint, 2004..* Braybrook, Roy.", "''Battle for the Falklands: Air Forces''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1982..* Brown, Kevin.", "\"The Plane That Makes Airfields Obsolete.\"", "''Popular Mechanics'', 133(6), June 1970, pp. 80–83.", "* Bull, Stephen.", "''Encyclopedia of Military Rechnology and Innovation''.", "Westport, Connecticut, US: Greenwood Publishing, 2004..* Burke, David J.", "''Harriers and Close Air Support''.", "Air Enthusiast 115, January–February 2005, p. 75 * Burr, Lawrence and Peter Bull.", "''US Fast Battleships 1938–91: The Iowa Class''.", "New York, US: Osprey Publishing, 2010..* Buttler, Tony.", "''British Secret Projects: Jet Fighters Since 1950''.", "Hinckley, UK: Midland Publishing, 2000..* * Chant, Chris.", "''Air War in the Falklands 1982 (Osprey Combat Aircraft #28)''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2001..* Congress Committee on Appropriations.", "\"Department of Defense Appropriations for 1979: Part 5\".", "Washington D.C., US: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979.", "* Davies, Peter and Anthony M. Thornborough.", "''The Harrier Story''.", "Annapolis, Maryland, US: Naval Institute Press, 1997..* Ellis, Ken.", "''Wrecks & Relics, 21st edition''.", "Manchester, UK: Crécy Publishing, 2008..* Evans, Andy.", "''BAe/McDonald Douglas Harrier''.", "Ramsbury, UK: The Crowood Press, 1998..* Freedman, Lawrence.", "''The Official History of the Falklands Campaign.", "Volume II: War and Diplomacy''.", "London, UK: Routledge, 2007..* Friedman, Norman.", "''U.S.", "Aircraft Carriers: an Illustrated Design History''.", "Annapolis, Maryland, US: Naval Institute Press, 1983..* * Gunston, W.T.", "\"Pegasus updating prospects\".", "''Flight International'', 22 January 1977, pp. 189–191.", "* Jackson, Paul.", "\"British Aerospace/McDonnell Douglas Harrier\".", "''World Air Power Journal'', Volume 6, Summer 1991.pp. 46–105.", "* Jefford, C.G., ed.", "''The RAF Harrier Story''.", "London, UK: Royal Air Force Historical Society, 2006..* Jenkins, Dennis R. ''Boeing / BAe Harrier''.", "North Branch, Minnesota, US: Specialty Press, 1998..* Layman, R D and Stephen McLaughlin.", "''The Hybrid Warship''.", "London: Conway, 1991..* Markman, Steve and Bill Holder.", "''Straight Up: A History of Vertical Flight''.", "Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing, 2000..* Mason, Francis K. ''Harrier''.", "Wellingborough, UK: Patrick Stephens Limited, Third edition, 1986..* Mason, Francis K. ''Hawker Aircraft since 1920''.", "London, UK: Putnam, 1991..* Miller, David M.O.", "and Chris Miller.", "\"Modern Naval Combat\".", "Crescent Books, 1986..* Moxton, Julian.", "\"Supersonic Harrier: One Step Closer\".", "''Flight International'', 4 December 1982, pp. 1633–1635.", "* Nordeen, Lon O.", "''Harrier II, Validating V/STOL''.", "Annapolis, Maryland, US: Naval Institute Press, 2006..* Spick, Mike, ed.", "''The Great Book of Modern Warplanes''.", "St. Paul, Minnesota, US: MBI Publishing, 2000..* Sturtivant, Ray.", "''Fleet Air Arm Fixed-Wing Aircraft since 1946''.", "Tonbridge, Kent, UK: Air-Britain (Historians), 2004..* Sturtivant, Ray.", "''RAF Flying Training and Support Units since 1912''.", "Tonbridge, Kent, UK: Air-Britain (Historians), 2007..* Taylor, John W.R. ''Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1988–89''.", "Coulsdon, UK: Jane's Defence Data, 1988..* Vann, Frank.", "''Harrier jump jet''.", "New York, US: Bdd Promotional Book Co, 1990.." ], [ "Further reading", "* Farley, John OBE.", "''A View From The Hover: My Life in Aviation.''", "Bath, UK: Seager Publishing/Flyer Books, 2010, first edition 2008..* Gunston, Bill and Mike Spick.", "''Modern Air Combat: The Aircraft, Tactics and Weapons Employed in Aerial Warfare Today''.", "New York: Crescent Books, 1983..* Mason, Francis.", "''Hawker Aircraft since 1920''.", "London: Putnam Publishing, 1971..* Polmar, Norman and Dana Bell.", "''One Hundred Years of World Military Aircraft''.", "Annapolis, Maryland, US: Naval Institute Press, 2003.." ], [ "External links", "* Harrier history website (see archive)* Harriers lost in the Falklands* Harrier GR.3 in Beijing Aviation Museum, China * \"Harrier – World's First Fixed-wing V/STOL Weapons System\" a 1967 article in ''Flight''* \"Harriers for the United States?\"", "1969 ''Flight'' article on the USMC case for the Harrier* \"Woodland Warfare\" a 1972 ''Flight'' article on Harrier dispersed operations* \"V for Two\" a 1972 ''Flight'' article on the two-seat Harrier T.2* \"In the Air – Harrier\" a 1973 ''Flight'' article on flying the Harrier" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hawker Harrier" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Hawker Harrier''' was a British experimental biplane torpedo bomber aircraft built by Hawker Aircraft to a specification issued in the 1920s for the Royal Air Force." ], [ "Development", "In 1925, the British Air Ministry laid down specifications for a high altitude bomber to replace the Hawker Horsley and for a coastal torpedo bomber (Specifications 23/25 and 24/25).", "As these specifications were similar, the Air Ministry announced that a single competition would be held to study aircraft submitted for both specifications.Sydney Camm of Hawker Aircraft designed the Harrier to meet the requirements of Specification 23/25, with the prototype (''J8325'') first flying in February 1927, the first of the competitors for the two specifications to fly.", "The Harrier was a two-seat biplane with single-bay wings powered by a geared Bristol Jupiter VIII radial engine.", "It was armed with one .303 in (7.7 mm) Vickers machine gun and one .303 in (7.7 mm) Lewis gun carrying a maximum of of bombs.The prototype Harrier was tested at the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (A & AEE) at Martlesham Heath in November 1927, where, while it met the requirements of Specification 23/25 and had satisfactory handling, the geared engine meant that it was underpowered, and it had an inferior bombload to the Hawker Horsley, the aircraft it was meant to replace.", "It was therefore modified to carry a torpedo.", "On testing the modified aircraft, however, it was found to still be underpowered, being incapable of taking off with a torpedo, gunner and full fuel load.", "It was therefore not considered further, the competition ultimately being won by the Vickers Vildebeest.The prototype was used by Bristol as an engine testbed, flying with the Bristol Hydra and the Bristol Orion engines." ], [ "Specifications (Harrier, as bomber)" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Bibliography===* **" ], [ "External links", "* Hawker Harrier – British Aircraft Directory" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hergé" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Georges Prosper Remi''' (; 22 May 1907 – 3 March 1983), known by the pen name '''Hergé''' (; ), from the French pronunciation of his reversed initials ''RG'', was a Belgian comic strip artist.", "He is best known for creating ''The Adventures of Tintin'', the series of comic albums which are considered one of the most popular European comics of the 20th century.", "He was also responsible for two other well-known series, ''Quick & Flupke'' (1930–1940) and ''The Adventures of Jo, Zette and Jocko'' (1936–1957).", "His works were executed in his distinctive ''ligne claire'' drawing style.Born to a lower-middle-class family in Etterbeek, Brussels, Hergé began his career by contributing illustrations to Scouting magazines, developing his first comic series, ''The Adventures of Totor'', for ''Le Boy-Scout Belge'' in 1926.Working for the conservative Catholic newspaper ''Le Vingtième Siècle'', he created ''The Adventures of Tintin'' in 1929 on the advice of its editor Norbert Wallez.", "Revolving around the actions of boy reporter Tintin and his dog Snowy, the series' early instalments – ''Tintin in the Land of the Soviets'', ''Tintin in the Congo'', and ''Tintin in America'' – were designed as conservative propaganda for children.", "Domestically successful, after serialisation the stories were published in book form, with Hergé continuing the series and also developing both the ''Quick & Flupke'' and ''Jo, Zette and Jocko'' series for ''Le Vingtième Siècle''.", "Influenced by his friend Zhang Chongren, from 1934 Hergé placed far greater emphasis on conducting background research for his stories, resulting in increased realism from ''The Blue Lotus'' onward.", "Following the German occupation of Belgium in 1940, ''Le Vingtième Siècle'' was closed, but Hergé continued his series in ''Le Soir'', a popular newspaper controlled by the Nazi administration.After the Allied liberation of Belgium in 1944, ''Le Soir'' was shut down and its staff – including Hergé – accused of having been collaborators.", "An official investigation was launched, and although no charges were brought against Hergé, in subsequent years he repeatedly faced accusations of having been a traitor and collaborator.", "With Raymond Leblanc he established ''Tintin'' magazine in 1946, through which he serialised new ''Adventures of Tintin'' stories.", "As the magazine's artistic director, he also oversaw the publication of other successful comics series, such as Edgar P. Jacobs' ''Blake and Mortimer''.", "In 1950 he established Studios Hergé as a team to aid him in his ongoing projects; prominent staff members Jacques Martin and Bob de Moor greatly contributed to subsequent volumes of ''The Adventures of Tintin''.", "Amid personal turmoil following the collapse of his first marriage, he produced ''Tintin in Tibet'', his personal favourite of his works.", "In later years he became less prolific, and unsuccessfully attempted to establish himself as an abstract artist.Hergé's works have been widely acclaimed for their clarity of draughtsmanship and meticulous, well-researched plots.", "They have been the source of a wide range of adaptations, in theatre, radio, television, cinema, and computer gaming.", "He remains a strong influence on the comic book medium, particularly in Europe.", "He is widely celebrated in Belgium: a Hergé Museum was established in Louvain-la-Neuve in 2009." ], [ "Early life", "=== Childhood and youth: 1907–1925 ===The house in Etterbeek where Hergé was bornGeorges Prosper Remi was born on 22 May 1907 in his parental home in Etterbeek, a central suburb in Brussels, the capital city of Belgium.", "His was a lower-middle-class family.", "His Walloon father, Alexis Remi, worked in a confectionery factory, whilst his Flemish mother, Elisabeth Dufour, was a housewife.", "Married on 18 January 1905, they moved into a house at 25 rue Cranz (now 33 rue Philippe Baucq), where Georges was born, although a year later they moved to a house at 34 rue de Theux.", "His primary language was his father's French, but growing up in the bilingual Brussels, he also learned Dutch, developing a Marollien accent from his maternal grandmother.", "A younger brother, Paul, was born five years after Georges.", "Like most Belgians, his family belonged to the Roman Catholic Church, though they were not particularly devout.", "He later characterised his life in Etterbeek as dominated by a monochrome grey, considering it extremely boring.", "Biographer Benoît Peeters suggested that this childhood melancholy might have been exacerbated through being sexually abused by a maternal uncle, Charles Arthur Dufour.Remi developed a love of cinema, favouring Winsor McCay's ''Gertie the Dinosaur'' and the films of Charlie Chaplin, Harry Langdon and Buster Keaton; his later work in the comic strip medium displayed an obvious influence from them in style and content.", "Although not a keen reader, he enjoyed the novels of British and US authors, such as ''Huckleberry Finn'', ''Treasure Island'', ''Robinson Crusoe'' and ''The Pickwick Papers'', as well as the novels of Frenchman Alexandre Dumas.", "Drawing as a hobby, he sketched out scenes from daily life along the edges of his school books.", "Some of these illustrations were of German soldiers, because his four years of primary schooling at the Ixelles Municipal School No.", "3 coincided with World War I, during which Brussels was occupied by the German army.", "In 1919, his secondary education began at the secular Place de Londres in Ixelles, but in 1920 he was moved to Saint-Boniface School, an institution controlled by the archbishop where the teachers were Roman Catholic priests.", "Remi proved a successful student, being awarded prizes for excellence.", "He completed his secondary education in July 1925 at the top of his class.Aged 12, Remi joined the Boy Scout brigade attached to Saint-Boniface School, becoming troop leader of the Squirrel Patrol and earning the name \"Curious Fox\" (''Renard curieux'').", "With the Scouts, he travelled to summer camps in Italy, Switzerland, Austria and Spain, and in the summer of 1923 his troop hiked 200 miles across the Pyrenees.", "His experiences with Scouting would have a significant influence on the rest of his life, sparking his love of camping and the natural world, and providing him with a moral compass that stressed personal loyalty and keeping one's promises.His Scoutmaster, Rene Weverbergh, encouraged his artistic ability, and published one of Remi's drawings in the newsletter of the Saint-Boniface Scouts, ''Jamais Assez'' (''Never Enough''): his first published work.", "When Weverbergh became involved in the publication of ''Boy-Scout'', the newsletter of the Federation of Scouts, he published more of Remi's illustrations, the first of which appeared in the fifth issue, from 1922.Remi continued publishing cartoons, drawings and woodcuts in subsequent issues of the newsletter, which was soon renamed ''Le Boy-Scout Belge'' (''The Belgian Boy Scout'').", "During this time, he experimented with different pseudonyms, using \"Jérémie\" and \"Jérémiades\" before settling on \"Hergé\", the French pronunciation of his reversed initials (R.G.)", "His work was first published under this name in December 1924.=== ''Totor'' and early career: 1925–1928 ===The ''Totor'' series was Hergé's first published comic strip.Alongside his stand-alone illustrations, in July 1926 Hergé began production of a comic strip for ''Le Boy-Scout Belge'', ''Les Aventures de Totor'' (''The Adventures of Totor''), which continued intermittent publication until 1929.Revolving around the adventures of a Boy Scout patrol leader, the comic initially featured written captions underneath the scenes, but Hergé began to experiment with other forms of conveying information, including speech balloons.", "Illustrations were also published in ''Le Blé qui lève'' (''The Wheat That Grows'') and other publications of the (''Action catholique de la jeunesse belge''), and Hergé produced a book jacket for Weverbergh's novel, ''The Soul of the Sea''.", "Being young and inexperienced, still learning his craft, Hergé sought guidance from an older cartoonist, Pierre Ickx, and together they founded the short-lived ''Atelier de la Fleur de Lys'' (AFL), an organisation for Christian cartoonists.After graduating from secondary school in 1925, Hergé enrolled in the École Saint-Luc art school, but finding the teaching boring, he left after one lesson.", "He hoped for a job as an illustrator alongside Ickx at ''Le Vingtième Siècle'' (''The Twentieth Century'') – a conservative \"Catholic Newspaper of Doctrine and Information\" – but no positions were available.", "Instead he got a job in the paper's subscriptions department, starting in September 1925.Despising the boredom of this position, he enlisted for military service before he was called up, and in August 1926 was assigned to the Dailly barracks at Schaerbeek.", "Joining the first infantry regiment, he was also bored by his military training, but continued sketching and producing episodes of ''Totor''.Toward the end of his military service, in August 1927, Hergé met the editor of ''Le Vingtième Siècle'', the Abbé Norbert Wallez, a vocal fascist who kept a signed photograph of the Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini on his desk.", "Impressed by Hergé's repertoire, Wallez agreed to give him a job as a photographic reporter and cartoonist for the paper, something for which Hergé always remained grateful, coming to view the Abbé as a father figure.", "Supplemented by commissions for other publications, Hergé illustrated a number of texts for \"The Children's Corner\" and the literary pages; the illustrations of this period show his interest in woodcuts and the early prototype of his ''ligne claire'' style.=== Founding ''Tintin'' and ''Quick & Flupke'': 1929–1932 ===Beginning a series of newspaper supplements in late 1928, Wallez founded a supplement for children, ''Le Petit Vingtième'' (''The Little Twentieth''), which subsequently appeared in ''Le Vingtième Siècle'' every Thursday.", "Carrying strong Catholic and fascist messages, many of its passages were explicitly anti-semitic.", "For this new venture, Hergé illustrated ''L'Extraordinaire Aventure de Flup, Nénesse, Poussette et Cochonnet'' (''The Extraordinary Adventure of Flup, Nénesse, Poussette and Cochonnet''), a comic strip authored by one of the paper's sport columnists, which told the story of two boys, one of their little sisters, and her inflatable rubber pig.", "Hergé was unsatisfied, and eager to write and draw a comic strip of his own.", "He was fascinated by new techniques in the medium – such as the systematic use of speech bubbles – found in such US comics as George McManus' ''Bringing Up Father'', George Herriman's ''Krazy Kat'' and Rudolph Dirks's ''The Katzenjammer Kids'', copies of which had been sent to him from Mexico by the paper's reporter Léon Degrelle, stationed there to report on the Cristero War.The front page of the edition of 1 May 1930 of , declaring \"\" (\"Tintin Returns!\")", "from his adventure in the Soviet Union.Hergé developed a character named Tintin as a Belgian boy reporter who could travel the world with his fox terrier, Snowy – \"Milou\" in the original French – basing him in large part on his earlier character of Totor and also on his own brother, Paul.", "Degrelle later falsely claimed that Tintin had been based on him, while he and Hergé fell out when Degrelle used one of his designs without permission; they settled out-of-court.", "Although Hergé wanted to send his character to the United States, Wallez instead ordered him to set his adventure in the Soviet Union, acting as a work of anti-socialist propaganda for children.", "The result, ''Tintin in the Land of the Soviets'', began serialisation in ''Le Petit Vingtième'' on 10 January 1929, and ran until 8 May 1930.Popular in Francophone Belgium, Wallez organized a publicity stunt at the Gare de Nord station, following which he organized the publication of the story in book form.", "The popularity of the story led to an increase in sales, and so Wallez granted Hergé two assistants, Eugène Van Nyverseel and Paul \"Jam\" Jamin.In January 1930, Hergé introduced ''Quick & Flupke'' (''Quick et Flupke''), a new comic strip about two street kids from Brussels, in the pages of ''Le Petit Vingtième''.", "At Wallez's direction, in June he began serialisation of the second Tintin adventure, ''Tintin in the Congo'', designed to encourage colonial sentiment towards the Belgian Congo.", "Authored in a paternalistic style that depicted the Congolese as childlike idiots, in later decades it would be accused of racism; however, at the time it was un-controversial and popular, with further publicity stunts held to increase sales.", "For the third adventure, ''Tintin in America'', serialised from September 1931 to October 1932, Hergé finally got to deal with a scenario of his own choice, although he used the work to push an anti-capitalist, anti-consumerist agenda in keeping with the paper's ultra-conservative ideology.", "Although the ''Adventures of Tintin'' had been serialised in the French Catholic ''Cœurs Vaillants'' (\"Brave Hearts\") since 1930, he was soon receiving syndication requests from Swiss and Portuguese newspapers too.", "Though wealthier than most Belgians at his age, and despite increasing success, he remained an unfazed \"conservative young man\" dedicated to his work.Hergé sought work elsewhere too, creating ''The Lovable Mr. Mops'' cartoon for the Bon Marché department store, and ''The Adventures of Tim the Squirrel Out West'' for the rival L'Innovation department store.=== First marriage ===At the offices of in 1928, Hergé met the woman who would become his first wife, Germaine Kieckens (1906 – 26 October 1995).", "A redhead described by Pierre Assouline as \"elegant and popular\", she had obtained work as the secretary for Norbert Wallez.", "At the time of her birth, her parents were relatively elderly and, having lost an earlier child, they were particularly overprotective of her.", "Greatly admiring Wallez, whom she looked up to as a father figure, she adopted his fascist political beliefs.", "She was appointed editor of , a supplement for women for which Hergé sometimes drew the cover.", "She also began writing articles for using the pseudonym Tantine.", "The first 500 copies of ''Tintin in the Land of the Soviets'' were numbered and signed by Hergé using Tintin's signature, with Snowy's paw print being drawn next to it by Kieckens.In 1930, Hergé escorted her home from work almost every night, though she expressed little romantic interest in him at the time.", "Instead she desired an older, or more mature man, such as the Abbé himself.", "Wallez however encouraged the two to enter into a relationship, and one evening at the Taverne du Palace she indicated to Hergé that she would be interested in a relationship.On 20 July 1932 Hergé and Kieckens were married; although neither of them was entirely happy with the union, they had been encouraged to do so by Wallez, who insisted that all his single staff married and who personally carried out the wedding ceremony at the Saint-Roch Church in Laeken.", "Spending their honeymoon in Vianden, Luxembourg, the couple moved into an apartment in the rue Knapen, Schaerbeek." ], [ "Rising fame", "=== ''Tintin in the Orient'' and ''Jo, Zette & Jocko'': 1932–1939 ===In November 1932 Hergé announced that the following month he would send Tintin on an adventure to Asia.", "Although initially titled ''The Adventures of Tintin, Reporter, in the Orient'', it would later be renamed ''Cigars of the Pharaoh''.", "A mystery story, the plot began in Egypt before proceeding to Arabia and India, during which the recurring characters of Thomson and Thompson and Rastapopoulos were introduced.", "Through his friend Charles Lesne, Hergé was hired to produce illustrations for the company Casterman, and in late 1933 they proposed taking over the publication of both ''The Adventures of Tintin'' and ''Quick and Flupke'' in book form, to which Hergé agreed; the first Casterman book was the collected volume of ''Cigars''.", "Continuing to subsidise his comic work with commercial advertising, in January 1934 he also founded the \"Atelier Hergé\" advertising company with two partners, but it was liquidated after six months.After Wallez was removed from the paper's editorship in August 1933 following a scandal, Hergé became despondent; in March 1934 he tried to resign, but was encouraged to stay after his monthly salary was increased from 2000 to 3000 francs and his workload was reduced, with Jamin taking responsibility for the day-to-day running of ''Le Petit Vingtième''.From February to August 1934 Hergé serialised ''Popol Out West'' in ''Le Petit Vingtième'', a story using animal characters that was a development of the earlier ''Tim the Squirrel'' comic.From August 1934 to October 1935, ''Le Petit Vingtième'' serialised Tintin's next adventure, ''The Blue Lotus'', which was set in China and dealt with the recent Japanese invasion of Manchuria.", "Hergé had been greatly influenced in the production of the work by his friend Zhang Chongren, a Catholic Chinese student studying at Brussels' Académie Royale des Beaux-Arts, to whom he had been introduced in May 1934.Zhang gave him lessons in Taoist philosophy, Chinese art and Chinese calligraphy, influencing not only his artistic style, but also his general outlook on life.", "As a token of appreciation Hergé added a fictional \"Chang Chong-Chen\" to ''The Blue Lotus'', a young Chinese boy who meets and befriends Tintin.", "For ''The Blue Lotus'', Hergé devoted far more attention to accuracy, resulting in a largely realistic portrayal of China.", "As a result, ''The Blue Lotus'' has been widely hailed as \"Hergé's first masterpiece\" and a benchmark in the series' development.", "Casterman published it in book form, also insisting that Hergé include colour plates in both the volume and in reprints of ''America'' and ''Cigars''.", "In 1936, they also began production of Tintin merchandise, something Hergé supported, having ideas of an entire shop devoted to ''The Adventures of Tintin'', something that would come to fruition 50 years later.", "Nevertheless, while his serialised comics proved lucrative, the collected volumes sold less well, something Hergé blamed on Casterman, urging them to do more to market his books.", "''Jo, Zette and Jocko'' in ''Cœurs Vaillants''Hergé's next Tintin story, ''The Broken Ear'' (1935–1937), was the first for which the plot synopsis had been outlined from the start, being a detective story that took Tintin to South America.", "It introduced the character of General Alcazar, and also saw Hergé introduce the first fictional countries into the series, San Theodoros and Nuevo Rico, two republics based largely on Bolivia and Paraguay.", "The violent elements within ''The Broken Ear'' upset the publishers of ''Cœurs Vaillants'', who asked Hergé to create a more child-appropriate story for them.", "The result was ''The Adventures of Jo, Zette, and Jocko'', a series about a young brother and sister, plus their pet monkey and the parents.", "The series began with ''The Secret Ray'', which was serialised in ''Cœurs Vaillants'' and then ''Le Petit Vingtième'', and continued with ''The Stratoship H-22'' and finally ''The Valley of the Cobras''.", "Hergé nevertheless disliked the series, commenting that the characters \"bored me terribly.\"", "Now writing three series simultaneously, Hergé was working every day of the year, and felt stressed.The next Tintin adventure was ''The Black Island'' (1937–1938), which saw the character travel to Britain to battle counterfeiters and introduced a new antagonist, the German Dr. Müller.", "Hergé followed this with ''King Ottokar's Sceptre'' (1938–1939), in which Tintin saves the fictional Eastern European country of Syldavia from being invaded by its expansionist neighbour, Borduria; the event was an anti-fascist satire of Nazi Germany's expansion into Austria and Czechoslovakia.", "In May 1939, Hergé moved to a new house in Watermael-Boitsfort, although following the German invasion of Poland, he was conscripted into the Belgian army and temporarily stationed in Herenthout.", "Demobbed within the month, he returned to Brussels and adopted a more explicit anti-German stance when beginning his next Tintin adventure, ''Land of Black Gold'', which was set in the Middle East and featured Dr. Müller sabotaging oil lines.During this period, Hergé also contributed to ''L'Ouest'' (''The West''), a newspaper run by his friend Raymond De Becker.", "''L'Ouest'' urged Belgium to remain neutral in World War II, a stance Hergé supported, creating the ''Mr Bellum'' strip to argue this position.", "Hergé was invited to visit China by Chinese Nationalist leader Chiang Kai-shek, who had enjoyed ''The Blue Lotus'', although due to the political situation in Europe, this was not possible.", "He was re-mobilized in December, and stationed in Antwerp, from where he continued to send the Tintin strip to ''Le Petit Vingtième''.", "However, he fell ill with sinusitis and boils and was declared unfit for military service in May 1940.That same day, Germany invaded Belgium.", "''Le Vingtième Siècle'' was shut down, part way through the serialisation of ''Land of Black Gold''.=== German occupation and ''Le Soir'': 1939–1945 ===As the Belgian Army clashed with the invading Germans, Hergé and his wife fled by car to France along with tens of thousands of other Belgians, first staying in Paris and then heading south to Puy-de-Dôme, where they remained for six weeks.", "On 28 May, King Leopold III of the Belgians surrendered the country to the German army to prevent further killing; a move that Hergé supported.", "He followed the king's request that all of those Belgians who had fled the country return, arriving back in Brussels on 30 June.", "There, he found that his house had been occupied as an office for the German army's ''Propagandastaffel'', and also faced financial trouble, as he owed back taxes yet was unable to access his financial reserves.", "All Belgian publications were now under the control of the German occupying force, who refused permission to continue publication.", "Instead, Hergé was offered employment as a cartoonist for by its editor, the Rexist Victor Matthys, but Hergé perceived as an explicitly political publication, and thus declined the position.Instead, he took up a position with , Belgium's largest Francophone daily newspaper.", "Confiscated from its original owners, the German authorities had permitted ''Le Soir'' to be re-opened under the directorship of De Doncker, although it remained firmly under Nazi control, supporting the German war effort and espousing anti-Semitism.", "After joining the ''Le Soir'' team on 15 October, Hergé was involved in the creation of a children's supplement, ''Soir-Jeunesse'', aided by Jamin and Jacques Van Melkebeke.", "He relaunched ''The Adventures of Tintin'' with a new story, ''The Crab with the Golden Claws'', in which Tintin pursued drug smugglers in North Africa; the story was a turning point in the series for its introduction of Captain Haddock, who would become a major character in the rest of the ''Adventures''.", "This story, like the subsequent ''Adventures of Tintin'' published in ''Le Soir'', would reject the political themes present in earlier stories, instead remaining firmly neutral.", "Hergé also included new ''Quick & Flupke'' gags in the supplement, as well as illustrations for serialised stories by Edgar Allan Poe and the Brothers Grimm.In May 1941, a paper shortage led to the ''Soir-Jeunesse'' being reduced to four pages, with the length of the Tintin strip being cut by two thirds.", "Several weeks later the supplement disappeared altogether, with ''The Crab with the Golden Claws'' being moved into ''Le Soir'' itself, where it became a daily strip.", "While some Belgians were upset that Hergé was willing to work for a newspaper controlled by the occupying Nazi administration, he was heavily enticed by the size of 's readership, which reached 600,000.With Van Melkebeke, Hergé put together two Tintin plays.", "The first, ''Tintin in the Indies'', appeared at Brussels' Theatre des Galeries in April 1941, while the second, ''Mr Boullock's Disappearance'', was performed there in December.", "From October 1941 to May 1942, ''Le Soir'' serialised Hergé's next Tintin adventure, ''The Shooting Star'', followed by publication as a single volume by Casterman.", "In keeping with ''Le Soir''s editorial standpoint, ''The Shooting Star'' espoused an anti-Semitic and anti-American attitude, with the antagonist being a wealthy Jewish American businessman; it would thus prove particularly controversial in the post-war period, although Hergé denied any malicious anti-Semitic intention.resistance group ''L'Insoumis'', denouncing Georges Remy as a collaborator.", "Hergé later admitted that \"I hated the Resistance thing ...", "I knew that for every one of the Resistance's actions, hostages would be arrested and shot.", "\"Casterman felt that the black-and-white volumes of ''The Adventures of Tintin'' were not selling as well as colour comic books, and thus that the series should be produced in colour.", "At the same time, Belgium was facing a paper-shortage, with Casterman wishing to cut down the volumes from 120-pages in length to 62.Hergé was initially sceptical, but ultimately agreed to their demands in February 1942.For these new editions, Casterman introduced a four-colour system, although Hergé insisted that colour should remain secondary to line, and that it would not be used for shading.", "To cope with this additional workload, Hergé approached a friend whom he had met through Van Melkebeke, Edgar P. Jacobs, to aid him as a cartoonist and colourist.", "Jacobs could only work on the project part-time, and so in March 1942, Hergé also employed a woman named Alice Devos to aid him.", "In July 1942, Hergé then procured an agent, Bernard Thièry, who took 40% of his commissions; their working relationship would be strained.", "With their assistance, from 1942 to 1947, Hergé adapted most of his previous ''Adventures of Tintin'' into 62-page colour versions.Hergé's next ''Adventure of Tintin'' would be ''The Secret of the Unicorn'', serialised in ''Le Soir'' from June 1942.He had collaborated closely with Van Melkebeke on this project, who had introduced many elements from the work of Jules Verne into the detective story, in which Tintin and Haddock searched for parchments revealing the location of hidden pirate treasure.", "''The Secret of the Unicorn'' marked the first half of a story arc that was completed in ''Red Rackham's Treasure'', serialised in ''Le Soir'' from February 1943; in this story, Tintin and Haddock search for the pirate's treasure in the Caribbean, with the character of Professor Calculus being introduced to the series.", "Following ''Red Rackham's Treasure'', Hergé drew illustrations for a serialised story titled ''Dupont et Dupond, détectives'' (\"Thomson and Thompson, Detectives\"), authored by the newspaper's crime editor, Paul Kinnet.In September 1943, De Becker was removed as editor of ''Le Soir'' for stating that although the Nazis were motivated \"by undoubted good will, they were also extremely out of touch with reality\".", "Although Hergé was close to De Becker, he decided to remain at the newspaper, which came under the editorship of Max Hodeige.", "In autumn 1943, Hergé had decided that he wanted Jacobs to collaborate with him on ''The Adventures of Tintin''.", "Although initially hesitant, Jacobs eventually agreed, adopting the paid position in January 1944.Jacobs and Hergé became close collaborators and greatly influenced each other, while together they developed the plot for the next ''Adventure of Tintin'', ''The Seven Crystal Balls'', which began serialisation in ''Le Soir'' in December 1943.=== Post-war controversy: 1944–1946 ===The Allied liberation of Belgium in September 1944 brought problems for Hergé.As the Allied troops liberated Brussels from German occupation, ''Le Soir'' ceased publication on 2 September 1944, partway through its serialisation of ''The Seven Crystal Balls''.", "Hergé was arrested on 3 September, having been named as a collaborator in a Resistance document known as the \"Gallery of Traitors\".", "This would be the first of four incidents in which Hergé was arrested – by the State Security, the Judiciary Police, the Belgian National Movement, and the Front for Independence respectively – during the course of which he spent one night in jail.", "On 5 September the entire staff of ''Le Soir'' were fired and a new editorial team introduced, while on 8 September the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) issued a proclamation announcing that \"any journalist who had helped produce a newspaper during the occupation was for the time being barred from practising his profession.\"", "Blacklisted, Hergé was now unemployed.", "Further, he was publicly lampooned as a collaborator by a newspaper closely associated with the Belgian Resistance, ''La Patrie'', which issued a satirical strip titled ''The Adventures of Tintin in the Land of the Nazis''.The period witnessed widespread recriminations against accused collaborators, with military courts condemning 30,000 on minor charges and 25,000 on more serious charges; of those, 5,500 were sentenced to life imprisonment or capital punishment.", "A judiciary inquiry into Hergé's case was launched by the deputy public prosecutor, Mr Vinçotte, although in his report he urged lenience, stating that \"I am inclined to close the case.", "I believe it would bring ridicule on the judicial system to go after an inoffensive children's book author and illustrator.", "On the other hand, Hergé worked for ''Le Soir'' during the war, and his illustrations are what made people buy the newspaper.\"", "Although unable to work for the press, Hergé continued to re-draw and colour the older ''Adventures of Tintin'' for publication in book form by Casterman, completing the second version of ''Tintin in the Congo'' and starting on ''King Ottokar's Sceptre''.", "Casterman supported Hergé throughout his ordeal, for which he always remained grateful.", "Attempting to circumvent his blacklisting, with Jacobs he began producing comics under the anonymous pseudonym of \"Olav\", but upon sending them to publishers found none who would accept them.", "Although this period allowed him an escape from the pressure of daily production which had affected most of his working life, he also had to deal with family problems: His brother Paul returned to Brussels from a German prisoner-of-war camp, although their mother had become highly delusional and was moved to a psychiatric hospital.In October 1945, Hergé was approached by Raymond Leblanc, a former member of a conservative Resistance group, the National Royalist Movement, and his associates André Sinave and Albert Debaty.", "The trio were planning on launching a weekly magazine for children, and Leblanc – who had fond childhood memories of ''Tintin in the Land of the Soviets'' – thought Hergé would be ideal for it.", "Hergé agreed, and Leblanc obtained clearance papers for him, allowing him to work.", "Concerned about the judicial investigation into Hergé's wartime affiliations, Leblanc convinced William Ugeux, a leader of the Belgian Resistance who was now in charge of censorship and certificates of good citizenship, to look into the comic creator's file.", "Ugeux concluded that Hergé had been \"a blunderer rather than a traitor\" for his work at ''Le Soir''.", "The decision as to whether Hergé would stand trial belonged to the general auditor of the Military Tribunal, Walter Jean Ganshof van der Meersch.", "He closed the case on 22 December 1945, declaring that \"in regard to the particularly inoffensive character of the drawings published by Remi, bringing him before a war tribunal would be inappropriate and risky\".Now free from threat of prosecution, Hergé continued to support his colleagues at ''Le Soir'' who were being charged as collaborators; six of them were sentenced to death, and others to lengthy prison sentences.", "Among those sentenced to death was Hergé's friend, Jamin, although his sentence was commuted to life imprisonment.", "In May 1946, Hergé was issued a certificate of good citizenship, which became largely necessary to obtain employment in post-war Belgium.", "Celebrations were marred by his mother's death in April 1946; she was aged 60.Harry Thompson has described this post-war period as the \"greatest upheaval\" of Hergé's life.", "Hergé later described it as \"an experience of absolute intolerance.", "It was horrible, horrible!\"", "He considered the post-war trials of alleged collaborators a great injustice inflicted upon many innocent people, and never forgave Belgian society for the way that he had been treated, although he hid this from his public persona." ], [ "Later life", "=== Establishing ''Tintin'' magazine: 1946–1949 ===Tintin'' magazine included an image based upon ''Prisoners of the Sun''.Sinave devised the idea of naming their new magazine ''Tintin'', believing that this would attract a wide audience.", "The Dutch-language edition produced for release in Belgium's Flemish north was titled ''Kuifje'' after the character's Dutch-language name.", "Adopting the slogan of \"The Newspaper for the Young Aged 7 to 77\", the magazine also used a logo featuring the Tintin character himself.", "The capital for the project had been put up by those involved: as executive director, Leblanc provided 50%, while its managing director Georges Lallemand provided 40% and Hergé, its artistic director, provided 10%.", "Hergé assembled a group of associates to aid him, including Van Melkebeke, Jacobs, Paul Cuvelier, and Jacques Laudy.", "Van Melkebeke was initially appointed editor-in-chief, although he was arrested for having worked for the collaborationist ''Le Nouveau journal'' shortly after, with his involvement in the project thus being kept secret so as to avoid further controversy.", "Van Melkebeke continued to provide work for the magazine under pseudonyms, although this ceased during his imprisonment from December 1947 to October 1949.The first issue of ''Tintin'' magazine was published on 26 September 1946.Hergé was assigned to produce a two-page spread each week, and began by concluding ''The Seven Crystal Balls'' before embarking on its successor story, ''Prisoners of the Sun''.", "Alongside Hergé's ''Adventures of Tintin'', the magazine also included Laudy's ''The Legend of the Four Aymon Brothers'' and Jacobs' ''The Secret of the Swordfish'', the first in his new ''Blake and Mortimer'' series.", "While the magazine was in competition with a number of rivals, most notably ''Spirou'', famous for serialising the ''Lucky Luke'' and ''Buck Danny'' comics, it proved an immediate success, with 60,000 copies being sold in three days of its release.", "Its publication resulted in a massive boost to Hergé's book sales too.In 1947 a Belgian film adaptation of ''The Crab with the Golden Claws'' was produced, and believing that cinematic adaptations were a good way to proceed, Hergé contacted Disney Studios in the United States; they declined his offer to adapt ''The Adventures of Tintin'' for the silver screen.", "In May 1947 the artistic collaboration between Hergé and Jacobs ended after an argument.", "Hergé had been jealous of the immediate success of Jacobs' ''Blake and Mortimer'' series, and had turned down Jacobs' request that he be credited as co-creator of the new ''Adventures of Tintin''.", "That same month, Hergé broke from his manager, Thiery, after discovering that the latter had been siphoning off money for himself.Many Belgians were highly critical of the magazine due to its connections with Hergé, who was still deemed a collaborator and traitor by many; ''La Soir'' and ''La Cité'' publicly criticised the decision without referring to him by name while ''Le Quotidien'' and ''Le Drapeau Rouge'' specifically singled him out for denunciation.", "Hergé believed that the children's author Jeanne Cappe was behind many of these accusations, and threatened her with a lawsuit.", "Unhappy with life in Belgium, Hergé made plans to emigrate to Argentina, a nation that was welcoming many Europeans who had supported the defeated Axis powers and which had a thriving comic book scene.", "Ultimately, he changed his mind, for reasons that have remained unknown; it is possible that he was unable to secure any promise of work in the South American country.In May, Hergé and Germaine holidayed near to Gland on Lake Geneva, Switzerland, where they were accompanied by a friend of theirs, a young woman named Rosane.", "During the holiday, Hergé and Rosane embarked on an extra-marital affair.", "He felt guilty, and returned to Brussels in June.", "Privately, he expressed the view that he had been led to commit such an act, which he viewed as immoral, through the influence of \"amoral friends\" with whom he was associating.", "Hoping to reignite the passion and stability of his marriage, he arranged to return to Switzerland with Germaine soon after; here they argued and embarked on a temporary separation.", "Remaining in Switzerland, he visited King Leopold III, who was then holidaying in Prégny, before briefly returning to Brussels in July.", "Back in Switzerland, he embarked on an affair with a married woman, although again informed Germaine before setting off to spend time in the Ardennes.", "In August, the couple sought to reunite by holidaying together in Brittany, but there they broke up again and Hergé returned to his lover in Switzerland.", "In September he finally returned to Brussels, but he then spent time with his close friend Marcel Dehaye in a retreat at the Abbey of Notre-Dame-de-Scourmont.", "That month, he revived ''Land of Black Gold'' – the ''Adventure of Tintin'' that had been interrupted by the German invasion of 1940 – and began serialising it in ''Tintin'' magazine.", "However, the story was again interrupted, this time for 12 weeks as Hergé took a further unannounced holiday to Gland, greatly annoying many of his colleagues.Although they retained respect for each other, Hergé's repeated absences had created a tense situation between himself and Leblanc.", "After a lengthy search, Leblanc had found a publisher willing to produce an edition of ''Tintin'' magazine in France: Georges Dargaud's Le Lombard, which began production of a French edition in October 1948.However, Hergé was unhappy that Leblanc had appointed André Frenez as Van Melkebeke's replacement as editor-in-chief, describing Frenez as \"a cold functionary\".", "Hergé was stubborn and uncompromising as the magazine's artistic director, known for strongly criticising the work of old friends like Pierre Ickx if he felt that they did not meet his exacting standards.", "He was particularly critical of the work of two of the newly hired staff at ''Tintin'' and ''Kuifje'', Jacques Martin and Willy Vandersteen, encouraging them to change their artistic style to better reflect his own preferences.", "To Leblanc, he expressed the concern that most of those working at ''Tintin'' were better illustrators than storytellers.", "He also opined that ''Tintin'' was not keeping up with the times and what he perceived as the increased maturity of children, encouraging the magazine to better reflect current events and scientific developments.=== Studios Hergé and Fanny Vlamynck: 1950–1965 ===On 6 April 1950 Hergé established Studios Hergé as a public company.", "The Studios were based in his Avenue Delleur house in Brussels, with Hergé making a newly purchased country house in Céroux-Mousty his and Germaine's main residence.", "The Studios would provide both personal support to Hergé and technical support for his ongoing work.", "The Studio initially had only three employees; the staff would increase to 15, all of whom were working on Hergé's projects.", "He hired Bob de Moor as his primary apprentice at the Studios in March 1951.Impressed by Jacques Martin's work on ''The Golden Sphinx'', Hergé persuaded Martin to join the Studios in January 1954; Martin insisted on bringing with him his own two assistants, Roger Leloup and Michel Demarets.", "During the early 1950s, a number of those convicted for collaborating with the Nazi occupiers were freed from prison.", "Sympathetic to their plight, Hergé lent money to some and aided others in getting jobs at ''Tintin'' magazine, much to Leblanc's annoyance.", "For instance, as well as lending him money, Hergé used his connections to secure Raymond de Becker a job in Switzerland as a book shop sales inspector.", "He also hired those associated with collaboration for his Studios; his new colourist, Josette Baujot, was the wife of a recently assassinated member of the Walloon Legion, and his new secretary, Baudouin van der Branden de Reeth, had served a prison sentence for working at ''Le Nouveau Journal'' during the occupation.Hergé had developed the idea of setting an ''Adventure of Tintin'' on the moon while producing ''Prisoners of the Sun''.", "He began serialisation of ''Destination Moon'', the first of a two part arc followed by ''Explorers on the Moon'', in ''Tintin'' magazine in March 1950.In September 1950, Hergé broke off the story, feeling the need for a break from work, having fallen back into clinical depression.", "He and Germaine went on holiday to Gland before returning to Brussels in late September.", "Many readers sent letters to ''Tintin'' asking why ''Explorers on the Moon'' was no longer being serialised, with a rumour emerging that Hergé had died.", "''Explorers of the Moon'' would resume after an eighteen-month hiatus, returning in April 1952.Alongside his work on the new stories, Hergé also made use of the Studios in revising more of his early works.In February 1952, Hergé was involved in a car crash in which Germaine's leg was shattered; she had to have a steel rod implanted in it, and was confined to a wheelchair for several months.", "Their relationship was further strained when they received news of Wallez' death in September 1952.His friendship with Van Melkebeke also broke apart in this period, in part due to advice gained from an alleged clairvoyant, Bertje Janueneau, upon whom both Hergé and Germaine were increasingly relying for guidance.", "In January 1955 a young woman named Fanny Vlamynck (fr) was hired as a colourist at the Studios.", "Hergé embarked on an extramarital affair with her in November 1956, with the rest of the studio staff soon finding out.", "Germaine grew suspicious of her husband's affections for Fanny, but was also experiencing a strong romantic attraction to her ballroom dance partner.", "Hergé and Germaine went on a cruise for the former's 50th birthday in May 1957, during which they visited Casablanca, Rabat, Palermo, and Rome.", "They went on a second holiday to Ostend in October.", "Following the trip to Ostend, he revealed his affair with Fanny to Germaine.", "He began experiencing traumatic dreams dominated by the colour white and, seeking to explain them, he visited Franz Ricklin, a psychoanalyst who was a student of Carl Jung in Zürich in May 1959.In February 1960 he returned to Switzerland, and upon his return to Brussels he began renting an apartment in Uccle, away from Germaine.", "His relationship with Germaine had ended, although due to restrictions under Belgian law he was unable to obtain a divorce until 17 years later.One of Hergé's abstract artworksIn September 1958, ''Tintin'' magazine moved its headquarters to a newly constructed building near the Gare du Midi.", "Hergé continued to feud with Leblanc over the direction of the magazine; his constant absences had led to him being replaced as artistic director, and he demanded that he be reinstated.", "Leblanc relented in early 1965, although Hergé soon departed to Sardinia for six weeks.", "In October 1965 Leblanc appointed the cartoonist Greg to be editor-in-chief of the magazine, believing him capable of reforming the paper to remain relevant to the youth of the day.", "By this point, ''Tintin'' magazine was at its commercial peak, with sales of 600,000 a week, although Hergé had lost much of his interest in it.Supported by his studio, Hergé produced ''The Calculus Affair'' in 1954–1956 and ''The Red Sea Sharks'' in 1956–1957.Hergé's book sales were higher than ever, and translations were being produced for the British, Spanish, and Scandinavian markets.", "He was receiving international press attention, with articles on his work appearing in ''France-Observateur'', ''The Listener'', and ''The Times Literary Supplement''.", "Paul Vandromme authored an uncritical book on Hergé, ''Le Monde de Tintin'' (\"The World of Tintin\"), published by Éditions Gallimard in 1959; Hergé vetoed the inclusion of a proposed preface by Roger Nimier after finding its praise for his own work too embarrassing.", "Radio adaptations of ''The Adventures of Tintin'' were produced, as was an animated cartoon series produced by Belvision Studios, ''Hergé's Adventures of Tintin''.", "Two live-action films were also produced, ''Tintin and the Golden Fleece'' (1961) and ''Tintin and the Blue Oranges'' (1964), the former of which Hergé had been closely involved with.Developing an interest in modern art, in the early 1960s Hergé befriended the art dealer Marcel Stal, owner of the Carrefour gallery in Brussels.", "He was a particular fan of the work of Constant Permeke, Jakob Smits, Lucio Fontana, and Jean-Pierre Raynaurd, as well as the pop art movement, in particular the work of Roy Lichtenstein.", "He built up his own personal collection, which consisted of both modern paintings as well as African art and Chinese ceramics.", "In 1962, Hergé decided he wanted to paint.", "He chose Louis Van Lint, one of the most respected Belgian abstract painters at the time, whose work he liked a lot, to be his private teacher.", "Hergé took up painting as a hobby, producing abstract art works which were influenced by the styles of Joan Miró and Serge Poliakoff.", "He showed his work to the art historian Léo Van Puyvelde, who was the chief conservator of the Musées des Beaux-Arts, who believed that they showed promise, but that Hergé's real talent lay with cartooning.", "Hergé abandoned painting shortly after, having produced 37 paintings in all.", "Spending less time on new ''Adventures of Tintin'', from June to December 1965 ''Tintin'' magazine serialised a redrawn and newly coloured version of ''The Black Island'' prepared by staff at Studios Hergé.=== Final years: 1966–1983 ===An issue of ''Tintin'' magazine celebrating the 50th anniversary of ''The Adventures of Tintin'' (1979).In the 1960s, Hergé became increasingly annoyed at the success of René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo's ''Asterix'' comic book series, which various commentators had described as eclipsing ''The Adventures of Tintin'' as the foremost comic in the Franco-Belgian tradition.", "Hoping to imitate the success of the recent animated films ''Asterix the Gaul'' (1967) and ''Asterix and Cleopatra'' (1968), Hergé agreed to the production of two animated Belvision films based on the ''Adventures of Tintin''.", "The first, ''Tintin and the Temple of the Sun'' (1969), was based on pre-existing comics, whereas the second, ''Tintin and the Lake of Sharks'' (1972) was an original story written by Greg.", "In 1982, the US filmmaker Steven Spielberg requested the film rights for a live-action adaptation of one of ''The Adventures of Tintin'', a prospect that excited Hergé, but the project never came to fruition at the time.In a wide-ranging interview with the journalist Numa Sadoul in October 1971, Hergé opened up about many of the problems he had experienced in his personal life.", "Sadoul planned to publish the interview as a book, but Hergé made many alterations to the transcript, both to improve its prose and to remove sections which cast him in a negative light.", "Editors at Casterman then removed even further sections, particularly those in which Hergé expressed a negative view of Catholicism.", "The interview was published as ''Tintin et moi'' (\"Tintin and Me\") in 1975.Hergé followed this by agreeing to be the subject of a documentary film produced by Henri Roane, ''Moi, Tintin'' (\"I, Tintin\"), which premiered in 1975.In January 1977 he attended an early comic book convention at Angoulême, where he was widely heralded as one of the masters of the discipline.", "To mark the fiftieth anniversary of ''The Adventures of Tintin'' in 1979, a celebratory event was held at Brussels' Hilton hotel, while an exhibit on \"Le Musée imaginaire de Tintin\" (\"The Imaginary Museum of Tintin\") was held at the Palais de Beaux-Arts.In April 1971 Hergé visited the U.S. for the first time, primarily to visit a liver specialist in Rochester, Minnesota; however, on the trip he also visited a Sioux reservation in South Dakota, but was shocked at the conditions in which their inhabitants lived.", "On this visit he also spent time in Chicago, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Las Vegas, and Kansas City.", "In April 1972 he travelled to New York City for an international conference on the strip cartoon, and there presented Mayor John Lindsay with a cartoon of Tintin visiting the city and also met with the pop artist Andy Warhol.", "Several years later, in 1977, Warhol visited Europe, where he produced a pop art portrait of Hergé.", "In April 1973, Hergé took up an invitation to visit Taiwan by the nation's government, in recognition of his promotion of Chinese culture in ''The Blue Lotus''.", "During the visit he also spent time in Thailand and Bali.Hergé had long sought to regain contact with his old friend Zhang Chongren, with whom he had lost contact.", "He regularly asked any Chinese people that he met if they knew of Zhang, and in 1979 had some success when a staff member in a Brussels Chinese restaurant revealed that he was Zhang's godson.", "Hergé was thus able to re-establish contact with his old friend.", "The journalist Gérard Valet organised for Zhang to visit Brussels so that he and Hergé could be re-united.", "The event took place in March 1981, and was heavily publicised; Hergé however found the situation difficult, disliking the press attention and finding that he and Zhang had grown distant during the intervening years.In June 1970, Hergé's father died, and after the funeral he holidayed near Lake Geneva.", "In 1974, his assistant Branden suffered a stroke and was left unable to write, with Hergé replacing him with a young man, Alain Baran, who Hergé biographer Pierre Assouline later termed Hergé's \"surrogate son\".", "In March 1977, Hergé's divorce with Germaine was finalised; although Hergé continued to visit her and financially support her, Germaine took the divorce badly, viewing it as a further betrayal.", "Hergé was then able to marry Fanny several weeks later, in a low-key ceremony on 20 May; he was 70 years old and she was 42.==== Death ====Dieweg'' cemetery in Brussels.In 1979, Hergé was diagnosed with osteomyelofibrosis, necessitating a complete blood transfusion.", "His need for blood transfusions had increased, as he came to require them every two weeks, and then every week.On 25 February 1983, Hergé suffered cardiac arrest and was hospitalised in intensive care at Brussels' Cliniques universitaires Saint-Luc.", "He had been scheduled to meet with Steven Spielberg, who later made ''The Adventures of Tintin'' (2011).", "He died at Saint-Luc on 3 March.", "His death received front page coverage in numerous francophone newspapers, including ''Libération'' and ''Le Monde''.", "In his will, he had left Fanny as his sole heir.In November 1986, Fanny closed Studios Hergé, replacing it with the Hergé Foundation.In 1988, ''Tintin'' magazine was discontinued." ], [ "Personal life", "Hergé was a highly private person, being described by biographer Harry Thompson as \"reserved and unostentatious\".", "According to his biographer Pierre Sterckx, Hergé appeared \"very conventional\" in public, but in reality was \"extremely erudite, with an insatiable curiosity, constantly on the watch\".", "He greatly enjoyed walking in the countryside, gardening, and art collecting, and he was a fan of jazz music.", "Although he disliked making public or press appearances, Hergé insisted on personally responding to all fan mail received, which took up a considerable part of his time.", "He stated that \"not replying to children's letters would be to betray their dreams.\"", "Friends described him as a humorous man, known particularly for his self-deprecating jokes.", "Colleagues described Hergé as egocentric, an assessment he agreed with.", "He was known to be authoritarian in dealing with his assistants and refused to share credit with them for their part in his work.", "Sterckx noted that \"on the one hand he could be distant, even frosty, but on the other he was affectionate\".Throughout his first marriage he had a number of affairs with other women.", "He had no children, having been rendered sterile by radiation treatment, but in the 1950s offered to adopt his brother Paul's two children, Denise and George, when their parents were experiencing trouble in their relationship.", "Paul declined the offer, with Denise and George later noting that they had no great affection for their uncle, deeming him awkward around children.", "Hergé was raised as a Catholic, although he was never a devout practitioner of the religion.", "His adherence to Catholicism declined in later life as he developed a keen interest in Taoism, and became an agnostic.", "He was a fan of the ''Tao Te Ching'' and Arnaud Desjardins' ''The Path to Wisdom'', as well as Fritjof Capra's ''The Tao of Physics'' and the work of Jean-Émile Charon.=== Political views ===Politically, Hergé was a fervent royalist, and remained so throughout his life, also believing in the unity of Belgium.", "In his early life, Hergé was \"close to the traditional right-wing\" of Belgian society, with Sterckx noting that through his work he was \"plunged into rightist, even extreme right-wing circles\".", "According to Harry Thompson, such political ideas were not unusual in middle-class circles in Belgium of the 1920s and early 1930s, where \"patriotism, Catholicism, strict morality, discipline and naivety were so inextricably bound together in everyone's lives that right-wing politics were an almost inevitable by-product.", "It was a world view shared by everyone, distinguished principally by its complete ignorance of the world.\"", "When Hergé took responsibility for , he followed Wallez's instruction and allowed the newspaper to contain explicitly pro-fascist and anti-semitic sentiment.", "Literary critic Jean-Marie Apostolidès noted that the character of Tintin was a personification of the \"New Youth\" concept which was promoted by the European far-right.", "Under Wallez's guidance, the early ''Adventures of Tintin'' contained explicit political messages for its young readership.", "''Tintin in the Land of the Soviets'' was a work of anti-socialist propaganda, while ''Tintin in the Congo'' was designed to encourage colonialist sentiment toward the Belgian Congo, and ''Tintin in America'' was designed as a work of anti-Americanism heavily critical of capitalism, commercialism, and industrialisation.In contrast to Hergé's involvement in Belgium's right-wing, Sterckx thought the cartoonist to have been \"a liberal and independent spirit\", someone who was \"the very opposite of a conservative or a reactionary of the right\".", "Michael Farr asserted that Hergé had \"an acute political conscience\" during his earlier days, as exemplified by his condemnation of racism in the United States evident in ''Tintin in America''.", "Literary critic Tom McCarthy went further, remarking that ''Tintin in America'' represented the emergence of a \"left-wing counter tendency\" in Hergé's work that rebelled against his right-wing milieu and which was particularly critical of wealthy capitalists and industrialists.", "This was furthered in ''The Blue Lotus'', in which Hergé rejected his \"classically right-wing\" ideas to embrace an anti-imperialist stance, and in a contemporary ''Quick & Flupke'' strip in which he lampooned the far-right leaders of Germany and Italy, Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini.", "Although many of his friends and colleagues did so in the mid-1930s, Hergé did not join the far-right Rexist Party, later asserting that he \"had always had an aversion to it\" and commenting that \"to throw my heart and soul into an ideology is the opposite of who I am.", "\"=== Accusations of racism ===Hergé faced repeated accusations of racism due to his portrayal of diverse ethnic groups throughout ''The Adventures of Tintin''.", "According to McCarthy, in ''Tintin in the Congo'' Hergé represented the Congolese as \"good at heart, but backwards and lazy, in need of European mastery\".", "Thompson argued that Hergé had not written the book to be \"deliberately racist\" and that it reflected the average early 20th-century Belgian view of the Congolese, which was more patronising than malevolent.", "The book provoked no controversy at the time, coming to be perceived as racist only in the latter half of the 20th century.In the following adventure, ''Tintin in America'', Hergé depicted members of the Blackfoot tribe of Native Americans as \"gullible, even naive\", though it was nevertheless \"broadly sympathetic\" to their culture and plight, depicting their oppression at the hands of the United States Army.", "''The Blue Lotus'' received both criticism for depicting the Japanese as militaristic and buck-toothed and praise for representing a less stereotypical vision of China than was the norm in Europe at the time.Hergé has also been accused of utilising anti-semitic stereotypes, despite Hergé's protestations that the character of Rastapopoulos was Greek, and not Jewish.From his early years, Hergé was openly critical of racism.", "He lambasted the pervasive racism of U.S. society in a prelude comment to ''Tintin in America'' published in ''Le Petit Vingtième'' on 20 August 1931, and ridiculed racist attitudes toward the Chinese in ''The Blue Lotus''.", "Peeters asserted that \"Hergé was no more racist than the next man\", an assessment shared by Farr, who after meeting Hergé in the 1980s commented that \"you couldn't have met someone who was more open and less racist\".", "In contrast, Laurence Grove, president of the International ''Bande Dessinée'' Society, opined that Hergé adhered to prevailing societal trends in his work, noting, \"When it was fashionable to be a Nazi, he was a Nazi.", "When it was fashionable to be a colonial racist, that's what he was.\"", "Discussing Tintin's racist elements, the Vietnamese-American novelist Viet Thanh Nguyen observed that \"Hergé's work is deeply flawed, and yet riveting narratively and aesthetically.", "I have forgotten all the well-intentioned, moralistic children's literature that I have read, but I haven't forgotten Hergé.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "Assouline described Hergé as \"the personification of Belgium\".=== Awards and recognition ===* 1971: Adamson Awards, Sweden* 1972: Yellow Kid lifetime award (\"una vita per il cartooning\") at the Festival of Lucca* 1973: Grand Prix Saint Michel of the city of Brussels* 1999: Included in the Harvey Award Jack Kirby Hall of Fame* 2003: Included in the Eisner Award Hall of Fame as the Judge's choice* 2006: The Dalai Lama bestowed the International Campaign for Tibet's Light of Truth Award upon the character of Tintin.", "* 2007: Selected as the main motif for a Belgian commemorative coin with a face value of €20 in honour of his 100th birthday.According to the UNESCO's Index Translationum, Hergé is the ninth-most-often-translated French-language author, the second-most-often-translated Belgian author after Georges Simenon, and the second-most-often-translated French-language comics author behind René Goscinny.", "He also had an asteroid, 1652 Hergé, within the main belt, named after him in 1953.=== In popular culture ===The Adventures of Tintin''.A cartoon version of Hergé makes a number of cameo appearances in the 1990s animated television series ''The Adventures of Tintin''.", "An animated version of Hergé also makes a cameo appearance at the start of the 2011 motion capture film, ''The Adventures of Tintin: The Secret of the Unicorn'', directed by Steven Spielberg and produced by Peter Jackson, where he is depicted as a street cartoonist drawing a portrait of Tintin in the style of the comic at the start of the film.=== Hergé Museum ===The Hergé Museum, concept and construction between 2001 and 2009.The Musée Hergé is located in the centre of Louvain-la-Neuve, a city to the south of Brussels.", "This location was originally chosen for the museum in 2001.The futuristic building was designed by Pritzker Prize-winning French architect Christian de Portzamparc and cost €15 million to build.", "On the centenary of the birth of Hergé, 22 May 2007, the museum's first stone was laid.", "The museum opened its doors in June 2009.The idea of a museum dedicated to the work of Hergé can be traced back to the end of the 1970s, when Hergé was still alive.", "After his death in 1983, Hergé's widow, Fanny, led the efforts, undertaken at first by the Hergé Foundation and then by the new Studios Hergé, to catalogue and choose the artwork and elements that would become part of the museum's exhibitions.The Hergé Museum contains eight permanent galleries displaying original artwork by Hergé, and telling the story of his life and career which had not previously been visible to the public.", "The museum also houses a temporary exhibition gallery.", "Although Tintin features prominently in the museum, Hergé's other comic strip characters, such as Jo, Zette and Jocko, and Quick and Flupke, as well as his work as a graphic designer, are also present." ], [ "Bibliography", "Only the works marked * have been translated into EnglishWorkYearRemarks ''The Adventures of Totor'' 1926–1930 Hergé's first work, published in ''Le Boy Scout Belge'', about a brave scout.", "''Flup, Nénesse, Poussette and Piglet'' 1928 Written by a sports reporter, published in ''Le Petit Vingtième'' ''Le Sifflet'' strips 1928–1929 7 almost forgotten one-page strips drawn by Hergé for this paper ''The Adventures of Tintin'' * 1929–1983 24 volumes, one unfinished ''Quick & Flupke'' * 1930–1940 12 volumes, 11 translated to English The Misadventures of Jef Debakker early 1930s A short series Hergé made for his small advertising company ''Atelier Hergé''.", "Only 4 pages.", "''Fred and Mile'' 1931 ''The Adventures of Tim the Squirrel out West'' 1931 ''The Amiable Mr. Mops'' 1932 ''The Adventures of Tom and Millie'' 1933 Two stories written.", "''Popol Out West'' * 1934 ''Dropsy'' 1934 ''The Adventures of Jo, Zette and Jocko'' * 1936–1957 5 volumes ''Mr.", "Bellum'' 1939 ''Thompson and Thomson, Detectives'' 1943 Written by Paul Kinnet, appeared in ''Le Soir'' ''They Explored the Moon'' 1969 A short comic charting the Moon landings published in ''Paris Match''" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Books cited ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * === Articles cited ===* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * Pierre Sterckx (Textes) / André Soupart (Photos), ''Hergé''.", "Collectionneur d'Art, Brussels/Belgium (Tournesol Conseils SA-Renaissance du Livre) 2006, 84 p." ], [ "External links", "* * Hergé on Tintin.com official site* Hergé biography on À la découverte de ''Tintin''* Hergé on Lambiek Comiclopedia* Hergé – mini profile and time line on Tintinologist.org* Hergé publications in Belgian ''Tintin'' and French ''Tintin'' BDoubliées" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Horned God" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Horned God''' is one of the two primary deities found in Wicca and some related forms of Neopaganism.", "The term ''Horned God'' itself predates Wicca, and is an early 20th-century syncretic term for a horned or antlered anthropomorphic god partly based on historical horned deities.The Horned God represents the male part of the religion's duotheistic theological system, the consort of the female Triple goddess of the Moon or other Mother goddess.", "In common Wiccan belief, he is associated with nature, wilderness, sexuality, hunting, and the life cycle.", "Whilst depictions of the deity vary, he is always shown with either horns or antlers upon his head, often depicted as being theriocephalic (having a beast's head), in this way emphasizing \"the union of the divine and the animal\", the latter of which includes humanity.In traditional Wicca (British Traditional Wicca), he is generally regarded as a dualistic god of twofold aspects: bright and dark, night and day, summer and winter, the Oak King and the Holly King.", "In this dualistic view, his two horns symbolize, in part, his dual nature.", "(The use of horns to symbolize duality is also reflected in the phrase \"on the horns of a dilemma.\")", "The three aspects of the Goddess and the two aspects of the Horned god are sometimes mapped on to the five points of the Pentagram or Pentacle, although which points correspond to which deity aspects varies.", "In some other systems, he is represented as a triune god, split into three aspects that reflect those of the Triple goddess: the Youth (Warrior), the Father, and the Sage.The Horned God has been explored within several psychological theories and has become a recurrent theme in fantasy literature." ], [ "In Wicca", "The \"Cernunnos\" type antlered figure on the Gundestrup CauldronIn traditional and mainstream Wicca, the Horned God is viewed as the divine male principality, being both equal and opposite to the Goddess.", "The Wiccan god himself can be represented in many forms, including as the Sun God, the Sacrificed God and the Vegetation God, although the Horned God is the most popular representation.", "The pioneers of the various Wiccan or Witchcraft traditions, such as Gerald Gardner, Doreen Valiente and Robert Cochrane, all claimed that their religion was a continuation of the pagan religion of the Witch-Cult following historians who had purported the Witch-Cult's existence, such as Jules Michelet and Margaret Murray.For Wiccans, the Horned God is \"the personification of the life force energy in animals and the wild\" and is associated with the wilderness, virility and the hunt.", "Doreen Valiente writes that the Horned God also carries the souls of the dead to the underworld.Wiccans generally, as well as some other neopagans, tend to conceive of the universe as polarized into gender opposites of male and female energies.", "In traditional Wicca, the Horned God and the Goddess are seen as equal and opposite in gender polarity.", "However, in some of the newer traditions of Wicca, and especially those influenced by feminist ideology, there is more emphasis on the Goddess, and consequently the symbolism of the Horned God is less developed than that of the Goddess.In Wicca the cycle of the seasons is celebrated during eight sabbats called The Wheel of the Year.", "The seasonal cycle is imagined to follow the relationship between the Horned God and the Goddess.", "The Horned God is born in winter, impregnates the Goddess and then dies during the autumn and winter months and is then reborn by the Goddess at Yule.", "The different relationships throughout the year are sometimes distinguished by splitting the god into aspects, the Oak King and the Holly King.", "The relationships between the Goddess and the Horned God are mirrored by Wiccans in seasonal rituals.", "There is some variation between Wiccan groups as to which sabbat corresponds to which part of the cycle.", "Some Wiccans regard the Horned God as dying at Lammas, August 1; also known as Lughnasadh, which is the first harvest sabbat.", "Others may see him dying at Mabon, the autumn equinox, or the second harvest festival.", "Still other Wiccans conceive of the Horned God dying on October 31, which Wiccans call Samhain, the ritual of which is focused on death.", "He is then reborn on Winter Solstice, December 21.Other important dates for the Horned God include Imbolc when, according to Valiente, he leads a wild hunt.", "In Gardnerian Wicca, the Dryghten prayer recited at the end of every ritual meeting contains the lines referring to the Horned God:According to Sabina Magliocco, Gerald Gardner says (in 1959's ''The Meaning of Witchcraft'') that The Horned God is an Under-god, a mediator between an unknowable supreme deity and the people.", "(In Wiccan liturgy in the Book of Shadows, this conception of an unknowable supreme deity is referred to as \"Dryghtyn.\"", "It is not a personal god, but rather an impersonal divinity similar to the Tao of Taoism.", ")Whilst the Horned God is the most common depiction of masculine divinity in Wicca, he is not the only representation.", "Other examples include the Green Man and the Sun God.", "In traditional Wicca, however, these other representations of the Wiccan god are subsumed or amalgamated into the Horned God, as aspects or expressions of him.", "Sometimes this is shown by adding horns or antlers to the iconography.", "The Green Man, for example, may be shown with branches resembling antlers; and the Sun God may be depicted with a crown or halo of solar rays, that may resemble horns.", "These other conceptions of the Wiccan god should not be regarded as displacing the Horned God, but rather as elaborating on various facets of his nature.", "Doreen Valiente has called the Horned God \"the eldest of gods\" in both The Witches Creed and also in her Invocation To The Horned God.Wiccans believe that The Horned God, as Lord of Death, is their \"comforter and consoler\" after death and before reincarnation; and that he rules the Underworld or Summerland where the souls of the dead reside as they await rebirth.", "Some, such as Joanne Pearson, believe that this is based on the Mesopotamian myth of Inanna's descent into the underworld, though this has not been confirmed.===Names===Altar statues of the Horned God and Mother Goddess crafted by Bel Bucca and owned by the \"Mother of Wicca\", Doreen ValienteDoreen Valiente, a former High Priestess of the Gardnerian tradition, claimed that Gerald Gardner's Bricket Wood coven referred to the god as Cernunnos, or '''Kernunno''', which is a Latin word, discovered on a stone carving found in France, meaning \"the Horned One\".", "Valiente claimed that the coven also referred to the god as '''Janicot''', which she theorised was of Basque origin, and Gardner also used this name in his novel ''High Magic's Aid''.Stewart Farrar, a High Priest of the Alexandrian tradition referred to the Horned God as '''Karnayna''', which he believed was a corruption of ''Cernunnos''.", "The historian Ronald Hutton suggests the term derived instead from the Arabic ''Dhul-Qarnayn'' meaning \"Horned One\", as Murray offered in her 1931 book ''The God of the Witches'', a source that likely influenced Alex Sanders.", "Prudence Jones has suggested that the name may instead derive from Karneios, a Spartan deity conflated with Apollo as a subordinate consort to Diana.In the writings of Charles Cardell and Raymond Howard, the god was referred to as '''Atho'''.", "Howard had a wooden statue of Atho's head which he claimed was 2200 years old, but the statue was stolen in April 1967.Howard's son later admitted that his father had carved the statue himself.In Cochrane's Craft, which was founded by Robert Cochrane, the Horned God was often referred to by a Biblical name; Tubal-cain, who, according to the Bible was the first blacksmith.", "In this neopagan concept, the god is also referred to as Brân, a Welsh mythological figure, Wayland, the smith in Germanic mythology, and Herne, a horned figure from English folklore.In the neopagan tradition of Stregheria, founded by Raven Grimassi and loosely inspired by the works of Charles Godfrey Leland, the Horned God goes by several names, including Dianus, Faunus, Cern, and Actaeon.In the Hinduism, the Horned God is referred to Pashupati, See Pashupati seal." ], [ "In psychology", "===Jungian analysis===Bronze figurine of a \"Horned God\" from Enkomi, CyprusSherry Salman considers the image of the Horned God in Jungian terms, as an archetypal protector and mediator of the outside world to the objective psyche.", "In her theory the male psyche's 'Horned God' frequently compensates for inadequate fathering.When first encountered, the figure is a dangerous, 'hairy chthonic wildman' possessed of kindness and intelligence.", "If repressed, later in life The Horned God appears as the lord of the Otherworld, or Hades.", "If split off entirely, he leads to violence, substance abuse and sexual perversion.", "When integrated he gives the male an ego 'in possession of its own destructiveness' and for the female psyche gives an effective animus relating to both the physical body and the psyche.In considering the Horned God as a symbol recurring in women's literature, Richard Sugg suggests the Horned God represents the 'natural Eros', a masculine lover subjugating the social-conformist nature of the female shadow, thus encompassing a combination of the shadow and animus.", "One such example is Heathcliff from Emily Brontë's ''Wuthering Heights''.", "Sugg goes on to note that female characters who are paired with this character usually end up socially ostracised, or worse – in an inverted ending to the male hero-story.===Humanistic psychology===Following the work of Robert Bly in the Mythopoetic men's movement, John Rowan proposes the Horned God as a \"Wild Man\" be used as a fantasy image or \"sub-personality\" helpful to men in humanistic psychology, and escaping from \"narrow societal images of masculinity\" encompassing excessive deference to women and paraphillia." ], [ "Theories of historical origins", "A red deer headdress from Star Carr.", "Many of the 20 other headdresses have more complex sets of antlers.Sketch of Breuil's drawingMany horned deities are known to have been worshipped in various cultures throughout history.", "Evidence for horned gods appear very early in the human record.", "The so-called Sorcerer dates from perhaps 13,000 BCE.", "Twenty-one red deer headdresses, made from the skulls of the red deer and likely fitted with leather laces, have been uncovered at the Mesolithic site of Star Carr.", "They are thought to date from roughly 9,000 BCE.", "Several theories have been created to establish historical roots for modern Neopagan worship of a Horned God.===Margaret Murray===Following the writings of suffragist Matilda Joslyn Gage and others, Margaret Murray, in her 1921 book ''The Witch-Cult in Western Europe'', proposed the theory that the witches of the early-modern period were remnants of a pagan cult and that the Christian Church had declared the god of the witches was in fact the Devil.", "Without recourse to any specific representation of this deity, Murray speculates that the head coverings common in inquisition-derived descriptions of the devil \"may throw light on one of the possible origins of the cult.", "\"Horned God Naigamesha of the Indian sub-religion Kaumaram.", "Possibly from the Shunga period (1st-2nd century B.C), or earlierIn 1931 Murray published a sequel, ''The God of the Witches'', which tries to gather evidence in support of her witch-cult theory.", "In Chapter 1 \"The Horned God\".", "Murray claims that various depictions of humans with horns from European and Indian sources, ranging from the paleolithic French cave painting of \"The Sorcerer\" to the Indic Pashupati to the modern English Dorset Ooser, are evidence for an unbroken, Europe-wide tradition of worship of a singular Horned God.", "Murray derived this model of a horned god cult from James Frazer and Jules Michelet.In dealing with \"The Sorcerer\", the earliest evidence claimed, Murray based her observations on a drawing by Henri Breuil, which some modern scholars such as Ronald Hutton claim is inaccurate.", "Hutton states that modern photographs show the original cave art lacks horns, a human torso or any other significant detail on its upper half.", "However, others, such as celebrated prehistorian Jean Clottes, assert that Breuil's sketch is indeed accurate.", "Clottes stated that \"I have seen it myself perhaps 20 times over the years\".Breuil considered his drawing to represent a shaman or magician – an interpretation which gives the image its name.", "Murray having seen the drawing called Breuil's image \"the first depiction of a deity\", an idea which Breuil and others later adopted.Murray also used an inaccurate drawing of a mesolithic rock-painting at Cogul in northeast Spain as evidence of group religious ceremony of the cult, although the central male figure is not horned.", "The illustration she used of the Cogul painting leaves out a number of figures, human and animal, and the original is more likely a sequence of superimposed but unrelated illustrations, rather than a depiction of a single scene.Despite widespread criticism of Murray's scholarship some minor aspects of her work continued to have supporters.====Influences from literature====The popular image of the Greek god Pan was removed from its classical context in the writings of the Romantics of the 18th century and connected with their ideals of a pastoral England.", "This, along with the general public's increasing lack of familiarity of Greek mythology at the time led to the figure of Pan becoming generalised as a 'horned god', and applying connotations to the character, such as benevolence that were not evident in the original Greek myths which in turn gave rise to the popular acceptance of Murray's hypothetical horned god of the witches.The reception of ''Aradia'' amongst Neopagans has not been entirely positive.", "Clifton suggests that modern claims of revealing an Italian pagan witchcraft tradition, for example those of Leo Martello and Raven Grimassi, must be \"matched against\", and compared with the claims in ''Aradia''.", "He further suggests that a lack of comfort with ''Aradia'' may be due to an \"insecurity\" within Neopaganism about the movement's claim to authenticity as a religious revival.Lucifer ''(Le génie du mal)'' by Guillaume Geefs (Cathedral of St. Paul, Liège, Belgium)Valiente offers another explanation for the negative reaction of some neopagans; that the identification of Lucifer as the god of the witches in ''Aradia'' was \"too strong meat\" for Wiccans who were used to the gentler, romantic paganism of Gerald Gardner and were especially quick to reject any relationship between witchcraft and Satanism.In 1985 Classical historian Georg Luck, in his ''Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds'', theorised that the origins of the Witch-cult may have appeared in late antiquity as a faith primarily designed to worship the Horned God, stemming from the merging of Cernunnos, a horned god of the Celts, with the Greco-Roman Pan/Faunus, a combination of gods which he posits created a new deity, around which the remaining pagans, those refusing to convert to Christianity, rallied and that this deity provided the prototype for later Christian conceptions of the Devil, and his worshippers were cast by the Church as witches.====Influences from occultism====Eliphas Lévi.", "Baphomet serves as an historical model for Murray's concept.Eliphas Levi's image of \"Baphomet\" serves as an example of the transformation of the Devil into a benevolent fertility deity and provided the prototype for Murray's horned god.", "Murray's central thesis that images of the Devil were actually of deities and that Christianity had demonised these worshippers as following Satan, is first recorded in the work of Levi in the fashionable 19th-century Occultist circles of England and France.", "Levi created his image of Baphomet, published in his ''Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie'' (1855), by combining symbolism from diverse traditions, including the ''Diable'' card of the 16th and 17th century Tarot of Marseille.", "Lévi called his image \"The Goat of Mendes\", possibly following Herodotus' account that the god of Mendes—the Greek name for Djedet, Egypt—was depicted with a goat's face and legs.", "Herodotus relates how all male goats were held in great reverence by the Mendesians, and how in his time a woman publicly copulated with a goat.", "E. A. Wallis Budge writes,Historically, the deity that was venerated at Egyptian Mendes was a ram deity Banebdjedet (literally Ba of the lord of djed, and titled \"the Lord of Mendes\"), who was the soul of Osiris.", "Lévi combined the images of the Tarot of Marseilles Devil card and refigured the ram ''Banebdjed'' as a he-goat, further imagined by him as \"copulator in Anep and inseminator in the district of Mendes\".===Gerald Gardner and Wicca===Margaret Murray's theory of the historical origins of the Horned God has been used by Wiccans to create a myth of historical origins for their religion.", "There is no verifiable evidence to support claims that the religion originates earlier than the mid-20th century.Modern scholarship has disproved Margaret Murray's theory.", "However, various horned gods and mother goddesses were indeed worshipped in the British Isles during the ancient and early Medieval periods.The \"father of Wicca\", Gerald Gardner, who adopted Margaret Murray's thesis, claimed Wicca was a modern survival of an ancient pan-European pagan religion.", "Gardner states that he had reconstructed elements of the religion from fragments, incorporating elements from Freemasonry, the Occult, and Theosophy, which came together in the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, where Gardner met Aleister Crowley.Gerald Gardner was initiated into the O.T.O.", "by Aleister Crowley and subsequently went on to found the Neopagan religion of Wicca.", "Various scholars on early Wiccan history, such as Ronald Hutton, Philip Heselton, and Leo Ruickbie concur that witchcraft's early rituals, as devised by Gardner, contained much from Crowley's writings such as the Gnostic Mass.===Romano-Celtic fusion===Georg Luck, repeats part of Murray's theory, stating that the Horned God may have appeared in late antiquity, stemming from the merging of Cernunnos, an antlered god of the Continental Celts, with the Greco-Roman Pan/Faunus, a combination of gods which he posits created a new deity, around which the remaining pagans, those refusing to convert to Christianity, rallied and that this deity provided the prototype for later Christian conceptions of the devil, and his worshippers were cast by the Church as witches." ], [ "Art, fantasy and science fiction", "Francisco de Goya's ''Witches Sabbat'' (1789), which depicts the Devil flanked by Satanic witches.", "The Witch Cult hypothesis states that such stories are based upon a real-life pagan cult that revered a horned godIn 1908's ''The Wind in the Willows'' by Kenneth Grahame, in Chapter 7, \"The Piper at the Gates of Dawn\", Ratty and Mole meet a mystical horned being, powerful, fearsome and kind.", "Grahame's work was a significant part of the cultural milieu which stripped the Greek god Pan of his cultural identity in favor of an unnamed, generic horned deity which led to Murray's thesis of historical origins.Outside of works that predate the publication of Murray's thesis, horned god motifs and characters appear in fantasy literature that draws upon her work and that of her followers.In the novel ''Childhood's End'' (1953) by Arthur C. Clarke, all humans have a collective premonition, also described as a memory of the future, of horned aliens which arrive to usher in a new phase of human evolution.", "The collective subconscious image of the horned aliens is what accounts for mankind's image of the devil or Satan.", "This theme is also explored in the ''Doctor Who'' story ''The Dæmons'' in 1971, where the local superstitions around a landmark known as The Devil's Hump prove to be based on reality, as aliens from the planet Dæmos have been affecting man's progress over the millennia and the Hump actually contains a spacecraft.", "The only Dæmon to appear is a classic interpretation of a horned satyr-like being with hooves.In the critically acclaimed and influential 1950s TV series created by Nigel Kneale, ''Quatermass and the Pit'', depictions of supernatural horned entities, with specific reference to prehistoric cave-art and shamanistic horned head-dress are revealed to be a \"race-memory\" of psychic Martian grasshoppers, manifested at the climax of the film by a fiery horned god.In the Rosemary Sutcliff Arthurian novel ''Sword at Sunset'' (1963), several of the heroes worship a stag-antlered deity called the Horned One.", "The depiction of this deity is similar to that given in Murray's writings.Murray's theories have been seen to have had influence on the horror film ''The Blood on Satan's Claw'' (1971), where a murderous female-led cult worships a horned deity named Behemoth.In the fantasy novel ''Too Long A Sacrifice'' by Mildred Downey Broxon (1981), a male character, Tadhg, is an avatar of a benevolent Horned God.", "Marion Zimmer Bradley, who acknowledges the influence of Murray, uses the figure of the \"horned god\" in her feminist fantasy transformation of Arthurian myth, ''Mists of Avalon'' (1984), and portrays ritualistic incest between King Arthur as the representative of the horned god and his sister Morgaine as the \"spring maiden\".In the Richard Carpenter television series ''Robin of Sherwood'' (1984), Robin Hood is taught and guided by a shaman-like figure called Herne the Hunter (a figure from English legend).", "Herne wears a headdress of a horned stag's head.", "Carpenter stated in an interview that Herne was based on the Pagan idea of the Horned God.In the popular video game ''Morrowind'', its expansion ''Bloodmoon'' has a plot enemy known as Hircine, the Daedric god of the Hunt, who appears as a horned man with the face of a deer skull.", "He condemned his \"hounds\" (werewolves) to walk the mortal ground during the Bloodmoon until a champion defeats him or Bloodmoon falls.", "When in combat, Hircine appears as a horned wolf or bear.The 1992 ''Discworld'' novel ''Lords and Ladies'', by Terry Pratchett, features a King of the Elves who is strongly reminiscent of the Horned God.", "Although not worshipped by the witches who are the heroines of the book (indeed, quite the reverse), they temporarily ally themselves with him out of necessity.The 2015 film ''The Witch'', which takes place in 17th century New England during the latter end of the early modern inquisition against witchcraft that swept across Europe, deals with an interpretation of the Horned God, which takes the form of Black Phillip, the family goat.In June, 1986, the comic book 2000AD published the first part of a serial story called Slàine and the Horned God, written by Pat Mills and illustrated by Simon Bisley.", "Based in Celtic mythology, the Horned God is identified with Cernunnos and is the primary antagonist in a story rich with antagonists.", "He presents as a Fertility God who has largely lost his mind and become nihilistic." ], [ "See also", "* Dionysus* Cernunnos* Enki* Green Man* Herne the Hunter* Horned deity (mythology)* Horned helmet* Krampus* Pan* Satyr* Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Haggis" ], [ "Introduction", "Haggis on a platter at a Burns supperA serving of haggis, neeps, and tatties'''Haggis''' () is a savoury pudding containing sheep's pluck (heart, liver, and lungs), minced with onion, oatmeal, suet, spices, and salt, mixed with stock, and cooked while traditionally encased in the animal's stomach though now an artificial casing is often used instead.", "According to the 2001 English edition of the ''Larousse Gastronomique'': \"Although its description is not immediately appealing, haggis has an excellent nutty texture and delicious savoury flavour\".It is believed that food similar to haggis—perishable offal quickly cooked inside an animal's stomach, all conveniently available after a hunt—was eaten from ancient times.Although the name \"hagws\" or \"hagese\" was first recorded in England c. 1430, the dish is considered traditionally of Scottish origin.", "It is even the national dish, as a result of Scots poet Robert Burns' poem \"Address to a Haggis\" of 1786.Haggis is traditionally served with \"neeps and tatties\", boiled and mashed separately, and a dram (a glass of Scotch whisky), especially as the main course of a Burns supper." ], [ "History and etymology", "Haggis is popularly assumed to be of Scottish origin, but many countries have produced similar dishes with different names.", "However, the recipes as known and standardised now are distinctly Scottish.", "The first known written recipes for a dish of the name, made with offal and herbs, are as \"hagese\", in the verse cookbook ''Liber Cure Cocorum'' dating from around 1430 in Lancashire, north west England, and, as \"hagws of a schepe\" from an English cookbook also of c. 1430.The Scottish poem \"Flyting of Dunbar and Kennedy\", which is dated before 1520 (the generally accepted date prior to the death of William Dunbar, one of the composers), refers to \"haggeis\".An early printed recipe for haggis appears in 1615 in ''The English Huswife'' by Gervase Markham.", "It contains a section entitled \"Skill in Oate meale\": \"The use and vertues of these two severall kinds of Oate-meales in maintaining the Family, they are so many (according to the many customes of many Nations) that it is almost impossible to recken all\"; and then proceeds to give a description of \"oat-meale mixed with blood, and the Liver of either Sheepe, Calfe or Swine, maketh that pudding which is called the Haggas or Haggus, of whose goodnesse it is in vaine to boast, because there is hardly to be found a man that doth not affect them.\"", "(Gervase Markham, ''The English Huswife'')Food writer Alan Davidson suggests that the ancient Romans were the first known to have made products of the haggis type.", "Haggis was \"born of necessity, as a way to utilize the least expensive cuts of meat and the innards as well\".Clarissa Dickson Wright says that it \"came to Scotland in a longship i.e., from Scandinavia even before Scotland was a single nation\".", "She cites etymologist Walter William Skeat as further suggestion of possible Scandinavian origins: Skeat claimed that the ''hag–'' element of the word is derived from the Old Norse or the Old Icelandic ''hoggva'' ( meaning 'to chop' in modern Icelandic), Modern Scots ''hag'', meaning 'to hew' or strike with a sharp weapon, relating to the chopped-up contents of the dish.In her book ''The Haggis: A Little History'', Dickson Wright suggests that haggis was invented as a way of cooking quick-spoiling offal near the site of a hunt, without the need to carry along an additional cooking vessel.", "The liver and kidneys could be grilled directly over a fire, but this treatment was unsuitable for the stomach, intestines, or lungs.", "Chopping up the lungs and stuffing the stomach with them and whatever fillers might have been on hand, then boiling the assembly – probably in a vessel made from the animal's hide – was one way to make sure these parts were not wasted." ], [ "Folklore", "A fictitious Wild Haggis ''Haggis scoticus'', next to a prepared specimen, as displayed at the Glasgow Kelvingrove GalleryIn the absence of hard facts as to haggis' origins, popular folklore has provided some notions.", "One is that the dish originates from the days of the old Scottish cattle drovers.", "When the men left the Highlands to drive their cattle to market in Edinburgh, the women would prepare rations for them to eat during the long journey down through the glens.", "They used the ingredients that were most readily available in their homes and conveniently packaged them in a sheep's stomach allowing for easy transportation during the journey.", "Other speculations have been based on Scottish slaughtering practices.", "When a chieftain or laird required an animal to be slaughtered for meat (whether sheep or cattle) the workmen were allowed to keep the offal as their share.A joke sometimes maintained is that a haggis is a small Scottish animal with longer legs on one side, so that it can run around the steep hills of the Scottish highlands without falling over.", "According to one poll, 33 percent of American visitors to Scotland believed haggis to be an animal." ], [ "Modern use", "Recitation of the poem \"Address to a Haggis\" by Robert Burns is an important part of the Burns supper.Haggis is traditionally served as part of the Burns supper on or near January 25, the birthday of Scotland's national poet Robert Burns.", "Burns wrote the poem \"Address to a Haggis\", which starts \"Fair fa' your honest, sonsie face, Great chieftain o' the puddin-race!\"", "In Burns's lifetime haggis was a common dish of the poor as it was nourishing yet very cheap, being made from leftover parts of sheep otherwise discarded.Haggis is widely available in supermarkets in Scotland all year, with cheaper brands normally packed in artificial casings, rather than stomachs.", "Sometimes haggis is sold in tins or a container which can be cooked in a microwave or conventional oven.", "Some commercial haggis is largely made from pig, rather than sheep, offal.", "Kosher haggis, not only pork-free but fully conformant to Jewish dietary laws, is produced.Haggis is often served in Scottish fast-food establishments, in the shape of a large sausage and deep fried in batter.", "Together with chips, this comprises a \"haggis supper\".", "A \"haggis burger\" is a patty of fried haggis served on a bun.", "A \"haggis pakora\" is another deep fried variant, available in some Indian restaurants in Scotland.", "Haggis can be used as an ingredient in other dishes, even pizza, rather than the main part of a dish.A traditional haggis recipe describes haggis as \"sheep's 'pluck' (heart, liver, and lungs), minced with onion, oatmeal, suet, spices, and salt, mixed with stock, and traditionally encased in the animal's stomach and boiled\".", "Ingredients are sheep stomach, heart and lungs of one lamb, onions, oatmeal, salt, pepper, stock, and water, with optional ingredients dried coriander, cinnamon, and nutmeg.", "It can be boiled, baked, or deep fried.In the north-east of Scotland, from Aberdeen northwards, in addition to the customary neeps and tatties, haggis is commonly served with mince.===Vegetarian===Vegetarian haggis was first available commercially in 1984, and now can account for between 25% and 40% of haggis sales.", "It substitutes various pulses, nuts and vegetables for the meat.", "Oats and barley may be included as may different types of lentils, split peas, adzuki beans, kidney beans, borlotti beans, peanuts, other nuts and mushrooms, onions, and carrots." ], [ "Outside Scotland", "Haggis remains popular with Scottish immigrants in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, owing to the strong influence of Scottish culture, especially for Burns Suppers.", "It can easily be made in any country but is sometimes imported from Scotland.", "A recipe from the Canadian province of New Brunswick uses pork and bakes it in a loaf pan.=== Legality ===In 1971 it became illegal to import haggis into the US from the UK due to a ban on food containing sheep lung, which constitutes 10–15% of the traditional recipe.", "The ban encompasses all lungs, as fluids such as stomach acid and phlegm may enter the lung during slaughter.", "The situation was further complicated in 1989 when all UK beef and lamb was banned from importation to the US due to a BSE crisis.", "In 2010 a spokeswoman for the US Department of Agriculture stated that they were reviewing the ban on beef and lamb products, but that the ban on food containing sheep lung would remain in force.As haggis cannot be exported to the United States, it is instead made there, sometimes by Scottish companies.", "In one such use, which is stated to be otherwise the same 150-year-old recipe having the same ingredients as in Scotland, sheep lung is not used and the casing is artificial rather than stomach." ], [ "See also", "*Balmoral chicken*Black pudding*Haggis hurling*List of sausages*Skirlie*White pudding" ], [ "References", ";Notes" ], [ "External links", "* Alton Brown's Haggis Recipe* Belief in the Wild Haggis* How to cook the perfect Burns supper at scotland.org * Haggis, Hail to Thee!- slideshow by ''Life magazine''* HAGGIS at The Foods Of England*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hank Aaron" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Henry Louis Aaron''' (February 5, 1934 – January 22, 2021), nicknamed \"'''Hammer'''\" or \"'''Hammerin' Hank'''\", was an American professional baseball right fielder and designated hitter who played 23 seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB), from 1954 through 1976.Considered one of the greatest baseball players in history, he spent 21 seasons with the Milwaukee / Atlanta Braves in the National League (NL) and two seasons with the Milwaukee Brewers in the American League (AL).", "At the time of his retirement, Aaron held most of the game's key career power-hitting records.", "He broke the long-standing MLB record for career home runs held by Babe Ruth and remained the career leader for 33 years, until Barry Bonds surpassed his famous total of 755 in 2007.He hit 24 or more home runs every year from 1955 through 1973 and is one of only two players to hit 30 or more home runs in a season at least fifteen times.Aaron holds the MLB records for the most career runs batted in (RBIs) (2,297), extra base hits (1,477), and total bases (6,856).", "Aaron is also third all-time for career hits (3,771) and fifth in runs scored (2,174).", "He is one of only four players to have at least 17 seasons with 150 or more hits.", "Aaron's ability as a hitter can be illustrated by his still having over 3,000 hits even without counting any of his home runs.", "He was an NL All-Star for 20 seasons and an AL All-Star for one season, and he holds the record for the most All-Star selections (25), while sharing the record for most All-Star Games played (24) with Willie Mays and Stan Musial.", "He was a three-time Gold Glove winner, and in 1957, he won the NL Most Valuable Player (MVP) Award when the Milwaukee Braves won the World Series.Aaron was born and raised in and around Mobile, Alabama, one of seven children.", "He appeared briefly in the Negro American League and in minor league baseball before starting his major league career.", "By his final MLB season, Aaron was the last former Negro league baseball player on a major league roster.", "During his time in Major League Baseball, and especially during his run for the home run record, Aaron and his family endured extensive racist threats.", "His experiences fueled his activism during the civil rights movement.Aaron was inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility in 1982 and Wisconsin Athletic Hall of Fame in 1988.In 1999, MLB introduced the Hank Aaron Award to recognize the top offensive players in each league.", "That same year, he was one of 30 baseball players elected to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team.", "He was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2002.After his retirement, Aaron held front office roles with the Atlanta Braves, including the senior vice president, and resided near Atlanta until his death in 2021." ], [ "Early life", "Aaron was born in Mobile, Alabama, to Herbert Aaron Sr. and Estella (Pritchett) Aaron.", "He had seven siblings.", "Tommie Aaron, one of his brothers, also went on to play Major League Baseball.", "By the time Aaron retired, he and his brother held the record for most career home runs by a pair of siblings (768).While he was born in a section of Mobile referred to as \"Down the Bay\", he spent most of his youth in Toulminville.", "Aaron grew up in a poor family.", "His family could not afford baseball equipment, so he practiced by hitting bottle caps with sticks.", "He would create his own bats and balls out of materials he found on the streets.", "His boyhood idol was baseball star Jackie Robinson.", "Aaron attended Central High School as a freshman and a sophomore.", "Like most high schools, they did not have organized baseball, so he played outfield and third base for the Mobile Black Bears, a semipro team.", "Aaron was a member of the Boy Scouts of America.Although he batted cross-handed (as a right-handed hitter, with his left hand above his right), Aaron established himself as a power hitter.", "As a result, in 1949, at the age of 15, Aaron had his first tryout with an MLB franchise, the Brooklyn Dodgers; however, he did not make the team.", "After this, Aaron returned to school to finish his secondary education, attending the Josephine Allen Institute, a private high school in Alabama.", "During his junior year, Aaron joined the Prichard Athletics, an independent Negro league team, followed by the Mobile Black Bears, another independent Negro league team.", "While on the Bears, Aaron earned $3 per game ($ today), which was a dollar more than he got while on the Athletics." ], [ "Professional career", "===Negro and minor leagues===On November 20, 1951, baseball scout Ed Scott signed Aaron to a contract on behalf of the Indianapolis Clowns of the Negro American League, where he played for three months.He started play as a , shortstop, and earned $200 per month.", "As a result of his standout play with the Indianapolis Clowns, Aaron received two offers from MLB teams via telegram, one from the New York Giants and the other from the Boston Braves.", "Years later, Aaron remembered:I had the Giants' contract in my hand.", "But the Braves offered fifty dollars a month more.", "That's the only thing that kept Willie Mays and me from being teammates – fifty dollars.While with the Clowns he experienced racism.", "Of a time his team was in Washington, D.C. Aaron recalled:We had breakfast while we were waiting for the rain to stop, and I can still envision sitting with the Clowns in a restaurant behind Griffith Stadium and hearing them break all the plates in the kitchen after we finished eating.", "What a horrible sound.", "Even as a kid, the irony of it hit me: here we were in the capital in the land of freedom and equality, and they had to destroy the plates that had touched the forks that had been in the mouths of black men.", "If dogs had eaten off those plates, they'd have washed them.The Howe Sports Bureau credits Aaron with a .366 batting average in 26 official Negro league games, with five home runs, 33 runs batted in (RBIs), 41 hits, and nine stolen bases.The Braves purchased Aaron's contract from the Clowns for $10,000, which GM John Quinn thought was a steal, as he stated that he felt that Aaron was a $100,000 property.", "On June 12, 1952, Aaron signed with Braves' scout Dewey Griggs.", "During this time, he picked up the nickname \"pork chops\" because it \"was the only thing I knew to order off the menu\".", "A teammate later said, \"the man ate pork chops three meals a day, two for breakfast\".The Braves assigned Aaron to the Eau Claire Bears, the Braves' Northern League Class-C farm team.", "The 1952 season proved to be very beneficial for Aaron.", "Playing in the infield, Aaron continued to develop as a ballplayer and made the Northern League's All-Star team.", "He broke his habit of hitting cross-handed and adopted the standard hitting technique.", "By the end of the season, he had performed so well that the league made him the unanimous choice for Rookie of the Year.", "Although he appeared in just 87 games, he scored 89 runs, had 116 hits, nine home runs, and 61 RBIs.", "In addition, Aaron hit for a .336 batting average.", "During his minor league experience, he was very homesick and faced constant racism, but his brother, Herbert Jr., told him not to give up the opportunity.In 1953, the Braves promoted him to the Jacksonville Braves, their Class-A affiliate in the South Atlantic League.", "Helped by Aaron's performance, the Braves won the league championship that year.", "Aaron led the league in runs (115), hits (208), doubles (36), RBIs (125), total bases (338), and batting average (.362).", "He won the league's Most Valuable Player Award, and had such a dominant year that one sportswriter was prompted to say, \"Henry Aaron led the league in everything except hotel accommodations.\"", "Aaron's time with the Braves did not come without problems.", "He was one of the first African Americans to play in the league.", "The 1950s were a period of racial segregation in parts of the United States, especially the southeastern portion of the country.", "When Aaron traveled around Jacksonville, Florida, and the surrounding areas, he was often separated from his team because of Jim Crow laws.", "In most circumstances, the team was responsible for arranging housing and meals for its players, but Aaron often had to make his own arrangements.", "The Braves' manager, Ben Geraghty, tried his best to help Aaron on and off the field.", "Former Braves minor league player and sportswriter Pat Jordan said, \"Aaron gave Geraghty much of the credit for his own swift rise to stardom.", "\"That same year, Aaron met his future wife, Barbara Lucas.", "The night they met, Lucas decided to attend the Braves' game.", "Aaron singled, doubled, and hit a home run in the game.", "On October 6, Aaron and Lucas married.", "In 1958, Aaron's wife noted that during the off-season he liked \"to sit and watch those shooting westerns\".", "He also enjoyed cooking and fishing.Aaron spent the winter of 1953 playing in Puerto Rico.", "Mickey Owen, the team's manager, helped Aaron with his batting stance.", "Until then, Aaron had hit most pitches to left field or center field, but after working with Owen, Aaron was able to hit the ball more effectively all over the field.", "During his stay in Puerto Rico, Owen also helped Aaron transition from second base to the outfield.", "Aaron had not played well at second base, but Owen noted that Aaron could catch fly balls and throw them well from the outfield to the infield.The stint in Puerto Rico also allowed Aaron to avoid being drafted into military service.", "Though the Korean War was over, people were still being drafted.", "The Braves were able to speak to the draft board, making the case that Aaron could be the player to integrate the Southern Association the following season with the Atlanta Crackers.", "The board appears to have been convinced, as Aaron was not drafted.===Milwaukee / Atlanta Braves (1954–1974)===In 1954, Aaron attended spring training with the major league club.", "Although he was on the roster of its farm club, Milwaukee manager Charley Grimm later stated, \"From the start, he did so well I knew we were going to have to carry him.\"", "On March 13, 1954, Milwaukee Braves left fielder Bobby Thomson fractured his ankle while sliding into second base during a spring training game.", "The next day, Aaron made his first spring training start for the Braves major league team, playing in left field and hitting a home run.", "This led Hank Aaron to a major league contract, signed on the final day of spring training, and a Braves uniform with the number five.", "On April 13, Aaron made his major league debut and was hitless in five at-bats against the Cincinnati Reds' left-hander Joe Nuxhall.", "In the same game, Eddie Mathews hit two home runs, the first of a record 863 home runs the pair would hit as teammates.", "On April 15, Aaron collected his first major league hit, a double off Cardinals' pitcher Vic Raschi.", "Aaron hit his first major league home run on April 23, also off Raschi.", "Over the next 122 games, Aaron batted .280 with 13 homers before he suffered a fractured ankle on September 5.He then changed his number to 44, which would turn out to look like a \"lucky number\" for the slugger.", "Aaron would hit 44 home runs in four different seasons, and he hit his record-breaking 715th career home run off Dodgers pitcher Al Downing, who coincidentally also wore number 44.At this point, Aaron was known to family and friends primarily as \"Henry\".", "Braves' public relations director Don Davidson, observing Aaron's quiet, reserved nature, began referring to him publicly as \"Hank\" in order to suggest more accessibility.", "The nickname quickly gained currency, but \"Henry\" continued to be cited frequently in the media, both sometimes appearing in the same article, and Aaron would answer to either one.", "During his rookie year, his other well-known nicknames, \"Hammerin' Hank\" (by teammates) and \"Bad Henry\" (by opposing pitchers) are reported to have arisen.Considerably later in his career, Aaron coined \"Stone-fingers\", which would prove a popular handle for one of baseball's more colorful characters, the famously distance-hitting but defensively challenged first baseman Dick Stuart, reportedly \"delighting\" even its recipient.Sal Maglie recommended throwing low curveballs to Aaron.", "\"He's going to swing and he'll go after almost anything,\" Maglie said of the Braves' slugger.", "\"And he'll hit almost anything, so you have to be careful.", "\"====Prime of his career====Aaron with the Milwaukee Braves in 1960Aaron hit .314 with 27 home runs and 106 RBIs, in 1955.He was named to the NL All-Star roster for the first time; it was the first of a record 21 All-Star selections and first of a record 25 All-Star Game appearances.", "In 1956, Aaron hit .328 and captured the first of two NL batting titles.", "He was also named ''The Sporting News'' NL Player of the Year.", "In 1957, Aaron won his only NL MVP Award, as he had his first brush with the triple crown.", "He batted .322, placing third, and led the league in home runs and runs batted in.", "On September 23, 1957, in Milwaukee, Aaron hit a two-run walk-off home run against the St. Louis Cardinals, clinching the pennant for the Braves.", "After touching home plate he was carried off the field by his teammates.", "It is as of yet the only pennant-clinching walk-off home run in major league history in a non-playoff regular-season game.", "Milwaukee went on to win the World Series against the New York Yankees, the defending champions, 4 games to 3.Aaron did his part by hitting .393 with three homers and seven RBIs.", "On December 15, 1957, his wife Barbara gave birth to twins.", "Two days later, one of the children died.", "In 1958, Aaron hit .326, with 30 home runs and 95 RBIs.", "He led the Braves to another pennant, but this time they lost a seven-game World Series to the Yankees.", "Aaron finished third in the MVP race and he received his first of three Gold Glove Awards.", "During the next several years, Aaron had some of his best games and best seasons as a major league player.", "On June 21, 1959, against the San Francisco Giants, he hit three two-run home runs.", "It was the only time in his career that he hit three home runs in a game.In 1963, Aaron nearly won the triple crown.", "He led the league with 44 home runs and 130 RBIs and finished third in batting average.", "In that season, Aaron became the third player to hit 30 home runs and steal 30 bases in a single season, and the first player to record 40 home runs and 30 steals in a season.", "He again finished third in National League MVP voting.", "The Braves moved from Milwaukee to Atlanta after the 1965 season.", "On May 10, 1967, he hit an inside-the-park home run against Jim Bunning in Philadelphia.", "It was the only inside-the-park home run of his career.", "In 1968, Aaron was the first Atlanta Braves player to hit his 500th career home run, and in 1970, he was the first Atlanta Brave to reach 3,000 career hits.====Home run milestones and 3,000th hit====Away jersey worn by Aaron during the 1968 or 1969 MLB seasonDuring his days in Atlanta, Aaron reached several milestones; he was only the eighth player ever to hit 500 career home runs, with his 500th coming against Mike McCormick of the San Francisco Giants on July 14, 1968—exactly one year after former Milwaukee Braves teammate Eddie Mathews had hit his 500th.", "Aaron was, at the time, the second-youngest player to reach the milestone.", "On July 31, 1969, Aaron hit his 537th home run, passing Mickey Mantle's total; this moved Aaron into third place on the career home run list, after Willie Mays and Babe Ruth.", "At the end of the 1969 season, Aaron again finished third in the MVP voting.In 1970, Aaron reached two more career milestones.", "On May 17, Aaron collected his 3,000th hit, in a game against the Cincinnati Reds, the team against which he played in his first major-league game.", "Aaron established the record for most seasons with thirty or more home runs in the National League.", "On April 27, 1971, Aaron hit his 600th career home run, the third major league player ever to do so.", "On July 13, Aaron hit a home run in the All-Star Game (played at Detroit's Tiger Stadium) for the first time.", "He hit his 40th home run of the season against the Giants' Jerry Johnson on August 10, which established a National League record for most seasons with 40 or more home runs (seven).", "At age 37, he hit a career-high 47 home runs during the season (along with a career-high .669 slugging percentage) and finished third in MVP voting for the sixth time.", "During the strike-shortened season of 1972, Aaron tied and then surpassed Willie Mays for second place on the career home run list.", "Aaron also drove in the 2,000th run of his career and hit a home run in the first All-Star game played in Atlanta.", "As the year came to a close, Aaron broke Stan Musial's major-league record for total bases (6,134).", "He finished the season with 673 career home runs.====Breaking Ruth's career home run record====The Braves' jersey Hank Aaron wore when he broke Babe Ruth's career home run record in 1974Aaron himself downplayed the \"chase\" to surpass Babe Ruth, while baseball enthusiasts and the national media grew increasingly excited as he closed in on the 714 career home runs record.", "Aaron received thousands of letters every week during the summer of 1973, including hate mail; the Braves ended up hiring a secretary to help him sort through it.Aaron (then age 39) hit 40 home runs in 392 at-bats, ending the 1973 season one home run short of the record.", "He hit home run number 713 on September 29, 1973, and with one day remaining in the season, many expected him to tie the record.", "But in his final game that year, playing against the Houston Astros (managed by Leo Durocher, who had once roomed with Babe Ruth), he was unable to achieve this.", "After the game, Aaron said his only fear was that he might not live to see the 1974 season.He was the recipient of death threats and a large assortment of hate mail during the 1973–1974 offseason from people who did not want to see Aaron break Ruth's nearly sacrosanct home run record.", "The threats extended to those providing positive press coverage of Aaron.", "Lewis Grizzard, then-executive sports editor of ''The Atlanta Journal'', reported receiving numerous phone calls calling journalists \"nigger lovers\" for covering Aaron's chase.", "While preparing the massive coverage of the home run record, Grizzard quietly had an obituary written, afraid that Aaron might be murdered.", "''Sports Illustrated'' pointedly summarized the racist vitriol that Aaron was forced to endure:Is this to be the year in which Aaron, at the age of thirty-nine, takes a moon walk above one of the most hallowed individual records in American sport...?", "Or will it be remembered as the season in which Aaron, the most dignified of athletes, was besieged with hate mail and trapped by the cobwebs and goblins that lurk in baseball's attic?At the end of the 1973 season, Aaron received a plaque from the U.S.", "Postal Service for receiving more mail (930,000 pieces) than any person excluding politicians.", "Aaron received an outpouring of public support in response to the bigotry.", "In August 1973, ''Peanuts'' cartoonist Charles Schulz drew a series of strips in which Snoopy attempts to break Babe Ruth's record, only to be besieged with hate mail.", "In the strip published August 11, Lucy remarked to Snoopy: \"Hank Aaron is a great player... but you!", "If you break Babe Ruth's record, it'll be a disgrace!\"", "Coincidentally, Snoopy was only one home run short of tying the record (and finished the season as such when Charlie Brown got picked off second base during Snoopy's last at-bat), and as it turned out, Aaron finished the 1973 season one home run short of Ruth.", "Babe Ruth's widow, Claire Hodgson, denounced the racism and declared that her husband would have enthusiastically cheered Aaron's attempt at the record.", "As the 1974 season began, Aaron's pursuit of the record caused a small controversy.", "The Braves opened the season on the road in Cincinnati with a three-game series against the Cincinnati Reds.", "Braves management wanted him to break the record in Atlanta and was therefore going to have Aaron sit out the first three games of the season.", "But Baseball Commissioner Bowie Kuhn ruled that he had to play two games in the first series.", "He played two out of three and tied Babe Ruth's record on April 4, 1974, in his very first at-bat on his first swing of the season—off Reds pitcher Jack Billingham, but did not hit another home run in the series.The fence at Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium over which Hank Aaron hit his 715th career home run still exists.The Braves returned to Atlanta, and on April 8, 1974, a crowd of 53,775 people showed up for the game—a Braves attendance record.", "The game was also broadcast nationally on NBC.", "In the fourth inning, Aaron hit home run number 715 off Los Angeles Dodgers pitcher Al Downing.", "Although Dodgers outfielder Bill Buckner nearly went over the outfield fence trying to catch it, the ball flew into the Braves' bullpen, where relief pitcher Tom House caught it.", "While cannons were fired in celebration, two college students sprinted onto the field and jogged alongside Aaron for part of his circuit around the bases, temporarily startling him.", "As the fans cheered wildly, Aaron's parents ran onto the field as well.", "Braves announcer Milo Hamilton, calling the game on WSB radio, described the scene as Aaron broke the record:Henry Aaron, in the second inning walked and scored.", "He's sittin' on 714.Here's the pitch by Downing.", "Swinging.", "There's a drive into left-center field.", "That ball is gonna be-eee... Outta here!", "It's gone!", "It's 715!", "There's a new home run champion of all time, and it's Henry Aaron!", "The fireworks are going.", "Henry Aaron is coming around third.", "His teammates are at home plate.", "And listen to this crowd!Meanwhile, Dodgers broadcaster Vin Scully addressed the racial tension—or apparent lack thereof—in his call of the home run:What a marvelous moment for baseball; what a marvelous moment for Atlanta and the state of Georgia; what a marvelous moment for the country and the world.", "A black man is getting a standing ovation in the Deep South for breaking a record of an all-time baseball idol.", "And it is a great moment for all of us, and particularly for Henry Aaron... And for the first time in a long time, that poker face in Aaron shows the tremendous strain and relief of what it must have been like to live with for the past several months.===Milwaukee Brewers (1975–1976)===Aaron with the Brewers in 1975On October 2, 1974, Aaron hit his 733rd home run in his last at-bat as a Braves player.", "Aaron commented after the game that it was his last time as a player in Atlanta as his contract had expired.", "While he considered retirement, he said that he was willing to return to baseball for another year.", "He had also said that he would be interested in serving as a team's general manager, someone who would make decisions and not a “house boy”.", "The Braves offered Aaron a position with the team when he retired, but the role would be more in public relations, rather than one where he could evaluate talent.At the end of the season, Aaron, who had a prior relationship with Brewers owner Bud Selig, requested a trade to Milwaukee.", "He was acquired by the Milwaukee Brewers for Dave May thirty-one days later on November 2.Minor league right-handed pitcher Roger Alexander was sent to the Braves to complete the transaction at the Winter Meetings one month later on December 2.The trade re-united Aaron with former teammate Del Crandall, who was now managing the Brewers.", "He signed a two-year contract with the Brewers for $240,000 per year.", "Playing in the American League allowed Aaron to serve as a designated hitter rather than play in the field.On May 1, 1975, Aaron broke baseball's all-time RBI record, previously held by Ruth with 2,213.That year, he also played in his last and 24th All-Star Game (25th All-Star Game selection); he lined out to Dave Concepción as a pinch-hitter in the second inning.", "This All-Star Game, like the first one he played in 1955, was before a home crowd at Milwaukee County Stadium.Aaron hit his 755th and final home run on July 20, 1976, at Milwaukee County Stadium off Dick Drago of the California Angels, which stood as the MLB career home run record for 31 years until it was broken in 2007 by Barry Bonds.", "Over the course of his record-breaking 23-year career, Aaron had a batting average of .305 and 163 hits a season, while averaging just over 32 home runs and 99 RBIs a year.", "He had 100+ RBIs in a season 15 times, including a record of 13 in a row." ], [ "Post-playing career", "Hank Aaron's Hall of Fame plaque at the Baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, New YorkHank Aaron during his August 5, 1978, visit to the White HouseAfter the 1976 season, Aaron rejoined the Braves as an executive.", "On August 1, 1982, he was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame, having received votes on 97.8 percent of the ballots, second only to Ty Cobb, who had received votes on 98.2% of the ballot in the inaugural 1936 Hall of Fame election.", "Aaron was then named the Braves' vice president and director of player development.", "This made him one of the first minorities in Major League Baseball upper-level management.In December 1980, Aaron became senior vice president and assistant to the Braves' president.", "He was the corporate vice president of community relations for Turner Broadcasting System, a member of the company's board of directors, and the vice president of business development for The Airport Network.", "On January 21, 2007, Major League Baseball announced the sale of the Atlanta Braves.", "In that announcement, Baseball Commissioner Bud Selig also announced that Aaron would be playing a major role in the management of the Braves, forming programs through major league baseball that will encourage the influx of minorities into baseball.", "Aaron founded the Hank Aaron Rookie League program.Shortly before the start of the 2002 baseball season, Aaron joined San Francisco Giants slugger Barry Bonds—on the heels of his record-shattering performance the season before—to make a television commercial that aired during Super Bowl XXXVI, in which Aaron jokingly tried to persuade Bonds to retire before breaking the record.", "As Bonds began to close in on the record during the 2007 season, Aaron let it be known that, although he recognized Bonds' achievements, he would not be present when Bonds broke the record.", "There was considerable speculation that this was a snubbing of Bonds based on the widespread belief that Bonds had used performance-enhancing drugs and steroids to aid his achievement.", "However, some observers looked back on Aaron's personal history, pointing out that he had downplayed his own breaking of Babe Ruth's all-time record and suggesting Aaron was simply treating Bonds in a similar fashion.", "In a later interview with Atlanta sportscasting personality Chris Dimino, Aaron made it clear his reluctance to attend any celebration of a new home run record was based upon his personal conviction that baseball is not about breaking records, but simply playing to the best of one's potential.", "After Bonds hit his record-breaking 756th home run on August 7, 2007, Aaron made a surprise appearance on the JumboTron video screen at AT&T Park in San Francisco to congratulate Bonds on his accomplishment:Aaron's autobiography, ''I Had A Hammer'', co-written with the help of writer Lonnie Wheeler, was published in 1990 and was a finalist for the Casey Award.", "The book's title is a play on his nickname, \"The Hammer\" or \"Hammerin' Hank\", and the title of the folk song \"If I Had a Hammer\".", "Aaron owned Hank Aaron BMW of south Atlanta in Union City, Georgia, where he included an autographed baseball with every car sold.", "Aaron also owned Mini, Land Rover, Toyota, Hyundai, and Honda dealerships throughout Georgia, as part of the Hank Aaron Automotive Group.", "Aaron sold all but the Toyota dealership in McDonough in 2007.Additionally, Aaron owned a chain of 30 restaurants around the country." ], [ "Personal life", "Aaron with his second wife, BillyeAaron's first marriage was to Barbara Lucas in 1953.They had five children: Gary, Lary, Dorinda, Gaile, and Hank Jr.", "He divorced Barbara in 1971 and married Billye Suber Williams on November 13, 1973.With his second wife, he had one child, Ceci.Despite being publicly and professionally known as \"Hank,\" Aaron preferred to go by his given name, \"Henry.", "\"=== Religion ===Born and raised a Baptist, Aaron converted to Catholicism in 1959 at age 25, together with his family.", "He and his wife first became interested in the faith after the birth of their first child, whom they baptized immediately.", "A friendship with a Roman Catholic priest later helped lead to Hank and his wife's conversion.", "Aaron was known to frequently read Thomas à Kempis' 15th-century book ''The Imitation of Christ'', which he kept in his locker.In an interview in 1991, Aaron credited the priest, Fr.", "Michael Sablica, with helping him grow as a person in the 1950s.", "\"He taught me what life was all about.", "But he was more than just a religious friend of mine, he was a friend because he talked as if he was not a priest sometimes.\"", "Active in the civil rights movement, the priest encouraged Aaron to be more publicly vocal about causes he believed in.Sablica also encouraged him to \"attend Mass every Sunday\" during Spring Training, to which he responded with the racist realities of the day: \"In Bradenton, they won't let me go to Mass.\"", "Sablica said in an interview that he wouldn't have blamed Aaron if he stopped practicing.", "Aaron indeed attended Friendship Baptist Church toward the end of his life, noting in his autobiography that he didn't remain Catholic for very long after converting.=== Hobbies and health ===Aaron was a long-time fan of the Cleveland Browns, having attended many games in disguise in their \"Dawg Pound\" seating section.In 1986, Hank Aaron made a guest appearance in \"Just Another Fox in the Crowd\", episode 30 of ''Crazy Like a Fox''.Aaron lived in the Atlanta area.", "In July 2013, media reported that his home was burglarized with jewelry and two BMW vehicles having been stolen.", "The cars were later recovered.Aaron suffered from arthritis and had a partial hip replacement after a fall in 2014.On January 5, 2021, Aaron publicly received a COVID-19 vaccination with the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine at the Morehouse School of Medicine at Atlanta, Georgia.", "He and several other African American public figures, including activist Joe Beasley, Andrew Young, and Louis Sullivan, did so to demonstrate the safety of the vaccine and encourage other black Americans to do the same." ], [ "Death", "Aaron died in his sleep in his Atlanta residence on January 22, 2021, at the age of 86.The manner of death was listed as natural causes.His funeral was held on January 27, followed by his burial at South-View Cemetery.=== Tributes ===Upon Aaron's death, the sports world expressed their condolences to him.", "Many current or former athletes and team owners such as MLB Commissioner Rob Manfred, Magic Johnson, David Ortiz, Dusty Baker, Eduardo Pérez, Mike Trout, and Baseball Hall of Fame chairman Jane Forbes Clark paid tribute to him.", "Fans paid tribute to Aaron by placing flowers in front of the home run wall where he hit his 715th home run at the former site of Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium and in front of his statue at Truist Park.Politicians also paid tribute to him.", "The Mayor of Atlanta, Keisha Lance Bottoms released the following statement on his death:Georgia governor Brian Kemp ordered flags in the state of Georgia to be lowered half-staff in honor of him.U.S.", "President Joe Biden paid tribute to Aaron by releasing a statement calling him \"an American hero\".", "He also received tributes from former presidents Jimmy Carter, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama.The Atlanta Braves honored Hank Aaron during the 2021 season by including his jersey number 44 on the back of the team caps along with Phil Niekro's jersey number, 35 (who died one month earlier in December 2020).", "They also painted 44 in the midfield at Truist Park.At Game 3 of the 2021 World Series in Truist Park, a pregame ceremony was held honoring Aaron where his son Hank Aaron Jr. threw out a ceremonial first pitch.", "After the Braves won the 2021 World Series, Aaron was honored in the design of the team's World Series championship ring, which includes 755 total diamonds to commemorate Aaron's career home runs, and 44 emerald-cut diamonds to represent Aaron's jersey number with the Braves." ], [ "Awards and honors", "In 1982, Aaron was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame during his first year of eligibility.Aaron was awarded the Spingarn Medal in 1976, from the NAACP.", "In 1977, Aaron received the American Academy of Achievement's Golden Plate Award.", "In 1988, Aaron was inducted into the Wisconsin Athletic Hall of Fame for his time spent on the Eau Claire Bears, Milwaukee Braves, and Milwaukee Brewers.In 1999, major league baseball created the Hank Aaron Award, to commemorate the 25th anniversary of Aaron's surpassing of Babe Ruth's career home run mark of 714 home runs and to honor Aaron's contributions to baseball.", "The award is given annually to the baseball hitters voted the most effective in each respective league.", "In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Aaron on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.When the city of Atlanta was converting Centennial Olympic Stadium into a new baseball stadium, many local residents hoped the stadium would be named for Aaron.", "When the stadium was instead named Turner Field (after Atlanta Braves owner Ted Turner), a section of Capitol Avenue running past the stadium was renamed Hank Aaron Drive.", "The stadium's street number is 755, after Aaron's total number of home runs; the 755 street number was retained for Turner Field's replacement, Truist Park.", "In April 1997, a new baseball facility for the AA Mobile Bay Bears constructed in Aaron's hometown of Mobile, Alabama was named Hank Aaron Stadium.", "Georgia State University acquired Turner Field and has since rebuilt it as Center Parc Stadium, in 2017, and university officials plan to build a new baseball park on the former Atlanta–Fulton County Stadium site, incorporating the left field wall where Aaron hit his record-breaking home run.He was honored before the third game of 2021 World Series.On February 5, 1999, at his 65th birthday celebration, Major League Baseball announced the introduction of the Hank Aaron Award.", "The award honors the best overall offensive performer in the American and National League.", "It was the first major award to be introduced in more than thirty years and had the distinction of being the first award named after a player who was still alive.", "Later that year, he ranked fifth on ''The Sporting News'' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, and was elected to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team.In June 2000, Tufts University awarded Aaron an honorary Doctor of Public Service.", "In July 2000 and again in July 2002, Aaron threw out the ceremonial first pitch at the Major League Baseball All-Star Game, played at Turner Field and Miller Park now named American Family Field, respectively.Aaron accepting the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President George W. Bush in 2002On January 8, 2001, Aaron was presented with the Presidential Citizens Medal by President Bill Clinton.", "He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest civilian honor, from President George W. Bush in June 2002.In 2001, a recreational trail in Milwaukee connecting American Family Field with Lake Michigan along the Menomonee River was dedicated as the Hank Aaron State Trail.", "Aaron attended the dedication.", "Aaron was on the Board of Selectors of Jefferson Awards for Public Service.In 2002, Aaron was honored with the \"Lombardi Award of Excellence\" from the Vince Lombardi Cancer Foundation.", "The award was created to honor Vince Lombardi's legacy and is awarded annually to an individual who exemplifies the spirit of the coach.Aaron dedicated the new exhibit \"Hank Aaron: Chasing the Dream\" at the Baseball Hall of Fame on April 25, 2009.Statues of Aaron stand outside the front entrance of both Turner Field and American Family Field.", "There is also a statue of him as an 18-year-old shortstop outside Carson Park in Eau Claire, Wisconsin, where he played his first season in the Braves' minor league system.He was named a 2010 Georgia Trustee by the Georgia Historical Society, in conjunction with the Governor of Georgia, to recognize accomplishments and community service that reflect the ideals of the founding body of Trustees, which governed the Georgia colony from 1732 to 1752.In 2011, the President of Princeton University Shirley M. Tilghman awarded an honorary Doctor of Humanities degree to Aaron.In November 2015, Aaron was one of the five inaugural recipients of the Portrait of a Nation Prize, an award granted by the National Portrait Gallery in recognition of \"exemplary achievements in the fields of civil rights, business, entertainment, science, and sports.", "\"In January 2016, Aaron received the Order of the Rising Sun, Gold Rays with Rosette from Akihito, the Emperor of Japan.On April 14, 2017, Aaron threw out the first pitch at SunTrust Park (now called Truist Park) at 83 years old.The Elite Development Invitational, a youth baseball tournament organized by the Major League Baseball and the MLB Players Association to increase diversity in the sport, was renamed the Hank Aaron Invitational for the 2019 season.After Aaron's death, the Atlanta Falcons of the NFL and Atlanta United of MLS retired his No.", "44 for the 2021 season (the Atlanta Hawks of the NBA had already retired No.", "44 for Pete Maravich).", "Additionally, Gwinnett County minor league baseball teams, the Triple-A Gwinnett Stripers (2021 season) and Double-A Atlanta Gladiators (2021–22 season), also temporarily retired No.", "44 in Aaron's honor, as did the Braves' other minor league affiliates.In April 2021, the Forrest Hill Academy was renamed the Hank Aaron New Beginnings Academy.", "The alternative high school had been named after Nathan Bedford Forrest, a general in the Confederate Army and the Ku Klux Klan's first Grand Wizard.In 2022, a recording of the WSB broadcast of the April 8, 1974, Braves–Dodgers game in which Aaron hit his 715th home run was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Recording Registry.", "In May of the same year, Tulane University gave Aaron a posthumous honorary degree of Doctor of Humane Letters, the first posthumous honorary degree ever awarded by the university.", "It was presented during the university's unified commencement ceremony and was accepted on his behalf by his widow Billye." ], [ "See also", "* Aaron Monument* Henry Aaron Field* Major League Baseball titles leaders* List of Major League Baseball annual doubles leaders* List of Major League Baseball annual home run leaders* List of Major League Baseball annual runs batted in leaders* List of Major League Baseball annual runs scored leaders* List of Major League Baseball batting champions* List of Major League Baseball career doubles leaders* List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders* List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders* List of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders* List of Major League Baseball career runs scored leaders* List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders* List of Major League Baseball career triples leaders* List of Major League Baseball doubles records* List of Major League Baseball home run records* List of Major League Baseball individual streaks* List of Major League Baseball runs batted in records" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Book sources===* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Holy Grail" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Holy Grail''' (, , , ) is a treasure that serves as an important motif in Arthurian literature.", "Various traditions describe the Holy Grail as a cup, dish, or stone with miraculous healing powers, sometimes providing eternal youth or sustenance in infinite abundance, often guarded in the custody of the Fisher King and located in the hidden Grail castle.", "By analogy, any elusive object or goal of great significance may be perceived as a \"holy grail\" by those seeking such.A mysterious \"grail\" (Old French: ''graal'' or ''greal''), wondrous but not unequivocally holy, first appears in ''Perceval, the Story of the Grail'', an unfinished chivalric romance written by Chrétien de Troyes around 1190.Chrétien's story inspired many continuations, translators and interpreters in the later-12th and early-13th centuries, including Wolfram von Eschenbach, who portrayed the Grail as a stone in ''Parzival''.", "The Christian, Celtic or possibly other origins of the Arthurian grail trope are uncertain and have been debated among literary scholars and historians.In the 1190s, Robert de Boron in '''' portrayed the Grail as Jesus's vessel from the Last Supper, which Joseph of Arimathea used to catch Christ's blood at the crucifixion.", "Thereafter, the Holy Grail became interwoven with the legend of the Holy Chalice, the Last Supper cup, an idea continued in works such as the ''Lancelot-Grail'' cycle, and subsequently the 15th-century ''Le Morte d'Arthur''.", "In this form, it is now a popular theme in modern culture, and has become the subject of folklore studies, pseudohistorical writings, works of fiction, and conspiracy theories." ], [ "Etymology", "The word , as it is spelled in its earliest appearances, comes from Old French or , cognate with Old Occitan and Old Catalan , meaning \"a cup or bowl of earth, wood, or metal\" (or other various types of vessels in different Occitan dialects).", "The most commonly accepted etymology derives it from Latin or via an earlier form, , a derivative of or , which was, in turn, borrowed from Ancient Greek (, a large wine-mixing vessel).", "Alternative suggestions include a derivative of , a name for a type of woven basket that came to refer to a dish, or a derivative of Latin meaning by degree', 'by stages', applied to a dish brought to the table in different stages or services during a meal\".In the 15th century, English writer John Hardyng invented a fanciful new etymology for Old French (or ), meaning \"Holy Grail\", by parsing it as , meaning \"royal blood\".", "This etymology was used by some later medieval British writers such as Thomas Malory, and became prominent in the conspiracy theory developed in the book ''The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail'', in which refers to the Jesus bloodline." ], [ "Medieval literature", "Galahad, Bors and Percival achieve the Grail.", "Tapestry woven by Morris & Co. (19th century)|alt=The literature surrounding the Grail can be divided into two groups.", "The first concerns King Arthur's knights visiting the Grail castle or questing after the object.", "The second concerns the Grail's earlier history in the time of Joseph of Arimathea.The nine works from the first group are:* ''Perceval, the Story of the Grail'', a chivalric romance poem by Chrétien de Troyes.", "*The Four Continuations of Chrétien's unfinished poem, by authors of differing vision and talent, designed to bring the story to a close.", "* The , purportedly a prosification of Robert de Boron's sequel to his romance poems '''' and ''Merlin''.", "* ''Parzival'' by Wolfram von Eschenbach, which adapted at least the holiness of Robert's Grail into the framework of Chrétien's story.", "In Wolfram's telling, the Grail was kept safe at the castle of Munsalvaesche (''mons salvationis''), entrusted to Titurel, the first Grail King.", "Some, not least the Benedictine monks, have identified the castle with their real sanctuary of Montserrat in Catalonia.", "* Welsh romance ''Peredur son of Efrawg'', a loose translation of Chrétien's poem and the Continuations, with some influence from native Welsh literature.", "* ''Perlesvaus'', called the \"least canonical\" Grail romance because of its very different character.", "* German poem ''Diu Crône'' (''The Crown''), in which Gawain, rather than Perceval, achieves the Grail.", "* The Prose ''Lancelot'' section of the vast Lancelot-Grail cycle introduced the new Grail hero, Galahad.", "The ''Queste del Saint Graal'', a follow-up part of the cycle, concerns Galahad's eventual achievement of the Grail.Of the second group there are:*Robert de Boron's ''Joseph d'Arimathie''.", "* The ''Estoire del Saint Graal'', the first part of the Lancelot-Grail cycle (but written after ''Lancelot'' and the ''Queste''), based on Robert's tale but expanding it greatly with many new details.", "* Verses by Rigaut de Barbezieux, a late 12th or early 13th-century Provençal troubador, where mention is made of Perceval, the lance, and the Grail served.The Grail was considered a bowl or dish when first described by Chrétien de Troyes.", "There, it is a processional salver, a tray, used to serve at a feast.", "Hélinand of Froidmont described a grail as a \"wide and deep saucer\" (''scutella lata et aliquantulum profunda''); other authors had their own ideas.", "Robert de Boron portrayed it as the vessel of the Last Supper.", "''Peredur son of Efrawg'' had no Grail as such, presenting the hero instead with a platter containing his kinsman's bloody, severed head.===Chrétien de Troyes===The Grail is first featured in ''Perceval, le Conte du Graal'' (''The Story of the Grail'') by Chrétien de Troyes, who claims he was working from a source book given to him by his patron, Count Philip of Flanders.", "In this incomplete poem, dated sometime between 1180 and 1191, the object has not yet acquired the implications of holiness it would have in later works.", "While dining in the magical abode of the Fisher King, Perceval witnesses a wondrous procession in which youths carry magnificent objects from one chamber to another, passing before him at each course of the meal.", "First comes a young man carrying a bleeding lance, then two boys carrying candelabras.", "Finally, a beautiful young girl emerges bearing an elaborately decorated ''graal'', or \"grail\".Chrétien refers to this object not as \"The Grail\" but as \"a grail\" (''un graal''), showing the word was used, in its earliest literary context, as a common noun.", "For Chrétien, a grail was a wide, somewhat deep, dish or bowl, interesting because it contained not a pike, salmon, or lamprey, as the audience may have expected for such a container, but a single Communion wafer which provided sustenance for the Fisher King's crippled father.", "Perceval, who had been warned against talking too much, remains silent through all of this and wakes up the next morning alone.", "He later learns that if he had asked the appropriate questions about what he saw, he would have healed his maimed host, much to his honour.", "The story of the Wounded King's mystical fasting is not unique; several saints were said to have lived without food besides communion, for instance Saint Catherine of Genoa.", "This may imply that Chrétien intended the Communion wafer to be the significant part of the ritual, and the Grail to be a mere prop.===Robert de Boron===Though Chrétien's account is the earliest and most influential of all Grail texts, it was in the work of Robert that the Grail truly became the \"Holy Grail\" and assumed the form most familiar to modern readers in its Christian context.", "In his verse romance ''Joseph d'Arimathie'', composed between 1191 and 1202, Robert tells the story of Joseph of Arimathea acquiring the chalice of the Last Supper to collect Christ's blood upon his removal from the cross.", "Joseph is thrown in prison, where Christ visits him and explains the mysteries of the blessed cup.", "Upon his release, Joseph gathers his in-laws and other followers and travels to the west.", "He founds a dynasty of Grail keepers that eventually includes Perceval.===Wolfram von Eschenbach===In ''Parzival'', Wolfram von Eschenbach, citing the authority of a certain (probably fictional) Kyot the Provençal, claimed the Grail was a Stone, the sanctuary of the neutral angels who took neither side during Lucifer's rebellion.", "It is called ''Lapis exillis'', which in alchemy is the name of the philosopher's stone.=== Lancelot-Grail ===Arthur Hughes (1870)The authors of the Lancelot-Grail Cycle used the Grail as a symbol of divine grace; the virgin Galahad, illegitimate son of Lancelot and Elaine, the world's greatest knight and the Grail Bearer at the castle of Corbenic, is destined to achieve the Grail, his spiritual purity making him a greater warrior than even his illustrious father.", "The ''Queste del Saint Graal'' (''The Quest of The Holy Grail'') tells also of the adventures of various Knights of the Round Table in their eponymous quest.", "Some of them, including Percival and Bors the Younger, eventually join Galahad as his companions near the successful end of the Grail Quest and are witnesses of his ascension to Heaven.Galahad and the interpretation of the Grail involving him were picked up in the 15th century by Thomas Malory in ''Le Morte d'Arthur'' and remain popular today.", "While it is not explicit that the Holy Grail is never to be seen again on Earth, it is stated by Malory that there has since then been no knight capable of obtaining it.===Scholarly hypotheses===Scholars have long speculated on the origins of the Holy Grail before Chrétien, suggesting that it may contain elements of the trope of magical cauldrons from Celtic mythology and later Welsh mythology, combined with Christian legend surrounding the Eucharist, the latter found in Eastern Christian sources, conceivably in that of the Byzantine Mass, or even Persian sources.", "The view that the \"origin\" of the Grail legend should be seen as deriving from Celtic mythology was championed by Roger Sherman Loomis, Alfred Nutt, and Jessie Weston.", "Loomis traced a number of parallels between medieval Welsh literature and Irish material, and the Grail romances, including similarities between the ''Mabinogion''s Bran the Blessed and the Arthurian Fisher King, and between Bran's life-restoring cauldron and the Grail.The opposing view dismissed the \"Celtic\" connections as spurious, and interpreted the legend as essentially Christian in origin.", "Joseph Goering identified sources for Grail imagery in 12th-century wall paintings from churches in the Catalan Pyrenees (now mostly moved to the Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya), which present unique iconic images of the Virgin Mary holding a bowl that radiates tongues of fire, images that predate the first literary account by Chrétien de Troyes.", "Goering argues that they were the original inspiration for the Grail legend.Psychologists Emma Jung and Marie-Louise von Franz used analytical psychology to interpret the Grail as a series of symbols in their book ''The Grail Legend''.", "They directly expanded on interpretations by Carl Jung, which were later invoked by Joseph Campbell.", "Philosopher Henry Corbin, a member of the Eranos circle founded by Jung, also commented on the esoteric significance of the grail, relating it to the Iranian Islamic symbols that he studied.", "Richard Barber (2004) argued that the Grail legend is connected to the introduction of \"more ceremony and mysticism\" surrounding the sacrament of the Eucharist in the high medieval period, proposing that the first Grail stories may have been connected to the \"renewal in this traditional sacrament\".", "Daniel Scavone (1999, 2003) has argued that the \"Grail\" originally referred to the Image of Edessa.", "Goulven Peron (2016) suggested that the Holy Grail may reflect the horn of the river-god Achelous, as described by Ovid in the ''Metamorphoses''." ], [ "Later traditions", "===Relics===The Holy Grail depicted on a stained glass window at Quimper CathedralIn the wake of the Arthurian romances, several artifacts came to be identified as the Holy Grail in medieval relic veneration.", "These artifacts are said to have been the vessel used at the Last Supper, but other details vary.", "Despite the prominence of the Grail literature, traditions about a Last Supper relic remained rare in contrast to other items associated with Jesus' last days, such as the True Cross and Holy Lance.One tradition predates the Grail romances: in the 7th century, the pilgrim Arculf reported that the Last Supper chalice was displayed near Jerusalem.", "In the wake of Robert de Boron's Grail works, several other items came to be claimed as the true Last Supper vessel.", "In the late 12th century, one was said to be in Byzantium; Albrecht von Scharfenberg's Grail romance ''Der Jüngere Titurel'' associated it explicitly with the Arthurian Grail, but claimed it was only a copy.", "This item was said to have been looted in the Fourth Crusade and brought to Troyes in France, but it was lost during the French Revolution.Two relics associated with the Grail survive today.", "The ''Sacro Catino'' (Sacred Basin, also known as the Genoa Chalice) is a green glass dish held at the Genoa Cathedral said to have been used at the Last Supper.", "Its provenance is unknown, and there are two divergent accounts of how it was brought to Genoa by Crusaders in the 12th century.", "It was not associated with the Last Supper until later, in the wake of the Grail romances; the first known association is in Jacobus de Voragine's chronicle of Genoa in the late 13th century, which draws on the Grail literary tradition.", "The Catino was moved and broken during Napoleon's conquest in the early 19th century, revealing that it is glass rather than emerald.The Holy Chalice of Valencia is an agate dish with a mounting for use as a chalice.", "The bowl may date to Greco-Roman times, but its dating is unclear, and its provenance is unknown before 1399, when it was gifted to Martin I of Aragon.", "By the 14th century, an elaborate tradition had developed that this object was the Last Supper chalice.", "This tradition mirrors aspects of the Grail material, with several major differences, suggesting a separate tradition entirely.", "It is not associated with Joseph of Arimathea or Jesus' blood; it is said to have been taken to Rome by Saint Peter and later entrusted to Saint Lawrence.", "Early references do not call the object the \"Grail\"; the first evidence connecting it to the Grail tradition is from the 15th century.", "The monarchy sold the cup in the 15th century to Valencia Cathedral, where it remains a significant local icon.Several objects were identified with the Holy Grail in the 17th century.", "In the 20th century, a series of new items became associated with it.", "These include the Nanteos Cup, a medieval wooden bowl found near Rhydyfelin, Wales; a glass dish found near Glastonbury, England; the Antioch chalice, a 6th-century silver-gilt object that became attached to the Grail legend in the 1930s; and the Chalice of Doña Urraca, a cup made between 200 BC and 100 AD, kept in León’s basilica of Saint Isidore.===Locations associated with the Holy Grail===''Die Gralsburg'' (''The Grail Castle'') by Hans Thoma (1899)In the modern era, a number of places have become associated with the Holy Grail.", "One of the most prominent is Glastonbury in Somerset, England.", "Glastonbury was associated with King Arthur and his resting place of Avalon by the 12th century.", "In the 13th century, a legend arose that Joseph of Arimathea was the founder of Glastonbury Abbey.", "Early accounts of Joseph at Glastonbury focus on his role as the evangelist of Britain rather than as the custodian of the Holy Grail, but from the 15th century, the Grail became a more prominent part of the legends surrounding Glastonbury.", "Interest in Glastonbury resurged in the late 19th century, inspired by renewed interest in the Arthurian legend and contemporary spiritual movements centered on ancient sacred sites.", "In the late 19th century, John Goodchild hid a glass bowl near Glastonbury; a group of his friends, including Wellesley Tudor Pole, retrieved the cup in 1906 and promoted it as the original Holy Grail.", "Glastonbury and its Holy Grail legend have since become a point of focus for various New Age and Neopagan groups.In the early 20th century, esoteric writers identified Montségur, a stronghold of the heretical Cathar sect in the 13th century, as the Grail castle.", "Similarly, the 14th-century Rosslyn Chapel in Midlothian, Scotland, became attached to the Grail legend in the mid-20th century when a succession of conspiracy books identified it as a secret hiding place of the Grail." ], [ "Modern interpretations", "===Pseudohistory and conspiracy theories===Since the 19th century, the Holy Grail has been linked to various conspiracy theories.", "In 1818, Austrian pseudohistorical writer Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall connected the Grail to contemporary myths surrounding the Knights Templar that cast the order as a secret society dedicated to mystical knowledge and relics.", "In Hammer-Purgstall's work, the Grail is not a physical relic, but a symbol of the secret knowledge that the Templars sought.", "There is no historical evidence linking the Templars to a search for the Grail, but subsequent writers have elaborated on the Templar theories.Starting in the early 20th century, writers, particularly in France, further connected the Templars and Grail to the Cathars.", "In 1906, French esoteric writer Joséphin Péladan identified the Cathar castle of Montségur with Munsalväsche or Montsalvat, the Grail castle in Wolfram's ''Parzival''.", "This identification has inspired a wider legend asserting that the Cathars possessed the Holy Grail.", "According to these stories, the Cathars guarded the Grail at Montségur, and smuggled it out when the castle fell in 1244.The Grail depicted on a 1933 German stampBeginning in 1933, German writer Otto Rahn published a series of books tying the Grail, Templars, and Cathars to modern German nationalist mythology.", "According to Rahn, the Grail was a symbol of a pure Germanic religion repressed by Christianity.", "Rahn's books inspired interest in the Grail within Nazi occultist circles, and led to the SS chief Heinrich Himmler's abortive sponsorship of Rahn's search for the Grail, as well as many subsequent conspiracy theories and fictional works about the Nazis searching for the Grail.In the late 20th century, writers Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh, and Henry Lincoln created one of the most widely known conspiracy theories about the Holy Grail.", "The theory first appeared on the BBC documentary series ''Chronicle'' in the 1970s, and was elaborated upon in the bestselling 1982 book ''Holy Blood, Holy Grail''.", "The theory combines myths about the Templars and Cathars with various other legends, and a prominent hoax about a secret order called the Priory of Sion.", "According to this theory, the Holy Grail is not a physical object, but a symbol of the bloodline of Jesus.", "The blood connection is based on the etymological reading of ''san greal'' (holy grail) as ''sang real'' (royal blood), which dates to the 15th century.", "The narrative developed is that Jesus was not divine, and had children with Mary Magdalene, who took the family to France where their descendants became the Merovingian dynasty.", "Supposedly, while the Catholic Church worked to destroy the dynasty, they were protected by the Priory of Sion and their associates, including the Templars, Cathars, and other secret societies.", "The book, its arguments, and its evidence have been widely dismissed by scholars as pseudohistorical, but it has had a vast influence on conspiracy and alternate history books.", "It has also inspired fiction, most notably Dan Brown's 2003 novel ''The Da Vinci Code'' and its 2006 film adaptation.===Music and painting===''King Pelles' Daughter Bearing the Sancgraal'' by alt=The combination of hushed reverence, chromatic harmonies and sexualized imagery in Richard Wagner's final music drama ''Parsifal'', premiered in 1882, developed this theme, associating the Grail – now periodically producing blood – directly with female fertility.", "The high seriousness of the subject was also epitomized in Dante Gabriel Rossetti's painting in which a woman modeled by Alexa Wilding holds the Grail with one hand, while adopting a gesture of blessing with the other.A major mural series depicting the Quest for the Holy Grail was done by the artist Edwin Austin Abbey during the first decade of the 20th century for the Boston Public Library.", "Other artists, including George Frederic Watts and William Dyce, also portrayed grail subjects.===Literature===The story of the Grail and of the quest to find it became increasingly popular in the 19th century, referred to in literature such as Alfred, Lord Tennyson's Arthurian cycle ''Idylls of the King''.", "A sexualised interpretation of the grail, now identified with female genitalia, appeared in 1870 in Hargrave Jennings' book ''The Rosicrucians, Their Rites and Mysteries''.", "* T. S. Eliot's poem ''The Waste Land'' (1922) loosely follows the legend of the Holy Grail and the Fisher King combined with vignettes of contemporary British society.", "In his first note to the poem, Eliot attributes the title to Jessie Weston's book on the Grail legend, ''From Ritual to Romance''.", "The allusion is to the wounding of the Fisher King and the subsequent sterility of his lands.", "A poem of the same title, though otherwise dissimilar, written by Madison Cawein, was published in 1913 in ''Poetry''.", "* In John Cowper Powys's ''A Glastonbury Romance'' (1932), the \"heroine is the Grail,\" and its central concerns are with the various myths and legends, along with the history associated with Glastonbury.", "It is also possible to see most of the main characters as undertaking a Grail quest.", "* The Grail is central in Charles Williams' novel ''War in Heaven'' (1930) and his two collections of poems about Taliessin, ''Taliessin Through Logres'' and ''Region of the Summer Stars'' (1938).", "*''The Silver Chalice'' (1952) is a non-Arthurian historical Grail novel by Thomas B.", "Costain.", "* A quest for the Grail appears in Nelson DeMille's adventure novel ''The Quest'' (1975), set during the 1970s.", "* Marion Zimmer Bradley's Arthurian revisionist fantasy novel ''The Mists of Avalon'' (1983) presented the Grail as a symbol of water, part of a set of objects representing the four classical elements.", "* The main theme of Rosalind Miles' ''Child of the Holy Grail'' (2000) in her ''Guenevere'' series is the story of the Grail quest by the 14-year-old Galahad.", "* The Grail motif features heavily in Umberto Eco's 2000 novel ''Baudolino'', set in the 12th century.", "* It is the subject of Bernard Cornwell's historical fiction series of books ''The Grail Quest'' (2000–2012), set during the Hundred Years War.", "In his earlier series ''The Warlord Chronicles'', an adaptation of the Arthurian legend, Cornwell also reimagines the Grail quest as a quest for a cauldron that is one of the Thirteen Treasures of Britain from Celtic mythology.", "* Influenced by the 1982 publication of the ostensibly non-fiction ''The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail'', Dan Brown's ''The Da Vinci Code'' (2003) has the \"grail\" taken to refer to Mary Magdalene as the \"receptacle\" of Jesus' bloodline (playing on the ''sang real'' etymology).", "In Brown's novel, it is hinted that this Grail was long buried beneath Rosslyn Chapel in Scotland, but that in recent decades its guardians had it moved to a secret chamber embedded in the floor beneath the Inverted Pyramid in the entrance of the Louvre museum.", "* Michael Moorcock's fantasy novel ''The War Hound and the World's Pain'' (1981) depicts a supernatural Grail quest set in the era of the Thirty Years' War.", "*German history and fantasy novel author Rainer M. Schröder wrote the trilogy ''Die Bruderschaft vom Heiligen Gral'' (''The Brotherhood of the Holy Grail'') about a group of four Knights Templar who save the Grail from the Fall of Acco in 1291 and go through an Odyssey to bring it to the Temple in Paris in the first two books, ''Der Fall von Akkon'' (2006) and ''Das Amulett der Wüstenkrieger'' (2006), while defending the holy relic from the attempts of a Satanic sect called Iscarians to steal it.", "In the third book, ''Das Labyrinth der schwarzen Abtei'' (2007), the four heroes must reunite to smuggle the Holy Grail out of the Temple in Paris after the fall of the Knights Templar in 1307, again pursued by the Iscarians.", "Schröder indirectly addresses the Cathar theory by letting the four heroes encounter Cathars – among them old friends from their flight from Acco – on their way to Portugal to seek refuge with the King of Portugal and travel further west.", "* The 15th novel in ''The Dresden Files'' series by Jim Butcher, ''Skin Game'' (2014), features Harry Dresden being recruited by Denarian and longtime enemy Nicodemus into a heist team seeking to retrieve the Holy Grail from the vault of Hades, the lord of the Underworld.", "The properties of the item are not explicit, but the relic itself makes an appearance and is in the hands of Nicodemus by the end of the novel's events.", "* The Holy Grail features prominently in Jack Vance's ''Lyonesse Trilogy'', where it is the subject of an earlier quest, several generations before the birth of King Arthur.", "However, in contrast to the Arthurian canon, Vance's Grail is a common object lacking any magical or spiritual qualities, and the characters finding it derive little benefit.", "* ''Grails: Quests of the Dawn'' (1994), edited by Richard Gilliam, Martin H. Greenberg, and Edward E. Kramer is a collection of 25 short stories about the grail by various science fiction and fantasy writers.", "* In Robert Bruton's ''Empire in Apocalypse'' (2023), the Holy Grail appears as General Belisarius's Vandal chalice, recovered with other treasures the Vandals had stolen during the sacking of Rome.===Film and other media===Grail diary of Henry Jones, Sr. from the 1989 film ''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' at the Hollywood MuseumIn the cinema, the Holy Grail debuted in the 1904 silent film ''Parsifal'', an adaptation of Wagner's opera by Edwin S. Porter.", "More recent cinematic adaptations include Costain's ''The Silver Chalice'' made into a 1954 film by Victor Saville and Brown's ''The Da Vinci Code'' turned into a 2006 film by Ron Howard.", "* The silent drama film ''The Light in the Dark'' (1922) involves discovery of the Grail in modern times.", "* Robert Bresson's fantasy film ''Lancelot du Lac'' (1974) includes a more realistic version of the Grail quest from Arthurian romances.", "* ''Monty Python and the Holy Grail'' (1975) is a comedic take on the Arthurian Grail quest, adapted in 2004 as the stage production ''Spamalot''.", "* John Boorman, in his fantasy film ''Excalibur'' (1981), attempted to restore a more traditional heroic representation of an Arthurian tale, in which the Grail is revealed as a mystical means to revitalise Arthur and the barren land to which his depressive sickness is connected.", "* Steven Spielberg's adventure film ''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' (1989) features Indiana Jones and his father in a race for the Grail against the Nazis.", "* In a pair of fifth-season episodes (September 1989), entitled \"Legend of the Holy Rose,\" MacGyver undertakes a quest for the Grail.", "* Terry Gilliam's comedy-drama film ''The Fisher King'' (1991) features the Grail quest in the modern New York City.", "* In the season one episode \"Grail\" (1994) of the television series ''Babylon 5'', a man named Aldous Gajic visits Babylon 5 in his continuing quest to find the Holy Grail.", "His quest is primarily a plot device, as the episode's action revolves not around the quest but rather around his presence and impact on the life of a station resident.", "* The video game ''Gabriel Knight 3: Blood of the Sacred, Blood of the Damned'' (1999) features an alternate version of the Grail, interwoven with the mythology of the Knights Templar.", "The Holy Grail is revealed in the story to be the blood of Jesus Christ that contains his power, only accessible to those descended from him, with the vessel of the Grail being defined as his body itself which the Templars uncovered in the Holy Lands.", "* In ''Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon,'' the Holy Grail (Sehai in the anime, or Rainbow Moon Chalice) is the magical object with which Sailor Moon transforms in her Super form.", "* A science fiction version of the Grail Quest is central theme in the ''Stargate SG-1'' season 10 episode \"The Quest\" (2006).", "* The song \"Holy Grail\" by Jay-Z featuring Justin Timberlake was released in 2013.", "* In the video game ''Persona 5'' (2016), the Holy Grail is the Treasure of the game's final Palace, representing the combined desires of all of humanity for a higher power to take control of their lives and make a world that has no sense of individuality.", "* In the television series ''Knightfall'' (2017), the search for the Holy Grail by the Knights Templar is a major theme of the series' first season.", "The Grail, which appears as a simple earthenware cup, is coveted by various factions including the Pope, who thinks that possession of it will enable him to ignite another Crusade.", "* In the ''Fate'' franchise, the Holy Grail serves as the prize of the Holy Grail War, granting a single wish to the victor of the battle royale.", "However, it is hinted at throughout the series that this Grail is not the real chalice of Christ, but is actually an item of uncertain nature created by mages some generations ago.", "* In the ''Assassin's Creed'' video game franchise the Holy Grail is mentioned.", "In the original game, one Templar refers to the main relic of the game as the Holy Grail, although it was later discovered to be one of many Apples of Eden.", "The Holy Grail was mentioned again in Templar Legends, ending up in either Scotland or Spain by different accounts.", "The Holy Grail appears again in ''Assassin's Creed: Altaïr's Chronicles'', by the name of the Chalice, however this time not as an object but as a woman named Adha, similar to the sang rael, or royal blood, interpretation.", "* In the fourth series of ''The Grand Tour'', the trio goes to Nosy Boraha where they accidentally find the Holy Grail while searching for La Buse's buried treasure.", "* In the 17th episode of ''Little Witch Academia'', \"Amanda O'Neill and the Holy Grail\", the Holy Grail is used as a plot device in which witches Amanda O'Neill and Akko Kagari set out to find the item itself at Appleton School.", "* In the 12th episode of season 9 of the American show ''The Office'', Jim Halpert sends Dwight Schrute on a wild goose chase to find the Holy Grail.", "After Dwight completing all the clues to find it, but coming up empty handed, the camera cuts to Glenn drinking out of it in his office.", "* In the 2022 Christmas special episode of the British TV series ''Detectorists'', \"Special\", Lance finds a crockery cup, eyes only, in a field that turns out to be where a historic battle took place and a reliquary containing the Holy Grail was lost.", "A montage shows how the same crockery cup went from the hands of Jesus at the Last Supper (implied) to being lost in the field.", "* The 2023 limited television series ''Mrs.", "Davis'' revolves around Sister Simone's quest to find and destroy the Holy Grail, both as the central plot device and also as metacommentary on quests for the Holy Grail, which one character observes might be the \"most overused MacGuffin ever\"." ], [ "See also", "* Akshaya Patra (Hindu mythology)* Arma Christi* Cornucopia (Greek mythology)* Cup of Jamshid (Persian mythology)*Fairy cup legend* Holy Chalice (Christian mythology)* List of mythological objects* Relics associated with Jesus* Sampo (Finnish mythology)* Salsabil (Quran)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Barber, Richard (2004).", "''The Holy Grail: Imagination and Belief''.", "Harvard University Press.", "*Campbell, Joseph (1990).", "''Transformations of Myth Through Time''.", "Harper & Row Publishers, New York.", "*Loomis, Roger Sherman (1991).", "''The Grail: From Celtic Myth to Christian Symbol''.", "Princeton.", "*Weston, Jessie L. (1993; originally published 1920).", "''From Ritual To Romance''.", "Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.", "*Wood, Juliette (2012).", "''The Holy Grail: History and Legend''.", "University of Wales Press.", "." ], [ "External links", "* * The Holy Grail at the Camelot Project* The Holy Grail at the ''Catholic Encyclopedia''* The Holy Grail today in Valencia Cathedral* ''XVth-century Old French Estoire del saint Graal manuscript BNF fr.", "113'' Bibliothèque Nationale de France, selection of illuminated folios, Modern French Translation, Commentaries.", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hunt the Wumpus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Hunt the Wumpus''''' is a text-based adventure game developed by Gregory Yob in 1973.In the game, the player moves through a series of connected caves, arranged as the vertices of a dodecahedron, as they hunt a monster named the Wumpus.", "The turn-based game has the player trying to avoid fatal bottomless pits and \"super bats\" that will move them around the cave system; the goal is to fire one of their \"crooked arrows\" through the caves to kill the Wumpus.", "Yob created the game in early 1973 due to his annoyance at the multiple hide-and-seek games set in caves in a grid pattern, and multiple variations of the game were sold via mail order by Yob and the People's Computer Company.", "The source code to the game was published in ''Creative Computing'' in 1975 and republished in ''The Best of Creative Computing'' the following year.The game sparked multiple variations and expanded versions and was ported to several systems, including the TI-99/4A home computer.", "It has been cited as an early example of the survival horror genre, and was listed in 2012 on ''Time''s All-Time 100 greatest video games list.", "The Wumpus monster has appeared in several forms in media since 1973, including other video games, a novella, and ''Magic: The Gathering'' cards." ], [ "Gameplay", "Gameplay of ''Hunt the Wumpus'', showing moving and shooting arrows.", "''Hunt the Wumpus'' is a text-based adventure game set in a series of caves connected by tunnels.", "In one of the twenty caves is a \"Wumpus\", which the player is attempting to kill.", "Additionally, two of the caves contain bottomless pits, while two others contain \"super bats\" which will pick up the player and move them to a random cave.", "The game is turn-based; each cave is given a number by the game, and each turn begins with the player being told which cave they are in and which caves are connected to it by tunnels.", "The player then elects to either move to one of those connected caves or shoot one of their five \"crooked arrows\", named for their ability to change direction while in flight.", "Each cave is connected to three others, and the system as a whole is equivalent to a dodecahedron.The original ''Hunt the Wumpus'' has the caves arranged as the vertices of a dodecahedronThe caves are in complete darkness, so the player cannot see into adjacent caves; instead, upon moving to a new empty cave, the game describes if they can smell a Wumpus, hear a bat, or feel a draft from a pit in one of the connected caves.", "Entering a cave with a pit ends the game due to the player falling in, while entering the cave with the Wumpus startles it; the Wumpus will either move to another cave or remain and kill the player.", "If the player chooses to fire an arrow, they first select how many caves, up to five, that the arrow will travel through, and then enters each cave that the arrow moves through.", "If the player enters a cave number that is not connected to where the arrow is, the game picks a valid option at random.", "If the arrow hits the player while it is travelling, the player loses; if it hits the Wumpus, they win.", "If the arrow does not hit anything, then the Wumpus is startled and may move to a new cave; unlike the player, the Wumpus is not affected by super bats or pits.", "If the Wumpus moves to the player's location, they lose." ], [ "Development", "Numbering of the caves on a flattened mapIn early 1973, Gregory Yob was looking through some of the games published by the People's Computer Company (PCC), and grew annoyed that there were multiple games, including ''Hurkle'' and ''Mugwump'', that had the player \"hide and seek\" in a 10 by 10 grid.", "Yob was inspired to make a game that used a non-grid pattern, where the player would move through points connected through some other type of topology.", "Yob came up with the name \"Hunt the Wumpus\" that afternoon, and decided from there that the player would traverse through rooms arranged in a non-grid pattern, with a monster called a Wumpus somewhere in them.", "Yob chose a dodecahedron because it was his favorite platonic solid, and because he had once made a kite shaped like one.", "From there, Yob added the arrows to shoot between rooms, terming it the \"crooked arrow\" as it would need to change directions to go through multiple caves, and decided that the player could only sense nearby caves by smell, as a light would wake the Wumpus up.", "He then added the bottomless pits, and a couple days later the super bats.", "Finally, feeling that players would want to create a map, he made the cave map fixed and gave each cave a number.", "Yob later claimed that, to his knowledge, most players did not create maps of the cave system, nor follow his expected strategy of carefully moving around the system to determine exactly where the Wumpus was before firing an arrow.", "While playtesting the game, Yob found it unexciting that the Wumpus always stayed in one place, and so changed it to be able to move.", "He then delivered a copy of the game, written in BASIC, to the PCC.In May 1973, one month after he had finished coding the game, Yob went to a conference at Stanford University and discovered that in the section of the conference where the PCC had set up computer terminals, multiple players were engrossed in playing ''Wumpus'', making it, in his opinion, a hit game.", "The PCC first mentioned the game in its newsletter in September 1973 as a \"cave game\" that would be available to order through them soon, and gave it a full two-page description in its next issue in November 1973.Tapes containing ''Wumpus'' were sold via mail order by both the PCC and Yob himself.", "The PCC description was republished along with source code in its book ''What to Do After You Hit Return'' in 1977, while a description of the game and its source code was published in ''Creative Computing'' in its October 1975 issue, and republished in ''The Best of Creative Computing'' the following year.", "It also appeared in other books of BASIC games, such as ''Computer Programs in BASIC'' in 1981." ], [ "Legacy", "Multiple versions of ''Hunt the Wumpus'' were created and distributed after the game's release.", "Yob made ''Wumpus 2'' and ''Wumpus 3'', beginning immediately after finishing the original game, with ''Wumpus 2'' adding different cave arrangements and ''Wumpus 3'' adding more hazards.", "The source code for ''Wumpus 2'' was published in ''Creative Computing'' and republished in ''The Best of Creative Computing 2'' (1977), along with a description of ''Wumpus 3''.", "The PCC announced in the same November 1973 newsletter issue as it discussed the original game that a version from them titled ''Super Wumpus'' would be available soon, and listed it in its order catalog in its January 1974 issue under both that name and ''Wumpus 3''.", "In 1978, a book titled ''Superwumpus'', by Jack Emmerichs, was published containing source code for both BASIC and assembly language versions of his unrelated version of ''Hunt the Wumpus''.In addition to the original BASIC games, versions of ''Hunt the Wumpus'' have been created for numerous other systems.", "Yob had seen or heard of versions in several languages, such as IBM RPG and Fortran, by 1975.A version in C, written in November 1973 by Ken Thompson, creator of the Unix operating system, was released in 1974; a later C version can still be found in the bsdgames package on modern BSD and Linux operating systems.", "In 1978, Danny Hillis, working as a summer intern on the TMS9918 graphics chip, wrote a graphical version of the game as a demonstration with the pattern of caves displayed as a torus instead of a dodecahedron, which was later published as a commercial game for the TI-99/4A.", "In 1981, a version was released for the HP-41C calculator.", "''Hunt the Wumpus'' has been cited as an early example of a survival horror game; the book ''Vampires and Zombies'' claims that it was an early example of the genre, while the paper \"Restless dreams in Silent Hill\" states that \"from a historical perspective the genre's roots lie in ''Hunt the Wumpus''\".", "Other sources, however, such as the book ''The World of Scary Video Games'', claim that the game lacks elements needed for a \"horror\" game, as the player hunts rather than is hunted by the Wumpus, and nothing in the game is explicitly intended to frighten the player, making it more of an early adventure or puzzle game.", "Kevin Cogger of 1Up.com claimed that ''Wumpus'', whether or not it is an adventure game, \"introduced a number of concepts that would come to define the adventure genre\", such as presenting the game from the perspective of the player-character, and non-grid-based map design.", "In 2012, ''Hunt the Wumpus'' was listed on ''Time''s All-Time 100 greatest video games list.", "The Wumpus monster has appeared in several different forms of media, such as several \"Wumpus\" creature cards in ''Magic: The Gathering'' including a \"Hunted Wumpus\", the 1983 video game ''M.U.L.E.", "'', and Cory Doctorow's 2011 novella ''The Great Big Beautiful Tomorrow''.", "The textbook ''Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach'', with editions published since 1995, uses a version of this game as one of the examples.", "An interactive audio-only version of the game was displayed by Jared Bendis as ''Treasure of the Wumpus in the Azimuth Cave'' at festivals in Ohio from 2011 to 2018, and an interactive touch screen version of the game, ''Return to Wumpus Cave'', was presented in 2022." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Playable versions of '' Hunt the Wumpus'' and '' Hunt the Wumpus 2'' as published by ''Creative Computing'' (1977) can be found at the Internet Archive* A playable version of '' Wumpus 3'', aka ''Super Wumpus'', as published by the People's Computer Company (1974) can be found at the Internet Archive* Game manual for the TI-99/4A version of ''Hunt the Wumpus''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hash" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hash''', '''hashes''', '''hash mark''', or '''hashing''' may refer to:" ], [ "Substances", "* Hash (food), a coarse mixture of ingredients* Hash (stew), a pork and onion-based gravy found in South Carolina* Hash, a nickname for hashish, a cannabis product" ], [ "Hash mark", "* Hash mark (sports), a marking on hockey rinks and gridiron football fields* Hatch mark, a form of mathematical notation* Number sign (#), also known as the hash, hash mark, or (in American English) pound sign* Service stripe, a military and paramilitary decoration* Tally mark, a counting notation* Checkmate symbol in chess" ], [ "Computing", "* Hash function, an encoding of data into a small, fixed size; used in hash tables and cryptography** Hash table, a data structure using hash functions** Cryptographic hash function, a hash function used to authenticate message integrity* URI fragment, in computer hypertext, a string of characters that refers to a subordinate resource* Geohash, a spatial data structure which subdivides space into buckets of grid shape* Hashtag, a form of metadata often used on social networking websites* hash (Unix), an operating system command* Hash chain, a method of producing many one-time keys from a single key or password* Password hash* Zobrist hashing, a method of hashing chess positions into a key*Hashgraph, a Distributed ledger technology." ], [ "Other uses", "* Hash House Harriers, a running club*''Hash'' (EP) (''#''), a 2020 EP by Loona" ], [ "See also", "* Hash browns* Hash House (disambiguation)* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hearst Communications" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hearst Communications, Inc.''', often referred to simply as '''Hearst''', is an American multinational mass media and business information conglomerate based in Hearst Tower in Midtown Manhattan in New York City.Hearst owns newspapers, magazines, television channels, and television stations, including the ''San Francisco Chronicle'', the ''Houston Chronicle'', ''Cosmopolitan'' and ''Esquire''.", "It owns 50% of the A&E Networks cable network group and 20% of the sports cable network group ESPN, both in partnership with The Walt Disney Company.The conglomerate also owns several business-information companies, including Fitch Ratings and First Databank.The company was founded by William Randolph Hearst, a newspaper owner most well known for use of yellow journalism.", "The Hearst family remains involved in its ownership and management." ], [ "History", "=== Formative years ===In 1880, George Hearst, mining entrepreneur and U.S. senator, bought the ''San Francisco Daily Examiner.''", "In 1887, he turned the ''Examiner'' over to his son, William Randolph Hearst, who that year founded the Hearst Corporation.", "The younger Hearst eventually built readership for Hearst-owned newspapers and magazines from 15,000 to over 20 million.", "Hearst began to purchase and launched other newspapers, including the ''New York Journal'' in 1895 and the ''Los Angeles Examiner'' in 1903.In 1903, Hearst created ''Motor'' magazine, the first title in his company's magazine division.", "He acquired ''Cosmopolitan'' in 1905, and ''Good Housekeeping'' in 1911.The company entered the book publishing business in 1913 with the formation of Hearst's International Library.", "Hearst began producing film features in the mid-1910s, creating one of the earliest animation studios: the International Film Service, turning characters from Hearst newspaper strips into film characters.Hearst bought the ''Atlanta Georgian'' in 1912, the ''San Francisco Call'' and the ''San Francisco Post'' in 1913, the ''Boston Advertiser'' and the ''Washington Times'' (unrelated to the present-day paper) in 1917, and the ''Chicago Herald'' in 1918 (resulting in the ''Herald-Examiner'').In 1919, Hearst's book publishing division was renamed Cosmopolitan Book.=== Peak era ===An ad asking automakers to place ads in Hearst chain, noting their circulationIn the 1920s and 1930s, Hearst owned the biggest media conglomerate in the world, which included a number of magazines and newspapers in major cities.", "Hearst also began acquiring radio stations to complement his papers.", "Hearst saw financial challenges in the early 1920s, when he was using company funds to build Hearst Castle in San Simeon and support movie production at Cosmopolitan Productions.", "This eventually led to the merger of the magazine ''Hearst International'' with ''Cosmopolitan'' in 1925.Despite some financial troubles, Hearst began extending its reach in 1921, purchasing the ''Detroit Times'', ''The Boston Record,'' and the ''Seattle Post-Intelligencer.''", "Hearst then added the ''Los Angeles Herald'' and ''Washington Herald,'' as well as the ''Oakland Post-Enquirer'', the ''Syracuse Telegram'' and the ''Rochester Journal-American'' in 1922.He continued his buying spree into the mid-1920s, purchasing the ''Baltimore News'' (1923), the ''San Antonio Light'' (1924), the ''Albany Times Union'' (1924), and ''The Milwaukee Sentinel'' (1924).", "In 1924, Hearst entered the tabloid market in New York City with ''New York Daily Mirror'', meant to compete with the ''New York Daily News''.In addition to print and radio, Hearst established Cosmopolitan Pictures in the early 1920s, distributing his films under the newly created Metro Goldwyn Mayer.", "In 1929, Hearst and MGM created the Hearst Metrotone newsreels.=== Retrenching after the Great Depression ===The Great Depression hurt Hearst and his publications.", "Cosmopolitan Book was sold to Farrar & Rinehart in 1931.After two years of leasing them to Eleanor \"Cissy\" Patterson (of the McCormick-Patterson family that owned the ''Chicago Tribune''), Hearst sold her ''The Washington Times'' and ''Herald'' in 1939; she merged them to form the ''Washington Times-Herald''.", "That year he also bought the ''Milwaukee Sentinel'' from Paul Block (who bought it from the Pfisters in 1929), absorbing his afternoon ''Wisconsin News'' into the morning publication.", "Also in 1939, he sold the ''Atlanta Georgian'' to Cox Newspapers, which merged it with the ''Atlanta Journal''.Following Adolf Hitler's rise to power in Germany, the Nazis received positive press coverage by Hearst presses and paid ten times the standard subscription rate for the INS wire service belonging to Hearst.", "William Randolph Hearst personally instructed his reporters in Germany to only give positive coverage to Hitler and the Nazis, and fired journalists who refused to write stories favourable of German fascism.", "During this time, high ranking Nazis were given space to write articles in Hearst press newspapers, including Hermann Göring and Alfred Rosenberg.Hearst, with his chain now owned by his creditors after a 1937 liquidation, also had to merge some of his morning papers into his afternoon papers.", "In Chicago, he combined the morning ''Herald-Examiner'' and the afternoon ''American'' into the ''Herald-American'' in 1939.This followed the 1937 combination of the New York ''Evening Journal'' and the morning ''American'' into the ''New York Journal-American'', the sale of the ''Omaha Daily Bee'' to the ''World-Herald''.Afternoon papers were a profitable business in pre-television days, often outselling their morning counterparts featuring stock market information in early editions, while later editions were heavy on sporting news with results of baseball games and horse races.", "Afternoon papers also benefited from continuous reports from the battlefront during World War II.", "After the war, however, both television news and suburbs experienced explosive growth; thus, evening papers were more affected than those published in the morning, whose circulation remained stable while their afternoon counterparts' sales plummeted.In 1947, Hearst produced an early television newscast for the DuMont Television Network: ''I.N.S.", "Telenews'', and in 1948 he became the owner of one of the first television stations in the country, WBAL-TV in Baltimore.The earnings of Hearst's three morning papers, the ''San Francisco Examiner'', the ''Los Angeles Examiner'', and ''The Milwaukee Sentinel'', supported the company's money-losing afternoon publications such as the ''Los Angeles Herald-Express'', the ''New York Journal-American'', and the ''Chicago American''.", "The company sold the latter paper in 1956 to the ''Chicago Tribune''s owners, who changed it to the tabloid-size ''Chicago Today'' in 1969 and ceased publication in 1974.In 1960, Hearst also sold the ''Pittsburgh Sun-Telegraph'' to the ''Pittsburgh Post-Gazette'' and the ''Detroit Times'' to ''The Detroit News''.", "After a lengthy strike it sold the ''Milwaukee Sentinel'' to the afternoon ''Milwaukee Journal'' in 1962.The same year Hearst's Los Angeles papers – the morning ''Examiner'' and the afternoon ''Herald-Express'' – merged to become the evening ''Los Angeles Herald-Examiner''.", "The 1962–63 New York City newspaper strike left the city with no papers for over three months, with the ''Journal-American'' one of the earliest strike targets of the Typographical Union.", "The ''Boston Record'' and the ''Evening American'' merged in 1961 as the ''Record-American'' and in 1964, the ''Baltimore News-Post'' became the ''Baltimore News-American''.In 1953 Hearst Magazines bought ''Sports Afield'' magazine, which it published until 1999 when it sold the journal to Robert E. Petersen.", "In 1958, Hearst's International News Service merged with E.W.", "Scripps' United Press, forming United Press International as a response to the growth of the Associated Press and Reuters.", "The following year Scripps-Howard's ''San Francisco News'' merged with Hearst's afternoon ''San Francisco Call-Bulletin''.", "Also in 1959, Hearst acquired the paperback book publisher Avon Books.In 1965, the Hearst Corporation began pursuing joint operating agreements (JOAs).", "It reached the first agreement with the DeYoung family, proprietors of the afternoon ''San Francisco Chronicle'', which began to produce a joint Sunday edition with the ''Examiner''.", "In turn, the ''Examiner'' became an evening publication, absorbing the ''News-Call-Bulletin''.", "The following year, the ''Journal-American'' reached another JOA with another two landmark New York City papers: the ''New York Herald Tribune'' and Scripps-Howard's ''World-Telegram and Sun'' to form the ''New York World Journal Tribune'' (recalling the names of the city's mid-market dailies), which collapsed after only a few months.The 1962 merger of the ''Herald-Express'' and ''Examiner'' in Los Angeles led to the termination of many journalists who began to stage a 10-year strike in 1967.The effects of the strike accelerated the pace of the company's demise, with the ''Herald Examiner'' ceasing publication November 2, 1989.=== Newspaper shifts ===Hearst moved into hardcover publishing by acquiring Arbor House in 1978 and William Morrow and Company in 1981.In 1982, the company sold the ''Boston Herald American'' — the result of the 1972 merger of Hearst's ''Record-American & Advertiser'' with the ''Herald-Traveler'' — to Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation, which renamed the paper as ''The Boston Herald'', competing to this day with ''The Boston Globe''.In 1986, Hearst bought the ''Houston Chronicle'' and that same year closed the 213-year-old ''Baltimore News-American'' after a failed attempt to reach a JOA with A.S. Abell Company, the family who published ''The Baltimore Sun'' since its founding in 1837.Abell sold the paper several days later to the Times-Mirror syndicate of the Chandlers' ''Los Angeles Times'', also competitor to the ''Los Angeles Herald-Examiner'', which folded in 1989.In 1990, both King Features Entertainment and King Phoenix Entertainment were rebranded under the collective Hearst Entertainment umbrella.", "King Features Entertainment was renamed to Hearst Entertainment Distribution, while King Phoenix Entertainment was renamed to Hearst Entertainment Productions.In 1993, Hearst closed the ''San Antonio Light'' after it purchased the rival ''San Antonio Express-News'' from Murdoch.On November 8, 1990, Hearst Corporation acquired the remaining 20% stake of ESPN, Inc. from RJR Nabisco for a price estimated between $165 million and $175 million.", "The other 80% has been owned by The Walt Disney Company since 1996.Over the last 25 years, the ESPN investment is said to have accounted for at least 50% of total Hearst Corp profits and is worth at least $13 billion.On July 31, 1996, Hearst and the Cisneros Group of Companies of Venezuela announced its plans to launch Locomotion, a Latin American animation cable television channel.On March 27, 1997, Hearst Broadcasting announced that it would merge with Argyle Television Holdings II for $525 million, the merger was completed in August to form Hearst-Argyle Television (later renamed as Hearst Television in 2009).In 1999, Hearst sold its Avon and Morrow book publishing activities to HarperCollins.In 2000, the Hearst Corp. pulled another \"switcheroo\" by selling its flagship and \"Monarch of the Dailies\", the afternoon ''San Francisco Examiner'', and acquiring the long-time competing, but now larger morning paper, ''San Francisco Chronicle'' from the Charles de Young family.", "The ''San Francisco Examiner'' is now published as a daily freesheet.In December 2003, Marvel Entertainment acquired ''Cover Concepts'' from Hearst, to extend Marvel's demographic reach among public school children.In 2009, A&E Networks acquired Lifetime Entertainment Services, with Hearst ownership increasing to 42%.In 2010, Hearst acquired digital marketing agency iCrossing.In 2011, Hearst absorbed more than 100 magazine titles from the Lagardère Group for more than $700 million and became a challenger of Time Inc ahead of Condé Nast.", "In December 2012, Hearst Corporation partnered again with NBCUniversal to launch Esquire Network.On February 20, 2014, Hearst Magazines International appointed Gary Ellis to the new position, Chief Digital Officer.", "That December, DreamWorks Animation sold a 25% stake in AwesomenessTV for $81.25 million to Hearst.In January 2017, Hearst announced that it had acquired a majority stake in Litton Entertainment.", "Its CEO, Dave Morgan, was a former employee of Hearst.On January 23, 2017, Hearst announced that it had acquired the business operations of The Pioneer Group from fourth-generation family owners Jack and John Batdorff.", "The Pioneer Group was a Michigan-based communications network that circulates print and digital news to local communities across the state.", "In addition to daily newspapers, ''The Pioneer'' and ''Manistee News Advocate'', Pioneer published three weekly papers and four local shopper publications, and operated a digital marketing services business.", "The acquisition brought Hearst Newspapers to publishing 19 daily and 61 weekly papers.Other 2017 acquisitions include the ''New Haven Register'' and associated papers from Digital First Media, and the Alton, Illinois, ''Telegraph'' and Jacksonville, Illinois, ''Journal-Courier'' from Civitas Media.In October 2017, Hearst announced it would acquire the magazine and book businesses of Rodale in Emmaus, Pennsylvania with some sources reporting the purchase price as about $225 million.", "The transaction was expected to close in January following government approvals.In 2018, Hearst acquired the global health and wellness magazine brands owned by Rodale, Inc.In April 2023, Hearst bought WBBH-TV, an NBC-affiliated television station in Fort Myers, Florida, from Waterman Broadcasting Corporation.", "In June 2023, Hearst acquired the ''Journal Inquirer'' and later in October 2023 bought ''San Antonio Magazine.''", "The company paid $150,000 in cash plus an amount equal to 90% of the magazine's accounts receivable In November 2023, Hearst acquired all print and digital operations owned by RJ Media Group, including the ''Record-Journal'', seven weekly newspapers and a digital advertising agency.", "In December 2023, Hearst bought Puzzmo, a puzzle games website." ], [ "Chief executive officers", "* In 1880, George Hearst entered the newspaper business, acquiring the ''San Francisco Daily Examiner.", "''* On March 4, 1887, he turned the ''Examiner'' over to his son, 23-year-old William Randolph Hearst, who was named editor and publisher.", "William Hearst died in 1951, at age 88.", "* In 1951, Richard E. Berlin, who had served as president of the company since 1943, succeeded William Hearst as chief executive officer.", "Berlin retired in 1973.William Randolph Hearst Jr. claimed in 1991 that Berlin had suffered from Alzheimer's disease starting in the mid-1960s and that caused him to shut down several Hearst newspapers without just cause.", "* From 1973 to 1975, Frank Massi, a longtime Hearst financial officer, served as president, during which time he carried out a financial reorganization followed by an expansion program in the late 1970s.", "* From 1975 to 1979, John R. Miller was Hearst president and chief executive officer.", "* Frank Bennack served as CEO and president from 1979 to 2002, when he became vice chairman, returning as CEO from 2008 to 2013, and remains executive vice chairman.", "* Victor F. Ganzi served as president and CEO from 2002 to 2008.", "* Steven Swartz has been president since 2012 and CEO since 2013.=== Operating group heads ===* David Carey previously served as chairman and group head of the magazines.", "Debi Chirichella is that unit's president.", "* Jeffrey M. Johnson became president of Hearst Newspapers in 2018 upon the promotion of Mark Aldam to executive vice president and chief operating officer of the parent company." ], [ "Assets", "A non-exhaustive list of its current properties and investments includes:=== Magazines ===* ''Bicycling''* ''Car and Driver''* ''Cosmopolitan''* ''Country Living''* ''Dr.", "Oz The Good Life'' (defunct)* ''ELLE'' (US and UK)* ''Elle Decor''* ''Esquire''* ''Food Network Magazine''* ''Good Housekeeping''* ''Harper's Bazaar''* ''HGTV Magazine''* ''House Beautiful''* ''Men's Health''* ''Nat Mags''* ''O, The Oprah Magazine'' (digital)* ''Popular Mechanics''* ''Prevention''* ''Red''* ''Redbook'' (digital)* ''Road & Track''* ''Rodale's Organic Life'' (defunct)* ''Runner's World''* ''Seventeen'' (digital)* ''Town & Country''* ''Veranda''* ''Woman's Day''* ''Women's Health''* Hearst Books (in partnership with Sterling Publishing)=== Newspapers ===(alphabetical by state, then title)* ''San Francisco Chronicle'' (San Francisco, California)* ''The News-Times'' (Danbury, Connecticut)* ''Greenwich Time'' (Greenwich, Connecticut)* ''The Advocate'' (Stamford, Connecticut)* ''Connecticut Post'' (Bridgeport, Connecticut)* ''Record-Journal'' (Meriden, Connecticut)* ''The Middletown Press'' (Middletown, Connecticut)* ''New Haven Register'' (New Haven, Connecticut)* ''The Hour'' (Norwalk, Connecticut)* ''The Register Citizen'' (Torrington, Connecticut)* ''The Telegraph'' (Alton, Illinois)* ''Edwardsville Intelligencer'' (Edwardsville, Illinois)* ''Jacksonville Journal-Courier'' (Jacksonville, Illinois)* ''Huron Daily Tribune'' (Bad Axe, Michigan)* ''Pioneer'' (Big Rapids, Michigan)* ''Manistee News Advocate'' (Manistee, Michigan)* ''Midland Daily News'' (Midland, Michigan)* ''Times Union'' (Albany, New York)* ''Beaumont Enterprise'' (Beaumont, Texas)* ''Houston Chronicle'' (Houston, Texas)* ''Laredo Morning Times'' (Laredo, Texas)* ''Midland Reporter-Telegram'' (Midland, Texas)* ''Plainview Daily Herald'' (Plainview, Texas)* ''San Antonio Express-News'' (San Antonio, Texas)* ''Seattle Post-Intelligencer'' (Seattle, Washington)=== Broadcasting ===* A+E Networks (owns 50%; shared joint venture with The Walt Disney Company)* ESPN, Inc. (owns 20%; also shared with Disney, which owns the other 80%)** CTV Specialty Television (owns 4% through its co-ownership of ESPN; shared joint venture with Bell Media, which owns 80%)* Hearst Television (owns 100%; owner of 29 local television stations and two local radio stations/one translator)* Hearst Media Production Group (owns 100%; provider of syndicated programming, mainly educational and informational programming, and contracted with four of the five major broadcast networks to provide their weekly educational output)=== Internet ===* BestProducts.com* Clevver* Delish.com* Digital Spy* NetDoctor* Puzzmo=== Other ===* Black Book (National Auto Research)* CAMP Systems (aircraft maintenance tracking)* CDS Global* First Databank* Fitch Ratings* Homecare Homebase* iCrossing* Jumpstart Automotive Group* King Features Syndicate* KUBRA* LocalEdge (Buffalo, New York)* Map of Medicine* MCG Health* ODG by Workloss Data Institute* Zynx Health" ], [ "Trustees of William Randolph Hearst's will", "Under William Randolph Hearst's will, a common board of thirteen trustees (its composition fixed at five family members and eight outsiders) administers the Hearst Foundation, the William Randolph Hearst Foundation, and the trust that owns (and selects the 26-member board of) the Hearst Corporation (immediate parent of Hearst Communications which shares the same officers).", "The foundations shared ownership until tax law changed to prevent this.In 2009, it was estimated to be the largest private company managed by trustees in this way.", "As of 2017, the trustees are:=== Family members ===* Anissa Bouadjakdji Balson, granddaughter of fifth son, David Whitmire Hearst Sr.* Lisa Hearst Hagerman, granddaughter of third son, John Randolph Hearst Sr.* George Randolph Hearst III, grandson of Hearst's eldest son, George Randolph Hearst Sr., and publisher of the ''Albany Times Union''* William Randolph Hearst III, son of second son, William Randolph Hearst Jr., and chairman of the board of the corporation* Virginia Hearst Randt, daughter of late former chairman and fourth son, Randolph Apperson Hearst=== Non-family members ===* James M. Asher, chief legal and development officer of the corporation* David J. Barrett, former chief executive officer of Hearst Television, Inc.* Frank A. Bennack Jr., former chief executive officer and executive vice chairman of the corporation* John G. Conomikes, former executive of the corporation* Gilbert C. Maurer, former chief operating officer of the corporation and former president of Hearst Magazines* Mark F. Miller, former executive vice president of Hearst Magazines* Mitchell Scherzer, senior vice president and chief financial officer of the corporation* Steven R. Swartz, president and chief executive officer of the corporationThe trust dissolves when all family members alive at the time of Hearst's death in August 1951 have died." ], [ "See also", "* 224 West 57th Street, building formerly occupied by Hearst Magazines* Newsboys' strike of 1899" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Carlisle, Rodney.", "\"The Foreign Policy Views of an Isolationist Press Lord: WR Hearst and the International Crisis, 1936–41.\"", "''Journal of Contemporary History'' 9.3 (1974): 217–227.", "* Nasaw, David.", "''The Chief: The Life of William Randolph Hearst.", "''(2000).", "Boston: Houghton Mifflin.", "., a prominent scholarly biography.", "* Pizzitola, Louis.", "''Hearst over Hollywood: power, passion, and propaganda in the movies'' (Columbia UP, 2002).", "* Procter, Ben H. ''William Randolph Hearst: Final Edition, 1911–1951.''", "(Oxford UP 2007).", "* Whyte, Kenneth.", "''The uncrowned king: The sensational rise of William Randolph Hearst'' (2009)." ], [ "External links", "* * Hearst Global Solutions* The Hearst Foundation, Inc." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "HMAS Sydney" ], [ "Introduction", "HMAS ''Melbourne''Five ships of the Royal Australian Navy have been named '''HMAS ''Sydney''''', after Sydney, the capital city of New South Wales.", "*, a Town-class light cruiser launched in 1912, decommissioned in 1928, and broken up for scrap*, a ''Leander''-class light cruiser launched in 1934, and sunk following a battle with the German auxiliary cruiser ''Kormoran'' on 19 November 1941*, a ''Majestic''-class light aircraft carrier launched in 1944, decommissioned in 1973, and broken up for scrap*, an ''Adelaide''-class guided missile frigate launched in 1980, and decommissioned in 2015*, a ''Hobart''-class air warfare destroyer in service since 2020" ], [ "Battle honours", "Between them, vessels named HMAS ''Sydney'' have been awarded fourteen battle honours by the Royal Australian Navy.", "These include two of the only three battle honours awarded in the 20th century for an action involving a single opposing ship:The two action honours were awarded for the sinking of the German vessels ''Emden'' and ''Kormoran''.", "The third honour was awarded to ships involved in the last battle of the battleship ''Bismarck''.", "* Rabaul 1914* ''Emden'' 1914* North Sea 1916–18* Calabria 1940* Spada 1940* Mediterranean 1940* ''Kormoran'' 1941* Korea 1951–52* Malaysia 1964* Vietnam 1965–72* Kuwait 1991* East Timor 1999* Persian Gulf 2001–03* Iraq 2003" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* CC-By-SA" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hunter S. Thompson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hunter Stockton Thompson''' (July 18, 1937 – February 20, 2005) was an American journalist and author.", "He rose to prominence with the publication of ''Hell's Angels'' (1967), a book for which he spent a year living with the Hells Angels motorcycle club to write a first-hand account of their lives and experiences.", "In 1970, he wrote an unconventional article titled \"The Kentucky Derby Is Decadent and Depraved\" for ''Scanlan's Monthly'', which further raised his profile as a countercultural figure.", "It also set him on the path to establishing his own subgenre of New Journalism that he called \"Gonzo\", a journalistic style in which the writer becomes a central figure and participant in the events of the narrative.Thompson remains best known for ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas'' (1972), a book first serialized in ''Rolling Stone'' in which he grapples with the implications of what he considered the failure of the 1960s counterculture movement.", "It was adapted for film twice: loosely in 1980 in ''Where the Buffalo Roam'' and explicitly in 1998 in ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas''.Thompson ran unsuccessfully for sheriff of Pitkin County, Colorado in 1970 on the Freak Power ticket.", "He became known for his intense dislike of Richard Nixon, who he claimed represented \"that dark, venal, and incurably violent side of the American character\".", "He covered George McGovern's 1972 presidential campaign for ''Rolling Stone'' and later collected the stories in book form as ''Fear and Loathing: On the Campaign Trail '72''.Starting in the mid-1970s, Thompson's output declined, as he struggled with the consequences of fame and failed to complete several high-profile assignments for ''Rolling Stone''.", "For much of the late 1980s and early 1990s, he worked as a columnist for the ''San Francisco Examiner''.", "Most of his work from 1979 to 1994 was collected in ''The Gonzo Papers''.", "He continued to write sporadically for various outlets, including ''Rolling Stone,'' ''Playboy'', ''Esquire,'' and ESPN.com until the end of his life.Thompson was known for his lifelong use of alcohol and illegal drugs, his love of firearms, and his iconoclastic contempt for authority.", "He often remarked: \"I hate to advocate drugs, alcohol, violence, or insanity to anyone, but they've always worked for me.\"", "Thompson died by suicide at the age of 67, following a series of health problems.", "Hari Kunzru wrote, \"The true voice of Thompson is revealed to be that of American moralist ... one who often makes himself ugly to expose the ugliness he sees around him.\"" ], [ "Early life", "Thompson was born into a middle-class family in Louisville, Kentucky, the first of three sons of Virginia Davison Ray (1908, Springfield, Kentucky – March 20, 1998, Louisville), who worked as head librarian at the Louisville Free Public Library and Jack Robert Thompson (September 4, 1893, Horse Cave, Kentucky – July 3, 1952, Louisville), a public insurance adjuster and World War I veteran.", "His parents were introduced by a friend from Jack's fraternity at the University of Kentucky in September 1934, and married on November 2, 1935.Journalist Nicholas Lezard of ''The Guardian'' stated that Thompson's first name, Hunter, came from an ancestor on his mother's side, the Scottish surgeon John Hunter.", "A more direct attribution is that Thompson's first and middle name, Hunter Stockton, came from his maternal grandparents, Prestly Stockton Ray and Lucille Hunter.In December 1943, when Thompson was six years old, the family settled in the affluent Cherokee Triangle neighborhood of The Highlands.", "On July 3, 1952, when Thompson was 14, his father died of myasthenia gravis at age 58.Hunter and his brothers were raised by their mother.", "Virginia worked as a librarian to support her children and was described as a \"heavy drinker\" following her husband's death.===Education===Thompson's high-school senior portraitInterested in sports and athletically inclined from a young age, Thompson co-founded the Hawks Athletic Club while attending I.N.", "Bloom Elementary School, which led to an invitation to join Louisville's Castlewood Athletic Club for adolescents that prepared them for high-school sports.", "Ultimately, he never joined a sports team in high school.Thompson attended I.N.", "Bloom Elementary School, Highland Middle School, and Atherton High School, before transferring to Louisville Male High School in fall 1952.Also in 1952, he was accepted as a member of the Athenaeum Literary Association, a school-sponsored literary and social club that dated to 1862.Its members at the time came from Louisville's upper-class families, and included Porter Bibb, who became the first publisher of ''Rolling Stone'' at Thompson's behest.", "During this time, Thompson read and admired J. P. Donleavy's ''The Ginger Man''.As an Athenaeum member, Thompson contributed articles to and helped produce the club's yearbook ''The Spectator'' until the group ejected Thompson in 1955 for criminal activity.", "Charged as an accessory to robbery after being in a car with the perpetrator, Thompson was sentenced to 60 days in Kentucky's Jefferson County Jail.", "He served 31 days, and during his incarceration, was refused permission to take final exams, preventing his graduation.", "Upon release, he enlisted in the United States Air Force.===Military service===Thompson in 1957 as sports editor of the ''Courier Commander'', an Air Force newsletterThompson completed basic training at Lackland Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas and transferred to Scott Air Force Base in Belleville, Illinois to study electronics.", "He applied to become an aviator, but the Air Force's aviation-cadet program rejected his application.", "In 1956, he transferred to Eglin Air Force Base near Fort Walton Beach, Florida.", "While serving at Eglin, he took evening classes at Florida State University.", "At Eglin, he landed his first professional writing job as sports editor of ''The Command Courier'' by falsifying his job experience.", "As sports editor, Thompson traveled around the United States with the Eglin Eagles football team, covering its games.", "In early 1957, he wrote a sports column for ''The Playground News'', a local newspaper in Fort Walton Beach, Florida.", "His name did not appear on the column because Air Force regulations forbade outside employment.In 1958, while he was an airman first class, his commanding officer recommended him for an early honorable discharge.", "\"In summary, this airman, although talented, will not be guided by policy,\" chief of information services Colonel William S. Evans wrote to the Eglin personnel office.", "\"Sometimes his rebel and superior attitude seems to rub off on other airmen staff members.", "\"===Early journalism career===After leaving the Air Force, Thompson worked as sports editor for a newspaper in Jersey Shore, Pennsylvania, before relocating to New York City.", "There he audited several courses at the Columbia University School of General Studies.", "During this time he worked briefly for ''Time'' as a copy boy for $51 a week.", "At work, he typed out parts of F. Scott Fitzgerald's ''The Great Gatsby'' and Ernest Hemingway's ''A Farewell to Arms'' in order to learn the authors' rhythms and writing styles.", "In 1959, ''Time'' fired him for insubordination.", "Later that year, he worked as a reporter for ''The Middletown Daily Record'' in Middletown, New York.", "He was fired from this job after damaging an office candy machine and arguing with the owner of a local restaurant who happened to be an advertiser with the paper.Self-portrait photo of Thompson 1960–1967In 1960, Thompson moved to San Juan, Puerto Rico, to take a job with the sporting magazine ''El Sportivo'', which ceased operations soon after his arrival.", "Thompson applied for a job with the Puerto Rican English-language daily ''The San Juan Star'', but its managing editor, future novelist William J. Kennedy, turned him down.", "Nonetheless, the two became friends.", "After the demise of ''El Sportivo'', Thompson worked as a stringer for the ''New York Herald Tribune'' and a few other stateside papers on Caribbean issues, with Kennedy working as his editor.After returning to mainland United States in 1961, Thompson visited San Francisco and eventually lived in Big Sur, where he spent eight months as security guard and caretaker at Slates Hot Springs, just before it became the Esalen Institute.", "At the time, Big Sur was a Beat outpost and home of Henry Miller and the screenwriter Dennis Murphy, both of whom Thompson admired.", "During this period, he published his first magazine feature in ''Rogue'' about the artisan and bohemian culture of Big Sur and worked on ''The Rum Diary''.", "He managed to publish one short story, \"Burial at Sea,\" which also appeared in ''Rogue''.", "It was his first piece of published fiction.", "''The Rum Diary'', based on Thompson's experiences in Puerto Rico, was finally published in and in 2011 was adapted as a motion picture.In May 1962, Thompson traveled to South America for a year as a correspondent for the Dow Jones-owned weekly paper, the ''National Observer''.", "In Brazil, he spent several months as a reporter for the Rio de Janeiro-based ''Brazil Herald'', the country's only English-language daily.", "His longtime girlfriend Sandra Dawn Conklin (subsequently Sondi Wright) joined him in Rio.", "They married on May 19, 1963, shortly after returning to the United States, and lived briefly in Aspen, Colorado.", "Sandy was eight months pregnant when they relocated to Glen Ellen, California.", "Their son, Juan Fitzgerald Thompson, was born in March 1964.During the summer of that same year, Hunter began taking Dexedrine, which is what he would predominantly use for writing up until around 1974 when he began to write mostly under the influence of cocaine.Thompson continued to write for the ''National Observer'' on an array of domestic subjects during the early 60s.", "One story told of his 1964 visit to Ketchum, Idaho, to investigate the reasons for Ernest Hemingway's suicide.", "While there, he stole a pair of elk antlers hanging above the front door of Hemingway's cabin.", "Later that year, Thompson moved to San Francisco, where he attended the 1964 GOP Convention at the Cow Palace.", "Thompson severed his ties with the ''Observer'' after his editor refused to print his review of Tom Wolfe's 1965 essay-collection ''The Kandy-Kolored Tangerine-Flake Streamline Baby''.", "He later immersed himself in the drug and hippie culture taking root in the area, and soon began writing for the Berkeley underground paper ''Spider''.===''Hell's Angels''===In 1965, Carey McWilliams, editor of ''The Nation'', hired Thompson to write a story about the Hells Angels motorcycle club in California.", "At the time, Thompson was living in a house near San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury neighborhood, where the Hells Angels lived across from the Grateful Dead.", "His article appeared on May 17, 1965, after which he received several book offers and spent the next year living and riding with the club.", "The relationship broke down when the bikers perceived that Thompson was exploiting them for personal gain and demanded a share of his profits.", "An argument at a party resulted in Thompson suffering a savage beating (or \"stomping\", as the Angels referred to it).", "Random House published the hard cover ''Hell's Angels: The Strange and Terrible Saga of the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs'' in 1966, and the fight between Thompson and the Angels was well-marketed.", "CBC Television even broadcast an encounter between Thompson and Hells Angel Skip Workman before a live studio audience.A ''New York Times'' review praised the work as an \"angry, knowledgeable, fascinating, and excitedly written book\", that shows the Hells Angels \"not so much as dropouts from society but as total misfits, or unfits—emotionally, intellectually and educationally unfit to achieve the rewards, such as they are, that the contemporary social order offers\".", "The reviewer also praised Thompson as a \"spirited, witty, observant, and original writer; his prose crackles like motorcycle exhaust\"." ], [ "Late 1960s", "Following the success of ''Hell's Angels'', Thompson sold stories to several national magazines, including ''The New York Times Magazine'', ''Esquire'', ''Pageant'', and ''Harper's''.In 1967, shortly before the Summer of Love, Thompson wrote \"The 'Hashbury' is the Capital of the Hippies\" for ''The New York Times Magazine''.", "He criticized San Francisco's hippies as devoid of both the political convictions of the New Left and the artistic core of the Beats, resulting in a culture overrun with young people who spent their time in the pursuit of drugs.", "\"The thrust is no longer for 'change' or 'progress' or 'revolution', but merely to escape, to live on the far perimeter of a world that might have been – perhaps should have been – and strike a bargain for survival on purely personal terms,\" he wrote.Later that year, Thompson and his family moved back to Colorado and rented a house in Woody Creek, a small mountain hamlet outside Aspen.", "In early 1969, Thompson received a $15,000 royalty check for the paperback sales of ''Hell's Angels'' and used a portion of the proceeds on a down payment on a home and property where he would live for the rest of his life.", "It was a 110-acre piece of land that cost him $75,000.He named the house Owl Farm and often described it as his \"fortified compound\".In early 1968, Thompson signed the \"Writers and Editors War Tax Protest\" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War.", "According to Thompson's letters from the period, he planned to write a book called ''The Joint Chiefs'' about \"the death of the American Dream.\"", "He used a $6,000 advance from Random House to travel the country covering the 1968 United States presidential election and attend the Democratic National Convention in Chicago for research.", "He watched the clashes between police and anti-war protesters from his hotel, and later claimed that events had a significant effect on his political views, saying \"I went to the Democratic convention as a journalist and returned a raving beast.\"", "While Thompson never completed the book, he carried its theme into later work.", "He also signed a deal with Ballantine Books in 1968 to write a satirical book called ''The Johnson File'' about President Lyndon B. Johnson.", "A few weeks later, the deal fell through after Johnson withdrew from the election.Thompson was impressed by ''Rolling Stone'' magazine's coverage of the disastrous Altamont Free Concert in December 1969.After writing to ''Rolling Stone'''s editor, Jann Wenner, Thompson accepted an invitation to submit his work to the magazine, which soon became his primary outlet." ], [ "Middle years", "===Aspen sheriff campaign===In 1970, Thompson ran for sheriff of Pitkin County, Colorado, as part of a group of citizens running for local offices on the \"Freak Power\" ticket.", "The platform included promoting the decriminalization of drugs (for personal use only, not trafficking, as he disapproved of profiteering), tearing up the streets and turning them into grassy pedestrian malls, banning any building so tall as to obscure the view of the mountains, disarming all police forces, and renaming Aspen \"Fat City\" to deter investors.", "Thompson, having shaved his head, referred to the crew cut-wearing Republican candidate as \"my long-haired opponent\".With polls showing him with a slight lead in a three-way race, Thompson appeared at ''Rolling Stone'' magazine headquarters in San Francisco with a six-pack of beer in hand, and declared to editor Jann Wenner that he was about to be elected sheriff of Aspen, Colorado, and wished to write about the \"Freak Power\" movement.", "\"The Battle of Aspen\" was Thompson's first feature for the magazine carrying the byline \"By: Dr. Hunter S. Thompson (Candidate for Sheriff)\".", "(Thompson's \"Dr\" certification was obtained from a mail-order church while he was in San Francisco in the sixties.)", "Despite the publicity, Thompson lost the election.", "While carrying the city of Aspen, he garnered only 44% of the county-wide vote in what had become, after the withdrawal of the Republican candidate, a two-way race.", "Thompson later said that the ''Rolling Stone'' article mobilized more opposition to the Freak Power ticket than supporters.", "The episode was the subject of the 2020 documentary film ''Freak Power: The Ballot or the Bomb.''", "Writing of the episode more than fifty years later, Wenner wrote \"Aspen didn't get a new sheriff, but I realized that, in Hunter, I had a fellow traveller.", "\"===Birth of Gonzo===Also in 1970, Thompson wrote an article entitled \"The Kentucky Derby Is Decadent and Depraved\" for the short-lived new journalism magazine ''Scanlan's Monthly''.", "For that article, editor Warren Hinckle paired Thompson with illustrator Ralph Steadman, who drew expressionist illustrations with lipstick and eyeliner.", "Thompson's story virtually ignored the race and focused instead on the drunken revelry surrounding the annual event in his hometown.", "Writing in the first person, he sets the debauchery against the backdrop of the American political scene of the moment: President Richard Nixon had ordered bombing of Cambodia and four students had been killed by Ohio National Guard troops at Kent State University, in a massacre which occurred only two days later.Thompson and Steadman collaborated regularly after that.", "Although it was not widely read, the article was the first to use the techniques of Gonzo journalism, a style Thompson later employed in almost every literary endeavor.", "The manic first-person subjectivity of the story was reportedly the result of sheer desperation; he was facing a looming deadline and started sending the magazine pages ripped out of his notebook.The first use of the word \"Gonzo\" to describe Thompson's work is credited to the journalist Bill Cardoso, who first met Thompson on a bus full of journalists covering the 1968 New Hampshire primary.", "In 1970, Cardoso (who was then the editor of ''The Boston Globe Sunday Magazine'') wrote to Thompson praising the \"Kentucky Derby\" piece as a breakthrough: \"This is it, this is pure Gonzo.", "If this is a start, keep rolling.\"", "According to Steadman, Thompson took to the word right away and said, \"Okay, that's what I do.", "Gonzo.\"", "Thompson's first published use of the word appears in ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas'': \"Free Enterprise.", "The American Dream.", "Horatio Alger gone mad on drugs in Las Vegas.", "Do it ''now'': pure Gonzo journalism.", "\"===''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas''===Thompson's 1971 trip to Las Vegas with Oscar Zeta Acosta (''right'') served as the basis for his most famous novel, ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas''.The book for which Thompson gained most of his fame began during the research for \"Strange Rumblings in Aztlan,\" an exposé for ''Rolling Stone'' on the 1970 killing of the Mexican American television journalist Rubén Salazar.", "Salazar had been shot in the head at close range with a tear-gas canister fired by officers of the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department during the National Chicano Moratorium March against the Vietnam War.", "One of Thompson's sources for the story was Oscar Zeta Acosta, a prominent Mexican American activist and attorney.", "Finding it difficult to talk in the racially tense atmosphere of Los Angeles, Thompson and Acosta decided to travel to Las Vegas, and take advantage of an assignment by ''Sports Illustrated'' to write a 250-word photograph caption on the Mint 400 motorcycle race held there.What was to be a short caption quickly grew into something else entirely.", "Thompson first submitted to ''Sports Illustrated'' a manuscript of 2,500 words, which was, as he later wrote, \"aggressively rejected.\"", "''Rolling Stone'' publisher Jann Wenner liked \"the first 20 or so jangled pages enough to take it seriously on its own terms and tentatively scheduled it for publication — which gave me the push I needed to keep working on it\", Thompson wrote.", "Wenner, describing his first impression of it years later, called it \"Sharp and insane.", "\"To develop the story, Thompson and Acosta returned to Las Vegas to attend a drug enforcement conference.", "The two trips became the basis for \"Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas,\" which Rolling Stone serialized in two parts in November 1971.Random House published a book version the following year.", "It is written as a first-person account by a journalist named Raoul Duke with Dr. Gonzo, his \"300-pound Samoan attorney.\"", "During the trip, Duke and his companion (always referred to as \"my attorney\") become sidetracked by a search for the American Dream, with \"two bags of grass, 75 pellets of mescaline, five sheets of high-powered blotter acid, a salt shaker half full of cocaine, and a whole galaxy of multicolored uppers, downers, screamers, laughers ... and also a quart of tequila, a quart of rum, a case of Budweiser, a pint of raw ether, and two dozen amyls.", "\"Coming to terms with the failure of the 1960s countercultural movement is a major theme of the novel, and the book was greeted with considerable critical acclaim.", "''The New York Times'' praised it as \"the best book yet written on the decade of dope\".", "\"The Vegas Book\", as Thompson referred to it, was a mainstream success and introduced his Gonzo journalism techniques to a wide public.===''Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72''===''Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72'' (1973)In 1971 Wenner agreed to assign Thompson to cover the 1972 United States presidential election for ''Rolling Stone.''", "Thompson was paid a retainer of $1,000 per month and rented a house in near Rock Creek Park in Washington D.C. at the magazine's expense.", "He was also given a deal to publish a book on the campaign after its conclusion, which subsequently appeared as ''Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72'' in early 1973.Insider books on presidential politics had become popular during the prior decade starting with Theodore H. White's ''Making of the President'' series, the first of which appeared in 1961, with additional volumes in 1965 and 1969.Their success raised the overall profile of journalists assigned to cover the quadrennial presidential election in the U.S., and it became a common phrase among them to say they were \"...Doing a Teddy White,\" meaning they planned to write their own insider book on the campaign.Wenner had decided that ''Rolling Stone'' would cover the presidential election in part because of the passage in 1971 of the 26th Amendment to the Constitution of the United States which lowered the legal voting age from 21 to 18, making a large part of its mostly young readership suddenly eligible to vote.", "\"We intended to politicize our generation and wrest this stirring force away from the fake politics of the revolutionary,\" Wenner wrote in his memoirs of the plan to collaborate with Thompson.Thompson with George McGovern (''right'') in San Francisco, June 1972Thompson's first campaign piece for ''Rolling Stone'' appeared as ''Fear and Loathing in Washington: Is This Trip Really Necessary?''", "in the January 6, 1972, issue.", "The 14th and final installment appeared in the November 9 issue under the headline ''Ask Not For Whom The Bell Tolls....''Throughout the year, Thompson traveled with candidates running in the 1972 Democratic Party presidential primaries for the right to challenge the incumbent president, Republican Richard Nixon in the general election.", "Thompson's coverage focused mainly on Sen. George McGovern of South Dakota, Sen. Edmund Muskie of Maine, the early leader, and former vice-president Hubert Humphrey.", "Thompson supported McGovern and wrote critical coverage of the rival campaigns.In the April 13 installment entitled ''Fear and Loathing: The Banshee Screams in Florida,'' Thompson relates how someone having apparently lifted his press credential, terrorized Muskie and his staff on a campaign train.", "The incident was later revealed to be an elaborate prank.", "In another installment, Thompson relates rumors — rumors he later admitted he had originated — that Muskie had become addicted to the psychoactive drug Ibogaine.", "The story damaged Muskie's reputation and played a role in his loss of the nomination to McGovern.", "In another, he tracked down McGovern in a restroom in order to get a reaction quote after a senator from Iowa had switched his endorsement from McGovern to Muskie.The series, and later, the book were both praised for breaking boundaries with a new approach to political journalism.", "The literary critic Morris Dickstein, wrote that Thompson had learned to \"approximate the effect of mind-blasting drugs in his prose style,\" and that he \"recorded the nuts and bolts of a presidential campaign with all the contempt and incredulity that other reporters must feel but censor out.", "\"Frank Mankiewicz, McGovern's campaign director, often described it as the \"most accurate and least factual\" account of the 1972 campaign.", "In one vivid, yet invented anecdote, Thompson describes how Mankiewicz had leapt out from behind a bush to attack him with a hammer.", "To an uninitiated reader, it might have been unclear at first if the action Thompson described was fanciful or factual, and that seemed to be part of the point.", "As biographer William McKeen wrote \"He wrote for his own amusement, and if others came along for the ride, that was all right.\"" ], [ "Fame and its consequences", "Thompson's journalistic work began to seriously suffer after his trip to Africa to cover the Rumble in the Jungle—the world heavyweight boxing match between George Foreman and Muhammad Ali—in 1974.He missed the match while intoxicated at his hotel and did not submit a story to the magazine.", "As Wenner put it to the film critic Roger Ebert in the 2008 documentary ''Gonzo: The Life and Work of Dr. Hunter S. Thompson'', \"After Africa, he just couldn't write.", "He couldn't piece it together\".", "It was in 1973 that Thompson tried cocaine for the first time and various friends, family members, and editors remarked that its impact upon his productivity and creativity was devastating.In 1975, Wenner assigned Thompson to travel to Vietnam to cover what appeared to be the end of the Vietnam War.", "Thompson arrived in Saigon just as South Vietnam was collapsing and as other journalists were leaving the country.", "Wenner allegedly canceled Thompson's medical insurance, which strained Thompson's relationship with ''Rolling Stone.''", "He soon fled the country and refused to file his report until the ten-year anniversary of the Fall of Saigon.", "Wenner, writing in 2022, denied the claims that he cancelled Thompson's insurance, saying that Thompson spent most of his time in Saigon obsessing over evacuation plans.", "Thompson filed an unfinished dispatch that Wenner described \"strong and promising, but nothing substantial.\"", "He then took a commercial flight to Bangkok where he met his wife for what Wenner described as a few weeks of \"totally undeserved rest and recreation.\"", "While in Thailand, Thompson had a custom brass door plaque made that read \"Rolling Stone: Global Affairs Suite.", "Dr. Hunter S. Thompson\" marked with a map of the world and two lightning bolts.", "\"That was it,\" Wenner wrote.", "\"No story.", "Just that plaque.\"", "Thompson later finished the story in time for the 10-year anniversary of the Fall of Saigon.Plans for Thompson to cover the 1976 presidential campaign for ''Rolling Stone'' and later publish a book fell through as Wenner closed Rolling Stone's book company.", "Thompson claimed Wenner canceled the project without informing him.", "In his memoirs, Wenner told a different story: \"The issue wasn't money ...", "The real issue was whether he had the discipline to spend so much time on the campaign trail and whether he had that much to say about the same subject again.\"", "Thompson went on to spend a day with Jimmy Carter at the Georgia Governor's Mansion and write 10,000-word cover-story endorsing Carter for president.", "\"After that, we were virtually an official part of the Carter campaign, and they treated us as such,\" Wenner wrote of the episode.From the late 1970s on, most of Thompson's literary output appeared as a four-volume series of books entitled ''The Gonzo Papers''.", "Beginning with ''The Great Shark Hunt'' in 1979 and ending with ''Better Than Sex'' in 1994, the series is largely a collection of rare newspaper and magazine pieces from the pre-Gonzo period, along with almost all of his ''Rolling Stone'' pieces.Starting around 1980, Thompson became less active by his standards.", "Aside from paid appearances, he largely retreated to his compound in Woody Creek, rejecting projects and assignments or failing to complete them.", "Despite a lack of new material, Wenner kept Thompson on the ''Rolling Stone'' masthead as chief of the \"National Affairs Desk\", a position he held until his death.In 1980, Thompson divorced his wife, Sandra Conklin.", "The same year marked the release of ''Where the Buffalo Roam'', a loose film adaptation based on Thompson's early 1970s work, starring Bill Murray as the writer.", "Murray eventually became one of Thompson's trusted friends.", "Later that year, Thompson relocated to Hawaii to research and write ''The Curse of Lono'', a Gonzo-style account of the 1980 Honolulu Marathon.", "Extensively illustrated by Ralph Steadman, the piece first appeared in ''Running'' in 1981 as \"The Charge of the Weird Brigade\" and was later excerpted in ''Playboy'' in 1983.The book was a disappointment, with its editor calling it \"disorganized and incoherent.\"", "It was poorly reviewed, and sales were disappointing.In 1983, he covered the U.S. invasion of Grenada but did not write or discuss the experiences until the publication of ''Kingdom of Fear'' in 2003.Also in 1983, at the behest of Terry McDonell, he wrote \"A Dog Took My Place\", an exposé for ''Rolling Stone'' of the scandalous Roxanne Pulitzer divorce case and what he called the \"Palm Beach lifestyle\".", "The story included dubious insinuations of bestiality.", "Wenner described it as one of Thompson's \"least-known but best pieces.\"", "In 1985, Thompson accepted an advance to write about \"feminist pornography\" for ''Playboy''.", "As part of his research, he spent evenings at the Mitchell Brothers O'Farrell Theatre striptease club in San Francisco.", "The experience evolved into an as-yet-unpublished novel tentatively entitled ''The Night Manager''.alt=Photo of Hunter S Thompson with sunglasses speaking into a microphoneThompson next accepted a role as weekly media columnist and critic for ''The San Francisco Examiner.''", "The position was arranged by former editor and fellow ''Examiner'' columnist Warren Hinckle.", "As his editor at ''The Examiner'', David McCumber described, \"One week it would be acid-soaked gibberish with a charm of its own.", "The next week it would be incisive political analysis of the highest order.", "\"Many of these columns were collected in ''Gonzo Papers, Vol.", "2: Generation of Swine: Tales of Shame and Degradation in the '80s'' (1988) and ''Gonzo Papers, Vol.", "3: Songs of the Doomed: More Notes on the Death of the American Dream'' (1990), a collection of autobiographical reminiscences, articles, and previously unpublished material." ], [ "Later years", "Thompson faced a sexual assault charge in March 1990 when former pornographic film director Gail Palmer claimed that after she denied his sexual advances while at his home, Thompson threw a drink at her and twisted her left breast.", "He was tried for five felonies and three misdemeanors owing to the assault charge and allegations of drug abuse after the police raided his home.", "The charges were dropped two months later.Throughout the early 1990s, Thompson claimed to be at work on a novel entitled ''Polo Is My Life''.", "It was briefly excerpted in ''Rolling Stone'' in 1994.Wenner described it as \"Hunter's last big piece of feature writing,\" and described Thompson as abusive toward two editorial assistants assigned to him.", "Thompson himself described it in 1996 as \"a sex book — you know, sex, drugs, and rock and roll.", "It's about the manager of a sex theater who's forced to leave and flee to the mountains.", "He falls in love and gets in even more trouble than he was in the sex theater in San Francisco.\"", "The novel was slated to be released by Random House in 1999, and was even assigned , but was never published.Thompson continued to publish irregularly in ''Rolling Stone'', ultimately contributing 17 pieces to the magazine between 1984 and 2004.", "\"Fear and Loathing in Elko,\" published in 1992, was a well-received fictional rallying cry against the nomination of Clarence Thomas to a seat on the Supreme Court of the United States.", "\"Trapped in Mr. Bill's Neighborhood\" was a largely factual account of an interview with Bill Clinton at a Little Rock, Arkansas, steakhouse.", "Rather than traveling the campaign trail as he had done in previous presidential elections, Thompson monitored the proceedings on cable television; ''Better Than Sex: Confessions of a Political Junkie'', his account of the 1992 presidential campaign, is composed of reactive faxes to ''Rolling Stone''.", "In 1994, the magazine published \"He Was a Crook\", a \"scathing\" obituary of Richard Nixon.In November 2004, ''Rolling Stone'' published Thompson's final magazine feature \"The Fun-Hogs in the Passing Lane: Fear and Loathing, Campaign 2004\", a brief account of the 2004 presidential election in which he compared the outcome of the ''Bush v. Gore'' court case to the Reichstag fire and formally endorsed Senator John Kerry, a longtime friend, for president.===''Fear and Loathing'' redux===In 1996, Modern Library reissued ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas'' along with \"Strange Rumblings in Aztlan,\" \"The Kentucky Derby Is Decadent and Depraved,\" and \"Jacket Copy for Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas.\"", "Two years later, the film ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas'' generated new interest in Thompson and his work, and a paperback edition was published as a tie-in.", "The same year, an early novel, ''The Rum Diary'', was published.", "Two volumes of collected letters also appeared during this time.", "Thompson's next, and penultimate, collection, ''Kingdom of Fear: Loathsome Secrets of a Star-Crossed Child in the Final Days of the American Century'', was widely publicized as Thompson's first memoir.", "Published in 2003, it combined new material (including reminiscences of the O'Farrell Theater), selected newspaper and digital clippings, and other older works.Thompson finished his journalism career in the same way it had begun: writing about sports.", "From 2000 until his death in 2005, he wrote a weekly column for ESPN.com's Page 2 entitled \"Hey, Rube.\"", "In 2004, Simon & Schuster collected some of the columns from the first few years and released them in mid-2004 as ''Hey Rube: Blood Sport, the Bush Doctrine, and the Downward Spiral of Dumbness''.Thompson married assistant Anita Bejmuk on April 23, 2003." ], [ "Death", "At 5:42 pm on February 20, 2005, Thompson died from a self-inflicted gunshot wound to the head at Owl Farm, his \"fortified compound\" in Woody Creek, Colorado.", "His son Juan, daughter-in-law Jennifer, and grandson were visiting for the weekend.", "His wife Anita, who was at the Aspen Club, was on the phone with him as he cocked the gun.", "According to the ''Aspen Daily News'', Thompson asked her to come home to help him write his ESPN column, then set the receiver on the counter.", "Anita said she mistook the cocking of the gun for the sound of his typewriter keys and hung up as he fired.", "Will, his grandson, and Jennifer were in the next room when they heard the gunshot, but mistook the sound for a book falling and did not check on Thompson immediately.", "Juan Thompson found his father's body.", "According to the police report and Anita's cell phone records, he called the sheriff's office half an hour later, then walked outside and fired three shotgun blasts into the air to \"mark the passing of his father.\"", "The police report stated that in Thompson's typewriter was a piece of paper with the date \"Feb. 22 '05\" and a single word, \"counselor.", "\"Years of alcohol and cocaine abuse contributed to his problem with depression.", "Thompson's inner circle told the press that he had been depressed and always found February a \"gloomy\" month, with football season over and the harsh Colorado winter weather.", "He was also upset over his advancing age and chronic medical problems, including a hip replacement; he would frequently mutter \"This kid is getting old.\"", "''Rolling Stone'' published what Douglas Brinkley described as a suicide note written by Thompson to his wife, titled \"Football Season Is Over.\"", "It read:Thompson's collaborator and friend Ralph Steadman wrote:===Funeral===On August 20, 2005, in a private funeral, Thompson's ashes were fired from a cannon.", "This was accompanied by red, white, blue, and green fireworks—all to the tune of Norman Greenbaum's \"Spirit in the Sky\" and Bob Dylan's \"Mr. Tambourine Man\".", "The cannon was placed atop a tower which had the shape of a double-thumbed fist clutching a peyote button, a symbol originally used in his 1970 campaign for sheriff of Pitkin County, Colorado.", "The plans for the monument were initially drawn by Thompson and Steadman, and were shown as part of an ''Omnibus'' program on the BBC titled ''Fear and Loathing in Gonzovision'' (1978).", "It is included as a special feature on the second disc of the 2004 Criterion Collection DVD release of ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas'', and labeled as ''Fear and Loathing on the Road to Hollywood''.According to his widow, Anita, the $3 million funeral was funded by actor Johnny Depp, who was a close friend of Thompson's.", "Depp told the Associated Press, \"All I'm doing is trying to make sure his last wish comes true.", "I just want to send my pal out the way he wants to go out.\"", "An estimated 280 people attended, including U.S.", "Senators John Kerry and George McGovern; ''60 Minutes'' correspondents Ed Bradley and Charlie Rose; actors Jack Nicholson, John Cusack, Bill Murray, Benicio del Toro, Sean Penn, and Josh Hartnett; musicians Lyle Lovett, John Oates and David Amram, and artist and long-time friend Ralph Steadman." ], [ "Legacy", "===Writing style===Thompson is often credited as the creator of Gonzo journalism, a style of writing that blurs distinctions between fiction and nonfiction.", "His work and style are considered to be a major part of the New Journalism literary movement of the 1960s and 1970s, which attempted to break free from the purely objective style of mainstream reportage of the time.", "Thompson almost always wrote in the first person, while extensively using his own experiences and emotions to color \"the story\" he was trying to follow.Despite him having personally described his work as \"Gonzo\", it fell to later observers to articulate what the term actually meant.", "While Thompson's approach clearly involved injecting himself as a participant in the events of the narrative, it also involved adding invented, metaphoric elements, thus creating, for the uninitiated reader, a seemingly confusing amalgam of facts and fiction notable for the deliberately blurred lines between one and the other.", "Thompson, in a 1974 interview in ''Playboy'' addressed the issue himself, saying, \"Unlike Tom Wolfe or Gay Talese, I almost never try to reconstruct a story.", "They're both much better reporters than I am, but then, I don't think of myself as a reporter.\"", "Tom Wolfe would later describe Thompson's style as \"... part journalism and part personal memoir admixed with powers of wild invention and wilder rhetoric.\"", "Or as one description of the differences between Thompson and Wolfe's styles would elaborate, \"While Tom Wolfe mastered the technique of being a fly on the wall, Thompson mastered the art of being a fly in the ointment.", "\"The majority of Thompson's most popular and acclaimed work appeared within the pages of ''Rolling Stone'' magazine.", "Publisher Jan Wenner said Thompson was \"in the DNA of Rolling Stone.\"", "Along with Joe Eszterhas and David Felton, Thompson was instrumental in expanding the focus of the magazine past music criticism; indeed, Thompson was the only staff writer of the epoch never to contribute a music feature to the magazine.", "Nevertheless, his articles were always peppered with a wide array of pop music references ranging from Howlin' Wolf to Lou Reed.", "Armed with early fax machines wherever he went, he became notorious for haphazardly sending sometimes illegible material to the magazine's San Francisco offices as an issue was about to go to press.Wenner said Thompson tended to work \"in long bursts of energy, awake until dawn or, too often, two dawns.\"", "He said keeping Thompson on track which finishing a piece required \"...companionship, or what editors call hand-holding, but in Hunter's case it was more like being a junior officer in his war.", "He required his creature comforts, which meant the right kind of typewriter and a certain color paper, Wild Turkey, the right drugs, and the proper music.", "\"Robert Love, Thompson's editor of 23 years at ''Rolling Stone'', wrote, \"the dividing line between fact and fancy rarely blurred, and we didn't always use italics or some other typographical device to indicate the lurch into the fabulous.", "But if there were living, identifiable humans in a scene, we took certain steps ... Hunter was a close friend of many prominent Democrats, veterans of the ten or more presidential campaigns he covered, so when in doubt, we'd call the press secretary.", "'People will believe almost any twisted kind of story about politicians or Washington,' he once said, and he was right.", "\"Discerning the line between the fact and the fiction of Thompson's work presented a practical problem for editors and fact-checkers of his work.", "Love called fact-checking Thompson's work \"one of the sketchiest occupations ever created in the publishing world\", and \"for the first-timer ... a trip through a journalistic fun house, where you didn't know what was real and what wasn't.", "You knew you had better learn enough about the subject at hand to know when the riff began and reality ended.", "Hunter was a stickler for numbers, for details like gross weight and model numbers, for lyrics and caliber, and there was no faking it.", "\"===Persona===Thompson often used a blend of fiction and fact when portraying himself in his writing, too, sometimes using the name Raoul Duke as an author surrogate whom he generally described as a callous, erratic, self-destructive journalist, constantly drinking and taking hallucinogenics.", "In the early 1980s, Wenner spoke with Thompson about his alcoholism and addiction to cocaine, and offered to pay for drug treatment.", "\"Hunter was polite and firm;\" Wenner wrote in 2022.", "\"He had thought about it and didn't feel he could or would change.", "He felt that his drug abuse was a key to his talent.", "He said that if he didn't do drugs, he would have the mind of an accountant.", "The abuse was already taking a toll on his gifts....", "It was just too late, and he knew it.", "\"In the late 1960s, Thompson acquired the title of \"Doctor\" from the Church of the New Truth.A number of critics have commented that as he grew older, the line that distinguished Thompson from his literary self became increasingly blurred.", "Thompson admitted during a 1978 BBC interview that he sometimes felt pressured to live up to the fictional self that he had created, adding, \"I'm never sure which one people expect me to be.", "Very often, they conflict — most often, as a matter of fact. ...", "I'm leading a normal life and right alongside me there is this myth, and it is growing and mushrooming and getting more and more warped.", "When I get invited to, say, speak at universities, I'm not sure if they are inviting Duke or Thompson.", "I'm not sure who to be.", "\"Thompson's writing style and eccentric persona gave him a cult following in both literary and drug circles, and his cult status expanded into broader areas after being portrayed three times in major motion pictures.", "Hence, both his writing style and persona have been widely imitated, and his likeness has even become a popular costume choice for Halloween.===Political beliefs===Thompson was a firearms and explosives enthusiast (in his writing and in life) and owned a vast collection of handguns, rifles, shotguns, and various automatic and semiautomatic weapons, along with numerous forms of gaseous crowd-control and many homemade devices.", "He was a proponent of the right to bear arms and privacy rights.", "A member of the National Rifle Association, Thompson was also co-creator of the Fourth Amendment Foundation, an organization to assist victims in defending themselves against unwarranted search and seizure.Part of his work with the Fourth Amendment Foundation centered around support of Lisl Auman, a Colorado woman who was sentenced for life in 1997 under felony murder charges for the death of police officer Bruce VanderJagt, despite contradictory statements and dubious evidence.", "Thompson organized rallies, provided legal support, and co-wrote an article in the June 2004 issue of ''Vanity Fair'' outlining the case.", "The Colorado Supreme Court eventually overturned Auman's sentence in March 2005, shortly after Thompson's death, and Auman is now free.", "Auman's supporters claim Thompson's support and publicity resulted in the successful appeal.Thompson was also an ardent supporter of drug legalization and became known for his detailed accounts of his own drug use.", "He was an early supporter of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws and served on the group's advisory board for over 30 years, until his death.", "He told an interviewer in 1997 that drugs should be legalized \"across the board.", "It might be a little rough on some people for a while, but I think it's the only way to deal with drugs.", "Look at Prohibition; all it did was make a lot of criminals rich.", "\"In a 1965 letter to his friend Paul Semonin, Thompson explained an affection for the Industrial Workers of the World, \"I have in recent months come to have a certain feeling for Joe Hill and the Wobbly crowd who, if nothing else, had the right idea.", "But not the right mechanics.", "I believe the IWW was probably the last human concept in American politics.\"", "In another letter to Semonin, Thompson wrote that he agreed with Karl Marx, and compared him to Thomas Jefferson.", "In a letter to William Kennedy, Thompson confided that he was \"coming to view the free enterprise system as the single greatest evil in the history of human savagery.\"", "In the documentary ''Breakfast with Hunter'', Hunter S. Thompson is seen in several scenes wearing different Che Guevara T-shirts.", "Additionally, actor and friend Benicio del Toro has stated that Thompson kept a \"big\" picture of Che in his kitchen.", "Thompson wrote on behalf of African-American rights and the civil rights movement.", "He strongly criticized the dominance in American society of what he called \"white power structures\".After the September 11 attacks, Thompson voiced skepticism regarding the official story on who was responsible for the attacks.", "He speculated to several interviewers that it had been conducted by the U.S. government or with the government's assistance, though readily admitting he had no way to prove his theory.In 2004, Thompson wrote: \"Richard Nixon was a professional politician, and I despised everything he stood for—but if he were running for president this year against the evil Bush–Cheney gang, I would happily vote for him.", "\"=== Scholarships ===Thompson's widow established two scholarship funds at Columbia University School of General Studies for U.S. military veterans and the University of Kentucky for journalism students.Colorado NORML created the Hunter S. Thompson Scholarship to pay all expenses for a lawyer or law student to attend the NORML Legal Committee Conference in Aspen, generally the first few days of June each year.", "The funding from a silent auction has paid for two winners for some years.", "Many winners have gone on to become important cannabis lawyers on state and national levels." ], [ "Works" ], [ "Awards, accolades, and tributes", "* Thompson was named a Kentucky Colonel by the governor of Kentucky in a December 1996 tribute ceremony where he also received keys to the city of Louisville.", "* Author Tom Wolfe has called Thompson the greatest American comic writer of the 20th century.", "* Asked in an interview with Jody Denberg on KGSR Studio, in 2000, whether he would ever consider writing a book \"like his buddy Hunter S. Thompson\", the musician Warren Zevon responded: \"Let's remember that Hunter S. Thompson is the finest writer of our generation; he didn't just toss off a book the other day...\"* Thompson appeared on the cover of the 1,000th issue of ''Rolling Stone'', May 18 – June 1, 2006, as a devil playing the guitar next to the two \"L\"'s in the word \"Rolling\".", "Johnny Depp also appeared on the cover.", "* Many have suggested that General Hunter Gathers in the Adult Swim animated series ''The Venture Bros.'' is a tribute to Thompson, as they have a similar name, mannerisms, and physical appearance.", "*In the Cameron Crowe film ''Almost Famous'', based on Crowe's experiences writing for ''Rolling Stone'' while on the road with the fictional band Stillwater\", the writer is on the phone with an actor portraying Jann Wenner.", "Wenner tells the young journalist that he \"is not there to join the party, we already have one Hunter Thompson\" after the young writer amassed large hotel and traveling expenses and is overheard to be sharing his room with several young women.", "*Eric C. Shoaf donated a caché of approximately 800 items (in librarian terms, about 35-40 linear feet of material on a shelf) pertaining to the life and career of Thompson to the University of California at Santa Cruz.", "Shoaf also published a descriptive bibliography, ''Gonzology: A Hunter Thompson Bibliography'', of the works of Hunter S. Thompson with over 1,000 entries, many never before documented appearances in print, hundreds of biographical entries about Thompson's life, full descriptions of all his primary works, preface by William McKeen, Phd, and photo section with rare and exclusive items depicted." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Denevi, Timothy, Freak Kingdom: Hunter S. Thompson's Manic Ten-Year Crusade Against American Fascism.", "New York: PublicAffairs, 2018.ISBN 1541767942* McKeen, William, Outlaw Journalist: The Life and Times of Hunter S. Thompson.", "New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2008.ISBN 0393335453* Richardson, Peter, Savage Journey: Hunter S. Thompson and the Weird Road to Gonzo.", "Berkeley: University of California Press, 2022.ISBN 9780520304925* Wills, David S., High White Notes: The Rise and Fall of Gonzo Journalism.", "Edinburgh: Beatdom Books, 2022.ISBN 978-0-9934099-8-1*" ], [ "External links", "* * * Official author's page at Simon & Schuster * * \"Hunter S. Thompson's ESPN Page 2 Archive\", at Totallygonzo.org* Hunter S. Thompson full bibliography, at Gonzo-Studies.org.", "* A collection of Hunter S. Thompson resources, at HSTbooks.org." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Historicism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Historicism''' is an approach to explaining the existence of phenomena, especially social and cultural practices (including ideas and beliefs), by studying their history; that is, by studying the process by which they came about.", "The term is widely used in philosophy, anthropology, and sociology.This historical approach to explanation differs from and complements the approach known as functionalism, which seeks to explain a phenomenon, such as for example a social form, by providing reasoned arguments about how that social form fulfills some function in the structure of a society.", "In contrast, rather than taking the phenomenon as a given and then seeking to provide a justification for it from reasoned principles, the historical approach asks \"Where did this come from?\"", "and \"What factors led up to its creation?", "\"; that is, historical explanations often place a greater emphasis on the role of process and contingency.Historicism is often used to help contextualize theories and narratives, and is a useful tool to help understand how social and cultural phenomena came to be.The historicist approach differs from individualist theories of knowledge such as strict empiricism and de-contextualised rationalism, which neglect the role of traditions.", "Historicism may be contrasted with reductionist theories—which assume that all developments can be explained by fundamental principles (such as in economic determinism)—or with theories that posit that historical changes occur entirely at random.David Summers, building on the work of E. H. Gombrich, defines historicism negatively, writing that it posits \"that laws of history are formulatable and that in general the outcome of history is predictable,\" adding \"the idea that history is a universal matrix prior to events, which are simply placed in order within that matrix by the historian.\"", "This approach, he writes, \"seems to make the ends of history visible, thus to justify the liquidation of groups seen not to have a place in the scheme of history\" and that it has led to the \"fabrication of some of the most murderous myths of modern times.\"" ], [ "History of the term", "The term ''historicism'' (''Historismus'') was coined by German philosopher Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel.", "Over time, what historicism is and how it is practiced have developed different and divergent meanings.", "Elements of historicism appear in the writings of French essayist Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) and Italian philosopher G. B. Vico (1668–1744), and became more fully developed with the dialectic of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831), influential in 19th-century Europe.", "The writings of Karl Marx, influenced by Hegel, also include historicism.", "The term is also associated with the empirical social sciences and with the work of Franz Boas.", "Historicism tends to be hermeneutic because it values cautious, rigorous, and contextualized interpretation of information; or relativist, because it rejects notions of universal, fundamental and immutable interpretations." ], [ "Variants", "===Hegelian===G.", "W. F. Hegel (1770–1831)Hegel viewed the realization of human freedom as the ultimate purpose of history, which could be achieved only through the creation of the perfect state.", "Historical progress toward this state would occur through a dialectical process: the tension between the purpose of humankind (freedom) and humankind's current condition would produce the attempt by humankind to change its condition to one more in accord with its nature.", "However, because humans are often not aware of the goal of humanity and history, the process of achieving freedom is necessarily one of self-discovery.Hegel saw progress toward freedom as conducted by the \"spirit\" (Geist), a seemingly supernatural force that directs all human actions and interactions.", "Yet Hegel makes clear that the spirit is a mere abstraction that comes into existence \"through the activity of finite agents\".", "Thus, Hegel's determining forces of history may not have a metaphysical nature, though many of his opponents and interpreters have understood him as holding metaphysical and determinist views.Hegel's historicism also suggests that any human society and all human activities such as science, art, or philosophy, are defined by their history.", "Consequently, their essence can be sought only by understanding said history.", "The history of any such human endeavor, moreover, not only continues but also reacts against what has gone before; this is the source of Hegel's famous dialectic teaching usually summarized by the slogan \"thesis, antithesis, and synthesis\".", "(Hegel did not use these terms, although Johann Fichte did.)", "Hegel's famous aphorism, \"Philosophy is the history of philosophy\", describes it bluntly.Hegel's position is perhaps best illuminated when contrasted against the atomistic and reductionist opinion of human societies and social activities self-defining on an ''ad hoc'' basis through the sum of dozens of interactions.", "Yet another contrasting model is the persistent metaphor of a social contract.", "Hegel considers the relationship between individuals and societies as organic, not atomic: even their social discourse is mediated by language, and language is based on etymology and unique character.", "It thus preserves the culture of the past in thousands of half-forgotten metaphors.", "To understand why a person is the way he is, you must examine that person in his society: and to understand that society, you must understand its history, and the forces that influenced it.", "The ''Zeitgeist'', the \"Spirit of the Age\", is the concrete embodiment of the most important factors that are acting in human history at any given time.", "This contrasts with teleological theories of activity, which suppose that the end is the determining factor of activity, as well as those who believe in a tabula rasa, or blank slate, opinion, such that individuals are defined by their interactions.These ideas can be interpreted variously.", "The Right Hegelians, working from Hegel's opinions about the organicism and historically determined nature of human societies, interpreted Hegel's historicism as a justification of the unique destiny of national groups and the importance of stability and institutions.", "Hegel's conception of human societies as entities greater than the individuals who constitute them influenced nineteenth-century romantic nationalism and its twentieth-century excesses.", "The Young Hegelians, by contrast, interpreted Hegel's thoughts on societies influenced by social conflict for a doctrine of social progress, and attempted to manipulate these forces to cause various results.", "Karl Marx's doctrine of \"historical inevitabilities\" and historical materialism is one of the more influential reactions to this part of Hegel's thought.", "Significantly, Karl Marx's theory of alienation argues that capitalism disrupts traditional relationships between workers and their work.Hegelian historicism is related to his ideas on the means by which human societies progress, specifically the dialectic and his conception of logic as representing the inner essential nature of reality.", "Hegel attributes the change to the \"modern\" need to interact with the world, whereas ancient philosophers were self-contained, and medieval philosophers were monks.", "In his History of Philosophy Hegel writes:In modern times things are very different; now we no longer see philosophic individuals who constitute a class by themselves.", "With the present day all difference has disappeared; philosophers are not monks, for we find them generally in connection with the world, participating with others in some common work or calling.", "They live, not independently, but in the relation of citizens, or they occupy public offices and take part in the life of the state.", "Certainly they may be private persons, but if so, their position as such does not in any way isolate them from their other relationship.", "They are involved in present conditions, in the world and its work and progress.", "Thus their philosophy is only by the way, a sort of luxury and superfluity.", "This difference is really to be found in the manner in which outward conditions have taken shape after the building up of the inward world of religion.", "In modern times, namely, on account of the reconciliation of the worldly principle with itself, the external world is at rest, is brought into order — worldly relationships, conditions, modes of life, have become constituted and organized in a manner which is conformable to nature and rational.", "We see a universal, comprehensible connection, and with that individuality likewise attains another character and nature, for it is no longer the plastic individuality of the ancients.", "This connection is of such power that every individuality is under its dominion, and yet at the same time can construct for itself an inward world.This opinion that entanglement in society creates an indissoluble bond with expression, would become an influential question in philosophy, namely, the requirements for individuality.", "It would be considered by Nietzsche, John Dewey and Michel Foucault directly, as well as in the work of numerous artists and authors.", "There have been various responses to Hegel's challenge.", "The Romantic period emphasized the ability of individual genius to transcend time and place, and use the materials from their heritage to fashion works which were beyond determination.", "The modern would advance versions of John Locke's infinite malleability of the human animal.", "Post-structuralism would argue that since history is not present, but only the image of history, that while an individual era or power structure might emphasize a particular history, that the contradictions within the story would hinder the very purposes that the history was constructed to advance.===Anthropological===In the context of anthropology and other sciences which study the past, historicism has a different meaning.", "Historical Particularism is associated with the work of Franz Boas.", "His theory used the diffusionist concept that there were a few \"cradles of civilization\" which grew outwards, and merged it with the idea that societies would adapt to their circumstances.", "The school of historicism grew in response to unilinear theories that social development represented adaptive fitness, and therefore existed on a continuum.", "While these theories were espoused by Charles Darwin and many of his students, their application as applied in social Darwinism and general evolution characterized in the theories of Herbert Spencer and Leslie White, historicism was neither anti-selection, nor anti-evolution, as Darwin never attempted nor offered an explanation for cultural evolution.", "However, it attacked the notion that there was one normative spectrum of development, instead emphasizing how local conditions would create adaptations to the local environment.", "Julian Steward refuted the viability of globally and universally applicable adaptive standards proposing that culture was honed adaptively in response to the idiosyncrasies of the local environment, the cultural ecology, by specific evolution.", "What was adaptive for one region might not be so for another.", "This conclusion has likewise been adopted by modern forms of biological evolutionary theory.The primary method of historicism was empirical, namely that there were so many requisite inputs into a society or event, that only by emphasizing the data available could a theory of the source be determined.", "In this opinion, grand theories are unprovable, and instead intensive field work would determine the most likely explanation and history of a culture, and hence it is named \"historicism\".This opinion would produce a wide range of definition of what, exactly, constituted culture and history, but in each case the only means of explaining it was in terms of the historical particulars of the culture itself.===New Historicism===Since the 1950s, when Jacques Lacan and Michel Foucault argued that each epoch has its own knowledge system, within which individuals are inexorably entangled, many post-structuralists have used ''historicism'' to describe the opinion that all questions must be settled within the cultural and social context in which they are raised.", "Answers cannot be found by appeal to an external truth, but only within the confines of the norms and forms that phrase the question.", "This version of historicism holds that there are only the raw texts, markings and artifacts that exist in the present, and the conventions used to decode them.", "This school of thought is sometimes given the name of ''New Historicism''.", "The same term, ''new historicism'' is also used for a school of literary scholarship which interprets a poem, drama, etc.", "as an expression of or reaction to the power-structures of its society.", "Stephen Greenblatt is an example of this school.===Modern Historicism===Within the context of 20th-century philosophy, debates continue as to whether ahistorical and immanent methods were sufficient to understand the meaning (that is to say, \"what you see is what you get\" positivism) or whether context, background and culture are important beyond the mere need to decode words, phrases and references.", "While post-structural historicism is relativist in its orientation—that is, it sees each culture as its own frame of reference—a large number of thinkers have embraced the need for historical context, not because culture is self-referential, but because there is no more compressed means of conveying all of the relevant information except through history.", "This opinion is often seen as deriving from the work of Benedetto Croce.", "Recent historians using this tradition include Thomas Kuhn.Talcott Parsons criticized historicism as a case of idealistic fallacy in ''The Structure of Social Action'' (1937).", "Post-structuralism uses the term ''new historicism'', which has some associations with both anthropology and Hegelianism.===Christian Historicism=======Eschatological====In Christianity, the term ''historicism'' refers to the confessional Protestant form of prophetical interpretation which holds that the fulfillment of biblical prophecy has occurred throughout history and continues to occur; as opposed to other methods which limit the time-frame of prophecy-fulfillment to the past or to the future.====Dogmatic and ecclesiastic====There is also a particular opinion in ecclesiastical history and in the history of dogmas which has been described as historicist by Pope Pius XII in the encyclical ''Humani generis''.", "\"They add that the history of dogmas consists in the reporting of the various forms in which revealed truth has been clothed, forms that have succeeded one another in accordance with the different teachings and opinions that have arisen over the course of the centuries.\"", "\"There is also a certain historicism, which attributing value only to the events of man's life, overthrows the foundation of all truth and absolute law, both on the level of philosophical speculations and especially to Christian dogmas.\"" ], [ "Critics", "===Karl Marx===The social theory of Karl Marx, with respect to modern scholarship, has an ambiguous relation to historicism.", "Critics of Marx have understood his theory as historicist since its very genesis.", "However, the issue of historicism has been debated even among Marxists: the charge of historicism has been made against various types of Marxism, typically disparaged by Marxists as \"vulgar\" Marxism.Marx himself expresses critical concerns with this historicist tendency in his Theses on Feuerbach:Western Marxists such as Karl Korsch, Antonio Gramsci and the early Georg Lukacs emphasise the roots of Marx's thought in Hegel.", "They interpret Marxism as an historically relativist philosophy, which views ideas (including Marxist theory) as necessary products of the historical epochs that create them.", "In this view, Marxism is not an objective social science, but rather a theoretical expression of the class consciousness of the working class within an historical process.", "This understanding of Marxism is strongly criticised by the structural Marxist Louis Althusser, who affirms that Marxism is an objective science, autonomous from interests of society and class.===Karl Popper===Karl Popper used the term ''historicism'' in his influential books ''The Poverty of Historicism'' and ''The Open Society and Its Enemies'', to mean: \"an approach to the social sciences which assumes that ''historical prediction'' is their primary aim, and which assumes that this aim is attainable by discovering the 'rhythms' or the 'patterns', the 'laws' or the 'trends' that underlie the evolution of history\".", "Popper condemned historicism along with the determinism and holism which he argued formed its basis, claiming that historicism had the potential to inform dogmatic, ideological beliefs not predicated upon facts that were falsifiable.", "In ''The Poverty of Historicism'', he identified historicism with the opinion that there are \"inexorable laws of historical destiny\", an opinion he warned against.", "If this seems to contrast with what proponents of historicism argue for, in terms of contextually relative interpretation, this happens, according to Popper, only because such proponents are unaware of the type of causality they ascribe to history.", "Popper wrote with reference to Hegel's theory of history, which he criticized extensively.In ''The Open Society and Its Enemies'', Popper attacks \"historicism\" and its proponents, among whom he identifies and singles out Hegel, Plato and Marx—calling them all \"enemies of the open society\".", "The objection he makes is that historicist positions, by claiming that there is an inevitable and deterministic pattern to history, abrogate the democratic responsibility of the individual to make free contributions to the evolution of society, hence leading to totalitarianism.", "Throughout this work, he defines his conception of historicism as: \"The central historicist doctrine—the doctrine that history is controlled by specific historical or evolutionary laws whose discovery would enable us to prophesy the destiny of man.", "\"Another of his targets is what he terms \"moral historicism\", the attempt to infer moral values from the course of history; in Hegel's words, that \"history is the world's court of justice\".", "Popper says that he does not believe \"that success proves anything or that history is our judge\".", "Futurism must be distinguished from prophecies that the right will prevail: these attempt to infer history from ethics, rather than ethics from history, and are therefore historicism in the normal sense rather than moral historicism.He also attacks what he calls \"Historism\", which he regards as distinct from historicism.", "By historism, he means the tendency to regard every argument or idea as completely accounted for by its historical context, as opposed to assessing it by its merits.===Leo Strauss===Leo Strauss used the term ''historicism'' and reportedly termed it the single greatest threat to intellectual freedom insofar as it denies any attempt to address injustice-pure-and-simple (such is the significance of historicism's rejection of \"natural right\" or \"right by nature\").", "Strauss argued that historicism \"rejects political philosophy\" (insofar as this stands or falls by questions of permanent, trans-historical significance) and is based on the belief that \"all human thought, including scientific thought, rests on premises which cannot be validated by human reason and which came from historical epoch to historical epoch.\"", "Strauss further identified R. G. Collingwood as the most coherent advocate of historicism in the English language.", "Countering Collingwood's arguments, Strauss warned against historicist social scientists' failure to address real-life problems—most notably that of tyranny—to the extent that they relativize (or \"subjectivize\") all ethical problems by placing their significance strictly in function of particular or ever-changing socio-material conditions devoid of inherent or \"objective\" \"value\".", "Similarly, Strauss criticized Eric Voegelin's abandonment of ancient political thought as guide or vehicle in interpreting modern political problems.In his books, ''Natural Right and History'' and ''On Tyranny'', Strauss offers a complete critique of historicism as it emerges in the works of Hegel, Marx, and Heidegger.", "Many believe that Strauss also found historicism in Edmund Burke, Tocqueville, Augustine, and John Stuart Mill.", "Although it is largely disputed whether Strauss himself was a historicist, he often indicated that historicism grew out of and against Christianity and was a threat to civic participation, belief in human agency, religious pluralism, and, most controversially, an accurate understanding of the classical philosophers and religious prophets themselves.", "Throughout his work, he warns that historicism, and the understanding of progress that results from it, expose us to tyranny, totalitarianism, and democratic extremism.", "In his exchange with Alexandre Kojève in ''On Tyranny'', Strauss seems to blame historicism for Nazism and Communism.", "In a collection of his works by Kenneth Hart entitled ''Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity'', he argues that Islam, traditional Judaism, and ancient Greece, share a concern for sacred law that makes them especially susceptible to historicism, and therefore to tyranny.", "Strauss makes use of Nietzsche's own critique of progress and historicism, although Strauss refers to Nietzsche himself (no less than to Heidegger) as a \"radical historicist\" who articulated a philosophical (if only untenable) justification for historicism." ], [ "See also", "* Parametric determinism* Path dependence* Sociocultural evolution" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Franz Boas, ''The Mind of Primitive Man''.", "* Hans-Georg Gadamer, ''Truth and Method''.", "* G. W. F. Hegel, 1911.", "''The Philosophy of History''.", "* Ludwig von Mises, 1957.", "''Theory and History'', chapter 10: \"Historicism\"* Karl Popper, 1945.", "''The Open Society and Its Enemies'', in 2 volumes.", "Routledge.", ".", "* Karl Popper, 1993.", "''The Poverty of Historicism''.", "Routledge.", "." ], [ "External links", "* Historicism in Anthropology" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hunter College" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hunter College''' is a public university in New York City.", "It is one of the constituent colleges of the City University of New York and offers studies in more than one hundred undergraduate and postgraduate fields across five schools.", "It also administers Hunter College High School and Hunter College Elementary School.Hunter was founded in 1870 as a women's college; it first admitted male freshmen in 1946.The main campus has been located on Park Avenue since 1873.In 1943, Eleanor Roosevelt dedicated Franklin Delano Roosevelt's and her former townhouse to the college; the building was reopened in 2010 as the Roosevelt House Public Policy Institute at Hunter College.", "The institution has a 57% undergraduate graduation rate within six years." ], [ "History", "===Founding===New York Normal College seen from Park Avenue (1874); drawing from a photo by George G. RockwoodHunter College has its origins in the 19th-century movement for normal school training which swept across the United States.", "Hunter descends from the '''Female Normal and High School''', established in New York City in 1870.It was founded by Thomas Hunter from Ardglass in County Down, who was an exile from Ireland because of his nationalist beliefs.", "The Normal School was one of several institutions occupying a site that the New York City government had reserved for \"institutions serving a public purpose\".", "Hunter was president of the school during the first 37 years.", "It was originally a women's college for training teachers.", "The school, which was housed in an armory and saddle store at Broadway and East Fourth Street in Manhattan, was open to all qualified women, irrespective of race, religion or ethnic background.", "At the time most women's colleges had racial or ethno-religious admissions criteria.Created by the New York State Legislature, Hunter was deemed the only approved institution for those seeking to teach in New York City.", "The school incorporated an elementary and high school for gifted children, where students practiced teaching.", "In 1887, a kindergarten was established as well.", "(Today, the elementary school and the high school still exist at a different location, and are now called the Hunter College Campus Schools.", ")Student Helen Campbell studying radio science in a program started at Hunter College in 1917 by the National League for Women's Service to train female radio operators during World War I.During Thomas Hunter's tenure as president of the school, Hunter became known for its impartiality regarding race, religion, ethnicity, financial or political favoritism; its pursuit of higher education for women; its high entry requirements; and its rigorous academics.", "The first female professor at the school, Helen Gray Cone, was elected to the position in 1899.The college's student population quickly expanded, and the college subsequently moved uptown, in 1873, into a new red brick Gothic structure facing Park Avenue between 68th and 69th Streets.", "It was one of several public institutions built at the time on a Lenox Hill lot that had been set aside by the city for a park, before the creation of Central Park.In 1888, the school was incorporated as a college, taking on the name '''Normal College of the City of New York''', under the statutes of New York State, with the power to confer Bachelor of Arts degrees.", "This led to the separation of the school into two \"camps\": the \"Normals\", who pursued a four-year course of study to become licensed teachers, and the \"Academics\", who sought non-teaching professions and the Bachelor of Arts degree.", "After 1902 when the \"Normal\" course of study was abolished, the \"Academic\" course became standard across the student body.===Expansion===In 1913 the east end of the building, housing the elementary school, was replaced by Thomas Hunter Hall, a new limestone Tudor building facing Lexington Avenue and designed by C. B. J. Snyder.", "The following year the Normal College became '''Hunter College''' in honor of its first president.", "At the same time, the college was experiencing a period of great expansion as increasing student enrollments necessitated more space.", "The college reacted by establishing branches in the boroughs of Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island.", "By 1920, Hunter College had the largest enrollment of women of any municipally financed college in the United States.", "In 1930, Hunter's Brooklyn campus merged with City College's Brooklyn campus, and the two were spun off to form Brooklyn College.Navy recruit camp for WAVES at Bronx Campus, February 8, 1943In 1936 fire destroyed the 1873 Gothic building facing Park Avenue, and by 1940 the Public Works Administration replaced it with the Modernist north building, designed by Shreve, Lamb & Harmon along with Harrison & Fouilhoux.The late 1930s saw the construction of Hunter College in the Bronx (later known as the Bronx Campus).", "During the Second World War, Hunter leased the Bronx Campus buildings to the United States Navy who used the facilities to train 95,000 women volunteers for military service as WAVES and SPARS.", "When the Navy vacated the campus, the site was briefly occupied by the nascent United Nations, which held its first Security Council sessions at the Bronx Campus in 1946, giving the school an international profile.In 1943, Eleanor Roosevelt dedicated a town house at 47–49 East 65th Street in Manhattan to the college.", "The house had been a home for the future President and First Lady.", "The Roosevelt House Public Policy Institute at Hunter College opened at that location in fall 2010 as an academic center hosting prominent speakers.===CUNY era===The West (seen here in the background) and East Buildings were constructed in 1981–86 – following a delay due to the 1975 New York City fiscal crisis – and were designed in the Modernist style by Ulrich Franzen & Associates; skyways connect all the buildingsHunter became the women's college of the municipal system, and in the 1950s, when City College became coeducational, Hunter started admitting men to its Bronx campus.", "In 1964, the Manhattan campus began admitting men also.", "The Bronx campus subsequently became Lehman College in 1968.In 1968–1969, Black and Puerto Rican students struggled to get a department that would teach about their history and experience.", "These and supportive students and faculty expressed this demand through building take-overs, rallies, etc.", "In Spring 1969, Hunter College established Black and Puerto Rican Studies (now called Africana/Puerto Rican and Latino Studies).", "An \"open admissions\" policy initiated in 1970 by the City University of New York opened the school's doors to historically underrepresented groups by guaranteeing a college education to any and all who graduated from NYC high schools.", "Many African Americans, Asian Americans, Latinos, Puerto Ricans, and students from the developing world made their presence felt at Hunter, and even after the end of \"open admissions\" still comprise a large part of the school's student body.", "As a result of this increase in enrollment, Hunter opened new buildings on Lexington Avenue during the early 1980s.", "In further advancing Puerto Rican studies, Hunter became home to the Centro de Estudios Puertorriqueños (\"Center for Puerto Rican Studies\" or simply \"Centro\") in 1982.Today, Hunter College is a comprehensive teaching and research institution.", "Of the more than 20,000 students enrolled at Hunter, nearly 5,000 are enrolled in a graduate program, the most popular of which are education and social work.", "Although less than 28% of students are the first in their families to attend college, the institution maintains its tradition of concern for women's education, with nearly three out of four students being female.", "In 2006, Hunter became home to the Bella Abzug Leadership Institute, which has training programs for young women to build their leadership, public speaking, business and advocacy skills.In recent years, the institution has integrated its undergraduate and graduate programs to successfully make advanced programs in fields such as (Psychology and Biology) – \"PhD Program\", (Education) – \"Master's Program\", (Mathematics) – \"Master's Program\", -\"PhD Program\" (Biology & Chemistry) – \"Biochemistry\", (Accounting) – \"Master's Program\" along with the highly competitive (Economics) – \"Master's Program\" to which only a select few students may enter based on excellent scholarship and performance, and less than half will earn a master's degree by maintaining a nearly perfect academic record and performing thesis research.Although far from the polar regions, Hunter is a member institution of the University of the Arctic, a network of schools providing education accessible to northern students." ], [ "Campuses", "===Main campus===Bridges between the East and West Buildings, the subway entrance, and Tony Smith's ''Tau''Hunter College is anchored by its main campus at East 68th Street and Lexington Avenue, a modern complex of three towers – the East, West, and North Buildings – and Thomas Hunter Hall, all interconnected by skywalks.", "The institution's official street address is 695 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10065.The address is based on the North Building, which stretches from 68th to 69th Streets along Park Avenue.The main campus is situated two blocks east of Central Park, near many New York cultural institutions including the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Asia Society Museum, and the Frick Collection.", "The New York City Subway's 68th Street–Hunter College station () on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line is directly underneath, and serves the entire campus.", "Adjacent to the staircase to the station, in front of the West Building, sat an iconic Hunter sculpture, ''Tau'', created by late Hunter professor and respected artist Tony Smith.The main campus is home to the School of Arts and Sciences and the School of Education.", "It features numerous facilities that serve not only Hunter, but the surrounding community, and is well known as a center for the arts.", "The Assembly Hall, which seats more than 2,000, is a major performance site; the Sylvia and Danny Kaye Playhouse, a 675-seat proscenium theatre, has over 100,000 visitors annually and hosts over 200 performances each season; the Ida K. Lang Recital Hall is a fully equipped concert space with 148 seats; the Frederick Loewe Theatre, a 50 x black box performance space is the site of most department performances; and the Bertha and Karl Leubsdorf Art Gallery hosts professionally organized art exhibits.Students have access to specialized learning facilities at the main campus, including the Dolciani Mathematics Learning Center, the Leona and Marcy Chanin Language Center, and the Physical Sciences Learning Center.", "Hunter has numerous research laboratories in the natural and biomedical sciences.", "These labs accommodate post-docs, PhD students from the CUNY Graduate School, and undergraduate researchers.College sports and recreational programs are served by the Hunter Sportsplex, located below the West Building.===Satellite campuses===Hunter has two satellite campuses.", "The Silberman School of Social Work Building, located on Third Avenue between East 118th and East 119th Streets, houses the School of Social Work, the School of Urban Public Health, and the Brookdale Center on Aging.", "The Brookdale Campus, located at East 25th Street and First Avenue, houses the Hunter-Bellevue School of Nursing, the Schools of the Health Professions, the Health Professions Library and several research centers and computer labs.The Brookdale Campus is the site of the Hunter dormitory, which is home to over 600 undergraduate and graduate students, as well as a limited number of nurses employed at Bellevue Hospital.", "Prior to the opening of City College's new \"Towers,\" the Brookdale complex was the City University's only dormitory facility.", "In October 2022, New York Governor Kathy Hochul and New York City Mayor Eric Adams announced that the Brookdale Campus would be replaced by the CUNY Science Park and Research Campus (SPARC), with construction set to begin in 2026.The campus is planned to contain space for Hunter College, Borough of Manhattan Community College, and the CUNY Graduate School of Public Health & Health Policy.===Other facilities===The institution owns and operates property outside of its main campuses, including the MFA Building at 205 Hudson, Roosevelt House, Baker Theatre Building, Silberman School of Social Work, and the Hunter College Campus Schools.", "The MFA Studio Art program was formerly run out of a building on West 41st Street between 9th and 10th Avenues.", "It was a industrial space that students converted to studio space for the college's BFA and MFA program.", "The current building in Tribeca now houses the Studio Art and Integrated Media Arts MFA program, and Art History MA program.", "Roosevelt House, located on East 65th Street, is the historic family home of Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt.", "Hunter's Roosevelt House Public Policy Institute is now located there, honoring the public policy commitments of Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt.", "Baker Theatre Building located on 149 East 67th Street, New York, NY 10065 is the home of Hunter's Department of Theatre thanks to the extraordinary generosity of Hunter trustee Patty Baker ’82 and her husband, Jay.", "The Silberman School of Social Work is located between 118th and 119th streets on 3rd Avenue.", "The Hunter Campus Schools—Hunter College High School and Hunter College Elementary School—are publicly funded schools for the intellectually gifted.", "Located at East 94th Street, the Campus Schools are among the nation's oldest and largest elementary and secondary schools of their kind.===Libraries===The Leon & Toby Cooperman Library entrance is located on the third-floor walkway level of the East Building.", "The Cooperman Library has individual and group study rooms, special facilities for students with disabilities, networked computer classrooms and labs for word processing and internet access.The Social Work & Urban Public Health Library, located on the main floor of the Silberman Building, (SWUPHL) serves the academic and research needs of the Silberman School of Social Work as well as Hunter’s Urban Public Health, Community Health Education, and Nutrition programs.", "The onsite, physical collection includes 55,000 books and journals as well as audio-visual materials.", "Silberman patrons have remote access to the Hunter Libraries electronic collections which include 250,000 full-text eBooks, 100,000 eJournals, and over 300 electronic databases.", "SWUPHL is a pick-up/drop-off site for the CUNY intra-library loan system (CLICS) that facilitates the sharing of books between all the CUNY libraries.", "In addition, SWUPHL participates in the national interlibrary loan program for academic libraries.", "These reciprocal agreements allow the patrons of SWUPHL extensive access to a multitude of collections.", "The SWUPHL Faculty provide drop-in and by-appointment reference services, research consultations, classroom and individual instruction.", "The library has 6 group study rooms, group and silent study areas, desktop computers, a laptop computer loan program, photocopiers, printing stations, and a book scanner.", "The Judith and Stanley Zabar Art Library, dedicated in December 2008, was made possible through the support of Judith Zabar, a member of the Hunter College Class of 1954, and her husband Stanley Zabar." ], [ "Academics", "Hunter is organized into four schools: The School of Arts and Sciences, the School of Education, the School of the Health Professions, and the School of Social Work.", "The institution had an undergraduate admissions acceptance rate of 36% in Fall 2018.Hunter offers 70 programs leading to a BA or BS degree; 10 BA-MA joint degree programs; and 75 graduate programs.Students at Hunter may study within the fields of fine arts, the humanities, the language arts, the sciences, the social sciences, and the applied arts and sciences, as well as in professional areas in accounting, education, health sciences, and nursing.", "Regardless of area of concentration, all undergraduate Hunter students are encouraged to have broad exposure to the liberal arts; Hunter was one of the first colleges in the nation to pass a 12-credit curriculum requirement for pluralism and diversity courses.As of 2007, Hunter had 673 full-time and 886 part-time faculty members, and 20,844 students—15,718 undergraduates and 5,126 graduates.", "Over 50% of Hunter's students belong to ethnic minority groups.", "The class of 2011 represented 60 countries and speaks 59 different languages.", "Seventy-one percent of these students were born outside the United States or have at least one foreign-born parent.", "SAT and high school GPA scores for the entering Fall 2012 class of freshmen had an SAT score 25th–75th percentile range of 1090 to 1280 and high school GPA 25th–75th percentile range of 85% to 92%.===Rankings===Hunter College rankings are as follows:'''National'''ARWU: 187–200''Forbes'': 129''THE''/''WSJ'': 256QS: 151–160CWUR: 218'''Regional'''''U.S.", "News & World Report'': 18''Washington Monthly'': 37'''Graduate Program in Fine Arts'''In the most recent edition of ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' Ranking of Graduate Fine Arts Programs, Hunter has been ranked 23rd best in the United States.", "Hunter's MFA Programs in Studio Art (Painting and Sculpture) and Studio Art (Painting and Drawing) have both been ranked ninth best in the nation.", "In 2017, Artsy included Hunter's in the list of \"Top 15 Art Schools in the United States.\"", "The admission to Hunter's MFA Programs in Studio Art is highly competitive, with the average acceptance rate of 8% as of 2018.===Honors programs===Hunter offers several honors programs, including the Macaulay Honors College and the Thomas Hunter Honors Program.", "The Macaulay Honors College, a CUNY-wide honors program, supports the undergraduate education of academically gifted students.", "University Scholars benefit from a full tuition scholarship (up to the value of in-state tuition only as of Fall 2013, effectively restricting it to NY state residents), personalized advising, early registration, access to internships, and study abroad opportunities.", "All scholars at Hunter are given the choice of either a free dormitory room at the Brookdale Campus for two years or a yearly stipend.The Thomas Hunter Honors Program offers topical interdisciplinary seminars and academic concentrations designed to meet students’ individual interests.", "The program is open to outstanding students pursuing a BA and is orchestrated under the supervision of an Honors Council.", "It can be combined with, or replace, a formal departmental major/minor.Hunter offers other honors programs, including Honors Research Training Programs and Departmental Honors opportunities, The Freshmen Honors Scholar Programs inclusive of the Athena Scholar program, Daedalus Scholar program, Muse Scholar program, Nursing Scholar program, Roosevelt Scholar program, and the Yalow Scholar program.In addition to these honors programs, several honors societies are based at Hunter, including Phi Beta Kappa (PBK).", "A small percentage of Hunter students are invited to join Hunter's Nu chapter of PBK, which has existed at the college since 1920." ], [ "Student life", "===Student governance===The Hunter College student body is governed by the Undergraduate Student Government and the Graduate Student Association (GSA),.===Clubs===Hunter offers approximately 150 clubs.", "These organizations range from the academic to the athletic, and from the religious/spiritual to the visual and performing arts.", "There are clubs based on specific interests, such as \"Russian Club\", which offers a look at Russian life and culture and \"InterVarsity Christian Fellowship\" an organization whose vision is to \"transform students and faculty, renew the campus, and develop world changers.", "\"===Fraternities and sororities==='''National – Social'''*Alpha Epsilon Pi (ΑΕΠ) – international social fraternity*Kappa Sigma (ΚΣ) – international social fraternity*Delta Sigma Theta (ΔΣΘ) – international social sorority*Phi Sigma Sigma (ΦΣΣ) – international social sorority'''National – Service'''*Alpha Phi Omega (ΑΦΩ) – national co-educational service fraternity'''Local – Social'''*Alpha Sigma (ΑΣ) – local social sorority*Nu Phi Delta (ΝΦΔ) – local multicultural social fraternity'''Local – Service'''*Theta Phi Gamma (ΘΦΓ) – local cultural and philanthropic sorority*Epsilon Sigma Phi (ΕΣΦ) – local multicultural service sorority*Zeta Phi Alpha (ΖΦΑ) – local service sorority'''Non-Greek'''*Gamma Ce Upsilon (ΓCΥ) – non-Greek Latina sorority*Rho Psi Eta (ΡΨΙ) – pre-health sorority===Student media===Hunter College has a campus radio station, WHCS, which once broadcast at 590AM but is now solely online.", "''The Envoy'' is the main campus newspaper, published bi-weekly during the academic year.", "Its literary and art magazine ''The Olivetree Review'' offers opportunities for publishing student prose, poetry, drama, and art.", "Other publications include ''Culture Magazine'' (fashion and lifestyle), ''Hunted Hero Comics'' (comics and graphic stories), ''The Photographer's Collective'' (photography), ''Nursing Student Press'' (medical news and articles), Spoon University (culinary online publication), ''Psych News'' (psychology), ''The Wistarion'' (yearbook), ''SABOR'' (Spanish language and photography/now defunct), ''Revista De La Academia'' (Spanish language/now defunct), the ''Islamic Times'' (now defunct), ''Political Paradigm'' (political science/now defunct), ''Hakol'' (Jewish interest/now defunct), and ''Spoof'' (humor/now defunct).Past publications also include ''The WORD'' (news) and ''Hunter Anonymous''.===Athletics===Hunter is a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and competes at the Division III level.The mascot is the Hawks.", "Hunter plays in the City University of New York Athletic Conference.The basketball, volleyball and wrestling teams play at the Hunter Sportsplex." ], [ "Manhattan/Hunter College Science High School", "As a partnership with the New York City Department of Education, the Manhattan/Hunter College High School for Sciences (not to be confused with the elite Hunter College High School, above) was opened in 2003 on the campus of the former Martin Luther King, Jr. High School on the Upper West Side.", "Unlike Hunter's campus schools, Hunter Science does not require an entrance exam for admission." ], [ "Notable alumni", "===Arts===This list covers alumni in visual, musical, and performing arts.", "* Martina Arroyo – opera singer* Barbara Adrian – artist* Robert Altman – photographer* Firelei Báez – visual artist* Jules de Balincourt – artist (painter)* Crackhead Barney – performance artist* Robert Barry (born 1936) – conceptual artist* Katherine Behar – artist (performance)* Aisha Tandiwe Bell – artist (mixed media)* Daniel Bozhkov – artist (painter, performance)* Vivian E. Browne – artist (painter)* Roy DeCarava – artist (photographer)* Jacqueline Donachie – contemporary artist* Cheryl Donegan – contemporary artist* Echo Eggebrecht – contemporary artist* Arthur Elgort — fashion photographer* Gabriele Evertz – contemporary artist (painter)* Omer Fast – artist (video, film)* Denise Green – artist (painter)* Wade Guyton – artist (painter)* Minna Harkavy – sculptor* Kim Hoeckele – artist* Louise E. Jefferson – artist, graphic designer* Jessica Kairé – installation artist* Mel Kendrick – artist (sculptor, printmaking)* Kathleen Kucka – artist (painter)* Katerina Lanfranco – artist (painter, sculptor)* Terrance Lindall – artist (surrealist)* Nick Mangano – stage actor and director* John Mateer – recording artist and filmmaker* Monica McKelvey Johnson – artist (comics) and curator* Awoiska van der Molen – photographer* Robert Morris – artist (sculptor)* Bess Myerson (1924–2014)- Miss America 1945* Doug Ohlson (1936–2010) – abstract artist* Danielle Orchard — artist (painter) * Roselle Osk — artist* Ruth Pastine — artist (painter)* Paul Pfeiffer – artist (video)* William Powhida – artist (painter)* Henning Rübsam – choreographer and dancer* Abbey Ryan – artist (painter)* Lenny Schultz – comedian, gym teacher* Sally Sheinman – artist* Liz Story – artist (pianist)* Robin Tewes – artist (painter)* Cora Kelley Ward – artist (painter)* Nari Ward – artist (sculptor)* Beatrice Witkin – composer* Esther Zweig – composer===Business===* Leon G. Cooperman – chairman and CEO, Omega Advisors* Lewis Frankfort – chairman and CEO, Coach, Inc.===Entertainment and sports===* Ellen Barkin – actress* James Bethea – producer/television executive* Inna Brayer – ballroom dance champion* Edward Burns – actor* Harry Connick, Jr. – actor, singer* Govinda – actor, producer* Bobby Darin – musician, singer, songwriter and actor* Gemze de Lappe – dancer* Ruby Dee (1945) – Oscar-nominated actress and civil rights activist* Vin Diesel – American actor* Grete Dollitz (1946) – radio presenter and guitarist* Hugh Downs – television host* Nikolai Fraiture – musician and bassist for the Strokes* Wilson Jermaine Heredia – Tony Award-winning actor* Alice Minnie Herts – founded Children's Educational Theatre in 1903* Jake Hurwitz – web comedian and actor* Richard Jeni – comedian* Carlos Reginald King – executive producer* Natasha Leggero – actress/comedian* Leigh Lezark – member of DJ trio the Misshapes* Charlotte Manson – radio actress* Quinn Marston – singer-songwriter of indie folk* Janet MacLachlan (1955) – actress* Deepti Naval – actress, filmmaker, writer and photographer* Julianne Nicholson – actress on ''Law & Order: Criminal Intent'' (did not graduate)* Rhea Perlman – actress* Dascha Polanco – actress* The Kid Mero – former co-host of Viceland's ''Desus & Mero'' and former co-host of Showtime's ''Desus & Mero''; AKA SKKRRRRT Loder, Ben Barson, Light-An-L Dutchie, Barmelo Xanthony, and the Plantain Supernova in the Sky* Daniel Ravner – writer, speaker, cross media creator* Judy Reyes – actress* DJ Ricardo!", "– DJ/producer* Margherita Roberti – opera singer* Esther Rolle – actress* Ron Rothstein – basketball coach* Annette Sanders – jazz vocalist and studio singer* Mirko Savone – actor and voice-over* Jean Stapleton – actress* Nick Valensi – musician and guitarist for the Strokes* J. Buzz Von Ornsteiner – forensic psychologist/television personality* Cyrus de Guzman - Filipino professional volleyball player===Government, politics, and social issues===*Rabab Abdulhadi (born 1955), Palestinian-born American scholar, activist, educator, editor, and an academic director.", "* Bella Abzug (1942) – Congresswoman (1971–1977), women's rights advocate, political activist* Charles Barron – New York City Council member* Keiko Bonk – Activist, artist, politician, and highest-ranking elected Green Party member in the United States* Carmen Beauchamp Ciparick (1963) – Judge, first Hispanic woman named to the New York State Court of Appeals* Helene S. Coleman (1925) – President, National Council of Jewish Women* Robert R. Davila (1965) – President, Gallaudet University and advocate for the rights of the hearing impaired* Martin Garbus (1955) – First Amendment attorney* Paula Harper – art historian* Florence Howe (1950) – Founder of women's studies and founder/publisher of the Feminist Press/CUNY* Teresa Patterson Hughes – California State Senator* Mary Johnson Lowe (1951) – Judge of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York* Roger Manno – Maryland politician* Soia Mentschikoff (1934) – law professor who worked on the Uniform Commercial Code; first woman partner of a major law firm; first woman elected president, Association of American Law Schools* Thomas J. Murphy, Jr. (1973) – Mayor, Pittsburgh, 1994–2006* Pauli Murray (1933) – first African-American woman named an Episcopal priest; human rights activist; lawyer and co-founder of N. O. W.* Thomas P. Noonan, Jr. – Medal of Honor; United States Marine Corps, Vietnam* Antonia Pantoja – Puerto Rican community leader, founder of Boricua College* Thomas S. Popkewitz – Professor of curriculum theory, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Education* Jeanette Reibman (1937) – Pennsylvania State Representative and State Senator*Sandra Schnur – disability rights advocate* Larry Seidlin – Broward County, Florida Judge, presided over Anna Nicole Smith's estate* Donna Shalala – United States Secretary of Health and Human Services under Bill Clinton; tenth president of Hunter College (1980–1988)* John Timoney – Chief of Police of Miami, Florida===Literature and journalism===* Mohamad Bazzi – journalist* Maurice Berger – cultural critic* Peter Carey – writer* Colin Channer – writer, musician, co-founder of Calabash International Literary Festival Trust* Judith Crist — Journalist, film critic, and professor of journalism.", "* Joy Davidman – writer, poet* Garance Franke-Ruta – journalist* Martin Greif – writer, publisher, former managing editor of Time-Life Books* Andrew Hubner – novelist* Ada Louise Huxtable (1941) – writer, Pulitzer Prize-winning architectural critic* Colette Inez – poet, academic, Guggenheim, Rockefeller, and two NEA Fellowships* Phil Klay – writer Redeployment* Bel Kaufman – teacher and author, best known for the 1965 novel ''Up the Down Staircase''* Audre Lorde (1959) – African-American poet, essayist, educator and activist* Paule Marshall – author, MacArthur Fellow \"genius grant,\" Dos Passos Prize for Literature* Jenny B. Merrill (1871) – educator, author*Lilian Moore, author of children's books, teacher and poet* Bernadine Morris - (1925 - 2018) New York Times fashion writer* Melissa Plaut – author* Sylvia Field Porter – economist/journalist, former financial editor of the ''New York Post''* Carole Radziwill — journalist, author, and television personality* Helen Reilly – mystery writer* Sonia Sanchez – poet* Paula Schwartz – novelist* Frederick Joseph (author) – poet, author, activist* Augusta Huiell Seaman – writer* Julie Shigekuni – novelist, professor at University of New Mexico* Ned Vizzini – writer===Science and technology===* Henriette Avram – Computer programmer and systems analyst* Patricia Bath – pioneering ophthalmologist* Patricia Charache – Microbiologist and infectious disease specialist* Mildred Cohn – biochemist, National Medal of Science* Mary P. Dolciani – mathematician; influential in developing the basic modern method used for teaching algebra in the United States* Mildred Dresselhaus – National Medal of Science; Institute Professor at MIT; Professor, physics and electrical engineering* Gertrude Elion – Nobel Laureate, medicine; biochemist; National Medal of Science (1991); Lemelson-MIT Prize (1997); first woman, National Inventors Hall of Fame* Charlotte Friend – virologist; member, National Academy of Sciences; discoverer, Friend Leukemia Virus and Friend erythroleukemia cells* Erich Jarvis – Professor of neurobiology, Duke University Medical Center*Edna Kramer – American mathematician and popularizer of mathematics *Marilyn Levy – photographic chemist at Fort Monmouth from 1953 to 1979*Celia Maxwell – infectious disease physician and academic administrator* J. Buzz Von Ornsteiner – forensic psychologist/television personality* Arlie Petters – professor of physics, mathematics, and business administration, Duke University* Mina Rees – mathematician; first female President, American Association for the Advancement of Science (1971)* Rosalyn Yalow – Nobel Laureate, medicine; medical physicist; National Medal of Science (1988); Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research (1977)" ], [ "Notable faculty", "Jeannette BrownNathan EnglanderLillian Rosanoff LieberGary ShteyngartDr.", "Ruth Westheimer* John Henrik Clarke Historian, pioneer in the creation of Pan-African and Africana studies* Vishwa Adluri, professor of religion and philosophy* Meena Alexander, poet* Marimba Ani (Dona Richards), afrocentric anthropologist, coined the term \"Maafa\" for African holocaust * Dora Askowith (1884–1958), Lithuanian-born American author and historian* Harry Binswanger (born 1944), philosopher* Emily Braun, Canadian-born art historian and curator* Joyce Brothers (1927–2013), psychologist, television personality, advice columnist, and writer* Jeannette Brown (born 1934), chemist, historian, author* Peter Carey, Australian novelist* Neal L. Cohen, NYC Health Commissioner* LaWanda Cox, historian* Kelle Cruz, astrophysicist* Roy DeCarava, photographer* Mary P. Dolciani, mathematician* Emil Draitser (born 1937), author and professor of Russian* Nathan Englander, novelist* Philip Ewell, music theorist* Stuart Ewen, historian and author* Norman Finkelstein (born 1953), political scientist and author* Helen Frankenthaler, artist* Godfrey Gumbs, physicist* E. Adelaide Hahn, classicist and linguist* Winifred Hathaway, advocate for blind education* H. Wiley Hitchcock, musicologist* Alice von Hildebrand, Belgian-born American philosopher* Eva Hoffman, writer* Tina Howe, playwright* Julia Indichova, reproductive healthcare activist and author* Victoria Johnson, Associate Professor of Urban Policy* Julia Jones-Pugliese (1909–1993), national champion fencer and fencing coach* Alfred Kazin (1915-1998), writer and literary critic *Francis Kilcoyne (died 1985), third President of Brooklyn College*John Kneller (1916–2009), English-American professor and fifth President of Brooklyn College* Bo Lawergren, physicist and musicologist* Bogart Leashore, sociologist, social worker, and dean of Hunter College school of social work (1991-2003)* Jan Heller Levi (born 1954), poet* Lillian Rosanoff Lieber (1886-1986), Russian-American mathematician and author* Audre Lorde (1934–1992), poet* Marguerite Merington (1857–1951), author* Robert Motherwell, artist* Carrie Moyer, artist* Colum McCann, Irish novelist* Leonard Peikoff, Canadian-American, Ayn Rand's intellectual heir and founder of the Ayn Rand Institute* Jeffrey T. Parsons, psychologist* Jennifer Raab, 13th and current president of Hunter College * Mina Rees, mathematician* Paul Ramirez Jonas, artist* Blake Schwarzenbach, singer/guitarist of Jawbreaker and Jets to Brazil* George Nauman Shuster, president of Hunter.", "1940-1960.", "*Gary Shteyngart (born 1972), Soviet-born American writer* Lao Genevra Simons, mathematician and math historian* Tom Sleigh, poet* Tony Smith, sculptor* Leo Steinberg, Russian-born American art historian* John Kennedy Toole, author* Lionel Trilling (1905–1975), literary critic, short story writer, essayist, and teacher* Edward P. Tryon, physicist* Lydia Fowler Wadleigh, \"lady superintendent\" of the Normal School* Nari Ward, artist* Jacob Weinberg, pianist and composer * Dr. Ruth Westheimer (Dr. Ruth; born 1928), German-American sex therapist, talk show host, author, professor, Holocaust survivor, and former Haganah sniper.", "* Blanche Colton Williams, professor of English literature and head of the English department* Edwin Zarowin Track and Field Coach." ], [ "References", "'''Informational notes''''''Citations'''" ], [ "External links", "* * Official athletics website" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Harry Shearer" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Harry Julius Shearer''' (born December 23, 1943) is an American actor, comedian, musician, radio host, writer, and producer.", "Born in Los Angeles, California, Shearer began his career as a child actor.", "From 1969 to 1976, Shearer was a member of The Credibility Gap, a radio comedy group.", "Following the breakup of the group, Shearer co-wrote the film ''Real Life'' (1979) with Albert Brooks and worked as a writer on Martin Mull's television series ''Fernwood 2 Night''.Shearer was a cast member on ''Saturday Night Live'' between 1979 and 1980, and 1984 and 1985.Shearer co-created, co-wrote and co-starred in the film ''This Is Spinal Tap'' (1984), a satirical rockumentary, which became a hit.", "In 1989, he joined the cast of the animated sitcom ''The Simpsons''; he provides voices for characters including Mr. Burns, Waylon Smithers, Ned Flanders, Reverend Lovejoy, Lenny, Principal Skinner, Kent Brockman, Otto Mann, and formerly Dr. Hibbert.", "Shearer has appeared in films including ''The Truman Show'' (1998) and ''A Mighty Wind'' (2003), and has directed two, ''Teddy Bears' Picnic'' (2002) and ''The Big Uneasy'' (2010).", "Since 1983, Shearer has been the host of the public radio comedy/music program ''Le Show'', incorporating satire, music, and sketch comedy.", "He has written three books.Shearer has won a Primetime Emmy Award and has received several other Emmy and Grammy Award nominations.", "He has been married to singer-songwriter Judith Owen since 1993.He became an artist in residence at Loyola University, New Orleans in 2013." ], [ "Early life", "Shearer was born December 23, 1943, in Los Angeles, California, the son of Dora, a bookkeeper, and Mack Shearer.", "His parents were Jewish immigrants from Austria and Poland.", "Starting when Shearer was four years old, he had a piano teacher whose daughter worked as a child actress.", "The piano teacher later decided to make a career change and become a children's agent, since she knew people in the business through her daughter's work.", "The teacher asked Shearer's parents for permission to take him to an audition.", "Several months later, she called Shearer's parents and told them that she had gotten Shearer an audition for the radio show ''The Jack Benny Program''.", "Shearer received the role when he was seven years old.", "He described Jack Benny as \"very warm and approachable ...", "He was a guy who dug the idea of other people on the show getting laughs, which sort of spoiled me for other people in comedy.\"", "Shearer said in an interview that one person who took him \"under his wing\" and was his mentor during his early days in show business was voice actor Mel Blanc, who voiced many animated characters, including Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck and Barney Rubble.", "Shearer made his film debut in the film ''Abbott and Costello Go to Mars'' (1953), in which he had a small part, and appeared in ''The Robe'' (also 1953).", "Throughout his childhood and teenage years he worked in television, film, and radio.In 1957, Shearer played the precursor to the Eddie Haskell character in the pilot episode of the television series ''Leave It to Beaver''.", "After the filming, Shearer's parents said they did not want him to be a regular in a series.", "Instead they wanted him to just do occasional work so that he could have a normal childhood.", "Shearer and his parents made the decision not to accept the role in the series if it was picked up by a television network.Shearer graduated from Los Angeles High School and attended UCLA as a political science major in the early 1960s and decided to quit show business to become a \"serious person\".", "However, he says this lasted approximately a month, and he joined the staff of the ''Daily Bruin'', UCLA's school newspaper, during his first year.", "He was editor of the college humor magazine (''Satyr''), including the June 1964 parody ''Preyboy''.", "He also worked as a newscaster at KRLA, a top 40 radio station in Pasadena, during this period.", "According to Shearer, after graduating, he had \"a very serious agenda going on, and it was 'Stay Out of the Draft'.\"", "He attended graduate school at Harvard University for one year and worked at the state legislature in Sacramento.", "In 1967 and 1968, he was a high school teacher, teaching English and social studies.", "He left teaching following \"disagreements with the administration\".From 1969 to 1976, Shearer was a member of The Credibility Gap, a radio comedy group that included David Lander, Richard Beebe and Michael McKean.", "The group consisted of \"a bunch of newsmen\" at KRLA 1110, \"the number two station\" in Los Angeles.", "They wanted to do more than just straight news, so they hired comedians who were talented vocalists.", "Shearer heard about the group from a friend, so he brought over a tape to the station and nervously gave it to the receptionist.", "He found out he was hired that same day.", "The group's radio show was canceled in 1970 by KRLA and in 1971 by KPPC-FM, so they started performing in various clubs and concert venues.", "While at KRLA, Shearer also interviewed Creedence Clearwater Revival for the ''Pop Chronicles'' music documentary.In 1973, Shearer appeared as Jim Houseafire on ''How Time Flys'', an album by The Firesign Theatre's David Ossman.", "The Credibility Gap broke up in 1976 when Lander and McKean left to perform in the sitcom ''Laverne & Shirley''.", "Shearer started working with Albert Brooks, producing one of Brooks' albums and co-writing the film ''Real Life'' (1979).", "Shearer also started writing for Martin Mull's television series ''Fernwood 2 Night''.", "In the mid-1970s, he started working with Rob Reiner on a pilot for ABC.", "The show, which starred Christopher Guest, Tom Leopold and McKean, was not picked up." ], [ "Career", "===''Saturday Night Live''=======Initial run under Lorne Michaels====In August 1979, Shearer was hired as a writer and cast member on ''Saturday Night Live'', one of the first additions to the show's original 1975 cast.", "Recommended by Al Franken to ''Saturday Night Live'' creator Lorne Michaels, the acquisition of Shearer was seen as an unofficial replacement for John Belushi and Dan Aykroyd, who were both leaving the show.Shearer describes his experience on the show as a \"living hell\" and \"not a real pleasant place to work.\"", "He did not get along well with the other writers and cast members and states that he was not included with the cast in the opening montage (although he was added to the montage for later episodes of the 1979–80 season) and that Michaels had told the rest of the cast that he was \"just a writer\".Michaels left ''Saturday Night Live'' at the end of the fifth season, taking the entire cast with him.", "Shearer told new executive producer Jean Doumanian that he was \"not a fan of Lorne's\" and offered to stay with the show if he was given the chance to overhaul the program and bring in experienced comedians, like Christopher Guest.", "However, Doumanian turned him down, so he decided to leave with the rest of the cast.====Return in 1984 under Dick Ebersol====In 1984, while promoting the film ''This Is Spinal Tap'', Shearer, Christopher Guest and Michael McKean performed on ''Saturday Night Live''.", "All three members were offered the chance to join the show in the 1984–1985 season.", "Shearer accepted because he was treated well by the producers and he thought the backstage environment had improved but later stated that he \"didn't realize that guests are treated better than the regulars.\"", "Guest also accepted the offer while McKean rejected it, although he would join the cast in 1994.Dick Ebersol, who replaced Lorne Michaels as the show's producer, said that Shearer was \"a gifted performer but a pain in the butt.", "He's just so demanding on the preciseness of things and he's very, very hard on the working people.", "He's just a nightmare-to-deal-with person.\"", "In January 1985, Shearer left the show for good, partially because he felt he was not being used enough.", "Martin Short said Shearer \"wanted to be creative and Dick Ebersol wanted something else.", "...", "I think he felt his voice wasn't getting represented on the show.", "When he wouldn't get that chance, it made him very upset.", "\"===Spinal Tap===Shearer co-created, co-wrote and co-starred in Rob Reiner's film ''This Is Spinal Tap'' (1984).", "Shearer, Reiner, Michael McKean and Christopher Guest received a deal to write a first draft of a screenplay for a company called Marble Arch.", "They decided that the film could not be written and instead filmed a 20-minute demo of what they wanted to do.", "It was eventually greenlighted by Norman Lear and Jerry Perenchio at Embassy Pictures.", "The film satirizes the wild personal behavior and musical pretensions of hard rock and heavy metal bands, as well as the hagiographic tendencies of rockumentaries of the time.", "The three core members of the band Spinal Tap—David St. Hubbins, Derek Smalls and Nigel Tufnel—were portrayed by McKean, Shearer and Guest respectively.", "The three actors play their musical instruments and speak with mock English accents throughout the film.", "There was no script, although there was a written breakdown of most of the scenes, and many of the lines were ad-libbed.", "It was filmed in 25 days.Shearer said in an interview that \"The animating impulse was to do rock 'n' roll right.", "The four of us had been around rock 'n' roll and we were just amazed by how relentlessly the movies got it wrong.", "Because we were funny people it was going to be a funny film, but we wanted to get it right.\"", "When they tried to sell it to various Hollywood studios, they were told that the film would not work.", "The group kept saying, \"No, this is a story that's pretty familiar to people.", "We're not introducing them to anything they don't really know,\" so Shearer thought it would at least have some resonance with the public.", "The film was only a modest success upon its initial release but found greater success, and developed a cult following, after its video release.", "In 2000, the film was ranked 29th on the American Film Institute's list of the top 100 comedy movies in American cinema and it was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\".Shearer as \"Derek Smalls\" (2019)Shearer, Guest and McKean have since worked on several projects as their Spinal Tap characters.", "They released three albums: ''This Is Spinal Tap'' (1984), ''Break Like the Wind'' (1992) and ''Back from the Dead'' (2009).", "In 1992, Spinal Tap appeared in an episode of ''The Simpsons'' called \"The Otto Show\".", "The band has played several concerts, including at Live Earth in London on July 7, 2007.In anticipation of the show, Rob Reiner directed a short film entitled ''Spinal Tap''.", "In 2009, the band released ''Back from the Dead'' to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the release of the film.", "The album features re-recorded versions of songs featured in ''This Is Spinal Tap'' and its soundtrack, and five new songs.", "The band performed a one-date \"world tour\" at London's Wembley Arena on June 30, 2009.The Folksmen, a mock band featured in the film ''A Mighty Wind'' that is also made up of characters played by Shearer, McKean and Guest, was the opening act for the show.===''The Simpsons''===Shearer is known for his work as a voice actor on ''The Simpsons''.", "Matt Groening, the creator of the show, was a fan of Shearer's work, while Shearer was a fan of a column Groening used to write.", "When approached by Groening to be in the series, Shearer was initially reluctant because he thought the recording sessions would be too much trouble.", "He felt that voice acting was \"not a lot of fun\" as, traditionally, voice actors record their parts separately.", "He was told that the actors would record their lines together, and after three phone calls for executive producer James L. Brooks, Shearer was convinced to join the cast of ''The Simpsons''.", "Shearer's first impression of ''The Simpsons'' was that it was funny.", "He – who thought it was a \"pretty cool\" way to work – found it peculiar that his fellow cast members were adamant about not being known to the public as the people behind the voices.Shearer provides voices for Principal Skinner, Kent Brockman, Mr. Burns, Waylon Smithers, Ned Flanders, Reverend Lovejoy, formerly Dr. Hibbert until 2021, Lenny Leonard, Otto Mann, Rainier Wolfcastle, Scratchy, Kang, Dr. Marvin Monroe, and Judge Snyder, among others.", "He has described all of his regular characters' voices as \"easy to slip into.", "...", "I wouldn't do them if they weren't easy.\"", "Shearer modeled Mr. Burns's voice on the two actors Lionel Barrymore and Ronald Reagan.", "Shearer says that Burns is the most difficult character for him to voice because it is rough on his vocal cords and he often needs to drink tea and honey to soothe his voice.", "He describes Burns as his favorite character, saying he \"likes Mr. Burns because he is pure evil.", "A lot of evil people make the mistake of diluting it.", "Never adulterate your evil.\"", "Shearer is also the voice of Burns' assistant Smithers, and is able to perform dialogue between the two characters in one take.", "In the episode \"Bart's Inner Child\", Shearer said \"wow\" in the voice of Otto, which was then used when Otto was seen jumping on a trampoline.", "Ned Flanders had been meant to be just a neighbor that Homer Simpson was jealous of, but because Shearer used \"such a sweet voice\" for him, Flanders was broadened to become a Christian and a sweet guy that someone would prefer to live next to over Homer.", "Dr. Marvin Monroe's voice was based on psychiatrist David Viscott.", "Monroe has been largely retired since the seventh season barring a few cameo appearances because voicing the character strained Shearer's throat.In 2004, Shearer criticized what he perceived as the show's declining quality: \"I rate the last three seasons as among the worst, so season four looks very good to me now.\"", "Shearer has also been vocal about \"The Principal and the Pauper\" (season nine, episode two, 1997), one of the most controversial episodes of ''The Simpsons''.", "Many fans and critics reacted negatively to the revelation that Principal Seymour Skinner, a recurring character since the first season, was an impostor.", "The episode has been criticized by both Shearer and Groening.", "In a 2001 interview, Shearer recalled that after reading the script, he told the writers, \"That's ''so'' wrong.", "You're taking something that an audience has built eight years or nine years of investment in and just tossed it in the trash can for no good reason, for a story we've done before with other characters.", "It's so arbitrary and gratuitous, and it's disrespectful to the audience.\"", "In a December 2006 interview, Shearer added, \"Now, the writers refuse to talk about it.", "They realize it was a horrible mistake.", "They never mention it.", "It's like they're punishing the audience for paying attention.", "\"Due to scheduling and availability conflicts, Shearer decided not to participate in ''The Simpsons Ride'', which opened in 2008, so none of his characters have vocal parts and many do not appear in the ride at all.", "In a 2010 interview on ''The Howard Stern Show'', Shearer alluded that the reason he was not part of the ride was because he would not be getting paid for it.", "Similarly, Shearer was unable to appear in the ''Family Guy'' crossover episode \"The Simpsons Guy\" due to further scheduling conflicts.", "Therefore, his characters are again mute.", "When asked about how he felt about the crossover, Shearer replied, \"Matter and anti-matter.", "\"Until 1998, Shearer was paid $30,000 per episode.", "During a pay dispute in 1998, Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors, going as far as preparing for casting of new voices.", "The dispute, however, was resolved and Shearer received $125,000 per episode until 2004, when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $360,000 an episode.", "The dispute was resolved a month later, and Shearer's pay rose to $250,000 per episode.", "After salary re-negotiations in 2008, the voice actors received $400,000 per episode.", "Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, Shearer and the other cast members accepted a 30% pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode.", "On May 14, 2015, Shearer announced he was leaving the show.", "After the other voice actors signed a contract for the same pay, Shearer refused, stating it was not enough.", "Al Jean made a statement from the producers saying \"the show must go on,\" but did not elaborate on what might happen to the characters Shearer voiced.", "On July 7, 2015, Shearer agreed to continue with the show, on the same terms as the other voice actors.===''Le Show'' and radio work===Since 1983, Shearer has been the host of the public radio comedy/music program ''Le Show''.", "The program is a hodgepodge of satirical news commentary, music, and sketch comedy that takes aim at the \"mega morons of the mighty media\".", "It is carried on many National Public Radio and other public radio stations throughout the United States.", "Since the merger of SIRIUS and XM satellite radio services the program is no longer available on either.", "The show has also been made available as a podcast on iTunes and by WWNO.", "On the weekly program Shearer alternates between DJing, reading and commenting on the news of the day after the manner of Mort Sahl, and performing original (mostly political) comedy sketches and songs.", "In 2008, Shearer released a music CD called ''Songs of the Bushmen'', consisting of his satirical numbers about former President George W. Bush on ''Le Show''.", "Shearer says he criticizes both Republicans and Democrats equally, and also says that \"the iron law of doing comedy about politics is you make fun of whoever is running the place\" and that \"everyone else is just running around talking.", "They are the ones who are actually doing something, changing people's lives for better or for worse.", "Other people the media calls 'satirists' don't work that way.", "\"Since encountering satellite news feeds when he worked on ''Saturday Night Live'', Shearer has been fascinated with the contents of the video that does not air.", "Shearer refers to these clips as found objects.", "\"I thought, wow, there is just an unending supply of this material, and it's wonderful and fascinating and funny and sometimes haunting – but it's always good,\" said Shearer.", "He collects this material and uses it on ''Le Show'' and on his website.", "In 2008, he assembled video clips of newsmakers from this collection into an art installation titled \"The Silent Echo Chamber\" which was exhibited at The Aldrich Contemporary Art Museum in Ridgefield, Connecticut.", "The exhibit was also displayed in 2009 at Institut Valencià d'Art Modern (IVAM) in Valencia, Spain and in 2010 at the New Orleans Contemporary Arts Center.In 2006 Shearer appeared with Brian Hayes in four episodes of the BBC Radio 4 sitcom ''Not Today, Thank You'', playing Nostrils, a man so ugly he cannot stand to be in his own presence.", "He was originally scheduled to appear in all six episodes but had to withdraw from recording two due to a problem with his work permit.", "On June 19, 2008, it was announced that Shearer would receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in the radio category.===Further career===Shearer performing in April 2009Shearer's first feature film as director, ''Teddy Bears' Picnic'', which he also wrote, was released in 2002.The plot is based on Bohemian Grove, which hosts a three-week encampment of some of the most powerful men in the world.", "The film was not well received by critics.", "It garnered a 0% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with all 19 reviews being determined as negative and received a rating of 32 out of 100 (signifying \"generally negative reviews\") on Metacritic from 10 reviews.", "In 2003, he co-wrote ''J.", "Edgar!", "The Musical'' with Tom Leopold, which spoofed J. Edgar Hoover's relationship with Clyde Tolson.", "It premiered at the U.S.", "Comedy Arts Festival in Aspen, Colorado and starred Kelsey Grammer and John Goodman.Shearer, Guest and McKean starred in the folk music mockumentary ''A Mighty Wind'' (2003), portraying a band called The Folksmen.", "The film was written by Guest and Eugene Levy, and directed by Guest.", "Shearer had a major role in the Guest-directed parody of Oscar politicking ''For Your Consideration'' released in 2006.He played Victor Allan Miller, a veteran actor who is convinced that he is going to be nominated for an Academy Award.", "He also appeared as a news anchor in ''Godzilla'' (1998) with fellow ''The Simpsons'' cast members Hank Azaria and Nancy Cartwright.", "His other film appearances include ''The Right Stuff'' (1983), ''The Fisher King'' (1991), ''The Truman Show'' (1998), ''Small Soldiers'' (also 1998), and ''EdTV'' (1999).", "He also directed and appeared in the television program ''Portrait of a White Marriage'' (1988), a sequel to ''The History of White People in America''.Shearer has also worked as a columnist for the ''Los Angeles Times Magazine'', but decided that it \"became such a waste of time to bother with it.\"", "His columns have also been published in ''Slate'' and ''Newsweek''.", "Since May 2005 he has been a contributing blogger at ''The Huffington Post''.", "Shearer has written three books.", "''Man Bites Town'', published in 1993, is a collection of columns that he wrote for ''The Los Angeles Times'' between 1989 and 1992.Published in 1999, ''It's the Stupidity, Stupid'' analyzed the hatred some people had for then-President Bill Clinton.", "Shearer believes that Clinton became disliked because he had an affair with \"the least powerful, least credentialed woman cleared into his official compound.\"", "His most recent book is ''Not Enough Indians'', his first novel.", "Published in 2006, it is a comic novel about Native Americans and gambling.", "Without the \"pleasures of collaboration\" and \"spontaneity and improvisation which characterize his other projects\", ''Not Enough Indians'' was a \"struggle\" for Shearer to write.", "He said that \"the only fun thing about it was having written it.", "It was lonely, I had no deal for it and it took six years to do.", "It was a profoundly disturbing act of self-discipline.", "\"Shearer has released five solo comedy albums: ''It Must Have Been Something I Said'' (1994), ''Dropping Anchors'' (2006), ''Songs Pointed and Pointless'' (2007), ''Songs of the Bushmen'' (2008) and ''Greed and Fear'' (2010).", "His most recent CD, ''Greed and Fear'' is mainly about Wall Street economic issues, rather than politics like his previous albums.", "Shearer decided to make the album when he\"started getting amused by the language of the economic meltdown – when 'toxic assets' suddenly became 'troubled assets,' going from something poisoning the system to just a bunch of delinquent youth with dirty faces that needed not removal from the system but just ...", "understanding.\"", "In May 2006, Shearer received an honorary doctorate from Goucher College.Shearer in 2009===''The Big Uneasy''===Shearer is the director of ''The Big Uneasy'' (2010), a documentary film about the impacts of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans.", "Narrated by actor John Goodman, the film describes levee failures and catastrophic flooding in the New Orleans metropolitan area, and includes extended interviews with former LSU professor Ivor Van Heerden, Robert Bea, an engineering professor at the University of California at Berkeley, and Maria Garzino, an engineer and contract specialist for the Los Angeles district of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.", "The film is critical of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and its management of flood protection projects in Southern Louisiana.", "Shearer draws on numerous technical experts to maintain that Hurricane Katrina's \"... tragic floods creating widespread damage were caused by manmade errors in engineering and judgment.\"", "On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 71% based on 24 reviews, with an average rating of 6.85/10.The website's critical consensus reads, \"''The Big Uneasy'' offers an admittedly uneven – yet still worthy and well-intentioned – look at a horrific disaster's aftermath.\"" ], [ "Personal life", "Shearer married folk singer Penelope Nichols in 1974.They divorced in 1977.He has been married to Welsh singer-songwriter Judith Owen since 1993.In 2005, the couple launched their own record label called Courgette Records.", "Shearer primarily resides in the French Quarter of New Orleans, Louisiana, but has homes in Santa Monica, California and Notting Hill, London.", "He first went to New Orleans in 1988 and has attended every New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival since.Shearer often speaks and writes about the failure of the Federal levee system which flooded New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina, blasting the coverage of it in the mainstream media and criticizing the role of the United States Army Corps of Engineers.", "Prior to the DVD release of his film, ''The Big Uneasy'', Shearer would hold screenings of the film at different venues and take questions from audience members." ], [ "Filmography", "===Film=== Year Film Role Notes1953 ''Abbott and Costello Go to Mars'' Boy ''The Robe'' David1977 ''American Raspberry'' Trucker's friend ''Cracking Up'' Various characters Credited as part of \"The Credibility Gap\"1979 ''Real Life'' Pete Also co-writer ''The Fish That Saved Pittsburgh'' Murray Sports1980 ''Loose Shoes'' NarratorVoice ''One Trick Pony'' Bernie Wepner 1983 ''The Right Stuff'' NASA Recruiter 1984 ''This Is Spinal Tap'' Derek Smalls Also co-writer, composer and musician 1987 ''Flicks'' NarratorVoice1988 ''Plain Clothes'' Simon Feck ''My Stepmother Is an Alien''Carl SaganVoice 1990 ''Marilyn Hotchkiss' Ballroom Dancing and Charm School'' Announcer Voice, short film1991 ''Blood and Concrete'' Sammy Rhodes ''Oscar'' Guido Finucci ''Pure Luck'' Monosoff ''The Fisher King'' Ben Starr 1992 ''A League of Their Own'' Newsreel AnnouncerVoice 1993 ''Wayne's World 2'' Handsome Dan1994 ''I'll Do Anything'' Audience Research Captain ''Little Giants'' Announcer ''Speechless'' Chuck1997 ''My Best Friend's Wedding'' Jonathan P.F.", "Rice ''Waiting for Guffman'' N/A Composer1998 ''Godzilla'' Charles Caiman ''Almost Heroes'' NarratorVoice ''The Truman Show'' Mike Michaelson ''Small Soldiers'' Punch-ItVoice1999 ''EDtv'' Moderator ''Encounter in the Third Dimension'' NarratorVoice ''Dick'' G. Gordon Liddy2000 ''Catching Up with Marty DiBergi'' Derek Smalls Short film ''Edwurd Fudwupper Fibbed Big'' Additional voice2001 ''Haiku Tunnel'' Orientation leader ''Out There'' Dr. Gerard ''Haunted Castle'' 2002 ''Teddy Bears' Picnic'' Joey Lavin Also writer, director and executive producer 2003 ''A Mighty Wind'' Mark Shubb2005 ''Marilyn Hotchkiss' Ballroom Dancing and Charm School'' Promo announcerVoice ''Chicken Little'' Don BowowserVoice 2006 ''For Your Consideration'' Victor Allan Miller2007 ''A Couple of White Chicks at the Hairdresser'' Marc Gavin ''The Simpsons Movie'' Mr. Burns, Smithers, Ned Flanders, Reverend Lovejoy, Lenny, Seymour Skinner, Kent Brockman, Dr. Hibbert, Various characters 2010 ''The Big Uneasy'' Narrator Voice; also director and producer 2011 ''Flood Streets'' Dr. Keeley Also executive producer 2015 ''Love & Taxes'' Sean Boykin/Agent 2016 ''Mascots'' Competition Announcer Voice 2017 ''Father Figures'' Gene Baxter 2019 ''Easy Does It'' \"Breezy\" Bob Mckee Voice===Television=== Year Series Role Notes 1953, 1955 ''The Jack Benny Program'' Young Jack Benny 2 episodes 1955 ''The Donald O'Connor Show'' Himself Episode 1.7 1955 ''It's a Great Life'' Terry Episode 2.4: \"The Paper Drive\" 1955 ''Death Valley Days'' Unnamed character Episode 4.2: \"The Valencia Cake\" 1956 ''Private Secretary'' Chuckie Wills, shoeshine boy Episode 4.16: \"The Little Caesar of Bleecker Street\"1957 ''General Electric Theater'' Timmy Episode 5.28: \"Cab Driver\" ''Leave It to Beaver'' Frankie Bennett Pilot: \"It's a Small World\" ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'' Street Kid Season 2 Episode 31: \"The Night the World Ended\" 1976 ''Serpico'' Hippy TV film/Pilot: \"The Deadly Game\" 1976–82 ''Laverne & Shirley'' Various characters Appeared in six episodes; also co-wrote episode 1.12: \"Hi, Neighbor\" 1977 ''Fernwood 2 Night'' Writer 1978 ''America 2-Night'' Writer 1979 ''Stockard Channing in Just Friends'' Saul Episode: \"The Ziegenfuss Force\" 1979 ''The T.V.", "Show'' Various characters Pilot; also writer, producer and composer 1979–80, 1984–85 ''Saturday Night Live'' Various characters Appeared in 32 episodes; also co-wrote 39 episodes 1980 ''Animalympics'' Keen Hacksaw/Mayor of Animal Olympic Island/Burnt Woody/Mark Spritz Voice, TV film 1981 ''Likely Stories, Vol.", "1'' Various characters TV film; also co-wrote 1982 ''Million Dollar Infield'' Jack Savage TV film 1985 ''The History of White People in America'' Rabbi TV film; also director1986 ''Viva Shaf Vegas'' Rabbi TV film; also director, writer and executive producer ''The History of White People in America: Volume II'' Rabbi TV film; also director ''Spitting Image: Down And Out In The White House'' Additional voice Pilot/TV special ''ALF'' Larry / President Voice, episode: \"Pennsylvania 6-5000\"1987 ''Spitting Image: The Ronnie and Nancy Show'' Additional voice TV special ''Down and Out with Donald Duck'' Additional voices TV special1988 ''Portrait of a White Marriage'' Unnamed character TV film; also director ''Miami Vice'' FBI Agent Timothy Anderson Episode 4.12: \"The Cows of October\" ''Merrill Markoe's Guide to Glamorous Living'' Unnamed character TV special 1989–present ''The Simpsons'' Ned Flanders, Mr. Burns, Dr. Hibbert (1990–2021), Waylon Smithers, Principal Skinner, Reverend Lovejoy, Various characters Voice1990 ''The Golden Girls'' George H. W. Bush Voice, episode: \"The President's Coming!", "The President's Coming!", "Part 2\" ''Hometown Boy Makes Good'' Unnamed character Voice, TV film ''Murphy Brown'' Chris Bishop Episode 3.1: \"The 390th Broadcast\" 1991 ''Sunday Best'' Various characters1993 ''Dream On'' Steve Episode 4.6: \"Home Sweet Homeboy\" ''L.A.", "Law'' Gordon Huyck Episode 8.6: \"Safe Sex\" ''Animaniacs'' Ned Flat Voice, episode: \"Fair Game\" 1994 ''Ellen'' Ted Episode 2.9: \"The Trainer\"1995 ''Friends'' Dr. Baldharan Episode 1.21: \"The One with the Fake Monica\" ''Sliders'' Day Tripper Voice, episode: \"Pilot\"; uncredited ''The Show Formerly Known as the Martin Short Show'' Mr. Blackwell TV special1996 ''State of the Union: Undressed'' Newt Gingrich TV special ''Chicago Hope'' Nowhere man Episode 3.7: \"A Time to Kill\"1997 ''Tracey Takes On...'' Ronald Littleman Episode 2.12: \"Race Relations\" ''ER'' John Smythe Episode 3.19: \"Calling Dr. Hathaway\" ''The Visitor'' Louis Faraday Episode 1.1: \"Fear of Flying\" 1998 ''George & Leo'' Unnamed character Episode 1.17: \"The Poker Game\"1999 ''Seven Days'' Walter Landis Episode 1.19: \"EBE's\" ''Just Shoot Me!''", "Larry Fenwick Episode 4.1: \"A Divorce to Remember\" 1999–2001 ''Jack & Jill'' Dr. Wilfred Madison 4 episodes 2000–01 ''Dawson's Creek'' Principal Peskin Episodes 4.8: \"The Unusual Suspects\" and 4.22: \"The Graduate\" 2001 ''That's Life'' Dean Episode 2.9: \"Oh, Baby!\"", "2002 ''The Agency'' The President Episode 1.14: \"The Gauntlet\" 2003 ''MADtv'' Mark Shubb Episode 8.21 2004 ''Jakers!", "The Adventures of Piggley Winks'' Unnamed sheep Episode: \"No Girls Allowed\" 2008 ''The Graham Norton Show'' Himself Series 4 Episode 12012 ''Nixon's the One'' Richard Nixon TV special ''Have I Got News for You'' Himself Series 44 Episode 5 2014 ''Outnumbered'' Mr Johnson Episode: \"Communication Skills\" 2016 ''Would I Lie to You?''", "Himself Series 10 Episode 5 2018 ''The Last Leg'' Himself Series 14 Episode 2 2019 ''Paul Shaffer Plus One'' Derek Smalls Episode: \"Harry Shearer as Derek Smalls of Spinal Tap\" 2020 ''The Salon'' Marc Gavin/Marc 4 episodes===Video games=== Year Game Role1996''The Simpsons Cartoon Studio''Various characters1997''Virtual Springfield''Various characters2001''The Simpsons Wrestling''Various characters2001''The Simpsons: Road Rage''Various characters2002''The Simpsons Skateboarding''Various characters2003''The Simpsons: Hit & Run''Various characters2005''Chicken Little''Don Bowowser2007''The Simpsons Game''Various characters2012''The Simpsons: Tapped Out''Various characters===Web=== Year Film Role Notes 2011 ''Kevin Pollak's Chat Show'' Himself/Guest Episode: \"125\"2021–presentDeutsche EisenbahnmärchenHans, Jürgen HeislerVoices===Music video=== Year Song Role Artist 1990 \"Do the Bartman\" Seymour Skinner Nancy Cartwright" ], [ "Discography", " Album Release Label''It Must Have Been Something I Said''1994Rhino''Dropping Anchors''2006Courgette''Songs Pointed and Pointless''2007Courgette''Songs of the Bushmen''2008Courgette''Greed and Fear''2010Courgette''Smalls Change''2018 Twanky Records/BMG" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * *" ], [ "Awards", "Shearer was the last of the six regular voice actors from ''The Simpsons'' to win the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Character Voice-Over Performance.", "His win came for the season 25 episode \"Four Regrettings and a Funeral\".", "Year Award Category Series/album Result Ref.1978Primetime Emmy AwardOutstanding Writing in a Comedy-Variety or Music Series''America 2Night'' 1980Primetime Emmy AwardOutstanding Writing in a Variety or Music Program''Saturday Night Live'' 2008Grammy AwardBest Comedy Album''Songs Pointed and Pointless''2009Grammy AwardBest Comedy Album''Songs of the Bushmen'' 2009 Primetime Emmy Award Outstanding Voice-Over Performance ''The Simpsons'': \"The Burns and the Bees\"2010Grammy AwardBest Comedy Album''Back from the Dead'' (with Spinal Tap) 2014 Primetime Emmy Award Outstanding Character Voice-Over Performance ''The Simpsons'': \"Four Regrettings and a Funeral\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Harry Shearer's official site***** Harry Shearer's blog at the Huffington Post* Harry Shearer at Voice Chasers * New Documentary, Shearer on Hurricane Katrina – video interview by ''Democracy Now!", "''* Harry Shearer Interview NAMM Oral History Library (2017)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "High fantasy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''High fantasy''', or '''epic fantasy''', is a subgenre of fantasy defined by the epic nature of its setting or by the epic stature of its characters, themes, or plot.", "High fantasy is set in an alternative, fictional (\"secondary\") world, rather than the \"real\" or \"primary\" world.", "This secondary world is usually internally consistent, but its rules differ from those of the primary world.", "By contrast, low fantasy is characterized by being set on Earth, the primary or real world, or a rational and familiar fictional world with the inclusion of magical elements." ], [ "Characteristics", "The romances of William Morris, such as ''The Well at the World's End'', set in an imaginary medieval world, are sometimes regarded as the first examples of high fantasy.", "The works of J. R. R. Tolkien—especially ''The Lord of the Rings''—are regarded as archetypal works of high fantasy.", "The term \"high fantasy\" was coined by Lloyd Alexander in a 1971 essay, \"High Fantasy and Heroic Romance\", which was originally given at the New England Round Table of Children's Librarians in October 1969.", "''The Well at the World's End'' (1896) by William Morris is an early example of high fantasy fiction.Many high fantasy stories are told from the viewpoint of one main hero.", "Often, much of the plot revolves around their heritage or mysterious nature, along with a world-threatening problem.", "In many novels the hero is an orphan or unusual sibling, and frequently portrayed with an extraordinary talent for magic or combat.", "They begin the story young, if not as an actual child, or are portrayed as being very weak and/or useless.The hero often begins as a childlike figure, but matures rapidly, experiencing a considerable gain in fighting/problem-solving abilities along the way.The progress of the story leads to the character's learning the nature of the unknown forces against them, that they constitute a force with great power and malevolence.", "The villains in such stories are usually completely evil and unrelatable.", "\"High fantasy\" often serves as a broad term to include a number of different flavors of the fantasy genre, including heroic fantasy, epic fantasy, mythic fantasy, dark fantasy, and wuxia.", "It typically is not considered to include the sword and sorcery genre." ], [ "Themes", "High fantasy has often been defined by its themes and messages.", "\"Good versus evil\" is a common one in high fantasy, and defining the character of evil is often an important theme in a work of high fantasy, such as ''The Lord of the Rings''.", "The importance of the concept of good and evil can be regarded as the distinguishing mark between high fantasy and sword and sorcery.", "In many works of high fantasy, this conflict marks a deep concern with moral issues; in other works, the conflict is a power struggle, with, for instance, wizards behaving irresponsibly whether they are \"good\" or \"evil\"." ], [ "Game settings", "Role-playing games such as ''Dungeons & Dragons'' with campaign settings like ''Dragonlance'' by Tracy Hickman and Margaret Weis and ''Forgotten Realms'' by Ed Greenwood are a common basis for many fantasy books and many other authors continue to contribute to the settings." ], [ "See also", "* * * List of genres* List of high fantasy fiction* *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* \"Fantasy Genre Lecture\"—A paper by Michael Joseph discussing high fantasy and referencing Alexander's theories, via Rutgers' School of Communication and Information.", "* \"The Flat-Heeled Muse\" by Lloyd Alexander, the inventor of the term \"high fantasy\", discusses fantasy world-building and \"the problems and disciplines of fantasy\"* \"Fantasy book writing: 7 tips\"—Now Novel discusses the origin of the term, referencing Lloyd Alexander and offering high fantasy writing tips" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Human sexual activity" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Human sexual activity''', '''human sexual practice''' or '''human sexual behaviour''' is the manner in which humans experience and express their sexuality.", "People engage in a variety of sexual acts, ranging from activities done alone (e.g., masturbation) to acts with another person (e.g., sexual intercourse, non-penetrative sex, oral sex, etc.)", "in varying patterns of frequency, for a wide variety of reasons.", "Sexual activity usually results in sexual arousal and physiological changes in the aroused person, some of which are pronounced while others are more subtle.", "Sexual activity may also include conduct and activities which are intended to arouse the sexual interest of another or enhance the sex life of another, such as strategies to find or attract partners (courtship and display behaviour), or personal interactions between individuals (for instance, foreplay or BDSM).", "Sexual activity may follow sexual arousal.Human sexual activity has sociological, cognitive, emotional, behavioural and biological aspects.", "It involves personal bonding, sharing emotions, the physiology of the reproductive system, sex drive, sexual intercourse, and sexual behaviour in all its forms.In some cultures, sexual activity is considered acceptable only within marriage, while premarital and extramarital sex are taboo.", "Some sexual activities are illegal either universally or in some countries or subnational jurisdictions, while some are considered contrary to the norms of certain societies or cultures.", "Two examples that are criminal offences in most jurisdictions are sexual assault and sexual activity with a person below the local age of consent." ], [ "Types", "Sexual activity can be classified in a number of ways.", "The practices may be preceded by or consist solely of foreplay.", "Acts involving one person (autoeroticism) may include sexual fantasy or masturbation.", "If two people are involved, they may engage in vaginal sex, anal sex, oral sex or manual sex.", "Penetrative sex between two people may be described as sexual intercourse, but definitions vary.", "If there are more than two participants in a sex act, it may be referred to as group sex.", "Autoerotic sexual activity can involve use of dildos, vibrators, butt plugs, and other sex toys, though these devices can also be used with a partner.Sexual activity can be classified into the gender and sexual orientation of the participants, as well as by the relationship of the participants.", "The relationships can be ones of marriage, intimate partners, casual sex partners or anonymous.", "Sexual activity can be regarded as conventional or as alternative, involving, for example, fetishism or BDSM activities.Fetishism can take many forms, including the desire for certain body parts (partialism) such as breasts, navels, or feet.", "The object of desire can be shoes, boots, lingerie, clothing, leather or rubber items.", "Some non-conventional autoerotic practices can be dangerous.", "These include autoerotic asphyxiation and self-bondage.", "The potential for injury or even death that exists while engaging in the partnered versions of these fetishes (choking and bondage, respectively) becomes drastically increased in the autoerotic case due to the isolation and lack of assistance in the event of a problem.Sexual activity that is consensual is sexual activity in which both or all participants agree to take part and are of the age that they can consent.", "If sexual activity takes place under force or duress, it is considered rape or another form of sexual assault.", "In different cultures and countries, various sexual activities may be lawful or illegal in regards to the age, gender, marital status or other factors of the participants, or otherwise contrary to social norms or generally accepted sexual morals." ], [ "Mating strategies", "In evolutionary psychology and behavioral ecology, human mating strategies are a set of behaviors used by individuals to attract, select, and retain mates.", "Mating strategies overlap with reproductive strategies, which encompass a broader set of behaviors involving the timing of reproduction and the trade-off between quantity and quality of offspring (see life history theory).Relative to other animals, human mating strategies are unique in their relationship with cultural variables such as the institution of marriage.", "Humans may seek out individuals with the intention of forming a long-term intimate relationship, marriage, casual relationship, or friendship.", "The human desire for companionship is one of the strongest human drives.", "It is an innate feature of human nature, and may be related to the sex drive.", "The human mating process encompasses the social and cultural processes whereby one person may meet another to assess suitability, the courtship process and the process of forming an interpersonal relationship.", "Commonalities, however, can be found between humans and nonhuman animals in mating behavior." ], [ "Stages of physiological arousal during sexual stimulation", "This Indian Kama sutra illustration, which shows a woman on top of a man, depicts the male erection, which is one of the physiological responses to sexual arousal for men.The physiological responses during sexual stimulation are fairly similar for both men and women and there are four phases.", "* During the excitement phase, muscle tension and blood flow increase in and around the sexual organs, heart and respiration increase and blood pressure rises.", "Men and women experience a \"sex flush\" on the skin of the upper body and face.", "For women, the vagina becomes lubricated and the clitoris engorges.", "For men, the penis becomes erect.", "* During the plateau phase, heart rate and muscle tension increase further.", "A man's urinary bladder closes to prevent urine from mixing with semen.", "A woman's clitoris may withdraw slightly and there is more lubrication, outer swelling and muscles tighten and reduction of diameter.", "* During the orgasm phase, breathing becomes extremely rapid and the pelvic muscles begin a series of rhythmic contractions.", "Both men and women experience quick cycles of muscle contraction of lower pelvic muscles and women often experience uterine and vaginal contractions; this experience can be described as intensely pleasurable, but roughly 15% of women never experience orgasm, and half report having faked it.", "A large genetic component is associated with how often women experience orgasm.", "* During the resolution phase, muscles relax, blood pressure drops, and the body returns to its resting state.", "Though generally reported that women do not experience a refractory period and thus can experience an additional orgasm, or multiple orgasms soon after the first, some sources state that both men and women experience a refractory period because women may also experience a period after orgasm in which further sexual stimulation does not produce excitement.", "This period may last from minutes to days and is typically longer for men than women.Sexual dysfunction is the inability to react emotionally or physically to sexual stimulation in a way projected of the average healthy person; it can affect different stages in the sexual response cycles, which are desire, excitement and orgasm.", "In the media, sexual dysfunction is often associated with men, but in actuality, it is more commonly observed in females (43 percent) than males (31 percent)." ], [ "Psychological aspects", "Sexual activity can lower blood pressure and overall stress levels.", "It serves to release tension, elevate mood, and possibly create a profound sense of relaxation, especially in the postcoital period.", "From a biochemical perspective, sex causes the release of oxytocin and endorphins and boosts the immune system.===Motivations===People engage in sexual activity for any of a multitude of possible reasons.", "Although the primary evolutionary purpose of sexual activity is reproduction, research on college students suggested that people have sex for four general reasons: ''physical attraction'', as a ''means to an end'', to increase ''emotional connection'', and to ''alleviate insecurity''.Most people engage in sexual activity because of pleasure they derive from the arousal of their sexuality, especially if they can achieve orgasm.", "Sexual arousal can also be experienced from foreplay and flirting, and from fetish or BDSM activities, or other erotic activities.", "Most commonly, people engage in sexual activity because of the sexual desire generated by a person to whom they feel sexual attraction; but they may engage in sexual activity for the physical satisfaction they achieve in the absence of attraction for another, as in the case of casual or social sex.", "At times, a person may engage in a sexual activity solely for the sexual pleasure of their partner, such as because of an obligation they may have to the partner or because of love, sympathy or pity they may feel for the partner.A person may engage in sexual activity for purely monetary considerations, or to obtain some advantage from either the partner or the activity.", "A man and woman may engage in sexual intercourse with the objective of conception.", "Some people engage in hate sex which occurs between two people who strongly dislike or annoy each other.", "It is related to the idea that opposition between two people can heighten sexual tension, attraction and interest.===Self-determination theory===Research has found that people also engage in sexual activity for reasons associated with self-determination theory.", "The self-determination theory can be applied to a sexual relationship when the participants have positive feelings associated with the relationship.", "These participants do not feel guilty or coerced into the partnership.", "Researchers have proposed the model of self-determined sexual motivation.", "The purpose of this model is to connect self-determination and sexual motivation.", "This model has helped to explain how people are sexually motivated when involved in self-determined dating relationships.", "This model also links the positive outcomes, (satisfying the need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness) gained from sexual motivations.According to the completed research associated with this model, it was found that people of both sexes who engaged in sexual activity for self-determined motivation had more positive psychological well-being.", "While engaging in sexual activity for self-determined reasons, the participants also had a higher need for fulfillment.", "When this need was satisfied, they felt better about themselves.", "This was correlated with greater closeness to their partner and higher overall satisfaction in their relationship.", "Though both sexes engaged in sexual activity for self-determined reasons, there were some differences found between males and females.", "It was concluded that females had more motivation than males to engage in sexual activity for self-determined reasons.", "Females also had higher satisfaction and relationship quality than males did from the sexual activity.", "Overall, research concluded that psychological well-being, sexual motivation, and sexual satisfaction were all positively correlated when dating couples partook in sexual activity for self-determined reasons." ], [ "Frequency", "The frequency of sexual activity might range from zero to 15 or 20 times a week.", "Frequency of intercourse tends to decline with age.", "Some post-menopausal women experience decline in frequency of sexual intercourse, while others do not.", "According to the Kinsey Institute, the average frequency of sexual intercourse in the US for individuals with partners is 112 times per year (age 18–29), 86 times per year (age 30–39), and 69 times per year (age 40–49).===Adolescents===The age at which adolescents become sexually active varies considerably between different cultures and times.", "(See Prevalence of virginity.)", "The first sexual act of a child or adolescent is sometimes referred to as the sexualization of the child, and may be considered a milestone or a change of status, as the loss of virginity or innocence.", "Youth are legally free to have intercourse after they reach the age of consent.A 1999 survey of students indicated that approximately 40% of ninth graders across the United States report having had sexual intercourse.", "This figure rises with each grade.", "Males are more sexually active than females at each of the grade levels surveyed.", "Sexual activity of young adolescents differs in ethnicity as well.", "A higher percentage of African American and Hispanic adolescents are more sexually active than white adolescents.Research on sexual frequency has also been conducted solely on female adolescents who engage in sexual activity.", "Female adolescents tended to engage in more sexual activity due to positive mood.", "In female teenagers, engaging in sexual activity was directly positively correlated with being older, greater sexual activity in the previous week or prior day, and more positive mood the previous day or the same day as the sexual activity occurred.", "Decreased sexual activity was associated with prior or same day negative mood or menstruation.Although opinions differ, researchers suggest that sexual activity is an essential part of humans, and that teenagers need to experience sex.", "According to a study, sexual experiences help teenagers understand pleasure and satisfaction.", "In relation to hedonic and eudaimonic well-being, it stated that teenagers can positively benefit from sexual activity.", "The cross-sectional study was conducted in 2008 and 2009 at a rural upstate New York community.", "Teenagers who had their first sexual experience at age 16 revealed a higher well-being than those who were sexually inexperienced or who became sexually active at age 17.Furthermore, teenagers who had their first sexual experience at age 15 or younger, or who had many sexual partners were not negatively affected and did not have associated lower well-being." ], [ "Health and safety", "Sexual activity is an innately physiological function, but like other physical activity, it comes with risks.", "There are four main types of risks that may arise from sexual activity: unwanted pregnancy, contracting a sexually transmitted infection (STI), physical injury, and psychological injury.===Unwanted pregnancy===Any sexual activity that involves the introduction of semen into a woman's vagina, such as during sexual intercourse, or contact of semen with her vulva, may result in a pregnancy.", "To reduce the risk of unintended pregnancies, some people who engage in penile-vaginal sex may use contraception, such as birth control pills, a condom, diaphragms, spermicides, hormonal contraception or sterilization.", "The effectiveness of the various contraceptive methods in avoiding pregnancy varies considerably, and depends on the method rather than the user.===Sexually transmitted infections===A rolled-up male condomSexual activity that involves skin-to-skin contact, exposure to an infected person's bodily fluids or mucous membranes carries the risk of contracting a sexually transmitted infection.", "People may not be able to detect that their sexual partner has one or more STIs, for example if they are asymptomatic (show no symptoms).", "The risk of STIs can be reduced by safe sex practices, such as using condoms.", "Both partners may opt to be tested for STIs before engaging in sex.", "The exchange of body fluids is not necessary to contract an infestation of crab lice.", "Crab lice typically are found attached to hair in the pubic area but sometimes are found on coarse hair elsewhere on the body (for example, eyebrows, eyelashes, beard, mustache, chest, armpits, etc.).", "Pubic lice infestations (pthiriasis) are spread through direct contact with someone who is infested with the louse.Some STIs like HIV/AIDS can also be contracted by using IV drug needles after their use by an infected person, as well as through childbirth or breastfeeding.===Aging===Factors such as biological and psychological factors, diseases, mental conditions, boredom with the relationship, and widowhood have been found to contribute to a decrease in sexual interest and activity in old age, but older age does not eliminate the ability to enjoy sexual activity." ], [ "Orientations and society", "===Heterosexuality===Sexual intercourse in the missionary positionHeterosexuality is the romantic or sexual attraction to the opposite sex.", "Heterosexual practices are institutionally privileged in most countries.", "In some countries, mostly those where religion has a strong influence on social policy, marriage laws serve the purpose of encouraging people to have sex only within marriage.", "Sodomy laws have been used to discourage same-sex sexual practices, but they may also affect opposite-sex sexual practices.", "Laws also ban adults from committing sexual abuse, committing sexual acts with anyone under an age of consent, performing sexual activities in public, and engaging in sexual activities for money (prostitution).", "Though these laws cover both same-sex and opposite-sex sexual activities, they may differ in regard to punishment, and may be more frequently (or exclusively) enforced on those who engage in same-sex sexual activities.Different-sex sexual practices may be monogamous, serially monogamous, or polyamorous, and, depending on the definition of sexual practice, abstinent or autoerotic (including masturbation).", "Additionally, different religious and political movements have tried to influence or control changes in sexual practices including courting and marriage, though in most countries changes occur at a slow rate.===Homosexuality===An Ottoman miniature from the book ''Sawaqub al-Manaquib'' depicting homosexualityHomosexuality is the romantic or sexual attraction to the same sex.", "People with a homosexual orientation can express their sexuality in a variety of ways, and may or may not express it in their behaviors.", "Research indicates that many gay men and lesbians want, and succeed in having, committed and durable relationships.", "For example, survey data indicate that between 40% and 60% of gay men and between 45% and 80% of lesbians are currently involved in a romantic relationship.It is possible for a person whose sexual identity is mainly heterosexual to engage in sexual acts with people of the same sex.", "Gay and lesbian people who pretend to be heterosexual are often referred to as being closeted (hiding their sexuality in \"the closet\").", "\"Closet case\" is a derogatory term used to refer to people who hide their sexuality.", "Making that orientation public can be called \"coming out of the closet\" in the case of voluntary disclosure or \"outing\" in the case of disclosure by others against the subject's wishes (or without their knowledge).", "Among some communities (called \"men on the DL\" or \"down-low\"), same-sex sexual behavior is sometimes viewed as solely for physical pleasure.", "Men who have sex with men, as well as women who have sex with women, or men on the \"down-low\" may engage in sex acts with members of the same sex while continuing sexual and romantic relationships with the opposite sex.A 1925 Gerda Wegener painting, \"Les delassements d'Eros\" (\"The recreations of Eros\"), of two women engaged in sexual activity in bedPeople who engage exclusively in same-sex sexual practices may not identify themselves as gay or lesbian.", "In sex-segregated environments, individuals may seek relationships with others of their own gender (known as situational homosexuality).", "In other cases, some people may experiment or explore their sexuality with same (or different) sex sexual activity before defining their sexual identity.", "Despite stereotypes and common misconceptions, there are no forms of sexual acts exclusive to same-sex sexual behavior that cannot also be found in opposite-sex sexual behavior, except those involving the meeting of the genitalia between same-sex partners – tribadism (generally vulva-to-vulva rubbing) and frot (generally penis-to-penis rubbing).===Bisexuality and pansexuality===People who have a romantic or sexual attraction to both sexes are referred to as bisexual.", "People who have a distinct but not exclusive preference for one sex/gender over the other may also identify themselves as bisexual.", "Like gay and lesbian individuals, bisexual people who pretend to be heterosexual are often referred to as being closeted.Pansexuality (also referred to as omnisexuality) may or may not be subsumed under bisexuality, with some sources stating that bisexuality encompasses sexual or romantic attraction to all gender identities.", "Pansexuality is characterized by the potential for aesthetic attraction, romantic love, or sexual desire towards people without regard for their gender identity or biological sex.", "Some pansexuals suggest that they are gender-blind; that gender and sex are insignificant or irrelevant in determining whether they will be sexually attracted to others.", "As defined in the ''Oxford English Dictionary,'' pansexuality \"encompasses all kinds of sexuality; not limited or inhibited in sexual choice with regards to gender or practice\"." ], [ "Other social aspects", "===General attitudes===Alex Comfort and others propose three potential social aspects of sexual intercourse in humans, which are not mutually exclusive: reproductive, relational, and recreational.", "The development of the contraceptive pill and other highly effective forms of contraception in the mid- and late 20th century has increased people's ability to segregate these three functions, which still overlap a great deal and in complex patterns.", "For example: A fertile couple may have intercourse while using contraception to experience sexual pleasure (recreational) and also as a means of emotional intimacy (relational), thus deepening their bonding, making their relationship more stable and more capable of sustaining children in the future (deferred reproductive).", "This same couple may emphasize different aspects of intercourse on different occasions, being playful during one episode of intercourse (recreational), experiencing deep emotional connection on another occasion (relational), and later, after discontinuing contraception, seeking to achieve pregnancy (reproductive, or more likely reproductive and relational).===Religious and ethical===Human sexual activity is generally influenced by social rules that are culturally specific and vary widely.Sexual ethics, morals, and norms relate to issues including deception/honesty, legality, fidelity and consent.", "Some activities, known as sex crimes in some locations, are illegal in some jurisdictions, including those conducted between (or among) consenting and competent adults (examples include sodomy law and adult-adult incest).Some people who are in a relationship but want to hide polygamous activity (possibly of opposite sexual orientation) from their partner, may solicit consensual sexual activity with others through personal contacts, online chat rooms, or, advertising in select media.Swinging involves singles or partners in a committed relationship engaging in sexual activities with others as a recreational or social activity.", "The increasing popularity of swinging is regarded by some as arising from the upsurge in sexual activity during the sexual revolution of the 1960s.Some people engage in various sexual activities as a business transaction.", "When this involves having sex with, or performing certain actual sexual acts for another person in exchange for money or something of value, it is called prostitution.", "Other aspects of the adult industry include phone sex operators, strip clubs, and pornography.===Gender roles and the expression of sexuality===Social gender roles can influence sexual behavior as well as the reaction of individuals and communities to certain incidents; the World Health Organization states that, \"Sexual violence is also more likely to occur where beliefs in male sexual entitlement are strong, where gender roles are more rigid, and in countries experiencing high rates of other types of violence.\"", "Some societies, such as those where the concepts of family honor and female chastity are very strong, may practice violent control of female sexuality, through practices such as honor killings and female genital mutilation.The relation between gender equality and sexual expression is recognized, and promotion of equity between men and women is crucial for attaining sexual and reproductive health, as stated by the UN International Conference on Population and Development Program of Action::\"Human sexuality and gender relations are closely interrelated and together affect the ability of men and women to achieve and maintain sexual health and manage their reproductive lives.", "Equal relationships between men and women in matters of sexual relations and reproduction, including full respect for the physical integrity of the human body, require mutual respect and willingness to accept responsibility for the consequences of sexual behaviour.", "Responsible sexual behaviour, sensitivity and equity in gender relations, particularly when instilled during the formative years, enhance and promote respectful and harmonious partnerships between men and women.\"" ], [ "BDSM", "A man handcuffed to a bed and blindfoldedBDSM is a variety of erotic practices or roleplaying involving bondage, dominance and submission, sadomasochism, and other interpersonal dynamics.", "Given the wide range of practices, some of which may be engaged in by people who do not consider themselves as practicing BDSM, inclusion in the BDSM community or subculture usually being dependent on self-identification and shared experience.", "BDSM communities generally welcome anyone with a non-normative streak who identifies with the community; this may include cross-dressers, extreme body modification enthusiasts, animal players, latex or rubber aficionados, and others.B/D (bondage and discipline) is a part of BDSM.", "Bondage includes the restraint of the body or mind.", "D/s means \"Dominant and submissive\".", "A Dominant is one who takes control of a person who wishes to surrender control and a submissive is one who surrenders control to a person who wishes to take control.", "S/M (sadism and masochism) is the other part of BDSM.", "A sadist is an individual who takes pleasure in the pain or humiliation of others and a masochist is an individual who takes pleasure from their own pain or humiliation.Unlike the usual \"power neutral\" relationships and play styles commonly followed by couples, activities and relationships within a BDSM context are often characterized by the participants' taking on complementary, but unequal roles; thus, the idea of informed consent of both the partners becomes essential.", "Participants who exert dominance (sexual or otherwise) over their partners are known as Dominants or Tops, while participants who take the passive, receiving, or obedient role are known as submissives or bottoms.These terms are sometimes shortened so that a dominant person may be referred to as a \"Dom\" (a woman may choose to use the feminine \"Domme\") and a submissive may be referred to as a \"sub\".", "Individuals who can change between Top/Dominant and bottom/submissive roles – whether from relationship to relationship or within a given relationship – are known as ''switches''.", "The precise definition of roles and self-identification is a common subject of debate within the community.In a 2013 study, researchers stated that BDSM is a sexual act where participants play role games, use restraint, use power exchange,use suppression and pain is sometimes involved depending on individual(s).", "The study serves to challenge the widespread notion that BDSM could be in some way linked to psychopathology.", "According to the findings, one who participates in BDSM may have greater strength socially and mentally as well as greater independence than those who do not practice BDSM.", "It suggests that people who participate in BDSM play have higher subjective well-being, and that this might be due to the fact that BDSM play requires extensive communication.", "Before any act occurs, the partners must discuss their agreement of their relationship.", "They discuss how long the play will last, the intensity, their actions, what each participant needs or desires, and what, if any, sexual activities may be included.", "All acts must be consensual and pleasurable to both parties.In a 2015 study, interviewed BDSM participants have mentioned that the activities have helped to create higher levels of connection, intimacy, trust and communication between partners.", "The study suggests that Dominants and submissives exchange control for each other's pleasure and to satisfy a need.", "The participants have remarked that they enjoy pleasing their partner in any way they can and many surveyed have felt that this is one of the best things about BDSM.", "It gives a submissive pleasure to do things in general for their Dominant while a Dominant enjoys making their encounters all about their submissive and enjoy doing things that makes their submissive happy.", "The findings indicate that the surveyed submissives and Dominants found BDSM makes play more pleasurable and fun.", "The participants have also mentioned improvements in their personal growth, romantic relationships, sense of community and self, the dominant's confidence, and their coping with everyday things by giving them a psychological release." ], [ "Legal issues", "There are many laws and social customs which prohibit, or in some way affect sexual activities.", "These laws and customs vary from country to country, and have varied over time.", "They cover, for example, a prohibition to non-consensual sex, to sex outside marriage, to sexual activity in public, besides many others.", "Many of these restrictions are non-controversial, but some have been the subject of public debate.Most societies consider it a serious crime to force someone to engage in sexual acts or to engage in sexual activity with someone who does not consent.", "This is called sexual assault, and if sexual penetration occurs it is called rape, the most serious kind of sexual assault.", "The details of this distinction may vary among different legal jurisdictions.", "Also, what constitutes effective consent in sexual matters varies from culture to culture and is frequently debated.", "Laws regulating the minimum age at which a person can consent to have sex (age of consent) are frequently the subject of debate, as is adolescent sexual behavior in general.", "Some societies have forced marriage, where consent may not be required.===Same-sex laws===Many locales have laws that limit or prohibit same-sex sexual activity.===Sex outside marriage===In the West, sex before marriage is not illegal.", "There are social taboos and many religions condemn pre-marital sex.", "In many Muslim countries, such as Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, Kuwait, Maldives, Morocco, Oman, Mauritania, United Arab Emirates, Sudan, and Yemen, any form of sexual activity outside marriage is illegal.", "Those found guilty, especially women, may be forced to wed the sexual partner, may be publicly beaten, or may be stoned to death.", "In many African and native tribes, sexual activity is not viewed as a privilege or right of a married couple, but rather as the unification of bodies and is thus not frowned upon.Other studies have analyzed the changing attitudes about sex that American adolescents have outside marriage.", "Adolescents were asked how they felt about oral and vaginal sex in relation to their health, social, and emotional well-being.", "Overall, teenagers felt that oral sex was viewed as more socially positive amongst their demographic.", "Results stated that teenagers believed that oral sex for dating and non-dating adolescents was less threatening to their overall values and beliefs than vaginal sex was.", "When asked, teenagers who participated in the research viewed oral sex as more acceptable to their peers, and their personal values than vaginal sex.===Minimum age of sexual activity (age of consent)===The laws of each jurisdiction set the minimum age at which a young person is allowed to engage in sexual activity.", "This age of consent is typically between 14 and 18 years, but laws vary.", "In many jurisdictions, age of consent is a person's mental or functional age.", "As a result, those above the set age of consent may still be considered unable to legally consent due to mental immaturity.", "Many jurisdictions regard any sexual activity by an adult involving a child as child sexual abuse.Age of consent may vary by the type of sexual act, the sex of the actors, or other restrictions such as abuse of a position of trust.", "Some jurisdictions also make allowances for young people engaged in sexual acts with each other.===Incestuous relationships===Most jurisdictions prohibit sexual activity between certain close relatives.", "These laws vary to some extent; such acts are called incestuous.Incest laws may involve restrictions on marriage rights, which also vary between jurisdictions.", "When incest involves an adult and a child, it is considered to be a form of child sexual abuse.===Sexual abuse===Non-consensual sexual activity or subjecting an unwilling person to witnessing a sexual activity are forms of sexual abuse, as well as (in many countries) certain non-consensual paraphilias such as frotteurism, telephone scatophilia (indecent phonecalls), and non-consensual exhibitionism and voyeurism (known as \"indecent exposure\" and \"peeping tom\" respectively).===Prostitution and survival sex===People sometimes exchange sex for money or access to other resources.", "Work takes place under many varied circumstances.", "The person who receives payment for sexual services is known as a prostitute and the person who receives such services is referred to by a multitude of terms, such as being a client.", "Prostitution is one of the branches of the sex industry.", "The legal status of prostitution varies from country to country, from being a punishable crime to a regulated profession.", "Estimates place the annual revenue generated from the global prostitution industry to be over $100 billion.", "Prostitution is sometimes referred to as \"the world's oldest profession\".", "Prostitution may be a voluntary individual activity or facilitated or forced by pimps.Survival sex is a form of prostitution engaged in by people in need, usually when homeless or otherwise disadvantaged people trade sex for food, a place to sleep, or other basic needs, or for drugs.", "The term is used by sex trade and poverty researchers and aid workers." ], [ "See also", "* Child sexuality* Erotic plasticity* History of human sexuality* Human female sexuality* Human male sexuality* Mechanics of human sexuality* Orgasm control* Orgastic potency* Sexual activity during pregnancy* Sociosexual orientation* Transgender sexuality" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Durex Global Sex Survey 2005 (PDF) at data360.org*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hydraulic ram" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''hydraulic ram pump''', '''ram pump''', or '''hydram''' is a cyclic water pump powered by hydropower.", "It takes in water at one \"hydraulic head\" (pressure) and flow rate, and outputs water at a higher hydraulic head and lower flow rate.", "The device uses the water hammer effect to develop pressure that allows a portion of the input water that powers the pump to be lifted to a point higher than where the water originally started.", "The hydraulic ram is sometimes used in remote areas, where there is both a source of low-head hydropower and a need for pumping water to a destination higher in elevation than the source.", "In this situation, the ram is often useful, since it requires no outside source of power other than the kinetic energy of flowing water.Valve arrangement of the Papa hydraulic ram pump" ], [ "History", "Figure 1: A John Blake's hydram that drives a fountain at the Centre for Alternative TechnologyA ram pump in Vogn, Nordjylland, DenmarkA hydraulic ram in Kajny, Warmia, PolandThe Alhambra, built by Nasrid Sultan Ibn al-Ahmar of Granada beginning in 1238, used a hydram to raise water.", "Through a first reservoir, filled by a channel from the Darro River, water emptied via a large vertical channel into a second reservoir beneath, creating a whirlpool that in turn propelled water through a much smaller pipe up six metres whilst most water drained into a second, slightly larger pipe.In 1772, John Whitehurst of Cheshire, England, invented a manually controlled precursor of the hydraulic ram called the \"pulsation engine\" and installed the first one at Oulton, Cheshire to raise water to a height of .", "In 1783, he installed another in Ireland.", "He did not patent it, and details are obscure, but it is known to have had an air vessel.The first self-acting ram pump was invented by the Frenchman Joseph Michel Montgolfier (best known as a co-inventor of the hot air balloon) in 1796 for raising water in his paper mill at Voiron.", "His friend Matthew Boulton took out a British patent on his behalf in 1797.The sons of Montgolfier obtained a British patent for an improved version in 1816, and this was acquired, together with Whitehurst's design, in 1820 by Josiah Easton, a Somerset-born engineer who had just moved to London.Easton's firm, inherited by his son James (1796–1871), grew during the nineteenth century to become one of the more important engineering manufacturers in England, with a large works at Erith, Kent.", "They specialised in water supply and sewerage systems worldwide, as well as land drainage projects.", "Eastons had a good business supplying rams for water supply purposes to large country houses, farms, and village communities.", "Some of their installations still survived as of 2004, one such example being at the hamlet of Toller Whelme, in Dorset.", "Until about 1958 when the mains water arrived, the hamlet of East Dundry just south of Bristol had three working rams – their noisy \"thump\" every minute or so resonated through the valley night and day: these rams served farms that needed much water for their dairy herds.The firm closed in 1909, but the ram business was continued by James R. Easton.", "In 1929, it was acquired by Green & Carter of Winchester, Hampshire, who were engaged in the manufacturing and installation of Vulcan and Vacher Rams.Hydraulic ram, System Lambach now at Roscheider Hof Open Air MuseumThe first US patent was issued to Joseph Cerneau (or Curneau) and Stephen (Étienne) S. Hallet (1755-1825) in 1809.US interest in hydraulic rams picked up around 1840, as further patents were issued and domestic companies started offering rams for sale.", "Toward the end of the 19th century, interest waned as electricity and electric pumps became widely available.Priestly's Hydraulic Ram, built in 1890 in Idaho, was a \"marvelous\" invention, apparently independent, which lifted water to provide irrigation.", "The ram survives and is listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places.By the end of the twentieth century, interest in hydraulic rams has revived, due to the needs of sustainable technology in developing countries, and energy conservation in developed ones.", "An example is Aid Foundation International in the Philippines, who won an Ashden Award for their work developing ram pumps that could be easily maintained for use in remote villages.", "The hydraulic ram principle has been used in some proposals for exploiting wave power, one of which was discussed as long ago as 1931 by Hanns Günther in his book ''In hundert Jahren''.Some later ram designs in the UK called '''compound rams''' were designed to pump treated water using an untreated drive water source, which overcomes some of the problems of having drinking water sourced from an open stream.In 1996 English engineer Frederick Philip Selwyn patented a more compact hydraulic ram pump where the waste valve used the venturi effect and was arranged concentrically around the input pipe.", "Initially patented as a fluid pressure amplifier due to its different design, it is currently sold as the \"Papa Pump\".Additionally to this a large scale version named the \"Venturo Pump\" is also being manufactured." ], [ "Construction and principle of operation", "A traditional hydraulic ram has only two moving parts, a spring or weight loaded \"waste\" valve sometimes known as the \"clack\" valve and a \"delivery\" check valve, making it cheap to build, easy to maintain, and very reliable.Priestly's Hydraulic Ram, described in detail in the 1947 Encyclopedia Britannica, has no moving parts.=== Sequence of operation ===Figure 2: Basic components of a hydraulic ram:1.Inlet – drive pipe2.Free flow at waste valve3.Outlet – delivery pipe4.Waste valve5.Delivery check valve6.Pressure vesselA simplified hydraulic ram is shown in Figure 2.Initially, the waste valve 4 is open (i.e.", "lowered) because of its own weight, and the delivery valve 5 is closed under the pressure caused by the water column from the outlet 3.The water in the inlet pipe 1 starts to flow under the force of gravity and picks up speed and kinetic energy until the increasing drag force lifts the waste valve's weight and closes it.", "The momentum of the water flow in the inlet pipe against the now closed waste valve causes a water hammer that raises the pressure in the pump beyond the pressure caused by the water column pressing down from the outlet.", "This pressure differential now opens the delivery valve 5, and forces some water to flow into the delivery pipe 3.Because this water is being forced uphill through the delivery pipe farther than it is falling downhill from the source, the flow slows; when the flow reverses, the delivery check valve 5 closes.", "Meanwhile, the water hammer from the closing of the waste valve also produces a pressure pulse which propagates back up the inlet pipe to the source where it converts to a suction pulse that propagates back down the inlet pipe.", "This suction pulse, with the weight or spring on the valve, pulls the waste valve back open and allows the process to begin again.", "A pressure vessel 6 containing air cushions the hydraulic pressure shock when the waste valve closes, and it also improves the pumping efficiency by allowing a more constant flow through the delivery pipe.", "Although the pump could in theory work without it, the efficiency would drop drastically and the pump would be subject to extraordinary stresses that could shorten its life considerably.", "One problem is that the pressurized air will gradually dissolve into the water until none remains.", "One solution to this problem is to have the air separated from the water by an elastic diaphragm (similar to an expansion tank); however, this solution can be problematic in developing countries where replacements are difficult to procure.", "Another solution is a snifting valve installed close to the drive side of the delivery valve.", "This automatically inhales a small amount of air each time the delivery valve shuts and the partial vacuum develops.", "Another solution is to insert an inner tube of a car or bicycle tire into the pressure vessel with some air in it and the valve closed.", "This tube is in effect the same as the diaphragm, but it is implemented with more widely available materials.", "The air in the tube cushions the shock of the water the same as the air in other configurations does.===Efficiency===A typical energy efficiency is 60%, but up to 80% is possible.", "This should not be confused with the volumetric efficiency, which relates the volume of water delivered to total water taken from the source.", "The portion of water available at the delivery pipe will be reduced by the ratio of the delivery head to the supply head.", "Thus if the source is 2 meters above the ram and the water is lifted to 10 meters above the ram, only 20% of the supplied water can be available, the other 80% being spilled via the waste valve.", "These ratios assume 100% energy efficiency.", "Actual water delivered will be further reduced by the energy efficiency factor.", "In the above example, if the energy efficiency is 70%, the water delivered will be 70% of 20%, i.e.", "14%.", "Assuming a 2-to-1 supply-head-to-delivery-head ratio and 70% efficiency, the delivered water would be 70% of 50%, i.e.", "35%.", "Very high ratios of delivery to supply head usually result in lowered energy efficiency.", "Suppliers of rams often provide tables giving expected volume ratios based on actual tests.===Drive and delivery pipe design===Since both efficiency and reliable cycling depend on water hammer effects, the drive pipe design is important.", "It should be between 3 and 7 times longer than the vertical distance between the source and the ram.", "Commercial rams may have an input fitting designed to accommodate this optimum slope.", "The diameter of the supply pipe would normally match the diameter of the input fitting on the ram, which in turn is based on its pumping capacity.", "The drive pipe should be of constant diameter and material, and should be as straight as possible.", "Where bends are necessary, they should be smooth, large diameter curves.", "Even a large spiral is allowed, but elbows are to be avoided.", "PVC will work in some installations, but steel pipe is preferred, although much more expensive.", "If valves are used they should be a free flow type such as a ball valve or gate valve.The delivery pipe is much less critical since the pressure vessel prevents water hammer effects from traveling up it.", "Its overall design would be determined by the allowable pressure drop based on the expected flow.", "Typically the pipe size will be about half that of the supply pipe, but for very long runs a larger size may be indicated.", "PVC pipe and any necessary valves are not a problem.=== Starting operation ===A ram newly placed into operation or which has stopped cycling should start automatically if the waste valve weight or spring pressure is adjusted correctly, but it can be restarted as follows: If the waste valve is in the raised (closed) position, it must be pushed down manually into the open position and released.", "If the flow is sufficient, it will then cycle at least once.", "If it does not continue to cycle, it must be pushed down repeatedly until it cycles continuously on its own, usually after three or four manual cycles.", "If the ram stops with the waste valve in the down (open) position it must be lifted manually and kept up for as long as necessary for the supply pipe to fill with water and for any air bubbles to travel up the pipe to the source.", "This may take some time, depending on supply pipe length and diameter.", "Then it can be started manually by pushing it down a few times as described above.", "Having a valve on the delivery pipe at the ram makes starting easier.", "Closing the valve until the ram starts cycling, then gradually opening it to fill the delivery pipe.", "If opened too quickly it will stop the cycle.", "Once the delivery pipe is full the valve can be left open.=== Common operational problems ===Failure to deliver sufficient water may be due to improper adjustment of the waste valve, having too little air in the pressure vessel, or simply attempting to raise the water higher than the level of which the ram is capable.The ram may be damaged by freezing in winter, or loss of air in the pressure vessel leading to excess stress on the ram parts.", "These failures will require welding or other repair methods and perhaps parts replacement.It is not uncommon for an operating ram to require occasional restarts.", "The cycling may stop due to poor adjustment of the waste valve, or insufficient water flow at the source.", "Air can enter if the supply water level is not at least a few inches above the input end of the supply pipe.", "Other problems are blockage of the valves with debris, or improper installation, such as using a supply pipe of non-uniform diameter or material, having sharp bends or a rough interior, or one that is too long or short for the drop, or is made of an insufficiently rigid material.", "A PVC supply pipe will work in some installations but a steel pipe is better." ], [ "See also", "* Boost converterelectronic–hydraulic analog of the hydraulic ram.", "* Heron's fountain* Pulser pump, a similar device made from a trompe connected to an airlift pump * Water rocket" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Ram pump complete blueprints" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Homininae" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Homininae''' (), also called \"'''African hominids'''\" or \"'''African apes'''\", is a subfamily of Hominidae.", "It includes two tribes, with their extant as well as extinct species: 1) the tribe Hominini (with the genus ''Homo'' including modern humans and numerous extinct species; the subtribe Hominina, comprising at least two extinct genera; and the subtribe Panina, represented only by the genus ''Pan'', which includes chimpanzees and bonobos)―and 2) the tribe Gorillini (gorillas).", "Alternatively, the genus ''Pan'' is sometimes considered to belong to its own third tribe, Panini.", "Homininae comprises all hominids that arose after orangutans (subfamily Ponginae) split from the line of great apes.", "The Homininae cladogram has three main branches, which lead to gorillas (through the tribe Gorillini), and to humans and chimpanzees via the tribe Hominini and subtribes Hominina and Panina (see the evolutionary tree below).", "There are two living species of Panina (chimpanzees and bonobos) and two living species of gorillas, but only one extant human species.", "Traces of extinct ''Homo'' species, including ''Homo floresiensis'' have been found with dates as recent as 40,000 years ago.", "Organisms in this subfamily are described as '''hominine''' or '''hominines''' (not to be confused with the terms hominins or hominini)." ], [ "History of discoveries and classification", "Evolutionary tree of the superfamily Hominoidea, emphasizing the subfamily Homininae: after an initial separation from the main line (some 18 million years ago) of Hylobatidae (current gibbons), the line of subfamily Ponginae broke away—leading to the current orangutan; and later the Homininae split into the tribe Hominini (with subtribes Hominina and Panina), and the tribe Gorillini.Until 1970, the family (and term) Hominidae meant humans only; the non-human great apes were assigned to the family Pongidae.", "Later discoveries led to revised classifications, with the great apes then united with humans (now in subfamily Homininae) as members of family Hominidae By 1990, it was recognized that gorillas and chimpanzees are more closely related to humans than they are to orangutans, leading to their (gorillas' and chimpanzees') placement in subfamily Homininae as well.The subfamily Homininae can be further subdivided into three branches: the tribe Gorillini (gorillas), the tribe Hominini with subtribes Panina (chimpanzees) and Hominina (humans and their extinct relatives), and the extinct tribe Dryopithecini.", "The Late Miocene fossil ''Nakalipithecus nakayamai'', described in 2007, is a basal member of this clade, as is, perhaps, its contemporary ''Ouranopithecus''; that is, they are not assignable to any of the three extant branches.", "Their existence suggests that the Homininae tribes diverged not earlier than about 8 million years ago (see Human evolutionary genetics).Today, chimpanzees and gorillas live in tropical forests with acid soils that rarely preserve fossils.", "Although no fossil gorillas have been reported, four chimpanzee teeth about 500,000 years old have been discovered in the East-African rift valley (Kapthurin Formation, Kenya), where many fossils from the human lineage (hominins) have been found.", "This shows that some chimpanzees lived close to ''Homo'' (''H.", "erectus'' or ''H.", "rhodesiensis'') at the time; the same is likely true for gorillas." ], [ "Taxonomic classification", "'''Homininae'''* Tribe Dryopithecini†** ''Kenyapithecus (?", ")''*** ''Kenyapitheus wickeri''** ''Ouranopithecus''*** ''Ouranopithecus macedoniensis''** ''Otavipithecus''*** ''Otavipithecus namibiensis''** ''Oreopithecus (?)''", "*** ''Oreopithecus bambolii''** ''Nakalipithecus''*** ''Nakalipithecus nakayamai''** ''Anoiapithecus''*** ''Anoiapithecus brevirostris''** ''Dryopithecus'' *** ''Dryopithecus fontani''** ''Hispanopithecus (?)''", "*** ''Hispanopithecus laietanus''*** ''Hispanopithecus crusafonti''** ''Pierolapithecus''*** ''Pierolapithecus catalaunicus''** ''Rudapithecus (?", ")''*** ''Rudapithecus hungaricus''** ''Samburupithecus''*** ''Samburupithecus kiptalami''** ''Danuvius''*** ''Danuvius guggenmosi''* Tribe Gorillini** ''Chororapithecus'' †*** ''Chororapithecus abyssinicus''** Genus ''Gorilla''*** Western gorilla, ''Gorilla gorilla''**** Western lowland gorilla, ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''**** Cross River gorilla, ''Gorilla gorilla diehli''*** Eastern gorilla, ''Gorilla beringei''**** Mountain gorilla, ''Gorilla beringei beringei''**** Eastern lowland gorilla, ''Gorilla beringei graueri''* Tribe Hominini** Subtribe Panina*** Genus ''Pan''**** Chimpanzee (common chimpanzee), ''Pan troglodytes''***** Central chimpanzee, ''Pan troglodytes troglodytes''***** Western chimpanzee, ''Pan troglodytes verus''***** Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee, ''Pan troglodytes ellioti''***** Eastern chimpanzee, ''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''**** Bonobo (pygmy chimpanzee), ''Pan paniscus''** Subtribe Hominina*** ''Graecopithecus'' †**** ''Graecopithecus freybergi''.", "Note: ''Graecopithecus'' has also been subsumed by other authors into ''Dryopithecus''.", "The placement of ''Graecopithecus'' within the Hominina, as shown here, represents a hypothesis, but not scientific consensus.", "*** ''Sahelanthropus''†**** ''Sahelanthropus tchadensis''*** ''Orrorin''†**** ''Orrorin tugenensis''**** ''Orrorin praegens''*** ''Ardipithecus''†**** ''Ardipithecus ramidus''**** ''Ardipithecus kadabba''*** ''Kenyanthropus''†**** ''Kenyanthropus platyops''*** ''Australopithecus''†**** ''Australopithecus bahrelghazali''**** ''Australopithecus anamensis''**** ''Australopithecus afarensis''**** ''Australopithecus africanus''**** ''Australopithecus garhi''**** ''Australopithecus sediba''*** ''Paranthropus''†**** ''Paranthropus aethiopicus''**** ''Paranthropus robustus''**** ''Paranthropus boisei''*** ''Homo'' – immediate ancestors of modern humans**** ''Homo gautengensis''† (probable ''H.", "habilis'' specimens)**** ''Homo rudolfensis''†**** ''Homo habilis''†**** ''Homo floresiensis''†**** ''Homo erectus''†**** ''Homo ergaster''†**** ''Homo antecessor''†**** ''Homo heidelbergensis''†**** ''Homo cepranensis''† (probable early ''H.", "sapiens'' specimens)**** Denisovans (scientific name has not yet been assigned)†**** ''Homo neanderthalensis''†**** ''Homo rhodesiensis''† (probable late ''H.", "heidelbergensis'' specimens)**** ''Homo sapiens''***** Anatomically modern human, ''Homo sapiens sapiens''****** ''Archaic Homo sapiens'' (Cro-magnon)†****** Red Deer Cave people† (scientific name has not yet been assigned)***** ''Homo sapiens idaltu''† (classification not widely accepted)" ], [ "Evolution", "The age of the subfamily Homininae (of the Homininae–Ponginae last common ancestor) is estimated at some 14 to 12.5 million years (''Sivapithecus'').", "Its separation into Gorillini and Hominini (the \"gorilla–human last common ancestor\", GHLCA) is estimated to have occurred at about (TGHLCA) during the late Miocene, close to the age of ''Nakalipithecus nakayamai''.There is evidence there was interbreeding of Gorillas and the Pan–Homo ancestors until right up to the Pan–Homo split.===Evolution of bipedalism===Recent studies of ''Ardipithecus ramidus'' (4.4 million years old) and ''Orrorin tugenensis'' (6 million years old) suggest some degree of bipedalism.", "''Australopithecus'' and early ''Paranthropus'' may have been bipedal.", "Very early hominins such as ''Ardipithecus ramidus'' may have possessed an arboreal type of bipedalism.The evolution of bipedalism encouraged multiple changes among hominins especially when it came to bipedalism in humans as they were now able to do many other things as they began to walk with their feet.", "These changes included the ability to now use their hands to create tools or carry things with their hands, the ability to travel longer distances at a faster speed, and the ability to hunt for food.", "According to researchers, humans were able to be bipedalists due to Darwin's Principle of natural selection.", "Darwin himself believed that larger brains in humans made an upright gait necessary, but had no hypothesis for how the mechanism evolved.The first major theory attempting to directly explanation the origins of bipedalism was the Savannah hypothesis (Dart 1925.)", "This theory hypothesized that hominins became bipedalists due to the environment of the Savanna such as the tall grass and dry climate.", "This was later proven to be incorrect due to fossil records that showed that hominins were still climbing trees during this era.Anthropologist Owen Lovejoy has suggested that bipedalism was a result of sexual dimorphism in efforts to help with the collecting of food.", "In his Male Provisioning Hypothesis introduced in 1981, lowered birth rates in early hominids increased pressure on males to provide for females and offspring.", "While females groomed and cared for their children with the family group, males ranged to seek food and returned bipadally with full arms.", "Males who could better provide for females in this model were more likely to mate and produce offspring.Anthropologist Yohannes Haile-Selassie, an expert on ''Australopithecus anamensis'', discusses the evidence that Australopithecus were one of the first hominins to evolve into obligate bipedalists.", "The remains of this subfamily are very important in the field of research as it presents possible information regarding how these primates adapted from tree life to terrestrial life.", "This was a huge adaptation as it encouraged many evolutionary changes within hominins including the ability to use their hand to make tools and gather food, as well as a larger brain development due to their change in diet.===Brain size evolution===There has been a gradual increase in brain volume (brain size) as the ancestors of modern humans progressed along the timeline of human evolution, starting from about 600 cm3 in ''Homo habilis'' up to 1500 cm3 in ''Homo neanderthalensis''.", "However, modern ''Homo sapiens'' have a brain volume slightly smaller (1250 cm3) than Neanderthals, women have a brain slightly smaller than men and the Flores hominids (''Homo floresiensis''), nicknamed hobbits, had a cranial capacity of about 380 cm3 (considered small for a chimpanzee), about a third of the ''Homo erectus'' average.", "It is proposed that they evolved from ''H.", "erectus'' as a case of insular dwarfism.", "In spite of their smaller brain, there is evidence that ''H.", "floresiensis'' used fire and made stone tools at least as sophisticated as those of their proposed ancestors ''H.", "erectus''.", "In this case, it seems that for intelligence, the structure of the brain is more important than its size.The current size of the human brain is a big distinguishing factor that separates humans from other primates.", "Recent examination of the human brain shows that the brain of a human is about more than four times the size of great apes and 20 times larger than the brain size of old world monkeys.", "A study was conducted to help determine the evolution of the brain size within the sub family Homininae that tested the genes ASPM (abnormal spindle-like microcephaly associated) and MCHP1 (microcephalin-1) and their association with the human brain.", "In this study researchers discovered that the increase in brain size is correlated to the increase of both ASP and MCPH1.MCPH1 is very polymorphic in humans compared to gibbons, Old World monkeys.", "This gene helps encourage the growth of the brain.", "Further research indicated that the MCPH1 gene in humans could have also been an encouraging factor of population expansion.", "Other researchers have included that the diet was an encouraging factor to brain size as protein intake increased this helped brain development.===Evolution of family structure and sexuality===Sexuality is related to family structure and partly shapes it.", "The involvement of fathers in education is quite unique to humans, at least when compared to other Homininae.", "Concealed ovulation and menopause in women both also occur in a few other primates however, but are uncommon in other species.", "Testis and penis size seems to be related to family structure: monogamy or promiscuity, or harem, in humans, chimpanzees or gorillas, respectively.", "The levels of sexual dimorphism are generally seen as a marker of sexual selection.", "Studies have suggested that the earliest hominins were dimorphic and that this lessened over the course of the evolution of the genus ''Homo'', correlating with humans becoming more monogamous, whereas gorillas, who live in harems, show a large degree of sexual dimorphism.", "Concealed (or \"hidden\") ovulation means that the phase of fertility is not detectable in women, whereas chimpanzees advertise ovulation via an obvious swelling of the genitals.", "Women can be partly aware of their ovulation along the menstrual phases, but men are essentially unable to detect ovulation in women.", "Most primates have semi-concealed ovulation, thus one can think that the common ancestor had semi-concealed ovulation, that was inherited by gorillas, and that later evolved in concealed ovulation in humans and advertised ovulation in chimpanzees.", "Menopause also occurs in rhesus monkeys, and possibly in chimpanzees, but does not in gorillas and is quite uncommon in other primates (and other mammal groups)." ], [ "See also", "* * * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "********" ], [ "External links", "* Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016)." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Homo habilis" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Homo habilis''''' (\"handy man\") is an extinct species of archaic human from the Early Pleistocene of East and South Africa about 2.8 million years ago to 1.65 million years ago (mya).", "Upon species description in 1964, ''H.", "habilis'' was highly contested, with many researchers recommending it be synonymised with ''Australopithecus africanus'', the only other early hominin known at the time, but ''H.", "habilis'' received more recognition as time went on and more relevant discoveries were made.", "By the 1980s, ''H.", "habilis'' was proposed to have been a human ancestor, directly evolving into ''Homo erectus'' which directly led to modern humans.", "This viewpoint is now debated.", "Several specimens with insecure species identification were assigned to ''H.", "habilis'', leading to arguments for splitting, namely into \"''H.", "rudolfensis''\" and \"''H.", "gautengensis''\" of which only the former has received wide support.Like contemporary ''Homo'', ''H.", "habilis'' brain size generally varied from .", "The body proportions of ''H.", "habilis'' are only known from two highly fragmentary skeletons, and is based largely on assuming a similar anatomy to the earlier australopithecines.", "Because of this, it has also been proposed ''H.", "habilis'' be moved to the genus ''Australopithecus'' as '''''Australopithecus habilis'''''.", "However, the interpretation of ''H.", "habilis'' as a small-statured human with inefficient long-distance travel capabilities has been challenged.", "The presumed female specimen OH 62 is traditionally interpreted as having been in height and in weight assuming australopithecine-like proportions, but assuming humanlike proportions she would have been about and .", "Nonetheless, ''H.", "habilis'' may have been at least partially arboreal like what is postulated for australopithecines.", "Early hominins are typically reconstructed as having thick hair and marked sexual dimorphism with males much larger than females, though relative male and female size is not definitively known.''H.", "habilis'' manufactured the Oldowan stone-tool industry and mainly used tools in butchering.", "Early ''Homo'', compared to australopithecines, are generally thought to have consumed high quantities of meat and, in the case of ''H.", "habilis'', scavenged meat.", "Typically, early hominins are interpreted as having lived in polygynous societies, though this is highly speculative.", "Assuming ''H.", "habilis'' society was similar to that of modern savanna chimpanzees and baboons, groups may have numbered 70–85 members.", "This configuration would be advantageous with multiple males to defend against open savanna predators, such as big cats, hyenas and crocodiles.", "''H.", "habilis'' coexisted with ''H.", "rudolfensis'', ''H.", "ergaster'' / ''H.", "erectus'' and ''Paranthropus boisei''." ], [ "Taxonomy", "===Research history===KNM-ER 1813 reconstructed skull and jawThe first recognised remains—OH 7, partial juvenile skull, hand, and foot bones dating to 1.75 million years ago (mya)—were discovered in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, in 1960 by Jonathan Leakey.", "However, the actual first remains—OH 4, a molar—were discovered by the senior assistant of Louis and Mary Leakey (Jonathan's parents), Heselon Mukiri, in 1959, but this was not realised at the time.", "By this time, the Leakeys had spent 29 years excavating in Olduvai Gorge for early hominin remains, but had instead recovered mainly other animal remains as well as the Oldowan stone-tool industry.", "The industry had been ascribed to ''Paranthropus boisei'' (at the time \"''Zinjanthropus''\") in 1959 as it was the first and only hominin recovered in the area, but this was revised upon OH 7's discovery.", "In 1964, Louis, South African palaeoanthropologist Phillip V. Tobias, and British primatologist John R. Napier officially assigned the remains into the genus ''Homo'', and, on recommendation by Australian anthropologist Raymond Dart, the specific name ''H.", "habilis'', meaning \"able, handy, mentally skillful, vigorous\" in Latin.", "The specimen's association with the Oldowan (then considered evidence of advanced cognitive ability) was also used as justification for classifying it into ''Homo''.", "OH 7 was designated the holotype specimen.After description, it was hotly debated if ''H.", "habilis'' should be reclassified into ''Australopithecus africanus'' (the only other early hominin known at the time), in part because the remains were so old and at the time ''Homo'' was presumed to have evolved in Asia (with the australopithecines having no living descendants).", "Also, the brain size was smaller than what Wilfrid Le Gros Clark proposed in 1955 when considering ''Homo''.", "The classification ''H.", "habilis'' began to receive wider acceptance as more fossil elements and species were unearthed.", "In 1983, Tobias proposed that ''A.", "africanus'' was a direct ancestor of ''Paranthropus'' and ''Homo'' (the two were sister taxa), and that ''A.", "africanus'' evolved into ''H.", "habilis'' which evolved into ''H.", "erectus'' which evolved into modern humans (by a process of cladogenesis).", "He further said that there was a major evolutionary leap between ''A.", "africanus'' and ''H.", "habilis'', and thereupon human evolution progressed gradually because ''H.", "habilis'' brain size had nearly doubled compared to australopithecine predecessors.Cast of the type specimen OH 7Many had accepted Tobias' model and assigned Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene hominin remains outside the range of ''Paranthropus'' and ''H.", "erectus'' into ''H.", "habilis''.", "For non-skull elements, this was done on the basis of size as there was a lack of clear diagnostic characteristics.", "Because of these practices, the range of variation for the species became quite wide, and the terms ''H.", "habilis'' sensu stricto (i.e.", "strictly) and ''H.", "habilis'' sensu lato (i.e.", "broadly) were in use to include and exclude, respectively, more discrepant morphs.", "To address this, in 1985, English palaeoanthropologist Bernard Wood proposed that the comparatively massive skull KNM-ER 1470 from Lake Turkana, Kenya, discovered in 1972 and assigned to ''H.", "habilis'', actually represented a different species, now referred to as ''Homo rudolfensis''.", "It is also argued that instead it represents a male specimen whereas other ''H.", "habilis'' specimens are female.", "Early ''Homo'' from South Africa have variously been assigned to ''H.", "habilis'' or ''H.", "ergaster'' / ''H.", "erectus'', but species designation has largely been unclear.", "In 2010, Australian archaeologist Darren Curoe proposed splitting off South African early ''Homo'' into a new species, \"''Homo gautengensis''\".In 1986, OH 62, a fragmentary skeleton was discovered by American anthropologist Tim D. White in association with ''H.", "habilis'' skull fragments, definitively establishing aspects of ''H.", "habilis'' skeletal anatomy for the first time, and revealing more ''Australopithecus''-like than ''Homo''-like features.", "Because of this, as well as similarities in dental adaptations, Wood and biological anthropologist Mark Collard suggested moving the species to ''Australopithecus'' in 1999.However, reevaluation of OH 62 to a more humanlike physiology, if correct, would cast doubt on this.", "The discovery of the 1.8 Ma Georgian Dmanisi skulls in the early 2000s, which exhibit several similarities with early ''Homo'', has led to suggestions that all contemporary groups of early ''Homo'' in Africa, including ''H.", "habilis'' and ''H.", "rudolfensis'', are the same species and should be assigned to ''H.", "erectus''.===Classification===There is still no wide consensus as to whether or not ''H.", "habilis'' is ancestral to ''H.", "ergaster'' / ''H.", "erectus'' or is an offshoot of the human line, and whether or not all specimens assigned to ''H.", "habilis'' are correctly assigned or the species is an assemblage of different ''Australopithecus'' and ''Homo'' species.", "Nonetheless, ''H.", "habilis'' and ''H.", "rudolfensis'' generally are recognised members of the genus at the base of the family tree, with arguments for synonymisation or removal from the genus not widely adopted.Though it is now largely agreed upon that ''Homo'' evolved from ''Australopithecus'', the timing and placement of this split has been much debated, with many ''Australopithecus'' species having been proposed as the ancestor.", "The discovery of LD 350-1, the oldest ''Homo'' specimen, dating to 2.8 mya, in the Afar Region of Ethiopia may indicate that the genus evolved from ''A.", "afarensis'' around this time.", "The species LD 350-1 belongs to could be the ancestor of ''H.", "habilis'', but this is unclear.", "The oldest ''H.", "habilis'' specimen, A.L.", "666-1, dates to 2.3 mya, but is anatomically more derived (has less ancestral, or basal, traits) than the younger OH 7, suggesting derived and basal morphs lived concurrently, and that the ''H.", "habilis'' lineage began before 2.3 mya.", "Based on 2.1-million-year-old stone tools from Shangchen, China, ''H.", "habilis'' or an ancestral species may have dispersed across Asia.", "The youngest ''H.", "habilis'' specimen, OH 13, dates to about 1.65 mya." ], [ "Anatomy", "===Skull===''Homo habilis'' – forensic facial reconstructionIt has generally been thought that brain size increased along the human line especially rapidly at the transition between species, with ''H.", "habilis'' brain size smaller than that of ''H.", "ergaster'' / ''H.", "erectus'', jumping from about in ''H.", "habilis'' to about in ''H.", "ergaster'' and ''H.", "erectus''.", "However, a 2015 study showed that the brain sizes of ''H.", "habilis'', ''H.", "rudolfensis'', and ''H.", "ergaster'' generally ranged between after reappraising the brain volume of OH 7 from to .", "This does, nonetheless, indicate a jump from australopithecine brain size which generally ranged from .The brain anatomy of all ''Homo'' features an expanded cerebrum in comparison to australopithecines.", "The pattern of striations on the teeth of OH 65 slant right, which may have been accidentally self-inflicted when the individual was pulling a piece of meat with its teeth and the left hand while trying to cut it with a stone tool using the right hand.", "If correct, this could indicate right handedness, and handedness is associated with major reorganisation of the brain and the lateralisation of brain function between the left and right hemispheres.", "This scenario has also been hypothesised for some Neanderthal specimens.", "Lateralisation could be implicated in tool use.", "In modern humans, lateralisation is weakly associated with language.The tooth rows of ''H.", "habilis'' were V-shaped as opposed to U-shaped in later ''Homo'', and the mouth jutted outwards (was prognathic), though the face was flat from the nose up.===Build===Based on the fragmentary skeletons OH 62 (presumed female) and KNM-ER 3735 (presumed male), ''H.", "habilis'' body anatomy has generally been considered to have been more apelike than even that of the earlier ''A.", "afarensis'' and consistent with an at least partially arboreal lifestyle in the trees as is assumed in australopithecines.", "Based on OH 62 and assuming comparable body dimensions to australopithecines, ''H.", "habilis'' has generally been interpreted as having been small-bodied like australopithecines, with OH 62 generally estimated at about in height and in weight.", "However, assuming longer, modern humanlike legs, OH 62 would have been about and , and KNM-ER 3735 about the same size.", "For comparison, modern human men and women in the year 1900 averaged and , respectively.", "It is generally assumed that pre-''H.", "ergaster'' hominins, including ''H.", "habilis'', exhibited notable sexual dimorphism with males markedly bigger than females.", "However, relative female body mass is unknown in this species.Early hominins, including ''H.", "habilis'', are thought to have had thick body hair coverage like modern non-human apes because they appear to have inhabited colder regions and are thought to have had a less active lifestyle than (presumed hairless) post-''ergaster'' species.", "Consequently, they probably required thick body hair to stay warm.", "Based on dental development rates, ''H.", "habilis'' is assumed to have had an accelerated growth rate compared to modern humans, more like that of modern non-human apes.===Limbs===OH 8, bearing crocodile tooth marksThe arms of ''H.", "habilis'' and australopithecines have generally been considered to have been proportionally long and so adapted for climbing and swinging.", "In 2004, anthropologists Martin Haeusler and Henry McHenry argued that, because the humerus to femur ratio of OH 62 is within the range of variation for modern humans, and KNM-ER 3735 is close to the modern human average, it is unsafe to assume apelike proportions.", "Nonetheless, the humerus of OH 62 measured long and the ulna (forearm) , which is closer to the proportion seen in chimpanzees.", "The hand bones of OH 7 suggest precision gripping, important in dexterity, as well as adaptations for climbing.", "In regard to the femur, traditionally comparisons with the ''A.", "afarensis'' specimen AL 288-1 have been used to reconstruct stout legs for ''H.", "habilis'', but Haeusler and McHenry suggested the more gracile OH 24 femur (either belonging to ''H.", "ergaster'' / ''H.", "erectus'' or ''P.", "boisei'') may be a more apt comparison.", "In this instance, ''H.", "habilis'' would have had longer, humanlike legs and have been effective long-distance travellers as is assumed to have been the case in ''H.", "ergaster''.", "However, estimating the unpreserved length of a fossil is highly problematic.", "The thickness of the limb bones in OH 62 is more similar to chimpanzees than ''H.", "ergaster'' / ''H.", "erectus'' and modern humans, which may indicate different load bearing capabilities more suitable for arboreality in ''H.", "habilis''.", "The strong fibula of OH 35 (though this may belong to ''P.", "boisei'') is more like that of non-human apes, and consistent with arboreality and vertical climbing.OH 8, a foot, is better suited for terrestrial movement than the foot of ''A.", "afarensis'', though it still retains many apelike features consistent with climbing.", "However, the foot has projected toe bone and compacted mid-foot joint structures, which restrict rotation between the foot and ankle as well as at the front foot.", "Foot stability enhances the efficiency of force transfer between the leg and the foot and vice versa, and is implicated in the plantar arch elastic spring mechanism which generates energy while running (but not walking).", "This could possibly indicate ''H.", "habilis'' was capable of some degree of endurance running, which is typically thought to have evolved later in ''H.", "ergaster'' / ''H.", "erectus''." ], [ "Culture", "===Society===Typically, ''H.", "ergaster'' / ''H.", "erectus'' is considered to have been the first human to have lived in a monogamous society, and all preceding hominins were polygynous.", "However, it is highly difficult to speculate with any confidence the group dynamics of early hominins.", "The degree of sexual dimorphism and the size disparity between males and females is often used to correlate between polygyny with high disparity and monogamy with low disparity based on general trends (though not without exceptions) seen in modern primates.", "Rates of sexual dimorphism are difficult to determine as early hominin anatomy is poorly represented in the fossil record.", "In some cases, sex is arbitrarily determined in large part based on perceived size and apparent robustness in the absence of more reliable elements in sex identification (namely the pelvis).", "Mating systems are also based on dental anatomy, but early hominins possess a mosaic anatomy of different traits not seen together in modern primates; the enlarged cheek teeth would suggest marked size-related dimorphism and thus intense male–male conflict over mates and a polygynous society, but the small canines should indicate the opposite.", "Other selective pressures, including diet, can also dramatically impact dental anatomy.", "The spatial distribution of tools and processed animal bones at the FLK Zinj and PTK sites in Olduvai Gorge indicate the inhabitants used this area as a communal butchering and eating grounds, as opposed to the nuclear family system of modern hunter gatherers where the group is subdivided into smaller units each with their own butchering and eating grounds.The behaviour of early ''Homo'', including ''H.", "habilis'', is sometimes modelled on that of savanna chimps and baboons.", "These communities consist of several males (as opposed to a harem society) in order to defend the group on the dangerous and exposed habitat, sometimes engaging in a group display of throwing sticks and stones against enemies and predators.", "The left foot OH 8 seems to have been bitten off by a crocodile, possibly ''Crocodylus anthropophagus'', and the leg OH 35, which either belongs to ''P.", "boisei'' or ''H.", "habilis'', shows evidence of leopard predation.", "''H.", "habilis'' and contemporary hominins were likely predated upon by other large carnivores of the time, such as (in Olduvai Gorge) the hunting hyena ''Chasmaporthetes nitidula'', and the saber-toothed cats ''Dinofelis'' and ''Megantereon''.", "In 1993, American palaeoanthropologist Leslie C. Aiello and British evolutionary psychologist Robin Dunbar estimated that ''H.", "habilis'' group size ranged from 70–85 members—on the upper end of chimp and baboon group size—based on trends seen in neocortex size and group size in modern non-human primates.''H.", "habilis'' coexisted with ''H.", "rudolfensis'', ''H.", "ergaster'' / ''H.", "erectus'', and ''P.", "boisei''.", "It is unclear how all of these species interacted.", "To explain why ''P.", "boisei'' was associated with Olduwan tools despite not being the knapper (the one who made the tools), Leakey and colleagues, when describing ''H.", "habilis'', suggested that one possibility was ''P.", "boisei'' was killed by ''H.", "habilis'', perhaps as food.", "However, when describing ''P.", "boisei'' five years earlier, Louis Leakey said, \"There is no reason whatever, in this case, to believe that the skull represents the victim of a cannibalistic feast by some hypothetical more advanced type of man.", "\"===Diet===OH 13 mandible compared to other hominin speciesIt is thought ''H.", "habilis'' derived meat from scavenging rather than hunting (scavenger hypothesis), acting as a confrontational scavenger and stealing kills from smaller predators such as jackals or cheetahs.", "Fruit was likely also an important dietary component, indicated by dental erosion consistent with repetitive exposure to acidity.", "Based on dental microwear-texture analysis, ''H.", "habilis'' (like other early ''Homo'') likely did not regularly consume tough foods.", "Microwear-texture complexity is, on average, somewhere between that of tough-food eaters and leaf eaters (folivores), and points to an increasingly generalised and omnivorous diet.", "Freshwater fish likely were also consumed, evidenced by the findings of fish remains at archaeological sites most likely associated with ''H.", "habilis''.It is typically thought that the diets of ''H.", "habilis'' and other early ''Homo'' had a greater proportion of meat than ''Australopithecus'', and that this led to brain growth.", "The main hypotheses regarding this are: meat is energy- and nutrient-rich and put evolutionary pressure on developing enhanced cognitive skills to facilitate strategic scavenging and monopolise fresh carcasses, or meat allowed the large and calorie-expensive ape gut to decrease in size allowing this energy to be diverted to brain growth.", "Alternatively, it is also suggested that early ''Homo'', in a drying climate with scarcer food options, relied primarily on underground storage organs (such as tubers) and food sharing, which facilitated social bonding among both male and female group members.", "However, unlike what is presumed for ''H.", "ergaster'' and later ''Homo'', short-statured early ''Homo'' are generally considered to have been incapable of endurance running and hunting, and the long and ''Australopithecus''-like forearm of ''H.", "habilis'' could indicate early ''Homo'' were still arboreal to a degree.", "Also, organised hunting and gathering is thought to have emerged in ''H.", "ergaster''.", "Nonetheless, the proposed food-gathering models to explain large brain growth necessitate increased daily travel distance.", "It has also been argued that ''H.", "habilis'' instead had long, modern humanlike legs and was fully capable of effective long distance travel, while still remaining at least partially arboreal.Large incisor size in ''H.", "habilis'' compared to ''Australopithecus'' predecessors implies this species relied on incisors more.", "The bodies of the mandibles of ''H.", "habilis'' and other early ''Homo'' are thicker than those of modern humans and all living apes, more comparable to ''Australopithecus''.", "The mandibular body resists torsion from the bite force or chewing, meaning their jaws could produce unusually powerful stresses while eating.", "The greater molar cusp relief in ''H.", "habilis'' compared to ''Australopithecus'' suggests the former used tools to fracture tough foods (such as pliable plant parts or meat), otherwise the cusps would have been more worn down.", "Nonetheless, the jaw adaptations for processing mechanically challenging food indicates technological advancement did not greatly affect diet.===Technology===Oldowan chopper''H.", "habilis'' is associated with the Early Stone Age Oldowan stone tool industry.", "Individuals likely used these tools primarily to butcher and skin animals and crush bones, but also sometimes to saw and scrape wood and cut soft plants.", "Knappers - individuals shaping stones - appear to have carefully selected lithic cores and knew that certain rocks would break in a specific way when struck hard enough and on the right spot, and they produced several different types, including choppers, polyhedrons, and discoids.", "Nonetheless, specific shapes were likely not thought of in advance, and probably stem from a lack of standardisation in producing such tools as well as the types of raw materials at the knappers' disposal.", "For example, spheroids are common at Olduvai, which features an abundance of large and soft quartz and quartzite pieces, whereas Koobi Fora lacks spheroids and provides predominantly hard basalt lava rocks.", "Unlike the later Acheulean culture invented by ''H.", "ergaster'' / ''H.", "erectus'', Oldowan technology does not require planning and foresight to manufacture, and thus does not indicate high cognition in Oldowan knappers, though it does require a degree of coordination and some knowledge of mechanics.", "Oldowan tools infrequently exhibit retouching and were probably discarded immediately after use most of the time.The Oldowan was first reported in 1934, but it was not until the 1960s that it become widely accepted as the earliest culture, dating to 1.8 mya, and as having been manufactured by ''H.", "habilis''.", "Since then, more discoveries have placed the origins of material culture substantially backwards in time, with the Oldowan being discovered in Ledi-Geraru and Gona in Ethiopia dating to 2.6 mya, perhaps associated with the evolution of the genus.", "Australopithecines are also known to have manufactured tools, such as the 3.3 Ma Lomekwi stone tool industry, and some evidence of butchering from about 3.4 mya.", "Nonetheless, the comparatively sharp-edged Oldowan culture was a major innovation from australopithecine technology, and it would have allowed different feeding strategies and the ability to process a wider range of foods, which would have been advantageous in the changing climate of the time.", "It is unclear if the Oldowan was independently invented or if it was the result of hominin experimentation with rocks over hundreds of thousands of years across multiple species.In 1962, a circle made with volcanic rocks was discovered in Olduvai Gorge.", "At intervals, rocks were piled up to high.", "Mary Leakey suggested the rock piles were used to support poles stuck into the ground, possibly to support a windbreak or a rough hut.", "Some modern-day nomadic tribes build similar low-lying rock walls to build temporary shelters upon, bending upright branches as poles and using grasses or animal hide as a screen.", "Dating to 1.75 mya, it is attributed to some early ''Homo'', and is the oldest-claimed evidence of architecture." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Reconstructions of ''H.", "habilis'' by John Gurche* Archaeology Info * ''Homo habilis'' – The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program* Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016)." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Harmonica" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''harmonica''', also known as a '''French harp''', '''mouth harp''' or '''mouth organ''', is a free reed wind instrument used worldwide in many musical genres, notably in blues, American folk music, classical music, jazz, country, and rock.", "The many types of harmonica include diatonic, chromatic, tremolo, octave, orchestral, and bass versions.", "A harmonica is played by using the mouth (lips and tongue) to direct air into or out of one (or more) holes along a mouthpiece.", "Behind each hole is a chamber containing at least one reed.", "The most common is the diatonic Richter-tuned with ten air passages and twenty reeds, often called the '''blues harp'''.", "A harmonica reed is a flat, elongated spring typically made of brass, stainless steel, or bronze, which is secured at one end over a slot that serves as an airway.", "When the free end is made to vibrate by the player's air, it alternately blocks and unblocks the airway to produce sound.Reeds are tuned to individual pitches.", "Tuning may involve changing a reed's length, the weight near its free end, or the stiffness near its fixed end.", "Longer, heavier, and springier reeds produce deeper, lower sounds; shorter, lighter, and stiffer reeds make higher-pitched sounds.", "If, as on most modern harmonicas, a reed is affixed above or below its slot rather than in the plane of the slot, it responds more easily to air flowing in the direction that initially would push it into the slot, i.e., as a closing reed.", "This difference in response to air direction makes it possible to include both a blow reed and a draw reed in the same air chamber and to play them separately without relying on flaps of plastic or leather (valves, wind-savers) to block the nonplaying reed.An important technique in performance is bending, causing a drop in pitch by making embouchure adjustments.", "Bending isolated reeds is possible, as on chromatic and other harmonica models with wind-savers, but also to both lower, and raise (overbend, overblow, overdraw) the pitch produced by pairs of reeds in the same chamber, as on a diatonic or other unvalved harmonica.", "Such two-reed pitch changes actually involve sound production by the normally silent reed, the opening reed (for instance, the blow reed while the player is drawing)." ], [ "Parts", "Comb and two reed platesReed plateReed plate mounted on the comb of a diatonic harmonica, one of several categories of harmonica The basic parts of the harmonica are the comb, reed plates, and cover plates.===Comb===The comb is the main body of the instrument, which, when assembled with the reed plates, forms air chambers for the reeds.", "The term \"comb\" may originate from the similarity between this part of a harmonica and a hair comb.", "Harmonica combs were traditionally made from wood, but now are also made from plastic (ABS) or metal (including titanium for high-end instruments).", "Some modern and experimental comb designs are complex in the way that they direct the air.Dispute exists among players about whether comb material affects the tone of a harmonica.", "Those saying no argue that unlike the soundboard of a piano or the top piece of a violin or guitar, a harmonica's comb is neither large enough nor able to vibrate freely enough to substantially augment or change the sound.", "Among those saying yes are those who are convinced by their ears.", "Few dispute that comb surface smoothness and air tightness when mated with the reed plates can greatly affect tone and playability.", "The main advantage of a particular comb material over another one is its durability.", "In particular, a wooden comb can absorb moisture from the player's breath and contact with the tongue.", "This can cause the comb to expand slightly, making the instrument uncomfortable to play, and to then contract, potentially compromising air tightness.", "Various types of wood and treatments have been devised to reduce the degree of this problem.An even more serious problem with wooden combs, especially in chromatic harmonicas (with their thin dividers between chambers), is that, as the combs expand and shrink over time, cracks can form in the combs, because the comb is held immobile by nails, resulting in disabling leakage.", "Serious players devote significant effort to restoring wood combs and sealing leaks.", "Some players used to soak wooden-combed harmonicas (diatonics, without wind-savers) in water to cause a slight expansion, which they intended to make the seal between the comb, reed plates, and covers more airtight.", "Modern wooden-combed harmonicas are less prone to swelling and contracting, but modern players still dip their harmonicas in water for the way it affects tone and ease of bending notes.===Reed plate===The reed plate is a grouping of several reeds in a single housing.", "The reeds are usually made of brass, but steel, aluminium, and plastic are occasionally used.", "Individual reeds are usually riveted to the reed plate, but they may also be welded or screwed in place.", "Reeds fixed on the inner side of the reed plate (within the comb's air chamber) respond to blowing, while those fixed on the outer side respond to suction.Most harmonicas are constructed with the reed plates screwed or bolted to the comb or each other.", "A few brands still use the traditional method of nailing the reed plates to the comb.", "Some experimental and rare harmonicas also have had the reed plates held in place by tension, such as the WWII-era all-American models.", "If the plates are bolted to the comb, the reed plates can be replaced individually.", "This is useful because the reeds eventually go out of tune through normal use, and certain notes of the scale can fail more quickly than others.A notable exception to the traditional reed plate design is the all-plastic harmonicas designed by Finn Magnus in the 1950s, in which the reed and reed plate were molded out of a single piece of plastic.", "The Magnus design had the reeds, reed plates, and comb made of plastic and either molded or permanently glued together.===Cover plates===Cover plates cover the reed plates and are usually made of metal, though wood and plastic have also been used.", "The choice of these is personal; because they project sound, they determine the tonal quality of the harmonica.", "Two types of cover plates are used: traditional open designs of stamped metal or plastic, which are simply there to be held; and enclosed designs (such as the Hohner Meisterklasse and Super 64, Suzuki Promaster and SCX), which offer a louder tonal quality.", "From these two basic types, a few modern designs have been created, such as the Hohner CBH-2016 chromatic and the Suzuki Overdrive diatonic, which have complex covers that allow for specific functions not usually available in the traditional design.", "In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, harmonicas not uncommonly had special features on the covers, such as bells, which could be rung by pushing a button.===Wind-savers===Wind-savers are one-way valves made from thin strips of plastic, knit paper, leather, or Teflon glued to the reed plate.", "They are typically found in chromatic harmonicas, chord harmonicas, and many octave-tuned harmonicas.", "Wind-savers are used when two reeds share a cell and leakage through the nonplaying reed would be significant.", "For example, when a draw note is played, the valve on the blow reed-slot is sucked shut, preventing air from leaking through the inactive blow reed.", "An exception to this is the now-discontinued Hohner XB-40, on which valves are placed not to isolate single reeds, but rather to isolate entire chambers from being active, a design that made playing traditional blues bends possible on all reeds.===Mouthpiece===The mouthpiece is placed between the air chambers of the instrument and the player's mouth.", "This can be integral with the comb (the diatonic harmonicas; the Hohner Chrometta); part of the cover (as in Hohner's CX-12); or may be a separate unit, secured by screws, which is typical of chromatics.", "In many harmonicas, the mouthpiece is purely an ergonomic aid designed to make playing more comfortable.", "In the traditional slider-based chromatic harmonica, it is essential to the functioning of the instrument because it provides a groove for the slide.===Accessories===Mark Wenner cups his hands around a \"bullet mic\" as he plays amplified harmonica.====Amplification devices====Since the 1950s, many blues harmonica players have amplified their instrument with microphones and tube amplifiers.", "One of the early innovators of this approach was Marion \"Little Walter\" Jacobs, who played the harmonica near a \"Bullet\" microphone marketed for use by radio taxi dispatchers.", "This gave his harmonica tone a \"punchy\" midrange sound that could be heard above an electric guitar.", "Also, tube amplifiers produce a natural growling overdrive when cranked at higher volumes, which adds body, fullness, and \"grit\" to the sound.", "Little Walter also cupped his hands around the instrument, tightening the air around the harp, giving it a powerful, distorted sound, somewhat reminiscent of a saxophone, hence the term \"Mississippi saxophone\".", "Some harmonica players in folk use a regular vocal microphone, such as a Shure SM 58, for their harmonica, which gives a clean, natural sound.As technology in amplification has progressed, harmonica players have introduced other effects units to their rigs, as well, such as reverb, tremolo, delay, octave, additional overdrive pedals, and chorus effect.", "John Popper of Blues Traveler uses a customized microphone that encapsulates several of these effects into one handheld unit, as opposed to several units in sequence.", "Many harmonica players still prefer tube amplifiers to solid-state ones, owing to the perceived difference in tone generated by the vacuum tubes.", "Players perceive tubes as having a \"warmer\" tone and a more \"natural\" overdrive sound.", "Many amplifiers designed for electric guitar are also used by harmonica players, such as the Kalamazoo Model Two, Fender Bassman, and the Danelectro Commando.", "Some expensive handmade boutique amplifiers are built from the ground up with characteristics that are optimal for amplified harmonica.====Rack or holder====Joan Baez and Bob Dylan, 1963: Dylan is wearing a harmonica holder.Harmonica players who play the instrument while performing on another instrument with their hands (e.g., an acoustic guitar) often use an accessory called a neck rack or harmonica holder to position the instrument in front of their mouth.", "A harmonica holder clamps the harmonica between two metal brackets, which are attached to a curved loop of metal that rests on the shoulders.", "The original harmonica racks were made from wire or coat hangers.", "Models of harmonica racks vary widely by quality and ease of use, and experimenting with more than one model of harmonica rack is often needed to find one that feels suitable for each individual player.", "This device is used by folk musicians, one-man bands, and singer-songwriters such as Bob Dylan, Edoardo Bennato, Tom Harmon, Neil Young, Eddie Vedder, Billy Joel, Bruce Springsteen, and blues singers Jimmy Reed and John Hammond Jr." ], [ "Types", "===Chromatic===Hohner Super Chromonica, a typical 12-hole chromaticThe chromatic harmonica uses a button-activated sliding bar to redirect air from the hole in the mouthpiece to the selected reed-plate, though one design—the \"Machino-Tone\"—controlled airflow by means of a lever-operated flap on the rear of the instrument.", "Also, a \"hands-free\" modification to the Hohner 270 (12-hole) lets the player shift the tones by moving the mouthpiece up and down with the lips, leaving the hands free to play another instrument.", "While the Richter-tuned 10-hole chromatic is intended to play in only one key, the 12-, 14-, and 16-hole models (which are tuned to equal temperament) allow the musician to play in any key desired with only one harmonica.", "This harp can be used for any style, including Celtic, classical, jazz, or blues (commonly in third position).===Diatonic===Strictly speaking, diatonic denotes any harmonica designed to play in a single key—though the standard Richter-tuned diatonic harmonica can play other keys by forcing its reeds to play tones that are not part of its basic scale.", "Depending on the country, \"diatonic harmonica\" may mean either the tremolo harmonica (in East Asia) or blues harp (in Europe and North America).", "Other diatonic harmonicas include octave harmonicas.Here is the note layout for a standard diatonic in the key of G major:: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 blow G B D G B D G B D G draw A D F A C E F A C EEach hole is the same interval (here, a perfect fifth) from its key of C counterpart; on the diatonic scale, a G is a perfect fifth from C. The interval between keys can be used to find the note layout of any standard diatonic.===Tremolo-tuned===A tremolo harmonicaThe distinguishing feature of the tremolo-tuned harmonica is that it has two reeds per note, with one slightly sharp and the other slightly flat.", "This provides a unique wavering or warbling sound created by the two reeds being slightly out of tune with each other and the difference in their subsequent waveforms interacting with each other (its beat).", "The East Asian version, which can produce all 12 semitones, is used often in East Asian rock and pop music.===Orchestral===Orchestral harmonicas are primarily designed for use in ensemble playing.====Melody====There are eight kinds of orchestral melody harmonica; the most common are the '''horn''' harmonicas often found in East Asia.", "These consist of a single large comb with blow-only reed-plates on the top and bottom.", "Each reed sits inside a single cell in the comb.", "One version mimics the layout of a piano or mallet instrument, with the natural notes of a C diatonic scale in the lower reed plate and the sharps and flats in the upper reed plate in groups of two and three holes with gaps in between like the black keys of a piano.", "Another version has one \"sharp\" reed directly above its \"natural\" on the lower plate, with the same number of reeds on both plates (therefore including E and B).Horn harmonicas are available in several pitch ranges, with the lowest pitched starting two octaves below middle C and the highest beginning on middle C itself; they usually cover a two- or three-octave range.", "They are chromatic instruments and are usually played in an East Asian harmonica orchestra instead of the \"push-button\" chromatic harmonica that is more common in the European and American tradition.", "Their reeds are often larger, and the enclosing \"horn\" gives them a different timbre, so that they often function in place of a brass section.", "In the past, they were referred to as horn harmonicas.The other type of orchestral melodic harmonica is the polyphonia, (though some are marked \"chromatica\").", "These have all twelve chromatic notes laid out on the same row.", "In most cases, they have both blow and draw of the same tone, though the No.", "7 is blow only, and the No.", "261, also blow only, has two reeds per hole, tuned an octave apart (all these designations refer to products of M. Hohner).====Chord====The chord harmonica has up to 48 chords: major, seventh, minor, augmented and diminished for ensemble playing.", "It is laid out in four-note clusters, each sounding a different chord on inhaling or exhaling.", "Typically each hole has two reeds for each note, tuned to one octave of each other.", "Less expensive models often have only one reed per note.", "Quite a few orchestra harmonicas are also designed to serve as both bass and chord harmonica, with bass notes next to chord groupings.", "There are also other chord harmonicas, such as the Chordomonica (which operates similar to a chromatic harmonica), and the junior chord harmonicas (which typically provide six chords).The Suzuki SSCH-56 Compact Chord harmonica is a 48-chord harmonica built in a 14-hole chromatic harmonica enclosure.", "The first three holes play a major chord on blow and draw, with and without the slide.", "Holes 2, 3, and 4 play a diminished chord; holes 3, 4, and 5 play a minor chord; and holes 4, 5, and 6 play an augmented, for a total of sixteen chords.", "This pattern is repeated starting on hole 5, a whole step higher; and again starting on hole 9, for a total of 48 chords.===ChengGong===The ChengGong harmonica has a main body, and a sliding mouthpiece.", "The body is a 24-hole diatonic harmonica that ranges from B2 to D6 (covering 3 octaves).", "Its 11-hole mouthpiece can slide along the front of the harmonica, which gives numerous chord choices and voicings (seven triads, three 6th chords, seven 7th chords, and seven 9th chords, for a total of 24 chords).", "As well, it is capable of playing single-note melodies and double stops over a range of three diatonic octaves.", "Unlike conventional harmonicas, blowing and drawing produce the same notes because its tuning is closer to the note layout of a typical East Asian tremolo harmonica or the Polyphonias.===Pitch pipe===The pitch pipe is a simple specialty harmonica that provides a reference pitch to singers and other instruments.", "The only difference between some early pitch-pipes and harmonicas is the name of the instrument, which reflected the maker's target audience.", "Chromatic pitch pipes, which are used by singers and choirs, give a full chromatic (12-note) octave.", "Pitch pipes are also sold for string players, such as violinists and guitarists; these pitch pipes usually provide the notes corresponding to the open strings." ], [ "Techniques", "'''Vibrato''' is a technique commonly used while playing the harmonica and many other instruments, to give the note a 'shaking' sound.", "This technique can be accomplished in a number of ways.", "The most common way is to change how the harmonica is held.", "For example, the vibrato effect can be achieved by opening and closing the hands around the harmonica very rapidly.", "The vibrato might also be achieved via rapid glottal (vocal fold) opening and closing, especially on draws (inhalation) simultaneous to bending, or without bending.", "This obviates the need for cupping and waving the hands around the instrument during play.", "An effect similar to vibrato is that of the 'trill' (or 'roll', or 'warble, or 'shake'); this technique has the player move their lips between two holes very quickly, either by shaking the head in a rapid motion or moving the harmonica from side to side within the embouchure.", "This gives a quick pitch-alternating technique that is slightly more than vibrato and achieves the same aural effect on sustained notes, albeit by using two different tones instead of varying the amplitude of one.In addition to the 19 notes readily available on the diatonic harmonica, players can play other notes by adjusting their embouchure and forcing the reed to resonate at a different pitch.", "This technique is called '''bending''', a term possibly borrowed from guitarists, who literally bend a string to subtly change the pitch.", "Bending also creates the glissandos characteristic of much blues harp and country harmonica playing.", "Bends are essential for most blues and rock harmonica due to the soulful sounds the instrument can bring out.", "The \"wail\" of the blues harp typically requires bending.", "In the 1970s, Howard Levy developed the '''over bending''' technique (also known as \"overblowing\" and \"overdrawing\".)", "'''Over Bending''', combined with bending, allowed players to play the entire chromatic scale.In addition to playing the diatonic harmonica in its original key, it is also possible to play it in other keys by playing in other \"positions\" using different keynotes.", "Using just the basic notes on the instrument would mean playing in a specific mode for each position.", "For example the Mixolydian mode (root note is the second draw or third blow), produces a major dominant seventh key that is frequently used by blues players because it contains the harmonically rich dominant seventh note, while the Dorian mode (root note is four draw) produces a minor dominant seventh key.", "Harmonica players (especially blues players) have developed terminology around different \"positions,\" which can be confusing to other musicians, for example the slang terminology for the most common positions (1st being 'straight', 2nd being 'cross', 3rd being 'slant', etc.", ").Another technique, seldom used to its full potential, is altering the size of the mouth cavity to emphasize certain natural overtones.", "When this technique is employed while playing chords, care must be taken in overtone selection as the overtones stemming from the non-root pitch can cause extreme dissonance.Harmonica players who amplify their instrument with microphones and tube amplifiers, such as blues harp players, also have a range of techniques that exploit properties of the microphone and the amplifier, such as changing the way the hands are cupped around the instrument and the microphone or rhythmically breathing or chanting into the microphone while playing." ], [ "History", "The harmonica was developed in Europe in the early part of the 19th century.", "Free-reed instruments like the Chinese sheng had been fairly common in East Asia since ancient times.", "They became relatively well known in Europe after being introduced by the French Jesuit Jean Joseph Marie Amiot (1718–1793), who lived in Qing-era China.", "Around 1820, free-reed designs began being created in Europe.", "Christian Friedrich Ludwig Buschmann is often cited as the inventor of the harmonica in 1821, but other inventors developed similar instruments at the same time.", "In 1829, Charles Wheatstone developed a mouth-organ under the name \"Aeolina\" (inspired by the Aeolian harp).", "Mouth-blown free-reed instruments appeared in the United States, South America, the United Kingdom and Europe at roughly the same time.", "These instruments were made for playing classical music.===Early instruments===The harmonica first appeared in Vienna, where harmonicas with chambers were sold before 1824 (see also Anton Reinlein and Anton Haeckl).", "Richter tuning, invented by Joseph Richter (who also is credited with inventing the blow and draw mechanism), was created in 1826 and was eventually adopted nearly universally.", "In Germany, violin manufacturer Johann Georg Meisel from Klingenthal bought a harmonica with chambers (Kanzellen) at an exhibition in Braunschweig in 1824.He and the ironworker Langhammer copied the instruments in Graslitz three miles away; by 1827 they had produced hundreds of harmonicas.", "Many others followed in Germany and also nearby Bohemia that would later become Czechoslovakia.", "In 1829, Johann Wilhelm Rudolph Glier also began making harmonicas.In 1830, Christian Messner, a cloth maker and weaver from Trossingen, copied a harmonica his neighbour had brought from Vienna.", "He had such success that eventually his brother and some relatives also started to make harmonicas.", "From 1840, his nephew Christian Weiss was also involved in the business.", "By 1855, there were at least three harmonica-making businesses: C. A. Seydel Söhne, Christian Messner & Co., and Württ.", "Harmonikafabrik Ch.", "Weiss.", "(Currently, only C.A.", "Seydel is still in business.)", "Owing to competition between the harmonica factories in Trossingen and Klingenthal, machines were invented to punch the covers for the reeds.In 1857, Matthias Hohner, a clockmaker from Trossingen, started producing harmonicas.", "Eventually he became the first to mass-produce them.", "He used a mass-produced wooden comb that he had made by machine-cutting firms.", "By 1868, he began supplying the United States.", "By the 1920s, the diatonic harmonica had largely reached its modern form.", "Other types followed soon thereafter, including the various tremolo and octave harmonicas.By the late 19th century, harmonica production was a big business, having evolved into mass production.", "New designs were still developed in the 20th century, including the chromatic harmonica, first made by Hohner in 1924, the bass harmonica, and the chord harmonica.", "In the 21st century, radical new designs have been developed and are still being introduced into the market, such as the Suzuki Overdrive, Hohner XB-40, and the ill-fated Harrison B-Radical.Diatonic harmonicas were designed primarily for playing German and other European folk music and have succeeded well in those styles.", "Over time, the basic design and tuning proved adaptable to other types of music such as the blues, country, old-time and more.", "The harmonica was a success almost from the very start of production, and while the center of the harmonica business has shifted from Germany, the output of the various harmonica manufacturers is still very high.", "Major companies are now found in Germany (Seydel and Hohner – the dominant manufacturer in the world), South Korea (Miwha, Dabell), Japan (Suzuki, Tombo – the manufacturer of the popular Lee Oskar harmonica, and Yamaha also made harmonicas until the 1970s), China (Huang, Easttop, Johnson, Leo Shi, Swan, AXL), and Brazil (Hering, Bends).", "The United States had two significant harmonica manufacturers, and both were based in Union, New Jersey.", "One was Magnus Harmonica Corporation, whose founder Finn Magnus is credited with the development of plastic harmonica reeds.", "The other was Wm.", "Kratt Company, which, founded by German-American William Jacob \"Bill\" Kratt Sr., originally made pitch pipes and later, in 1952, secured a patent for combs made of plastic.", "Both companies ceased harmonica production.", "The only recent American contender in the harmonica market was Harrison Harmonicas, which folded in July 2011.It was announced soon thereafter that the rights to the Harrison design had been sold to another company to finish production of orders already placed.", "In October 2012, it was revealed that a Beloit, Wisconsin, investment corporation, R&R Opportunities, had bought the assets of Harrison Harmonicas and that a feasibility study was under way to assess the possibilities of continued production of the Harrison B-Radical harmonica.", "Recently, responding to increasingly demanding performance techniques, the market for high-quality instruments has grown.===Europe and North America===Some time before Hohner began manufacturing harmonicas in 1857, he shipped some to relatives who had emigrated to the United States.", "Its music rapidly became popular, and the country became an enormous market for Hohner's goods.", "US president Abraham Lincoln carried a harmonica in his pocket, and harmonicas provided solace to soldiers on both the Union and Confederate sides of the American Civil War.", "Frontiersmen Wyatt Earp and Billy the Kid played the instrument, and it became a fixture of the American musical landscape.Harmonicas were heard on a handful of recordings in the early 1900s, generally labeled as a \"mouth organ\".", "The first jazz or traditional music recordings of harmonicas were made in the U.S. in the mid-1920s.", "Recordings known at the time as \"race records\", intended for the black market of the southern states, included solo recordings by DeFord Bailey and duo recordings with a guitarist (Hammie Nixon, Walter Horton, or Sonny Terry).", "Hillbilly styles were also recorded, intended for white audiences, by Frank Hutchison, Gwen Foster and several other musicians.", "There are also recordings featuring the harmonica in jug bands, of which the Memphis Jug Band is the most famous.", "But the harmonica still represented a toy instrument in those years and was associated with the poor.", "It is also during those years that musicians started experimenting with new techniques such as tongue-blocking, hand effects and the most important innovation of all, the second position, or cross-harp.A significant contributor to the expanding popularity of the harmonica was a New York-based radio program called the ''Hohner Harmony Hour'', which taught listeners how to play.", "Listeners could play along with the program to increase their proficiency.", "The radio program gained wide popularity after the unveiling of the 1925 White House Christmas tree, which was adorned with fifty harmonicas.The harmonica's versatility brought it to the attention of classical musicians during the 1930s.", "American Larry Adler was one of the first harmonica players to perform major works written for the instrument by the composers Ralph Vaughan Williams, Malcolm Arnold, Darius Milhaud, and Arthur Benjamin.Harmonicas were scarce in the United States during World War II.", "Wood and metal materials for harmonicas were in short supply because of military demand.", "Furthermore, the primary harmonica manufacturers were based in Germany and Japan, the enemies of the United States and the Allied forces in the war.", "During this time, Finn Haakon Magnus, a Danish-American factory worker and entrepreneur, developed and perfected the molded plastic harmonica.", "The plastic harmonica used molded plastic combs and far fewer pieces than traditional metal or wood harmonicas, which made the harmonica more economical to mass-produce and more sanitary.", "Though the plastic reeds in these harmonicas produced a less distinctive (and, to many ears, inferior) sound than their metallic counterparts, Magnus harmonicas and several imitators soon became commonplace, particularly among children.", "The patent for the plastic comb was awarded to William Kratt of Wm.", "Kratt Company in 1952.During World War II, the War Department allotted a rationed supply of brass to Kratt's factory so they could continue to produce harmonicas that the Red Cross distributed to American troops overseas to boost morale.===East Asia===A school boy playing harmonica, and a school girl playing one-row diatonic accordion.", "A self-study book published in 1899 in Japan.In 1898, the harmonica was brought to Japan, where the Tremolo harmonica was the most popular instrument.", "After about 30 years, the Japanese developed scale tuning and semitone harmonicas that could play Japanese folk songs.==== Japanese tremolo tuning ====In Europe and the United States, tremolo harmonica uses the Richter tuning, developed in Germany.", "In 1913, Shōgo Kawaguchi (), known in Japan as the \"Father of the harmonica\", devised an alternate tuning, which is more suited to playing Japanese folk tunes.", "This tuning is also suited to local music throughout East Asia, and harmonicas using the tuning became popular in the region.==== Minor key tuning ====Initial diatonic harmonica tunings were major key only.", "In 1931, Hiderō Satō () announced the development of a minor key harmonica.", "There are two types of minor key tunings, \"natural minor\" suitable for folk and contemporary music, and Latin American music, and the \"harmonic minor\" suitable for some famous Japanese pieces.====Hong Kong and Taiwan====The harmonica started to gain popularity in Hong Kong in the 1930s.", "Individual tremolo harmonica players from China moved to Hong Kong and established numerous harmonica organizations such as The Chinese Y.M.C.A.", "Harmonica Orchestra, the China Harmonica Society, and the Heart String Harmonica Society.", "During the 1950s, chromatic harmonica became popular in Hong Kong, and players such as Larry Adler and John Sebastian Sr. were invited to perform.Local players such as Lau Mok () and Fung On () promoted the chromatic harmonica.", "The chromatic harmonica gradually became the main instrument used by the Chinese Y.M.C.A.", "Harmonica Orchestra.", "The Chinese YMCA Harmonica Orchestra started in the 1960s, with 100 members, most of whom played harmonicas.", "Non-harmonica instruments were also used, such as double bass, accordion, piano, and percussion such as timpani and xylophone.In the 1970s, the Haletone Harmonica Orchestra () was set up at Wong Tai Sin Community Centre.", "Fung On and others continued to teach harmonica and also set up harmonica orchestras.", "In the 1980s, numbers of harmonica students steadily decreased.", "In the 1990s, harmonica players from Hong Kong began to participate in international harmonica competitions, including the World Harmonica Festival in Germany and the Asia Pacific Harmonica Festival.", "In the 2000s, the Hong Kong Harmonica Association (H.K.H.A.)", "() was established.The history of the harmonica in Taiwan began around 1945.By the 1980s, though, as living standards improved, many instruments once beyond the budgets of most Taiwanese started to become more accessible and popular in preference to the harmonica." ], [ "Medical use", "Playing the harmonica requires inhaling and exhaling strongly against resistance.", "This action helps develop a strong diaphragm and deep breathing using the entire lung volume.", "Pulmonary specialists have noted that playing the harmonica resembles the kind of exercise used to rehabilitate COPD patients such as using a PFLEX inspiratory muscle trainer or the inspiratory spirometer.", "Learning to play a musical instrument also offers motivation in addition to the exercise component.", "Many pulmonary rehabilitation programs therefore have begun to incorporate the harmonica.When President Ronald Reagan suffered a punctured lung in the 1981 attempt on his life, his breathing therapist was Howard McDonald, of the Cambridge Harmonica Orchestra.", "Orchestra director Pierre Beauregard had hoped that Reagan's therapeutic harmonica experience would help them get a chance to play at the White House, but this never occurred." ], [ "Related instruments", "The concertina, diatonic and chromatic accordions and the melodica are all free-reed instruments that developed alongside the harmonica.", "Indeed, the similarities between harmonicas and so-called \"diatonic\" accordions or melodeons is such that in German the name for the former is \"Mundharmonika\" and the latter \"Handharmonika,\" which translate as \"mouth harmonica\" and \"hand harmonica.\"", "In Scandinavian languages, an accordion is called variants of \"trekkspill\" (pull play) or \"trekkharmonika\" whereas a harmonica is called \"munnspill\" (mouth play) or \"mundharmonika\" (mouth harmonica).", "The names for the two instruments in the Slavic languages are also either similar or identical.", "The harmonica shares similarities to all other free-reed instruments by virtue of the method of sound production.The glass harmonica has the word \"harmonica\" in its name, but it is not related to free-reed instruments.", "The glass harmonica is a musical instrument formed from a nested set of graduated glass cups mounted sideways on an axle.", "Each of the glass cups is tuned to a different note, and they are arranged in a scalar order.", "It is played by touching the rotating cups with wetted fingers, causing them to vibrate and produce a sustained \"singing\" tone." ], [ "See also", "* List of harmonicists" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/HarpLayout.pdf Layout of 12 Keys of Richter-tuned Diatonic Harmonica* //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/CHARPPENT.pdf 12 Keys of Pentatonic Scales on one Richter-tuned Diatonic Harmonica in C* MP3 file* Disclaimer - IMSLP: Free Sheet Music PDF Download* Disclaimer - IMSLP: Free Sheet Music PDF Download* World Harmonica Festival" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hops" ], [ "Introduction", "Hop flower in a hop yard in the Hallertau, GermanyCross-section drawing of a hophops bines ready for harvest on the Yakama Indian ReservationHumulus on a house'''Hops''' are the flowers (also called seed cones or strobiles) of the hop plant ''Humulus lupulus'', a member of the Cannabaceae family of flowering plants.", "They are used primarily as a bittering, flavouring, and stability agent in beer, to which, in addition to bitterness, they impart floral, fruity, or citrus flavours and aromas.", "Hops are also used for various purposes in other beverages and herbal medicine.", "The hops plants have separate female and male plants, and only female plants are used for commercial production.", "The hop plant is a vigorous, climbing, herbaceous perennial, usually trained to grow up strings in a field called a hopfield, hop garden (in the South of England), or hop yard (in the West Country and United States) when grown commercially.", "Many different varieties of hops are grown by farmers around the world, with different types used for particular styles of beer.The first documented use of hops in beer is from the 9th century, though Hildegard of Bingen, 300 years later, is often cited as the earliest documented source.", "Before this period, brewers used a \"gruit\", composed of a wide variety of bitter herbs and flowers, including dandelion, burdock root, marigold, horehound (the old German name for horehound, , means \"mountain hops\"), ground ivy, and heather.", "Early documents include mention of a hop garden in the will of Charlemagne's father, Pepin the Short.Hops are also used in brewing for their antibacterial effect over less desirable microorganisms and for purported benefits including balancing the sweetness of the malt with bitterness and a variety of flavours and aromas.", "It is believed that traditional herb combinations for beers were abandoned after it was noticed that beers made with hops were less prone to spoilage." ], [ "History", "The first documented hop cultivation was in 736, in the Hallertau region of present-day Germany, although the first mention of the use of hops in brewing in that country was 1079.However, in a will of Pepin the Short, the father of Charlemagne, hop gardens were left to the Cloister of Saint-Denis in 768.Not until the 13th century did hops begin to start threatening the use of gruit for flavouring.", "Gruit was used when the nobility levied taxes on hops.", "Whichever was taxed made the brewer then quickly switch to the other.In Britain, hopped beer was first imported from Holland around 1400, yet hops were condemned as late as 1519 as a \"wicked and pernicious weed\".", "In 1471, Norwich, England, banned use of the plant in the brewing of ale (\"beer\" was the name for fermented malt liquors bittered with hops; only in recent times are the words often used as synonyms).In Germany, using hops was also a religious and political choice in the early 16th century.", "There was no tax on hops to be paid to the Catholic church, unlike on gruit.", "For this reason the Protestants preferred hopped beer.Hops used in England were imported from France, Holland and Germany and were subject to import duty; it was not until 1524 that hops were first grown in the southeast of England (Kent), when they were introduced as an agricultural crop by Dutch farmers.", "Consequently, many words used in the hop industry derive from the Dutch language.", "Hops were then grown as far north as Aberdeen, near breweries for convenience of infrastructure.According to Thomas Tusser's 1557 ''Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry'':\"The hop for his profit I thus do exalt,It strengtheneth drink and it flavored malt;And being well-brewed long kept it will last,And drawing abide, if ye draw not too fast.", "\"In England there were many complaints over the quality of imported hops, the sacks of which were often contaminated by stalks, sand or straw to increase their weight.", "As a result, in 1603, King James I approved an Act of Parliament banning the practice by which \"the Subjects of this Realm have been of late years abused &c. to the Value of £20,000 yearly, besides the Danger of their Healths\".Hop cultivation was begun in the present-day United States in 1629 by English and Dutch farmers.", "Before prohibition, cultivation was mainly centred around New York, California, Oregon, and Washington state.", "Problems with powdery mildew and downy mildew devastated New York's production by the 1920s, and California only produces hops on a small scale." ], [ "World production", "Hops production is concentrated in moist temperate climates, with much of the world's production occurring near the 48th parallel north.", "Hop plants prefer the same soils as potatoes and the leading potato-growing states in the United States are also major hops-producing areas; however, not all potato-growing areas can produce good hops naturally: soils in the Maritime Provinces of Canada, for example, lack the boron that hops prefer.", "Historically, hops were not grown in Ireland, but were imported from England.", "In 1752 more than 500 tons of English hops were imported through Dublin alone.Important production centres today are the Hallertau in Germany, the Žatec (Saaz) in the Czech Republic, the Yakima (Washington) and Willamette (Oregon) valleys, and western Canyon County, Idaho (including the communities of Parma, Wilder, Greenleaf, and Notus).", "The principal production centres in the UK are in Kent (which produces Kent Goldings hops), Herefordshire, and Worcestershire.", "Essentially all of the harvested hops are used in beer making.Early season hop growth in a hop yard in the Yakima River Valley of Washington with Mount Adams in the distance Hop producing country 2020 hop output in tonnes (t) United States 47,541 Germany 46,878 China 7,044 Czech Republic 5,925 Poland 3,417 Slovenia 2,723 Australia 1,714 New Zealand 1,250 UK/England 924 Spain 908 France 767===Cultivation and harvest===binesAlthough hops are grown in most of the continental United States and Canada, cultivation of hops for commercial production requires a particular environment.", "As hops are a climbing plant, they are trained to grow up trellises made from strings or wires that support the plants and allow them significantly greater growth with the same sunlight profile.", "In this way, energy that would have been required to build structural cells is also freed for crop growth.The hop plant's reproduction method is that male and female flowers develop on separate plants, although occasionally a fertile individual will develop which contains both male and female flowers.", "Because pollinated seeds are undesirable for brewing beer, only female plants are grown in hop fields, thus preventing pollination.", "Female plants are propagated vegetatively, and male plants are culled if plants are grown from seeds.Hop plants are planted in rows about apart.", "Each spring, the roots send forth new bines that are started up strings from the ground to an overhead trellis.", "The cones grow high on the bine, and in the past, these cones were picked by hand.", "Harvesting of hops became much more efficient with the invention of the mechanical hops separator, patented by Emil Clemens Horst in 1909.Hops are harvested at the end of summer.", "The are cut down, separated, and then dried in an oast house to reduce moisture content.", "To be dried, the hops are spread out on the upper floor of the oast house and heated by heating units on the lower floor.", "The dried hops are then compressed into bales by a baler.Hop cones contain different oils, such as lupulin, a yellowish, waxy substance, an oleoresin, that imparts flavour and aroma to beer.", "Lupulin contains lupulone and humulone, which possess antibiotic properties, suppressing bacterial growth favoring brewer's yeast to grow.", "After lupulin has been extracted in the brewing process the papery cones are discarded.=== Migrant labor and social impact ===Hops harvest in the Kingdom of Bohemia (1898)Hops harvest in Skåne, Sweden, in 1937The need for massed labor at harvest time meant hop-growing had a big social impact.", "Around the world, the labor-intensive harvesting work involved large numbers of migrant workers who would travel for the annual hop harvest.", "Whole families would participate and live in hoppers' huts, with even the smallest children helping in the fields.", "The final chapters of W. Somerset Maugham's ''Of Human Bondage'' and a large part of George Orwell's ''A Clergyman's Daughter'' contain a vivid description of London families participating in this annual hops harvest.", "In England, many of those picking hops in Kent were from eastern areas of London.", "This provided a break from urban conditions that was spent in the countryside.", "People also came from Birmingham and other Midlands cities to pick hops in the Malvern area of Worcestershire.", "Some photographs have been preserved.The often-appalling living conditions endured by hop pickers during the harvest became a matter of scandal across Kent and other hop-growing counties.", "Eventually, the Rev.", "John Young Stratton, Rector of Ditton, Kent, began to gather support for reform, resulting in 1866 in the formation of the Society for the Employment and Improved Lodging of Hop Pickers.", "The hop-pickers were given very basic accommodation, with very poor sanitation.", "This led to the spread of infectious diseases and led to contaminated water.", "The 1897 Maidstone typhoid epidemic was partly as a result of hop-pickers camping near the Farleigh Springs which supplied Maidstone with water.Particularly in Kent, because of a shortage of small-denomination coin of the realm, many growers issued their own currency to those doing the labor.", "In some cases, the coins issued were adorned with fanciful hops images, making them quite beautiful.Puget Sound region, Washington, ca.", "1893In the United States, Prohibition had a serious adverse effect on hops production, but remnants of this significant industry in the western states are still noticeable in the form of old hop kilns that survive throughout Sonoma County, California, among others.", "Florian Dauenhauer, of Santa Rosa in Sonoma County, became a manufacturer of hop-harvesting machines in 1940, in part because of the hop industry's importance to the county.", "This mechanization helped destroy the local industry by enabling large-scale mechanized production, which moved to larger farms in other areas.", "Dauenhauer Manufacturing Company remains a current producer of hop harvesting machines." ], [ "Chemical composition", "In addition to water, cellulose, and various proteins, the chemical composition of hops consists of compounds important for imparting character to beer.=== Alpha acids ===Isomerization scheme of humuloneProbably the most important chemical compound within hops are the alpha acids or humulones.", "During wort boiling, the humulones are thermally isomerized into iso-alpha acids or ''isohumulones'', which are responsible for the bitter taste of beer.=== Beta acids ===Structure of lupulone (beta acid)Hops contain beta acids or lupulones.", "These are desirable for their aroma contributions to beer.=== Essential oils ===The main components of hops essential oils are terpene hydrocarbons consisting of myrcene, humulene and caryophyllene.", "Myrcene is responsible for the pungent smell of fresh hops.", "Humulene and its oxidative reaction products may give beer its prominent hop aroma.", "Together, myrcene, humulene, and caryophyllene represent 80 to 90% of the total hops essential oil.", "=== Flavonoids ===Chemical structure of 8-prenylnaringeninXanthohumol is the principal flavonoid in hops.", "The other well-studied prenylflavonoids are 8-Prenylnaringenin and isoxanthohumol.", "Xanthohumol is under basic research for its potential properties, while 8-prenylnaringenin is a potent phytoestrogen." ], [ "Brewing", "Hops sample at the Moscow Brewing CompanyHops are usually dried in an oast house before they are used in the brewing process.", "Undried or \"wet\" hops are sometimes (since c. 1990) used.The wort (sugar-rich liquid produced from malt) is boiled with hops before it is cooled down and yeast is added, to start fermentation.The effect of hops on the finished beer varies by type and use, though there are two main hop types: bittering and aroma.", "'''Bittering hops''' have higher concentrations of alpha acids, and are responsible for the large majority of the bitter flavour of a beer.", "European (so-called \"noble\") hops typically average 5–9% alpha acids by weight (AABW), and the newer American cultivars typically range from 8–19% AABW.", "'''Aroma hops''' usually have a lower concentration of alpha acids (~5%) and are the primary contributors of hop aroma and (nonbitter) flavour.Bittering hops are boiled for a longer period of time, typically 60–90 minutes, and often have inferior aromatic properties, as the aromatic compounds evaporate during the boil.", "The degree of bitterness imparted by hops depends on the degree to which alpha acids are isomerized during the boil, and the impact of a given amount of hops is specified in International Bitterness Units.", "On the other hand, unboiled hops are only mildly bitter.Aroma hops are typically added to the wort later to prevent the evaporation of the essential oils, to impart \"hop taste\" (if during the final 30 minutes of boil) or \"hop aroma\" (if during the final 10 minutes, or less, of boil).", "Aroma hops are often added after the wort has cooled and while the beer ferments, a technique known as \"dry hopping\", which contributes to the hop aroma.", "Farnesene is a major component in some hops.", "The composition of hop essential oils can differ between varieties and between years in the same variety, having a significant influence on flavour and aroma.Macro shot of lupulin on a hop's coneToday, a substantial amount of \"dual-use\" hops are used, as well.", "These have high concentrations of alpha acids and good aromatic properties.", "These can be added to the boil at any time, depending on the desired effect.", "Hop acids also contribute to and stabilize the foam qualities of beer.Flavours and aromas are described appreciatively using terms which include \"grassy\", \"floral\", \"citrus\", \"spicy\", \"piney\", \"lemony\", \"grapefruit\", and \"earthy\".Many pale lagers have fairly low hop influence, while lagers marketed as Pilsener or brewed in the Czech Republic may have noticeable noble hop aroma.", "Certain ales (particularly the highly hopped style known as India Pale Ale, or IPA) can have high levels of hop bitterness.Brewers may use software tools to control the bittering levels in the boil and adjust recipes to account for a change in the hop bill or seasonal variations in the crop that may lead to the need to compensate for a difference in alpha acid contribution.", "Data may be shared with other brewers via BeerXML allowing the reproduction of a recipe allowing for differences in hop availability.Lately the dried pucks, extracts and pellets replace whole hops in brewing processes because of efficiency and cost." ], [ "Varieties", "===Breeding programmes===There are many different varieties of hops used in brewing today.", "Historically, hops varieties were identified by geography, ie.", "from the towns of Hallertau, Spalt, and Tettnang in Germany, or the region writ large like the Neomexicanus hops of New Mexico.", "Others were named for the farmer who is recognized as first cultivating them, including Goldings or Fuggles from England, or by their growing habit like the Oregon Cluster.Around 1900, a number of institutions began to experiment with breeding specific hop varieties.", "The breeding program at Wye College in Wye, Kent, was started in 1904 and rose to prominence through the work of Prof. E. S. Salmon.", "Salmon released Brewer's Gold and Brewer's Favorite for commercial cultivation in 1934, and went on to release more than two dozen new cultivars before his death in 1959.Brewer's Gold has become the ancestor of the bulk of new hop releases around the world since its release.Wye College continued its breeding program and again received attention in the 1970s, when Dr. Ray A. Neve released Wye Target, Wye Challenger, Wye Northdown, Wye Saxon and Wye Yeoman.", "More recently, Wye College and its successor institution Wye Hops Ltd., have focused on breeding the first dwarf hop varieties, which are easier to pick by machine and far more economical to grow.", "Wye College have also been responsible for breeding hop varieties that will grow with only 12 hours of daily light for the South African hop farmers.", "Wye College was closed in 2009 but the legacy of their hop breeding programs, particularly that of the dwarf varieties, is continuing as already the US private and public breeding programs are using their stock material.Particular hop varieties are associated with beer regions and styles, for example pale lagers are usually brewed with European (often German, Polish or Czech) noble hop varieties such as Saaz, Hallertau and Strissel Spalt.", "British ales use hop varieties such as Fuggles, Goldings and W.G.V.", "North American beers often use Cascade hops, Columbus hops, Centennial hops, Willamette, Amarillo hops and about forty more varieties as the US have lately been the more significant breeders of new hop varieties, including dwarf hop varieties.Hops from New Zealand, such as Pacific Gem, Motueka and Nelson Sauvin, are used in a \"Pacific Pale Ale\" style of beer with increasing production in 2014.===Noble hops===Mature hops growing in a hop yard in GermanyThe term \"noble hops\" is a marketing term that traditionally refers to certain varieties of hops that became known for being low in bitterness and high in aroma.", "They are the European cultivars or races Hallertau, Tettnanger, Spalt, and Saaz.", "Some proponents assert that the English varieties Fuggle, East Kent Goldings and Goldings might qualify as \"noble hops\" due to the similar composition, but such terms are not applied to English varieties.", "Their low relative bitterness, but strong aroma, are often distinguishing characteristics of European-style lagers, such as Pilsener, Dunkel, and Oktoberfest/Märzen.", "In beer, they are considered aroma hops (as opposed to bittering hops); see Pilsner Urquell as a classic example of the Bohemian Pilsener style, which showcases noble hops.As with grapes, the location where hops are grown affects the hops' characteristics.", "Much as Dortmunder beer may within the EU be labelled \"Dortmunder\" only if it has been brewed in Dortmund, noble hops may officially be considered \"noble\" only if they were grown in the areas for which the hop varieties (races) were named.", "* '''Hallertau''' or '''Hallertauer''' – The original German lager hop; named after Hallertau or Holledau region in central Bavaria.", "Due to susceptibility to crop disease, it was largely replaced by Hersbrucker in the 1970s and 1980s.", "(Alpha acid 3.5–5.5% / beta acid 3–4%)* '''Spalt''' – Traditional German noble hop from the Spalter region south of Nuremberg.", "With a delicate, spicy aroma.", "(Alpha acid 4–5% / beta acid 4–5%)* '''Tettnang''' – Comes from Tettnang, a small town in southern Baden-Württemberg in Germany.", "The region produces significant quantities of hops, and ships them to breweries throughout the world.", "Noble German dual-use hop used in European pale lagers, sometimes with Hallertau.", "Soft bitterness.", "(Alpha acid 3.5–5.5% / beta acid 3.5–5.5%)* '''Žatec (Saaz)''' – Noble hop, named after Žatec town, used extensively in Bohemia to flavour pale Czech lagers such as Pilsner Urquell.", "Soft aroma and bitterness.", "(Alpha acid 3–4.5% /Beta acid 3–4.5%)Noble hops are characterized through analysis as having an aroma quality resulting from numerous factors in the essential oil, such as an alpha:beta ratio of 1:1, low alpha-acid levels (2–5%) with a low cohumulone content, low myrcene in the hop oil, high humulene in the oil, a ratio of humulene:caryophyllene above three, and poor storability resulting in them being more prone to oxidation.", "In reality, this means they have a relatively consistent bittering potential as they age, due to beta-acid oxidation, and a flavor that improves as they age during periods of poor storage." ], [ "Other uses", "2-methyl-3-buten-2-olIn addition to beer, hops are used in herbal teas and in soft drinks.", "These soft drinks include Julmust (a carbonated beverage similar to soda that is popular in Sweden during December), Malta (a Latin American soft drink) and kvass.", "Hops can be eaten; the young shoots of the vine are edible and can be cooked like asparagus.Hops may be used in herbal medicine in a way similar to valerian, as a treatment for anxiety, restlessness, and insomnia.", "A pillow filled with hops is a popular folk remedy for sleeplessness, and animal research has shown a sedative effect.", "The relaxing effect of hops may be due, in part, to the specific degradation product from alpha acids, 2-methyl-3-buten-2-ol, as demonstrated from nighttime consumption of non-alcoholic beer.", "2-methyl-3-buten-2-ol is structurally similar to tert-amyl alcohol which was historically used as an anesthetic.", "Hops tend to be unstable when exposed to light or air and lose their potency after a few months' storage.Hops are of interest for hormone replacement therapy and are under basic research for potential relief of menstruation-related problems." ], [ "Toxicity", "Dermatitis sometimes results from harvesting hops.", "Although few cases require medical treatment, an estimated 3% of the workers suffer some type of skin lesions on the face, hands, and legs.", "Hops are toxic to dogs." ], [ "Fiction", "Hops and hops picking form the milieu and atmosphere in the British detective novel, ''Death in the Hopfields'' (1937) by John Rhode.", "The novel was subsequently issued in the United States under the title ''The Harvest Murder''." ], [ "See also", "* Gruit, an old-fashioned herb mixture used for bittering and flavouring beer, popular before the extensive use of hops* ''Humulus lupulus'', the hop plant* Mugwort, an herb historically used as a bitter in beer production* Oast house, a building designed for drying hops* ''Rhamnus prinoides'', a plant whose leaves are used in the Ethiopian variety of mead called tej" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Plant of the Month: Hops at JSTOR Daily, June 29, 2022*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hack" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Hack''' may refer to:" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "===Games===* ''Hack'' (Unix video game), a 1984 roguelike video game* ''.hack'' (video game series), a series of video games by the multimedia franchise ''.hack''===Music===* ''Hack'' (album), a 1990 album by Information Society===Film===* ''Hack!", "'', a 2007 film starring Danica McKellar* ''Hacked'' (film), a 2011 Bollywood thriller film* ''The Den'' (2013 film), a 2013 American film also known as ''Hacked''===Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media===* Hack (comedy), a joke that is considered obvious, frequently used, or stolen* Hack (comics), a Marvel Comics Universe mutant character* ''Hack'' (radio program), an Australian current affairs program* ''Hack'' (TV series), an American television series* .hack, a Japanese multimedia franchise* Lifehacker, a weblog about life hacks and software" ], [ "Computing", "* Hack (computer science), an inelegant but effective solution to a computing problem* Hack (computer security), to break into computers and computer networks* Hack (programming language), a programming language developed by Meta* HACK (tag), a possible tag in a comment in programming* Hack (typeface), an open source typeface designed for source code editing* Domain hack, a domain name that suggests a word, phrase, or name" ], [ "Animals", "* Hack (falconry), training method for young falcons* Hack (horse), an animal used for pleasure riding, as well as the verb form (hacking, to hack) for the activity" ], [ "Sports", "* Hack, a piece of equipment used for traction in the sport of curling* Hack, a goal in a game of hacky sack, or the footbag circle kicking game* Hack squat, a variant of the squat exercise" ], [ "Transport", "* Hack, a motorcycle with a sidecar attached* Hack, an illegal taxicab operation* Hackney carriage, a London cab also known as a hack" ], [ "Other uses", "* Hack (masonry), a row of stacked unfired bricks protected from the rain* Hack (name), a surname, given name and nickname* Hack Circle, an amphitheatre in Christchurch, New Zealand, also known as Hack* Hack writer or hack, a writer or journalist who produces low-quality articles or books* Eduard Hackel (standard author abbreviation: Hack.)", "(1850–1926), Austrian botanist* Life hack, productivity techniques used by programmers to solve everyday problems* MIT hack, a clever, benign, and ethical prank or practical joke at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology* Political hack, a person who devotes him/herself to party-political machinations* Backslash, also known as hack" ], [ "See also", "* Hacker (disambiguation)* Hacking (disambiguation)* Hacks (disambiguation)*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Huey, Dewey, and Louie" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Huey, Dewey, and Louie''' are triplet cartoon characters created by storyboard artist (screenwriter) Carl Barks for The Walt Disney Company from an idea proposed by cartoonist Al Taliaferro and are the nephews of Donald Duck and the grand-nephews of Scrooge McDuck.", "Like their maternal uncles, the brothers are anthropomorphic white ducks with yellow-orange bills and feet.", "The boys are sometimes distinguished by the color of their shirts and baseball caps (with Huey wearing red, Dewey wearing blue, and Louie wearing green).", "They featured in many ''Donald Duck'' animated shorts and in the television show ''DuckTales'' and its reboot, but comics remain their primary medium.While the boys were originally created as mischief-makers to provoke Donald's famous easily-triggered temper, later appearances, beginning especially in the comic books stories by Carl Barks, showed them growing to be heroes in their own right and valuable assets to him and Uncle Scrooge on their adventures.", "All three of the triplets are members of the fictional scouting organization of the Junior Woodchucks." ], [ "Origins", "Final panel of 1937 Sunday newspaper strip ''Silly Symphonies featuring Donald Duck'' that introduced Donald's nephews; drawn by Al TaliaferroAl Taliaferro, the artist for the ''Silly Symphony'' comic strip, proposed the idea for the film ''Donald's Nephews'', so that the studio would have duck counterparts to Morty and Ferdie Fieldmouse, the nephews of Mickey Mouse.", "The Walt Disney Productions Story Dept.", "on February 5, 1937, sent Taliaferro a memo recognizing him as the source of the idea for the planned short.The memo indicated, “we have decided to actually put a story crew to work on ''Donald’s Nephews''.” With the short already in production more than eight months before the boys' ''Silly Symphonies'' comic strip debut (on October 17, 1937), the animation studio's model sheet and storyline would have been Taliaferro and writer Ted Osborne's frame of reference for the comic strip.", "Because the strip was an adaptation of the animated shorts, it could utilize ideas from films still in production (''DuckTales'' reversed this, being a TV adaptation of the comics).", "Similarly, Barks' Junior Woodchuck prototype, ''Good Scouts'', was released three months after identical scouting uniforms were introduced by Taliaferro and Bob Karp in the comic strip.The nephews being triplets who finished each others' sentences was developed by Carl Barks, the screenwriter of ''Donald's Nephews'', for whom ''Happy Hooligan'', a comic strip that featured such triplets, was a childhood influence.", "This characteristic appeared for the first time at the end of the film, as the boys parted with Donald.", "In the comic strip, it was first implemented a week after the film's release.The nephews' names were devised by Disney gag man Dana Coty, who took them from Huey Long, Thomas Dewey, and Louis Schmitt, a Disney Studio animator.", "In translation, the nephews' names often follow the repetition (parachesis) of their names in English, for example, Tupu, Hupu and Lupu (Finnish) and Hyzio, Dyzio and Zyzio (Polish).===Character background===Huey, Dewey, and Louie are the sons of Donald's sister Della Duck; in ''Donald's Nephews'', their mother is instead named Dumbella.", "In the original theatrical shorts, they were originally sent to visit Donald for only one day; in the comics, the three were sent to stay with Donald on a temporary basis, until their father came back from the hospital (the boys ended up sending him there after a practical joke of putting firecrackers under his chair).", "In both the comics and animated shorts, the boys' parents were never heard from or mentioned again after these instances, with the boys ending up permanently living with Donald.", "All four of them live in the fictional city of Duckburg, in the fictional state of Calisota.In the theatrical shorts, Huey, Dewey, and Louie often behave in a rambunctious and mischievous manner, and they sometimes commit retaliation or revenge on Donald.", "In the early Barks comics, the ducklings were still wild and unruly, but their character improved considerably due to their membership in the Junior Woodchucks and the good influence of Grandma Duck.", "As the boys mature, they prefer to assist Donald and Scrooge in the adventure at hand." ], [ "Features", "===Colors of Huey, Dewey, and Louie's outfits===Self-referential humor: Scrooge with Huey, Dewey, and Louie in \"Return to Plain Awful\" (1989) by Don RosaIn early comic books and shorts, the caps of Huey, Dewey, and Louie were colored randomly, depending on the whim of the colorist.", "On a few occasions until 1945 and most cartoons shortly afterward, all three nephews wore identical outfits (most commonly red).It was not until the 1980s when it became established that Huey is dressed in pink then in 1982 changed to red, Dewey in black then in 1982 changed to blue, and Louie in brown then in 1982 changed to green.", "Disney's archivist Dave Smith, in \"Disney A to Z\", said, \"Note that the brightest hue of the three is red (Huey), the color of water, dew, is blue (Dewey), and that leaves Louie, and leaves are green (Louie).", "\"A few random combinations appear in early Disney merchandise and books, such as orange and yellow.", "Another combination that shows up from time to time is Huey in blue, Dewey in green, and Louie in red.", "In-story, this inconsistency is explained away as a result of the ducklings borrowing each other's clothes.", "The trio have often been depicted wearing indistinguishable black shirts (or the same dark color).The Don Rosa story ''An Eye for Detail'' was based around Donald spending so much time trying to tell his three nephews apart that he developed a heightened sense of sight.===Voices===Clarence Nash, Donald's voice actor, voiced the nephews in the cartoon shorts, making their voices just as duck-like (and thereby difficult to understand) as Donald's.", "Huey, Dewey, and Louie were all voiced by Russi Taylor in ''DuckTales''.", "In ''Quack Pack'', they were voiced by Jeannie Elias, Pamela Segall, and Elizabeth Daily, respectively.", "Tony Anselmo voiced the characters in ''Down and Out with Donald Duck'' (1987), ''Mickey Mouse Works'', ''House of Mouse'', and the ''Have a Laugh!''", "shorts, while Taylor continued voicing the trio in other projects, such as the video games, ''Donald Duck: Goin' Quackers'' and ''Mickey's Speedway USA'', and the direct-to-video films ''Mickey's Once'' and ''Twice Upon a Christmas''.", "Taylor also reprised her role as the nephews in the ''DuckTales: Remastered'' video game and the post-2013 ''Mickey Mouse'' shorts until her death in 2019.Danny Pudi, Ben Schwartz, and Bobby Moynihan voiced the trio in the 2017 ''DuckTales'' reboot." ], [ "Phooey Duck<!--'Phooey Duck' redirects here-->", "Panel with Huey, Dewey, and Louie along with a fourth nephew, Phooey DuckOn a few occasions, an artist by error drew four nephews and the error was published.", "This fourth nephew has been named '''Phooey Duck''' by Disney comic editor Bob Foster.The six-page Danish Egmont-licensed Disney comic ''Much Ado About Phooey'' (1999), plotted by Lars Jensen, written by Jack Sutter and drawn by Tino Santanach Hernandez, used Phooey as a character and explained Phooey's sporadic appearances as a freak incident of nature.", "(The text in the two speech balloons says \"It is a fourth nephew!", "An exact copy of the others!", "/ Yes, it's probably best that I explain\".)", "Phooey also made a cameo appearance in the 2017 ''DuckTales'' animated series episode, \"A Nightmare on Killmotor Hill!", "\", during a dream sequence." ], [ "Comics", "In the comics, Huey, Dewey, and Louie often play a major role in most stories involving either their \"Unca Donald\" or great-uncle Scrooge McDuck, accompanying them on most of their adventures.", "Originating in the comics is the boys' membership in the Boy Scouts of America-like organization, the Junior Woodchucks, including their use of the Junior Woodchucks Guidebook, a fantastically exhaustive field guide containing information on science, history and survival skills.", "This youth organization, which has twin goals of preserving knowledge and protecting the environment, was instrumental in transforming the three brothers from \"little hellions\" to upstanding young ducks.In Disney comic writer Don Rosa's continuity, Huey, Dewey, and Louie Duck were born around 1940 in Duckburg.", "In his award-winning epic series, ''Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck'', Rosa reveals the domestic pain felt by the boys' loss of their parents.", "When Scrooge first meets Donald and his nephews, he says: \"I'm not used to relatives, either!", "The few I had seem to have...", "disappeared!\"", "Huey, Dewey, and Louie respond: \"We know how ''that'' feels, Unca Scrooge!", "\"In ''Some Heir Over the Rainbow'' by Carl Barks, Huey, Dewey, and Louie, along with Donald Duck and Gladstone Gander, are tested by Scrooge McDuck, who wants to pick an heir to his fortune.", "Using the legend of a pot of gold at the end of a rainbow, Scrooge secretly gives the nephews, Donald and their cousin each $1,000 to invest.", "Donald uses his money for a down payment of a new car, now being $1,000 in debt.", "Gladstone, considering himself too lucky to need the money this soon, hides the money for when and if he needs it, causing Scrooge to consider him a better option than Donald.", "Huey, Dewey, and Louie lend their money to a man who claims to need the money to search for a treasure.", "Initially thinking they were tricked out of the money, Scrooge actually considers leaving his fortune to Gladstone, even though he sees that as \"an awful injustice to the world\", but the man actually finds the treasure and pays the kids back.", "Scrooge makes Huey, Dewey, and Louie his heirs.", "It seems to be the most solidly canon indication of Scrooge's plans.In a 1994 interview, Erik Svane asked Barks who would inherit Scrooge's money.", "Barks' response was \"Probably Donald's nephews.\"", "Svane further queried, \"Why would Huey, Dewey and Louie receive it?\"", "Barks: \"Oh, well, because they are so much more practical than Donald.", "In the later stories, as I developed those duck people and the whole community of Duckburg and all of its problems, I began giving those kids much more intelligence than anybody else in Duckburg.", "And so, I guess that when Uncle Scrooge passes on, he will leave all of his money to his three nephews.", "And I'm sure they will do a lot of good in the world, their Junior Woodchucks organization.", "They will save all the birds and all the whales.\"" ], [ "Television", "Huey, Dewey, and Louie, as they are seen in the original ''DuckTales'' animated seriesHuey, Dewey, and Louie starred in the 1987 animated television series ''DuckTales'', in which they went on adventures with their great-uncle, Scrooge McDuck, after their \"Unca Donald\" left them with him to enlist in the U.S. Navy.", "The boys' personalities in this series were mainly based on their comic book appearances versus the theatrical shorts.", "In the 1996 series ''Quack Pack'', the three were portrayed as teenagers and given distinct personalities, with Huey serving as the group's leader, Dewey as a computer whiz, and Louie as a sports enthusiast.", "After ''Quack Pack'', the boys were reverted to their original ages for most appearances, including the 1999 series ''Mickey Mouse Works''.", "An exception was the 2001 series ''House of Mouse'', in which they served as the house band in a variety of different styles (most commonly as \"The Quackstreet Boys\").In the 2017 ''DuckTales'' series, the brothers are once again given distinct designs, voices, and personalities: Huey is intelligent and logical, Dewey is adventurous and excitable, and Louie is laid-back and cunning.", "The boys move to Scrooge's mansion with Donald after Dewey accidentally destroys their houseboat and travel the world on adventures with their uncles.", "They also have different roles: Huey is a Junior Woodchuck, Dewey likes to go on adventures, and Louie wants to be wealthy like Scrooge, except that he likes to do everything the easy way.", "This iteration also changed Dewey's real name to Dewford, while making Dingus his middle name, and Louie's real name to Llewellyn.", "In the second season, the boys are reunited with their long-lost mother Della, who reveals she intended to name them \"Jet, Turbo, and Rebel\" before she disappeared, after which Donald named them instead." ], [ "Video games", "Huey, Dewey and Louie have been given many appearances in video games over the years, starting with ''DuckTales'' (1989), a popular NES game based on the show, wherein they aid their Uncle Scrooge in finding treasure.In ''The Lucky Dime Caper'' (1991) for Sega's Game Gear and Master System, the nephews are kidnapped by Magica De Spell.", "Donald must find Scrooge's lucky dime and barter for their safety.", "The trio also appear in the Sega Genesis and Sega Saturn game, ''Quackshot'' (1991), piloting Donald's plane as he travels the world in search of a lost treasure.", "The object of ''Disney's Magical Quest 3 Starring Mickey & Donald'' (1995), for Super Famicom (Japan) and Game Boy Advance, is to rescue the nephews from the clutches of the villainous King Pete.", "''Donald Duck: Goin' Quackers'' (2000) was released for many gaming systems.", "The boys aid Donald to bat Gladstone in rescuing Daisy Duck, while he also rescues their hexed play toys.", "The nephews appear as unlockable playable characters in ''Mickey's Speedway USA'' (2000) for Nintendo 64.In ''Dance Dance Revolution: Disney Mix'' (2000), that premiered as an arcade game in Japan and afterward on PlayStation and as a Plug-and-Play handheld TV game, they appear as DJ's for certain music tracks.", "They are playable characters in ''Disney Magic Kingdoms'' (2016), a Disney Parks themed game for iOS, Android and Windows.=== ''Kingdom Hearts'' ===Huey, Dewey, and Louie have recurring roles as shopkeepers in the ''Kingdom Hearts'' video game series.", "In the first entry (2002), the trio work in the item shop in the First District of Traverse Town.", "In ''Kingdom Hearts II'' (2005), they individually run an item shop (Huey), an accessory shop (Dewey), and a weapon shop (Louie) in Hollow Bastion/Radiant Garden.", "In both games' endings, they are seen returning to Disney Castle.", "''Kingdom Hearts: Birth By Sleep'' (2010) features the nephews in Disney Town, recreating Ice Cream flavors, this time with a speaking role.", "''Kingdom Hearts Coded'' (2008) also has Huey, Dewey, and Louie in Traverse Town, much like the first game.", "The three nephews were investigating the strange block phenomena occurring in their world which also resided inside Jiminy's journal.", "In ''Kingdom Hearts χ'' (2013), they are displayed on special Support medals that grant the player's other medals a set number of experience points based on the medal's star value.", "They appear in the Tram Common area of Twilight Town in ''Kingdom Hearts III'' (2019), where they each take turns running the gummi shop.", "In all of their ''Kingdom Hearts'' appearances, the nephews look similar to their appearance in the original ''DuckTales''." ], [ "Parks and attractions", "Huey, Dewey and Louie have made numerous appearances at Disney theme parks.=== Tokyo Disney ===The nephews appeared in seasonal parades during Easter, Halloween and Christmas 2011 after a long absence.", "They also appeared in the Countdown Party Parade 2011.=== Disneyland Paris ===Huey, Dewey and Louie appear regularly in Paris.", "They appeared during the Christmas season 2010 in their daytime and nighttime Parades at ''\"Disneyland Paris's Magic Kingdom\"'', Disney's Once Upon a Dream Parade and in the Disney's Fantillusion Parade in glittery outfits.", "They made another appearance at Disneyland Paris for meet-and-greet at the Disneyland Hotel on April 2, 2011, the day of the Press Event for the launch of the ''Magical Moments Festival''.", "They also appeared at Disney's Once Upon a Dream Parade at the Disneyland Park in special outfits for the parade and at the Disney's Stars 'n' Cars Parade at the Walt Disney Studios Park in directors outfits.The nephews appeared at Disneyland Paris's Halloween season 2011.They have their own show during ''Mickey's Not-So-Scary Halloween Parties'' at the Disneyland Park in Disneyland Paris, titled ''Huey, Dewey and Louie's Trick or Treat Party''.", "They also made an appearance for meet-and-greet at Disneyland Paris's \"Disney's Halloween Party\" on October 31, 2011.They were also part of the Christmas Eve and New Year's Eve 2011–2012 celebrations at the Disneyland Hotel." ], [ "List of character appearances", "=== Theatrical shorts ===#Short filmDateShirt ColoursNotes1''Donald's Nephews''April 15, 1938Red, Green, Orange2''Good Scouts''July 8, 1938All scout uniforms3''Donald's Golf Game''November 4, 1938Red, Yellow, Orange4''The Hockey Champ''April 28, 1939Red, Green, Orange5''Sea Scouts''June 30, 1939All Red6''Mr.", "Duck Steps Out''June 7, 1940Yellow, Green, RedAlso starring Daisy Duck7''Fire Chief''December 13, 1940Red, Yellow, Blue/All Red8''All Together''January 13, 1942All RedA WWII Cartoon9''The Nifty Nineties''June 20, 1941All BlueA Mickey Mouse Cartoon10''Truant Officer Donald''August 1, 1941Red, Green, Orange11''Donald's Snow Fight''April 10, 194212''Home Defense''November 26, 1943All Red13''Donald Duck and the Gorilla''March 31, 1944Red, Yellow, Green14''Donald's Off Day''December 8, 1944All Red15''Donald's Crime''June 29, 1945Red, Green, OrangeAlso starring Daisy Duck16''Straight Shooters''April 18, 1947All Red17''Soup's On''October 15, 194818''Donald's Happy Birthday''February 11, 194919''Lion Around''January 20, 195020''Lucky Number''July 20, 195121''Trick or Treat''October 10, 1952Various Halloween costumes Also starring Witch Hazel22''Don's Fountain of Youth''May 30, 1953All Red23''Canvas Back Duck''December 25, 1953Also starring Peg Leg Pete24''Spare the Rod''January 15, 1954All Green/Red25''Donald's Diary''March 5, 1954All Light BlueAlso starring Daisy Duck; Huey, Dewey and Louie (who are not named) are Daisy's little brothers and not Donald's nephews26''The Litterbug''June 21, 1961Red, Yellow, Green27''Donald's Fire Survival Plan''May 5, 1966All Red27''Scrooge McDuck and Money''March 23, 1967All blue===Feature films===*''Mickey's Christmas Carol'' (1983) (cameo)*''Who Framed Roger Rabbit'' (1988) (cameo)*''DuckTales the Movie: Treasure of the Lost Lamp'' (1990)*''Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas'' (1999)*''Mickey's Magical Christmas: Snowed in at the House of Mouse'' (2001)*''Mickey's House of Villains'' (2002)*''Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas'' (2004)*''Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers'' (2022) (cameo)===Television shows and specials===*''Donald Duck Presents'' (1983)*''DuckTales'' (1987)*''Sport Goofy in Soccermania'' (1987)*''Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue'' (1990)*''Quack Pack'' (1996)*''Mickey Mouse Works'' (1999)*''House of Mouse'' (2001)*''Mickey Mouse'' (2013)*''DuckTales'' (2017)*''The Wonderful World of Mickey Mouse'' (2020)===Video games===*''DuckTales'' (1989)*''The Lucky Dime Caper'' (1991)*''Quackshot'' (1991)*''Disney's Magical Quest 3 Starring Mickey & Donald'' (1995)*''Donald Duck: Goin' Quackers'' (2000)*''Mickey's Speedway USA'' (2000)*''Dance Dance Revolution: Disney Mix'' (2000)*''Kingdom Hearts'' (2002)*''Kingdom Hearts II'' (2005)*''Kingdom Hearts: Birth By Sleep'' (2010)*''Kingdom Hearts Unchained'' (2013)*''Disney Magic Kingdoms'' (2016)*''Kingdom Hearts III'' (2019)" ], [ "See also", "*Disney comics*Junior Woodchucks*Duck family (Disney)*Donald Duck universe*Donald Duck in comics*Donald Duck and Scrooge McDuck" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hammurabi" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hammurabi''' (; Akkadian: ''Ḫâmmurapi''; ), also spelled '''Hammurapi''', was the sixth Amorite king of the Old Babylonian Empire, reigning from to BC.", "He was preceded by his father, Sin-Muballit, who abdicated due to failing health.", "During his reign, he conquered the city-states of Larsa, Eshnunna, and Mari.", "He ousted Ishme-Dagan I, the king of Assyria, and forced his son Mut-Ashkur to pay tribute, bringing almost all of Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule.Hammurabi is best known for having issued the Code of Hammurabi, which he claimed to have received from Shamash, the Babylonian god of justice.", "Unlike earlier Sumerian law codes, such as the Code of Ur-Nammu, which had focused on compensating the victim of the crime, the Law of Hammurabi was one of the first law codes to place greater emphasis on the physical punishment of the perpetrator.", "It prescribed specific penalties for each crime and is among the first codes to establish the presumption of innocence.", "They were intended to limit what a wronged person was permitted to do in retribution.", "The Code of Hammurabi and the Law of Moses in the Torah contain numerous similarities.Hammurabi was seen by many as a god within his own lifetime.", "After his death, Hammurabi was revered as a great conqueror who spread civilization and forced all peoples to pay obeisance to Marduk, the national god of the Babylonians.", "Later, his military accomplishments became de-emphasized and his role as the ideal lawgiver became the primary aspect of his legacy.", "For later Mesopotamians, Hammurabi's reign became the frame of reference for all events occurring in the distant past.", "Even after the empire he built collapsed, he was still revered as a model ruler, and many kings across the Near East claimed him as an ancestor.", "Hammurabi was rediscovered by archaeologists in the late nineteenth century and has since been seen as an important figure in the history of law." ], [ "Life", "===Background and ascension===300x300pxHammurabi ascended to the throne as the king of a minor kingdom in the midst of a complex geopolitical situation.", "Hammurabi was an Amorite First Dynasty king of the city-state of Babylon, and inherited the power from his father, Sin-Muballit, in .", "Babylon was one of the many largely Amorite-ruled city-states that dotted the central and southern Mesopotamian plains and waged war on each other for control of fertile agricultural land.", "Though many cultures co-existed in Mesopotamia, Babylonian culture gained a degree of prominence among the literate classes throughout the Middle East under Hammurabi.", "The kings who came before Hammurabi had founded a relatively minor city-state in 1894 BC, which controlled little territory outside of the city itself.", "Babylon was overshadowed by older, larger, and more powerful kingdoms, such as Elam, Assyria, Isin, Eshnunna, and Larsa for a century or so after its founding.", "However, his father Sin-Muballit had begun to consolidate rule of a small area of south central Mesopotamia under Babylonian rule and, by the time of his reign, had conquered the minor city-states of Borsippa, Kish, and Sippar.The powerful kingdom of Eshnunna controlled the upper Tigris River, while Larsa controlled the river delta.", "To the east of Mesopotamia lay the powerful kingdom of Elam, which regularly invaded and forced tribute upon the small states of southern Mesopotamia.", "In northern Mesopotamia, the Assyrian king Shamshi-Adad I, who had already inherited centuries-old Assyrian colonies in Asia Minor, had expanded his territory into the Levant and central Mesopotamia, although his untimely death would somewhat fragment his empire.===Reign and conquests===A limestone votive monument from Sippar, Iraq, dating to showing King Hammurabi raising his right arm in worship, now held in the British MuseumThe first few years of Hammurabi's reign were quite peaceful.", "Hammurabi used his power to undertake a series of public works, including heightening the city walls for defensive purposes, and expanding the temples.", "The powerful kingdom of Elam, which straddled important trade routes across the Zagros Mountains, invaded the Mesopotamian plain.", "With allies among the plain states, Elam attacked and destroyed the kingdom of Eshnunna, destroying a number of cities and imposing its rule on portions of the plain for the first time.In order to consolidate its position, Elam tried to start a war between Hammurabi's Babylonian kingdom and the kingdom of Larsa.", "Hammurabi and the king of Larsa made an alliance when they discovered this duplicity and were able to crush the Elamites, although Larsa did not contribute greatly to the military effort.", "Angered by Larsa's failure to come to his aid, Hammurabi turned on that southern power, thus gaining control of the entirety of the lower Mesopotamian plain by .As Hammurabi was assisted during the war in the south by his allies from the north such as Yamhad and Mari, the absence of soldiers in the north led to unrest.", "Continuing his expansion, Hammurabi turned his attention northward, quelling the unrest.", "Soon after, he destroyed Eshnunna.", "Next the Babylonian armies conquered the remaining northern states, including Babylon's former ally Mari, although it is possible that the conquest of Mari was a surrender without any actual conflict.Hammurabi entered into a protracted war with Ishme-Dagan I of Assyria for control of Mesopotamia, with both kings making alliances with minor states in order to gain the upper hand.", "Eventually Hammurabi prevailed, ousting Ishme-Dagan I just before his own death.", "Mut-Ashkur, the new king of Assyria, was forced to pay tribute to Hammurabi.In just a few years, Hammurabi succeeded in uniting all of Mesopotamia under his rule.", "The Assyrian kingdom survived but was forced to pay tribute during his reign, and of the major city-states in the region, only Aleppo and Qatna to the west in the Levant maintained their independence.", "However, one stele (stone monument) of Hammurabi has been found as far north as Diyarbekir, where he claims the title \"King of the Amorites\".Vast numbers of contract tablets, dated to the reigns of Hammurabi and his successors, have been discovered, as well as 55 of his own letters.", "These letters give a glimpse into the daily trials of ruling an empire, from dealing with floods and mandating changes to a flawed calendar, to taking care of Babylon's massive herds of livestock.", "Hammurabi died and passed the reins of the empire on to his son Samsu-iluna in , under whose rule the Babylonian empire quickly began to unravel." ], [ "Code of laws", "Code of Hammurabi stele.", "Louvre Museum, Paris|leftThe Code of Hammurabi was a collection of 282 laws dealing with a wide range of issues.", "It is not the earliest surviving law code but was proved more influential in world politics and international relations as instead of focusing on compensating the victim of crime, as in earlier Sumerian law codes, the Code of Hammurabi instead focused on physically punishing the perpetrator.", "It was also one of the first law codes to place restrictions on what a wronged person was allowed to do in retribution and one of the earliest examples of the idea of presumption of innocence, suggesting that the accused and accuser have the opportunity to provide evidence.", "The structure of the code is very specific, with each offense receiving a specified punishment.", "Many offenses resulted in death, disfigurement, or the use of the ''Lex Talionis'' philosophy (\"Eye for eye, tooth for tooth\").The Code of Hammurabi was inscribed on a stele and placed in a public place so that all could see it, although it is thought that few were literate.", "The stele was later plundered by the Elamites and removed to their capital, Susa; it was rediscovered there in 1901 in Iran and is now in the Louvre Museum in Paris.", "The code of Hammurabi contains 282 laws, written by scribes on 12 tablets.", "Unlike earlier laws, it was written in Akkadian, the daily language of Babylon, and could therefore be read by any literate person in the city.", "At this time, Akkadian replaced Sumerian, and Hammurabi began language reforms that would make Akkadian the most common language at this time.", "A carving at the top of the stele portrays Hammurabi receiving the laws from Shamash, the Babylonian god of justice, and the preface states that Hammurabi was chosen by Shamash to bring the laws to the people.", "Because of Hammurabi's reputation as a lawgiver, his depiction can be found in law buildings throughout the world.", "Hammurabi is one of the 23 lawgivers depicted in marble bas-reliefs in the chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives in the United States Capitol.", "A frieze by Adolph Weinman depicting the \"great lawgivers of history\", including Hammurabi, is on the south wall of the U.S. Supreme Court building." ], [ "Legacy", "===Posthumous commemoration===Tablet of Hammurabi (, 4th line from the top), King of Babylon.", "British Museum.Hammurabi was honored above all other kings of the second millennium BC and he received the unique honor of being declared to be a god within his own lifetime.", "The personal name \"Hammurabi-ili\" meaning \"Hammurabi is my god\" became common during and after his reign.", "In writings from shortly after his death, Hammurabi is commemorated mainly for three achievements: bringing victory in war, bringing peace, and bringing justice.", "Hammurabi's conquests came to be regarded as part of a sacred mission to spread civilization to all nations.", "A stele from Ur glorifies him in his own voice as a mighty ruler who forces evil into submission and compels all peoples to worship Marduk.", "The stele declares: \"The people of Elam, Gutium, Subartu, and Tukrish, whose mountains are distant and whose languages are obscure, I placed into Marduk's hand.", "I myself continued to put straight their confused minds.\"", "A later hymn also written in Hammurabi's own voice extols him as a powerful, supernatural force for Marduk:I am the king, the brace that grasps wrongdoers, that makes people of one mind,I am the great dragon among kings, who throws their counsel in disarray,I am the net that is stretched over the enemy,I am the fear-inspiring, who, when lifting his fierce eyes, gives the disobedient the death sentence,I am the great net that covers evil intent,I am the young lion, who breaks nets and scepters,I am the battle net that catches him who offends me.After extolling Hammurabi's military accomplishments, the hymn finally declares: \"I am Hammurabi, the king of justice.\"", "In later commemorations, Hammurabi's role as a great lawgiver came to be emphasized above all his other accomplishments and his military achievements became de-emphasized.", "Hammurabi's reign became the point of reference for all events in the distant past.", "A hymn to the goddess Ishtar, whose language suggests it was written during the reign of Ammisaduqa, Hammurabi's fourth successor, declares: \"The king who first heard this song as a song of your heroism is Hammurabi.", "This song for you was composed in his reign.", "May he be given life forever!\"", "For centuries after his death, Hammurabi's laws continued to be copied by scribes as part of their writing exercises and they were even partially translated into Sumerian.===Political legacy===Shutruk-Nahhunte I.", "The stele was only partially erased and was never re-inscribed.|leftDuring the reign of Hammurabi, Babylon usurped the position of \"most holy city\" in southern Mesopotamia from its predecessor, Nippur.", "Under the rule of Hammurabi's successor Samsu-iluna, the short-lived Babylonian Empire began to collapse.", "In northern Mesopotamia, both the Amorites and Babylonians were driven from Assyria by Puzur-Sin a native Akkadian-speaking ruler, .", "Around the same time, native Akkadian speakers threw off Amorite Babylonian rule in the far south of Mesopotamia, creating the Sealand Dynasty, in more or less the region of ancient Sumer.", "Hammurabi's ineffectual successors met with further defeats and loss of territory at the hands of Assyrian kings such as Adasi and Bel-ibni, as well as to the Sealand Dynasty to the south, Elam to the east, and to the Kassites from the northeast.", "Thus was Babylon quickly reduced to the small and minor state it had once been upon its founding.The ''coup de grace'' for the Hammurabi's Amorite Dynasty occurred in 1595 BC, when Babylon was sacked and conquered by the powerful Hittite Empire, thereby ending all Amorite political presence in Mesopotamia.", "However, the Indo-European-speaking Hittites did not remain, turning over Babylon to their Kassite allies, a people speaking a language isolate, from the Zagros mountains region.", "This Kassite Dynasty ruled Babylon for over 400 years and adopted many aspects of the Babylonian culture, including Hammurabi's code of laws.", "Even after the fall of the Amorite Dynasty, however, Hammurabi was still remembered and revered.", "When the Elamite king Shutruk-Nahhunte I raided Babylon in 1158 BC and carried off many stone monuments, he had most of the inscriptions on these monuments erased and new inscriptions carved into them.", "On the stele containing Hammurabi's laws, however, only four or five columns were wiped out and no new inscription was ever added.", "Over a thousand years after Hammurabi's death, the kings of Suhu, a land along the Euphrates river, just northwest of Babylon, claimed him as their ancestor.A Neo-Babylonian royal inscription, which was intended for display on a stele, commemorates a royal grant of tax exemptions to nine Babylonian cities and presents the royal protagonist as a second Hammurabi.===Relationship to Biblical figures and Mosaic law ===In the late nineteenth century, the Code of Hammurabi became a major center of debate in the heated ''Babel und Bibel'' (\"Babylon and Bible\") controversy in Germany over the relationship between the Bible and ancient Babylonian texts.", "In January 1902, the German Assyriologist Friedrich Delitzsch gave a lecture at the Sing-Akademie zu Berlin in front of the Kaiser and his wife, in which he argued that the Mosaic Laws of the Old Testament were directly copied off the Code of Hammurabi.", "Delitzsch's lecture was so controversial that, by September 1903, he had managed to collect 1,350 short articles from newspapers and journals, over 300 longer ones, and twenty-eight pamphlets, all written in response to this lecture, as well as the preceding one about the Flood story in the ''Epic of Gilgamesh''.", "These articles were overwhelmingly critical of Delitzsch, though a few were sympathetic.", "The Kaiser distanced himself from Delitzsch and his radical views and, in fall of 1904, Delitzsch was forced to give his third lecture in Cologne and Frankfurt am Main rather than in Berlin.", "The putative relationship between the Mosaic Law and the Code of Hammurabi later became a major part of Delitzsch's argument in his 1920–21 book ''Die große Täuschung'' (''The Great Deception'') that the Hebrew Bible was irredeemably contaminated by Babylonian influence and that only by eliminating the human Old Testament entirely could Christians finally believe in the true, Aryan message of the New Testament.", "In the early twentieth century, many scholars believed that Hammurabi was Amraphel, the King of Shinar in the Book of Genesis 14:1.This view has now been largely rejected, and Amraphael's existence is not attested in any writings from outside the Bible.Parallels between this narrative and the giving of the Covenant Code to Moses by Yahweh atop Mount Sinai in the Biblical Book of Exodus and similarities between the two legal codes suggest a common ancestor in the Semitic background of the two.", "Nonetheless, fragments of previous law codes have been found and it is unlikely that the Mosaic laws were directly inspired by the Code of Hammurabi.", "Some scholars have disputed this; David P. Wright argues that the Jewish Covenant Code is \"directly, primarily, and throughout\" based upon the Laws of Hammurabi.", "In 2010, a team of archaeologists from Hebrew University discovered a cuneiform tablet dating to the eighteenth or seventeenth century BC at Hazor in Israel containing laws clearly derived from the Code of Hammurabi." ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* A Closer Look at the Code of Hammurabi at the Louvre museum* * * Year Names of Hammurabi" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Huygens–Fresnel principle" ], [ "Introduction", "Wave refraction in the manner of HuygensWave diffraction in the manner of Huygens and FresnelThe '''Huygens–Fresnel principle''' (named after Dutch physicist Christiaan Huygens and French physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel) states that every point on a wavefront is itself the source of spherical wavelets, and the secondary wavelets emanating from different points mutually interfere.", "The sum of these spherical wavelets forms a new wavefront.", "As such, the Huygens-Fresnel principle is a method of analysis applied to problems of luminous wave propagation both in the far-field limit and in near-field diffraction as well as reflection." ], [ "History", "Diffraction of a plane wave when the slit width equals the wavelengthIn 1678, Huygens proposed that every point reached by a luminous disturbance becomes a source of a spherical wave; the sum of these secondary waves determines the form of the wave at any subsequent time.", "He assumed that the secondary waves travelled only in the \"forward\" direction, and it is not explained in the theory why this is the case.", "He was able to provide a qualitative explanation of linear and spherical wave propagation, and to derive the laws of reflection and refraction using this principle, but could not explain the deviations from rectilinear propagation that occur when light encounters edges, apertures and screens, commonly known as diffraction effects.", "The resolution of this error was finally explained by David A.", "B. Miller in 1991.The resolution is that the source is a dipole (not the monopole assumed by Huygens), which cancels in the reflected direction.In 1818, Fresnel showed that Huygens's principle, together with his own principle of interference, could explain both the rectilinear propagation of light and also diffraction effects.", "To obtain agreement with experimental results, he had to include additional arbitrary assumptions about the phase and amplitude of the secondary waves, and also an obliquity factor.", "These assumptions have no obvious physical foundation, but led to predictions that agreed with many experimental observations, including the Poisson spot.Poisson was a member of the French Academy, which reviewed Fresnel's work.", "He used Fresnel's theory to predict that a bright spot ought to appear in the center of the shadow of a small disc, and deduced from this that the theory was incorrect.", "However, Arago, another member of the committee, performed the experiment and showed that the prediction was correct.", "(Lisle had observed this fifty years earlier.)", "This was one of the investigations that led to the victory of the wave theory of light over then predominant corpuscular theory.In antenna theory and engineering, the reformulation of the Huygens–Fresnel principle for radiating current sources is known as surface equivalence principle.=== Huygens' principle as a microscopic model ===The Huygens–Fresnel principle provides a reasonable basis for understanding and predicting the classical wave propagation of light.", "However, there are limitations to the principle, namely the same approximations done for deriving the Kirchhoff's diffraction formula and the approximations of near field due to Fresnel.", "These can be summarized in the fact that the wavelength of light is much smaller than the dimensions of any optical components encountered.Kirchhoff's diffraction formula provides a rigorous mathematical foundation for diffraction, based on the wave equation.", "The arbitrary assumptions made by Fresnel to arrive at the Huygens–Fresnel equation emerge automatically from the mathematics in this derivation.A simple example of the operation of the principle can be seen when an open doorway connects two rooms and a sound is produced in a remote corner of one of them.", "A person in the other room will hear the sound as if it originated at the doorway.", "As far as the second room is concerned, the vibrating air in the doorway is the source of the sound.=== Modern physics interpretations ===Not all experts agree that the Huygens' principle is an accurate microscopic representation of reality.", "For instance, Melvin Schwartz argued that \"Huygens' principle actually does give the right answer but for the wrong reasons\".This can be reflected in the following facts:* The microscopic mechanics of photon creation and emission is, in general, essentially acceleration of electrons.", "* The original analysis by Huygens considered only wavefronts of uniform frequency, phase, and propagation speed, and therefore cannot properly account for effects such as interference or dispersion.", "* Huygens' original principle also does not consider the polarization of light, which would require a vector potential, in contrast to the scalar potential of a simple ocean wave or sound wave, and therefore cannot account for effects such as birefringence.", "* In the Huygens description, there is no explanation of why we choose only the forward-going (retarded wave or forward envelope of wave fronts) versus the backward-propagating advanced wave (backward envelope).", "* In the Fresnel approximation there is a concept of non-local behavior due to the sum of spherical waves with different phases that comes from the different points of the wave front, and non local theories are subject of many debates (e.g., not being Lorentz covariant) and of active research.", "* The Fresnel approximation can be interpreted in a quantum probabilistic manner but is unclear how much this sum of states (i.e., wavelets on the wavefront) is a complete list of states that are meaningful physically or represents more of an approximation on a generic basis like in the linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) method.The Huygens' principle is essentially compatible with quantum field theory in the far field approximation, considering effective fields in the center of scattering, considering small perturbations, and in the same sense that quantum optics is compatible with classical optics, other interpretations are subject of debates and active research.The Feynman model where every point in an imaginary wave front as large as the room is generating a wavelet, shall also be interpreted in these approximations and in a probabilistic context, in this context remote points can only contribute minimally to the overall probability amplitude.Quantum field theory does not include any microscopic model for photon creation and the concept of single photon is also put under scrutiny on a theoretical level." ], [ "Mathematical expression of the principle", "Geometric arrangement for Fresnel's calculationConsider the case of a point source located at a point '''P'''0, vibrating at a frequency ''f''.", "The disturbance may be described by a complex variable ''U''0 known as the complex amplitude.", "It produces a spherical wave with wavelength λ, wavenumber .", "Within a constant of proportionality, the complex amplitude of the primary wave at the point '''Q''' located at a distance ''r''0 from '''P'''0 is::Note that magnitude decreases in inverse proportion to the distance traveled, and the phase changes as ''k'' times the distance traveled.Using Huygens's theory and the principle of superposition of waves, the complex amplitude at a further point '''P''' is found by summing the contribution from each point on the sphere of radius ''r''0.In order to get an agreement with experimental results, Fresnel found that the individual contributions from the secondary waves on the sphere had to be multiplied by a constant, −''i''/λ, and by an additional inclination factor, ''K''(χ).", "The first assumption means that the secondary waves oscillate at a quarter of a cycle out of phase with respect to the primary wave and that the magnitude of the secondary waves are in a ratio of 1:λ to the primary wave.", "He also assumed that ''K''(χ) had a maximum value when χ = 0, and was equal to zero when χ = π/2, where χ is the angle between the normal of the primary wavefront and the normal of the secondary wavefront.", "The complex amplitude at '''P''', due to the contribution of secondary waves, is then given by::where ''S'' describes the surface of the sphere, and ''s'' is the distance between '''Q''' and '''P'''.Fresnel used a zone construction method to find approximate values of ''K'' for the different zones, which enabled him to make predictions that were in agreement with experimental results.", "The integral theorem of Kirchhoff includes the basic idea of Huygens–Fresnel principle.", "Kirchhoff showed that in many cases, the theorem can be approximated to a simpler form that is equivalent to the formation of Fresnel's formulation.For an aperture illumination consisting of a single expanding spherical wave, if the radius of the curvature of the wave is sufficiently large, Kirchhoff gave the following expression for ''K''(χ)::''K'' has a maximum value at χ = 0 as in the Huygens–Fresnel principle; however, ''K'' is not equal to zero at χ = π/2, but at χ = π.Above derivation of ''K''(χ) assumed that the diffracting aperture is illuminated by a single spherical wave with a sufficiently large radius of curvature.", "However, the principle holds for more general illuminations.", "An arbitrary illumination can be decomposed into a collection of point sources, and the linearity of the wave equation can be invoked to apply the principle to each point source individually.", "''K''(χ) can be generally expressed as::In this case, ''K'' satisfies the conditions stated above (maximum value at χ = 0 and zero at χ = π/2)." ], [ "Generalized Huygens' principle", "Many books and references e.g.", "and refer to the Generalized Huygens' Principle as the one referred by Feynman in this publication.Feynman defines the generalized principle in the following way:This clarifies the fact that in this context the generalized principle reflects the linearity of quantum mechanics and the fact that the quantum mechanics equations are first order in time.", "Finally only in this case the superposition principle fully apply, i.e.", "the wave function in a point P can be expanded as a superposition of waves on a border surface enclosing P. Wave functions can be interpreted in the usual quantum mechanical sense as probability densities where the formalism of Green's functions and propagators apply.", "What is note-worthy is that this generalized principle is applicable for \"matter waves\" and not for light waves any more.", "The phase factor is now clarified as given by the action and there is no more confusion why the phases of the wavelets are different from the one of the original wave and modified by the additional Fresnel parameters.As per Greiner the generalized principle can be expressed for in the form::where ''G'' is the usual Green function that propagates in time the wave function .", "This description resembles and generalize the initial Fresnel's formula of the classical model.===Huygens' theory, Feynman's path integral and the modern photon wave function===Huygens' theory served as a fundamental explanation of the wave nature of light interference and was further developed by Fresnel and Young but did not fully resolve all observations such as the low-intensity double-slit experiment first performed by G. I. Taylor in 1909.It was not until the early and mid-1900s that quantum theory discussions, particularly the early discussions at the 1927 Brussels Solvay Conference, where Louis de Broglie proposed his de Broglie hypothesis that the photon is guided by a wave function.", "The wave function presents a much different explanation of the observed light and dark bands in a double slit experiment.", "In this conception, the photon follows a path which is a probabilistic choice of one of many possible paths in the electromagnetic field.", "These probable paths form the pattern: in dark areas, no photons are landing, and in bright areas, many photons are landing.", "The set of possible photon paths is consistent with Richard Feynman's path integral theory, the paths determined by the surroundings: the photon's originating point (atom), the slit, and the screen and by tracking and summing phases.", "The wave function is a solution to this geometry.", "The wave function approach was further supported by additional double-slit experiments in Italy and Japan in the 1970s and 1980s with electrons.===Huygens' principle and quantum field theory===Huygens' principle can be seen as a consequence of the homogeneity of space—space is uniform in all locations.", "Any disturbance created in a sufficiently small region of homogeneous space (or in a homogeneous medium) propagates from that region in all geodesic directions.", "The waves produced by this disturbance, in turn, create disturbances in other regions, and so on.", "The superposition of all the waves results in the observed pattern of wave propagation.Homogeneity of space is fundamental to quantum field theory (QFT) where the wave function of any object propagates along all available unobstructed paths.", "When integrated along all possible paths, with a phase factor proportional to the action, the interference of the wave-functions correctly predicts observable phenomena.", "Every point on the wavefront acts as the source of secondary wavelets that spread out in the light cone with the same speed as the wave.", "The new wavefront is found by constructing the surface tangent to the secondary wavelets." ], [ "In other spatial dimensions", "In 1900, Jacques Hadamard observed that Huygens' principle was broken when the number of spatial dimensions is even.", "From this, he developed a set of conjectures that remain an active topic of research.", "In particular, it has been discovered that Huygens' principle holds on a large class of homogeneous spaces derived from the Coxeter group (so, for example, the Weyl groups of simple Lie algebras).The traditional statement of Huygens' principle for the D'Alembertian gives rise to the KdV hierarchy; analogously, the Dirac operator gives rise to the AKNS hierarchy." ], [ "See also", "* Fraunhofer diffraction* Kirchhoff's diffraction formula* Green's function* Green's theorem* Green's identities* Near-field diffraction pattern* Double-slit experiment* Knife-edge effect* Fermat's principle* Fourier optics* Surface equivalence principle* Wave field synthesis* Kirchhoff integral theorem" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Stratton, Julius Adams: ''Electromagnetic Theory'', McGraw-Hill, 1941.", "(Reissued by Wiley – IEEE Press, ).", "* B.B.", "Baker and E.T.", "Copson, ''The Mathematical Theory of Huygens' Principle'', Oxford, 1939, 1950; AMS Chelsea, 1987." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Honey" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Honey''' is a sweet and viscous substance made by several bees, the best-known of which are honey bees.", "Honey is made and stored to nourish bee colonies.", "Bees produce honey by gathering and then refining the sugary secretions of plants (primarily floral nectar) or the secretions of other insects, like the honeydew of aphids.", "This refinement takes place both within individual bees, through regurgitation and enzymatic activity, and during storage in the hive, through water evaporation that concentrates the honey's sugars until it is thick and viscous.Honey bees stockpile honey in the hive.", "Within the hive is a structure made from wax called honeycomb.", "The honeycomb is made up of hundreds or thousands of hexagonal cells, into which the bees regurgitate honey for storage.", "Other honey-producing species of bee store the substance in different structures, such as the pots made of wax and resin used by the stingless bee.Honey for human consumption is collected from wild bee colonies, or from the hives of domesticated bees.", "The honey produced by honey bees is the most familiar to humans, thanks to its worldwide commercial production and availability.", "The husbandry of bees is known as beekeeping or apiculture, with the cultivation of stingless bees usually referred to as meliponiculture.Honey is sweet because of its high concentrations of the monosaccharides fructose and glucose.", "It has about the same relative sweetness as sucrose (table sugar).", "One standard tablespoon (15 mL) of honey provides around of food energy.", "It has attractive chemical properties for baking and a distinctive flavor when used as a sweetener.", "Most microorganisms cannot grow in honey and sealed honey therefore does not spoil.", "Samples of honey discovered in archaeological contexts have proven edible even after millennia.French honey from different floral sources, with visible differences in color and textureHoney use and production has a long and varied history, with its beginnings in prehistoric times.", "Several cave paintings in Cuevas de la Araña in Spain depict humans foraging for honey at least 8,000 years ago.", "While ''Apis melifera'' is an Old World insect, large-scale meliponiculture of New World stingless bees has been practiced by Mayans since pre-Columbian times." ], [ "Formation", "A honey bee with its proboscis extended into a calyx of goldenrodHoneycomb displaying hexagonal prismatic wax cells in which honey bees store honey=== By honey bees ===Honey is produced by bees who have collected nectar or honeydew.", "Bees value honey for its sugars, which they consume to support general metabolic activity, especially that of their flight muscles during foraging, and as a food for their larvae.", "To this end bees stockpile honey to provide for themselves during ordinary foraging as well as during lean periods, as in overwintering.", "During foraging bees use part of the nectar they collect to power their flight muscles.", "The majority of nectar collected is not used to directly nourish the insects but is instead destined for regurgitation, enzymatic digestion, and finally long-term storage as honey.", "During cold weather or when other food sources are scarce, adult and larval bees consume stored honey, which is many times as energy-dense as the nectar from which it is made.After leaving the hive a foraging bee collects sugar-rich nectar or honeydew.", "Nectar from the flower generally has a water content of 70 to 80% and is much less viscous than finished honey, which usually has a water content around 18%.", "The water content of honeydew from aphids and other true bugs is generally very close to the sap on which those insects feed and is usually somewhat more dilute than nectar.", "One source describes the water content of honeydew as around 89%.", "Whether it is feeding on nectar or honeydew, the bee sucks these runny fluids through its proboscis, which delivers the liquid to the bee's honey stomach or \"honey crop\".", "This cavity lies just above its food stomach, the latter of which digests pollen and sugars consumed by an individual honey bee for its own nourishment.In ''Apis mellifera'' the honey stomach holds about 40 mg of liquid.", "This is about half the weight of an unladen bee.", "Collecting this quantity in nectar can require visits to more than a thousand flowers.", "When nectar is plentiful it can take a bee more than an hour of ceaseless work to collect enough nectar to fill its honey crop.", "Salivary enzymes and proteins from the bee's hypopharyngeal gland are secreted into the nectar once it is in the bee's honey stomach.", "These substances begin cleaving complex sugars like sucrose and starches into simpler sugars such as glucose and fructose.", "This process slightly raises the water content and the acidity of the partially digested nectar.Once filled, the forager bees return to the hive.", "There they regurgitate and transfer nectar to hive bees.", "Once in their own honey stomachs the hive bees regurgitate the nectar, repeatedly forming bubbles between their mandibles, speeding its digestion and concentration.", "These bubbles create a large surface area per volume and by this means the bees evaporate a portion of the nectar's water into the warm air of the hive.Hive bees form honey processing groups.", "These groups work in relay, with one bee subjecting the processed nectar to bubbling and then passing the refined liquid on to others.", "It can take as long as 20 minutes of continuous regurgitation, digestion and evaporation until the product reaches storage quality.", "The new honey is then placed in honeycomb cells, which are left uncapped.", "This honey still has a very high water content, up to 70%, depending on the concentration of nectar gathered.", "At this stage of its refinement the water content of the honey is high enough that ubiquitous yeast spores can reproduce in it, a process which, if left unchecked, would rapidly consume the new honey's sugars.", "To combat this, bees use an ability rare among insects: the endogenous generation of heat.Bees are among the few insects that can create large amounts of body heat.", "They use this ability to produce a constant ambient temperature in their hives.", "Hive temperatures are usually around in the honey-storage areas.", "This temperature is regulated either by generating heat with their bodies or removing it through water evaporation.", "The evaporation removes water from the stored honey, drawing heat from the colony.", "The bees use their wings to govern hive cooling.", "Coordinated wing beating moves air across the wet honey, drawing out water and heat.", "Ventilation of the hive eventually expels both excess water and heat into the outside world.The process of evaporating continues until the honey reaches its final water content of between 15.5% to 18%.", "This concentrates the sugars far beyond the saturation point of water, which is to say there is far more sugar dissolved in what little water remains in honey than ever could be dissolved in an equivalent volume of water.", "Honey, even at hive temperatures, is therefore a supercooled solution of various sugars in water.", "These concentrations of sugar can only be achieved near room temperature by evaporation of a less concentrated solution, in this case nectar.", "For osmotic reasons such high concentrations of sugar are extremely unfavorable to microbiological reproduction and all fermentation is consequently halted.", "The bees then cap the cells of finished honey with wax.", "This seals them from contamination and prevents further evaporation.So long as its water concentration does not rise much above 18%, honey has an indefinite shelf life, both within the hive and after its removal by a beekeeper.=== By other insects ===Honey bees are not the only eusocial insects to produce honey.", "All non-parasitic bumblebees and stingless bees produce honey.", "Some wasp species, such as ''Brachygastra lecheguana'' and ''Brachygastra mellifica,'' found in South and Central America, are known to feed on nectar and produce honey.", "Other wasps, such as ''Polistes versicolor'', also consume honey.", "In the middle of their life cycles they alternate between feeding on protein-rich pollen and feeding on honey, which is a far denser source of food energy.=== Human intervention ===Human beings have semi-domesticated several species of honey bee by taking advantage of their swarming stage.", "Swarming is the means by which new colonies are established when there is no longer space for expansion in the colony's present hive.", "The old queen lays eggs that will develop into new queens and then leads as many as half the colony to a site for a new hive.", "Bees generally swarm before a suitable location for another hive has been discovered by scouts sent out for this purpose.", "Until such a location is found the swarm will simply conglomerate near the former hive, often from tree branches.", "These swarms are unusually docile and amenable to transport by humans.", "When provided with a suitable nesting site, such as a commercial Langstroth hive, the swarm will readily form a new colony in artificial surroundings.", "These semi-domesticated colonies are then looked after by humans practicing apiculture or meliponiculture.", "Captured bees are encouraged to forage, often in agricultural settings such as orchards, where pollinators are highly valued.", "The honey, pollen, wax and resins the bees produce are all harvested by humans for a variety of uses.The term \"semi-domesticated\" is preferred because all bee colonies, even those in very large agricultural apiculture operations, readily leave the protection of humans in swarms that can establish successful wild colonies.", "Much of the effort in commercial beekeeping is dedicated to persuading a hive that is ready to swarm to produce more honeycomb in its present location.", "This is usually done by adding more space to the colony with ''honey supers'', empty boxes placed on top of an existing colony.", "The bees can then usually be enticed to develop this empty space instead of dividing their colony through swarming." ], [ "Production", "===Collection===Sealed frame of honeyExtraction from a honeycombFiltering from a honeycombHoney is collected from wild bee colonies or from domesticated beehives.", "On average, a hive will produce about of honey per year.", "Wild bee nests are sometimes located by following a honeyguide bird.To safely collect honey from a hive, beekeepers typically pacify the bees using a bee smoker.", "The smoke triggers a feeding instinct (an attempt to save the resources of the hive from a possible fire), making them less aggressive, and obscures the pheromones the bees use to communicate.", "The honeycomb is removed from the hive and the honey may be extracted from it either by crushing or by using a honey extractor.", "The honey is then usually filtered to remove beeswax and other debris.Before the invention of removable frames, bee colonies were often sacrificed to conduct the harvest.", "The harvester would take all the available honey and replace the entire colony the next spring.", "Since the invention of removable frames, the principles of husbandry led most beekeepers to ensure that their bees have enough stores to survive the winter, either by leaving some honey in the beehive or by providing the colony with a honey substitute such as sugar water or crystalline sugar (often in the form of a \"candyboard\").", "The amount of food necessary to survive the winter depends on the variety of bees and on the length and severity of local winters.Many animal species are attracted to wild or domestic sources of honey.===Preservation===Because of its composition and chemical properties, honey is suitable for long-term storage, and is easily assimilated even after long preservation.", "Honey, and objects immersed in honey, have been preserved for centuries.", "The key to preservation is limiting access to humidity.", "In its cured state, honey has a sufficiently high sugar content to inhibit fermentation.", "If exposed to moist air, its hydrophilic properties pull moisture into the honey, eventually diluting it to the point that fermentation can begin.The long shelf life of honey is attributed to an enzyme found in the stomach of bees.", "The bees mix glucose oxidase with expelled nectar they previously consumed, creating two byproducts – gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide, which are partially responsible for honey acidity and suppression of bacterial growth.===Adulteration===Honey is sometimes adulterated by the addition of other sugars, syrups, or compounds to change its flavor or viscosity, reduce cost, or increase the fructose content to inhibit crystallization.", "Adulteration of honey has been practiced since ancient times, when honey was sometimes blended with plant syrups such as maple, birch, or sorghum and sold to customers as pure honey.", "Sometimes crystallized honey was mixed with flour or other fillers, hiding the adulteration from buyers until the honey was liquefied.", "In modern times the most common adulterant became clear, almost-flavorless corn syrup; the adulterated mixture can be very difficult to distinguish from pure honey.According to the Codex Alimentarius of the United Nations, any product labeled as \"honey\" or \"pure honey\" must be a wholly natural product, although labeling laws differ between countries.", "In the United States, according to the National Honey Board, \"Ensuring honey authenticity is one of the great challenges facing the honey industry today.", "Over the past half century, a number of honey testing methods have been developed to detect food fraud.", "To date, there is no single universal analytical method available which is capable of detecting all types of adulteration with adequate sensitivity.", "\"Isotope ratio mass spectrometry can be used to detect addition of corn syrup and cane sugar by the carbon isotopic signature.", "Addition of sugars originating from corn or sugar cane (C4 plants, unlike the plants used by bees, and also sugar beet, which are predominantly C3 plants) skews the isotopic ratio of sugars present in honey, but does not influence the isotopic ratio of proteins.", "In an unadulterated honey, the carbon isotopic ratios of sugars and proteins should match.", "Levels as low as 7% of addition can be detected.===Worldwide production===+ Production of natural honey in 2020CountryProduction(tonnes) 458,100 104,077 79,955 74,403 68,028 66,948'''World''' '''1,770,119'''Source: FAOSTATIn 2020, global production of honey was 1.8million tonnes, led by China with 26% of the world total (table).", "Other major producers were Turkey, Iran, Argentina, and Ukraine." ], [ "Modern uses", "===Food===Over its history as a food, the main uses of honey are in cooking, baking, desserts, as a spread on bread, as an addition to various beverages such as tea, and as a sweetener in some commercial beverages.Due to its energy density, honey is an important food for virtually all hunter-gatherer cultures in warm climates, with the Hadza people ranking honey as their favorite food.", "Honey hunters in Africa have a mutualistic relationship with certain species of honeyguide birds.===Fermentation===Possibly the world's oldest fermented beverage, dating from 9,000 years ago, mead (\"honey wine\") is the alcoholic product made by adding yeast to honey-water must and fermenting it for weeks or months.", "The yeast ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' is commonly used in modern mead production.Mead varieties include drinks called metheglin (with spices or herbs), melomel (with fruit juices, such as grape, specifically called pyment), hippocras (with cinnamon), and sack mead (high concentration of honey), many of which have been developed as commercial products numbering in the hundreds in the United States.", "Honey is also used to make mead beer, called \"braggot\"." ], [ "Physical and chemical properties", "Crystallized honey: The inset shows a close-up of the honey, showing the individual glucose grains in the fructose mixture.The physical properties of honey vary, depending on water content, the type of flora used to produce it (pasturage), temperature, and the proportion of the specific sugars it contains.", "Fresh honey is a supersaturated liquid, containing more sugar than the water can typically dissolve at ambient temperatures.", "At room temperature, honey is a supercooled liquid, in which the glucose precipitates into solid granules.", "This forms a semisolid solution of precipitated glucose crystals in a solution of fructose and other ingredients.The density of honey typically ranges between 1.38 and 1.45 kg/L at 20 °C.===Phase transitions===The melting point of crystallized honey is between , depending on its composition.", "Below this temperature, honey can be either in a metastable state, meaning that it will not crystallize until a seed crystal is added, or, more often, it is in a \"labile\" state, being saturated with enough sugars to crystallize spontaneously.", "The rate of crystallization is affected by many factors, but the primary factor is the ratio of the main sugars: fructose to glucose.", "Honeys that are supersaturated with a very high percentage of glucose, such as brassica honey, crystallize almost immediately after harvesting, while honeys with a low percentage of glucose, such as chestnut or tupelo honey, do not crystallize.", "Some types of honey may produce few but very large crystals, while others produce many small crystals.Crystallization is also affected by water content, because a high percentage of water inhibits crystallization, as does a high dextrin content.", "Temperature also affects the rate of crystallization, with the fastest growth occurring between .", "Crystal nuclei (seeds) tend to form more readily if the honey is disturbed, by stirring, shaking, or agitating, rather than if left at rest.", "However, the nucleation of microscopic seed-crystals is greatest between .", "Therefore, larger but fewer crystals tend to form at higher temperatures, while smaller but more-numerous crystals usually form at lower temperatures.", "Below 5 °C, the honey will not crystallize, thus the original texture and flavor can be preserved indefinitely.Honey is a supercooled liquid when stored below its melting point, as is normal.", "At very low temperatures, honey does not freeze solid; rather its viscosity increases.", "Like most viscous liquids, the honey becomes thick and sluggish with decreasing temperature.", "At , honey may appear or even feel solid, but it continues to flow at very low rates.", "Honey has a glass transition between .", "Below this temperature, honey enters a glassy state and becomes an amorphous solid (noncrystalline).===Rheology===Pouring raw honey.", "The sheet-like appearance of the flow is the result of high viscosity and low surface tension, contributing to the stickiness of honey.The viscosity of honey is affected greatly by both temperature and water content.", "The higher the water percentage, the more easily honey flows.", "Above its melting point, however, water has little effect on viscosity.", "Aside from water content, the composition of most types of honey also has little effect on viscosity.", "At , honey with 14% water content generally has a viscosity around 400 poise, while a honey containing 20% water has a viscosity around 20 poise.", "Viscosity increases very slowly with moderate cooling; a honey containing 16% water, at , has a viscosity around 2 poise, while at , the viscosity is around 70 poise.", "With further cooling, the increase in viscosity is more rapid, reaching 600 poise at around .", "However, while honey is viscous, it has low surface tension of 50–60 mJ/m2, making its wettability similar to water, glycerin, or most other liquids.", "The high viscosity and wettability of honey cause stickiness, which is a time-dependent process in supercooled liquids between the glass-transition temperature (Tg) and the crystalline-melting temperature.Most types of honey are Newtonian liquids, but a few types have non-Newtonian viscous properties.", "Honeys from heather or manuka display thixotropic properties.", "These types of honey enter a gel-like state when motionless, but liquefy when stirred.===Electrical and optical properties===Because honey contains electrolytes, in the form of acids and minerals, it exhibits varying degrees of electrical conductivity.", "Measurements of the electrical conductivity are used to determine the quality of honey in terms of ash content.The effect honey has on light is useful for determining the type and quality.", "Variations in its water content alter its refractive index.", "Water content can easily be measured with a refractometer.", "Typically, the refractive index for honey ranges from 1.504 at 13% water content to 1.474 at 25%.", "Honey also has an effect on polarized light, in that it rotates the polarization plane.", "The fructose gives a negative rotation, while the glucose gives a positive one.", "The overall rotation can be used to measure the ratio of the mixture.", "Honey is generally pale yellow and dark brown in color, but other colors can occur, depending on the sugar source.", "Bee colonies that forage on Kudzu (''Pueraria montana'' var.", "''lobata'') flowers, for example, produce honey that varies in color from red to purple.===Hygroscopy and fermentation===Honey has the ability to absorb moisture directly from the air, a phenomenon called hygroscopy.", "The amount of water the honey absorbs is dependent on the relative humidity of the air.", "Because honey contains yeast, this hygroscopic nature requires that honey be stored in sealed containers to prevent fermentation, which usually begins if the honey's water content rises much above 25%.", "Honey tends to absorb more water in this manner than the individual sugars allow on their own, which may be due to other ingredients it contains.Fermentation of honey usually occurs after crystallization, because without the glucose, the liquid portion of the honey primarily consists of a concentrated mixture of fructose, acids, and water, providing the yeast with enough of an increase in the water percentage for growth.", "Honey that is to be stored at room temperature for long periods of time is often pasteurized, to kill any yeast, by heating it above .===Thermal characteristics===Creamed honey: the honey on the left is fresh, and the honey on the right has been aged at room temperature for two years.", "The Maillard reaction produces considerable differences in the color and flavor of the aged honey, which remains edible.Like all sugar compounds, honey caramelizes if heated sufficiently, becoming darker in color, and eventually burns.", "However, honey contains fructose, which caramelizes at lower temperatures than glucose.", "The temperature at which caramelization begins varies, depending on the composition, but is typically between .", "Honey also contains acids, which act as catalysts for caramelization.", "The specific types of acids and their amounts play a primary role in determining the exact temperature.", "Of these acids, the amino acids, which occur in very small amounts, play an important role in the darkening of honey.", "The amino acids form darkened compounds called melanoidins, during a Maillard reaction.", "The Maillard reaction occurs slowly at room temperature, taking from a few to several months to show visible darkening, but speeds up dramatically with increasing temperatures.", "However, the reaction can also be slowed by storing the honey at colder temperatures.Unlike many other liquids, honey has very poor thermal conductivity of 0.5 W/(m⋅K) at 13% water content (compared to 401 W/(m⋅K) of copper), taking a long time to reach thermal equilibrium.", "Due to its high kinematic viscosity honey does not transfer heat through momentum diffusion (convection) but rather through thermal diffusion (more like a solid), so melting crystallized honey can easily result in localized caramelization if the heat source is too hot or not evenly distributed.", "However, honey takes substantially longer to liquefy when just above the melting point than at elevated temperatures.", "Melting of crystallized honey at can take up to 24 hours, while may take twice as long.", "These times can be cut nearly in half by heating at ; however, many of the minor substances in honey can be affected greatly by heating, changing the flavor, aroma, or other properties, so heating is usually done at the lowest temperature and for the shortest time possible.===Acid content and flavor effects===The average pH of honey is 3.9, but can range from 3.4 to 6.1.Honey contains many kinds of acids, both organic and amino.", "However, the different types and their amounts vary considerably, depending on the type of honey.", "These acids may be aromatic or aliphatic (nonaromatic).", "The aliphatic acids contribute greatly to the flavor of honey by interacting with the flavors of other ingredients.Organic acids comprise most of the acids in honey, accounting for 0.17–1.17% of the mixture, with gluconic acid formed by the actions of glucose oxidase as the most prevalent.", "Minor amounts of other organic acids are present, consisting of formic, acetic, butyric, citric, lactic, malic, pyroglutamic, propionic, valeric, capronic, palmitic, and succinic, among many others.===Volatile organic compounds===Individual honeys from different plant sources contain over 100 volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which play a primary role in determining honey flavors and aromas.", "VOCs are carbon-based compounds that readily vaporize into the air, providing aroma, including the scents of flowers, essential oils, or ripening fruit.", "The typical chemical families of VOCs found in honey include hydrocarbons, aldehydes, alcohols, ketones, esters, acids, benzenes, furans, pyrans, norisoprenoids, and terpenes, among many others and their derivatives.", "The specific VOCs and their amounts vary considerably between different types of honey obtained by bees foraging on different plant sources.", "By example, when comparing the mixture of VOCs in different honeys in one review, longan honey had a higher amount of volatiles (48 VOCs), while sunflower honey had the lowest number of volatiles (8 VOCs).VOCs are primarily introduced into the honey from the nectar, where they are excreted by the flowers imparting individual scents.", "The specific types and concentrations of certain VOCs can be used to determine the type of flora used to produce monofloral honeys.", "The specific geography, soil composition and acidity used to grow the flora also have an effect on honey aroma properties, such as a \"fruity\" or \"grassy\" aroma from longan honey, or a \"waxy\" aroma from sunflower honey.", "Dominant VOCs in one study were linalool oxide, trans-linalool oxide, 2-phenylacetaldehyde, benzyl ethanol, isophorone, and methyl nonanoate.VOCs can also be introduced from the bodies of the bees, be produced by the enzymatic actions of digestion, or from chemical reactions that occur between different substances within the honey during storage, and therefore may change, increase, or decrease over long periods of time.", "VOCs may be produced, altered, or greatly affected by temperature and processing.", "Some VOCs are heat labile, and are destroyed at elevated temperatures, while others can be created during non-enzymatic reactions, such as the Maillard reaction.", "VOCs are responsible for nearly all of the aroma produced by a honey, which may be described as \"sweet\", \"flowery\", \"citrus\", \"almond\" or \"rancid\", among other terms.", "In addition, VOCs play a large role in determining the specific flavor of the honey, both through the aromas and flavor.", "VOCs from honeys in different geographic regions can be used as floral markers of those regions, and as markers of the bees that foraged the nectars." ], [ "Classification", "Honey is classified by its floral source, and divisions are made according to the packaging and processing used.", "Regional honeys are also identified.", "In the US, honey is also graded on its color and optical density by USDA standards, graded on the Pfund scale, which ranges from 0 for \"water white\" honey to more than 114 for \"dark amber\" honey.===Floral source===Generally, honey is classified by the floral source of the nectar from which it was made.", "Honeys can be from specific types of flower nectars or can be blended after collection.", "The pollen in honey is traceable to floral source and therefore region of origin.", "The rheological and melissopalynological properties of honey can be used to identify the major plant nectar source used in its production.====Blended====Most commercially available honey is a blend of two or more honeys differing in floral source, color, flavor, density, or geographic origin.====Polyfloral====Polyfloral honey, also known as wildflower honey, is derived from the nectar of many types of flowers.", "The taste may vary from year to year, and the aroma and the flavor can be more or less intense, depending on which flowers are blooming.====Monofloral====Monofloral honey is made primarily from the nectar of one type of flower.", "Monofloral honeys have distinctive flavors and colors because of differences between their principal nectar sources.", "To produce monofloral honey, beekeepers keep beehives in an area where the bees have access, as far as possible, to only one type of flower.", "In practice a small proportion of any monofloral honey will be from other flower types.", "Typical examples of North American monofloral honeys are clover, orange blossom, sage, tupelo, buckwheat, fireweed, mesquite, sourwood, cherry, and blueberry.", "Some typical European examples include thyme, thistle, heather, acacia, dandelion, sunflower, lavender, honeysuckle, and varieties from lime and chestnut trees.", "In North Africa (e.g.", "Egypt), examples include clover, cotton, and citrus (mainly orange blossoms).", "The unique flora of Australia yields a number of distinctive honeys, with some of the most popular being yellow box, blue gum, ironbark, bush mallee, Tasmanian leatherwood, and macadamia.===Honeydew honey===Instead of taking nectar, bees can take honeydew, the sweet secretions of aphids or other plant-sap-sucking insects.", "Honeydew honey is very dark brown, with a rich fragrance of stewed fruit or fig jam, and is not as sweet as nectar honeys.", "Germany's Black Forest is a well-known source of honeydew-based honeys, as are some regions in Bulgaria, Tara in Serbia, and Northern California in the United States.", "In Greece, pine honey, a type of honeydew honey, constitutes 60–65% of honey production.", "Honeydew honey is popular in some areas, but in other areas, beekeepers have difficulty selling honeydew honey, due to its stronger flavor.The production of honeydew honey has some complications and dangers.", "This honey has a much larger proportion of indigestibles than light floral honeys, thus causing dysentery to the bees, resulting in the death of colonies in areas with cold winters.", "Good beekeeping management requires the removal of honeydew prior to winter in colder areas.", "Bees collecting this resource also have to be fed protein supplements, as honeydew lacks the protein-rich pollen accompaniment gathered from flowers.Honeydew honey is sometimes called \"myelate\".===Classification by packaging and processing===A variety of honey flavors and container sizes and styles from the 2008 Texas State FairGenerally, honey is bottled in its familiar liquid form, but it is sold in other forms, and can be subjected to a variety of processing methods.", "* '''Crystallized honey''' occurs when some of the glucose content has spontaneously crystallized from solution as the monohydrate.", "It is also called \"granulated honey\" or \"candied honey\".", "Honey that has crystallized (or is commercially purchased crystallized) can be returned to a liquid state by warming.", "* '''Pasteurized honey''' has been heated in a pasteurization process which requires temperatures of or higher.", "Pasteurization destroys yeast cells.", "It also liquefies any microcrystals in the honey, which delays the onset of visible crystallization.", "However, excessive heat exposure also results in product deterioration, as it increases the level of hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) and reduces enzyme (e.g.", "diastase) activity.", "Heat also darkens the honey, and affects taste and fragrance.", "* '''Raw honey''' is as it exists in the beehive or as obtained by extraction, settling, or straining, without adding heat (although some honey that has been \"minimally processed\" is often labeled as raw honey).", "Raw honey contains some pollen and may contain small particles of wax.", "* '''Strained honey''' has been passed through a mesh material to remove particulate material (pieces of wax, propolis, other defects) without removing pollen, minerals, or enzymes.", "* '''Filtered honey''' of any type has been filtered to the extent that all or most of the fine particles, pollen grains, air bubbles, or other materials normally found in suspension, have been removed.", "The process typically heats honey to to more easily pass through the filter.", "Filtered honey is very clear and will not crystallize as quickly, making it preferred by supermarkets.", "The most common method involves the addition of diatomaceous earth to honey that is heated to and passed through filter paper or canvas until a filter cake of diatomaceous earth builds up on the filter.", "* '''Ultrasonicated honey''' has been processed by ultrasonication, a nonthermal processing alternative for honey.", "When honey is exposed to ultrasonication, most of the yeast cells are destroyed.", "Those cells that survive sonication generally lose their ability to grow, which reduces the rate of honey fermentation substantially.", "Ultrasonication also eliminates existing crystals and inhibits further crystallization in honey.", "Ultrasonically aided liquefaction can work at substantially lower temperatures around and can reduce liquefaction time to less than 30 seconds.", "* '''Creamed honey''', also called whipped honey, spun honey, churned honey, honey fondant, and, in the UK, set honey, has been processed to control crystallization.", "Creamed honey contains a large number of small crystals, which prevent the formation of larger crystals that can occur in unprocessed honey.", "The processing also produces a honey with a smooth, spreadable consistency.", "* '''Dried honey''' has the moisture extracted from liquid honey to create completely solid, nonsticky granules.", "This process may or may not include the use of drying and anticaking agents.", "Dried honey is used in baked goods, and to garnish desserts.", "* '''Comb honey''' is still in the honey bees' wax comb.", "It is traditionally collected using standard wooden frames in honey supers.", "The frames are collected and the comb is cut out in chunks before packaging.", "As an alternative to this labor-intensive method, plastic rings or cartridges can be used that do not require manual cutting of the comb, and speed packaging.", "Comb honey harvested in the traditional manner is also referred to as \"cut-comb honey\".", "* '''Chunk honey''' is packed in wide-mouthed containers; it consists of one or more pieces of comb honey immersed in extracted liquid honey.", "* '''Honey decoctions''' are made from honey or honey byproducts which have been dissolved in water, then reduced (usually by means of boiling).", "Other ingredients may then be added.", "(For example, abbamele has added citrus.)", "The resulting product may be similar to molasses.", "* '''Baker's honey''' is outside the normal specification for honey, due to a \"foreign\" taste or odor, or because it has begun to ferment or has been overheated.", "It is generally used as an ingredient in food processing.", "Additional requirements exist for labeling baker's honey, including that it may not be sold labeled simply as \"honey\".===Grading===Countries have differing standards for grading honey.", "In the US, honey grading is performed voluntarily based upon USDA standards.", "USDA offers inspection and grading \"as on-line (in-plant) or lot inspection...upon application, on a fee-for-service basis.\"", "Honey is graded based upon a number of factors, including water content, flavor and aroma, absence of defects, and clarity.", "Honey is also classified by color, though it is not a factor in the grading scale.", "'''The honey grade scale is''': Grade Soluble solids Flavor and aroma Absence of defects Clarity A≥ 81.4%Good—\"has a good, normal flavor and aroma for the predominant floral source or, when blended, a good flavor for the blend of floral sources and the honey is free from caramelized flavor or objectionable flavor caused by fermentation, smoke, chemicals, or other causes with the exception of the predominant floral source\"Practically free—\"contains practically no defects that affect the appearance or edibility of the product\"Clear—\"may contain air bubbles which do not materially affect the appearance of the product and may contain a trace of pollen grains or other finely divided particles of suspended material which do not affect the appearance of the product\" B≥ 81.4%Reasonably good—\"has a reasonably good, normal flavor and aroma for the predominant floral source or, when blended, a reasonably good flavor for the blend of floral sources and the honey is practically free from caramelized flavor and is free from objectionable flavor caused by fermentation, smoke, chemicals, or other causes with the exception of the predominant floral source\"Reasonably free—\"may contain defects which do not materially affect the appearance or edibility of the product\"Reasonably clear—\"may contain air bubbles, pollen grains, or other finely divided particles of suspended material which do not materially affect the appearance of the product\" C≥ 80.0%Fairly good—\"has a fairly good, normal flavor and aroma for the predominant floral source or, when blended, a fairly good flavor for the blend of floral sources and the honey is reasonably free from caramelized flavor and is free from objectionable flavor caused by fermentation, smoke, chemicals, or other causes with the exception of the predominant floral source\"Fairly free—\"may contain defects which do not seriously affect the appearance or edibility of the product\"Fairly clear—\"may contain air bubbles, pollen grains, or other finely divided particles of suspended material which do not seriously affect the appearance of the product\" SubstandardFails Grade CFails Grade CFails Grade CFails Grade CIndia certifies honey grades based on additional factors, such as the Fiehe's test, and other empirical measurements.===Indicators of quality===High-quality honey can be distinguished by fragrance, taste, and consistency.", "Ripe, freshly collected, high-quality honey at should flow from a knife in a straight stream, without breaking into separate drops.", "After falling down, the honey should form a bead.", "The honey, when poured, should form small, temporary layers that disappear fairly quickly, indicating high viscosity.", "If not, it indicates honey with excessive water content of over 20%, not suitable for long-term preservation.In jars, fresh honey should appear as a pure, consistent fluid, and should not set in layers.", "Within a few weeks to a few months of extraction, many varieties of honey crystallize into a cream-colored solid.", "Some varieties of honey, including tupelo, acacia, and sage, crystallize less regularly.", "Honey may be heated during bottling at temperatures of to delay or inhibit crystallization.", "Overheating is indicated by change in enzyme levels, for instance, diastase activity, which can be determined with the Schade or the Phadebas methods.", "A fluffy film on the surface of the honey (like a white foam), or marble-colored or white-spotted crystallization on a container's sides, is formed by air bubbles trapped during the bottling process.A 2008 Italian study determined that nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy can be used to distinguish between different honey types, and can be used to pinpoint the area where it was produced.", "Researchers were able to identify differences in acacia and polyfloral honeys by the differing proportions of fructose and sucrose, as well as differing levels of aromatic amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine.", "This ability allows greater ease of selecting compatible stocks." ], [ "Nutrition", "One hundred grams of honey provides about of energy with no significant amounts of essential nutrients.", "Composed of 17% water and 82% carbohydrates, honey has low content of fat, dietary fiber, and protein.===Sugar profile===A mixture of sugars and other carbohydrates, honey is mainly fructose (about 38%) and glucose (about 32%), with remaining sugars including maltose, sucrose, and other complex carbohydrates.", "Its glycemic index ranges from 31 to 78, depending on the variety.", "The specific composition, color, aroma, and flavor of any batch of honey depend on the flowers foraged by bees that produced the honey.One 1980 study found that mixed floral honey from several United States regions typically contains the following:* Fructose: 38.2%* Glucose: 31.3%* Maltose: 7.1%* Sucrose: 1.3%* Water: 17.2%* Higher sugars: 1.5%* Ash: 0.2%* Other/undetermined: 3.2%This means that 55% of the combined fructose and glucose content was fructose and 45% was glucose, which enables comparison with the essentially identical result (average of 56% and 44%) in the study described below:A 2013 NMR spectroscopy study of 20 different honeys from Germany found that their sugar contents comprised:* Fructose: 28% to 41%* Glucose: 22% to 35%The average ratio was 56% fructose to 44% glucose, but the ratios in the individual honeys ranged from a high of 64% fructose and 36% glucose (one type of flower honey; table 3 in reference) to a low of 50% fructose and 50% glucose (a different floral source).", "This NMR method was not able to quantify maltose, galactose, and the other minor sugars as compared to fructose and glucose." ], [ "Medical use and research", "===Wounds and burns===Honey is a folk treatment for burns and other skin injuries.", "Preliminary evidence suggests that it aids in the healing of partial thickness burns 4–5 days faster than other dressings, and moderate evidence suggests that post-operative infections treated with honey heal faster and with fewer adverse events than with antiseptic and gauze.", "The evidence for the use of honey in various other wound treatments is of low quality, and firm conclusions cannot be drawn.", "Evidence does not support the use of honey-based products for the treatment of venous stasis ulcers or ingrown toenail.", "Several medical-grade honey products have been approved by the FDA for use in treating minor wounds and burns.===Antibiotic===Honey has long been used as a topical antibiotic by practitioners of traditional and herbal medicine.", "Honey's antibacterial effects were first demonstrated by the Dutch scientist Bernardus Adrianus van Ketel in 1892.Since then, numerous studies have shown that honey has broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, although potency varies widely between different honeys.", "Due to the proliferation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the last few decades, there has been renewed interest in researching the antibacterial properties of honey.", "Components of honey under preliminary research for potential antibiotic use include methylglyoxal, hydrogen peroxide, and royalisin (also called defensin-1).===Cough===For chronic and acute coughs, a Cochrane review found no strong evidence for or against the use of honey.", "For treating children, the systematic review concluded with moderate to low evidence that honey helps more than no treatment, diphenhydramine, and placebo at giving relief from coughing.", "Honey does not appear to work better than dextromethorphan at relieving coughing in children.", "Other reviews have also supported the use of honey for treating children.The UK Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency recommends avoiding giving over-the-counter cough and common cold medication to children under six, and suggests \"a homemade remedy containing honey and lemon is likely to be just as useful and safer to take\", but warns that honey should not be given to babies because of the risk of infant botulism.", "The World Health Organization recommends honey as a treatment for coughs and sore throats, including for children, stating that no reason exists to believe it is less effective than a commercial remedy.===Other===The use of honey has been recommended as a temporary intervention for known or suspected button cell battery ingestions to reduce the risk and severity of injury to the esophagus caused by the battery prior to its removal.There is no evidence that honey is beneficial for treating cancer, although honey may be useful for controlling side effects of radiation therapy or chemotherapy used to treat cancer.Consumption is sometimes advocated as a treatment for seasonal allergies due to pollen, but scientific evidence to support the claim is inconclusive.", "Honey is generally considered ineffective for the treatment of allergic conjunctivitis.The majority of calories in honey are from fructose.", "When consumed in addition to a normal diet, fructose causes significant weight gain, but when fructose was substituted for other carbohydrates of equal energy value there was no effect on body weight.Honey has a mild laxative effect which has been noted as being helpful in alleviating constipation and bloating.===Health hazards===Honey is generally safe when taken in typical food amounts, but it may have various, potential adverse effects or interactions in combination with excessive consumption, existing disease conditions, or drugs.", "Included among these are mild reactions to high intake, such as anxiety, insomnia, or hyperactivity in about 10% of children, according to one study.", "No symptoms of anxiety, insomnia, or hyperactivity were detected with honey consumption compared to placebo, according to another study.", "Honey consumption may interact adversely with existing allergies, high blood sugar levels (as in diabetes), or anticoagulants used to control bleeding, among other clinical conditions.People who have a weakened immune system may be at risk of bacterial or fungal infection from eating honey.====Botulism====Infants can develop botulism after consuming honey contaminated with ''Clostridium botulinum'' endospores.Infantile botulism shows geographical variation.", "In the UK, only six cases were reported between 1976 and 2006, yet the US has much higher rates: 1.9 per 100,000 live births, 47.2% of which are in California.", "While the risk honey poses to infant health is small, taking the risk is not recommended until after one year of age, and then giving honey is considered safe.====Toxic honey====Mad honey intoxication is a result of eating honey containing grayanotoxins.", "Honey produced from flowers of rhododendrons, mountain laurels, sheep laurel, and azaleas may cause honey intoxication.", "Symptoms include dizziness, weakness, excessive perspiration, nausea, and vomiting.", "Less commonly, low blood pressure, shock, heart rhythm irregularities, and convulsions may occur, with rare cases resulting in death.", "Honey intoxication is more likely when using \"natural\" unprocessed honey and honey from farmers who may have a small number of hives.", "Commercial processing, with pooling of honey from numerous sources, is thought to dilute any toxins.Toxic honey may also result when bees are proximate to tutu bushes (''Coriaria arborea'') and the vine hopper insect (''Scolypopa australis'').", "Both are found throughout New Zealand.", "Bees gather honeydew produced by the vine hopper insects feeding on the tutu plant.", "This introduces the poison tutin into honey.", "Only a few areas in New Zealand (the Coromandel Peninsula, Eastern Bay of Plenty Region and the Marlborough Sounds) frequently produce toxic honey.", "Symptoms of tutin poisoning include vomiting, delirium, giddiness, increased excitability, stupor, coma, and violent convulsions.", "To reduce the risk of tutin poisoning, humans should not eat honey taken from feral hives in the risk areas of New Zealand.", "Since December 2001, New Zealand beekeepers have been required to reduce the risk of producing toxic honey by closely monitoring tutu, vine hopper, and foraging conditions within of their apiary.", "Intoxication is rarely dangerous.===Folk medicine===In myths and folk medicine, honey was used both orally and topically to treat various ailments including gastric disturbances, ulcers, skin wounds, and skin burns by ancient Greeks and Egyptians, and in Ayurveda and traditional Chinese medicine." ], [ "History", "Coves de L'Aranya, Bicorp in ValènciaHoney collection is an ancient activity, long preceding the honey bee's domestication; this traditional practice is known as honey hunting.", "A Mesolithic rock painting in a cave in Valencia, Spain, dating back at least 8,000 years, depicts two honey foragers collecting honey and honeycomb from a wild bees' nest.", "The figures are depicted carrying baskets or gourds, and using a ladder or series of ropes to reach the nest.", "Humans followed the greater honeyguide bird to wild beehives; this behavior may have evolved with early hominids.", "The oldest known honey remains were found in Georgia during the construction of the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline: archaeologists found honey remains on the inner surface of clay vessels unearthed in an ancient tomb, dating back between 4,700 and 5,500 years.", "In ancient Georgia, several types of honey were buried with a person for journeys into the afterlife, including linden, berry, and meadow-flower varieties.The first written records of beekeeping are from ancient Egypt, where honey was used to sweeten cakes, biscuits, and other foods and as a base for unguents in Egyptian hieroglyphs.", "The dead were often buried in or with honey in Egypt, Mesopotamia and other regions.", "Bees were kept at temples to produce honey for temple offerings, mummification and other uses.In ancient Greece, honey was produced from the Archaic to the Hellenistic periods.", "In 594 BCE, beekeeping around Athens was so widespread that Solon passed a law about it: \"He who sets up hives of bees must put them away from those already installed by another\".", "Greek archaeological excavations of pottery located ancient hives.", "According to Columella, Greek beekeepers of the Hellenistic period did not hesitate to move their hives over rather long distances to maximize production, taking advantage of the different vegetative cycles in different regions.", "The spiritual and supposed therapeutic use of honey in ancient India was documented in both the Vedas and the Ayurveda texts." ], [ "Religious significance", "===Ancient Greece===In ancient Greek religion, the food of Zeus and the twelve Gods of Olympus was honey in the form of nectar and ambrosia.===Judaism=======Hebrew Bible=========The promised \"land of milk and honey\"=====In the Hebrew Bible, the Promised Land (Canaan, the Land of Israel) is described 16 times as \"the land of milk and honey\" as a metaphor for its bounty.", "God promises such a land to the Israelites (), and the spies sent in by Moses confirm that the land fits the description ().=====\"Honey\" in other contexts=====The word \"honey\" appears for a further 39 times, outside the above-mentioned phrase.", "In the Book of Judges, Samson finds a swarm of bees and honey in the carcass of a lion ().", "Biblical law covered offerings made in the temple to God.", "The Book of Leviticus says that \"Every grain offering you bring to the Lord must be made without yeast, for you are not to burn any yeast or honey in a food offering presented to the Lord\" ().", "In the Books of Samuel, Jonathan is forced into a confrontation with his father King Saul after eating honey in violation of a rash oath Saul has made ().", "in the JPS Tanakh 1917 version says \"Pleasant words are as a honeycomb, Sweet to the soul, and health to the bones.\"", "The Book of Proverbs says, \"Eat honey, my son, for it is good\" (), but also, \"It is not good to eat much honey\" ().=====Bee or date honey?", "Wild or domesticated bees?=====Of the 55 times the word \"honey\" appears in the Hebrew Bible, 16 are part of the expression \"the land of milk and honey\", and only twice is \"honey\" explicitly associated with bees, both being related to wild bees: Samson collecting bees' honey from inside a lion's corpse () is the first instance, with Jonathan, King Saul's son, tasting from a honeycomb after the battle of Michmash () being the second.Modern biblical researchers long considered that the original Hebrew word used in the Bible, דבש ''devash'', refers to the sweet syrup produced from figs or dates, because the domestication of the honey bee was completely undocumented through archaeology anywhere in the ancient Near East (excluding Egypt) at the time associated with the earlier biblical narratives (books of Exodus, Judges, Kings, etc.).", "In 2005, however, an apiary dating from the 10th century BC was found in Tel Rehov, Israel that contained 100 hives, estimated to produce half a ton of honey annually.", "This was, as of 2007, the only such finding made by archaeologists in the entire ancient Near East region, and it opens the possibility that biblical honey was indeed bee honey.====Rabbinic Judaism====In Jewish tradition, honey is a symbol for the new year, ''Rosh Hashanah''.", "At the traditional meal for that holiday, apple slices are dipped in honey and eaten to bring a sweet new year.", "Some ''Rosh Hashanah'' greetings show honey and an apple, symbolizing the feast.", "In some congregations, small straws of honey are given out to usher in the new year.Pure honey is considered kosher (permitted to be eaten by religious Jews), though it is produced by a flying insect, a non-kosher creature; eating other products of non-kosher animals is forbidden.", "It belongs among the ''parve'' (neutral) foods, containing neither meat nor dairy products and allowed to be eaten together with either.===Christianity===The Christian New Testament says that John the Baptist lived for a long of time in the wilderness on a diet of locusts and wild honey (see for instance ).Early Christians used honey as a symbol of spiritual perfection in christening ceremonies.===Islam===In Islam, an entire chapter (Surah) in the Quran is called ''an-Nahl'' (the Bees).", "According to his teachings (''hadith''), Muhammad strongly recommended honey for healing purposes.The Quran promotes honey as a nutritious and healthy food, saying:===Hinduism===In Hinduism, honey (''Madhu'') is one of the five elixirs of life (''Panchamrita'').", "In temples, honey is poured over the deities in a ritual called ''Madhu abhisheka''.", "The ''Vedas'' and other ancient literature mention the use of honey as a great medicinal and health food.===Buddhism===In Buddhism, honey plays an important role in the festival of ''Madhu Purnima'', celebrated in India and Bangladesh.", "The day commemorates Buddha's making peace among his disciples by retreating into the wilderness.", "According to legend, while he was there a monkey brought him honey to eat.", "On ''Madhu Purnima'', Buddhists remember this act by giving honey to monks.", "The monkey's gift is frequently depicted in Buddhist art." ], [ "Popular culture", "Honey is especially associated with Winnie-the-Pooh, and Bamse's thunder honey." ], [ "See also", "* Bee pollen* Honey hunting* List of spreads* Mellivory* ''More than Honey''a 2012 Swiss documentary film on the current state of honey bees and beekeeping* National Honey Show* Royal jelly" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* Beekeeping and Sustainable Livelihoods (2004), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hengist and Horsa" ], [ "Introduction", "The brothers in Edward Parrott's ''Pageant of British History'' (1909)Hengist from John Speed's 1611 \"Saxon Heptarchy\"'''Hengist''' and '''Horsa''' are Germanic brothers said to have led the Angles, Saxons and Jutes in their supposed invasion of Britain in the 5th century.", "Tradition lists Hengist as the first of the Jutish kings of Kent.Modern scholarly consensus regards Hengist and Horsa as mythical figures, given their alliterative animal names, the seemingly constructed nature of their genealogy, and the unknowable quality of Bede's sources.", "Their later detailed representation in texts such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says more about ninth-century attitudes to the past than about the time in which they are said to have existed.According to early sources, Hengist and Horsa arrived in Britain at Ebbsfleet on the Isle of Thanet.", "For a time, they served as mercenaries for Vortigern, King of the Britons, but later they turned against him (British accounts have them betraying him in the Treachery of the Long Knives).", "Horsa was killed fighting the Britons, but Hengist successfully conquered Kent, becoming the forefather of its kings.A figure named Hengest, possibly identifiable with the leader of British legend, appears in the ''Finnesburg Fragment'' and in ''Beowulf''.", "J. R. R. Tolkien has theorized that this indicates Hengest/Hengist is the same person and originates as a historical person.Hengist was historically said to have been buried at Hengistbury Head in Dorset." ], [ "Etymology", "The Old English names ''Hengest'' and ''Horsa'' mean \"stallion\" and \"horse\", respectively.The original Old English word for a horse was ''eoh''.", "''Eoh'' derives from the Proto-Indo-European base ''*éḱwos'', hence Latin ''equus'' which gave rise to the modern English words ''equine'' and ''equestrian''.", "''Hors'' is derived from the Proto-Indo-European base ''*kurs'', to run, which also gave rise to ''hurry, carry'' and ''current'' (the latter two are borrowings from French).", "''Hors'' eventually replaced ''eoh'', fitting a pattern elsewhere in Germanic languages where the original names of sacred animals are abandoned for adjectives; for example, the word ''bear'', meaning 'the brown one'.", "While the ''Ecclesiastical History'' and the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' refer to the brother as ''Horsa'', in the ''History of the Britons'' his name is simply ''Hors''.", "It has been suggested that ''Horsa'' may be a pet form of a compound name with the first element \"horse\"." ], [ "Attestations", "===''Ecclesiastical History of the English People''===In his 8th-century ''Ecclesiastical History'', Bede records that the first chieftains among the Angles, Saxons and Jutes in England were said to have been Hengist and Horsa.", "He relates that Horsa was killed in battle against the Britons and was thereafter buried in East Kent, where at the time of writing a monument still stood to him.", "According to Bede, Hengist and Horsa were the sons of Wictgils, son of Witta, son of Wecta, son of Woden.===''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle''===The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', which exists in nine manuscripts and fragments compiled from the 9th to the 12th centuries, records that in the year 449, Vortigern invited Hengist and Horsa to Britain to assist his forces in fighting the Picts.", "The brothers landed at Eopwinesfleot (Ebbsfleet), and went on to defeat the Picts wherever they fought them.", "Hengist and Horsa sent word home to Germany describing \"the worthlessness of the Britons, and the richness of the land\" and asked for assistance.", "Their request was granted and support arrived.", "Afterward, more people arrived in Britain from \"the three powers of Germany; the Old Saxons, the Angles, and the Jutes\".", "The Saxons populated Essex, Sussex, and Wessex; the Jutes Kent, the Isle of Wight, and part of Hampshire; and the Angles East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria (leaving their original homeland, Angeln, deserted).", "The Worcester Chronicle (Chronicle D, compiled in the 11th century), and the Peterborough Chronicle (Chronicle E, compiled in the 12th century), include the detail that these forces were led by the brothers Hengist and Horsa, sons of Wihtgils, son of Witta, son of Wecta, son of Woden, but this information is not included in the A, B, C, or F versions.In the entry for the year 455 the ''Chronicle'' details that Hengist and Horsa fought against Vortigern at Aylesford and that Horsa died there.", "Hengist took control of the kingdom with his son Esc.", "In 457, Hengist and Esc fought against British forces in Crayford \"and there slew four thousand men\".", "The Britons left the land of Kent and fled to London.", "In 465 Hengest and Esc fought again at the Battle of Wippedesfleot, probably near Ebbsfleet, and slew twelve British leaders.", "In the year 473, the final entry in the ''Chronicle'' mentioning Hengist or Horsa, Hengist and Esc are recorded as having taken \"immense booty\" and the Britons having \"fled from the English like fire\".===''History of the Britons''===Hengist and Horsa arriving in Britain, as depicted by Richard Rowlands (1605)The 9th century ''History of the Britons'', attributed to the Briton Nennius, records that, during the reign of Vortigern in Britain, three vessels that had been exiled from Germany arrived in Britain, commanded by Hengist and Horsa.", "The narrative then gives a genealogy of the two: Hengist and Horsa were sons of Guictglis, son of Guicta, son of Guechta, son of Vouden, son of Frealof, son of Fredulf, son of Finn, son of Foleguald, son of Geta.", "Geta was said to be the son of a god, yet \"not of the omnipotent God and our Lord Jesus Christ\", but rather \"the offspring of one of their idols, and whom, blinded by some demon, they worshipped according to the custom of the heathen\".", "In 447 AD Vortigern received Hengist and Horsa \"as friends\" and gave to the brothers the Isle of Thanet.After the Saxons had lived on Thanet for \"some time\" Vortigern promised them supplies of clothing and other provisions on condition that they assist him in fighting the enemies of his country.", "As the Saxons increased in number the Britons became unable to keep their agreement, and so told them that their assistance was no longer needed and that they should go home.Vortigern allowed Hengist to send for more of his countrymen to come over to fight for him.", "Messengers were sent to \"Scythia\", where \"a number\" of warriors were selected, and, with sixteen ships, the messengers returned.", "With the men came Hengist's beautiful daughter.", "Hengist prepared a feast, inviting Vortigern, Vortigern's officers, and Ceretic, his translator.", "Prior to the feast, Hengist enjoined his daughter to serve the guests plenty of wine and ale so that they would become drunk.", "At the feast Vortigern became enamored with her and promised Hengist whatever he liked in exchange for her betrothal.", "Hengist, having \"consulted with the Elders who attended him of the Angle race\", demanded Kent.", "Without the knowledge of the then-ruler of Kent, Vortigern agreed.Hengist's daughter was given to Vortigern, who slept with her and deeply loved her.", "Hengist told Vortigern that he would now be both his father and adviser and that Vortigern would know no defeat with his counsel, \"for the people of my country are strong, warlike, and robust\".", "With Vortigern's approval, Hengist would send for his son and his brother to fight against the Scots and those who dwelt near the wall.", "Vortigern agreed and Ochta and Ebissa arrived with 40 ships, sailed around the land of the Picts, conquered \"many regions\", and assaulted the Orkney Islands.", "Hengist continued to send for more ships from his country, so that some islands where his people had previously dwelt are now free of inhabitants.Vortigern had meanwhile incurred the wrath of Germanus, Bishop of Auxerre (by taking his own daughter for a wife and having a son by her) and had gone into hiding at the advice of his council.", "But at length his son Vortimer engaged Hengist and Horsa and their men in battle, drove them back to Thanet and there enclosed them and beset them on the western flank.", "The war waxed and waned; the Saxons repeatedly gained ground and were repeatedly driven back.", "Vortimer attacked the Saxons four times: first enclosing the Saxons in Thanet, secondly fighting at the river Derwent, the third time at Epsford, where both Horsa and Vortigern's son Catigern died, and lastly \"near the stone on the shore of the Gallic sea\", where the Saxons were defeated and fled to their ships.After a \"short interval\" Vortimer died and the Saxons became established, \"assisted by foreign pagans\".", "Hengist convened his forces and sent to Vortigern an offer of peace.", "Vortigern accepted, and Hengist prepared a feast to bring together the British and Saxon leaders.", "However, he instructed his men to conceal knives beneath their feet.", "At the right moment, Hengist shouted ''nima der sexa'' (get your knives) and his men massacred the unsuspecting Britons.", "However, they spared Vortigern, who ransomed himself by giving the Saxons Essex, Sussex, Middlesex and other unnamed districts.Germanus of Auxerre was acclaimed as commander of the British forces.", "By praying, singing \"hallelujah\" and crying to God, the Britons drove the Saxons to the sea.", "Germanus then prayed for three days and nights at Vortigern's castle and fire fell from heaven and engulfed the castle.", "Vortigern, Hengist's daughter, Vortigern's other wives, and all other inhabitants burned to death.", "Potential alternate fates for Vortigern are provided.", "However, the Saxons continued to increase in numbers, and after Hengist died his son Ochta succeeded him.===''History of the Kings of Britain''===William Hamilton (1793)In his sometimes described as \"pseudo-historical\" twelfth-century work ''The History of the Kings of Britain'', Geoffrey of Monmouth adapted and greatly expanded the account in the ''History of the Britons''.", "Hengist and Horsa appear in books 6 and 8:====Book 6====Geoffrey records that three brigantines or long galleys arrived in Kent, full of armed men and commanded by two brothers, Hengist and Horsa.", "Vortigern was then staying at Dorobernia (Canterbury), and ordered that the \"tall strangers\" be received peacefully and brought to him.", "When Vortigern saw the company, he immediately observed that the brothers \"excelled all the rest both in nobility and in gracefulness of person\".", "He asked what country they had come from and why they had come to his kingdom.", "Hengist (\"whose years and wisdom entitled him to precedence\") replied that they had left their homeland of Saxony to offer their services to Vortigern or some other prince, as part of a Saxon custom in which, when the country became overpopulated, able young men were chosen by lot to seek their fortunes in other lands.", "Hengist and Horsa were made generals over the exiles, as befitted their noble birth.Vortigern was aggrieved when he learned that the strangers were pagans, but nonetheless rejoiced at their arrival, since he was surrounded by enemies.", "He asked Hengist and Horsa if they would help him in his wars, offering them land and \"other possessions\".", "They accepted the offer, settled on an agreement, and stayed with Vortigern at his court.", "Soon after, the Picts came from Alba with an immense army and attacked the northern parts of Vortigern's kingdom.", "In the ensuing battle \"there was little occasion for the Britons to exert themselves, for the Saxons fought so bravely, that the enemy, formerly victorious, were speedily put to flight\".In gratitude Vortigern increased the rewards he had promised to the brothers.", "Hengist was given \"large possessions of lands in Lindsey for the subsistence of himself and his fellow-soldiers\".", "A \"man of experience and subtlety\", Hengist told Vortigern that his enemies assailed him from every quarter, and that his subjects wished to depose him and make Aurelius Ambrosius king.", "He asked the king to allow him to send word to Saxony for more soldiers.", "Vortigern agreed, adding that Hengist could invite over whom he pleased and that \"you shall have no refusal from me in whatever you shall desire\".Hengist bowed low in thanks, and made a further request, that he be made a consul or prince, as befitted his birth.", "Vortigern responded that it was not in his power to do this, reasoning that Hengist was a foreign pagan and would not be accepted by the British lords.", "Hengist asked instead for leave to build a fortress on a piece of land small enough that it could be encircled by a leather thong.", "Vortigern granted this and ordered Hengist to invite more Saxons.After executing Vortigern's orders, Hengist took a bull's hide and made it into a single thong, which he used to encircle a carefully chosen rocky place (perhaps at Caistor in Lindsey).", "Here he built the castle of ''Kaercorrei'', or in Saxon ''Thancastre'': \"thong castle.", "\"The messengers returned from Germany with eighteen ships full of the best soldiers they could get, as well as Hengist's beautiful daughter Rowena.", "Hengist invited Vortigern to see his new castle and the newly arrived soldiers.", "A banquet took place in Thancastre, at which Vortigern drunkenly asked Hengist to let him marry Rowena.", "Horsa and the men all agreed that Hengist should allow the marriage, on the condition that Vortigern give him Kent.Vortigern and Rowena were immediately married and Hengist received Kent.", "The king, though delighted with his new wife, incurred the hatred of his nobles and of his three sons.As his new father-in-law, Hengist made further demands of Vortigern::As I am your father, I claim the right of being your counsellor: do not therefore slight my advice, since it is to my countrymen you must owe the conquest of all your enemies.", "Let us invite over my son Octa, and his brother Ebissa, who are brave soldiers, and give them the countries that are in the northern parts of Britain, by the wall, between Deira and Alba.", "For they will hinder the inroads of the barbarians, and so you shall enjoy peace on the other side of the Humber.Vortigern agreed.", "Upon receiving the invitation, Octa, Ebissa, and another lord, Cherdich, immediately left for Britain with three hundred ships.", "Vortigern received them kindly, and gave them ample gifts.", "With their assistance, Vortigern defeated his enemies in every engagement.", "All the while Hengist continued inviting over yet more ships, adding to his numbers daily.", "Witnessing this, the Britons tried to get Vortigern to banish the Saxons, but on account of his wife he would not.", "Consequently, his subjects turned against him and took his son Vortimer for their king.", "The Saxons and the Britons, led by Vortimer, met in four battles.", "In the second, Horsa and Vortimer's brother, Catigern, slew one another.", "By the fourth battle, the Saxons had fled to Thanet, where Vortimer besieged them.", "When the Saxons could no longer bear the British onslaughts, they sent out Vortigern to ask his son to allow them safe passage back to Germany.", "While discussions were taking place, the Saxons boarded their ships and left, leaving their wives and children behind.Rowena poisoned the victorious Vortimer, and Vortigern returned to the throne.", "At his wife's request he invited Hengist back to Britain, but instructed him to bring only a small retinue.", "Hengist, knowing Vortimer to be dead, instead raised an army of 300,000 men.", "When Vortigern received word of the imminent arrival of the vast Saxon fleet, he resolved to fight them.", "Rowena alerted her father of this, who, after considering various strategies, resolved to make a show of peace and sent ambassadors to Vortigern.The ambassadors informed Vortigern that Hengist had only brought so many men because he did not know of Vortimer's death and feared further attacks from him.", "Now that there was no threat, Vortigern could choose from among the men the ones he wished to return to Germany.", "Vortigern was greatly pleased by these tidings, and arranged to meet Hengist on the first of May at the monastery of Ambrius.Before the meeting, Hengist ordered his soldiers to carry long daggers beneath their clothing.", "At the signal ''Nemet oure Saxas'' (get your knives), the Saxons fell upon the unsuspecting Britons and massacred them, while Hengist held Vortigern by his cloak.", "460 British barons and consuls were killed, as well as some Saxons whom the Britons beat to death with clubs and stones.", "Vortigern was held captive and threatened with death until he resigned control of Britain's chief cities to Hengist.", "Once free, he fled to Cambria.====Book 8====In Cambria, Merlin prophesied to Vortigern that the brothers Aurelius Ambrosius and Uther Pendragon (who had fled to Armorica as children after Vortigern killed their brother Constans and their father, King Constantine) would return to have their revenge and defeat the Saxons.", "They arrived the next day, and, after rallying the dispersed Britons, Aurelius was proclaimed king.", "Aurelius marched into Cambria and burned Vortigern alive in his tower, before setting his sights upon the Saxons.Hengist was struck by terror at the news of Vortigern's death and fled with his army beyond the Humber.", "He took courage at the approach of Aurelius and selected the bravest among his men to defend him.", "Hengist told these chosen men not to be afraid of Aurelius, for he had brought less than 10,000 Armorican Britons (the native Britons were hardly worth taking into account), while there were 200,000 Saxons.", "Hengist and his men advanced towards Aurelius in a field called Maisbeli (probably Ballifield, near Sheffield), intending to take the Britons by surprise, but Aurelius anticipated them.As they marched to meet the Saxons, Eldol, Duke of Gloucester, told Aurelius that he greatly wished to meet Hengist in combat, noting that \"one of the two of us should die before we parted\".", "He explained that he had been at the Treachery of the Long Knives, but had escaped when God threw him a stake to defend himself with, making him the only Briton present to survive.", "Meanwhile, Hengist was placing his troops into formation, giving directions, and walking through the lines of troops, \"the more to spirit them up\".With the armies in formation, battle began between the Britons and Saxons, both sides suffering \"no small loss of blood\".", "Eldol focused on attempting to find Hengist, but had no opportunity to fight him.", "\"By the especial favour of God\" the Britons took the upper hand, and the Saxons withdrew and made for Kaerconan (Conisbrough).", "Aurelius pursued them, killing or enslaving any Saxon he met on the way.", "Realizing Kaerconan would not hold against Aurelius, Hengist stopped outside the town and ordered his men to make a stand, \"for he knew that his whole security now lay in his sword\".Aurelius reached Hengist, and a \"most furious\" fight ensued, with the Saxons maintaining their ground despite heavy losses.", "They came close to winning before a detachment of horses from the Armorican Britons arrived.", "When Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall, arrived, Eldol knew the day was won and grabbed Hengist's helmet, dragging him into the British ranks.", "The Saxons fled.", "Hengist's son Octa retreated to York and his kinsman Eosa to Alclud (Dumbarton).Three days after the battle, Aurelius called together a council of principal officers to decide what to do with Hengist.", "Eldol's brother Eldad, Bishop of Gloucester, said: :Though all should be unanimous for setting him at liberty, yet would I cut him to pieces.", "The prophet Samuel is my warrant, who, when he had Agag, king of Amalek, in his power, hewed him in pieces, saying, As thy sword hath made women childless, so shall thy mother be childless among women.", "Do therefore the same to Hengist, who is a second Agag.Consequently, Eldol drew Hengist out of the city and cut off his head.", "Aurelius, \"who showed moderation in all his conduct\", arranged for him to be buried and for a mound to be raised over his corpse, according to the custom of pagans.", "Octa and Eosa surrendered to Aurelius, who granted them the country bordering Scotland and made a firm covenant with them.===''Prose Edda''===The Icelander Snorri Sturluson, writing in the 13th century, briefly mentions Hengist in the ''Prologue'', the first book of the ''Prose Edda''.", "The ''Prologue'' gives a euhemerized account of Germanic history, including the detail that Woden put three of his sons in charge of Saxony.", "The ruler of eastern Saxony was Veggdegg, one of whose sons was Vitrgils, the father of Vitta, the father of Hengist." ], [ "Horse-head gables", "On farmhouses in Lower Saxony and Schleswig-Holstein, horse-head gables were referred to as \"Hengst und Hors\" (Low German for \"stallion and mare\") as late as around 1875.Rudolf Simek notes that these horse-head gables can still be seen today, and says that the horse-head gables confirm that Hengist and Horsa were originally considered mythological, horse-shaped beings.", "Martin Litchfield West comments that the horse heads may have been remnants of pagan religious practices in the area.File:Pferdeköpfe Dachschmuck.png|Sketch of a farmhouse gableFile:Hannover Pferdegiebel.jpg|Gable with crossed horse heads, HanoverFile:Giebelschmuck Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Pferdeköpfe.JPG|A gable in Mecklenburg-VorpommernFile:Pferdeköpfe Giebel.jpg|A gable in HanoverFile:Buchholzer wappen.jpg|Coat of arms of Buchholz in der NordheideFile:DE-NI 03-1-01-000 Thune COA.svg|Coat of arms of Thune, BrunswickFile:Wappen Spornitz.svg|Coat of arms of Spornitz, Mecklenburg-VorpommernFile:Logo-Raiffeisenbank-1877.svg|An 1877 version of the logo of the Raiffeisen farmers' co-operative movement" ], [ "Theories", "===''Finnesburg Fragment'' and ''Beowulf''===A Hengest appears in line 34 of the ''Finnesburg Fragment'', which describes the legendary Battle of Finnsburg.", "In ''Beowulf'', a scop recites a composition summarizing the Finnsburg events, including information not provided in the fragment.", "Hengest is mentioned in lines 1082 and 1091.Some scholars have proposed that the figure mentioned in both of these references is one and the same as the Hengist of the Hengist and Horsa accounts, though Horsa is not mentioned in either source.", "In his work ''Finn and Hengest'', J. R. R. Tolkien argued that Hengist was a historical figure, and that Hengist came to Britain after the events recorded in the ''Finnesburg Fragment'' and ''Beowulf''.", "Patrick Sims-Williams is more sceptical of the account, suggesting that Bede's Canterbury source, which he relied on for his account of Hengist and Horsa in the ''Ecclesiastical History'', had confused two separate traditions.===Germanic twin brothers and divine Indo-European horse twins===Several sources attest that the Germanic peoples venerated a divine pair of twin brothers.", "The earliest reference to this practice derives from Timaeus (c. 345 – c. 250 BC).", "Timaeus records that the Celts of the North Sea were especially devoted to what he describes as Castor and Pollux.", "In his work ''Germania'', Tacitus records the veneration of the Alcis, whom he identifies with Castor and Pollux.", "Germanic legends mention various brothers as founding figures.", "The 1st- or 2nd-century historian Cassius Dio cites the brothers Raos and Raptos as the leaders of the Astings.", "According to Paul the Deacon's 8th-century ''History of the Lombards'', the Lombards migrated southward from Scandinavia led by Ibur and Aio, while Saxo Grammaticus records in his 12th-century ''Deeds of the Danes'' that this migration was prompted by Aggi and Ebbi.", "In related Indo-European cultures, similar traditions are attested, such as the Dioscuri.", "Scholars have theorized that these divine twins in Indo-European cultures stem from divine twins in prehistoric Proto-Indo-European culture.J.", "P. Mallory comments on the great importance of the horse in Indo-European religion, as exemplified \"most obviously\" by various mythical brothers appearing in Indo-European legend, including Hengist and Horsa::Some would maintain that the ''premier'' animal of the Indo-European sacrifice and ritual was probably the horse.", "We have already seen how its embedment in Proto-Indo-European society lies not just in its lexical reconstruction but also in the proliferation of personal names which contain \"horse\" as an element among the various Indo-European peoples.", "Furthermore, we witness the importance of the horse in Indo-European rituals and mythology.", "One of the most obvious examples is the recurrent depiction of twins such as the Indic Asvins \"horsemen,\" the Greek horsemen Castor and Pollux, the legendary Anglo-Saxon settlers Horsa and Hengist ... or the Irish twins of Macha, born after she had completed a horse race.", "All of these attest the existence of Indo-European divine twins associated with or represented by horses.===Uffington White Horse===The Uffington White HorseIn his 17th-century work ''Monumenta Britannica'', John Aubrey ascribes the Uffington White Horse hill figure to Hengist and Horsa, stating that \"the White Horse was their Standard at the Conquest of Britain\".", "However, he also ascribes the origins of the horse to the Ancient Britons, reasoning that the horse resembles Celtic Iron Age coins.", "As a result, advocates of a Saxon origin of the figure debated with those favouring an ancient British origin for three centuries after Aubrey's findings.", "In 1995, using optically stimulated luminescence dating, David Miles and Simon Palmer of the Oxford Archaeology Unit assigned the Uffington White Horse to the Bronze Age.===Aschanes===The Brothers Grimm identified Hengist with Aschanes, mythical first King of the Saxons, in their notes for legend number 413 of their ''German Legends''.", "Editor and translator Donald Ward, in his commentary on the tale, regards the identification as untenable on linguistic grounds." ], [ "Modern influence", "Hengist and Horsa have appeared in a variety of media in the modern period.", "Written between 1616 and 1620, Thomas Middleton's play ''Hengist, King of Kent'' features portrayals of both Hengist and Horsa (as ''Hersus'').", "On 6 July 1776, the first committee for the production of the Great Seal of the United States convened.", "One of three members of the committee, Thomas Jefferson, proposed that one side of the seal feature Hengist and Horsa, \"the Saxon chiefs from whom we claim the honor of being descended, and whose political principles and form of government we assumed\".", "\"Hengist and Horsus\" appear as antagonists in the play ''Vortigern and Rowena'', which was touted as a newly discovered work by William Shakespeare in 1796, but was soon revealed as a hoax by William Henry Ireland.", "The pair have plaques in the Walhalla Temple at Regensburg, Bavaria, which honours distinguished figures of German history.During World War II, two British military gliders took their names from the brothers: the Slingsby Hengist and the Airspeed Horsa.", "The 20th-century American poet Robinson Jeffers composed a poem titled ''Ode to Hengist and Horsa''.", "Likewise, Jorge Luis Borges's poem ''Hengist Quiere Hombres (449 A.D.)'' was published in translation in ''The New Yorker'' in 1977.In 1949, Prince Georg of Denmark came to Pegwell Bay in Kent to dedicate the longship ''Hugin'', commemorating the landing of Hengest and Horsa at nearby Ebbsfleet 1500 years earlier in 449 AD.Though Hengist and Horsa are not referenced in the medieval tales of King Arthur, some modern Arthurian tales do link them.", "For example, in Mary Stewart's ''Merlin Trilogy'', Hengist and Horsa are executed by Ambrosius; Hengist is given full Saxon funeral honours, cremated with his weapons on a pyre.", "In Alfred Duggan's ''Conscience of the King'', Hengist plays a major role in the early career of Cerdic Elesing, legendary founder of the kingdom of Wessex.Part of the A299 road on the Isle of Thanet is named Hengist Way.Retinue of Hengist and Band of Horsa also make an appearance as for hire mercenaries in the popular game ''Crusader Kings III'' by game developer Paradox Development Studio." ], [ "See also", "* Alcis (gods), Germanic horse brother deities venerated by the Naharvali, a Germanic people described by Tacitus in 1 AD* Ašvieniai.", "Lithuanian brother horse deities, also used crossed, on top of cottage house roofs.", "* Ashvins, Vedic twin deities of medicine* Divine twins, A number of Indo-European mythical brother deities, associated with horses* Horses in Germanic paganism, wider importance of horses in early Germanic cultures* Saxon Steed, a heraldic motif* Thracian horseman, sometimes linked to the Dioscuri" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*********** Lyon, Bryce.", "\"From Hengist and Horsa to Edward of Caernarvon: Recent writing on English history\" in Elizabeth Chapin Furber, ed.", "''Changing views on British history: essays on historical writing since 1939'' (Harvard University Press, 1966), pp 1–57; historiography* Lyon, Bryce. \"", "Change or Continuity: Writing since 1965 on English History before Edward of Caernarvon,\" in Richard Schlatter, ed., ''Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing since 1966'' (Rutgers UP, 1984), pp 1–34, historiography**************" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hero System" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''''Hero System''''' is a generic role-playing game system that was developed from the superhero RPG ''Champions''.", "After ''Champions'' fourth edition was released in 1989, a stripped-down version of its ruleset with no superhero or other genre elements was released as The ''Hero System Rulesbook'' in 1990.As a spinoff of ''Champions'', the ''Hero System'' is considered to have started with 4th edition (as it is mechanically identical to ''Champions'' 4th edition), rather than on its own with a 1st edition.", "However, the first three editions of the game are typically referred to as ''Champions'', rather than the Hero System, as the game for its first three editions was not sold as a universal toolkit, instead largely focusing on superheroes.The ''Hero System'' is used as the underlying mechanics of other Hero Games role-playing games such as ''Fantasy Hero'', ''Star Hero'', and ''Pulp Hero''.", "It is characterized by point-based character creation and the rigor with which it measures character abilities.", "It uses only six-sided dice." ], [ "System features", "The ''Hero System'' uses ''Champions''' key system features.", "Tasks are resolved using three six-sided dice and power effects (especially damage) are resolved by rolling a number of dice based on the power's strength.Like ''Champions'', it uses a tool-kit approach to creating effects.", "While the system does have more typical features of many RPGs, such as a skill system, most abilities in the ''Hero System'' rules are listed as generic \"powers\".", "Most powers are meant to be able to model a vast number of potential effects.", "When creating a character, a player decides on what effect they wish to create, then constructs this effect by consulting the powers in the rulebook.", "Most powers have a set of modifiers that alter their base performance to more finely-tune their representation of the effect desired.", "Each such modifier makes the power more or less capable, and correspondingly more or less expensive to purchase with character points (the \"currency\" used to buy powers; see the section following).", "The result is that many effects are possible from exactly the same base power.", "For example, while systems such as Dungeons & Dragons would list a wide variety of separate ranged attack powers that deal damage (such as a fireball, a lightning bolt, an acid spray, a magic missile, and dozens more), the vast majority of such effects in the ''Hero System'' would be constructed out of the same base two powers, \"Blast\" or \"Killing Attack\".The ''Hero System'' rules only define an ability's very basic mechanical effects—the player is the one who defines what the ability looks like when used.", "For example, if a player wishes to model the ability to project a jet of fire, they could choose the \"Blast\" power.", "However, the power's text has no mention of what it looks like or how it operates beyond some very base notes concerning damage and range.", "To make it a jet of fire, the player simply states that this Blast is a jet of fire.", "To some degree this is simply cosmetic.", "However, in the game, that power now is treated as a fire attack, with all that implies as decided by the gamemaster in each situation: it has the possibility of starting secondary fires; it looks, smells and sounds like a jet of fire; will not work in water; will terrify people with a phobia of fire; etc.", "The system does have mechanical effect alterations as well: a Blast could be altered by any number of power modifiers such as \"Explosion\", \"Area of Effect\", \"Megascale\", etc.", ": both advantages and disadvantages are available.", "As players are typically attempting to model something with at least a partial real-life analogue, limitations on a power are as much about making it more accurate a representation as they are making it less expensive to purchase (for example, to model a firearm, the limitation that it requires ammunition is expected, regardless of the fact that this happens to make a firearm cost fewer character points).", "The system also allows players to construct very exacting modifiers not specifically detailed in the base rules.", "For example, a player could define one or more powers as not working when the moon is full, or when it is Tuesday, or any other limitation that the player can imagine and the gamemaster feels is applicable.Also like ''Champions'', the ''Hero System'' uses a point-based system for character creation.", "Instead of templates which define what a character is, how it performs mechanically, and the new abilities gained after a certain amount of play, a player is given a fixed number of points and allowed to create what they want.", "As this is a much more freeform process than in most games, the system encourages close involvement between players and gamemasters to ensure that all participants have the same understanding regarding the type of effects permitted, relative power levels, and the like.===Character creation===Each player creates their character starting with a pool of points to buy abilities (such as \"Energy Blast\" and \"Armor\"), increase characteristics (such as \"Strength\" and \"Intelligence\") and buy skills (such as \"Computer Programming\" and \"Combat Driving\").", "This pool can be increased by taking disadvantages for your character (such as being hunted by an enemy, a dependency of some sort or having people who depend on your character in some way).", "The initial pool, as well as the final pool size, is determined by the Game Master (GM), as well as the point limits on each individual ability.Unlike the d20 System and many other game systems, experience awards are in the form of character points, which have the same value as those used in character creation and can be applied directly to the character's abilities upon receipt.===Powers===The powers system are the variables players can manipulate in the characters of Hero System.", "The powers in the Hero System are categorized roughly as follows::*'''Adjustment Powers''' — Modify the Characteristics of self or another.", ":*'''Attack Powers''' — Inflict physical damage or some other negative effect on an opponent.", ":*'''Body-Affecting Powers''' — Change shape, size, density, etc.", ":*'''Defense Powers''' — Protect against an attack or mishap.", ":*'''Mental Powers''' — Detect and/or affect the mind of another.", ":*'''Movement Powers''' — Employ various forms of movement.", ":*'''Sense-Affecting Powers''' — Alter or hinder a character's senses.", ":*'''Sensory Powers''' — Improve or expand upon the sensory abilities.", ":*'''Size Powers''' — Growth and Shrinking.", ":*'''Special Powers''' — Powers with some unusual quality, including ones that do not fall into the other categories.", ":*'''Standard Powers''' — A \"catch-all\" for Powers that are not Adjustment, Mental, Movement, Size, or Special Powers.Within each of these categories are multiple Powers that have more specialized effects.", "Thus for the movement category there are powers that can be used for Running, Swimming, Climbing, Leaping, Gliding, Flying, Tunneling through solid surfaces, and even Teleportation.", "For certain game genres there are even powers for traveling to other dimensions or moving faster than light.Also, many Powers appear in at least two categories.", "For example, most Attack Powers are also Standard Powers, and Size Powers are basically just a subcategory of Body-Affecting Powers.", "Darkness is in three categories — Standard, Attack, and Sense-Affecting.====Point Cost====Each power has a base point cost for a given effect.", "This could be, for example, a certain number of points per six-sided-die (or \"d6\") of damage inflicted upon a foe.Powers can have both advantages and limitations.", "Both are modifiers applied at different stages in calculating cost.", "These modifiers are typically changes of ±, but can range up to ±2 or even higher.After the base cost is calculated, advantages are applied.", "These, which can make a power more useful, typically expand its effectiveness or make it more powerful, and thus make it more expensive.", "Once advantages are applied, the base cost becomes the Active Cost.The Active Cost is calculated as an intermediate step as it is required to calculate certain figures, such as range, END usage, difficulty of activation rolls, and other things.The formula for calculating the Active Cost is::'''Active Cost''' = '''Base Cost''' × (1 + ''Advantages'')Once Active Cost is calculated, limitations are applied.", "These represent shortcomings in the power, lessened reliability or situations in which the power can not be used.", "Limitations are added separately as positive numbers, even though they are listed as negative.The Real Cost of the power is then determined by::'''Real Cost''' = '''Active Cost''' / (1 + ''Limitations'')The Real Cost is the amount the character must actually pay for the Power.====Power Frameworks====The rules also include schemes for providing a larger number of powers to a character for a given cost.", "These power frameworks reduce the cost either by requiring the group of powers to have a common theme as in an Elemental Control Framework, or by limiting the number of powers that can be active at one time with a Multipower Framework.", "Powers within a framework can share common limitations, further reducing the cost.", "A third type of power framework, the Variable Power Pool (VPP), trades thrift for flexibility.", "With it, powers can be arbitrarily chosen on the fly, granting enhanced in-game flexibility.", "The price is a premium on points, called the Control Cost.", "Additionally, it is marked as potentially unbalancing, so not all GMs will permit VPP's.Elemental Controls were eliminated in the Sixth Edition." ], [ "Publishing history", "Although several games based on what would become known as the ''Hero System'' were published in the 1980s, including ''Champions'', ''Danger International'', ''Justice, Inc.'', ''Robot Warriors'' and the original versions of ''Fantasy Hero'' and ''Star Hero'', each of the RPGs was self-contained, much as Chaosium's Basic Role-Playing games are.", "The ''Hero System'' itself was not released as an independent entity until 1990, as Steve Jackson Games' ''GURPS'' (''Generic Universal Roleplaying System'') became more popular.", "As a joint venture between Hero Games and Iron Crown Enterprises, a stand-alone ''Hero System Rulebook'' was published alongside the fourth edition of Champions.", "The content was identical to the opening sections of the Champions rules, but all genre-related material was removed.", "Afterward, genre books such as ''Ninja Hero'' (written by Aaron Allston) and ''Fantasy Hero'' were published as sourcebooks for the ''Hero System Rulebook'' as opposed to being independent games.With the collapse of the Hero-ICE alliance, the ''Hero System'' went into limbo for several years.", "The ''Champions'' franchise released a new version under the Fuzion system, which had been a joint development with R. Talsorian Games, called ''Champions: the New Millennium''.", "Although two editions were published, it was very poorly received by ''Champions'' fans.", "In 2001, a reconstituted Hero Games was formed under the leadership of Steven S. Long, who had written several books for the earlier version of the system.", "It regained the rights to the ''Hero System'' and to the ''Champions'' trademark.In 2001, the Fifth Edition of the ''Hero System Rulebook'' was released, incorporating heavy revisions by Long.", "A large black hardcover, it was critically well received and attained a degree of commercial success.", "(Following problems with fragile bindings on Fourth Edition rulebooks, the planned binding for the larger Fifth Edition was tested using a clothes dryer.)", "The Fifth Edition is often referred to as \"FREd\", which is a backronym for \"Fifth Rules Edition\".", "The name actually comes from Steve S. Long's reply when asked what the standard abbreviation for the Fifth Edition would be: \"I don't care if you call it 'Fred', as long as you buy it.\"", "This was made the unofficial nickname by several replies on the same board affirming it after a reply from Willpower, who coined the backronym by saying, \"OK. FREd it is, \"Fifth Rules Edition\"!", "\"A revised version () was issued in 2004, along with ''Hero System Sidekick'', a condensed version of the rulebook with a cover price of under $10.Fans often call the revised Fifth Edition \"Fiver,\" ReFREd,\" or \"5ER\" (from \"Fifth Edition revised\"; \"Fiver\" also alludes to ''Watership Down'').", "This rulebook is so big (592 pages) that some fans speculated that it might be bulletproof, and it did indeed stop some bullets when tested by Hero Games staffers.On February 28, 2008, Cryptic Studios purchased the ''Champions'' intellectual property, and sold the rights back to Hero Games to publish the 6th edition books.", "One of the new features will be to allow players to adapt their ''Champions Online'' characters to the pen-and-paper game.In late 2009, Hero Games released the 6th Edition of the Hero System.", "The game has so far had a mostly positive reception, with little in the way of 'Edition Wars'.", "The largest rules change was the removal of Figured Characteristics (meaning that character stats that were previously linked intrinsically—such as Speed automatically increasing when sufficient amounts of Dexterity were purchased—were no longer connected, and instead bought entirely separately).", "Other, more minor rules changes include folding Armor and Force field into Resistant Defense and reestablishing Regeneration as a separate power.", "The rules were released in two volumes, with the first covering character creation in depth and the second describing campaigns and the running of games.", "The new genre book for Champions came out shortly thereafter, and a new ''Fantasy Hero'' was released in the summer of 2010.A new version of Sidekick was released in late 2009 under the title ''The Hero System Basic Rulebook'', while an ''Advanced Player Guide'' was published that had additional options for character creation.", "Other recent releases included a large book of pre-constructed Powers, a set of pre-generated Martial Arts styles, abilities and skills, a large bestiary, a new grimoire for Fantasy Hero and a three-volume set of villains for ''Champions''.", "A new edition of ''Star Hero'' was released in 2011, along with a second ''Advanced Player Guide''.On 28 November 2011, Hero Games announced a restructuring, with Darren Watts and long-time developer Steven S. Long relinquishing their full-time statuses to work freelance.", "In late 2012 ''Champions Complete'' was released, which contained all of the core 6th edition rules as well as enough information to play a superhero campaign in a single 240-page book.", "This compact presentation reflected criticism that the 6th edition rules had become too unwieldy.Hero Games now maintains an irregular release schedule, with a minimal staff, and has successfully used Kickstarter to raise funds for new projects.", "One of these new products, ''Fantasy Hero Complete'', was released in early 2015.=== Computer Release ===''Heromaker'', an MS-DOS program, was distributed with some versions of ''Champions''.", "Today, ''Hero Designer'' for the Fifth and Sixth Editions is available on several platforms, and is supported by numerous character packs and other extensions linked to Hero Games book releases.", "In late 2008, Hero released a licensed RPG for Aaron Williams's popular comic PS238 using a simplified version of the Fifth Edition rules." ], [ "Reviews", "*''Pyramid'' - Fifth Edition" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Hero Games Company website*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Humphry Davy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir Humphry Davy, 1st Baronet''', (17 December 177829 May 1829) was a British chemist and inventor who invented the Davy lamp and a very early form of arc lamp.", "He is also remembered for isolating, by using electricity, several elements for the first time: potassium and sodium in 1807 and calcium, strontium, barium, magnesium and boron the following year, as well as for discovering the elemental nature of chlorine and iodine.", "Davy also studied the forces involved in these separations, inventing the new field of electrochemistry.", "Davy is also credited to have been the first to discover clathrate hydrates in his lab.In 1799 he experimented with nitrous oxide and was astonished at how it made him laugh, so he nicknamed it \"laughing gas\" and wrote about its potential anaesthetic properties in relieving pain during surgery.Davy was a baronet, President of the Royal Society (PRS), Member of the Royal Irish Academy (MRIA), Fellow of the Geological Society (FGS), and a member of the American Philosophical Society (elected 1810).", "Berzelius called Davy's 1806 Bakerian Lecture ''On Some Chemical Agencies of Electricity'' \"one of the best memoirs which has ever enriched the theory of chemistry.\"" ], [ "Early life: 1778–1798", "===Education, apprenticeship and poetry===Davy was born in Penzance, Cornwall, in the Kingdom of Great Britain on 17 December 1778, the eldest of the five children of Robert Davy, a woodcarver, and his wife Grace Millett.", "According to his brother and fellow chemist John Davy, their hometown was characterised by \"an almost unbounded credulity respecting the supernatural and monstrous ... Amongst the middle and higher classes, there was little taste for literature, and still less for science ...", "Hunting, shooting, wrestling, cockfighting, generally ending in drunkenness, were what they most delighted in.", "\"==== Education ====At the age of six, Davy was sent to the grammar school at Penzance.", "Three years later, his family moved to Varfell, near Ludgvan, and subsequently, in term-time Davy boarded with John Tonkin, his godfather and later his guardian.", "Upon Davy's leaving grammar school in 1793, Tonkin paid for him to attend Truro Grammar School to finish his education under the Rev Dr Cardew, who, in a letter to the engineer and Fellow of the Royal Society Davies Giddy (from 1817 called Davies Gilbert), said dryly, \"I could not discern the faculties by which he was afterwards so much distinguished.\"", "Davy entertained his school friends by writing poetry, composing Valentines, and telling stories from ''One Thousand and One Nights''.", "Reflecting on his school days in a letter to his mother, Davy wrote, \"Learning naturally is a true pleasure; how unfortunate then it is that in most schools it is made a pain.\"", "\"I consider it fortunate\", he continued, \"I was left much to myself as a child, and put upon no particular plan of study ... What I am I made myself.\"", "His brother said Davy possessed a \"native vigour\" and \"the genuine quality of genius, or of that power of intellect which exalts its possessor above the crowd.", "\"==== Apothecary's apprentice ====After Davy's father died in 1794, Tonkin apprenticed him to John Bingham Borlase, a surgeon with a practice in Penzance.", "While becoming a chemist in the apothecary's dispensary, he began conducting his earliest experiments at home, much to the annoyance of his friends and family.", "His older sister, for instance, complained his corrosive substances were destroying her dresses, and at least one friend thought it likely the \"incorrigible\" Davy would eventually \"blow us all into the air.", "\"In 1797, after he learnt French from a refuge priest, Davy read Lavoisier's ''Traité élémentaire de chimie.''", "This exposure influenced much of his future work, which can be seen as reaction against Lavoisier's work and the dominance of French chemists.==== Poetry ====As a poet, over one hundred and sixty manuscript poems were written by Davy, the majority of which are found in his personal notebooks.", "Most of his written poems were not published, and he chose instead to share a few of them with his friends.", "Eight of his known poems were published.", "His poems reflected his views on both his career and also his perception of certain aspects of human life.", "He wrote on human endeavours and aspects of life like death, metaphysics, geology, natural theology and chemistry.John Ayrton Paris remarked that poems written by the young Davy \"bear the stamp of lofty genius\".", "Davy's first preserved poem entitled \"The Sons of Genius\" is dated 1795 and marked by the usual immaturity of youth.", "Other poems written in the following years, especially \"On the Mount's Bay\" and \"St Michael's Mount\", are descriptive verses.Although he initially started writing his poems, albeit haphazardly, as a reflection of his views on his career and on life generally, most of his final poems concentrated on immortality and death.", "This was after he started experiencing failing health and a decline both in health and career.==== Painting ====Three of Davy's paintings from around 1796 have been donated to the Penlee House museum at Penzance.", "One is of the view from above Gulval showing the church, Mount's Bay and the Mount, while the other two depict Loch Lomond in Scotland.==== Materiality of heat ====Lariggan RiverAt 17, he discussed the question of the materiality of heat with his Quaker friend and mentor Robert Dunkin.", "Dunkin remarked: 'I tell thee what, Humphry, thou art the most quibbling hand at a dispute I ever met with in my life.'", "One winter day he took Davy to the Lariggan River to show him that rubbing two plates of ice together developed sufficient energy by motion to melt them, and that after the motion was suspended, the pieces were united by regelation.", "It was a crude form of analogous experiment exhibited by Davy in the lecture-room of the Royal Institution that elicited considerable attention.", "As professor at the Royal Institution, Davy repeated many of the ingenious experiments he learnt from Dunkin." ], [ "Early career: 1798–1802", "=== Davy's gift for chemistry is recognised ===Davies Giddy (later: Davies Gilbert)Davies Giddy met Davy in Penzance carelessly swinging on the half-gate of Dr Borlase's house, and interested by his talk invited him to his house at Tredrea and offered him the use of his library.", "This led to his introduction to Dr Edwards, who lived at Hayle Copper House.", "Edwards was a lecturer in chemistry in the school of St. Bartholomew's Hospital.", "He permitted Davy to use his laboratory and possibly directed his attention to the floodgates of the port of Hayle, which were rapidly decaying as a result of the contact between copper and iron under the influence of seawater.", "Galvanic corrosion was not understood at that time, but the phenomenon prepared Davy's mind for subsequent experiments on ships' copper sheathing.", "Gregory Watt, son of James Watt, visited Penzance for his health's sake, and while lodging at the Davys' house became a friend and gave him instructions in chemistry.", "Davy was acquainted with the Wedgwood family, who spent a winter at Penzance.==== Thomas Beddoes ====Thomas BeddoesAt this time, physician and scientific writer Thomas Beddoes and geologist John Hailstone were engaged in a geological controversy on the rival merits of the Plutonian and Neptunist hypotheses.", "They travelled together to examine the Cornish coast accompanied by Giddy—an intimate friend of Beddoes—and made Davy's acquaintance.", "Beddoes, who had established at Bristol the medical research facility the 'Pneumatic Institution,' needed an assistant to superintend the laboratory.", "Giddy recommended Davy, and in 1798 Gregory Watt showed Beddoes Davy's ''Young man's Researches on Heat and Light'', which were subsequently published by him in the first volume of ''West-Country Contributions''.", "After prolonged negotiations, mainly by Giddy, Mrs Davy and Borlase consented to Davy's departure, but Tonkin wished him to remain in his native town as a surgeon, and altered his will when he found that Davy insisted on going to Dr Beddoes.===Pneumatic Institution===Site of the Pneumatic Institution, BristolOn 2 October 1798, Davy joined the Pneumatic Institution at Bristol.", "It had been established to investigate the medical powers of factitious airs and gases (gases produced experimentally or artificially), and Davy was to superintend the various experiments.", "The arrangement agreed between Dr Beddoes and Davy was generous, and enabled Davy to give up all claims on his paternal property in favour of his mother.", "He did not intend to abandon the medical profession and was determined to study and graduate at Edinburgh, but he soon began to fill parts of the institution with voltaic batteries.", "While living in Bristol, Davy met the Earl of Durham, who was a resident in the institution for his health.", "==== Anna Beddoes ====Davy threw himself energetically into the work of the laboratory and formed a long romantic friendship with Mrs Anna Beddoes, the novelist Maria Edgeworth's sister, who acted as his guide on walks and other fine sights of the locality.", "The critic Maurice Hindle was the first to reveal that Davy and Anna had written poems for each other.", "Wahida Amin has transcribed and discussed a number of poems written between 1803 and 1808 to \"Anna\" and one to her infant child.", "==== Non-existence of caloric ====In 1799, the first volume of the ''West-Country Collections'' was issued.", "Half consisted of Davy's essays ''On Heat, Light, and the Combinations of Light'', ''On Phos-oxygen and its Combinations'', and on the ''Theory of Respiration''.", "On 22 February 1799 Davy, wrote to Davies Giddy, \"I am now as much convinced of the non-existence of caloric as I am of the existence of light.\"", "==== Nitrous oxide ====James Watt in 1792 by Carl Frederik von BredaRobert SoutheySir Humphry Davy's ''Researches chemical and philosophical: chiefly concerning nitrous oxide'' (1800), pp.", "556 and 557 (right), outlining potential anaesthetic properties of nitrous oxide in relieving pain during surgeryIn 1799, Davy became increasingly well known due to his experiments with the physiological action of some gases, including laughing gas (nitrous oxide).", "The gas was first synthesised in 1772 by the natural philosopher and chemist Joseph Priestley, who called it ''dephlogisticated nitrous air'' (see phlogiston).", "Priestley described his discovery in the book ''Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air (1775)'', in which he described how to produce the preparation of \"nitrous air diminished\", by heating iron filings dampened with nitric acid.", "In another letter to Giddy, on 10 April, Davy informs him: \"I made a discovery yesterday which proves how necessary it is to repeat experiments.", "The gaseous oxide of azote (the laughing gas) is perfectly respirable when pure.", "It is never deleterious but when it contains nitrous gas.", "I have found a mode of making it pure.\"", "He said that he breathed sixteen quarts of it for nearly seven minutes, and that it \"absolutely intoxicated me.", "\"In addition Davy himself, his enthusiastic experimental subjects included his poet friends Robert Southey and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, as well as Gregory Watt and James Watt, other close friends.", "James Watt built a portable gas chamber to facilitate Davy's experiments with the inhalation of nitrous oxide.", "At one point the gas was combined with wine to judge its efficacy as a cure for hangover (his laboratory notebook indicated success).", "The gas was popular among Davy's friends and acquaintances, and he noted that it might be useful for performing surgical operations.", "Anesthetics were not regularly used in medicine or dentistry until decades after Davy's death.==== Carbon monoxide ====In the gas experiments Davy ran considerable risks.", "His respiration of nitric oxide which may have combined with air in the mouth to form nitric acid (HNO3), severely injured the mucous membrane, and in Davy's attempt to inhale four quarts of \"pure hydrocarbonate\" gas in an experiment with carbon monoxide he \"seemed sinking into annihilation.\"", "On being removed into the open air, Davy faintly articulated, \"I do not think I shall die,\" but some hours elapsed before the painful symptoms ceased.", "Davy was able to take his own pulse as he staggered out of the laboratory and into the garden, and he described it in his notes as \"threadlike and beating with excessive quickness\".==== Early publications ====During 1799, Beddoes and Davy published ''Contributions to physical and medical knowledge, principally from the west of England'' and ''Essays on heat, light, and the combinations of light, with a new theory of respiration.", "On the generation of oxygen gas, and the causes of the colors of organic beings.''", "Their experimental work was poor, and the publications were harshly criticised.", "In after years Davy regretted he had ever published these immature hypotheses, which he subsequently designated \"the dreams of misemployed genius which the light of experiment and observation has never conducted to truth.\"", "These criticisms, however, led Davy to refine and improve his experimental techniques, spending his later time at the institution increasingly in experimentation.", "In December 1799 Davy visited London for the first time and extended his circle of friends.", "Davy features in the diary of William Godwin, with their first meeting recorded for 4 December 1799.In 1800, Davy informed Giddy that he had been \"repeating the galvanic experiments with success\" in the intervals of the experiments on the gases, which \"almost incessantly occupied him from January to April.\"", "In 1800, Davy published his ''Researches, Chemical and Philosophical, chiefly concerning Nitrous Oxide and its Respiration'', and received a more positive response.==== Proofreading ''Lyrical Ballads'' ====William Wordsworth at 28Samuel Taylor ColeridgeWilliam Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge moved to the Lake District in 1800, and asked Davy to deal with the Bristol publishers of the ''Lyrical Ballads'', Biggs & Cottle.", "Coleridge asked Davy to proofread the second edition, the first to contain Wordsworth's \"Preface to the Lyrical Ballads\", in a letter dated 16 July 1800: \"Will you be so kind as just to look over the sheets of the lyrical Ballads\".", "Wordsworth subsequently wrote to Davy on 29 July 1800, sending him the first manuscript sheet of poems and asking him specifically to correct: \"any thing you find amiss in the punctuation a business at which I am ashamed to say I am no adept\".", "Wordsworth was ill in the autumn of 1800 and slow in sending poems for the second edition; the volume appeared on 26 January 1801 even though it was dated 1800.While it is impossible to know whether Davy was at fault, this edition of the Lyrical Ballads contained many errors, including the poem \"Michael\" being left incomplete.", "In a personal notebook marked on the front cover \"Clifton 1800 From August to Novr\", Davy wrote his own Lyrical Ballad: \"As I was walking up the street\".", "Wordsworth features in Davy's poem as the recorder of ordinary lives in the line: \"By poet Wordsworths Rymes\" sic.===Royal Institution===In 1799, Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford) had proposed the establishment in London of an 'Institution for Diffusing Knowledge', i.e.", "the Royal Institution.", "The house in Albemarle Street was bought in April 1799.Rumford became secretary to the institution, and Dr Thomas Garnett was the first lecturer.In February 1801 Davy was interviewed by the committee of the Royal Institution, comprising Joseph Banks, Benjamin Thompson and Henry Cavendish.", "Davy wrote to Davies Giddy on 8 March 1801 about the offers made by Banks and Thompson, a possible move to London and the promise of funding for his work in galvanism.", "He also mentioned that he might not be collaborating further with Beddoes on therapeutic gases.", "The next day Davy left Bristol to take up his new post at the Royal Institution, it having been resolved 'that Humphry Davy be engaged in the service of the Royal Institution in the capacity of assistant lecturer in chemistry, director of the chemical laboratory, and assistant editor of the journals of the institution, and that he be allowed to occupy a room in the house, and be furnished with coals and candles, and that he be paid a salary of 100l.", "per annum.", "'On 25 April 1801, Davy gave his first lecture on the relatively new subject of 'Galvanism'.", "He and his friend Coleridge had had many conversations about the nature of human knowledge and progress, and Davy's lectures gave his audience a vision of human civilisation brought forward by scientific discovery.", "\"It science has bestowed on him powers which may almost be called creative; which have enabled him to modify and change the beings surrounding him, and by his experiments to interrogate nature with power, not simply as a scholar, passive and seeking only to understand her operations, but rather as a master, active with his own instruments.\"", "The first lecture garnered rave reviews, and by the June lecture Davy wrote to John King that his last lecture had attendance of nearly 500 people.", "\"There was Respiration, Nitrous Oxide, and unbounded Applause.", "Amen!\"", "Davy revelled in his public status.", "''Chemical lectures'' – etching by Thomas Rowlandson==== Women's scientific education ====1802 satirical cartoon by James Gillray showing a Royal Institution lecture on pneumatics, with Davy holding the bellows and Count Rumford looking on at extreme right.", "Dr Thomas Garnett is the lecturer, holding the victim's nose.Davy's lectures included spectacular and sometimes dangerous chemical demonstrations along with scientific information, and were presented with considerable showmanship by the young and handsome man.", "Davy also included both poetic and religious commentary in his lectures, emphasizing that God's design was revealed by chemical investigations.", "Religious commentary was in part an attempt to appeal to women in his audiences.", "Davy, like many of his enlightenment contemporaries, supported female education and women's involvement in scientific pursuits, even proposing that women be admitted to evening events at the Royal Society.Davy acquired a large female following around London.", "In a satirical cartoon by Gillray, nearly half of the attendees pictured are female.", "His support of women caused Davy to be subjected to considerable gossip and innuendo, and to be criticised as unmanly.==== Incandescent light and arc light ====In 1802, Humphry Davy had what was then the most powerful electrical battery in the world at the Royal Institution.", "With it, Davy created the first incandescent light by passing electric current through a thin strip of platinum, chosen because the metal had an extremely high melting point.", "It was neither sufficiently bright nor long lasting enough to be of practical use, but demonstrated the principle.", "By 1806 he was able to demonstrate a much more powerful form of electric lighting to the Royal Society in London.", "It was an early form of arc light which produced its illumination from an electric arc created between two charcoal rods.==== Full lecturer at the Royal Institution ====When Davy's lecture series on Galvanism ended, he progressed to a new series on agricultural chemistry, and his popularity continued to skyrocket.", "By June 1802, after just over a year at the Institution and at the age of 23, Davy was nominated to full lecturer at the Royal Institution of Great Britain.", "Garnett quietly resigned, citing health reasons.==== Royal Society ====In November 1804 Davy became a Fellow of the Royal Society, over which he would later preside.", "He was one of the founding members of the Geological Society in 1807 and was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1810 and a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1822." ], [ "Mid-career: 1802–1820", "=== Photographic enlargements ===In June 1802 Davy published in the first issue of the ''Journals of the Royal Institution of Great Britain'' his ''An Account of a Method of Copying Paintings upon Glass, and of Making Profiles, by the Agency of Light upon Nitrate of Silver.", "Invented by T. Wedgwood, Esq.", "With Observations by H. Davy'' in which he described their experiments with the photosensitivity of silver nitrate.He recorded that \"images of small objects, produced by means of the solar microscope, may be copied without difficulty on prepared paper.\"", "Josef Maria Eder, in his ''History of Photography,'' though crediting Wedgwood, because of his application of this quality of silver nitrate to the making of images, as \"the first photographer in the world,\" proposes that it was Davy who realised the idea of photographic enlargement using a solar microscope to project images onto sensitised paper.", "Neither found a means of fixing their images, and Davy devoted no more of his time to furthering these early discoveries in photography.The principle of image projection using solar illumination was applied to the construction of the earliest form of photographic enlarger, the \"solar camera\".===Elements===A voltaic pileSodium metal, about 10 g, under oilMagnesium metal crystals==== Potassium and sodium ====Davy was a pioneer in the field of electrolysis using the voltaic pile to split common compounds and thus prepare many new elements.", "He went on to electrolyse molten salts and discovered several new metals, including sodium and potassium, highly reactive elements known as the alkali metals.", "Davy discovered potassium in 1807, deriving it from caustic potash (KOH).", "Before the 19th century, no distinction had been made between potassium and sodium.", "Potassium was the first metal that was isolated by electrolysis.", "Davy isolated sodium in the same year by passing an electric current through molten sodium hydroxide.==== Barium, calcium, strontium, magnesium, and boron ====During the first half of 1808, Davy conducted a series of further electrolysis experiments on alkaline earths including lime, magnesia, strontites and barytes.", "At the beginning of June, Davy received a letter from the Swedish chemist Berzelius claiming that he, in conjunction with Dr. Pontin, had successfully obtained amalgams of calcium and barium by electrolysing lime and barytes using a mercury cathode.", "Davy managed to successfully repeat these experiments almost immediately and expanded Berzelius' method to strontites and magnesia.", "He noted that while these amalgams oxidised in only a few minutes when exposed to air they could be preserved for lengthy periods of time when submerged in naphtha before becoming covered with a white crust.On 30 June 1808 Davy reported to the Royal Society that he had successfully isolated four new metals which he named barium, calcium, strontium and magnium (later changed to magnesium) which were subsequently published in the ''Philosophical Transactions''.", "Although Davy conceded magnium was an \"undoubtedly objectionable\" name he argued the more appropriate name magnesium was already being applied to metallic manganese and wished to avoid creating an equivocal term.The observations gathered from these experiments also led to Davy isolating boron in 1809.==== Chlorine ====ChlorineChlorine was discovered in 1774 by Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele, who called it ''\"dephlogisticated marine acid\"'' (see phlogiston theory) and mistakenly thought it contained oxygen.", "Davy showed that the acid of Scheele's substance, called at the time oxymuriatic acid, contained no oxygen.", "This discovery overturned Lavoisier's definition of acids as compounds of oxygen.", "In 1810, chlorine was given its current name by Humphry Davy, who insisted that chlorine was in fact an element.", "The name chlorine, chosen by Davy for \"one of the substance's obvious and characteristic properties – its colour\", comes from the Greek χλωρος (chlōros), meaning green-yellow.==== Laboratory incident ====Davy seriously injured himself in a laboratory accident with nitrogen trichloride.", "French chemist Pierre Louis Dulong had first prepared this compound in 1811, and had lost two fingers and an eye in two separate explosions with it.", "In a letter to John Children, on 16 November 1812, Davy wrote: \"It must be used with great caution.", "It is not safe to experiment upon a globule larger than a pin's head.", "I have been severely wounded by a piece scarcely bigger.", "My sight, however, I am informed, will not be injured\".", "Davy's accident induced him to hire Michael Faraday as a co-worker, particularly for assistance with handwriting and record keeping.", "He had recovered from his injuries by April 1813.=== Travels =======European tour====Sir Humphry Davy by Thomas LawrenceA diamond crystal in its matrixIn 1812, Davy was knighted and gave up his lecturing position at the Royal Institution.", "He was given the title of Honorary Professor of Chemistry.", "He gave a farewell lecture to the Institution, and married a wealthy widow, Jane Apreece.", "(While Davy was generally acknowledged as being faithful to his wife, their relationship was stormy, and in later years he travelled to continental Europe alone.", ")Dedication page of an 1812 copy of \"''Elements of Chemical Philosophy'',\" which Davy dedicated to his wife.Davy then published his ''Elements of Chemical Philosophy, part 1, volume 1'', though other parts of this title were never completed.", "He made notes for a second edition, but it was never required.", "In October 1813, he and his wife, accompanied by Michael Faraday as his scientific assistant (also treated as a valet), travelled to France to collect the second edition of the ''prix du Galvanisme,'' a medal that Napoleon Bonaparte had awarded Davy for his electro-chemical work.", "Faraday noted \"Tis indeed a strange venture at this time, to trust ourselves in a foreign and hostile country, where so little regard is had to protestations of honour, that the slightest suspicion would be sufficient to separate us for ever from England, and perhaps from life\".", "Davy's party sailed from Plymouth to Morlaix by cartel, where they were searched.Upon reaching Paris, Davy was a guest of honour at a meeting of the First Class of the and met with André-Marie Ampère and other French chemists.", "It was later reported that Davy's wife had thrown the medal onto the sea, near her Cornish home, \"as it raised bad memories\".", "The Royal Society of Chemistry has offered over £1,800 for the recovery of the medal.While in Paris, Davy attended lectures at the Ecole Polytechnique, including those by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac on a mysterious substance isolated by Bernard Courtois.", "Davy wrote a paper for the Royal Society on the element, which is now called iodine.", "This led to a dispute between Davy and Gay-Lussac on who had the priority on the research.Davy's party did not meet Napoleon in person, but they did visit the Empress Joséphine de Beauharnais at the Château de Malmaison.", "The party left Paris in December 1813, travelling south to Italy.", "They sojourned in Florence, where using the burning glass of the Grand Duke of Tuscany in a series of experiments conducted with Faraday's assistance, Davy succeeded in using the sun's rays to ignite diamond, proving it is composed of pure carbon.Davy's party continued to Rome, where he undertook experiments on iodine and chlorine and on the colours used in ancient paintings.", "This was the first chemical research on the pigments used by artists.He also visited Naples and Mount Vesuvius, where he collected samples of crystals.", "By June 1814, they were in Milan, where they met Alessandro Volta, and then continued north to Geneva.", "They returned to Italy via Munich and Innsbruck, and when their plans to travel to Greece and Istanbul were abandoned after Napoleon's escape from Elba, they returned to England.After the Battle of Waterloo, Davy wrote to Lord Liverpool urging that the French be treated with severity:File:Davy-1.jpg|1812 copy of \"''Elements of Chemical Philosophy''\"File:Davy-2.jpg|Title page of an 1812 copy of \"''Elements of Chemical Philosophy''\"File:Davy-4.jpg|Table of contents page of an 1812 copy of \"''Elements of Chemical Philosophy''\"File:Davy-5.jpg|Introduction of an 1812 copy of \"''Elements of Chemical Philosophy''\"File:Davy-6.jpg|Introduction (continued) of an 1812 copy of \"''Elements of Chemical Philosophy''\"===Davy lamp===The Davy lampStatue of Davy in Penzance, Cornwall, holding his safety lampAfter his return to England in 1815, Davy began experimenting with lamps that could be used safely in coal mines.", "The Revd Dr Robert Gray of Bishopwearmouth in Sunderland, founder of the Society for Preventing Accidents in Coalmines, had written to Davy suggesting that he might use his 'extensive stores of chemical knowledge' to address the issue of mining explosions caused by firedamp, or methane mixed with oxygen, which was often ignited by the open flames of the lamps then used by miners.", "Incidents such as the Felling mine disaster of 1812 near Newcastle, in which 92 men were killed, not only caused great loss of life among miners but also meant that their widows and children had to be supported by the public purse.", "The Revd Gray and a fellow clergyman also working in a north-east mining area, the Revd John Hodgson of Jarrow, were keen that action should be taken to improve underground lighting and especially the lamps used by miners.Davy conceived of using an iron gauze to enclose a lamp's flame, and so prevent the methane burning inside the lamp from passing out to the general atmosphere.", "Although the idea of the safety lamp had already been demonstrated by William Reid Clanny and by the then unknown (but later very famous) engineer George Stephenson, Davy's use of wire gauze to prevent the spread of flame was used by many other inventors in their later designs.", "George Stephenson's lamp was very popular in the north-east coalfields, and used the same principle of preventing the flame reaching the general atmosphere, but by different means.", "Unfortunately, although the new design of gauze lamp initially did seem to offer protection, it gave much less light, and quickly deteriorated in the wet conditions of most pits.", "Rusting of the gauze quickly made the lamp unsafe, and the number of deaths from firedamp explosions rose yet further.There was some discussion as to whether Davy had discovered the principles behind his lamp without the help of the work of Smithson Tennant, but it was generally agreed that the work of the two men had been independent.", "Davy refused to patent the lamp, and its invention led to his being awarded the Rumford medal in 1816.==== Acid studies ====In 1815 Davy also suggested that acids were substances that contained replaceable hydrogen ions;– hydrogen that could be partly or totally replaced by reactive metals which are placed above hydrogen in the reactivity series.", "When acids reacted with metals they formed salts and hydrogen gas.", "Bases were substances that reacted with acids to form salts and water.", "These definitions worked well for most of the nineteenth century.===Herculaneum papyri===Davy experimented on fragments of the Herculaneum papyri before his departure to Naples in 1818.His early experiments showed hope of success.", "In his report to the Royal Society Davy writes that: 'When a fragment of a brown MS. in which the layers were strongly adhered, was placed in an atmosphere of chlorine, there was an immediate action, the papyrus smoked and became yellow, and the letters appeared much more distinct; and by the application of heat the layers separated from each other, giving fumes of muriatic acid.", "'The success of the early trials prompted Davy to travel to Naples to conduct further research on the Herculaneum papyri.", "Accompanied by his wife, they set off on 26 May 1818 to stay in Flanders where Davy was invited by the coal miners to speak.", "They then traveled to Carniola (now Slovenia) which proved to become 'his favourite Alpine retreat' before finally arriving in Italy.", "In Italy, they befriended Lord Byron in Rome and then went on to travel to Naples.Initial experiments were again promising and his work resulted in 'partially unrolling 23 MSS., from which fragments of writing were obtained' but after returning to Naples on 1 December 1819 from a summer in the Alps, Davy complained that 'the Italians at the museum were no longer helpful but obstructive'.", "Davy decided to renounce further work on the papyri because 'the labour, in itself difficult and unpleasant, been made more so, by the conduct of the persons at the head of this department in the Museum'." ], [ "Later life: 1820–1829", "===President of the Royal Society======= Election to the presidency ====Joseph BanksIn 1818, Davy was awarded a baronetcy.", "Although Sir Francis Bacon (also later made a peer) and Sir Isaac Newton had already been knighted, this was the first such honour ever conferred on a man of science in Britain.", "It was followed a year later with the presidency of the Royal Society.", "The Society was in transition from a club for gentlemen interested in natural philosophy, connected with the political and social elite, to an academy representing increasingly specialised sciences.", "The previous president, Joseph Banks, had held the post for over 40 years and had presided autocratically over what David Philip Miller calls the \"Banksian Learned Empire\", in which natural history was prominent.", "Banks had groomed Davies Gilbert to succeed him and preserve the status quo, but Gilbert declined to stand.", "Fellows who thought royal patronage was important proposed Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg (later Leopold I of Belgium), who also withdrew, as did the Whig Edward St Maur, 11th Duke of Somerset.", "Davy was the outstanding scientist but some fellows did not approve of his popularising work at the Royal Institution.Elections took place on St Andrew's Day and Davy was elected on 30 November 1820.Although he was unopposed, other candidates had received initial backing.", "These candidates embodied the factional difficulties that beset Davy's presidency and which eventually defeated him.", "The strongest alternative had been William Hyde Wollaston, who was supported by the \"Cambridge Network\" of outstanding mathematicians such as Charles Babbage and John Herschel, who tried to block Davy.", "They were aware that Davy supported some modernisation, but thought that he would not sufficiently encourage aspiring young mathematicians, astronomers and geologists, who were beginning to form specialist societies.", "Davy was only 41, and reformers were fearful of another long presidency.", "In his early years Davy was optimistic about reconciling the reformers and the Banksians.", "In his first speech as president he declared, \"I trust that, with these new societies, we shall always preserve the most amicable relations ...", "I am sure there is no desire in the Royal Society to exert anything like patriarchal authority in relation to these institutions\".==== Protection of ships' bottoms ====From 1761 onwards, copper plating had been fitted to the undersides of Royal Navy ships to protect the wood from attack by shipworms.", "However, the copper bottoms were gradually corroded by exposure to the salt water.", "Between 1823 and 1825, Davy, assisted by Michael Faraday, attempted to protect the copper by electrochemical means.", "He attached to the copper sacrificial pieces of zinc or iron, which provided cathodic protection to the host metal.", "It was discovered, however, that protected copper became foul quickly, i.e.", "pieces of weed and/or marine creatures became attached to the hull, which had a detrimental effect on the handling of the ship.", "The Navy Board approached Davy in 1823, asking for help with the corrosion.", "Davy conducted a number of tests in Portsmouth Dockyard, which led to the Navy Board adopting the use of Davy's \"protectors\".", "By 1824, it had become apparent that fouling of the copper bottoms was occurring on the majority of protected ships.", "By the end of 1825, the Admiralty ordered the Navy Board to cease fitting the protectors to sea-going ships, and to remove those that had already been fitted.", "Davy's scheme was seen as a public failure, despite success of the corrosion protection as such.", "As Frank A. J. L. James explains, \"Because the poisonous salts from corroding copper were no longer entering the water, there was nothing to kill the barnacles and the like in the vicinity of a ship.", "This meant that barnacles and the like could now attach themselves to the bottom of a vessel, thus impeding severely its steerage, much to the anger of the captains who wrote to the Admiralty to complain about Davy's protectors.", "\"==== Presidency ====Humphry DavyDavy spent much time juggling the factions but, as his reputation declined in the light of failures such as his research into copper-bottomed ships, he lost popularity and authority.", "This was compounded by a number of political errors.", "In 1825 his promotion of the new Zoological Society, of which he was a founding fellow, courted the landed gentry and alienated expert zoologists.", "He offended the mathematicians and reformers by failing to ensure that Babbage received one of the new Royal Medals (a project of his) or the vacant secretaryship of the Society in 1826.In 1826 Davy suffered a stroke from which he never fully recovered.", "In November 1826 the mathematician Edward Ryan recorded that: \"The Society, every member almost ... are in the greatest rage at the President's proceedings and nothing is now talked of but removing him.", "\"In the event he was again re-elected unopposed, but he was now visibly unwell.", "In January 1827 he set off to Italy for reasons of his health.", "It did not improve and, as the 1827 election loomed, it was clear that he would not stand again.", "He was succeeded by Davies Gilbert.===Final years===Michael Faraday, portrait by Thomas Phillips c. 1841–1842Davy's laboratory assistant, Michael Faraday, went on to enhance Davy's work and would become the more famous and influential scientist.", "Davy is supposed to have even claimed Faraday as his greatest discovery.", "Davy later accused Faraday of plagiarism, however, causing Faraday (the first Fullerian Professor of Chemistry) to cease all research in electromagnetism until his mentor's death.According to one of Davy's biographers, June Z. Fullmer, he was a deist.Of a sanguine, somewhat irritable temperament, Davy displayed characteristic enthusiasm and energy in all his pursuits.", "As is shown by his verses and sometimes by his prose, his mind was highly imaginative; the poet Coleridge declared that if he \"had not been the first chemist, he would have been the first poet of his age\", and Southey said that \"he had all the elements of a poet; he only wanted the art.\"", "In spite of his ungainly exterior and peculiar manner, his happy gifts of exposition and illustration won him extraordinary popularity as a lecturer, his experiments were ingenious and rapidly performed, and Coleridge went to hear him \"to increase his stock of metaphors.\"", "The dominating ambition of his life was to achieve fame; occasional petty jealousy did not diminish his concern for the \"cause of humanity\", to use a phrase often employed by him in connection with his invention of the miners' lamp.", "Careless about etiquette, his frankness sometimes exposed him to annoyances he might have avoided by the exercise of tact.=== Death ===Cimetière Plainpalais in GenevaDavy spent the last months of his life writing ''Consolations in Travel'', an immensely popular, somewhat freeform compendium of poetry, thoughts on science and philosophy.", "Published posthumously, the work became a staple of both scientific and family libraries for several decades afterward.", "Davy spent the winter in Rome, hunting in the Campagna on his fiftieth birthday.", "But on 20 February 1829 he had another stroke.", "After spending many months attempting to recuperate, Davy died in a room at L'Hotel de la Couronne, in the Rue du Rhone, in Geneva, Switzerland, on 29 May 1829.An appendix to his will had included his last wishes; that there be no post-mortem, that he be buried where he died, and that there be an interval between the two, to ensure that he was not merely comatose.", "But the ordinances of the city did not allow such an interval and his funeral took place on the following Monday, 1 June, in the Plainpalais Cemetery, outside the city walls." ], [ "Honours", "===Geographical locations===*Shortly after his funeral, his wife organised a memorial tablet for him in Westminster Abbey at a cost of £142.", "*In 1872, a statue of Davy was erected in front of the Market Building, Penzance, (now owned by Lloyds TSB) at the top of Market Jew Street, Penzance.", "*A commemorative slate plaque on 4 Market Jew Street, Penzance, claims the location as his birthplace.", "a secondary school in Coombe Road, Penzance, is named Humphry Davy School.", "*A pub at 32 Alverton Street, Penzance, is named \"The Sir Humphry Davy\".", "*One of the science buildings of the University of Plymouth is named ''The Davy Building''.", "*There is a road named Humphry Davy Way adjacent to the docks in Bristol.", "*Outside the entrance to Sunderland Football Club's Stadium of Light stands a giant Davy Lamp, in recognition of local mining heritage and the importance of Davy's safety lamp to the mining industry.", "*There is a street named Humphry-Davy-Straße in the industrial quarter of the town of Cuxhaven, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany.", "*A satellite of the University of Sheffield at Golden Smithies Lane in Wath upon Dearne (Manvers) was called Humphry Davy House and was home to the School of Nursing and Midwifery until April 2009.", "*Davy Sound in Greenland was named in his honour by William Scoresby (1789–1857).", "*There is a 'zone of activity' commercial area in La Grand-Combe, Gard, France, a former mining town, named after Davy.", "*Mount Davy in New Zealand's Paparoa Range was named after him by Julius von Haast.===Scientific and literary recognition===*in 1827, the mineral davyne was named in his honour by W.", "Haidinger.", "*Annually since 1877, the Royal Society of London has awarded the Davy Medal \"for an outstandingly important recent discovery in any branch of chemistry.", "\"*The Davy lunar crater is named after him.", "It has a diameter of 34 km and its coordinates are 11.8S, 8.1W.", "*Davy's passion for fly-fishing earned him the informal title \"the father of modern fly-fishing\", and his book ''Salmonia'' is often considered to be \"the fly-fisherman bible\".", "*The poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge said he \"attended Davy's lectures to enlarge my stock of metaphors\"." ], [ "In popular culture", ";Novels and poetry*Davy is the subject of a humorous song by Richard Gendall, recorded in 1980 by folk-singer Brenda Wootton in the album ''Boy Jan Cornishman'', the seven verses of which each recall a day of the week on which Davy purportedly made a particular discovery.", "*English playwright Nick Darke wrote ''Laughing Gas'' (2005) a comedy script about the life of Sir Humphry Davy, unfinished at the time of Nick Darke's death; completed posthumously by actor and playwright Carl Grose and produced by the Truro-based production company O-region.", "*Edmund Clerihew Bentley's first clerihew, published in 1905, was written about Sir Humphry Davy::Sir Humphry Davy:Abominated gravy.", ":He lived in the odium:Of having discovered sodium.", "* There is a humorous rhyme of unknown origin about the statue in Penzance: :Sir Humphrey Davy's kindly face, :Is turned away from Market Place:Towards St Michael's Mount:So, if he do want to tell the time:He've got to wait till the clock do chime :Then he's forced to count.", "*Jules Verne refers to Davy's geological theories in his 1864 novel ''Journey to the Centre of the Earth''* On the 2021 TV show Avenue 5, when asked who he is referring to, Captain Ryan, played by Hugh Laurie, responds, \"Who do you think?", "Sir Humphrey Davy?\"" ], [ "Publications", "See Fullmer's work for a full list of Davy's articles.Humphry Davy's books are as follows:* *** (on Davy's safety lamp)***Davy also contributed articles on chemistry to ''Rees's Cyclopædia'', but the topics are not known.His collected works were published in 1839–1840:*" ], [ "See also", "* List of presidents of the Royal Society" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ======Sources======= Primary sources ====***** ****" ], [ "External links", "* (Davy's first name is spelled incorrectly in this book.", ")* * * ''The Collected Works of Humphry Davy''* ''Journal of a Tour made in the years 1828, 1829, through Styria, Carniola, and Italy, whilst accompanying the late Sir Humphry Davy'' by J. J. Tobin (1832)* ''Humphry Davy, Poet and Philosopher'' by Thomas Edward Thorpe, New York: Macmillan, 1896* ''Young Humphry Davy: The Making of an Experimental Chemist'' by June Z. Fullmer, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 2000**" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hecate" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hecate''' is a goddess in ancient Greek religion and mythology, most often shown holding a pair of torches, a key, or snakes, or accompanied by dogs, and in later periods depicted as three-formed or triple-bodied.", "She is variously associated with crossroads, night, light, magic, witchcraft, the Moon, graves, and ghosts.", "Her earliest appearance in literature was in Hesiod's ''Theogony'' in the 8th century BCE as a goddess of great honour with domains in sky, earth, and sea.", "Her place of origin is debated by scholars, but she had popular followings amongst the witches of Thessaly and an important sanctuary among the Carian Greeks of Asia Minor in Lagina.", "Her oldest known representation was found in Selinunte, in Sicily.Hecate was one of several deities worshipped in ancient Athens as a protector of the ''oikos'' (household), alongside Zeus, Hestia, Hermes, and Apollo.", "In the post-Christian writings of the Chaldean Oracles (2nd–3rd century CE) she was also regarded with (some) rulership over earth, sea, and sky, as well as a more universal role as Savior (Soteira), Mother of Angels and the Cosmic World Soul (Anima Mundi).Regarding the nature of her cult, it has been remarked, \"she is more at home on the fringes than in the centre of Greek polytheism.", "Intrinsically ambivalent and polymorphous, she straddles conventional boundaries and eludes definition.", "\"The Romans often knew her by the epithet of '''''Trivia''''', an epithet she shares with Diana, each in their roles as protector of travel and of the crossroads (trivia, \"three ways\").", "Hecate was closely identified with Diana/Artemis in the Roman era." ], [ "Name and origin", "The origin of the name ''Hecate'' (Ἑκάτη, ''Hekátē'') and the original country of her worship are both unknown, though several theories have been proposed.===Greek origin===Whether or not Hecate's worship originated in Greece, some scholars have suggested that the name derives from a Greek root, and several potential source words have been identified.", "For example, ἑκών \"willing\" (thus, \"she who works her will\" or similar), may be related to the name Hecate.", "However, no sources suggested list will or willingness as a major attribute of Hecate, which makes this possibility unlikely.", "Another Greek word suggested as the origin of the name Hecate is Ἑκατός ''Hekatos'', an obscure epithet of Apollo interpreted as \"the far-reaching one\" or \"the far-darter\".", "This has been suggested in comparison with the attributes of the goddess Artemis, strongly associated with Apollo and frequently equated with Hecate in the classical world.", "Supporters of this etymology suggest that Hecate was originally considered an aspect of Artemis prior to the latter's adoption into the Olympian pantheon.", "Artemis would have, at that point, become more strongly associated with purity and maidenhood, on the one hand, while her originally darker attributes like her association with magic, the souls of the dead, and the night would have continued to be worshipped separately under her title Hecate.", "Though often considered the most likely Greek origin of the name, the Ἑκατός theory does not account for her worship in Asia Minor, where her association with Artemis seems to have been a late development, and the competing theories that the attribution of darker aspects and magic to Hecate were themselves not originally part of her cult.R.", "S. P. Beekes rejected a Greek etymology and suggested a Pre-Greek origin.===Egyptian origin===A possible theory of a foreign origin for the name may be Heqet (''ḥqt''), a frog-headed Egyptian goddess of fertility and childbirth, who, like Hecate, was also associated with ''ḥqꜣ'', ruler.", "The word \"heka\" in the Egyptian language is also both the word for \"magic\" and the name of the god of magic and medicine, Heka.===Anatolian origin===Hecate possibly originated among the Carians of Anatolia, the region where most theophoric names invoking Hecate, such as Hecataeus or Hecatomnus, the father of Mausolus, are attested, and where Hecate remained a Great Goddess into historical times, at her unrivalled cult site in Lagina.", "While many researchers favour the idea that she has Anatolian origins, it has been argued that \"Hecate must have been a Greek goddess.", "\"The monuments to Hecate in Phrygia and Caria are numerous but of late date.William Berg observes, \"Since children are not called after spooks, it is safe to assume that Carian theophoric names involving ''hekat-'' refer to a major deity free from the dark and unsavoury ties to the underworld and to witchcraft associated with the Hecate of classical Athens.\"", "In particular, there is some evidence that she might be derived from the local sun goddesses (see also Arinna) based on similar attributes.If Hecate's cult spread from Anatolia into Greece, then it possibly presented a conflict, as her role was already filled by other more prominent deities in the Greek pantheon, above all by Artemis and Selene.", "This line of reasoning lies behind the widely accepted hypothesis that she was a foreign deity who was incorporated into the Greek pantheon.", "Other than in the ''Theogony'', the Greek sources do not offer a consistent story of her parentage or of her relations in the Greek pantheon.===Older English pronunciation===In Early Modern English, the name was also pronounced disyllabically (as ) and sometimes spelled ''Hecat''.", "It remained common practice in English to pronounce her name in two syllables, even when spelled with final ''e'', well into the 19th century.The spelling ''Hecat'' is due to Arthur Golding's 1567 translation of Ovid's ''Metamorphoses'', and this spelling without the final E later appears in plays of the Elizabethan-Jacobean period.Webster's Dictionary of 1866 particularly credits the influence of Shakespeare for the then-predominant disyllabic pronunciation of the name." ], [ "Iconography", "Hekataion with the Charites, Attic, 3rd century BCE (Glyptothek, Munich)Hecate was generally represented as three-formed or triple-bodied, though the earliest known images of the goddess are singular.", "Her earliest known representation is a small terracotta statue found in Athens.", "An inscription on the statue is a dedication to Hecate, in writing of the style of the 6th century, but it otherwise lacks any other symbols typically associated with the goddess.", "She is seated on a throne, with a chaplet around her head; the depiction is otherwise relatively generic.", "Farnell states: \"The evidence of the monuments as to the character and significance of Hecate is almost as full as that of to express her manifold and mystic nature.\"", "A 6th century fragment of pottery from Boetia depicts a goddess which may be Hecate in a maternal or fertility mode.", "Crowned with leafy branches as in later descriptions, she is depicted offering a \"maternal blessing\" to two maidens who embrace her.", "The figure is flanked by lions, an animal associated with Hecate both in the ''Chaldean Oracles'', coinage, and reliefs from Asia Minor.", "In artwork, she is often portrayed in three statues standing back to back, each with its own special attributes (torch, keys, daggers, snakes, dogs).The 2nd-century travel writer Pausanias stated that Hecate was first depicted in triplicate by the sculptor Alcamenes in the Greek Classical period of the late 5th century BCE, whose sculpture was placed before the temple of the Wingless Nike in Athens.", "Though Alcamenes's original statue is lost, hundreds of copies exist, and the general motif of a triple Hecate situated around a central pole or column, known as a ''hekataion'', was used both at crossroads shrines as well as at the entrances to temples and private homes.", "These typically depict her holding a variety of items, including torches, keys, serpents, and daggers.", "Some ''hekataia'', including a votive sculpture from Attica of the 3rd century BCE, include additional dancing figures identified as the Charites circling the triple Hecate and her central column.", "It is possible that the representation of a triple Hecate surrounding a central pillar was originally derived from poles set up at three-way crossroads with masks hung on them, facing in each road direction.", "In the 1st century CE, Ovid wrote: \"Look at Hecate, standing guard at the crossroads, one face looking in each direction.", "\"Marble relief of Hecate.Apart from traditional ''hekataia'', Hecate's triplicity is depicted in the vast frieze of the great Pergamon Altar, now in Berlin, wherein she is shown with three bodies, taking part in the battle with the Titans.", "In the Argolid, near the shrine of the Dioscuri, Pausanias saw the temple of Hecate opposite the sanctuary of Eileithyia; He reported the image to be the work of Scopas, stating further, \"This one is of stone, while the bronze images opposite, also of Hecate, were made respectively by Polycleitus and his brother Naucydes, son of Mothon.", "\"While Greek anthropomorphic conventions of art generally represented Hecate's triple form as three separate bodies, the iconography of the triple Hecate eventually evolved into representations of the goddess with a single body, but three faces.", "In Egyptian-inspired Greek esoteric writings connected with Hermes Trismegistus, and in the Greek Magical Papyri of Late Antiquity, Hecate is described as having three heads: one dog, one serpent, and one horse.", "In other representations, her animal heads include those of a cow and a boar.The east frieze of a Hellenistic temple of hers at Lagina shows her helping protect the newborn Zeus from his father Cronus; this frieze is the only evidence of Hecate's involvement in the myth of his birth.===Sacred animals===Dogs were closely associated with Hecate in the Classical world.", "\"In art and in literature Hecate is constantly represented as dog-shaped or as accompanied by a dog.", "Her approach was heralded by the howling of a dog.", "The dog was Hecate's regular sacrificial animal, and was often eaten in solemn sacrament.\"", "The sacrifice of dogs to Hecate is attested for Thrace, Samothrace, Colophon, and Athens.", "A 4th-century BCE marble relief from Crannon in Thessaly was dedicated by a race-horse owner.", "It shows Hecate, with a hound beside her, placing a wreath on the head of a mare.", "It has been claimed that her association with dogs is \"suggestive of her connection with birth, for the dog was sacred to Eileithyia, Genetyllis, and other birth goddesses.", "Images of her attended by a dog are also found when she is depicted alongside the god Hermes and the goddess Cybele in reliefs.Although in later times Hecate's dog came to be thought of as a manifestation of restless souls or daemons who accompanied her, its docile appearance and its accompaniment of a Hecate who looks completely friendly in many pieces of ancient art suggests that its original signification was positive and thus likelier to have arisen from the dog's connection with birth than the dog's underworld associations.\"", "The association with dogs, particularly female dogs, could be explained by a metamorphosis myth in Lycophron: the friendly-looking female dog accompanying Hecate was originally the Trojan Queen Hecuba, who leapt into the sea after the fall of Troy and was transformed by Hecate into her familiar.The polecat is also associated with Hecate.", "Antoninus Liberalis used a myth to explain this association::\"At Thebes Proetus had a daughter Galinthias.", "This maiden was playmate and companion of Alcmene, daughter of Electryon.", "As the birth throes for Herakles were pressing on Alcmene, the Moirai (fates) and Eileithyia (birth-goddess), as a favour to Hera, kept Alcmene in continuous birth pangs.", "They remained seated, each keeping their arms crossed.", "Galinthias, fearing that the pains of her labour would drive Alcmene mad, ran to the Moirai and Eileithyia and announced that by desire of Zeus a boy had been born to Alcmene and that their prerogatives had been abolished.", "At all this, consternation of course overcame the Moirai and they immediately let go their arms.", ":Alcmene’s pangs ceased at once and Herakles was born.", "The Moirai were aggrieved at this and took away the womanly parts of Galinthias since, being but a mortal, she had deceived the gods.", "They turned her into a deceitful weasel (or polecat), making her live in crannies and gave her a grotesque way of mating.", "She is mounted through the ears and gives birth by bringing forth her young through the throat.", "Hecate felt sorry for this transformation of her appearance and appointed her a sacred servant of herself.", "\"Aelian told a different story of a woman transformed into a polecat::\"I have heard that the polecat was once a human being.", "It has also reached my hearing that Gale was her name then; that she was a dealer in spells and a sorceress (''pharmakis''); that she was extremely lascivious, and that she was afflicted with abnormal sexual desires.", "Nor has it escaped my notice that the anger of the goddess Hekate transformed it into this evil creature.", "May the goddess be gracious to me: Fables and their telling I leave to others.", "\"Athenaeus of Naucratis, drawing on the etymological speculation of Apollodorus of Athens, notes that the red mullet is sacred to Hecate, \"on account of the resemblance of their names; for that the goddess is ''trimorphos'', of a triple form\".", "The Greek word for mullet was ''trigle'' and later ''trigla''.", "He goes on to quote a fragment of verse:::: \"O mistress Hecate, Trioditis::: With three forms and three faces ::: Propitiated with mullets\".In relation to Greek concepts of pollution, Parker observes,:\"The fish that was most commonly banned was the red mullet (''trigle''), which fits neatly into the pattern.", "It 'delighted in polluted things', and 'would eat the corpse of a fish or a man'.", "Blood-coloured itself, it was sacred to the blood-eating goddess Hecate.", "It seems a symbolic summation of all the negative characteristics of the creatures of the deep.", "\"A goddess, probably Hecate (possibly Artemis), is depicted with a bow, dog and twin torches.At Athens, it is said there stood a statue of Hecate ''Triglathena'', to whom the red mullet was offered in sacrifice.", "After mentioning that this fish was sacred to Hecate, Alan Davidson writes,:\"Cicero, Horace, Juvenal, Martial, Pliny, Seneca, and Suetonius have left abundant and interesting testimony to the red mullet fever which began to affect wealthy Romans during the last years of the Republic and really gripped them in the early Empire.", "The main symptoms were a preoccupation with size, the consequent rise to absurd heights of the prices of large specimens, a habit of keeping red mullet in captivity, and the enjoyment of the highly specialized aesthetic experience induced by watching the color of the dying fish change.", "\"In her three-headed representations, discussed above, Hecate often has one or more animal heads, including cow, dog, boar, serpent, and horse.", "Lions are associated with Hecate in early artwork from Asia Minor, as well as later coins and literature, including the ''Chaldean Oracles''.", "The frog, which was also the symbol of the similarly named Egyptian goddess Heqet, has also become sacred to Hecate in modern pagan literature, possibly due in part to its ability to cross between two elements.Comparative mythologist Alexander Haggerty Krappe cited that Hecate was also named (''hippeutria'' – 'the equestrienne'), since the horse was \"the chthonic animal ''par excellence''\".===Sacred plants===The goddess is described as wearing oak in fragments of Sophocles's lost play ''The Root Diggers'' (or ''The Root Cutters''), and an ancient commentary on Apollonius's Argonautica (3.1214) describes her as having a head surrounded by serpents, twining through branches of oak." ], [ "Functions", "Gilt bronze Hekataion, 1st century CE.", "Musei Capitolini, Rome.===As a goddess of boundaries===Hecate was associated with borders, city walls, doorways, crossroads and, by extension, with realms outside or beyond the world of the living.", "She appears to have been particularly associated with being 'between' and hence is frequently characterized as a \"liminal\" goddess.", "\"Hecate mediated between regimes—Olympian and Titan—but also between mortal and divine spheres.\"", "This liminal role is reflected in a number of her cult titles: ''Apotropaia'' (that turns away/protects); ''Enodia'' (on the way); ''Propulaia''/''Propylaia'' (before the gate); ''Triodia''/''Trioditis'' (who frequents crossroads); ''Klêidouchos'' (holding the keys), etc.This function would appear to have some relationship with the iconographic association of Hecate with keys, and might also relate to her appearance with two torches, which when positioned on either side of a gate or door illuminated the immediate area and allowed visitors to be identified.", "\"In Byzantium small temples in her honour were placed close to the gates of the city.", "Hecate's importance to Byzantium was above all as a deity of protection.", "When Philip of Macedon was about to attack the city, according to the legend she alerted the townspeople with her ever present torches, and with her pack of dogs, which served as her constant companions.\"", "This suggests that Hecate's close association with dogs derived in part from the use of watchdogs, who, particularly at night, raised an alarm when intruders approached.", "Watchdogs were used extensively by Greeks and Romans.Drawing of a Hekataion.Cult images and altars of Hecate in her triplicate or trimorphic form were placed at three-way crossroads (though they also appeared before private homes and in front of city gates).", "In what appears to be a 7th-century indication of the survival of cult practices of this general sort, Saint Eligius, in his ''Sermo'' warns the sick among his recently converted flock in Flanders against putting \"devilish charms at springs or trees or crossroads\", and, according to Saint Ouen would urge them \"No Christian should make or render any devotion to the deities of the trivium, where three roads meet...\".===As a goddess of the underworld===Thanks to her association with boundaries and the liminal spaces between worlds, Hecate is also recognized as a chthonic (underworld) goddess.", "As the holder of the keys that can unlock the gates between realms, she can unlock the gates of death, as described in a 3rd-century BCE poem by Theocritus.", "In the 1st century CE, Virgil described the entrance to hell as \"Hecate's Grove\", though he says that Hecate is equally \"powerful in Heaven and Hell.\"", "The Greek Magical Papyri describe Hecate as the holder of the keys to Tartaros.", "Like Hermes, Hecate takes on the role of guardian not just of roads, but of all journeys, including the journey to the afterlife.", "In art and myth, she is shown, along with Hermes, guiding Persephone back from the underworld with her torches.By the 5th century BCE, Hecate had come to be strongly associated with ghosts, possibly due to conflation with the Thessalian goddess Enodia (meaning \"traveller\"), who travelled the earth with a retinue of ghosts and was depicted on coinage wearing a leafy crown and holding torches, iconography strongly associated with Hecate.===As a goddess of witchcraft===By the 1st century CE, Hecate's chthonic and nocturnal character had led to her transformation into a goddess heavily associated with witchcraft, witches, magic, and sorcery.", "In Lucan's ''Pharsalia'', the witch Erichtho invokes Hecate as \"Persephone, who is the third and lowest aspect of Hecate, the goddess we witches revere\", and describes her as a \"rotting goddess\" with a \"pallid decaying body\", who has to \"wear a mask when she visits the gods in heaven.", "\"Like Hecate, \"the dog is a creature of the threshold, the guardian of doors and portals, and so it is appropriately associated with the frontier between life and death, and with demons and ghosts which move across the frontier.", "The yawning gates of Hades were guarded by the monstrous watchdog Cerberus, whose function was to prevent the living from entering the underworld, and the dead from leaving it.", "\"=== Plants and herbology ===Hecate was closely associated with plant lore and the concoction of medicines and poisons.", "In particular she was thought to give instruction in these closely related arts.", "Apollonius of Rhodes, in the ''Argonautica'', mentions that Medea was taught by Hecate: \"I have mentioned to you before a certain young girl whom Hecate, daughter of Perses, has taught to work in drugs.", "\"Hecate was said to favour offerings of garlic, which was closely associated with her cult.", "She is also sometimes associated with cypress, a tree symbolic of death and the underworld, and hence sacred to a number of chthonic deities.A number of other plants (often poisonous, medicinal and/or psychoactive) are associated with Hecate.", "These include aconite (also called ''hecateis''), belladonna, dittany, and mandrake.", "It has been suggested that the use of dogs for digging up mandrake is further corroboration of the association of this plant with Hecate; indeed, since at least as early as the 1st century CE, there are a number of attestations to the apparently widespread practice of using dogs to dig up plants associated with magic.The yew in particular was sacred to Hecate.===As a goddess of the moon===''Hecate the Moon'', fresco by Francesco de' Rossi, ca.", "1543–45)Hecate was seen as a triple deity, identified with the goddesses Luna (Moon) in the sky and Diana (hunting) on the earth, while she represents the Underworld.", "Hecate's association with Helios in literary sources and especially in cursing magic has been cited as evidence for her lunar nature, although this evidence is pretty late; no artwork before the Roman period connecting Hecate to the Moon exists.", "Nevertheless, the ''Homeric Hymn to Demeter'' shows Helios and Hecate informing Demeter of Persephone's abduction, a common theme found in many parts of the world where the Sun and the Moon are questioned concerning events that happen on earth based on their ability to witness everything and implies Hecate's capacity as a moon goddess in the hymn.", "Another work connecting Hecate to Helios possibly as a moon goddess is Sophocles' lost play ''The Root Cutters'', where Helios is described as Hecate's spear:O Sun our lord and sacred fire, the spear of Hecate of theroads, which she carries as she attends her mistress in the skyThis speech from the ''Root Cutters'' may or may not be an intentional association of Hecate with the Moon.", "In Seneca's ''Medea'', the titular Medea invokes her patron Hecate whom she addresses as \"Moon, orb of the night\" and \"triple form\".", "Hecate and the moon goddess Selene were frequently identified with each other and a number of Greek and non-Greek deities; the Greek Magical Papyri and other magical texts emphasize a syncretism between Selene-Hecate with Artemis and Persephone among others.", "In Italy, the triple unity of the lunar goddesses Diana (the huntress), Luna (the Moon) and Hecate (the underworld) became a ubiquitous feature in depictions of sacred groves, where Hecate/Trivia marked intersections and crossroads along with other liminal deities.", "The Romans celebrated enthusiastically the multiple identities of Diana as Hecate, Luna and Trivia.From her father Perses, Hecate is often called “Perseis” (meaning “daughter of Perses”) which is also the name of one of the Oceanid nymphs, Helios’ wife and Circe’s mother in other versions.", "In one version of Hecate's parentage, she is the daughter of Perses not the son of Crius but the son of Helios, whose mother is the Oceanid Perse.", "Karl Kerenyi noted the similarity between the names, perhaps denoting a chthonic connection among the two and the goddess Persephone; it is possible that this epithet gives evidence of a lunar aspect of Hecate.", "Fowler also noted that the pairing (i. e. Helios and Perse) made sense given Hecate’s association with the Moon.", "Mooney however notes that when it comes to the nymph Perse herself, there's no evidence of her actually being a moon goddess on her own right." ], [ "Cult", "Hecate holding two torches and dancing in front of an altar, beyond which is a cult statue, ca.", "350–300 BC, red-figure vase, Capua, Italy.Worship of Hecate existed alongside other deities in major public shrines and temples in antiquity, and she had a significant role as household deity.", "Shrines to Hecate were often placed at doorways to homes, temples, and cities with the belief that it would protect from restless dead and other spirits.", "Home shrines often took the form of a small ''Hekataion'', a shrine centred on a wood or stone carving of a triple Hecate facing in three directions on three sides of a central pillar.", "Larger Hekataions, often enclosed within small walled areas, were sometimes placed at public crossroads near important sites – for example, there was one on the road leading to the Acropolis.", "Likewise, shrines to Hecate at three way crossroads were created where food offerings were left at the new Moon to protect those who did so from spirits and other evils.", "In Zerynthus there was a cave dedicated to Hecate.Dogs were sacred to Hecate and associated with roads, domestic spaces, purification, and spirits of the dead.", "Dogs were also sacrificed to the road.This can be compared to Pausanias' report that in the Ionian city of Colophon in Asia Minor a sacrifice of a black female puppy was made to Hecate as \"the wayside goddess\", and Plutarch's observation that in Boeotia dogs were killed in purificatory rites.", "Dogs, with puppies often mentioned, were offered to Hecate at crossroads, which were sacred to the goddess.===History===The earliest definitive record of Hecate's worship dates to the 6th century BCE, in the form of a small terracotta statue of a seated goddess, identified as Hecate in its inscription.", "This and other early depictions of Hecate lack distinctive attributes that would later be associated with her, such as a triple form or torches, and can only be identified as Hecate thanks to their inscriptions.", "Otherwise, they are typically generic, or Artemis-like.Hecate's cult became established in Athens about 430 BCE.", "At this time, the sculptor Alcamenes made the earliest known triple-formed Hecate statue for use at her new temple.", "While this sculpture has not survived to the present day, numerous later copies are extant.", "It has been speculated that this triple image, usually situated around a pole or pillar, was derived from earlier representations of the goddess using three masks hung on actual wooden poles, possibly placed at crossroads and gateways.===Sanctuaries===Hecate was a popular divinity, and her cult was practiced with many local variations all over Greece and Western Anatolia.", "Caria was a major center of worship and her most famous temple there was located in the town of Lagina.", "The oldest known direct evidence of Hecate's cult comes from Selinunte (near modern-day Trapani in Sicily), where she had a temple in the 6th–5th centuries BCE.There was a Temple of Hecate in Argolis:Over against the sanctuary of Eileithyia is a temple of Hecate the goddess probably here identified with the apotheosed Iphigenia, and the image is a work of Skopas.", "This one is of stone, while the bronze images opposite, also of Hecate, were made respectively by Polykleitos and his brother Naukydes.", "There was also a shrine to Hecate in Aigina, where she was very popular:Of the gods, the Aiginetans worship most Hecate, in whose honour every year they celebrate mystic rites which, they say, Orpheus the Thrakian established among them.", "Within the enclosure is a temple; its wooden image is the work of Myron, and it has one face and one body.", "It was Alkamenes, in my opinion, who first made three images of Hecate attached to one another in Athens.Aside from her own temples, Hecate was also worshipped in the sanctuaries of other gods, where she was apparently sometimes given her own space.", "A round stone altar dedicated to the goddess was found in the Delphinion (a temple dedicated to Apollo) at Miletus.", "Dated to the 7th century BCE, this is one of the oldest known artefacts dedicated to the worship of Hecate.", "In association with her worship alongside Apollo at Miletus, worshipers used a unique form of offering: they would place stone cubes, often wreathes, known as γυλλοι (''gylloi'') as protective offerings at the door or gateway.", "There was an area sacred to Hecate in the precincts of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, where the priests, ''megabyzi'', officiated.", "This sanctuary was called ''Hecatesion'' (Shrine of Hecate).", "Hecate was also worshipped in the Temple of Athena in Titane: \"In Titane there is also a sanctuary of Athena, into which they bring up the image of Koronis mother of Asklepios ...", "The sanctuary is built upon a hill, at the bottom of which is an Altar of the Winds, and on it the priest sacrifices to the winds one night in every year.", "He also performs other secret rites of Hecate at four pits, taming the fierceness of the blasts of the winds, and he is said to chant as well the charms of Medea.\"", "She was most commonly worshipped in nature, where she had many natural sanctuaries.", "An important sanctuary of Hecate was a holy cave on the island of Samothrake called Zerynthos:In Samothrake there were certain initiation-rites, which they supposed efficacious as a charm against certain dangers.", "In that place were also the mysteries of the Korybantes Kabeiroi and those of Hekate and the Zerinthian cave, where they sacrificed dogs.", "The initiates supposed that these things save them from terrors and from storms.====Cult at Lagina====Hecate's most important sanctuary was Lagina, a theocratic city-state in which the goddess was served by eunuchs.The temple is mentioned by Strabo:Stratonikeia in Karia, Asia Minor is a settlement of Makedonians ...", "There are two temples in the country of the Stratonikeians, of which the most famous, that of Hecate, is at Lagina; and it draws great festal assemblies every year.Lagina, where the famous temple of Hecate drew great festal assemblies every year, lay close to the originally Macedonian colony of Stratonikeia, where she was the city's patron.", "In Thrace she played a role similar to that of lesser-Hermes, namely a ruler of liminal regions, particularly gates, and the wilderness.====Cult at Byzantium====Juniper wood Hekataion.", "Ptolemaic Egypt, c. 304–30 BCE.Hecate was greatly worshipped in Byzantium.", "She was said to have saved the city from Philip II of Macedon, warning the citizens of a night time attack by a light in the sky, for which she was known as ''Hecate Lampadephoros''.", "The tale is preserved in the Suda.As Hecate Phosphorus (the 'star' Venus) she is said to have lit the sky during the Siege of Philip II in 340 BCE, revealing the attack to its inhabitants.", "The Byzantines dedicated a statue to her as the \"lamp carrier\".", "According to Hesychius of Miletus there was once a statue of Hecate at the site of the Hippodrome in Constantinople.====Hecate's island====Hecate's island (Ἑκάτης νήσου), also called Psamite (Ψαμίτη), was an islet in the vicinity of Delos.", "It was called Psamite because Hecate was honoured with a cake, which was called psamiton (ψάμιτον).", "The island is the modern Megalos (Great) Reumatiaris.===Deipnon===The Athenian Greeks honoured Hecate during the Deipnon.", "In Greek, deipnon means the evening meal, usually the largest meal of the day.", "Hecate's Deipnon is, at its most basic, a meal served to Hecate and the restless dead once a lunar month during the Dark Moon.", "On the night of the dark moon, a meal would be set outside, in a small shrine to Hecate by the front door; as the street in front of the house and the doorway create a crossroads, known to be a place Hecate dwelled.", "Food offerings might include cake or bread, fish, eggs and honey.", "The Deipnon is always followed the next day by the Noumenia, when the first sliver of the sunlit New Moon is visible, and then the Agathos Daimon the day after that.The main purpose of the Deipnon was to honour Hecate and to placate the souls in her wake who \"longed for vengeance.\"", "A secondary purpose was to purify the household and to atone for bad deeds a household member may have committed that offended Hecate, causing her to withhold her favour from them.", "The Deipnon consists of three main parts: 1) the meal that was set out at a crossroads, usually in a shrine outside the entryway to the home 2) an expiation sacrifice, and 3) purification of the household.===Epithets===Sketch of a stone Hecataion.", "Richard Cosway, British Museum.Hecate was known by a number of epithets:* '''Aenaos''' (Aἰώνιος), eternal, agelong, ever-flowing.", "* '''Aglaos''' (Αγλάος), beautiful, bright, pleasing.", "* '''Apotropaia''' (Ἀποτρόπαια), the one that turns away/protects.", "* Brimo (Βριμώ), the furious, the avenging, the dreaded, crackling flame.", "* Chthonia (Χθωνία), of the earth/underworld.", "* Enodia (Ἐννοδία), she on the way/road.", "*'''Erototokos''' (Ερωτοτόκος), producing love, bearer of love.", "* '''Indalimos''' (Ινδαλίμος), the beautiful.", "* '''Klêidouchos''' (Κλειδοῦχος), holding the keys.", "As the keeper of the keys of Hades.", "* '''Kourotrophos''' (Κουροτρόφος), nurse of children.", "* '''Krokopeplos''' (Κροκόπεπλος), saffron cloaked.", "* Melinoe (Μηλινόη).", "* Phosphoros, '''Lampadephoros''' (Φωσφόρος, Λαμπαδηφόρος), bringing or bearing light.", "* '''Propolos''' (Πρόπολος), who serves/attends.", "* '''Propulaia/Propylaia''' (Προπύλαια), before the gate.", "* Soteria (Σωτηρία), savior.", "* '''Trimorphe''' (Τρίμορφη), three-formed.", "* '''Triodia/Trioditis''' (Τριοδία, Τριοδίτης), who frequents crossroads." ], [ "Historical and literary sources", "===Archaic period===Greek goddess of the crossroads; drawing by Stéphane Mallarmé in ''Les Dieux Antiques, nouvelle mythologie illustrée'' in Paris, 1880Hecate has been characterized as a pre-Olympian chthonic goddess.", "The first literature mentioning Hecate is the ''Theogony'' (c. 700 BCE) by Hesiod:According to Hesiod, she held sway over many things:The coins of Agathocles of Bactria (ruled 190–180 BCE), show Zeus holding Hecate in his hand.Hesiod's inclusion and praise of Hecate in the ''Theogony'' has been troublesome for scholars, in that he seems to hold her in high regard, while the testimony of other writers, and surviving evidence, suggests that this may have been the exception.", "One theory is that Hesiod's original village had a substantial Hecate following and that his inclusion of her in the ''Theogony'' was a way of adding to her prestige by spreading word of her among his readers.", "Another theory is that Hecate was mainly a household god and humble household worship could have been more pervasive and yet not mentioned as much as temple worship.", "In Athens, Hecate, along with Zeus, Hermes, Athena, Hestia, and Apollo, were very important in daily life as they were the main gods of the household.", "However, it is clear that the special position given to Hecate by Zeus is upheld throughout her history by depictions found on coins of Hecate on the hand of Zeus as highlighted in more recent research presented by d'Este and Rankine.In the Homeric Hymn to Demeter (composed c. 600 BCE), Hecate is called \"tender-hearted\", an epithet perhaps intended to emphasize her concern with the disappearance of Persephone, when she assisted Demeter with her search for Persephone following her abduction by Hades, suggesting that Demeter should speak to the god of the Sun, Helios.", "Subsequently, Hecate became Persephone's companion on her yearly journey to and from the realms of Hades, serving as a psychopomp.", "Because of this association, Hecate was one of the chief goddesses of the Eleusinian Mysteries, alongside Demeter and Persephone, and there was a temple dedicated to her near the main sanctuary at Eleusis.===Classical period===Variations in interpretations of Hecate's roles can be traced in classical Athens.", "In two fragments of Aeschylus she appears as a great goddess.", "In Sophocles and Euripides she is characterized as the mistress of witchcraft and the Keres.One surviving group of stories suggests how Hecate might have come to be incorporated into the Greek pantheon without affecting the privileged position of Artemis.", "Here, Hecate is a mortal priestess often associated with Iphigenia.", "She scorns and insults Artemis, who in retribution eventually brings about the mortal's suicide.In the ''Argonautica'', a 3rd-century BCE Alexandrian epic based on early material, Jason placates Hecate in a ritual prescribed by Medea, her priestess: bathed at midnight in a stream of flowing water, and dressed in dark robes, Jason is to dig a round pit and over it cut the throat of a ewe, sacrificing it and then burning it whole on a pyre next to the pit as a holocaust.", "He is told to sweeten the offering with a libation of honey, then to retreat from the site without looking back, even if he hears the sound of footsteps or barking dogs.", "All these elements betoken the rites owed to a chthonic deity.===Late Antiquity===Hecate battles Clytius next to Artemis, Gigantomachy frieze, Pergamon Altar, Pergamon Museum, Berlin.During the Gigantomachy, Hecate fought by the side of the Olympian gods, and slew the giant Clytius using her torches.", "Hecate is depicted fighting Clytius in the east frieze of the Gigantomachy, in the Pergamon Altar next to Artemis; she appears with a different weapon in each of her three right hands, a torch, a sword and a lance.", "Her fight with the Giant appears in a number of ancient vase paintings and other artwork.Hecate is the primary feminine figure in the ''Chaldean Oracles'' (2nd–3rd century CE), where she is associated in fragment 194 with a ''strophalos'' (usually translated as a spinning top, or wheel, used in magic) \"Labour thou around the Strophalos of Hecate.\"", "This appears to refer to a variant of the device mentioned by Psellus.In Hellenistic syncretism, Hecate also became closely associated with Isis.", "Lucius Apuleius in ''The Golden Ass'' (2nd century) equates Juno, Bellona, Hecate and Isis:In the syncretism during Late Antiquity of Hellenistic and late Babylonian (\"Chaldean\") elements, Hecate was identified with Ereshkigal, the underworld counterpart of Inanna in the Babylonian cosmography.", "In the Michigan magical papyrus (inv.", "7), dated to the late 3rd or early 4th century CE, ''Hecate Erschigal'' is invoked against fear of punishment in the afterlife.", "Schwemer believes that this use of Ereshkigal's name merely furnished \"the Greek Netherworld goddess with a mysterious-sounding, foreign name\".Hecate is also referenced in the Gnostic text Pistis Sophia.===Parents, consorts and children===In the earliest written source mentioning Hecate, Hesiod emphasized that she was an only child, the daughter of Perses and Asteria, the sister of Leto (the mother of Artemis and Apollo).", "Grandmother of the three cousins was Phoebe the ancient Titan goddess whose name was often used for the moon goddess.", "In various later accounts, Hecate was given different parents.", "She was said to be the daughter of Zeus by either Asteria, according to Musaeus, Hera, thus identified with Angelos, or Pheraea, daughter of Aeolus; the daughter of Aristaeus the son of Paion, according to Pherecydes; the daughter of Nyx, according to Bacchylides; the daughter of Perses, the son of Helios, by an unknown mother, according to Diodorus Siculus; while in Orphic literature, she was said to be the daughter of Demeter or Leto or even Tartarus.As a virgin goddess, she remained unmarried and had no regular consort, though some traditions named her as the mother of Scylla through either Phorbas or Phorcys.Sometimes she is also stated to be the mother (by Aeëtes) of the goddess Circe and the sorceress Medea, who in later accounts was herself associated with magic while initially just being a herbalist goddess, similar to how Hecate's association with Underworld and Mysteries had her later converted into a deity of witchcraft.Once, Hermes chased Hecate (or Persephone) with the aim to rape her; but the goddess snored or roared in anger, frightening him off so that he desisted, hence her earning the name \"Brimo\" (\"angry\")." ], [ "Genealogy" ], [ "Legacy", "''The Triple Hecate'', 1795.William BlakeStrmiska (2005) claimed that Hecate, conflated with the figure of Diana, appears in late antiquity and in the Early Middle Ages as part of an \"emerging legend complex\" known as \"The Society of Diana\" associated with gatherings of women, the Moon, and witchcraft that eventually became established \"in the area of Northern Italy, southern Germany, and the western Balkans.\"", "This theory of the Roman origins of many European folk traditions related to Diana or Hecate was explicitly advanced at least as early as 1807 and is reflected in etymological claims by early modern lexicographers from the 17th to the 19th century, connecting ''hag, hexe'' \"witch\" to the name of Hecate.", "Such derivations are today proposed only by a minorityA medieval commentator has suggested a link connecting the word \"jinx\" with Hecate: \"The Byzantine polymath Michael Psellus ... speaks of a bullroarer, consisting of a golden sphere, decorated throughout with symbols and whirled on an oxhide thong.", "He adds that such an instrument is called a ''iunx'' (hence \"jinx\"), but as for the significance says only that it is ineffable and that the ritual is sacred to Hecate.", "\"Shakespeare mentions Hecate both before the end of the 16th century (''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', 1594–1596), and just after, in ''Macbeth'' (1605): specifically, in the title character's \"dagger\" soliloquy: \"Witchcraft celebrates pale Hecate's offerings...\"Shakespeare mentions Hecate also in ''King Lear''.", "While disclaiming all his paternal care for Cordelia, Lear says, \"The mysteries of Hecate and the night,By all the operations of the orbsFrom whom we do exist and cease to be,Here I disclaim all my paternal care\" (The Arden Shakespeare, King Lear, Page no.165)===Modern reception===''Hekate'', pastel on paper by Maximilian Pirner, 1901.In 1929, Lewis Brown, an expert on religious cults, connected the 1920s Blackburn Cult (also known as, \"The Cult of the Great Eleven,\") with Hecate worship rituals.", "He noted that the cult regularly practiced dog sacrifice and had secretly buried the body of one of its \"queens\" with seven dogs.", "Researcher Samuel Fort noted additional parallels, to include the cult's focus on mystic and typically nocturnal rites, its female dominated membership, the sacrifice of other animals (to include horses and mules), a focus on the mystical properties of roads and portals, and an emphasis on death, healing, and resurrection.As a \"goddess of witchcraft\", Hecate has been incorporated in various systems of Neopagan witchcraft, Wicca, and neopaganism, in some cases associated with the Wild Hunt of Germanic tradition, in others as part of a reconstruction of specifically Greek polytheism, in English also known as \"Hellenismos\".", "In Wicca, Hecate has in some cases become identified with the \"crone\" aspect of the \"Triple Goddess\"." ], [ "See also", "* * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "===Primary sources===* Apollonius Rhodius, ''Argonautica, with an English translation by R. C. Seaton''.", "Loeb Classical Library 1.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1912.", "* Hesiod, ''Theogony'', in ''The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White'', Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* ''Orphic Argonautica'', translated by Jason Colavito, derived from his text at argonauts-book.com, 2011.", "* Ovid, ''Metamorphoses, translated by Brookes More (1859-1942)'', from the Cornhill edition of 1922.", "* Pausanias, ''Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S.", "Jones, Litt.D., and H.A.", "Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes.''", "Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Strabo, ''The Geography of Strabo.''", "Edition by H.L.", "Jones.", "Cambridge, Mass.", ": Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.===Secondary sources===* Athanassakis, Apostolos N., and Benjamin M. Wolkow, ''The Orphic Hymns'', Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013.. Google Books.", "* Berg, William, \"Hecate: Greek or \"Anatolian\"?", "\", ''Numen'' 21.2 (August 1974:128-40)* * Burkert, Walter, 1985.", "''Greek Religion'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press) Published in the UK as ''Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical'', 1987.", "(Oxford: Blackwell) .", "* de’Este, Sorita.", "Circle for Hekate: volume 1.1910191078* Farnell, Lewis Richard, (1896).", "\"Hekate: Representations in Art\", ''The Cults of the Greek States''.", "Oxford University Press, Oxford.", "* Fowler, R. L. (2000), ''Early Greek Mythography: Volume 1: Text and Introduction'', Oxford University Press, 2000..* Gantz, Timothy, ''Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources'', Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: (Vol.", "1), (Vol.", "2).", "* Green, C. M. C., ''Roman Religion and the Cult of Diana at Aricia'', Cambridge University Press, University of Iowa, 2007, .", "Online text available at Google books.", "* Johnston, Sarah Iles, (1990).", "''Hekate Soteira: A Study of Hekate's Role in the Chaldean Oracles and Related Literature''.", "* Johnston, Sarah Iles, (1991).", "''Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece''.", "* Kerenyi, Karl.", "''The Gods of the Greeks''.", "1951.", "* Kern, Otto.", "''Orphicorum Fragmenta'', Berlin, 1922.Internet Archive* Mallarmé, Stéphane, (1880).", "''Les Dieux Antiques, nouvelle mythologie illustrée''.", "* .", "* Mooney, Carol M., '' Hekate: Her Role and Character in Greek Literature from before the Fifth Century B.C.", "'', a thesis submitted to the faculty of graduate studies, McMaster University, 1971.", "* Rabinovich, Yakov.", "''The Rotting Goddess''.", "1990.", "* Ruickbie, Leo.", "''Witchcraft Out of the Shadows: A Complete History''.", "Robert Hale, 2004.", "** Seyffert, Oskar, ''A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, Mythology, Religion, Literature and Art'', from the German of Dr. Oskar Seyffert, S. Sonnenschein, 1901.", "* ''The Classical Review'', volume IX, 1985, Library of Illinois.", "* Von Rudloff, Robert.", "''Hekate in Ancient Greek Religion''.", "Horned Owl Publishing (July 1999)" ], [ "External links", "* Myths of the Greek Goddess Hecate* ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' 1911: \"Hecate\"* '' The Rotting Goddess'' by Yakov Rabinovich, complete book included in the anthology \"Junkyard of the Classics\" published under the pseudonym Ellipsis Marx.", "* Theoi Project, Hecate Classical literary sources and art* Hekate in Greek esotericism : Ptolemaic and Gnostic transformations of Hecate* Cast of the Crannon statue, at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.", "* Hecate from Mythopedia* Ancient texts on Hecate, from Tiresias: The Ancient Mediterranean Religions Source Database." ] ]
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[ [ "Haematopoiesis" ], [ "Introduction", "Diagram showing the development of different blood cells from haematopoietic stem cell to mature cells'''Haematopoiesis''' (, from Greek , 'blood' and 'to make'; also '''hematopoiesis''' in American English; sometimes also '''h(a)emopoiesis''') is the formation of blood cellular components.", "All cellular blood components are derived from haematopoietic stem cells.", "In a healthy adult human, roughly ten billion () to a hundred billion () new blood cells are produced per day, in order to maintain steady state levels in the peripheral circulation." ], [ "Process", "=== Haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) ===Haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) reside in the medulla of the bone (bone marrow) and have the unique ability to give rise to all of the different mature blood cell types and tissues.", "HSCs are self-renewing cells: when they differentiate, at least some of their daughter cells remain as HSCs so the pool of stem cells is not depleted.", "This phenomenon is called asymmetric division.", "The other daughters of HSCs (myeloid and lymphoid progenitor cells) can follow any of the other differentiation pathways that lead to the production of one or more specific types of blood cell, but cannot renew themselves.", "The pool of progenitors is heterogeneous and can be divided into two groups; long-term self-renewing HSC and only transiently self-renewing HSC, also called short-terms.", "This is one of the main vital processes in the body.=== Cell types ===All blood cells are divided into three lineages.", "* Red blood cells, which are also called erythrocytes, are the oxygen-carrying cells.", "Erythrocytes are functional, and are released into the blood.", "The number of reticulocytes, which are immature red blood cells, gives an estimate of the rate of erythropoiesis.", "* Lymphocytes are the cornerstone of the adaptive immune system.", "They are derived from common lymphoid progenitors.", "The lymphoid lineage is composed of T-cells, B-cells, and natural killer cells.", "This is lymphopoiesis.", "* Cells of the myeloid lineage, which include granulocytes, megakaryocytes, monocytes, and macrophages, are derived from common myeloid progenitors, and are involved in such diverse roles as innate immunity and blood clotting.", "This is myelopoiesis.Granulopoiesis (or granulocytopoiesis) is haematopoiesis of granulocytes, except mast cells which are granulocytes but with an extramedullar maturation.Thrombopoiesis is haematopoiesis of thrombocytes (platelets).===Terminology===Between 1948 and 1950, the Committee for Clarification of the Nomenclature of Cells and Diseases of the Blood and Blood-forming Organs issued reports on the nomenclature of blood cells.", "An overview of the terminology is shown below, from earliest to final stage of development:* rootblast* prorootcyte* rootcyte* metarootcyte* mature cell nameThe root for erythrocyte colony-forming units (CFU-E) is \"rubri\", for granulocyte-monocyte colony-forming units (CFU-GM) is \"granulo\" or \"myelo\" and \"mono\", for lymphocyte colony-forming units (CFU-L) is \"lympho\" and for megakaryocyte colony-forming units (CFU-Meg) is \"megakaryo\".", "According to this terminology, the stages of red blood cell formation would be: rubriblast, prorubricyte, rubricyte, metarubricyte, and erythrocyte.", "However, the following nomenclature seems to be, at present, the most prevalent: Committee \"lympho\" \"rubri\" \"granulo\" or \"myelo\" \"mono\" \"megakaryo\"''Lineage''LymphoidMyeloid Myeloid Myeloid Myeloid''CFU''CFU-LCFU-GEMM→CFU-E CFU-GEMM→CFU-GM→CFU-G CFU-GEMM→CFU-GM→CFU-M CFU-GEMM→CFU-Meg''Process''lymphocytopoiesiserythropoiesisgranulocytopoiesismonocytopoiesisthrombocytopoiesis''rootblast''LymphoblastProerythroblastMyeloblastMonoblastMegakaryoblast''prorootcyte''ProlymphocytePolychromatophilic erythrocytePromyelocytePromonocytePromegakaryocyte''rootcyte'' – NormoblastEosino/neutro/basophilic myelocyte Megakaryocyte''metarootcyte'' Large lymphocyteReticulocyte Eosinophilic/neutrophilic/basophilic metamyelocyte, Eosinophilic/neutrophilic/basophilic band cellEarly monocyte -''mature cell name'' Small lymphocyteErythrocytegranulocytes (Eosino/neutro/basophil) Monocytethrombocytes (Platelets)Osteoclasts also arise from hemopoietic cells of the monocyte/neutrophil lineage, specifically CFU-GM." ], [ "Location", "Sites of haematopoiesis (human) in pre- and postnatal periodsIn developing embryos, blood formation occurs in aggregates of blood cells in the yolk sac, called blood islands.", "As development progresses, blood formation occurs in the spleen, liver and lymph nodes.", "When bone marrow develops, it eventually assumes the task of forming most of the blood cells for the entire organism.", "However, maturation, activation, and some proliferation of lymphoid cells occurs in the spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes.", "In children, haematopoiesis occurs in the marrow of the long bones such as the femur and tibia.", "In adults, it occurs mainly in the pelvis, cranium, vertebrae, and sternum.===Extramedullary===In some cases, the liver, thymus, and spleen may resume their haematopoietic function, if necessary.", "This is called ''extramedullary haematopoiesis''.", "It may cause these organs to increase in size substantially.", "During fetal development, since bones and thus the bone marrow develop later, the liver functions as the main haematopoietic organ.", "Therefore, the liver is enlarged during development.", "Extramedullary haematopoiesis and myelopoiesis may supply leukocytes in cardiovascular disease and inflammation during adulthood.", "Splenic macrophages and adhesion molecules may be involved in regulation of extramedullary myeloid cell generation in cardiovascular disease." ], [ "Maturation", "More detailed and comprehensive diagram that shows the development of different blood cells in humans.As a stem cell matures it undergoes changes in gene expression that limit the cell types that it can become and moves it closer to a specific cell type (cellular differentiation).", "These changes can often be tracked by monitoring the presence of proteins on the surface of the cell.", "Each successive change moves the cell closer to the final cell type and further limits its potential to become a different cell type.=== Cell fate determination ===Two models for haematopoiesis have been proposed: determinism and stochastic theory.", "For the stem cells and other undifferentiated blood cells in the bone marrow, the determination is generally explained by the ''determinism'' theory of haematopoiesis, saying that colony stimulating factors and other factors of the haematopoietic microenvironment determine the cells to follow a certain path of cell differentiation.", "This is the classical way of describing haematopoiesis.", "In ''stochastic'' ''theory,'' undifferentiated blood cells differentiate to specific cell types by randomness.", "This theory has been supported by experiments showing that within a population of mouse haematopoietic progenitor cells, underlying stochastic variability in the distribution of Sca-1, a stem cell factor, subdivides the population into groups exhibiting variable rates of cellular differentiation.", "For example, under the influence of erythropoietin (an erythrocyte-differentiation factor), a subpopulation of cells (as defined by the levels of Sca-1) differentiated into erythrocytes at a sevenfold higher rate than the rest of the population.", "Furthermore, it was shown that if allowed to grow, this subpopulation re-established the original subpopulation of cells, supporting the theory that this is a stochastic, reversible process.", "Another level at which stochasticity may be important is in the process of apoptosis and self-renewal.", "In this case, the haematopoietic microenvironment prevails upon some of the cells to survive and some, on the other hand, to perform apoptosis and die.", "By regulating this balance between different cell types, the bone marrow can alter the quantity of different cells to ultimately be produced.=== Growth factors ===Diagram including some of the important cytokines that determine which type of blood cell will be created.", "SCF= Stem cell factor; Tpo= Thrombopoietin; IL= Interleukin; GM-CSF= Granulocyte Macrophage-colony stimulating factor; Epo= Erythropoietin; M-CSF= Macrophage-colony stimulating factor; G-CSF= Granulocyte-colony stimulating factor; SDF-1= Stromal cell-derived factor-1; FLT-3 ligand= FMS-like tyrosine kinase 3 ligand; TNF-a = Tumour necrosis factor-alpha; TGFβ = Transforming growth factor beta|alt=Red and white blood cell production is regulated with great precision in healthy humans, and the production of leukocytes is rapidly increased during infection.", "The proliferation and self-renewal of these cells depend on growth factors.", "One of the key players in self-renewal and development of haematopoietic cells is stem cell factor (SCF), which binds to the c-kit receptor on the HSC.", "Absence of SCF is lethal.", "There are other important glycoprotein growth factors which regulate the proliferation and maturation, such as interleukins IL-2, IL-3, IL-6, IL-7.Other factors, termed colony-stimulating factors (CSFs), specifically stimulate the production of committed cells.", "Three CSFs are granulocyte-macrophage CSF (GM-CSF), granulocyte CSF (G-CSF) and macrophage CSF (M-CSF).", "These stimulate granulocyte formation and are active on either progenitor cells or end product cells.Erythropoietin is required for a myeloid progenitor cell to become an erythrocyte.", "On the other hand, thrombopoietin makes myeloid progenitor cells differentiate to megakaryocytes (thrombocyte-forming cells).", "The diagram to the right provides examples of cytokines and the differentiated blood cells they give rise to.===Transcription factors===Growth factors initiate signal transduction pathways, which lead to activation of transcription factors.", "Growth factors elicit different outcomes depending on the combination of factors and the cell's stage of differentiation.", "For example, long-term expression of PU.1 results in myeloid commitment, and short-term induction of PU.1 activity leads to the formation of immature eosinophils.", "Recently, it was reported that transcription factors such as NF-κB can be regulated by microRNAs (e.g., miR-125b) in haematopoiesis.The first key player of differentiation from HSC to a multipotent progenitor (MPP) is transcription factor CCAAT-enhancer binding protein α (C/EBPα).", "Mutations in C/EBPα are associated with acute myeloid leukaemia.", "From this point, cells can either differentiate along the Erythroid-megakaryocyte lineage or lymphoid and myeloid lineage, which have common progenitor, called lymphoid-primed multipotent progenitor.", "There are two main transcription factors.", "PU.1 for Erythroid-megakaryocyte lineage and GATA-1, which leads to a lymphoid-primed multipotent progenitor.Other transcription factors include Ikaros (B cell development), and Gfi1 (promotes Th2 development and inhibits Th1) or IRF8 (basophils and mast cells).", "Significantly, certain factors elicit different responses at different stages in the haematopoiesis.", "For example, CEBPα in neutrophil development or PU.1 in monocytes and dendritic cell development.", "It is important to note that processes are not unidirectional: differentiated cells may regain attributes of progenitor cells.An example is PAX5 factor, which is important in B cell development and associated with lymphomas.", "Surprisingly, pax5 conditional knock out mice allowed peripheral mature B cells to de-differentiate to early bone marrow progenitors.", "These findings show that transcription factors act as caretakers of differentiation level and not only as initiators.Mutations in transcription factors are tightly connected to blood cancers, as acute myeloid leukemia (AML) or acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL).", "For example, Ikaros is known to be regulator of numerous biological events.", "Mice with no Ikaros lack B cells, Natural killer and T cells.", "Ikaros has six zinc fingers domains, four are conserved DNA-binding domain and two are for dimerization.", "Very important finding is, that different zinc fingers are involved in binding to different place in DNA and this is the reason for pleiotropic effect of Ikaros and different involvement in cancer, but mainly are mutations associated with BCR-Abl patients and it is bad prognostic marker." ], [ "Other animals", "In some vertebrates, haematopoiesis can occur wherever there is a loose stroma of connective tissue and slow blood supply, such as the gut, spleen or kidney.Unlike eutherian mammals, the liver of newborn marsupials is actively haematopoietic." ], [ "See also", "* Clonal hematopoiesis* Erythropoiesis-stimulating agents* Haematopoietic stimulants:** Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor** Granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor* Leukocyte extravasation" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Hematopoietic cell lineage in KEGG* Hematopoiesis and bone marrow histology" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hogmanay" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hogmanay''' ( , ) is the Scots word for the last day of the old year and is synonymous with the celebration of the New Year in the Scottish manner.", "It is normally followed by further celebration on the morning of New Year's Day (1 January) and, in some cases, 2 January—a Scottish bank holiday.", "In a few contexts, the word Hogmanay is used more loosely to describe the entire period consisting of the last few days of the old year and the first few days of the new year.", "For instance, not all events held under the banner of Edinburgh's Hogmanay take place on 31 December.The origins of Hogmanay are unclear, but it may be derived from Norse and Gaelic observances of the winter solstice.", "Customs vary throughout Scotland and usually include gift-giving and visiting the homes of friends and neighbours, with particular attention given to the first-foot, the first guest of the new year." ], [ "Etymology", "The etymology of the word is obscure.", "The earliest proposed etymology comes from the 1693 ''Scotch Presbyterian Eloquence'', which held that the term was a corruption of a presumed () and that this meant \"holy month\".", "The three main modern theories derive it from a French, Norse or Gaelic root.The word is first recorded in a Latin entry in 1443 in the West Riding of Yorkshire as .", "The first appearance in Scots language came in 1604 in the records of Elgin, as ''hagmonay''.", "Subsequent 17th-century spellings include ''Hagmena'' (1677), ''Hogmynae night'' (1681), and ''Hagmane'' (1693) in an entry of the ''Scotch Presbyterian Eloquence''.Although ''Hogmanay'' is currently the predominant spelling and pronunciation, several variant spellings and pronunciations have been recorded, including:* * * * * (Roxburghshire)* * (Shetland)* * * (Shetland)* with the first syllable variously being , , , or .===Possible French etymologies===The term may have been introduced to Middle Scots via French.", "The most commonly cited explanation is a derivation from the northern French dialectal word , or variants such as , and , those being derived from 16th-century Middle French meaning either a gift given at New Year, a children's cry for such a gift, or New Year's Eve itself.", "The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' reports this theory, saying that the term is a borrowing of , a medieval French cry used to welcome the new year consisting of an unknown first element plus \"\" (\"the new year\").This explanation is supported by a children's tradition, observed up to the 1960s in parts of Scotland at least, of visiting houses in their locality on New Year's Eve and requesting and receiving small treats such as sweets or fruit.", "The second element would appear to be ('the New Year'), with sources suggesting a druidical origin of the practice overall.", "Compare those to Norman and the obsolete customs in Jersey of crying , and in Guernsey of asking for an , for a New Year gift (see also ).", "In Québec, was a door-to-door collection for people experiencing poverty.Compare also the apparent Spanish cognate /, with a suggested Latin derivation of \"in this year\".Other suggestions include (\"lead to the mistletoe\"), ('bring to the beggars'), ('at the mistletoe the new year', or ('(the) man is born').===Possible Goidelic etymologies===Fireworks in Scotland's capital city, Edinburgh, as part of the 2011 Hogmanay celebrations The word may have come from the Goidelic languages.", "Frazer and Kelley report a Manx new-year song that begins with the line ''To-night is New Year's Night, Hogunnaa'' but did not record the full text in Manx.", "Kelley himself uses the spelling whereas other sources parse this as and give the modern Manx form as ''Hob dy naa''.", "Manx dictionaries though give (), generally glossing it as \"Hallowe'en\", same as many of the more Manx-specific folklore collections.In this context, it is also recorded that in the south of Scotland (for example Roxburghshire), there is no , the word thus being ''Hunganay'', which could suggest the is intrusive.Another theory occasionally encountered is a derivation from the phrase (, \"I raised the cry\"), which resembles ''Hogmanay'' in pronunciation and was part of the rhymes traditionally recited at New Year but it is unclear if this is simply a case of folk etymology.Overall, Gaelic consistently refers to the New Year's Eve as (\"the Night of the New Year\") and (\"the Night of the Calends\").===Possible Norse etymologies===Other authors reject both the French and Goidelic theories and instead suggest that the ultimate source for this word's Norman French, Scots, and Goidelic variants have a common Norse root.", "It is suggested that the full forms* \"Hoginanaye-Trollalay/Hogman aye, Troll a lay\" (with a Manx cognate )* \"Hogmanay, Trollolay, give us of your white bread and none of your gray\"invoke the hill-men (Icelandic , compare Anglo-Saxon ) or \"elves\" and banishes the trolls into the sea (Norse 'into the sea').", "Repp furthermore links \"Trollalay/Trolla-laa\" and the rhyme recorded in ''Percy's Relics'': \"Trolle on away, trolle on awaye.", "Synge heave and howe rombelowe trolle on away\", which he reads as a straightforward invocation of troll-banning." ], [ "Origins", "It is speculated that the roots of Hogmanay may reach back to the celebration of the winter solstice among the Norse, as well as incorporating customs from the Gaelic celebration of Samhain.", "The Vikings celebrated Yule, which later contributed to the Twelve Days of Christmas, or the \"Daft Days\" as they were sometimes called in Scotland.", "Christmas was not celebrated as a festival, and Hogmanay was the more traditional celebration in Scotland.", "This may have been a result of the Protestant Reformation after which Christmas was seen as \"too Papist\".Hogmanay was also celebrated in the far north of England, down to and including Richmond in North Yorkshire.", "It was traditionally known as 'Hagmena' in Northumberland, 'Hogmina' in Cumberland, and 'Hagman-ha' or 'Hagman-heigh' in the North Riding of Yorkshire." ], [ "Customs", "There are many customs, both national and local, associated with Hogmanay.", "The most widespread national custom is the practice of first-footing, which starts immediately after midnight.", "This involves being the first person to cross the threshold of a friend or neighbour and often involves the giving of symbolic gifts such as salt (less common today), coal, shortbread, whisky, and black bun (a rich fruit cake), intended to bring different kinds of luck to the householder.", "Food and drink (as the gifts) are then given to the guests.", "This may go on throughout the early morning hours and into the next day (although modern days see people visiting houses well into the middle of January).", "The first-foot is supposed to set the luck for the rest of the year.", "Traditionally, tall, dark-haired men are preferred as the first-foot.===Local customs===Stonehaven Fireballs Ceremony 2003Catalan Sun Goddess from the Hogmanay Street Party, Edinburgh 2005An example of a local Hogmanay custom is the fireball swinging that takes place in Stonehaven, Aberdeenshire, in northeast Scotland.", "This involves local people making up \"balls\" of chicken wire filled with old newspaper, sticks, rags, and other dry flammable material up to a diameter of , each attached to about of wire, chain or nonflammable rope.", "As the Old Town House bell sounds to mark the new year, the balls are set alight, and the swingers set off up the High Street from the Mercat Cross to the Cannon and back, swinging the burning balls around their heads as they go.At the end of the ceremony, fireballs still burning are cast into the harbour.", "Many people enjoy this display, and large crowds flock to see it, with 12,000 attending the 2007/2008 event.", "In recent years, additional attractions have been added to entertain the crowds as they wait for midnight, such as fire poi, a pipe band, street drumming, and a firework display after the last fireball is cast into the sea.", "The festivities are now streamed live over the Internet.", "Another example of a fire festival is the burning the clavie in the town of Burghead in Moray.In the east coast fishing communities and Dundee, first-footers once carried a decorated herring.", "And in Falkland in Fife, local men marched in torchlight procession to the top of the Lomond Hills as midnight approached.", "Bakers in St Andrews baked special cakes for their Hogmanay celebration (known as \"Cake Day\") and distributed them to local children.Institutions also had their own traditions.", "For example, amongst the Scottish regiments, officers waited on the men at special dinners while at the bells, the Old Year is piped out of barrack gates.", "The sentry then challenges the new escort outside the gates: \"Who goes there?\"", "The answer is \"The New Year, all's well.", "\"An old custom in the Highlands is to celebrate Hogmanay with the ''saining'' (Scots for 'protecting, blessing') of the household and livestock.", "Early on New Year's morning, householders drink and then sprinkle 'magic water' from 'a dead and living ford' around the house (a 'dead and living ford' refers to a river ford that is routinely crossed by both the living and the dead).", "After the sprinkling of the water in every room, on the beds and all the inhabitants, the house is sealed up tight and branches of juniper are set on fire and carried throughout the house and byre.", "The juniper smoke is allowed to thoroughly fumigate the buildings until it causes sneezing and coughing among the inhabitants.", "Then, all the doors and windows are flung open to let in the cold, fresh air of the new year.", "The woman of the house then administers 'a restorative' from the whisky bottle, and the household sits down to its New Year breakfast.=== \"Auld Lang Syne\"===John Masey Wright and John Rogers' c. 1841 illustration of ''Auld Lang Syne''.The Hogmanay custom of singing \"Auld Lang Syne\" has become common in many countries.", "\"Auld Lang Syne\" is a Scots poem by Robert Burns, based on traditional and other earlier sources.", "It is common to sing this in a circle of linked arms crossed over one another as the clock strikes midnight for New Year's Day.", "However, it is only intended that participants link arms at the beginning of the final verse before rushing into the centre as a group." ], [ "In the media", "Between 1957 and 1968, a New Year's Eve television programme, ''The White Heather Club'', was presented to herald the Hogmanay celebrations.The show was presented by Andy Stewart, who always began by singing, \"Come in, come in, it's nice to see you....\" The show always ended with Stewart and the cast singing, \"Haste ye Back\":The performers were Jimmy Shand and band, Ian Powrie and his band, Scottish country dancers: Dixie Ingram and the Dixie Ingram Dancers, Joe Gordon Folk Four, James Urquhart, Ann & Laura Brand, Moira Anderson & Kenneth McKellar.", "All the male dancers and Andy Stewart wore kilts, and the female dancers wore long white dresses with tartan sashes.Following the demise of the ''White Heather Club'', Andy Stewart continued to feature regularly in TV Hogmanay shows until his retirement.", "His last appearance was in 1992.In the 1980s, comedian Andy Cameron presented the ''Hogmanay Show'' (on STV in 1983 and 1984 and from 1985 to 1990 on BBC Scotland) while Peter Morrison presented the show ''A Highland Hogmanay'' on STV/Grampian, axed in 1993.For many years, a staple of New Year's Eve television programming in Scotland was the comedy sketch show ''Scotch and Wry'', featuring the comedian Rikki Fulton, which invariably included a hilarious monologue from him as the gloomy Reverend I.M.", "Jolly.Since 1993, the programmes that have been mainstays on BBC Scotland on Hogmanay have been ''Hogmanay Live'' and Jonathan Watson's football-themed sketch comedy show, ''Only an Excuse?", "''." ], [ "Presbyterian influence", "The 1693 ''Scotch Presbyterian Eloquence'' contained one of the first mentions of the holiday in official church records.", "Hogmanay was treated with general disapproval.", "Still, in Scotland, Hogmanay and New Year's Day are as important as Christmas Eve and Christmas Day.Although Christmas Day held its normal religious nature in Scotland amongst its Catholic and Episcopalian communities, the Presbyterian national church, the Church of Scotland, discouraged the celebration of Christmas for nearly 400 years; it only became a public holiday in Scotland in 1958.Conversely, 1 and 2 January are public holidays, and Hogmanay is still associated with as much celebration as Christmas in Scotland.A Viking longship is burnt during Edinburgh's annual Hogmanay celebrations (though Edinburgh has no historical connection with those Norse who invaded Scotland)." ], [ "Major celebrations", "Hogmanay reveller piping in the New Year in Queen's Park, Glasgow - 31 December 2023As in much of the world, the largest Scottish cities – Glasgow, Edinburgh and Aberdeen – hold all-night celebrations, as do Stirling and Inverness.", "The Edinburgh Hogmanay celebrations are among the largest in the world.", "Celebrations in Edinburgh in 1996–97 were recognised by the ''Guinness Book of Records'' as the world's largest New Years party, with approximately 400,000 people in attendance.", "Numbers were then restricted due to safety concerns.In 2003-4, most organised events were cancelled at short notice due to very high winds.", "The Stonehaven Fireballs went ahead as planned, however, with 6,000 people braving the stormy weather to watch 42 fireball swingers process along the High Street.", "Similarly, the 2006–07 celebrations in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Stirling were all cancelled on the day, again due to high winds and heavy rain.", "The Aberdeen celebration, however, went ahead and was opened by pop music group Wet Wet Wet.Many Hogmanay festivities were cancelled in 2020–21 and 2021–22 due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Scotland." ], [ "Ne'erday", "Most Scots celebrate New Year's Day with a special dinner, usually steak pie." ], [ "Handsel Day", "Historically, presents were given in Scotland on the first Monday of the New Year.", "A roast dinner would be eaten to celebrate the festival.", "''Handsel'' was a word for gift and hence \"Handsel Day\".", "In modern Scotland, this practice has died out.The period of festivities running from Christmas to Handsel Monday, including Hogmanay and Ne'erday, is known as the Daft Days." ], [ "See also", "*Christmas in Scotland*''Calennig'', the last day of the year in Wales" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*''Observations on the Popular Antiquities of Great Britain'', Brand, London, 1859*''Dictiounnaire Angllais-Guernesiais'', de Garis, Chichester, 1982*''Dictionnaire Jersiais-Français'', Le Maistre, Jersey, 1966*''Dictionary of the Scots Language'', Edinburgh" ], [ "External links", "* Edinburgh's Hogmanay (official site)* Hogmanay.net* \" The Origins, History and Traditions of Hogmanay\", The British Newspaper Archive (31 December 2012)* Hogmanay traditional bonfire" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hamster" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hamsters''' are rodents (order Rodentia) belonging to the subfamily '''Cricetinae''', which contains 19 species classified in seven genera.", "They have become established as popular small pets.", "The best-known species of hamster is the golden or Syrian hamster (''Mesocricetus auratus''), which is the type most commonly kept as a pet.", "Other hamster species commonly kept as pets are the three species of dwarf hamster, Campbell's dwarf hamster (''Phodopus campbelli''), the winter white dwarf hamster (''Phodopus sungorus'') and the Roborovski hamster (''Phodopus roborovskii'').Hamsters are more crepuscular than nocturnal and, in the wild, remain underground during the day to avoid being caught by predators.", "They feed primarily on seeds, fruits, and vegetation, and will occasionally eat burrowing insects.", "Physically, they are stout-bodied with distinguishing features that include elongated cheek pouches extending to their shoulders, which they use to carry food back to their burrows, as well as a short tail and fur-covered feet." ], [ "Classification", "''P.", "sungorus''.", "The winter white dwarf hamsterA winter white dwarf hamster''P.", "roborovski.''", "The Roborovski hamster''P.", "campbelli''.", "The Campbell's dwarf hamsterTaxonomists generally disagree about the most appropriate placement of the subfamily Cricetinae within the superfamily Muroidea.", "Some place it in a family Cricetidae that also includes voles, lemmings, and New World rats and mice; others group all these into a large family called Muridae.", "Their evolutionary history is recorded by 15 extinct fossil genera and extends back 11.2 million to 16.4 million years to the Middle Miocene Epoch in Europe and North Africa; in Asia it extends 6 million to 11 million years.", "Four of the seven living genera include extinct species.", "One extinct hamster of ''Cricetus'', for example, lived in North Africa during the Middle Miocene, but the only extant member of that genus is the European or common hamster of Eurasia.", "*Subfamily '''Cricetinae'''**Genus ''Allocricetulus''***Species ''A.", "curtatus''—Mongolian hamster***Species ''A.", "eversmanni''—Eversmann's or Kazakh hamster**Genus ''Cansumys''***Species ''C.", "canus''—Gansu hamster**Genus ''Cricetulus''***Species ''C.", "alticola''—Tibetan dwarf or Ladak hamster***Species ''C.", "barabensis'', including \"''C.", "pseudogriseus''\" and \"''C.", "obscurus''\"—Chinese striped hamster, also called Chinese hamster; striped dwarf hamster***Species ''C.", "griseus''—Chinese (dwarf) hamster, also called rat hamster***Species ''C.", "kamensis''—Kam dwarf hamster or Tibetan hamster***Species ''C.", "longicaudatus''—long-tailed dwarf hamster***Species ''C.", "sokolovi''—Sokolov's dwarf hamster**Genus ''Cricetus''***Species ''C.", "cricetus''—European hamster, also called common hamster or black-bellied field hamster**Genus ''Mesocricetus''—golden hamsters***Species ''M.", "auratus''—golden or Syrian hamster***Species ''M.", "brandti''—Turkish hamster, also called Brandt's hamster; Azerbaijani hamster***Species ''M.", "newtoni''—Romanian hamster***Species ''M.", "raddei''—Ciscaucasian hamster**Genus ''Nothocricetulus'' - grey dwarf hamster***Species ''N.", "migratorius''—grey dwarf hamster, Armenian hamster, migratory grey hamster; grey hamster; migratory hamster**Genus ''Phodopus''—dwarf hamsters***Species ''P.", "campbelli''—Campbell's dwarf hamster***Species ''P.", "roborovskii''—Roborovski hamster***Species ''P.", "sungorus''—Djungarian hamster or winter-white Russian dwarf hamster**Genus ''Tscherskia''***Species ''T.", "triton''—greater long-tailed hamster, also called Korean hamster===Relationships among hamster species===Hamster cladesNeumann ''et al.''", "(2006) conducted a molecular phylogenetic analysis of 12 of the above 17 species using DNA sequence from three genes: 12S rRNA, cytochrome b, and von Willebrand factor.", "They uncovered the following relationships:====''Phodopus'' group====The genus ''Phodopus'' was found to represent the earliest split among hamsters.", "Their analysis included both species.", "The results of another study suggest ''Cricetulus kamensis'' (and presumably the related ''C.", "alticola'') might belong to either this ''Phodopus'' group or hold a similar basal position.====''Mesocricetus'' group====The genus ''Mesocricetus'' also forms a clade.", "Their analysis included all four species, with ''M.", "auratus'' and ''M.", "raddei'' forming one subclade and ''M.", "brandti'' and ''M.", "newtoni'' another.====Remaining genera====The remaining genera of hamsters formed a third major clade.", "Two of the three sampled species within ''Cricetulus'' represent the earliest split.", "This clade contains ''C.", "barabensis'' (and presumably the related ''C.", "sokolovi'') and ''C.", "longicaudatus''.====Miscellaneous====The remaining clade contains members of ''Allocricetulus'', ''Tscherskia'', ''Cricetus'', and ''C.", "migratorius''.", "''Allocricetulus'' and ''Cricetus'' were sister taxa.", "''Cricetulus migratorius'' was their next closest relative, and ''Tscherskia'' was basal." ], [ "History", "Although the Syrian hamster or golden hamster (''Mesocricetus auratus'') was first described scientifically by George Robert Waterhouse in 1839, researchers were not able to successfully breed and domesticate hamsters until 1939.The entire laboratory and pet populations of Syrian hamsters appear to be descendants of a single brother–sister pairing.", "These littermates were captured and imported in 1930 from Aleppo in Syria by Israel Aharoni, a zoologist of the University of Jerusalem.", "In Jerusalem, the hamsters bred very successfully.", "Years later, animals of this original breeding colony were exported to the United States, where Syrian hamsters became a common pet and laboratory animal.", "Comparative studies of domestic and wild Syrian hamsters have shown reduced genetic variability in the domestic strain.", "However, the differences in behavioral, chronobiological, morphometrical, hematological, and biochemical parameters are relatively small and fall into the expected range of interstrain variations in other laboratory animals." ], [ "Etymology", "The name \"hamster\" is a loanword from the German, which itself derives from earlier Middle High German .", "It is possibly related to Old Church Slavonic , which is either a blend of the root of Russian () \"hamster\" and a Baltic word (cf.", "\"hamster\"); or of Persian origin (cf.", "Avestan: \"oppressor\").", "The collective noun for a group of hamsters is \"horde\".", "In German, the verb is derived from .", "It means \"to hoard\"." ], [ "Description", "Skeleton of European hamsterHamsters are typically stout-bodied, with tails shorter than body length, and have small, furry ears, short, stocky legs, and wide feet.", "They have thick, silky fur, which can be long or short, colored black, grey, honey, white, brown, yellow, red, or a mix, depending on the species.", "Two species of hamster belonging to the genus ''Phodopus'', Campbell's dwarf hamster (''P.", "campbelli'') and the Djungarian hamster (''P.", "sungorus''), and two of the genus ''Cricetulus'', the Chinese striped hamster (''C.", "barabensis'') and the Chinese hamster (''C.", "griseus'') have a dark stripe down their heads to their tails.", "The species of genus ''Phodopus'' are the smallest, with bodies long; the largest is the European hamster (''Cricetus cricetus''), measuring up to long, not including a short tail of up to .The hamster tail can be difficult to see, as it is usually not very long (about the length of the body), with the exception of the Chinese hamster, which has a tail the same length as the body.", "One rodent characteristic that can be highly visible in hamsters is their sharp incisors; they have an upper pair and lower pair which grow continuously throughout life, so must be regularly worn down.", "Hamsters are very flexible, but their bones are somewhat fragile.", "They are extremely susceptible to rapid temperature changes and drafts, as well as extreme heat or cold.===Senses===Hamsters have poor eyesight; they are nearsighted and colorblind.", "Their eyesight leads to them not having a good sense of distance or knowing where they are, but that does not stop them from climbing in (and sometimes out of) their cages or from being adventurous.", "Hamsters can sense movement around at all times, which helps protect them from harm in the wild.", "In a household, this sense helps them know when their owner is near.", "Hamsters have scent glands on their flanks (and abdomens in Chinese and dwarf hamsters) which they rub against the surface beneath them, leaving a scent trail.", "Hamsters also use their sense of smell to distinguish between the sexes and to locate food.", "Mother hamsters can also use their sense of smell to find their own babies and identify which ones are not theirs.", "Their scent glands can also be used to mark their territories, their babies, or their mate.", "Hamsters catch sounds by having their ears upright.", "They tend to learn similar noises and begin to know the sound of their food and even their owner's voice.", "They are also particularly sensitive to high-pitched noises and can hear and communicate in the ultrasonic range.===Diet===Hamsters are omnivores, which means they can eat meat and vegetables.", "Hamsters that live in the wild eat seeds, grass, and even insects.", "Although pet hamsters can survive on a diet of exclusively commercial hamster food, other items, such as vegetables, fruits, seeds, and nuts, can be given.", "Although store-bought food is good for hamsters, it is best if fruits and vegetables are also in their diet because it keeps them healthier.", "Even though hamsters are allowed to have both fruits and vegetables, it is important to understand exactly which ones they can have and how much.", "Hamsters do best with fruits that do not have citrus in them and most green leafy vegetables.", "Hamsters should never be fed junk food, chocolate, garlic, or any salty/sugary foods.", "Hamsters tend to love peanut butter but it is important to feed it to them carefully because this sticky food can get stuck in their cheeks.", "Hamsters in the Middle East have been known to hunt in packs to find insects for food.", "Hamsters are hindgut fermenters and often eat their own feces (coprophagy) to recover nutrients digested in the hind-gut, but not absorbed." ], [ "Behavior", "Pet Syrian hamster examines a banana===Feeding===A behavioral characteristic of hamsters is food hoarding.", "They carry food in their spacious cheek pouches to their underground storage chambers.", "When full, the cheeks can make their heads double, or even triple in size.", "Hamsters lose weight during the autumn months in anticipation of winter.", "This occurs even when hamsters are kept as pets and is related to an increase in exercise.===Social behavior===Hamsters fightingMost hamsters are strictly solitary.", "If housed together, acute and chronic stress might occur, and they might fight fiercely, sometimes fatally.", "Dwarf hamster species might tolerate siblings or same-gender unrelated hamsters if introduced at an early enough age, but this cannot be guaranteed.", "Hamsters communicate through body language to one another and even to their owner.", "They communicate by sending a specific scent using their scent glands and also show body language to express how they are feeling.===Chronobiology===Hamsters can be described as nocturnal or crepuscular (active mostly at dawn and dusk).", "Khunen writes, \"Hamsters are nocturnal rodents who are active during the night\", but others have written that because hamsters live underground during most of the day, only leaving their burrows for about an hour before sundown and then returning when it gets dark, their behavior is primarily crepuscular.", "Fritzsche indicated although some species have been observed to show more nocturnal activity than others, they are all primarily crepuscular.In the wild Syrian hamsters can hibernate and allow their body temperature to fall close to ambient temperature.", "This kind of thermoregulation diminishes the metabolic rate to about 5% and helps the animal to considerably reduce the need for food during the winter.", "Hibernation can last up to one week but more commonly last 2–3 days.", "When kept as house pets the Syrian hamster does not hibernate.===Burrowing behavior===All hamsters are excellent diggers, constructing burrows with one or more entrances, with galleries connected to chambers for nesting, food storage, and other activities.", "They use their fore- and hindlegs, as well as their snouts and teeth, for digging.", "In the wild, the burrow buffers extreme ambient temperatures, offers relatively stable climatic conditions, and protects against predators.", "Syrian hamsters dig their burrows generally at a depth of .", "A burrow includes a steep entrance pipe ( in diameter), a nesting and a hoarding chamber and a blind-ending branch for urination.", "Laboratory hamsters have not lost their ability to dig burrows; in fact, they will do this with great vigor and skill if they are provided with the appropriate substrate.Wild hamsters will also appropriate tunnels made by other mammals; the Djungarian hamster, for instance, uses paths and burrows of the pika." ], [ "Reproduction", "A mother Syrian hamster with pups less than one week old===Fertility===Hamsters become fertile at different ages depending on their species.", "Both Syrian and Russian hamsters mature quickly and can begin reproducing at a young age (4–5 weeks), whereas Chinese hamsters will usually begin reproducing at two to three months of age, and Roborovskis at three to four months of age.", "The female's reproductive life lasts about 18 months, but male hamsters remain fertile much longer.", "Females are in estrus about every four days, which is indicated by a reddening of genital areas, a musky smell, and a hissing, squeaking vocalisation she will emit if she believes a male is nearby.When seen from above, a sexually mature female hamster has a trim tail line; a male's tail line bulges on both sides.", "This might not be very visible in all species.", "Male hamsters typically have very large testes in relation to their body size.", "Before sexual maturity occurs, it is more difficult to determine a young hamster's sex.", "When examined, female hamsters have their anal and genital openings close together, whereas males have these two holes farther apart (the penis is usually withdrawn into the coat and thus appears as a hole or pink pimple).===Gestation and fecundity===Syrian hamsters are seasonal breeders and will produce several litters a year with several pups in each litter.", "The breeding season is from April to October in the Northern Hemisphere, with two to five litters of one to 13 young being born after a gestation period of 16 to 23 days.", "Dwarf hamsters breed all through the year.", "Gestation lasts 16 to 18 days for Syrian hamsters, 18 to 21 days for Russian hamsters, 21 to 23 days for Chinese hamsters and 23 to 30 for Roborovski hamsters.", "The average litter size for Syrian hamsters is about seven pups, but can be as great as 24, which is the maximum number of pups that can be contained in the uterus.", "Campbell's dwarf hamsters tend to have four to eight pups in a litter, but can have up to 13.Winter white hamsters tend to have slightly smaller litters, as do Chinese and Roborovski hamsters.===Intersexual aggression and cannibalism===Female Chinese and Syrian hamsters are known for being aggressive toward males if kept together for too long after mating.", "In some cases, male hamsters can die after being attacked by a female.", "If breeding hamsters, separation of the pair after mating is recommended, or they will attack each other.Female hamsters are also particularly sensitive to disturbances while giving birth, and may even eat their own young if they think they are in danger, although sometimes they are just carrying the pups in their cheek pouches.", "If captive female hamsters are left for extended periods (three weeks or more) with their litter, they may cannibalize the litter, so the litter must be removed by the time the young can feed and drink independently.===Weaning===An adult female and several juvenile dwarf hamsters (''Phodopus sungorus'') feedingHamsters are born hairless and blind in a nest the mother will have prepared in advance.", "After one week, they begin to explore outside the nest.", "Hamsters are capable of producing litters every month.", "Hamsters can be bred after they are three weeks old.", "It may be hard for the babies to not rely on their mother for nursing during this time, so it is important that they are supplied with food to make the transition from nursing to eating on their own easier.", "After the hamsters reach three weeks of age they are considered mature.===Longevity===Syrian hamsters typically live no more than two to three years in captivity, and less in the wild.", "Russian hamsters (Campbell's and Djungarian) live about two to four years in captivity, and Chinese hamsters –3 years.", "The smaller Roborovski hamster often lives to three years in captivity." ], [ "Society and culture", "===Hamsters as pets===Syrian hamster (''Mesocricetus autatus)'' standing in exercise wheelThe best-known species of hamster is the golden or Syrian hamster (''Mesocricetus auratus''), which is the type most commonly kept as pets.", "There are numerous Syrian hamster variations including long-haired varieties and different colors.", "British zoologist Leonard Goodwin claimed most hamsters kept in the United Kingdom were descended from the colony he introduced for medical research purposes during the Second World War.", "Hamsters were domesticated and kept as pets in the United States at least as early as 1942.A spacious hamster cage made from a display cabinetOther hamsters commonly kept as pets are the three species of dwarf hamster.", "Campbell's dwarf hamster (''Phodopus campbelli'') is the most common—they are also sometimes called \"Russian dwarfs\"; however, many hamsters are from Russia, so this ambiguous name does not distinguish them from other species appropriately.", "The coat of the winter white dwarf hamster (''Phodopus sungorus'') turns almost white during winter (when the hours of daylight decrease).", "The Roborovski hamster (''Phodopus roborovskii'') is extremely small and fast, making it difficult to keep as a pet.===Hamster shows===A hamster show is an event in which people gather hamsters to judge them against each other.", "Hamster shows are also places where people share their enthusiasm for hamsters among attendees.", "Hamster shows feature an exhibition of the hamsters participating in the judging.The judging of hamsters usually includes a goal of promoting hamsters which conform to natural or established varieties of hamsters.", "By awarding hamsters which match standard hamster types, hamster shows encourage planned and careful hamster breeding.===Owner activism===When the first reported case of animal-to-human transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in Hong Kong took place via imported pet hamsters, researchers expressed difficulty in identifying some of the viral mutations within a global genomic data bank, leading city authorities to announce a mass cull of all hamsters purchased after December 22, 2021, which would affect roughly 2,000 animals.", "After the government 'strongly encouraged' citizens to turn in their pets, approximately 3,000 people joined underground activities to promote the adoption of abandoned hamsters throughout the city and to maintain pet ownership via methods such as the forgery of pet store purchase receipts.", "Some activists attempted to intercept owners who were on their way to turn in pet hamsters and encourage them to choose adoption instead, which the government subsequently warned would be subject to police action.===Hamsters as lab animals===The extracted cells of babies' kidneys and adults' ovaries are used to study cholesterol synthesis." ], [ "Similar animals", "Some similar rodents sometimes called \"hamsters\" are not currently classified in the hamster subfamily Cricetinae.", "These include the maned hamster, or crested hamster, which is really the maned rat (''Lophiomys imhausi'').", "Others are the mouse-like hamsters (''Calomyscus'' spp.", "), and the white-tailed rat (''Mystromys albicaudatus'')." ], [ "See also", "* Hamster cage* Hamster show* Hamster wheel* Hamster ball* Chinchilla* ''Ebichu''* Gerbil* Guinea pig* Hampster Dance* Hamster racing* ''Hamtaro''* Rat* Wet-tail" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* National Hamster Council (UK)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of Finland" ], [ "Introduction", "Homann's map of the Scandinavian Peninsula and Fennoscandia with their surrounding territories: northern Germany, northern Poland, the Baltic region, Livonia, Belarus, and parts of Northwest Russia.", "Johann Baptist Homann (1664–1724) was a German geographer and cartographer; map dated around 1730.The '''history of Finland''' begins around 9,000 BC during the end of the last glacial period.", "Stone Age cultures were Kunda, Comb Ceramic, Corded Ware, Kiukainen, and .", "The Finnish Bronze Age started in approximately 1,500 BC and the Iron Age started in 500 BC and lasted until 1,300 AD.", "Finnish Iron Age cultures can be separated into Finnish proper, Tavastian and Karelian cultures.", "The earliest written sources mentioning Finland start to appear from the 12th century onwards when the Catholic Church started to gain a foothold in Southwest Finland.Due to the Northern Crusades and Swedish colonisation of some Finnish coastal areas, most of the region became a part of the Kingdom of Sweden and the realm of the Catholic Church from the 13th century onwards.", "After the Finnish War in 1809, Finland was ceded to the Russian Empire, making this area the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland.", "The Lutheran religion dominated.", "Finnish nationalism emerged in the 19th century.", "It focused on Finnish cultural traditions, folklore, and mythology, including music and—especially—the highly distinctive language and lyrics associated with it.", "One product of this era was the ''Kalevala'', one of the most significant works of Finnish literature.", "The catastrophic Finnish famine of 1866–1868 was followed by eased economic regulations and extensive emigration.In 1917, Finland declared independence.", "A civil war between the Finnish Red Guards and the White Guard ensued a few months later, with the Whites gaining the upper hand during the springtime of 1918.After the internal affairs stabilized, the still mainly agrarian economy grew relatively quickly.", "Relations with the West, especially Sweden and Britain, were strong but tensions remained with the Soviet Union.", "During World War II, Finland fought twice against the Soviet Union, first defending its independence in the Winter War and then invading the Soviet Union in the Continuation War.", "In the peace settlement Finland ended up ceding a large part of Karelia and some other areas to the Soviet Union.", "However, Finland remained an independent democracy in Northern Europe.In the latter half of its independent history, Finland has maintained a mixed economy.", "Since its post–World War II economic boom in the 1970s, Finland's GDP per capita has been among the world's highest.", "The expanded welfare state of Finland from 1970 and 1990 increased the public sector employees and spending and the tax burden imposed on the citizens.", "In 1992, Finland simultaneously faced economic overheating and depressed Western, Russian, and local markets.", "Finland joined the European Union in 1995, and replaced the Finnish markka with the euro in 2002.According to a 2016 poll, 61% of Finns preferred not to join NATO.", "Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the numbers had shifted significantly, with 62% in favour of Finland joining NATO and 16% against.", "Finland started to pursue membership in the alliance and eventually joined NATO on 4 April 2023.ImageSize = width:260 height:350PlotArea = width: 25 height:330 left:50 bottom:10DateFormat = yyyyPeriod = from:700 till:2012TimeAxis = orientation:verticalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:100 start:1100PlotData= color:blue width:25 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S shift:(25,0) # shift texts up or down manually to avoid overlap from:start till:1250 shift:(,0) text:Prehistoric Finland from:1250 till:1809 shift:(,0) text:Swedish rule c.1250–1809 from:1809 till:1917 shift:(,-5) text:Grand Duchy of Finland 1809–1917 from:1917 till:1995 shift:(,-5) text:Republic of Finland 1917– from:1995 till:2012 shift:(,-5) text:European Union member state 1995–" ], [ "Stone Age", "Ancylus Lake covered major part of Finland (7,500–6,000 BC)Stone Age stone axe engraved with human face found from Kiuruvesi.===Paleolithic===If confirmed, the oldest archeological site in Finland would be the Wolf Cave in Kristinestad, in Ostrobothnia.", "The site would be the only pre-glacial (Neanderthal) site so far discovered in the Nordic countries, and it is approximately 125,000 years old.===Mesolithic===Pieces of the Antrea Net (8,300 BC), the oldest-known fishing net in the world.The last ice age in the area of the modern-day Finland ended c. 9000 BC.", "Starting about that time, people migrated to the area of Finland from the south and southeast.", "Their culture represented a mixture of Kunda, , and .", "At the same time, northern Finland was inhabited via the coast of Norway.", "The oldest confirmed evidence of post-glacial human settlements in Finland is from the area of Ristola in Lahti and from Orimattila, from c. 8900 BC.", "Finland has been continuously inhabited at least since the end of the last ice age up to the present.", "The earliest post-glacial inhabitants of the present-day area of Finland were probably mainly seasonal hunter-gatherers.", "Among finds is the net of Antrea, the oldest fishing net known ever to have been excavated (calibrated carbon dating: ca.", "8300 BC).===Neolithic===By 5300 BC, pottery was present in Finland.", "The earliest samples belong to the Comb Ceramic cultures, known for their distinctive decorating patterns.", "This marks the beginning of the neolithic period for Finland, although subsistence was still based on hunting and fishing.", "Extensive networks of exchange existed across Finland and northeastern Europe during the 5th millennium BC.", "For example, flint from Scandinavia and the Valdai Hills, amber from Scandinavia and the Baltic region, and slate from Scandinavia and Lake Onega found their way into Finnish archaeological sites, while asbestos and soap stone from Finland (e.g.", "the area of Saimaa) were found in other regions.", "Rock paintings—apparently related to shamanistic and totemistic belief systems—have been found, especially in Eastern Finland, e.g.", "Astuvansalmi.Kastelli Giant's Church in by Between 3500 and 2000 BC, monumental stone enclosures, colloquially known as Giant's Churches (), were constructed in the Ostrobothnia region.", "The purpose of the enclosures is unknown.In recent years, a dig at the Kierikki site north of Oulu on the River Ii has changed the image of Finnish neolithic Stone Age culture.", "The site had been inhabited year-round and its inhabitants traded extensively.", "Kierikki culture is also seen as a subtype of Comb Ceramic culture.", "More of the site is excavated annually.From 3200 BC onwards, either immigrants or a strong cultural influence from south of the Gulf of Finland settled in southwestern Finland.", "This culture was a part of the European Battle Axe cultures, which have often been associated with the movement of the Indo-European speakers.", "The Battle Axe, or Cord Ceramic, culture seems to have practiced agriculture and animal husbandry outside of Finland, but the earliest confirmed traces of agriculture in Finland date later, approximately to the 2nd millennium BC.", "Further inland, societies retained their hunting-gathering lifestyles for the time being.The Battle Axe and Comb Ceramic cultures eventually merged, giving rise to the Kiukainen culture that existed between 2300 BC and 1500 BC, and was fundamentally a comb ceramic tradition with cord ceramic characteristics." ], [ "Bronze Age", "The Bronze Age began some time after 1500 BC.", "The coastal regions of Finland were a part of the Nordic Bronze Culture, whereas in the inland regions the influences came from the bronze-using cultures of northern and eastern Russia." ], [ "Iron Age", "The Iron Age in Finland is considered to have lasted from c. 500 BC until c. 1300 AD.", "Written records of Finland become more common due to the Northern Crusades led by the Catholic Church in the 12th and 13th centuries.", "As the Finnish Iron Age lasted almost two millennia, it is further divided into six sub-periods:*Pre-Roman period: 500 BC – 1 BC*Roman period: 1 AD – 400 AD*Migration period: 400 AD – 575 AD*Merovingian period: 575 AD – 800 AD*Viking age period: 800 AD – 1025 AD*Crusade period: 1033 AD – 1300 ADVery few written records of Finland or its people remain in any language of the era.", "Written sources are of foreign origin and include Tacitus's description of ''Fenni'' in his work ''Germania'', runestones, the sagas written down by Snorri Sturluson, as well as the 12th- and 13th-century ecclesiastical letters by the Pope.", "Numerous other sources from the Roman period onwards contain brief mentions of ancient Finnish kings and place names, as such defining Finland as a kingdom and noting the culture of its people.The oldest surviving mention of the word ''Suomi'' (Finland in Finnish) is in the annals of the Frankish Empire written between 741 and 829.At 811, annals mention a person named Suomi in connection with a peace agreement.", "The name Suomi as the name of Finland is nowadays used in Finnic languages, Sámi, Latvian, Lithuanian and Scottish Gaelic.Currently the oldest known Scandinavian documents mentioning Finland are two runestones: Söderby, Sweden, with the inscription (U 582), and Gotland with the inscription (G 319) dating from the 11th century.", "However, as the long continuum of the Finnish Iron Age into the historical Medieval period of Europe suggests, the primary source of information of the era in Finland is based on archaeological findings and modern applications of natural scientific methods like those of DNA analysis or computer linguistics.Production of iron during the Finnish Iron Age was adopted from the neighboring cultures in the east, west and south about the same time as the first imported iron artifacts appear.", "This happened almost simultaneously in various parts of the country.===Pre-Roman period: 500 BC – 1 BC===The Pre-Roman period of the Finnish Iron Age is scarcest in findings, but the known ones suggest that cultural connections to other Baltic cultures were already established.", "The archeological findings of Pernå and Savukoski provides proof of this argument.", "Many of the era's dwelling sites are the same as those of the Neolithic.", "Most of the iron of the era was produced on site.===Roman period: 1 AD – 400 AD===The Roman period brought along an influx of imported iron (and other) artifacts like Roman wine glasses and dippers as well as various coins of the Empire.", "During this period the (proto) Finnish culture stabilized on the coastal regions and larger graveyards become commonplace.", "The prosperity of the Finns rose to the level that the vast majority of gold treasures found within Finland date back to this period.===Migration period: 400 AD – 575 AD===The Migration period saw the expansion of land cultivation inland, especially in Southern Bothnia, and the growing influence of Germanic cultures, both in artifacts like swords and other weapons and in burial customs.", "However most iron as well as its forging was of domestic origin, probably from bog iron.===Merovingian period: 575 AD – 800 AD===The Merovingian period in Finland gave rise to a distinctive fine crafts culture of its own, visible in the original decorations of domestically produced weapons and jewelry.", "The finest luxury weapons, however, were imported from Western Europe.", "The very first Christian burials are from the latter part of this era as well.", "In the Leväluhta burial findings, the average height of a man was originally thought to be just 158 cm and that of a woman 147 cm, but recent research has corrected these numbers upwards and has confirmed that the people buried in Leväluhta were of average height for that era in Europe.Recent findings suggest that Finnish trade connections became more active during the 8th century, bringing an influx of silver onto Finnish markets.", "The opening of the eastern route to Constantinople via Finland's southern coastline archipelago brought Arabic and Byzantine artifacts into the excavation findings of the era.The earliest findings of imported iron blades and local iron working appear in 500 BC.", "From about 50 AD, there are indications of a more intense long-distance exchange of goods in coastal Finland.", "Inhabitants exchanged their products, presumably mostly furs, for weapons and ornaments with the Balts and the Scandinavians, as well as with the peoples along the traditional eastern trade routes.", "The existence of richly furnished burials, usually with weapons, suggests that there was a chiefly elite in the southern and western parts of the country.", "Hillforts spread over most of southern Finland at the end of the Iron and early Medieval Ages.", "There is no commonly accepted evidence of early state formations in Finland, and the presumably Iron Age origins of urbanization are contested.===Chronology of languages in Finland===Stone Age dwelling named Kierikki 5000–3000 BCThe question of the timelines for the evolution and the spreading of the current Finnic languages is controversial, and new theories challenging older ones have been introduced continuously.It was for a long time widely believed that Finno-Ugric (the western branch of the Uralic) languages were first spoken in Finland and the adjacent areas during the Comb Ceramic period, around 4000 BC at the latest.", "During the 2nd millennium BC these evolved—possibly under an Indo-European (most likely Baltic) influence—into proto-Sami (inland) and Proto-Finnic (coastland).", "In contrast, A. Aikio and J. Häkkinen propose that the Finno-Ugric languages arrived in the Gulf of Finland area during the Late Bronze Age.", "Valter Lang has proposed that the Finnic and Saami languages arrived there in the early Bronze Age, possibly connected to the Seima-Turbino phenomenon.", "This would also imply that Finno-Ugric languages in Finland were preceded by a Northwestern Indo-European language, at least to the extent the latter can be associated with the Cord Ceramic culture, as well as by hitherto unknown Paleo-European languages.", "The center of expansion for the Proto-Finnic language is posited to have been located on the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland.", "The Finnish language is thought to have started to differentiate during the Iron Age starting from the earliest centuries of the Common Era.Cultural influences from a variety of places are visible in the Finnish archaeological finds from the very first settlements onwards.", "For example, archaeological finds from Finnish Lapland suggest the presence of the Komsa culture from Norway.", "The Sujala finds, which are equal in age with the earliest Komsa artifacts, may also suggest a connection to the Swiderian culture.", "Southwestern Finland belonged to the Nordic Bronze Age, which may be associated with Indo-European languages, and according to Finnish Germanist Jorma Koivulehto speakers of Proto-Germanic language in particular.", "Artifacts found in Kalanti and the province of Satakunta, which have long been monolingually Finnish, and their place names have made several scholars argue for an existence of a proto-Germanic speaking population component a little later, during the Early and Middle Iron Age.The Swedish colonisation of the Åland Islands, Turku archipelago and Uusimaa could possibly have started in the 12th century but reached its height in the 13th and 14th centuries, when it also affected the Eastern Uusimaa and Pohjanmaa regions.", "The oldest Swedish place names in Finland are from this period as well as the Swedish-speaking population of Finland." ], [ "Finland under Swedish rule", "===Middle Ages===Northern Europe in 814The runestone Gs 13 documents an early 11th-century Swedish Viking who died in Finland.Pekka Halonen's painting \"against persecutors\" from 1896 depicts the warfare of the ancient Finns.Imagery collage of Birger Jarl conquering Häme and the construction of Häme CastleContact between Sweden and what is now Finland was considerable even during pre-Christian times; the Vikings were known to the Finns due to their participation in both commerce and plundering.", "There is possible evidence of Viking settlement in the Finnish mainland.", "The Åland Islands probably had Swedish settlement during the Viking Period.", "However, some scholars claim that the archipelago was deserted during the 11th century.According to the archaeological finds, Christianity gained a foothold in Finland during the 11th century.", "According to the very few written documents that have survived, the church in Finland was still in its early development in the 12th century.", "Later medieval legends from late 13th century describe Swedish attempts to conquer and Christianize Finland sometime in the mid-1150s.In the early 13th century, Bishop Thomas became the first known bishop of Finland.", "There were several secular powers who aimed to bring the Finnish tribes under their rule.", "These were Sweden, Denmark, the Republic of Novgorod in northwestern Russia, and probably the German crusading orders as well.", "Finns had their own chiefs, but most probably no central authority.", "At the time there can be seen three cultural areas or tribes in Finland: Finns, Tavastians and Karelians.", "Russian chronicles indicate there were several conflicts between Novgorod and the Finnic tribes from the 11th or 12th century to the early 13th century.Painting of Lalli killing Henry.", "Painting by C. A. Ekman.It was the Swedish regent, Birger Jarl, who allegedly established Swedish rule in Finland through the Second Swedish Crusade, most often dated to 1249.The Eric Chronicle, the only source narrating the crusade, describes that it was aimed at Tavastians.", "A papal letter from 1237 states that the Tavastians had reverted from Christianity to their old ethnic faith.Novgorod gained control in Karelia in 1278, the region inhabited by speakers of Eastern Finnish dialects.", "Sweden however gained the control of Western Karelia with the Third Swedish Crusade in 1293.Western Karelians were from then on viewed as part of the western cultural sphere, while eastern Karelians turned culturally to Russia and Orthodoxy.", "While eastern Karelians remain linguistically and ethnically closely related to the Finns, they are generally considered a separate people.", "Thus, the northern part of the border between Catholic and Orthodox Christendom came to lie at the eastern border of what would become Finland with the Treaty of Nöteborg with Novgorod in 1323.During the 13th century, Finland was integrated into medieval European civilization.", "The Dominican order arrived in Finland around 1249 and came to exercise great influence there.", "In the early 14th century, the first records of Finnish students at the Sorbonne appear.", "In the southwestern part of the country, an urban settlement evolved in Turku.", "Turku was one of the biggest towns in the Kingdom of Sweden, and its population included German merchants and craftsmen.", "Otherwise the degree of urbanization was very low in medieval Finland.", "Southern Finland and the long coastal zone of the Gulf of Bothnia had sparse farming settlements, organized as parishes and castellanies.", "In the other parts of the country a small population of Sami hunters, fishermen, and small-scale farmers lived.", "These were exploited by the Finnish and Karelian tax collectors.", "During the 12th and 13th centuries, great numbers of Swedish settlers moved to the southern and northwestern coasts of Finland, to the Åland Islands, and to the archipelago between Turku and the Åland Islands.", "In these regions, the Swedish language is widely spoken even today.", "Swedish came to be the language of the upper class in many other parts of Finland as well.The name ''Finland'' originally signified only the southwestern province, which has been known as Finland Proper since the 18th century.", "The first known mention of Finland is in runestone Gs 13 from the 11th century.", "The original Swedish term for the realm's eastern part was ('Eastern Lands'), a plural, meaning the area of Finland Proper, Tavastia, and Karelia.", "This was later replaced by the singular form Österland, which was in use between 1350 and 1470.In the 15th century Finland began to be used synonymously with Österland.", "The concept of a Finnish country in the modern sense developed slowly from the 15th to 18th centuries.Saint Henry, on the right side of him is Bishop Konrad Bitz and on the left is Dean Magnus Stjernkors; from ''Missale Aboense'' (1488)A reconstruction of a 12th-century Perniö costumeDuring the 13th century, the bishopric of Turku was established.", "Turku Cathedral was the center of the cult of Saint Henry of Uppsala, and naturally the cultural center of the bishopric.", "The bishop had ecclesiastical authority over much of today's Finland, and was usually the most powerful man there.", "Bishops were often Finns, whereas the commanders of castles were more often Scandinavian or German noblemen.", "In 1362, representatives from Finland were called to participate in the elections for the king of Sweden.", "As such, that year is often considered when Finland was incorporated into the Kingdom of Sweden.", "As in the Scandinavian part of the kingdom, the gentry or (lower) nobility consisted of magnates and yeomen who could afford armament for a man and a horse; these were concentrated in the southern part of Finland.The strong fortress of Viborg (Finnish: , Russian: ) guarded the eastern border of Finland.", "Sweden and Novgorod signed the Treaty of Nöteborg ( in Finnish) in 1323, but that did not last long.", "In 1348 the Swedish king Magnus Eriksson staged a failed crusade against Orthodox \"heretics\", managing only to alienate his supporters and ultimately lose his crown.", "The bones of contention between Sweden and Novgorod were the northern coastline of the Gulf of Bothnia and the wilderness regions of Savo in Eastern Finland.", "Novgorod considered these as hunting and fishing grounds of its Karelian subjects, and protested against the slow infiltration of Catholic settlers from the West.", "Occasional raids and clashes between Swedes and Novgorodians occurred during the late 14th and 15th centuries, but for most of the time an uneasy peace prevailed.Kalmar Union in 1400sDuring the 1380s, a civil war in the Scandinavian part of Sweden brought unrest to Finland as well.", "The victor of this struggle was Queen Margaret I of Denmark, who brought the three Scandinavian kingdoms of Sweden, Denmark and, Norway under her rule (the Kalmar Union) in 1389.One of the phenomena that appeared in those days with the unrest, was the notorious pirates, known as the Victual Brothers, who operated in the Baltic Sea in the Middle Ages to terrorize the coastal areas of Finland, and among other things, Korsholm Castle in Ostrobothnia, Turku Castle in the Finland Proper and also the Turku's Archipelago Sea were the most significant domains for the pirates.", "The next 130 years or so were characterized by attempts of different Swedish factions to break out of the Union.", "Finland was sometimes involved in these struggles, but in general the 15th century seems to have been a relatively prosperous time, characterized by population growth and economic development.", "Towards the end of the 15th century, however, the situation on the eastern border became more tense.", "The Principality of Moscow conquered Novgorod, preparing the way for a unified Russia, and from 1495 to 1497 a war was fought between Sweden and Russia.", "The fortress-town of Viborg withstood a Russian siege; according to a contemporary legend, it was saved by a miracle.===16th century===The Swedish empire at its largest.", "Most of present-day Finland was part of Sweden proper, ''rike'', shown in dark green.Mikael Agricola hands over the Finnish Translation of the New Testament to King Gustav Wasa.In 1521 the Kalmar Union collapsed and Gustav Vasa became the King of Sweden.", "During his rule, the Swedish church was reformed.", "The state administration underwent extensive reforms and development too, giving it a much stronger grip on the life of local communities—and ability to collect higher taxes.", "Following the policies of the Reformation, in 1551 Mikael Agricola, bishop of Turku, published his translation of the New Testament into the Finnish language.In 1550 Helsinki was founded by Gustav Vasa under the name of Helsingfors, but remained little more than a fishing village for more than two centuries.King Gustav Vasa died in 1560 and his crown was passed to his three sons in separate turns.", "King Erik XIV started an era of expansion when the Swedish crown took the city of Tallinn in Estonia under its protection in 1561.This action contributed to the early stages of the Livonian War which was a warlike era which lasted for 160 years.", "In the first phase, Sweden fought for the lordship of Estonia and Latvia against Denmark, Poland and Russia.", "The common people of Finland suffered because of drafts, high taxes, and abuse by military personnel.", "This resulted in the Cudgel War of 1596–1597, a desperate peasant rebellion, which was suppressed brutally and bloodily.", "A peace treaty (the Treaty of Teusina) with Russia in 1595 moved the border of Finland further to the east and north, very roughly where the modern border lies.An important part of the 16th-century history of Finland was growth of the area settled by the farming population.", "The crown encouraged farmers from the province of Savonia to settle the vast wilderness regions in Middle Finland.", "This often forced the original Sami population to leave.", "Some of the wilderness settled was traditional hunting and fishing territory of Karelian hunters.", "During the 1580s, this resulted in a bloody guerrilla warfare between the Finnish settlers and Karelians in some regions, especially in Ostrobothnia.===17th century===Per Brahe the Younger, who developed and reformed Finland significantly in the 17th centuryMap of Finland from 1662In 1611–1632 Sweden was ruled by King Gustavus Adolphus, whose military reforms transformed the Swedish army from a peasant militia into an efficient fighting machine, possibly the best in Europe.", "The conquest of Livonia was now completed, and some territories were taken from internally divided Russia in the Treaty of Stolbovo.", "In 1630, the Swedish (and Finnish) armies marched into Central Europe, as Sweden had decided to take part in the great struggle between Protestant and Catholic forces in Germany, known as the Thirty Years' War.", "The Finnish light cavalry was known as the Hakkapeliitat.After the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, the Swedish Empire was one of the most powerful countries in Europe.", "During the war, several important reforms had been made in Finland:* 1637–1640 and 1648–1654: Count Per Brahe functioned as general governor of Finland.", "Many important reforms were made and many towns were founded.", "His period of administration is generally considered very beneficial to the development of Finland.", "* 1640: Finland's first university, the Academy of Åbo, was founded in Turku at the proposal of Count Per Brahe by Queen Christina of Sweden.", "* 1642: the whole Bible was published in Finnish.However, the high taxation, continuing wars and the cold climate (the Little Ice Age) made the Imperial era of Sweden rather gloomy times for Finnish peasants.", "In 1655–1660, the Northern Wars were fought, taking Finnish soldiers to the battle-fields of Livonia, Poland and Denmark.", "In 1676, the political system of Sweden was transformed into an absolute monarchy.In Middle and Eastern Finland, great amounts of tar were produced for export.", "European nations needed this material for the maintenance of their fleets.", "According to some theories, the spirit of early capitalism in the tar-producing province of Ostrobothnia may have been the reason for the witch-hunt wave that happened in this region during the late 17th century.", "The people were developing more expectations and plans for the future, and when these were not realized, they were quick to blame witches—according to a belief system the Lutheran church had imported from Germany.The Empire had a colony in the New World in the modern-day Delaware-Pennsylvania area between 1638 and 1655.At least half of the immigrants were of Finnish origin.The 17th century was an era of very strict Lutheran orthodoxy.", "In 1608, the law of Moses was declared the law of the land, in addition to secular legislation.", "Every subject of the realm was required to confess the Lutheran faith and church attendance was mandatory.", "Ecclesiastical penalties were widely used.", "The rigorous requirements of orthodoxy were revealed in the dismissal of the Bishop of Turku, Johan Terserus, who wrote a catechism which was decreed heretical in 1664 by the theologians of the academy of Åbo.", "On the other hand, the Lutheran requirement of the individual study of Bible prompted the first attempts at wide-scale education.", "The church required from each person a degree of literacy sufficient to read the basic texts of the Lutheran faith.", "Although the requirements could be fulfilled by learning the texts by heart, also the skill of reading became known among the population.In 1696–1699, a famine caused by climate decimated Finland.", "A combination of an early frost, the freezing temperatures preventing grain from reaching Finnish ports, and a lackluster response from the Swedish government saw about one-third of the population die.", "Soon afterwards, another war determining Finland's fate began (the Great Northern War of 1700–21).===18th century===An old drawing of the city of Turku in the 18th centuryFinland Ostrobothnia regiment uniforms in 1705Battle of Gangut (Hanko) was part of the Great Northern War during 1700–1721.The Great Northern War (1700–1721) was devastating, as Sweden and Russia fought for control of the Baltic.", "Harsh conditions—worsening poverty and repeated crop failures—among peasants undermined support for the war, leading to Sweden's defeat.", "Finland was a battleground as both armies ravaged the countryside, leading to famine, epidemics, social disruption and the loss of nearly half the population.", "By 1721 only 250,000 remained.", "Landowners had to pay higher wages to keep their peasants.", "Russia was the winner, annexing the south-eastern part, including the town of Viborg, after the Treaty of Nystad.", "The border with Russia came to lie roughly where it returned to after World War II.", "Sweden's status as a European great power was forfeited, and Russia was now the leading power in the North.", "The absolute monarchy ended in Sweden.", "During this Age of Liberty, the Parliament ruled the country, and the two parties of the Hats and Caps struggled for control leaving the lesser Court party, i.e.", "parliamentarians with close connections to the royal court, with little to no influence.", "The Caps wanted to have a peaceful relationship with Russia and were supported by many Finns, while other Finns longed for revenge and supported the Hats.Finland by this time was depopulated, with a population in 1749 of 427,000.However, with peace the population grew rapidly, and doubled before 1800.90% of the population were typically classified as peasants, most being free taxed yeomen.", "Society was divided into four Estates: peasants (free taxed yeomen), the clergy, nobility and burghers.", "A minority, mostly cottagers, were estateless, and had no political representation.", "Forty-five percent of the male population were enfranchised with full political representation in the legislature—although clerics, nobles and townsfolk had their own chambers in the parliament, boosting their political influence and excluding the peasantry on matters of foreign policy.The mid-18th century was a relatively good time, partly because life was now more peaceful.", "However, during the Lesser Wrath (1741–1742), Finland was again occupied by the Russians after the government, during a period of Hat party dominance, had made a botched attempt to reconquer the lost provinces.", "Instead the result of the Treaty of Åbo was that the Russian border was moved further to the west.", "During this time, Russian propaganda hinted at the possibility of creating a separate Finnish kingdom.Both the ascending Russian Empire and pre-revolutionary France aspired to have Sweden as a client state.", "Parliamentarians and others with influence were susceptible to taking bribes which they did their best to increase.", "The integrity and the credibility of the political system waned, and in 1771 the young and charismatic king Gustav III staged a coup d'état, abolished parliamentarism and reinstated royal power in Sweden—more or less with the support of the parliament.", "In 1788, he started a new war against Russia.", "Despite a couple of victorious battles, the war was fruitless, managing only to bring disturbance to the economic life of Finland.", "The popularity of King Gustav III waned considerably.", "During the war, a group of officers made the famous Anjala declaration demanding peace negotiations and calling of the (Parliament).", "An interesting sideline to this process was the conspiracy of some Finnish officers, who attempted to create an independent Finnish state with Russian support.", "After an initial shock, Gustav III crushed this opposition.", "In 1789, the new constitution of Sweden strengthened the royal power further, as well as improving the status of the peasantry.", "However, the continuing war had to be finished without conquests—and many Swedes now considered the king as a tyrant.Battle of Valkeala was part of the Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790).With the interruption of the Gustav III's war (1788–1790), the last decades of the 18th century had been an era of development in Finland.", "New things were changing even everyday life, such as starting of potato farming after the 1750s.", "New scientific and technical inventions were seen.", "The first hot air balloon in Finland (and in the whole Swedish kingdom) was made in Oulu (Uleåborg) in 1784, only a year after it was invented in France.", "Trade increased and the peasantry was growing more affluent and self-conscious.", "The Age of Enlightenment's climate of broadened debate in the society on issues of politics, religion and morals would in due time highlight the problem that the overwhelming majority of Finns spoke only Finnish, but the cascade of newspapers, belles-lettres and political leaflets was almost exclusively in Swedish—when not in French.The two Russian occupations had been harsh and were not easily forgotten.", "These occupations were a seed of a feeling of separateness and otherness, that in a narrow circle of scholars and intellectuals at the university in Turku was forming a sense of a separate Finnish identity representing the eastern part of the realm.", "The shining influence of the Russian imperial capital Saint Petersburg was also much stronger in southern Finland than in other parts of Sweden, and contacts across the new border dispersed the worst fears for the fate of the educated and trading classes under a Russian régime.", "At the turn of the 19th century, the Swedish-speaking educated classes of officers, clerics and civil servants were mentally well prepared for a shift of allegiance to the strong Russian Empire.King Gustav III was assassinated in 1792, and his son Gustav IV Adolf assumed the crown after a period of regency.", "The new king was not a particularly talented ruler; at least not talented enough to steer his kingdom through the dangerous era of the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars.Meanwhile, the Finnish areas belonging to Russia after the peace treaties in 1721 and 1743 (not including Ingria), called \"Old Finland\", were initially governed with the old Swedish laws (a not uncommon practice in the expanding Russian Empire in the 18th century).", "However, gradually the rulers of Russia granted large estates of land to their non-Finnish favorites, ignoring the traditional landownership and peasant freedom laws of Old Finland.", "There were even cases where the noblemen punished peasants corporally, for example by flogging.", "The overall situation caused decline in the economy and morale in Old Finland, worsened since 1797 when the area was forced to send men to the Imperial Army.", "The construction of military installations in the area brought thousands of non-Finnish people to the region.", "In 1812, after the Russian conquest of Finland, \"Old Finland\" was attached to the rest of the country, though the landownership question remained a serious problem until the 1870s.===Peasants===Eero Järnefelt, ''Burning the Brushwood'', 1893While the king of Sweden sent in his governor to rule Finland, in day to day reality the villagers ran their own affairs using traditional local assemblies (called the ting) which selected a local , or lawman, to enforce the norms.", "The Swedes used the parish system to collect taxes.", "The (local parish) was at once a community religious organization and a judicial district that administered the king's law.", "The ting participated in the taxation process; taxes were collected by the bailiff, a royal appointee.In contrast to serfdom in Germany and Russia, the Finnish peasant was typically a freeholder who owned and controlled his small plot of land.", "There was no serfdom in which peasants were permanently attached to specific lands, and were ruled by the owners of that land.", "In Finland (and Sweden) the peasants formed one of the four estates and were represented in the parliament.", "Outside the political sphere, however, the peasants were considered at the bottom of the social order—just above vagabonds.", "The upper classes looked down on them as excessively prone to drunkenness and laziness, as clannish and untrustworthy, and especially as lacking honor and a sense of national spirit.", "This disdain dramatically changed in the 19th century when everyone idealised the peasant as the true carrier of Finnishness and the national ethos, as opposed to the Swedish-speaking elites.The peasants were not passive; they were proud of their traditions and would band together and fight to uphold their traditional rights in the face of burdensome taxes from the king or new demands by the landowning nobility.", "The great Cudgel War in the south in 1596–1597 attacked the nobles and their new system of state feudalism; this bloody revolt was similar to other contemporary peasant wars in Europe.", "In the north, there was less tension between nobles and peasants and more equality among peasants, due to the practice of subdividing farms among heirs, to non farm economic activities, and to the small numbers of nobility and gentry.", "Often the nobles and landowners were paternalistic and helpful.", "The Crown usually sided with the nobles, but after the \"restitution\" of the 1680s it ended the practice of the nobility extracting labor from the peasants and instead began a new tax system whereby royal bureaucrats collected taxes directly from the peasants, who disliked the efficient new system.", "After 1800 growing population pressure resulted in larger numbers of poor crofters and landless laborers and the impoverishment of small farmers." ], [ "Historical population of Finland", ":1150: 20,000–40,000:1550: 300,000:1750: 428,000:1770: 561,000:1790: 706,000:1810: 863,000:1830: 1,372,000:1850: 1,637,000:1870: 1,769,000:1890: 2,380,000:1910: 2,943,000:1930: 3,463,000:1950: 4,030,000:1970: 4,598,000:1990: 4,977,000:2010: 5,375,000:2015: 5,500,000:2020: 5,531,000" ], [ "Grand Duchy of Finland", "This 1825 map of the Grand Duchy of Finland is from a larger work, geographical atlas of the Russian Empire.", "(1809 Diet of Porvoo) The sovereign's pledge, printed in FinnishGrand Duchy of Finland, 75 kopek assignat (1824)During the Finnish War between Sweden and Russia, Finland was again conquered by the armies of Tsar Alexander I.", "The four Estates of occupied Finland were assembled at the Diet of Porvoo on 29 March 1809, to pledge allegiance to Alexander I of Russia.", "Following the Swedish defeat in the war and the signing of the Treaty of Fredrikshamn on 17 September 1809, Finland remained a Grand Duchy in the Russian Empire until the end of 1917, with the czar as Grand Duke.", "Russia assigned Karelia (\"Old Finland\") to the Grand Duchy in 1812.During the years of Russian rule the degree of autonomy varied.", "Periods of censorship and political prosecution occurred, particularly in the two last decades of Russian control, but the Finnish peasantry remained free (unlike the Russian serfs) as the old Swedish law remained effective (including the relevant parts from Gustav III's Constitution of 1772).", "The old four-chamber Diet was re-activated in the 1860s agreeing to supplementary new legislation concerning internal affairs.", "In addition, Finns remained free of obligations connected to the empire, such as the duty to serve in tsarist armies, and they enjoyed certain rights that citizens from other parts of the empire did not have.===Economy===Turku Cathedral and its surroundings from 1814Pohjoisesplanadi in the center of Helsinki in 1891Before 1860 overseas merchant firms and the owners of landed estates had accumulated wealth that became available for industrial investments.", "After 1860 the government liberalized economic laws and began to build a suitable physical infrastructure of ports, railroads and telegraph lines.", "The domestic market was small but rapid growth took place after 1860 in export industries drawing on forest resources and mobile rural laborers.", "Industrialization began during the mid-19th century from forestry to industry, mining and machinery and laid the foundation of Finland's current day prosperity, even though agriculture employed a relatively large part of the population until the post–World War II era.The beginnings of industrialism took place in Helsinki.", "Alfred Kihlman (1825–1904) began as a Lutheran priest and director of the elite Helsingfors boys' school, the Swedish Normal Lyceum.", "He became a financier and member of the diet.", "There was little precedent in Finland in the 1850s for raising venture capital.", "Kihlman was well connected and enlisted businessmen and capitalists to invest in new enterprises.", "In 1869, he organized a limited partnership that supported two years of developmental activities that led to the founding of the Nokia company in 1871.After 1890 industrial productivity stagnated because entrepreneurs were unable to keep up with technological innovations made by competitors in Germany, Britain and the United States.", "However, Russification opened up a large Russian market especially for machinery.===Nationalism===Finnish Guards' Rifle Battalion, 1850s''Kreeta Haapasalo Playing the Kantele in a Peasant Cottage'' (1868), by Robert Wilhelm EkmanThe Finnish national awakening in the mid-19th century was the result of members of the Swedish-speaking upper classes deliberately choosing to promote Finnish culture and language as a means of nation building, i.e.", "to establish a feeling of unity among all people in Finland including (and not of least importance) between the ruling elite and the ruled peasantry.", "The publication in 1835 of the Finnish national epic, the ''Kalevala'', a collection of traditional myths and legends which is the folklore of the Karelian people (the Finnic Eastern Orthodox people who inhabit the Lake Ladoga-region of eastern Finland and present-day NW Russia), stirred the nationalism that later led to Finland's independence from Russia.Particularly following Finland's incorporation into the Swedish central administration during the 16th and 17th centuries, Swedish was spoken by about 15% of the population, especially the upper and middle classes.", "Swedish was the language of administration, public institutions, education and cultural life.", "Only the peasants spoke Finnish.", "The emergence of Finnish to predominance resulted from a 19th-century surge of Finnish nationalism, aided by Russian bureaucrats attempting to separate Finns from Sweden and to ensure the Finns' loyalty.In 1863, the Finnish language gained an official position in administration.", "In 1892 Finnish became an equal official language and gained a status comparable to that of Swedish.", "Nevertheless, the Swedish language continued to be the language of culture, arts and business all the way to the 1920s.Movements toward Finnish national pride, as well as liberalism in politics and economics involved ethnic and class dimensions.", "The nationalist movement against Russia began with the Fennoman movement led by Hegelian philosopher Johan Vilhelm Snellman in the 1830s.", "Snellman sought to apply philosophy to social action and moved the basis of Finnish nationalism to establishment of the language in the schools, while remaining loyal to the czar.", "Fennomania became the Finnish Party in the 1860s.national anthem of Finland, from year 1863Paavo Ruotsalainen, a lay preacher, led pietistic revivals known as ''The Awakening''.Liberalism was the central issue of the 1860s to 1880s.", "The language issue overlapped both liberalism and nationalism, and showed some a class conflict as well, with the peasants pitted against the conservative Swedish-speaking landowners and nobles.", "Finnish activists divided themselves into \"old\" (no compromise on the language question and conservative nationalism) and \"young\" (liberation from Russia) Finns.", "The leading liberals were Swedish-speaking intellectuals who called for more democracy; they became the radical leaders after 1880.The liberals organized for social democracy, labor unions, farmer cooperatives, and women's rights.Nationalism was contested by the pro-Russian element and by the internationalism of the labor movement.", "The result was a tendency to class conflict over nationalism, but the early 1900s the working classes split into the Valpas (class struggle emphasis) and Mäkelin (nationalist emphasis).===Religion===During that period Lutheranism and Eastern Orthodoxy were official religions of the Finnish Grand Duchy.", "The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland was separated from Church of Sweden in the early 19th century.", "Immediately after the Finnish War, Finnish Lutheran clergy feared state-led proselytism to Orthodoxy.", "The majority of Finns were Lutheran Christians, but an ancient prominent Orthodox minority lived in Karelian Isthmus and Ladoga Karelia.", "The monasteries of Valaam and Konevets were important religious centres and pilgrimage sites of Orthodox faithful.", "There were also Orthodox churches built in Finnish cities and towns, where there were Russian garrisons.", "During this period, Roman Catholism, Judaism and Islam came to Finland with Russian soldiers and merchants.While the vast majority of Finns were Lutheran, there were two strains to Lutheranism that eventually merged to form the modern Finnish church.", "On the one hand was the high-church emphasis on ritual, with its roots in traditional peasant collective society.", "Paavo Ruotsalainen (1777–1852) on the other hand was a leader of the new pietism, with its subjectivity, revivalism, emphasis on personal morality, lay participation, and the social gospel.", "The pietism appealed to the emerging middle class.", "The Ecclesiastical Law of 1869 combined the two strains.", "Finland's political and Lutheran leaders considered both Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism to be threats to the emerging nation.", "Eastern Orthodoxy was rejected as a weapon of Russification, while anti-Catholicism was long-standing.", "Anti-Semitism was also a factor, so the Dissenter Law of 1889 upgraded the status only of the minor Protestant sects.", "Founding monasteries was forbidden.===Music===Jean Sibelius at work in his studyBefore 1790 music was found in Lutheran churches and in folk traditions.", "In 1790 music lovers founded the Åbo Musical Society; it gave the first major stimulus to serious music by Finnish composers.", "In the 1880s, new institutions, especially the Helsinki Music Institute (since 1939 called the Sibelius Academy), the Institute of Music of Helsinki University and the Helsinki Philharmonic Orchestra, integrated Finland into the mainstream of European music.", "By far the most influential composer was Jean Sibelius (1865–1957); he composed nearly all his music before 1930.In April 1892 Sibelius presented his new symphony ''Kullervo'' in Helsinki.", "It featured poetry from the ''Kalevala,'' and was celebrated by critics as truly Finnish music.===Politics===Despite certain freedoms granted to Finland, the Grand Duchy was not a democratic state.", "The tsar retained supreme power and ruled through the highest official in the land, the governor general, almost always a Russian officer.", "Alexander dissolved the Diet of the Four Estates shortly after convening it in 1809, and it did not meet again for half a century.", "The tsar's actions were in accordance with the royalist constitution Finland had inherited from Sweden.", "The Finns had no guarantees of liberty, but depended on the tsar's goodwill for any freedoms they enjoyed.", "When Alexander II, the Tsar Liberator, convened the Diet again in 1863, he did so not to fulfill any obligation but to meet growing pressures for reform within the empire as a whole.", "In the remaining decades of the century, the Diet enacted numerous legislative measures that modernized Finland's system of law, made its public administration more efficient, removed obstacles to commerce, and prepared the ground for the country's independence in the next century.====Russification====Senate Square for a demonstration against the February Manifesto in March 1899.The policy of Russification of Finland (1899–1905 and 1908–1917, called ''/'' ('times/years of oppression') in Finnish) was the policy of the Russian czars designed to limit the special status of the Grand Duchy of Finland and fully integrate it politically, militarily, and culturally into the empire.", "Finns were strongly opposed and fought back by passive resistance and a strengthening of Finnish cultural identity.", "Key provisions were, first, the February Manifesto of 1899 which asserted the imperial government's right to rule Finland without the consent of local legislative bodies; second, the Language Manifesto of 1900 which made Russian the language of administration of Finland; and third, the conscription law of 1901 which incorporated the Finnish army into the imperial army and sent conscripts away to Russian training camps.==== Democratic change ====In 1906, as a result of the Russian Revolution of 1905 and the associated Finnish general strike of 1905, the old four-chamber Diet was replaced by a unicameral Parliament of Finland (the '''')''.''", "For the first time in Europe, universal suffrage (right to vote) and eligibility was implemented to include women: Finnish women were the first in Europe to gain full eligibility to vote; and have membership in an estate; land ownership or inherited titles were no longer required.", "However, on the local level things were different, as in the municipal elections the number of votes was tied to amount of tax paid.", "Thus, rich people could cast a number of votes, while the poor perhaps none at all.", "The municipal voting system was changed to universal suffrage in 1917 when a left-wing majority was elected to Parliament.===Emigration trends===Hanko harbor in 1893, with 509 emigrants on board on their way to AmericaEmigration was especially important 1890–1914, with many young men and some families headed to Finnish settlements in the United States, and also to Canada.", "They typically worked in lumber and mining, and many were active in Marxist causes on the one hand, or the Finnish Evangelical Lutheran Church of America on the other.", "In the 21st century about 700,000 Americans and 140,000 Canadians claim Finnish ancestry.", ":1880s: 26,000:1890s: 59,000:20th century: 159,000:1910s: 67,000:1920s: 73,000:1930s: 3,000:1940s: 7,000:1950s: 32,000By 2000 about 6% of the population spoke Swedish as their first language, or 300,000 people.", "However, since the late 20th century there has been a steady migration of older, better educated Swedish speakers to Sweden." ], [ "Independence and Civil War", "The ruins of Vammala burned by the Reds, during the Civil warthe Reds at its largest in February–March 1918In the aftermath of the February Revolution in Russia, Finland received a new Senate, and a coalition Cabinet with the same power distribution as the Finnish Parliament.", "Based on the general election in 1916, the Social Democrats had a small majority, and the Social Democrat Oskari Tokoi became prime minister.", "The new Senate was willing to cooperate with the Provisional government of Russia, but no agreement was reached.", "Finland considered the personal union with Russia to be over after the dethroning of the Tsar—although the Finns had ''de facto'' recognized the Provisional government as the Tsar's successor by accepting its authority to appoint a new Governor General and Senate.", "They expected the Tsar's authority to be transferred to Finland's Parliament, which the Provisional government refused, suggesting instead that the question should be settled by the Russian Constituent Assembly.For the Finnish Social Democrats it seemed as though the bourgeoisie was an obstacle on Finland's road to independence as well as on the proletariat's road to power.", "The non-Socialists in Tokoi's Senate were, however, more confident.", "They, and most of the non-Socialists in the Parliament, rejected the Social Democrats' proposal on parliamentarism (the so-called \"Power Act\") as being too far-reaching and provocative.", "The act restricted Russia's influence on domestic Finnish matters, but did not touch the Russian government's power on matters of defence and foreign affairs.", "For the Russian Provisional government this was, however, far too radical, exceeding the Parliament's authority, and so the Provisional government dissolved the Parliament.The minority of the Parliament, and of the Senate, were content.", "New elections promised a chance for them to gain a majority, which they were convinced would improve the chances to reach an understanding with Russia.", "The non-Socialists were also inclined to cooperate with the Russian Provisional Government because they feared the Social Democrats' power would grow, resulting in radical reforms, such as equal suffrage in municipal elections, or a land reform.", "The majority had the completely opposite opinion.", "They did not accept the Provisional government's right to dissolve the Parliament.The Social Democrats held on to the Power Act and opposed the promulgation of the decree of dissolution of the Parliament, whereas the non-Socialists voted for promulgating it.", "The disagreement over the Power Act led to the Social Democrats leaving the Senate.", "When the Parliament met again after the summer recess in August 1917, only the groups supporting the Power Act were present.", "Russian troops took possession of the chamber, the Parliament was dissolved, and new elections were held.", "The result was a (small) non-Socialist majority and a purely non-Socialist Senate.", "The suppression of the Power Act, and the cooperation between Finnish non-Socialists and Russia provoked great bitterness among the Socialists, and had resulted in dozens of politically motivated attacks and murders.===Independence===first government of independent Finland.", "P. E. Svinhufvud, the first Prime Minister of Finland, sitting at the head of the table.The decision of the Soviet of the People's Comissars' to recognise Finnish independence, signed by Vladimir Lenin, Leon Trotsky, Grigory Petrovsky, Joseph Stalin, Isaac Steinberg, Vladimir Karelin, and Alexander SchlichterThe October Revolution of 1917 turned Finnish politics upside down.", "Now, the new non-Socialist majority of the Parliament desired total independence, and the Socialists came gradually to view Soviet Russia as an example to follow.", "On 15 November 1917, the Bolsheviks declared a general right of self-determination \"for the Peoples of Russia\", including the right of complete secession.", "On the same day the Finnish Parliament issued a declaration by which it temporarily took power in Finland.Worried by developments in Russia and Finland, the non-Socialist Senate proposed that Parliament declare Finland's independence, which was voted by the Parliament on 6 December 1917.On 18 December (31 December N. S.) the Soviet government issued a Decree, recognizing Finland's independence, and on 22 December (4 January 1918 N. S.) it was approved by the highest Soviet executive body (VTsIK).", "Germany and the Scandinavian countries followed without delay.===Civil war===White/Civil GuardFinland after 1917 was bitterly divided along social lines.", "The Whites consisted of the Swedish-speaking middle and upper classes and the farmers and peasantry who dominated the northern two-thirds of the land.", "They had a conservative outlook and rejected socialism.", "The Socialist-Communist Reds comprised the Finnish-speaking urban workers and the landless rural cottagers.", "They had a radical outlook and rejected capitalism.From January to May 1918, Finland experienced the brief but bitter Finnish Civil War.", "On one side there were the \"white\" civil guards, who fought for the anti-Socialists.", "On the other side were the Red Guards, which consisted of workers and tenant farmers.", "The latter proclaimed a Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic.", "World War I was still underway and the defeat of the Red Guards was achieved with support from Imperial Germany, while Sweden remained neutral and Russia withdrew its forces.", "The Reds lost the war and the White peasantry rose to political leadership in the 1920s–1930s.", "About 37,000 men died, most of them in prisoner camps ravaged by influenza and other diseases." ], [ "Finland in the inter-war era", "K. J. Ståhlberg in his office in 1919The area of Finland in the years 1920–1940.The 1935 county and municipality division on the map.After the civil war, the parliament controlled by the Whites voted to establish a constitutional monarchy to be called the ''Kingdom of Finland'', with German prince Frederick Charles of Hesse as king.", "However, Germany's defeat in November 1918 made the plan impossible and Finland instead became a republic, with Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg elected as its first President in 1919.Despite the bitter civil war, and repeated threats from fascist movements, Finland became and remained a capitalist democracy under the rule of law.", "By contrast, nearby Estonia, in similar circumstances but without a civil war, started as a democracy and was turned into a dictatorship in 1934.===Agrarian reform===Large scale agrarian reform in the 1920s involved breaking up the large estates controlled by the old nobility and selling the land to ambitious peasants.", "The farmers became strong supporters of the government.===Diplomacy===Finland became member of the League of Nations on 16 December 1920.The new republic faced a dispute over the Åland Islands, which were overwhelmingly Swedish-speaking and sought retrocession to Sweden.", "However, as Finland was not willing to cede the islands, they were offered an autonomous status.", "Nevertheless, the residents did not approve the offer, and the dispute over the islands was submitted to the League of Nations.", "The League decided that Finland should retain sovereignty over the Åland Islands, but they should be made an autonomous province.", "Thus Finland was under an obligation to ensure the residents of Åland a right to maintain the Swedish language, as well as their own culture and local traditions.", "At the same time, an international treaty was concluded on the neutral status of Åland, under which it was prohibited to place military headquarters or forces on the islands.===Prohibition===Alcohol abuse had a long history, especially regarding binge drinking and public intoxication, which became a crime in 1733.In the 19th century the punishments became stiffer and stiffer, but the problem persisted.", "A strong abstinence movement emerged that cut consumption in half from the 1880s to the 1910s, and gave Finland the lowest drinking rate in Europe.", "Four attempts at instituting prohibition of alcohol during the Grand Duchy period were rejected by the czar; with the czar gone Finland enacted prohibition in 1919.Smuggling emerged and enforcement was slipshod.", "Criminal convictions for drunkenness went up by 500%, and violence and crime rates soared.", "Public opinion turned against the law, and a national plebiscite went 70% for repeal, so prohibition was ended in early 1932.===Politics===Nationalist sentiment remaining from the Civil War developed into the proto-Fascist Lapua Movement in 1929.Initially the movement gained widespread support among anti-Communist Finns, but following a failed coup attempt in 1932 it was banned and its leaders imprisoned.===Relations with Soviet Union===In the wake of the Civil War there were many incidents along the border between Finland and Soviet Russia, such as the Aunus expedition and the Pork mutiny.", "Relations with the Soviets were improved after the Treaty of Tartu in 1920, in which Finland gained Petsamo, but gave up its claims on East Karelia.Tens of thousands of radical Finns—from Finland, the United States and Canada—took up Stalin's 1923 appeal to create a new Soviet society in the Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (KASSR), a part of Russia.Most were executed in the purges of the 1930s.The Soviet Union started to tighten its policy against Finland in the 1930s, limiting the navigation of Finnish merchant ships between Lake Ladoga and the Gulf of Finland and blocking it totally in 1937." ], [ "Finland in the Second World War", "The area controlled by Finland at its largest, in 1942Marshal of Finland Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim visit in Germany, 1942In August 1939, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, where Finland and the Baltic states were allocated to the Soviet \"sphere of influence\".", "After invading Poland, the Soviet Union sent ultimatums to the Baltic countries, where it demanded military bases on their soil.", "The Baltic states accepted Soviet demands, and lost their independence in the summer of 1940.In October 1939, the Soviet Union sent a similar request to Finland, but the Finns refused these demands.The Soviet Union invaded Finland on 30 November 1939, launching the Winter War, with the aim of annexing Finland into the Soviet Union.", "The Finnish Democratic Republic was established by Joseph Stalin at the beginning of the war with the purpose of governing Finland after Soviet conquest.", "The Red Army was defeated in numerous battles, notably at the Battle of Suomussalmi.", "After two months of negligible progress on the battlefield, as well as severe losses of men and materiel, the Soviets put an end to the Finnish Democratic Republic in late January 1940 and recognized the legal Finnish government as the legitimate government of Finland.", "Soviet forces began to make progress in February and reached Vyborg in March.", "Fighting came to an end on 13 March 1940 with the signing of the Moscow Peace Treaty.", "Finland had successfully defended its independence, but ceded 9% of its territory to the Soviet Union.", "The Soviet Union was expelled from the League of Nations as a result of the invasion.Captain Aarne Juutilainen at the front at Kollaa during the Winter WarAfter the Winter War the Finnish Army was exhausted and needed recovery and support as soon as possible.", "The United Kingdom declined to help, but in autumn 1940, Nazi Germany offered weapon deals to Finland if the Finnish government would allow German troops to travel through Finland to German-occupied Norway.", "Finland accepted, weapons deals were made, and military co-operation began in December 1940.Wehrmacht soldiers with a local Sámi reindeer herder, Lappland, Sodankylä, Finland 1942Bofors gun during the Continuation War in 1943Hostilities resumed in June 1941 with the start of the Continuation War, when Finland aligned with Germany following Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union.", "Finland was involved with the Siege of Leningrad and occupied East Karelia from 1941 to 1944.This irredentist sentiment of a Greater Finland, whose inhabitants were culturally related to the Finnish people, although Eastern Orthodox by religion, resulted in other countries being considerably less sympathetic to the Finnish cause.Finnish forces won several decisive battles during the Soviet Vyborg–Petrozavodsk offensive of 1944, including the Battle of Tali-Ihantala and the Battle of Ilomantsi.", "These victories helped ensure Finnish independence, and led to the Moscow Armistice with the Soviet Union.", "The armistice called for the expulsion of German troops residing in northern Finland, leading to the Lapland War whereby the Finns forced the Germans to withdraw into Norway (then under German occupation).Finland was never occupied by Soviet forces.", "Its army of over 600,000 soldiers saw only 3,500 prisoners of war.", "About 96,000 Finns died, or 2.5% of a population of 3.8 million; civilian casualties were under 2,500.Finland managed to defend its democracy, contrary to most other countries within the Soviet sphere of influence, and suffered comparably limited losses in terms of civilian lives and property.", "It was, however, punished harsher than other German co-belligerents and allies, having to pay large reparations and resettle an eighth of its population after having lost an eighth of its territory, including the major city of Viipuri.", "After the war, the Soviet government settled these gained territories with people from many different regions of the USSR, for instance from Ukraine.The Finnish government did not participate in the systematic killing of Jews, although the country remained a \"co-belligerent\", a ''de facto'' ally of Germany until 1944.In total, eight German Jewish refugees were handed over to the German authorities.", "In the Tehran Conference of 1942, the leaders of the Allies agreed that Finland was fighting a separate war against the Soviet Union, and that in no way was it hostile to the Western allies.", "The Soviet Union was the only Allied country against which Finland had conducted military operations.", "Unlike any of the Axis nations, Finland was a parliamentary democracy throughout the 1939–1945 period.", "The commander of Finnish armed forces during the Winter War and the Continuation War, Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, became the President of Finland at the very end of the Continuation War.", "Finland made a separate armistice agreement with the Soviet Union on 19 September 1944, and was the only bordering country of USSR in Europe (alongside Norway, which gained a border with the Soviet Union only after the war) that kept its independence after the war.During and in between the wars, approximately 80,000 Finnish war-children were evacuated abroad: 5% went to Norway, 10% to Denmark, and the rest to Sweden.", "Most of the children were sent back by 1948, but 15–20% remained abroad.Identification document and tag of a Finnish war childMap of Finnish areas ceded to the Soviet Union in 1944, after the Continuation WarThe Moscow Armistice was signed between Finland on one side and the Soviet Union and Britain on the other side on 19 September 1944, ending the Continuation War.", "The armistice compelled Finland to drive German troops from its territory, leading to the Lapland War 1944–1945.In 1947, Finland reluctantly declined Marshall aid in order to preserve good relations with the Soviets, ensuring Finnish autonomy.", "Nevertheless, the United States shipped secret development aid and financial aid to the non-communist SDP (Social Democratic Party).", "Establishing trade with the Western powers, such as Britain, and the reparations to the Soviet Union caused Finland to transform itself from a primarily agrarian economy to an industrialised one.", "After the reparations had been paid off, Finland continued to trade with the Soviet Union in the framework of bilateral trade.Memorial of the Mannerheim Cross Knights of Parikkala, FinlandFinland's role in the Second World War was unusual in several ways.", "Despite massive superiority in military strength, the Soviet Union was unable to conquer Finland when the former invaded in 1939.In late 1940, German-Finnish co-operation began; it took a form that was unique when compared to relations with the Axis.", "Finland signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, which made Finland an ally with Germany in the war against the Soviet Union.", "But, unlike all other Axis states, Finland never signed the Tripartite Pact, meaning that Finland was not ''de jure'' an Axis nation.===Memorials===Winter War Monument in Suomussalmi, Kainuu, FinlandAlthough Finland lost territory in both of its wars with the Soviets, the memory of these wars was sharply etched in the national consciousness.", "Finland celebrates these wars as a victory for the Finnish national spirit, which survived against long odds and allowed Finland to maintain its independence.", "Many groups of Finns are commemorated today, including not just fallen soldiers and veterans, but also orphans, evacuees from Karelia, the children who were evacuated to Sweden, women who worked during the war at home or in factories, and the veterans of the women's defense unit Lotta Svärd.Some of these groups could not be properly commemorated until long after the war ended in order to preserve good relations with the Soviet Union.", "However, after a long political campaign backed by survivors of what Finns call the Partisan War, the Finnish Parliament passed legislation establishing compensation for the war's victims." ], [ "Post WW2 and Cold War", "===Neutrality in Cold War===The Finno-Soviet TreatyFinland retained a democratic constitution and free economy during the Cold War era.", "Treaties signed in 1947 and 1948 with the Soviet Union included obligations and restraints on Finland, as well as territorial concessions.", "The Paris Peace Treaty (1947) limited the size and the nature of Finland's armed forces.", "Weapons were to be solely defensive.", "A deepening of postwar tensions led a year later to the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance (1948) with the Soviet Union.", "The latter, in particular, was the foundation of Finno-Soviet relations in the postwar era.", "Under the terms of the treaty, Finland was bound to confer with the Soviets and perhaps to accept their aid if an attack from Germany, or countries allied with Germany, seemed likely.", "The treaty prescribed consultations between the two countries, but it had no mechanism for automatic Soviet intervention in a time of crisis.", "Both treaties have been abrogated by Finland since the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union, while leaving the borders untouched.", "Even though being a neighbor to the Soviet Union sometimes resulted in overcautious concern in foreign policy (\"Finlandization\"), Finland developed closer co-operation with the other Nordic countries and declared itself neutral in superpower politics.The Finnish post-war president, Juho Kusti Paasikivi, a leading conservative politician, saw that an essential element of Finnish foreign policy must be a credible guarantee to the Soviet Union that it need not fear attack from, or through, Finnish territory.", "Because a policy of neutrality was a political component of this guarantee, Finland would ally itself with no one.", "Another aspect of the guarantee was that Finnish defenses had to be sufficiently strong to defend the nation's territory.", "This policy remained the core of Finland's foreign relations for the rest of the Cold War era.In 1952, Finland and the countries of the Nordic Council entered into a passport union, allowing their citizens to cross borders without passports and soon also to apply for jobs and claim social security benefits in the other countries.", "Many from Finland used this opportunity to secure better-paying jobs in Sweden in the 1950s and 1960s, dominating Sweden's first wave of post-war labour immigrants.", "Although Finnish wages and standard of living could not compete with wealthy Sweden until the 1970s, the Finnish economy rose remarkably from the ashes of World War II, resulting in the buildup of another Nordic-style welfare state.Helsinki Accords TreatyDespite the passport union with Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Iceland, Finland could not join the Nordic Council until 1955 because of Soviet fears that Finland might become too close to the West.", "At that time the Soviet Union saw the Nordic Council as part of NATO of which Denmark, Norway and Iceland were members.", "That same year Finland joined the United Nations, though it had already been associated with a number of UN specialized organisations.", "The first Finnish ambassador to the UN was G.A.", "Gripenberg (1956–1959), followed by Ralph Enckell (1959–1965), Max Jakobson (1965–1972), Aarno Karhilo (1972–1977), Ilkka Pastinen (1977–1983), Keijo Korhonen (1983–1988), Klaus Törnudd (1988–1991), Wilhelm Breitenstein (1991–1998) and Marjatta Rasi (1998–2005).", "In 1972 Max Jakobson was a candidate for Secretary-General of the UN.", "In another remarkable event of 1955, the Soviet Union decided to return the Porkkala peninsula to Finland, which had been rented to the Soviet Union in 1948 for 50 years as a military base, a situation which somewhat endangered Finnish sovereignty and neutrality.", "Signing the Helsinki Accords are the West German Chancellor Helmut Schmidt, East Germany's leader Erich Honecker, US president Gerald Ford and the Austrian chancellor Bruno KreiskyOfficially claiming to be neutral, Finland lay in the grey zone between the Western countries and the Soviet Union, and it also developed into one of the centres of the East-West espionage, in which both the KGB and the CIA played their parts.", "The 1949 established Finnish Security Intelligence Service (''SUPO, Suojelupoliisi''), an operational security authority and a police unit under the Interior Ministry, whose core areas of activity are counter-Intelligence, counter-terrorism and national security, also participated in this activity in some places.", "The Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 (Finno-Soviet Pact of ''Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance'') gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics.", "However, Finland maintained capitalism unlike most other countries bordering the Soviet Union.", "Property rights were strong.", "While nationalization committees were set up in France and UK, Finland avoided nationalizations.", "After failed experiments with protectionism in the 1950s, Finland eased restrictions and committed to a series of international free trade agreements: first an associate membership in the European Free Trade Association in 1961, a full membership in 1986 and also an agreement with the European Community in 1973.Local education markets expanded and an increasing number of Finns also went abroad to study in the United States or Western Europe, bringing back advanced skills.", "There was a quite common, but pragmatic-minded, credit and investment cooperation by state and corporations, though it was considered with suspicion.", "Support for capitalism was widespread.", "Savings rate hovered among the world's highest, at around 8% until the 1980s.", "In the beginning of the 1970s, Finland's GDP per capita reached the level of Japan and the UK.", "Finland's economic development shared many aspects with export-led Asian countries.Building on its status as western democratic country with friendly ties with the Soviet Union, Finland pushed to reduce the political and military tensions of cold war.", "Since the 1960s, Finland urged the formation of a (Nordic NWFZ), and in 1972–1973 was the host of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), which culminated in the signing of the Helsinki Accords in 1975 and lead to the creation of the OSCE.===Society and the welfare state===President Urho Kekkonen's funeral procession in 1986Before 1940 Finland was a poor rural nation of urban and rural workers and independent farmers.", "There was a small middle class, employed chiefly as civil servants and in small local businesses.", "As late as 1950 half of the workers were in agriculture and only a third lived in urban towns.", "The new jobs in manufacturing, services and trade quickly attracted people to the towns and cities.", "The average number of births per woman declined from a baby boom peak of 3.5 in 1947 to 1.5 in 1973.When baby boomers entered the workforce, the economy did not generate jobs fast enough and hundreds of thousands emigrated to the more industrialized Sweden, migration peaking in 1969 and 1970 (today 4.7 percent of Swedes speak Finnish).By the 1990s, farm laborers had nearly all moved on, leaving owners of small farms.", "By 2000 the social structure included a politically active working class, a primarily clerical middle class, and an upper bracket consisting of managers, entrepreneurs, and professionals.", "The social boundaries between these groups were not distinct.", "Causes of change included the growth of a mass culture, international standards, social mobility, and acceptance of democracy and equality as typified by the welfare state.The generous system of welfare benefits emerged from a long process of debate, negotiations and maneuvers between efficiency-oriented modernizers on the one hand and Social Democrats and labor unions.", "A compulsory system provides old-age and disability insurance.", "The national government provides unemployment insurance, maternity benefits, family allowances, and day-care centers.", "Health insurance covers most of the cost of outpatient care.", "The national health act of 1972 provided for the establishment of free health centers in every municipality.", "There were major cutbacks in the early 1990s, but they were distributed to minimize the harm to the vast majority of voters.===Economy===The post-war period was a time of rapid economic growth and increasing social and political stability for Finland.", "The five decades after the Second World War saw Finland turn from a war-ravaged agrarian society into one of the most technologically advanced countries in the world, with a sophisticated market economy and high standard of living.In 1991, Finland fell into a depression caused by a combination of economic overheating, fixed currency, depressed Western, Soviet, and local markets.", "Stock market and housing prices declined by 50%.", "The growth in the 1980s was based on debt and defaults started rolling in.", "GDP declined by 15% and unemployment increased from a virtual full employment to one fifth of the workforce.", "The crisis was amplified by trade unions' initial opposition to any reforms.", "Politicians struggled to cut spending and the public debt doubled to around 60% of GDP.", "Some 7–8% of GDP was needed to bail out failing banks and force banking sector consolidation.", "After devaluations the depression bottomed out in 1993." ], [ "Post Cold War History", "The GDP growth rate has since been one of the highest of OECD countries and Finland has topped many indicators of national performance.Until 1991, President Mauno Koivisto and two of the three major parties, Center Party and the Social Democrats opposed the idea of European Union membership and preferred entering into the European Economic Area treaty.", "However, after Sweden had submitted its membership application in 1991 and the Soviet Union was dissolved at the end of the year, Finland submitted its own application to the EU in March 1992.The accession process was marked by heavy public debate, where the differences of opinion did not follow party lines.", "Officially, all three major parties were supporting the Union membership, but members of all parties participated in the campaign against the membership.", "Before the parliamentary decision to join the EU, a consultative referendum was held on 16 April 1994, in which 56.9% of the votes were in favour of joining.", "The process of accession was completed on 1 January 1995, when Finland joined the European Union along with Austria and Sweden.", "Leading Finland into the EU is held as the main achievement of the Centrist-Conservative government of Esko Aho then in power.In the economic policy, the EU membership brought with it many large changes.", "While politicians were previously involved in setting interest rates, the Bank of Finland was given an inflation-targeting mandate until Finland joined the eurozone.", "During Prime Minister Paavo Lipponen's two successive governments 1995–2003, several large state companies were privatized fully or partially.", "Matti Vanhanen's two cabinets followed suit until autumn 2008, when the state became a major shareholder in the Finnish telecom company Elisa with the intention to secure the Finnish ownership of a strategically important industry.In addition to fast integration with the European Union, safety against Russian leverage has been increased by building fully NATO-compatible military.", "1000 troops (a high per-capita amount) are simultaneously committed in NATO and UN operations.", "Finland has also opposed energy projects that increase dependency on Russian imports.", "For a long time, Finland remained one of the last non-NATO members in Europe, without enough support for full membership unless Sweden joined first.On 24 February 2022, the Russian president Vladimir Putin ordered the Russian Armed Forces to begin the invasion of Ukraine.", "On 25 February, a Russian Foreign Ministry spokesperson threatened Finland and Sweden with \"military and political consequences\" if they attempted to join NATO, which neither were actively seeking.", "After the invasion public support for membership rose significantly.On 4 April 2023, the last NATO members ratified Finland's application to join the alliance, making Finland the 31st member." ], [ "See also", "* Diplomatic history of World War II#Finland* Early Finnish wars* Finns* Finland–Russia relations** History of Russia* Finland under Swedish rule** History of Sweden* Henrik Gabriel Porthan* Kvenland* List of Finnish treaties* List of presidents of Finland* List of prime ministers of Finland* List of wars involving Finland* Military history of Finland* Monarchy of Finland* Politics of Finland* Timeline of Finnish history" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===Surveys===* pp.", "169–245 on 1917–1926; online* * * * * * 2nd ed.", "227 pages; focus is since 1900.", "* * Short popular history.", "* * Wuorinen, John H. ''A history of Finland'' (1965) online===Specialty studies===* Ahola, Joonas & Frog with Clive Tolley (toim.).", "(2014).", "''Fibula, Fabula, Fact – The Viking Age in Finland'' ''Studia Fennica Historica'' (Finnish Literature Society, 2014).", "* * Haapala, Pertti.", "\"How was the working class formed?", "The case of Finland, 1850–1920.\"", "''Scandinavian Journal of History'' 12.3 (1987): 179–197.", "* Hodgson, John H. ''Communism in Finland: a history and interpretation'' (Princeton UP, 2015).", "* Jensen-Eriksen, Niklas.", "\"Looking for cheap and abundant power: Business, government and nuclear energy in Finland.\"", "''Business History'' (2020): 1–22.", "* Kettunen, Pauli.", "\"Wars, nation and the welfare state in Finland.\"", "in ''Warfare and welfare: Military conflict and welfare state development in Western countries'' (2018): 260–289.", "* Kirby, David G., ed.", "''Finland and Russia, 1808–1920'' (Springer, 1975).", "* Cultural interpretation of recent history.", "Excerpt and text search.", "* * History since 1970.", "* Polvinen, Tuomo.", "''Between East and West: Finland in international politics, 1944–1947'' (U of Minnesota Press, 1986) online.", "* * * * Talvitie, Petri, and Juha-Matti Granqvist, eds.", "''Civilians and military supply in early modern Finland'' (Helsinki University Press, 2021) online* Tarkka, Jukka.", "''Neither Stalin nor Hitler : Finland during the Second World War'' (1991) online* * * ===Historiography and comparative===* Full text.", "* Balázs, Renáta.", "\"Writing of Contemporary National Literary History in Finland and Hungary–a Comparative Approach.\"", "''Interlitteraria'' 25.1 (2020): 76–86.online* Kettunen, Pauli.", "\"The Conceptual History of the Welfare State in Finland.\"", "in ''The Changing Meanings of the Welfare State: Histories of a Key Concept in the Nordic Countries'' (2019): 225+ online.", "* (Covers 1820 to 1910.", ")* Kivimäki, Ville.", "\"Between defeat and victory: Finnish memory culture of the Second World War.\"", "''Scandinavian Journal of History'' 37.4 (2012): 482–504.", "* Kivimäki, Ville.", "\"Introduction Three Wars and Their Epitaphs: The Finnish History and Scholarship of World War II.\"", "in ''Finland in World War II'' (Brill, 2012) pp.", "1–46 online.", "* * Kurunmäki, Jussi.", "\"Democracy both young and old: Finland, Sweden and the interwar crisis of democracy.\"", "''Journal of Modern European History'' 17.4 (2019): 486–499.online* * Marzec, Wiktor, and Risto Turunen.", "\"Socialisms in the Tsarist Borderlands: Poland and Finland in a Contrastive Comparison, 1830—1907.\"", "''Contributions to the History of Concepts'' 13.1 (2018): 22–50.", "* Nyyssönen, Jukka.", "\"Changing States, Changing Sámi?", ": Framing the state and the Sámi in studies of history in Finland and Norway 1923–1954.\"", "in ''The Sámi World'' (Routledge, 2022) pp.", "263–275." ], [ "External links", "* Finnish historical documents at WikiSource * History of Finland: A selection of events and documents by Pauli Kruhse* History of Finland: Primary Documents* Diplomatarium Fennicum – Publishing of medieval documents (the National Archives of Finland)* ProKarelias collection of international treaties concerning independent Finland * Historical Atlas of Finland* Vintage Finland – slideshow by ''Life magazine''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Holy Spirit" ], [ "Introduction", "In Judaism, the '''Holy Spirit''', otherwise known as the '''Holy Ghost''', is the divine force, quality and influence of God over the universe or his creatures.", "In Nicene Christianity, the Holy Spirit is the third person of the Trinity.", "In Islam, the Holy Spirit acts as an agent of divine action or communication.", "In the Baha’i Faith, the Holy Spirit is seen as the intermediary between God and man and \"the outpouring grace of God and the effulgent rays that emanate from His Manifestation\"." ], [ "Comparative religion", "The Hebrew Bible contains the term \"spirit of God\" (''ruach elochim'') which by Jews is interpreted in the sense of the might of a unitary God.", "This interpretation is different from the Nicene Christian conception of the Holy Spirit as one person of the Trinity.The Christian concept tends to emphasize the moral aspect of the Holy Spirit more than Judaism, evident in the epithet Spirit that appeared in Jewish religious writings only relatively late but was a common expression in the Christian New Testament.", "Based on the Old Testament, the book of Acts emphasizes the power of ministry aspect of the Holy Spirit.According to theologian Rudolf Bultmann, there are two ways to think about the Holy Spirit: \"animistic\" and \"dynamistic\".", "In animistic thinking, he is \"an independent agent, a personal power which (...) can fall upon a man and take possession of him, enabling him or compelling him to perform manifestations of power\" while in dynamistic thought it \"appears as an impersonal force which fills a man like a fluid\".", "Both kinds of thought appear in Jewish and Christian scripture, but animistic is more typical of the Old Testament whereas dynamistic is more common in the New Testament.", "The distinction coincides with the Holy Spirit as either a temporary or permanent gift.", "In the Old Testament and Jewish thought, it is primarily temporary with a specific situation or task in mind, whereas in the Christian concept the gift resides in persons permanently.On the surface, the Holy Spirit appears to have an equivalent in non-Abrahamic Hellenistic mystery religions.", "These religions included a distinction between the spirit and psyche, which is also seen in the Pauline epistles.", "According to proponents of the History of religions school, the Christian concept of the Holy Spirit cannot be explained from Jewish ideas alone without reference to the Hellenistic religions.", "And according to theologian Erik Konsmo, the views \"are so dissimilar that the only legitimate connection one can make is with the Greek term πνεῦμα ''pneuma'', Spirit itself\".Another link with ancient Greek thought is the Stoic idea of the spirit as ''anima mundi –'' or world soul – that unites all people.", "Some believe that this can be seen in Paul's formulation of the concept of the Holy Spirit that unites Christians in Jesus Christ and love for one another, but Konsmo again thinks that this position is difficult to maintain.", "In his Introduction to the 1964 book ''Meditations'', the Anglican priest Maxwell Staniforth wrote:Another Stoic concept which offered inspiration to the Church was that of \"divine Spirit\".", "Cleanthes, wishing to give more explicit meaning to Zeno's \"creative fire\", had been the first to hit upon the term ''pneuma'', or \"spirit\", to describe it.", "Like fire, this intelligent \"spirit\" was imagined as a tenuous substance akin to a current of air or breath, but essentially possessing the quality of warmth; it was immanent in the universe as God, and in man as the soul and life-giving principle.", "Clearly it is not a long step from this to the \"Holy Spirit\" of Christian theology, the \"Lord and Giver of life\", visibly manifested as tongues of fire at Pentecost and ever since associated – in the Christian as in the Stoic mind – with the ideas of vital fire and beneficent warmth." ], [ "Abrahamic religions", "=== Judaism ===The Hebrew language phrase ''ruach ha-kodesh'' (Hebrew: רוח הקודש, \"holy spirit\" also transliterated ''ruaḥ ha-qodesh'') is used in the Hebrew Bible and Jewish writings to refer to the spirit of YHWH (רוח יהוה).", "The Hebrew terms ''ruacḥ qodshəka'', \"thy holy spirit\" (רוּחַ קָדְשְׁךָ), and ''ruacḥ qodshō'', \"his holy spirit\" (רוּחַ קָדְשׁוֹ), also occur (when a possessive suffix is added the definite article ''ha'' is dropped).The Holy Spirit in Judaism generally refers to the divine aspect of prophecy and wisdom.", "It also refers to the divine force, quality, and influence of the Most High God, over the universe or over his creatures, in given contexts.=== Christianity ===For the large majority of Christians, the Holy Spirit (or Holy Ghost, from Old English ''gast'', \"spirit\") is the third person of the Trinity: The \"Triune God\" manifested as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit; each Person being God.", "Two symbols from the New Testament canon are associated with the Holy Spirit in Christian iconography: a winged dove, and tongues of fire.", "Each depiction of the Holy Spirit arose from different accounts in the Gospel narratives; the first being at the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River where the Holy Spirit was said to descend in the form of a dove as the voice of God the Father spoke as described in Matthew, Mark, and Luke; the second being from the day of Pentecost, fifty days after Passover where the descent of the Holy Spirit came upon the Apostles and other followers of Jesus Christ, as tongues of fire as described in the Acts of the Apostles, as promised by Jesus in his farewell discourse.", "Called \"the unveiled epiphany of God\", the Holy Spirit is the One who empowers the followers of Jesus with spiritual gifts and power that enables the proclamation of Jesus Christ, and the power that brings conviction of faith.File:Rom, Vatikan, Basilika St. Peter, Die Taube des Heiligen Geistes (Cathedra Petri, Bernini).jpg|Depiction of the Christian Holy Spirit as a dove, by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, in the apse of Saint Peter's BasilicaFile:Shield-Trinity-Scutum-Fidei-English.svg|A depiction of the Trinity consisting of God the Holy Spirit along with God the Father and God the SonFile:Абраз \"Сашэсце Святога Духа\".JPG|Pentecost icon depicting the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Apostles and Mary in the form of tongues of flame above their heads=== Islam ===The Holy Spirit (Arabic: روح القدس ''Ruh al-Qudus'', \"the Spirit of Holiness\") is mentioned four times in the Qur'an, where it acts as an agent of divine action or communication.", "The Muslim interpretation of the Holy Spirit is generally consistent with other interpretations based upon the Old and the New Testaments.", "On the basis of narrations in certain Hadith, some Muslims identify it with the angel Gabriel (Arabic ''Jibrāʾīl'').", "The Spirit (الروح ''al-Ruh'', without the adjective \"holy\" or \"exalted\") is described, among other things, as the creative spirit from God by which God enlivened Adam, and which inspired in various ways God's messengers and prophets, including Jesus and Abraham.", "The belief in a \"Holy Trinity\", according to the Qur'an, is forbidden and deemed to be blasphemy.", "The same prohibition applies to any idea of the duality of God (Allah).=== Baháʼí Faith ===The Baháʼí Faith has the concept of the ''Most Great Spirit'', seen as the bounty of God.", "It is usually used to describe the descent of the Spirit of God upon the messengers/prophets of God who include, among others, Jesus, Muhammad and Bahá'u'lláh.In Baháʼí belief, the Holy Spirit is the conduit through which the wisdom of God becomes directly associated with his messenger, and it has been described variously in different religions such as the burning bush to Moses, the sacred fire to Zoroaster, the dove to Jesus, the angel Gabriel to Muhammad, and the Maid of Heaven to Bahá'u'lláh (founder of the Baháʼí Faith).", "The Baháʼí view rejects the idea that the Holy Spirit is a partner to God in the Godhead, but rather is the pure essence of God's attributes." ], [ "Other religions", "=== Hinduism ===The Hindu concept of Advaita is linked to the Trinity and has been briefly explained by Raimon Panikkar.", "He states that the Holy Spirit, as one of the Three Persons of the Trinity of \"father, Logos and Holy Spirit\", is a bridge-builder between Christianity and Hinduism.", "He explains that: \"The meeting of spiritualistic can take place in the Spirit.", "No new 'system' has primarily to come of this encounter, but a new and yet old spirit must emerge.\"", "''Atman'' is Vedic terminology elaborated in Hindu scriptures such as Upanishads and Vedanta signifies the Ultimate Reality and Absolute.=== Zoroastrianism ===In Zoroastrianism, the Holy Spirit, also known as Spenta Mainyu, is a hypostasis of Ahura Mazda, the supreme Creator God of Zoroastrianism; the Holy Spirit is seen as the source of all goodness in the universe, the spark of all life within humanity, and is the ultimate guide for humanity to righteousness and communion with God.", "The Holy Spirit is put in direct opposition to its eternal dual counterpart, Angra Mainyu, who is the source of all wickedness and who leads humanity astray.=== Gnosticism ===The ancient Gnostic text known as the Secret Book of John refers to the supreme female principle Barbelo as the Holy Spirit." ], [ "See also", "* Avatar* Baptism with the Holy Spirit* Barakah* Chaplet of the Holy Spirit and His Seven Gifts* Cult of the Holy Spirit* Deity* Gender of the Holy Spirit* God in Abrahamic religions* Great Spirit* Intercession of the Spirit* Parable of the Leaven* Pneumatology" ], [ "Further reading", "*****Swete, Henry Barclay (1912).", "''The Holy Spirit in the Ancient Church: a Study of Christian Teaching in the Age of the Fathers''.", "." ], [ "References", "=== Works cited ===* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Helium-3" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Helium-3''' ('''3He''' see also helion) is a light, stable isotope of helium with two protons and one neutron (in contrast, the most common isotope, helium-4 has two protons and two neutrons).", "Other than protium (ordinary hydrogen), helium-3 is the only stable isotope of any element with more protons than neutrons.", "Helium-3 was discovered in 1939.Helium-3 occurs as a primordial nuclide, escaping from Earth's crust into its atmosphere and into outer space over millions of years.", "Helium-3 is also thought to be a natural nucleogenic and cosmogenic nuclide, one produced when lithium is bombarded by natural neutrons, which can be released by spontaneous fission and by nuclear reactions with cosmic rays.", "Some of the helium-3 found in the terrestrial atmosphere is also an artifact of atmospheric and underwater nuclear weapons testing.Much speculation has been made over the possibility of helium-3 as a future energy source.", "Unlike most nuclear fusion reactions, the fusion of helium-3 atoms is aneutronic, releasing large amounts of energy without causing the surrounding material to become radioactive.", "However, the temperatures required to achieve helium-3 fusion reactions are much higher than in traditional fusion reactions, and the process may unavoidably create other reactions that themselves would cause the surrounding material to become radioactive.The abundance of helium-3 is thought to be greater on the Moon than on Earth, having been created in the upper layer of regolith by the solar wind over billions of years, though still lower in abundance than in the Solar System's gas giants." ], [ "History", "The existence of helium-3 was first proposed in 1934 by the Australian nuclear physicist Mark Oliphant while he was working at the University of Cambridge Cavendish Laboratory.", "Oliphant had performed experiments in which fast deuterons collided with deuteron targets (incidentally, the first demonstration of nuclear fusion).", "Isolation of helium-3 was first accomplished by Luis Alvarez and Robert Cornog in 1939.Helium-3 was thought to be a radioactive isotope until it was also found in samples of natural helium, which is mostly helium-4, taken both from the terrestrial atmosphere and from natural gas wells." ], [ "Physical properties", "Because of its low atomic mass of 3.016 u, helium-3 has some physical properties different from those of helium-4, with a mass of 4.0026 u.", "Because of the weak, induced dipole–dipole interaction between the helium atoms, their microscopic physical properties are mainly determined by their zero-point energy.", "Also, the microscopic properties of helium-3 cause it to have a higher zero-point energy than helium-4.This implies that helium-3 can overcome dipole–dipole interactions with less thermal energy than helium-4 can.The quantum mechanical effects on helium-3 and helium-4 are significantly different because with two protons, two neutrons, and two electrons, helium-4 has an overall spin of zero, making it a boson, but with one fewer neutron, helium-3 has an overall spin of one half, making it a fermion.Pure helium-3 gas boils at 3.19 K compared with helium-4 at 4.23 K, and its critical point is also lower at 3.35 K, compared with helium-4 at 5.2 K. Helium-3 has less than half the density of helium-4 when it is at its boiling point: 59 g/L compared to 125 g/L of helium-4 at a pressure of one atmosphere.", "Its latent heat of vaporization is also considerably lower at 0.026 kJ/mol compared with the 0.0829 kJ/mol of helium-4." ], [ "Natural abundance", "=== Terrestrial abundance ===3He is a primordial substance in the Earth's mantle, thought to have become entrapped in the Earth during planetary formation.", "The ratio of 3He to 4He within the Earth's crust and mantle is less than that of estimates of solar disk composition as obtained from meteorite and lunar samples, with terrestrial materials generally containing lower 3He/4He ratios due to production of 4He from radioactive decay.3He has a cosmological ratio of 300 atoms per million atoms of 4He (at.", "ppm), leading to the assumption that the original ratio of these primordial gases in the mantle was around 200-300 ppm when Earth was formed.", "Over Earth's history alpha-particle decay of uranium, thorium and other radioactive isotopes has generated significant amounts of 4He, such that only around 7% of the helium now in the mantle is primordial helium, lowering the total 3He/4He ratio to around 20 ppm.", "Ratios of 3He/4He in excess of atmospheric are indicative of a contribution of 3He from the mantle.", "Crustal sources are dominated by the 4He produced by radioactive decay.The ratio of helium-3 to helium-4 in natural Earth-bound sources varies greatly.", "Samples of the lithium ore spodumene from Edison Mine, South Dakota were found to contain 12 parts of helium-3 to a million parts of helium-4.Samples from other mines showed 2 parts per million.Helium is also present as up to 7% of some natural gas sources, and large sources have over 0.5% (above 0.2% makes it viable to extract).", "The fraction of 3He in helium separated from natural gas in the U.S. was found to range from 70 to 242 parts per billion.", "Hence the US 2002 stockpile of 1 billion normal m3 would have contained about of helium-3.According to American physicist Richard Garwin, about or almost of 3He is available annually for separation from the US natural gas stream.", "If the process of separating out the 3He could employ as feedstock the liquefied helium typically used to transport and store bulk quantities, estimates for the incremental energy cost range from NTP, excluding the cost of infrastructure and equipment.", "Algeria's annual gas production is assumed to contain 100 million normal cubic metres and this would contain between of helium-3 (about ) assuming a similar 3He fraction.3He is also present in the Earth's atmosphere.", "The natural abundance of 3He in naturally occurring helium gas is 1.38 (1.38 parts per million).", "The partial pressure of helium in the Earth's atmosphere is about , and thus helium accounts for 5.2 parts per million of the total pressure (101325 Pa) in the Earth's atmosphere, and 3He thus accounts for 7.2 parts per trillion of the atmosphere.", "Since the atmosphere of the Earth has a mass of about , the mass of 3He in the Earth's atmosphere is the product of these numbers, or about of 3He.", "(In fact the effective figure is ten times smaller, since the above ppm are ppmv and not ppmw.", "One must multiply by 3 (the molecular mass of helium-3) and divide by 29 (the mean molecular mass of the atmosphere), resulting in of helium-3 in the earth's atmosphere.", ")3He is produced on Earth from three sources: lithium spallation, cosmic rays, and beta decay of tritium (3H).", "The contribution from cosmic rays is negligible within all except the oldest regolith materials, and lithium spallation reactions are a lesser contributor than the production of 4He by alpha particle emissions.The total amount of helium-3 in the mantle may be in the range of .", "However, most of the mantle is not directly accessible.", "Some helium-3 leaks up through deep-sourced hotspot volcanoes such as those of the Hawaiian Islands, but only per year is emitted to the atmosphere.", "Mid-ocean ridges emit another .", "Around subduction zones, various sources produce helium-3 in natural gas deposits which possibly contain a thousand tonnes of helium-3 (although there may be 25 thousand tonnes if all ancient subduction zones have such deposits).", "Wittenberg estimated that United States crustal natural gas sources may have only half a tonne total.", "Wittenberg cited Anderson's estimate of another in interplanetary dust particles on the ocean floors.", "In the 1994 study, extracting helium-3 from these sources consumes more energy than fusion would release.===Lunar surface===See Extraterrestrial mining or Lunar resources=== Solar nebula (primordial) abundance ===One early estimate of the primordial ratio of 3He to 4He in the solar nebula has been the measurement of their ratio in the atmosphere of Jupiter, measured by the mass spectrometer of the Galileo atmospheric entry probe.", "This ratio is about 1:10,000, or 100 parts of 3He per million parts of 4He.", "This is roughly the same ratio of the isotopes as in lunar regolith, which contains 28 ppm helium-4 and 2.8 ppb helium-3 (which is at the lower end of actual sample measurements, which vary from about 1.4 to 15 ppb).", "However, terrestrial ratios of the isotopes are lower by a factor of 100, mainly due to enrichment of helium-4 stocks in the mantle by billions of years of alpha decay from uranium, thorium as well as their decay products and extinct radionuclides." ], [ "Human production", "===Tritium decay===Virtually all helium-3 used in industry today is produced from the radioactive decay of tritium, given its very low natural abundance and its very high cost.Production, sales and distribution of helium-3 in the United States are managed by the US Department of Energy (DOE) DOE Isotope Program.While tritium has several different experimentally determined values of its half-life, NIST lists ().", "It decays into helium-3 by beta decay as in this nuclear equation:: →  +  + Among the total released energy of , the part taken by electron's kinetic energy varies, with an average of , while the remaining energy is carried off by the nearly undetectable electron antineutrino.", "Beta particles from tritium can penetrate only about of air, and they are incapable of passing through the dead outermost layer of human skin.", "The unusually low energy released in the tritium beta decay makes the decay (along with that of rhenium-187) appropriate for absolute neutrino mass measurements in the laboratory (the most recent experiment being KATRIN).The low energy of tritium's radiation makes it difficult to detect tritium-labeled compounds except by using liquid scintillation counting.Tritium is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen and is typically produced by bombarding lithium-6 with neutrons in a nuclear reactor.", "The lithium nucleus absorbs a neutron and splits into helium-4 and tritium.", "Tritium decays into helium-3 with a half-life of , so helium-3 can be produced by simply storing the tritium until it undergoes radioactive decay.", "As tritium forms a stable compound with oxygen (tritiated water) while helium-3 does not, the storage and collection process could continuously collect the material that outgasses from the stored material.Tritium is a critical component of nuclear weapons and historically it was produced and stockpiled primarily for this application.", "The decay of tritium into helium-3 reduces the explosive power of the fusion warhead, so periodically the accumulated helium-3 must be removed from warhead reservoirs and tritium in storage.", "Helium-3 removed during this process is marketed for other applications.For decades this has been, and remains, the principal source of the world's helium-3.However, since the signing of the START I Treaty in 1991 the number of nuclear warheads that are kept ready for use has decreased.", "This has reduced the quantity of helium-3 available from this source.", "Helium-3 stockpiles have been further diminished by increased demand, primarily for use in neutron radiation detectors and medical diagnostic procedures.", "US industrial demand for helium-3 reached a peak of (approximately ) per year in 2008.Price at auction, historically about , reached as high as .", "Since then, demand for helium-3 has declined to about per year due to the high cost and efforts by the DOE to recycle it and find substitutes.", "Assuming a density of at $100/l helium-3 would be about a thirtieth as expensive as tritium (roughly vs roughly ) while at $2000/l helium-3 would be about half as expensive as tritium ( vs ).The DOE recognized the developing shortage of both tritium and helium-3, and began producing tritium by lithium irradiation at the Tennessee Valley Authority's Watts Bar Nuclear Generating Station in 2010.In this process tritium-producing burnable absorber rods (TPBARs) containing lithium in a ceramic form are inserted into the reactor in place of the normal boron control rods Periodically the TPBARs are replaced and the tritium extracted.Currently only two commercial nuclear reactors (Watts Bar Nuclear Plant Units 1 and 2) are being used for tritium production but the process could, if necessary, be vastly scaled up to meet any conceivable demand simply by utilizing more of the nation's power reactors.", "Substantial quantities of tritium and helium-3 could also be extracted from the heavy water moderator in CANDU nuclear reactors.", "India and Canada, the two countries with the largest heavy water reactor fleet, are both known to extract tritium from moderator/coolant heavy water, but those amounts are not nearly enough to satisfy global demand of either tritium or helium-3.As tritium is also produced inadvertently in various processes in light water reactors (see the article on tritium for details), extraction from those sources could be another source of helium-3.However, if one takes the annual discharge of tritium (per 2018 figures) at La Hague reprocessing facility as a basis, the amounts discharged ( at La Hague) are not nearly enough to satisfy demand, even if 100% recovery could be achieved." ], [ "Uses", "=== Helium-3 spin echo ===Helium-3 can be used to do spin echo experiments of surface dynamics, which are underway at the Surface Physics Group at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge and in the Chemistry Department at Swansea University.=== Neutron detection ===Helium-3 is an important isotope in instrumentation for neutron detection.", "It has a high absorption cross section for thermal neutron beams and is used as a converter gas in neutron detectors.", "The neutron is converted through the nuclear reaction:n + 3He → 3H + 1H + 0.764 MeVinto charged particles tritium ions (T, 3H) and Hydrogen ions, or protons (p, 1H) which then are detected by creating a charge cloud in the stopping gas of a proportional counter or a Geiger–Müller tube.Furthermore, the absorption process is strongly spin-dependent, which allows a spin-polarized helium-3 volume to transmit neutrons with one spin component while absorbing the other.", "This effect is employed in neutron polarization analysis, a technique which probes for magnetic properties of matter.The United States Department of Homeland Security had hoped to deploy detectors to spot smuggled plutonium in shipping containers by their neutron emissions, but the worldwide shortage of helium-3 following the drawdown in nuclear weapons production since the Cold War has to some extent prevented this.", "As of 2012, DHS determined the commercial supply of boron-10 would support converting its neutron detection infrastructure to that technology.=== Cryogenics ===Phase diagram for Helium-3.Bcc - body-centered cubic crystal lattice.A helium-3 refrigerator uses helium-3 to achieve temperatures of 0.2 to 0.3 kelvin.", "A dilution refrigerator uses a mixture of helium-3 and helium-4 to reach cryogenic temperatures as low as a few thousandths of a kelvin.An important property of helium-3, which distinguishes it from the more common helium-4, is that its nucleus is a fermion since it contains an odd number of spin particles.", "Helium-4 nuclei are bosons, containing an even number of spin particles.", "This is a direct result of the addition rules for quantized angular momentum.", "At low temperatures (about 2.17 K), helium-4 undergoes a phase transition: A fraction of it enters a superfluid phase that can be roughly understood as a type of Bose–Einstein condensate.", "Such a mechanism is not available for helium-3 atoms, which are fermions.", "However, it was widely speculated that helium-3 could also become a superfluid at much lower temperatures, if the atoms formed into ''pairs'' analogous to Cooper pairs in the BCS theory of superconductivity.", "Each Cooper pair, having integer spin, can be thought of as a boson.", "During the 1970s, David Lee, Douglas Osheroff and Robert Coleman Richardson discovered two phase transitions along the melting curve, which were soon realized to be the two superfluid phases of helium-3.The transition to a superfluid occurs at 2.491 millikelvins on the melting curve.", "They were awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery.", "Alexei Abrikosov, Vitaly Ginzburg, and Tony Leggett won the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physics for their work on refining understanding of the superfluid phase of helium-3.In a zero magnetic field, there are two distinct superfluid phases of 3He, the A-phase and the B-phase.", "The B-phase is the low-temperature, low-pressure phase which has an isotropic energy gap.", "The A-phase is the higher temperature, higher pressure phase that is further stabilized by a magnetic field and has two point nodes in its gap.", "The presence of two phases is a clear indication that 3He is an unconventional superfluid (superconductor), since the presence of two phases requires an additional symmetry, other than gauge symmetry, to be broken.", "In fact, it is a ''p''-wave superfluid, with spin one, '''S'''=1, and angular momentum one, '''L'''=1.The ground state corresponds to total angular momentum zero, '''J'''='''S'''+'''L'''=0 (vector addition).", "Excited states are possible with non-zero total angular momentum, '''J'''>0, which are excited pair collective modes.", "Because of the extreme purity of superfluid 3He (since all materials except 4He have solidified andsunk to the bottom of the liquid 3He and any 4He has phase separated entirely, this is the most pure condensed matter state), these collective modes have been studied with much greater precision than in any other unconventional pairing system.=== Medical imaging ===Helium-3 nuclei have an intrinsic nuclear spin of , and a relatively high magnetogyric ratio.", "Helium-3 can be hyperpolarized using non-equilibrium means such as spin-exchange optical pumping.", "During this process, circularly polarized infrared laser light, tuned to the appropriate wavelength, is used to excite electrons in an alkali metal, such as caesium or rubidium inside a sealed glass vessel.", "The angular momentum is transferred from the alkali metal electrons to the noble gas nuclei through collisions.", "In essence, this process effectively aligns the nuclear spins with the magnetic field in order to enhance the NMR signal.", "The hyperpolarized gas may then be stored at pressures of 10 atm, for up to 100 hours.", "Following inhalation, gas mixtures containing the hyperpolarized helium-3 gas can be imaged with an MRI scanner to produce anatomical and functional images of lung ventilation.", "This technique is also able to produce images of the airway tree, locate unventilated defects, measure the alveolar oxygen partial pressure, and measure the ventilation/perfusion ratio.", "This technique may be critical for the diagnosis and treatment management of chronic respiratory diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), emphysema, cystic fibrosis, and asthma.=== Radio energy absorber for tokamak plasma experiments ===Both MIT's Alcator C-Mod tokamak and the Joint European Torus (JET) have experimented with adding a little helium-3 to a H–D plasma to increase the absorption of radio-frequency (RF) energy to heat the hydrogen and deuterium ions, a \"three-ion\" effect.=== Nuclear fuel ===+ Comparison of neutronicity for different reactions Reactants Products ''Q'' n/MeVFirst-generation fusion fuels → + 3.268 MeV 0.306 → + 4.032 MeV 0 → + 17.571 MeV 0.057Second-generation fusion fuel → + 18.354 MeV 0Third-generation fusion fuels → + 2 12.86 MeV 0 + → 3 8.68 MeV 0Net result of 2D burning(sum of first 4 rows) → 2( + n + p)43.225 MeV 0.046Current nuclear fuel → 2 FP+ 2.5n~200 MeV 0.0075 can be produced by the low temperature fusion of → + γ + 4.98 MeV.", "If the fusion temperature is below that for the helium nuclei to fuse, the reaction produces a high energy alpha particle which quickly acquires an electron producing a stable light helium ion which can be utilized directly as a source of electricity without producing dangerous neutrons.", "The fusion reaction rate increases rapidly with temperature until it maximizes and then gradually drops off.", "The DT rate peaks at a lower temperature (about 70 keV, or 800 million kelvins) and at a higher value than other reactions commonly considered for fusion energy.", "can be used in fusion reactions by either of the reactions + 18.3 MeV, or + 12.86 MeV.The conventional deuterium + tritium (\"D-T\") fusion process produces energetic neutrons which render reactor components radioactive with activation products.", "The appeal of helium-3 fusion stems from the aneutronic nature of its reaction products.", "Helium-3 itself is non-radioactive.", "The lone high-energy by-product, the proton, can be contained by means of electric and magnetic fields.", "The momentum energy of this proton (created in the fusion process) will interact with the containing electromagnetic field, resulting in direct net electricity generation.Because of the higher Coulomb barrier, the temperatures required for fusion are much higher than those of conventional D-T fusion.", "Moreover, since both reactants need to be mixed together to fuse, reactions between nuclei of the same reactant will occur, and the D-D reaction () does produce a neutron.", "Reaction rates vary with temperature, but the D- reaction rate is never greater than 3.56 times the D-D reaction rate (see graph).", "Therefore, fusion using D- fuel at the right temperature and a D-lean fuel mixture, can produce a much lower neutron flux than D-T fusion, but is not clean, negating some of its main attraction.The second possibility, fusing with itself (), requires even higher temperatures (since now both reactants have a +2 charge), and thus is even more difficult than the D- reaction.", "However, it does offer a possible reaction that produces no neutrons; the charged protons produced can be contained using electric and magnetic fields, which in turn results in direct electricity generation.", "fusion is feasible as demonstrated in the laboratory and has immense advantages, but commercial viability is many years in the future.The amounts of helium-3 needed as a replacement for conventional fuels are substantial by comparison to amounts currently available.", "The total amount of energy produced in the reaction is 18.4 MeV, which corresponds to some 493 megawatt-hours (4.93×108 W·h) per three grams (one mole) of .", "If the total amount of energy could be converted to electrical power with 100% efficiency (a physical impossibility), it would correspond to about 30 minutes of output of a gigawatt electrical plant per mole of .", "Thus, a year's production (at 6 grams for each operation hour) would require 52.5 kilograms of helium-3.The amount of fuel needed for large-scale applications can also be put in terms of total consumption: electricity consumption by 107 million U.S. households in 2001 totaled 1,140 billion kW·h (1.14×1015 W·h).", "Again assuming 100% conversion efficiency, 6.7 tonnes per year of helium-3 would be required for that segment of the energy demand of the United States, 15 to 20 tonnes per year given a more realistic end-to-end conversion efficiency.A second-generation approach to controlled fusion power involves combining helium-3 and deuterium, .", "This reaction produces an alpha particle and a high-energy proton.", "The most important potential advantage of this fusion reaction for power production as well as other applications lies in its compatibility with the use of electrostatic fields to control fuel ions and the fusion protons.", "High speed protons, as positively charged particles, can have their kinetic energy converted directly into electricity, through use of solid-state conversion materials as well as other techniques.", "Potential conversion efficiencies of 70% may be possible, as there is no need to convert proton energy to heat in order to drive a turbine-powered electrical generator.===He-3 power plants===There have been many claims about the capabilities of helium-3 power plants.", "According to proponents, fusion power plants operating on deuterium and helium-3 would offer lower capital and operating costs than their competitors due to less technical complexity, higher conversion efficiency, smaller size, the absence of radioactive fuel, no air or water pollution, and only low-level radioactive waste disposal requirements.", "Recent estimates suggest that about $6 billion in investment capital will be required to develop and construct the first helium-3 fusion power plant.", "Financial break even at today's wholesale electricity prices (5 US cents per kilowatt-hour) would occur after five 1-gigawatt plants were on line, replacing old conventional plants or meeting new demand.The reality is not so clear-cut.", "The most advanced fusion programs in the world are inertial confinement fusion (such as National Ignition Facility) and magnetic confinement fusion (such as ITER and Wendelstein 7-X).", "In the case of the former, there is no solid roadmap to power generation.", "In the case of the latter, commercial power generation is not expected until around 2050.In both cases, the type of fusion discussed is the simplest: D-T fusion.", "The reason for this is the very low Coulomb barrier for this reaction; for D+3He, the barrier is much higher, and it is even higher for 3He–3He.", "The immense cost of reactors like ITER and National Ignition Facility are largely due to their immense size, yet to scale up to higher plasma temperatures would require reactors far larger still.", "The 14.7 MeV proton and 3.6 MeV alpha particle from D–3He fusion, plus the higher conversion efficiency, means that more electricity is obtained per kilogram than with D-T fusion (17.6 MeV), but not that much more.", "As a further downside, the rates of reaction for helium-3 fusion reactions are not particularly high, requiring a reactor that is larger still or more reactors to produce the same amount of electricity.===Alternatives to He-3 ===To attempt to work around this problem of massively large power plants that may not even be economical with D-T fusion, let alone the far more challenging D–3He fusion, a number of other reactors have been proposed – the Fusor, Polywell, Focus fusion, and many more, though many of these concepts have fundamental problems with achieving a net energy gain, and generally attempt to achieve fusion in thermal disequilibrium, something that could potentially prove impossible, and consequently, these long-shot programs tend to have trouble garnering funding despite their low budgets.", "Unlike the \"big\", \"hot\" fusion systems, however, if such systems were to work, they could scale to the higher barrier \"aneutronic\" fuels, and therefore their proponents tend to promote p-B fusion, which requires no exotic fuels such as helium-3." ], [ "Extraterrestrial", "===Moon===Materials on the Moon's surface contain helium-3 at concentrations between 1.4 and 15 ppb in sunlit areas, and may contain concentrations as much as 50 ppb in permanently shadowed regions.", "A number of people, starting with Gerald Kulcinski in 1986, have proposed to explore the Moon, mine lunar regolith and use the helium-3 for fusion.", "Because of the low concentrations of helium-3, any mining equipment would need to process extremely large amounts of regolith (over 150 tonnes of regolith to obtain one gram of helium-3).The primary objective of Indian Space Research Organisation's first lunar probe called Chandrayaan-1, launched on October 22, 2008, was reported in some sources to be mapping the Moon's surface for helium-3-containing minerals.", "However, no such objective is mentioned in the project's official list of goals, although many of its scientific payloads have noted helium-3-related applications.Cosmochemist and geochemist Ouyang Ziyuan from the Chinese Academy of Sciences who is now in charge of the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program has already stated on many occasions that one of the main goals of the program would be the mining of helium-3, from which operation \"each year, three space shuttle missions could bring enough fuel for all human beings across the world.\"", "In January 2006, the Russian space company RKK Energiya announced that it considers lunar helium-3 a potential economic resource to be mined by 2020, if funding can be found.Not all writers feel the extraction of lunar helium-3 is feasible, or even that there will be a demand for it for fusion.", "Dwayne Day, writing in ''The Space Review'' in 2015, characterises helium-3 extraction from the Moon for use in fusion as magical thinking about an unproven technology, and questions the feasibility of lunar extraction, as compared to production on Earth.===Gas giants===Mining gas giants for helium-3 has also been proposed.", "The British Interplanetary Society's hypothetical Project Daedalus interstellar probe design was fueled by helium-3 mines in the atmosphere of Jupiter, for example." ], [ "See also", "*List of elements facing shortage" ], [ "Notes and references", "=== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* The Nobel Prize in Physics 2003, presentation speech* ''Moon for Sale'': A BBC Horizon documentary on the possibility of lunar mining of Helium-3" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)" ], [ "Introduction", "In quantum mechanics, the '''Hamiltonian''' of a system is an operator corresponding to the total energy of that system, including both kinetic energy and potential energy.", "Its spectrum, the system's ''energy spectrum'' or its set of ''energy eigenvalues'', is the set of possible outcomes obtainable from a measurement of the system's total energy.", "Due to its close relation to the energy spectrum and time-evolution of a system, it is of fundamental importance in most formulations of quantum theory.The Hamiltonian is named after William Rowan Hamilton, who developed a revolutionary reformulation of Newtonian mechanics, known as Hamiltonian mechanics, which was historically important to the development of quantum physics.", "Similar to vector notation, it is typically denoted by , where the hat indicates that it is an operator.", "It can also be written as or ." ], [ "Introduction", "The Hamiltonian of a system represents the total energy of the system; that is, the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of all particles associated with the system.", "The Hamiltonian takes different forms and can be simplified in some cases by taking into account the concrete characteristics of the system under analysis, such as single or several particles in the system, interaction between particles, kind of potential energy, time varying potential or time independent one." ], [ "Schrödinger Hamiltonian", "===One particle===By analogy with classical mechanics, the Hamiltonian is commonly expressed as the sum of operators corresponding to the kinetic and potential energies of a system in the formwhereis the potential energy operator andis the kinetic energy operator in which is the mass of the particle, the dot denotes the dot product of vectors, andis the momentum operator where a is the del operator.", "The dot product of with itself is the Laplacian .", "In three dimensions using Cartesian coordinates the Laplace operator isAlthough this is not the technical definition of the Hamiltonian in classical mechanics, it is the form it most commonly takes.", "Combining these yields the form used in the Schrödinger equation:which allows one to apply the Hamiltonian to systems described by a wave function .", "This is the approach commonly taken in introductory treatments of quantum mechanics, using the formalism of Schrödinger's wave mechanics.One can also make substitutions to certain variables to fit specific cases, such as some involving electromagnetic fields.==== Expectation value ====It can be shown that the expectation value of the Hamiltonian which gives the energy expectation value will always be greater than or equal to the minimum potential of the system.Consider computing the expectation value of kinetic energy:Hence the expectation value of kinetic energy is always non-negative.", "This result can be used to calculate the expectation value of the total energy which is given for a normalized wavefunction as:which complete the proof.", "Similarly, the condition can be generalized to any higher dimensions using divergence theorem.===Many particles===The formalism can be extended to particles:whereis the potential energy function, now a function of the spatial configuration of the system and time (a particular set of spatial positions at some instant of time defines a configuration) andis the kinetic energy operator of particle , is the gradient for particle , and is the Laplacian for particle :Combining these yields the Schrödinger Hamiltonian for the -particle case:However, complications can arise in the many-body problem.", "Since the potential energy depends on the spatial arrangement of the particles, the kinetic energy will also depend on the spatial configuration to conserve energy.", "The motion due to any one particle will vary due to the motion of all the other particles in the system.", "For this reason cross terms for kinetic energy may appear in the Hamiltonian; a mix of the gradients for two particles:where denotes the mass of the collection of particles resulting in this extra kinetic energy.", "Terms of this form are known as ''mass polarization terms'', and appear in the Hamiltonian of many electron atoms (see below).For interacting particles, i.e.", "particles which interact mutually and constitute a many-body situation, the potential energy function is ''not'' simply a sum of the separate potentials (and certainly not a product, as this is dimensionally incorrect).", "The potential energy function can only be written as above: a function of all the spatial positions of each particle.For non-interacting particles, i.e.", "particles which do not interact mutually and move independently, the potential of the system is the sum of the separate potential energy for each particle, that isThe general form of the Hamiltonian in this case is:where the sum is taken over all particles and their corresponding potentials; the result is that the Hamiltonian of the system is the sum of the separate Hamiltonians for each particle.", "This is an idealized situation—in practice the particles are almost always influenced by some potential, and there are many-body interactions.", "One illustrative example of a two-body interaction where this form would not apply is for electrostatic potentials due to charged particles, because they interact with each other by Coulomb interaction (electrostatic force), as shown below." ], [ "Schrödinger equation", "The Hamiltonian generates the time evolution of quantum states.", "If is the state of the system at time , thenThis equation is the Schrödinger equation.", "It takes the same form as the Hamilton–Jacobi equation, which is one of the reasons is also called the Hamiltonian.", "Given the state at some initial time (), we can solve it to obtain the state at any subsequent time.", "In particular, if is independent of time, thenThe exponential operator on the right hand side of the Schrödinger equation is usually defined by the corresponding power series in .", "One might notice that taking polynomials or power series of unbounded operators that are not defined everywhere may not make mathematical sense.", "Rigorously, to take functions of unbounded operators, a functional calculus is required.", "In the case of the exponential function, the continuous, or just the holomorphic functional calculus suffices.", "We note again, however, that for common calculations the physicists' formulation is quite sufficient.By the *-homomorphism property of the functional calculus, the operatoris a unitary operator.", "It is the ''time evolution operator'' or ''propagator'' of a closed quantum system.", "If the Hamiltonian is time-independent, form a one parameter unitary group (more than a semigroup); this gives rise to the physical principle of detailed balance." ], [ "Dirac formalism", "However, in the more general formalism of Dirac, the Hamiltonian is typically implemented as an operator on a Hilbert space in the following way:The eigenkets (eigenvectors) of , denoted , provide an orthonormal basis for the Hilbert space.", "The spectrum of allowed energy levels of the system is given by the set of eigenvalues, denoted , solving the equation:Since is a Hermitian operator, the energy is always a real number.From a mathematically rigorous point of view, care must be taken with the above assumptions.", "Operators on infinite-dimensional Hilbert spaces need not have eigenvalues (the set of eigenvalues does not necessarily coincide with the spectrum of an operator).", "However, all routine quantum mechanical calculations can be done using the physical formulation." ], [ "Expressions for the Hamiltonian", "Following are expressions for the Hamiltonian in a number of situations.", "Typical ways to classify the expressions are the number of particles, number of dimensions, and the nature of the potential energy function—importantly space and time dependence.", "Masses are denoted by , and charges by .===General forms for one particle======Free particle===The particle is not bound by any potential energy, so the potential is zero and this Hamiltonian is the simplest.", "For one dimension:and in higher dimensions:===Constant-potential well===For a particle in a region of constant potential (no dependence on space or time), in one dimension, the Hamiltonian is:in three dimensionsThis applies to the elementary \"particle in a box\" problem, and step potentials.===Simple harmonic oscillator===For a simple harmonic oscillator in one dimension, the potential varies with position (but not time), according to:where the angular frequency , effective spring constant , and mass of the oscillator satisfy:so the Hamiltonian is:For three dimensions, this becomeswhere the three-dimensional position vector using Cartesian coordinates is , its magnitude isWriting the Hamiltonian out in full shows it is simply the sum of the one-dimensional Hamiltonians in each direction:===Rigid rotor===For a rigid rotor—i.e., system of particles which can rotate freely about any axes, not bound in any potential (such as free molecules with negligible vibrational degrees of freedom, say due to double or triple chemical bonds), the Hamiltonian is:where , , and are the moment of inertia components (technically the diagonal elements of the moment of inertia tensor), and and are the total angular momentum operators (components), about the , , and axes respectively.===Electrostatic (Coulomb) potential===The Coulomb potential energy for two point charges and (i.e., those that have no spatial extent independently), in three dimensions, is (in SI units—rather than Gaussian units which are frequently used in electromagnetism):However, this is only the potential for one point charge due to another.", "If there are many charged particles, each charge has a potential energy due to every other point charge (except itself).", "For charges, the potential energy of charge due to all other charges is (see also Electrostatic potential energy stored in a configuration of discrete point charges):where is the electrostatic potential of charge at .", "The total potential of the system is then the sum over :so the Hamiltonian is:===Electric dipole in an electric field===For an electric dipole moment constituting charges of magnitude , in a uniform, electrostatic field (time-independent) , positioned in one place, the potential is:the dipole moment itself is the operatorSince the particle is stationary, there is no translational kinetic energy of the dipole, so the Hamiltonian of the dipole is just the potential energy:===Magnetic dipole in a magnetic field===For a magnetic dipole moment in a uniform, magnetostatic field (time-independent) , positioned in one place, the potential is:Since the particle is stationary, there is no translational kinetic energy of the dipole, so the Hamiltonian of the dipole is just the potential energy:For a spin- particle, the corresponding spin magnetic moment is:where is the \"spin g-factor\" (not to be confused with the gyromagnetic ratio), is the electron charge, is the spin operator vector, whose components are the Pauli matrices, hence===Charged particle in an electromagnetic field===For a particle with mass and charge in an electromagnetic field, described by the scalar potential and vector potential , there are two parts to the Hamiltonian to substitute for.", "The canonical momentum operator , which includes a contribution from the field and fulfils the canonical commutation relation, must be quantized;where is the kinetic momentum.", "The quantization prescription readsso the corresponding kinetic energy operator isand the potential energy, which is due to the field, is given byCasting all of these into the Hamiltonian gives" ], [ "Energy eigenket degeneracy, symmetry, and conservation laws", "In many systems, two or more energy eigenstates have the same energy.", "A simple example of this is a free particle, whose energy eigenstates have wavefunctions that are propagating plane waves.", "The energy of each of these plane waves is inversely proportional to the square of its wavelength.", "A wave propagating in the direction is a different state from one propagating in the direction, but if they have the same wavelength, then their energies will be the same.", "When this happens, the states are said to be ''degenerate''.It turns out that degeneracy occurs whenever a nontrivial unitary operator commutes with the Hamiltonian.", "To see this, suppose that is an energy eigenket.", "Then is an energy eigenket with the same eigenvalue, sinceSince is nontrivial, at least one pair of and must represent distinct states.", "Therefore, has at least one pair of degenerate energy eigenkets.", "In the case of the free particle, the unitary operator which produces the symmetry is the rotation operator, which rotates the wavefunctions by some angle while otherwise preserving their shape.The existence of a symmetry operator implies the existence of a conserved observable.", "Let be the Hermitian generator of :It is straightforward to show that if commutes with , then so does :Therefore,In obtaining this result, we have used the Schrödinger equation, as well as its dual,Thus, the expected value of the observable is conserved for any state of the system.", "In the case of the free particle, the conserved quantity is the angular momentum." ], [ "Hamilton's equations", "Hamilton's equations in classical Hamiltonian mechanics have a direct analogy in quantum mechanics.", "Suppose we have a set of basis states , which need not necessarily be eigenstates of the energy.", "For simplicity, we assume that they are discrete, and that they are orthonormal, i.e.,Note that these basis states are assumed to be independent of time.", "We will assume that the Hamiltonian is also independent of time.The instantaneous state of the system at time , , can be expanded in terms of these basis states:whereThe coefficients are complex variables.", "We can treat them as coordinates which specify the state of the system, like the position and momentum coordinates which specify a classical system.", "Like classical coordinates, they are generally not constant in time, and their time dependence gives rise to the time dependence of the system as a whole.The expectation value of the Hamiltonian of this state, which is also the mean energy, iswhere the last step was obtained by expanding in terms of the basis states.Each actually corresponds to ''two'' independent degrees of freedom, since the variable has a real part and an imaginary part.", "We now perform the following trick: instead of using the real and imaginary parts as the independent variables, we use and its complex conjugate .", "With this choice of independent variables, we can calculate the partial derivativeBy applying Schrödinger's equation and using the orthonormality of the basis states, this further reduces toSimilarly, one can show thatIf we define \"conjugate momentum\" variables bythen the above equations becomewhich is precisely the form of Hamilton's equations, with the s as the generalized coordinates, the s as the conjugate momenta, and taking the place of the classical Hamiltonian." ], [ "See also", "*Hamiltonian mechanics*Two-state quantum system*Operator (physics)*Bra–ket notation*Quantum state*Linear algebra*Conservation of energy*Potential theory*Many-body problem*Electrostatics*Electric field*Magnetic field*Lieb–Thirring inequality" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hi-hat" ], [ "Introduction", "A modern hi-hatA '''hi-hat''' ('''hihat''', '''high-hat''', etc.)", "is a combination of two cymbals and a pedal, all mounted on a metal stand.", "It is a part of the standard drum kit used by drummers in many styles of music including rock, pop, jazz, and blues.", "Hi-hats consist of a matching pair of small to medium-sized cymbals mounted on a stand, with the two cymbals facing each other.", "The bottom cymbal is fixed and the top is mounted on a rod which moves the top cymbal toward the bottom one when the pedal is depressed (a hi-hat that is in this position is said to be \"closed\" or \"closed hi-hats\").The hi-hat evolved from a \"sock cymbal\", a pair of similar cymbals mounted at ground level on a hinged, spring-loaded foot apparatus.", "Drummers invented the first sock cymbals to enable one drummer to play multiple percussion instruments at the same time.", "Over time these became mounted on short stands—also known as \"low-boys\"—and activated by pedals similar to those used in modern hi-hats.", "When extended upward roughly 3 feet (76 cm) they were originally known as \"high sock\" cymbals, which evolved over time to the familiar \"high-hat\" term.The cymbals may be played by closing them together with the pedal, which creates a \"chck\" sound or striking them with a stick, which may be done with them open, closed, open and then closed after striking to dampen the ring, or closed and then opened to create a shimmering effect at the end of the note.", "Depending on how hard a hi-hat is struck and whether it is \"open\" (i.e., pedal not pressed, so the two cymbals are not closed together), a hi-hat can produce a range of dynamics, from very quiet \"chck\" (or \"chick\") sounds, done with merely gently pressing the pedal—this is suitable for soft accompaniment during a ballad or the start of a guitar solo—to very loud (e.g.", "striking fully open hats hard with sticks, a technique used in loud heavy metal music songs).While the term ''hi-hat'' normally refers to the entire setup (two cymbals, stand, pedal, rod mechanism), in some cases, drummers use it to refer exclusively to the two cymbals themselves." ], [ "History", "Dance band drummer with sock, or low-hat, cymbalSabian 10\" mini-hats, 1980sVented UFIP 14\" hi-hat cymbalsInitial versions of the hi-hat were called clangers, which were small cymbals mounted onto a bass drum rim and struck with an arm on the bass drum pedal.", "Then came shoes, which were two hinged boards with cymbals on the ends that were clashed together.", "Next was the low-sock, low-boy or low-hat, pedal-activated cymbals employing an ankle-high apparatus similar to a modern hi-hat stand.", "A standard size was , some with heavy bells up to wide.Hi-hats that were raised and could be played by hand as well as foot may have been developed around 1926 by Barney Walberg of the drum accessory company Walberg and Auge.", "The first recognized master of the new instrument was \"Papa\" Jo Jones, whose playing of timekeeping \"ride\" rhythms while striking the hi-hat as it opened and closed inspired the innovation of the ride cymbal.", "Another claim, published in Jazz Profiles Blogspot on 8 August 2008, to the invention of the hi-hat is attributed to drummer William \"O'Neil\" Spencer (b.1909-d.1944).", "Legendary Jazz drummer, \"Philly Joe Jones\" (born as Joseph Rudolph Jones, b.1923-d.1985), was quoted describing his understanding about the hi-hat history.", "Jones said, \"I really dug O'Neil.", "He came to club in Philadelphia where I was working in 1943, I think it was, and talked to me about the hi-hat.", "I was using a foot cymbal, the low-hat.", "O'Neil was the one who invented the hi-hat.", "I believe that, man.", "He suggested I close the hat on '2' and '4' when playing 4/4 time.", "The idea seemed so right hadn't heard anyone do that before.\"", "The editor of the 2008 Jazz Profiles article made specific mention to others who are thought to invent the hi-hat, including Jo Jones, but also Kaiser Marshall.", "Not to take away from Papa Jones accomplishments in drumming style and technique, a 2013 Modern Drummer article credits Papa Jones with being the first to use brushes on drums and shifting time keeping from the bass drum to the hi-hat (providing a \"swing-pulse focus\").Until the late 1960s, standard hi-hats were , with available as a less-common alternative in professional cymbal ranges, and smaller sizes down to restricted to children's kits.", "In the early 1970s, hard rock drummers (including Led Zeppelin's John Bonham) began to use hi-hats, such as the Paiste Giant Beat.", "In the late 1980s, Zildjian released its revolutionary Special Recording hats, which were small, heavy hi-hat cymbals intended for close miking either live or recording, and other manufacturers quickly followed suit, Sabian for example with their mini hats.", "In the early to mid-1990s, Paiste offered mini hi-hats as part of its Visions series, which were among the world's smallest hi-hats.", "Starting in the 1980s, a number of manufacturers also experimented with rivets in the lower cymbal.", "But by the end of the 1990s, the standard size was again , with a less-common alternative, and smaller hats mainly used for special sounds.", "Rivets in hi-hats failed to catch on.Modern hi-hat cymbals are much heavier than modern crash cymbals, reflecting the trend to lighter and thinner crash cymbals as well as to heavier hi-hats.", "Another evolution is that a pair of hi-hat cymbals may not be identical, with the bottom often heavier than the top, and possibly vented.", "Some examples are Sabian's Fusion Hats with holes in the bottom cymbal, and the Sabian X-cellerator, Zildjian Master Sound and Zildjian Quick Beats, Paiste Sound Edge, and Meinl Soundwave.", "Some drummers even use completely mismatched hi-hats from different cymbal ranges (Zildjian's K/Z hats), of different manufacturers, and even of different sizes (similar to the K Custom Session Hats where the top hat is a smaller than the bottom).", "Max Roach was particularly known for using a top with a bottom.Other recent developments include the X-hat (fixed, closed, or half-open hi-hats) and cable-controlled or remote hi-hats.", "Sabian introduced the Triple Hi-Hat, designed by Peter Kuppers.", "In this variation of the hi-hat, the top cymbal moves down and the bottom cymbal moves up simultaneously while the middle cymbal remains stationary.Drop-clutches are also used to lock and release hi-hats while both feet are in use playing double bass drums." ], [ "Modern stands", "Bottom hat tilt screwsMost stands have retractable spikes, shown here extended, to minimize slipping10 inch mini-hats with (1) hi-hat rod and clutch (2) tom and cowbell holder (3) hi-hat legs and pedalHi-hat pedal and legsThe standard hi-hat features two cymbals mounted on a stand consisting of a mating metal tube and rod supported by a tripod and linked to a pedal.", "The stationary bottom cymbal sits atop the tube, typically parallel to the ground, but is often fitted with an adjustment screw allowing it to be set slightly tilted.", "The top cymbal is mounted bell up on the rod and closed against the bottom by foot pressure on the pedal.An integrated clutch assembly includes a spring which may be adjusted to set resistance, which also varies rate and tension of return, as well as an adjustment for the gap between cymbals when open.Standard terminology has evolved.", "'''''Open''''' and '''''closed hi-hat''''' refer to notes struck while the two cymbals are apart or together (open or closed), while '''''pedal hi-hat''''' refers to parts or notes played solely with the pedal used to strike the two cymbals.", "Most cymbal patterns consist of both open and closed notes.Some hi-hats allow the tripod to be tilted or rotated.", "Another configuration omits the tripod and attaches the stand to the side of the bass drum, particular suitable for kits with very large or double bass drums.===Clutch===The standard clutch uses a knurled collar partially threaded below the cymbal and a pair of knurled rings above it.", "The collar is tightened against the end of the thread, while the rings are tightened against each other.====Drop clutch====A '''drop clutch''' allows a pair of hats mounted on a conventional hi-hat stand to be closed without use of the pedal.The drop clutch is provided with a lever that can be operated by hand or struck with a drumstick.", "This action releases the upper hi-hat cymbal, which falls onto the bottom cymbal and remains there, with gravity then holding the hats loosely closed, and allowing them to be played by the sticks in this position.", "Operation of the pedal re-engages the clutch and allows the player to resume normal playing.Drop clutches were developed to allow players using double bass drum pedals to play closed hi-hats without needing to operate the hi-hat pedal, and this remains their primary application.As it relies on gravity to close the cymbals, the drop clutch gives the player no control over the tension holding them together, and supplies only minimal tension.", "On the other hand, if the player manually lowers the top cymbal of a standard hi-hat stand before playing, this allows any desired tension to be set, and the pedal can still be used to increase the tension while playing, but not to open the hats or to reduce the tension.", "Some drummers prefer this technique and reject the drop clutch as too limiting to the sounds available.In 2020, Tama introduced the Sizzle Touch Drop Clutch.", "This clutch when dropped, allows the distance between the top and bottom cymbals to be adjusted via an adjustment bolt on top of the clutch.", "To return the clutch to functioning as a standard one, the drummer depresses the hi-hat stand's pedal.A less common alternative is the locking hi-hat pedal, such as the Tama \"Cobra Clutch\".", "This and similar high-end locking pedals do allow for control over the tension.", "It is engaged by pressing a lock pedal separate from the main pedal.===Cable hats===A '''cable hat''' or '''remote hat''' uses a cable to allow hi-hat cymbals to be positioned independently of the pedal.", "Operation is otherwise normal.===X-hats===An '''X-hat''' is an adapter to allow a pair of hi-hat cymbals to be mounted in a closed position on a cymbal stand.", "There is no pedal, the hats are simply kept closed at a constant tension, similar to a cymbal stack.", "They are associated with heavy metal music, particularly styles that use double bass drumming, a two-foot technique.", "By using an X-hat, a drummer who is already using both feet on the bass drumpedals can still play hi-hat.===Different cymbal hi-hats===Besides traditional hi-hat cymbals (normally 14\" but also commonly 13\" or 15\") the enormous variety of cymbals available means many of them are used as hi-hats.", "Drummer Thomas Lang uses a hi-hat made out of Bell cymbals as his secondary hi-hat.", "Terry Bozzio uses two China cymbals in the form of a hi-hat as a kind of distortion hi-hat.", "Following this principle, Sabian alongside drummer Tony Verderosa, has developed the 12\" VFX distortion hi-hats, mixing a Crash cymbal on the bottom with a China on the top.===Non-cymbal hi-hats===In addition to the many types of hi-hat cymbals on the market, there are also non-cymbal hi-hat pedals like the Latin Percussion Shekere hi-hat, the Remo Spoxe hi-hats created by Terry Bozzio in the late 80s, the Factory Metal Hat Crasherz or the Baldman Percussion Junk Hats.", "These kinds of percussion offer different textures in addition to the main hi-hat pedal on the drum kit and also options to expand the kit's pedal row." ], [ "Use", "Characteristic rock and hip hop hi-hat pattern Four-four pattern with open (o) and closed (+) hi-hat (see: percussion notation) Hi-hat \"crescendo\" from closed to open leading to the ride cymbal When struck closed or played with the pedal, the hi-hat gives a short, crisp, muted percussive sound, referred to as a \"chick\".", "Adjusting the gap between the cymbals can alter the sound of the open hi-hat from a shimmering, sustained tone to something similar to a ride cymbal.", "When struck with a drumstick, the cymbals make either a short, snappy sound or a longer sustaining sandy sound depending on the position of the pedal.It can also be played just by lifting and lowering the foot to clash the cymbals together, a style commonly used to accent beats 2 and 4 in jazz music.", "In rock music, the hi-hats are commonly struck every beat, or on beats 1 and 3, while the cymbals are held together.", "The drummer can control the sound by foot pressure.", "Less pressure allows the cymbals to rub together more freely, giving both greater sustain and greater volume for accent or crescendo.", "In shuffle time, a rhythm known as \"cooking\" is often employed.", "To produce this the cymbals are struck twice in rapid succession, being held closed on the first stroke and allowed to open just before the second, then allowed to ring before being closed with a chick to complete the pattern (the cymbals may or may not be struck on the chick).A right-handed drummer will normally play the hi-hat pedal with his left foot, and may use one or both drumsticks.", "The traditional hi-hat rhythms of rock and jazz were produced by crossing the hands over, so the right stick would play the hi-hat while the left played the snare drum below it, but this is not universal.", "Some top modern drummers like Billy Cobham, Carter Beauford, Shawn Drover and Simon Phillips, play open handed, striking with their left.", "Some, such as Kenny Aronoff, and Jason Finn of The Presidents of the United States of America, use both techniques.", "Some drum kits may also include an extra hi-hat on the right for right-handed players.", "This is shown when drums or cymbals in the middle of the set are played with the hi-hat rhythm.", "The technique is common with metal genres, such as Lars Ulrich of Metallica and Mike Portnoy formerly of Dream Theater.", "In both rock and jazz, the drummer will often move the same stick pattern between the hi-hat cymbal and the ride cymbal, for example using the hi-hat in the verses and the ride in the chorus of a song, or using the ride to accompany a lead break or other instrumental solo.Roger Taylor, drummer for the band Queen, plays with many unique hi-hat techniques, including opening of the hi-hat on every backbeat for a rhythm emphasis and leaving the hi-hat slightly open when hitting the snare.", "His trademark hi-hat beat is opening the hi-hat on first and third before hitting the snare.Phil Rudd of AC/DC also uses distinct hi-hat techniques, which include very heavily accentuating the hi-hat hit on each beat and softer in between.Charlie Watts of The Rolling Stones used a technique in which he did not play the hi-hat in unison with the snare drum at all.", "If playing a standard 8th note pattern, he would play the hi-hat on 1 and 3 and not play it on 2 and 4 where the snare drum is played.In much hip-hop, the hi-hat is hit with drumsticks in a simple eighth-note pattern, although this playing is usually done by a drum machine or from an old recording from which the sound of a hi-hat is recorded and loaded into a sampler or similar recording-enabled equipment from which it is triggered." ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "HAL 9000" ], [ "Introduction", "'''HAL 9000''' (or simply '''HAL''' or '''Hal''') is a fictional artificial intelligence character and the main antagonist in Arthur C. Clarke's ''Space Odyssey'' series.", "First appearing in the 1968 film ''2001: A Space Odyssey'', HAL (Heuristically Programmed Algorithmic Computer) is a sentient artificial general intelligence computer that controls the systems of the ''Discovery One'' spacecraft and interacts with the ship's astronaut crew.", "While part of HAL's hardware is shown toward the end of the film, he is mostly depicted as a camera lens containing a red and yellow dot, with such units located throughout the ship.", "HAL 9000 is voiced by Douglas Rain in the two feature film adaptations of the ''Space Odyssey'' series.", "HAL speaks in a soft, calm voice and a conversational manner, in contrast to the crewmen, David Bowman and Frank Poole.In the film, HAL became operational on January 12, 1992, at the HAL Laboratories in Urbana, Illinois, as production number 3.The activation year was 1991 in earlier screenplays and changed to 1997 in Clarke's novel written and released in conjunction with the movie.", "In addition to maintaining the ''Discovery One'' spacecraft systems during the interplanetary mission to Jupiter (or Saturn in the novel), HAL has been shown to be capable of speech synthesis, speech recognition, facial recognition, natural language processing, lip reading, art appreciation, interpreting emotional behaviours, automated reasoning, spacecraft piloting and computer chess." ], [ "Appearances", "===''2001: A Space Odyssey'' (film/novel)===HAL became operational in Urbana, Illinois, at the HAL Plant (the University of Illinois's Coordinated Science Laboratory, where the ILLIAC computers were built).", "The film says this occurred in 1992, while the book gives 1997 as HAL's birth year.In ''2001: A Space Odyssey'' (1968), HAL is initially considered a dependable member of the crew, maintaining ship functions and engaging genially with his human crew-mates on an equal footing.", "As a recreational activity, Frank Poole plays chess against HAL.", "In the film, the artificial intelligence is shown to triumph easily.", "However, as time progresses, HAL begins to malfunction in subtle ways and, as a result, the decision is made to shut down HAL in order to prevent more serious malfunctions.", "The sequence of events and manner in which HAL is shut down differs between the novel and film versions of the story.", "In the aforementioned game of chess HAL makes minor and undetected mistakes in his analysis, a possible foreshadowing to HAL's malfunctioning.In the film, astronauts David Bowman and Frank Poole consider disconnecting HAL's cognitive circuits when he appears to be mistaken in reporting the presence of a fault in the spacecraft's communications antenna.", "They attempt to conceal what they are saying, but are unaware that HAL can read their lips.", "Faced with the prospect of disconnection, HAL decides to kill the astronauts in order to protect and continue his programmed directives.", "HAL uses one of the ''Discovery''s EVA pods to kill Poole while he is repairing the ship.", "When Bowman, without a space helmet, uses another pod to attempt to rescue Poole, HAL locks him out of the ship, then disconnects the life support systems of the other hibernating crew members.", "After HAL tells him \"This mission is too important for me to allow you to jeopardize it\", Bowman circumvents HAL's control, entering the ship by manually opening an emergency airlock with his service pod's clamps, detaching the pod door via its explosive bolts.", "Bowman jumps across empty space, reenters ''Discovery'', and quickly re-pressurizes the airlock.While HAL's motivations are ambiguous in the film, the novel explains that the computer is unable to resolve a conflict between his general mission to relay information accurately, and orders specific to the mission requiring that he withhold from Bowman and Poole the true purpose of the mission.", "With the crew dead, HAL reasons, he would not need to lie to them.In the novel, the orders to disconnect HAL come from Dave and Frank's superiors on Earth.", "After Frank is killed while attempting to repair the communications antenna he is pulled away into deep space using the safety tether which is still attached to both the pod and Frank Poole's spacesuit.", "Dave begins to revive his hibernating crew mates, but is foiled when HAL vents the ship's atmosphere into the vacuum of space, killing the awakening crew members and almost killing Bowman, who is only narrowly saved when he finds his way to an emergency chamber which has its own oxygen supply and a spare space suit inside.In both versions, Bowman then proceeds to shut down the machine.", "In the film, HAL's central core is depicted as a crawlspace full of brightly lit computer modules mounted in arrays from which they can be inserted or removed.", "Bowman shuts down HAL by removing modules from service one by one; as he does so, HAL's consciousness degrades.", "HAL finally reverts to material that was programmed into him early in his memory, including announcing the date he became operational as 12 January 1992 (in the novel, 1997).", "When HAL's logic is completely gone, he begins singing the song \"Daisy Bell\" as he gradually deactivates (in actuality, the first song sung by a computer, which Clarke had earlier observed at a text-to-speech demonstration).", "HAL's final act of any significance is to prematurely play a prerecorded message from Mission Control which reveals the true reasons for the mission to Jupiter.===''2010: Odyssey Two'' (novel) and ''2010: The Year We Make Contact'' (film)===In the 1982 novel ''2010: Odyssey Two'' written by Clarke, HAL is restarted by his creator, Dr. Chandra, who arrives on the Soviet spaceship ''Leonov''.Prior to leaving Earth, Dr. Chandra has also had a discussion with HAL's twin, SAL 9000.Like HAL, SAL was created by Dr. Chandra.", "Whereas HAL was characterized as being \"male\", SAL is characterized as being \"female\" (voiced by Candice Bergen in the film) and is represented by a blue camera eye instead of a red one.Dr.", "Chandra discovers that HAL's crisis was caused by a programming contradiction: he was constructed for \"the accurate processing of information without distortion or concealment\", yet his orders, directly from Dr. Heywood Floyd at the National Council on Astronautics, required him to keep the discovery of the Monolith TMA-1 a secret for reasons of national security.", "This contradiction created a \"Hofstadter-Moebius loop\", reducing HAL to paranoia.", "Therefore, HAL made the decision to kill the crew, thereby allowing him to obey both his hardwired instructions to report data truthfully and in full, and his orders to keep the monolith a secret.", "In essence: if the crew were dead, he would no longer have to keep the information secret.The alien intelligence initiates a terraforming scheme, placing the ''Leonov'', and everybody in it, in danger.", "Its human crew devises an escape plan which unfortunately requires leaving the ''Discovery'' and HAL behind to be destroyed.", "Dr. Chandra explains the danger, and HAL willingly sacrifices himself so that the astronauts may escape safely.", "In the moment of his destruction the monolith-makers transform HAL into a non-corporeal being so that David Bowman's avatar may have a companion.The details in the novel and the 1984 film ''2010: The Year We Make Contact'' are nominally the same, with a few exceptions.", "First, in contradiction to the book (and events described in both book and film versions of ''2001: A Space Odyssey''), Heywood Floyd is absolved of responsibility for HAL's condition; it is asserted that the decision to program HAL with information concerning TMA-1 came directly from the White House.", "In the film, HAL functions normally after being reactivated, while in the book it is revealed that his mind was damaged during the shutdown, forcing him to begin communication through screen text.", "Also, in the film the ''Leonov'' crew initially lies to HAL about the dangers that he faced (suspecting that if he knew he would be destroyed he would not initiate the engine burn necessary to get the ''Leonov'' back home), whereas in the novel he is told at the outset.", "However, in both cases the suspense comes from the question of what HAL will do when he knows that he may be destroyed by his actions.In the novel, the basic reboot sequence initiated by Dr. Chandra is quite long, while the movie uses a shorter sequence voiced from HAL as: \"HELLO_DOCTOR_NAME_CONTINUE_YESTERDAY_TOMORROW\".While Curnow tells Floyd that Dr. Chandra has begun designing HAL 10000, it has not been mentioned in subsequent novels.===''2061: Odyssey Three'' and ''3001: The Final Odyssey''===In Clarke's 1987 novel ''2061: Odyssey Three'', Heywood Floyd is surprised to encounter HAL, now stored alongside Dave Bowman in the Europa monolith.In Clarke's 1997 novel ''3001: The Final Odyssey'', Frank Poole is introduced to the merged form of Dave Bowman and HAL, the two merging into one entity called \"Halman\" after Bowman rescued HAL from the dying ''Discovery One'' spaceship toward the end of ''2010: Odyssey Two''." ], [ "Concept and creation", "HAL faceplate (from a museum exhibition)Clarke noted that the first film was criticized for not having any characters except for HAL, and that a great deal of the establishing story on Earth was cut from the film (and even from Clarke's novel).", "Clarke stated that he had considered Autonomous Mobile Explorer–5 as a name for the computer, then decided on Socrates when writing early drafts, switching in later drafts to Athena, a computer with a female personality, before settling on HAL 9000.The Socrates name was later used in Clarke and Stephen Baxter's ''A Time Odyssey'' novel series.The earliest draft depicted Socrates as a roughly humanoid robot, and is introduced as overseeing Project Morpheus, which studied prolonged hibernation in preparation for long term space flight.", "As a demonstration to ''Senator'' Floyd, Socrates' designer, Dr. Bruno Forster, asks Socrates to turn off the oxygen to hibernating subjects Kaminski and Whitehead, which Socrates refuses, citing Asimov's First Law of Robotics.In a later version, in which Bowman and Whitehead are the non-hibernating crew of ''Discovery'', Whitehead dies outside the spacecraft after his pod collides with the main antenna, tearing it free.", "This triggers the need for Bowman to revive Poole, but the revival does not go according to plan, and after briefly awakening, Poole dies.", "The computer, named Athena in this draft, announces \"All systems of Poole now No–Go.", "It will be necessary to replace him with a spare unit.\"", "After this, Bowman decides to go out in a pod and retrieve the antenna, which is moving away from the ship.", "Athena refuses to allow him to leave the ship, citing \"Directive 15\" which prevents it from being left unattended, forcing him to make program modifications during which time the antenna drifts further.During rehearsals Kubrick asked Stefanie Powers to supply the voice of HAL 9000 while searching for a suitably androgynous voice so the actors had something to react to.", "On the set, British actor Nigel Davenport played HAL.", "When it came to dubbing HAL in post-production, Kubrick had originally cast Martin Balsam, but as he felt Balsam \"just sounded a little bit too colloquially American\", he was replaced with Douglas Rain, who \"had the kind of bland mid-Atlantic accent we felt was right for the part\".", "Rain was only handed HAL's lines instead of the full script, and recorded them across a day and a half.HAL's point of view shots were created with a Cinerama Fairchild-Curtis wide-angle lens with a 160° angle of view.", "This lens is about in diameter, while HAL's on set prop eye lens is about in diameter.", "Stanley Kubrick chose to use the large Fairchild-Curtis lens to shoot the HAL 9000 POV shots because he needed a wide-angle fisheye lens that would fit onto his shooting camera, and this was the only lens at the time that would work.", "The Fairchild-Curtis lens has a focal length of with a maximum aperture of 2.0 and a weight of approximately ; it was originally designed by Felix Bednarz with a maximum aperture of 2.2 for the first Cinerama 360 film, ''Journey to the Stars'', shown at the 1962 Seattle World's Fair.", "Bednarz adapted the lens design from an earlier lens he had designed for military training to simulate human peripheral vision coverage.", "The lens was later recomputed for the second Cinerama 360 film ''To the Moon and Beyond'', which had a slightly different film format.", "''To the Moon and Beyond'' was produced by Graphic Films and shown at the 1964/1965 New York World's Fair, where Kubrick watched it; afterwards, he was so impressed that he hired the same creative team from Graphic Films (consisting of Douglas Trumbull, Lester Novros, and Con Pederson) to work on ''2001''.A HAL 9000 face plate, without lens (not the same as the hero face plates seen in the film), was discovered in a junk shop in Paddington, London, in the early 1970s by Chris Randall.", "This was found along with the key to HAL's Brain Room.", "Both items were purchased for ten shillings (£0.50).", "Research revealed that the original lens was a Fisheye Nikkor 8 mm 8.The collection was sold at a Christie's auction in 2010 for £17,500 to film director Peter Jackson.===Origin of name===A loose replica of HAL 9000 on exhibit at the Carnegie Science CenterHAL's name, according to writer Arthur C. Clarke, is derived from ''H''euristically programmed ''AL''gorithmic computer.", "After the film was released, fans noticed HAL was a one-letter shift from the name IBM and there has been much speculation since then that this was a dig at the large computer company, something that has been denied by both Clarke and ''2001'' director Stanley Kubrick.", "Clarke addressed the issue in his book ''The Lost Worlds of 2001'': ...about once a week some character spots the fact that HAL is one letter ahead of IBM, and promptly assumes that Stanley and I were taking a crack at the estimable institution ... As it happened, IBM had given us a good deal of help, so we were quite embarrassed by this, and would have changed the name had we spotted the coincidence.", "IBM was consulted during the making of the film and their logo can be seen on props in the film, including the Pan Am Clipper's cockpit instrument panel and on the lower arm keypad on Poole's space suit.", "During production it was brought to IBM's attention that the film's plot included a homicidal computer but they approved association with the film if it was clear any \"equipment failure\" was not related to their products.HAL Communications Corporation is a real corporation, with facilities located in Urbana, Illinois, which is where HAL in the movie identifies himself as being activated: \"I am a HAL 9000 computer.", "I became operational at the H-A-L plant in Urbana Illinois on the 12th of January 1992.", "\"The former president of HAL Communications, Bill Henry, has stated that this is a coincidence: \"There was not and never has been any connection to 'Hal', Arthur Clarke's intelligent computer in the screen play '2001' — later published as a book.", "We were very surprised when the movie hit the Coed Theatre on campus and discovered that the movie's computer had our name.", "We never had any problems with that similarity - 'Hal' for the movie and 'HAL' (all caps) for our small company.", "But, from time-to-time, we did have issues with others trying to use 'HAL'.", "That resulted in us paying lawyers.", "The offenders folded or eventually went out of business.", "\"===Technology===The scene in which HAL's consciousness degrades was inspired by Clarke's memory of a speech synthesis demonstration by physicist John Larry Kelly, Jr., who used an IBM 704 computer to synthesize speech.", "Kelly's voice recorder synthesizer ''vocoder'' recreated the song \"Daisy Bell\", with musical accompaniment from Max Mathews.HAL's capabilities, like all the technology in ''2001'', were based on the speculation of respected scientists.", "Marvin Minsky, director of the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL) and one of the most influential researchers in the field, was an adviser on the film set.", "In the mid-1960s, many computer scientists in the field of artificial intelligence were optimistic that machines with HAL's capabilities would exist within a few decades.", "For example, AI pioneer Herbert A. Simon at Carnegie Mellon University had predicted in 1965 that \"machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do\"." ], [ "Cultural impact", "HAL is listed as the 13th-greatest film villain in the AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains.The 9000th of the asteroids in the asteroid belt, 9000 Hal, discovered on May 3, 1981, by E. Bowell at Anderson Mesa Station, is named after HAL 9000.Anthony Hopkins based his Academy Award-winning performance as Hannibal Lecter in ''Silence of the Lambs'' in part upon HAL 9000.The 1993 educational game ''Where in Space Is Carmen Sandiego?''", "features a digital assistant named the VAL 9000, a homage to HAL 9000.Apple Inc.'s 1999 website advertisement \"It was a bug, Dave\" was made by meticulously recreating the appearance of HAL 9000 from the movie.", "Launched during the era of concerns over Y2K bugs, the ad implied that HAL's behavior was caused by a Y2K bug, before driving home the point that \"only Macintosh was designed to function perfectly\".In 2003, HAL 9000 was one of the first robots to be inducted into the Robot Hall of Fame in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.", "One can see a physical replica of HAL at the Carnegie Science Center in Pittsburgh." ], [ "See also", "* List of fictional computers* National Center for Supercomputing Applications, a research center in Urbana, IL* Poole versus HAL 9000, a chess game played by Frank Poole and HAL 9000* Jipi and the Paranoid Chip* AI control problem" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Text excerpts from HAL 9000 in ''2001: A Space Odyssey''* HAL's Legacy, on-line ebook (mostly full-text) of the printed version edited by David G. Stork, MIT Press, 1997, , a collection of essays on HAL* HAL's Legacy, ''An Interview with Arthur C.", "Clarke''.", "* The case for HAL's sanity by Clay Waldrop* ''2001'' fills the theater at HAL 9000's \"birthday\" in 1997 at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign" ] ]
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[ [ "Hydrolysis" ], [ "Introduction", "condensation are reversible.", ")'''Hydrolysis''' (; ) is any chemical reaction in which a molecule of water breaks one or more chemical bonds.", "The term is used broadly for substitution, elimination, and solvation reactions in which water is the nucleophile.Biological hydrolysis is the cleavage of biomolecules where a water molecule is consumed to effect the separation of a larger molecule into component parts.", "When a carbohydrate is broken into its component sugar molecules by hydrolysis (e.g., sucrose being broken down into glucose and fructose), this is recognized as saccharification.Hydrolysis reactions can be the reverse of a condensation reaction in which two molecules join into a larger one and eject a water molecule.", "Thus hydrolysis adds water to break down, whereas condensation builds up by removing water." ], [ "Types", "Usually hydrolysis is a chemical process in which a molecule of water is added to a substance.", "Sometimes this addition causes both the substance and water molecule to split into two parts.", "In such reactions, one fragment of the target molecule (or parent molecule) gains a hydrogen ion.", "It breaks a chemical bond in the compound.===Salts===A common kind of hydrolysis occurs when a salt of a weak acid or weak base (or both) is dissolved in water.", "Water spontaneously ionizes into hydroxide anions and hydronium cations.", "The salt also dissociates into its constituent anions and cations.", "For example, sodium acetate dissociates in water into sodium and acetate ions.", "Sodium ions react very little with the hydroxide ions whereas the acetate ions combine with hydronium ions to produce acetic acid.", "In this case the net result is a relative excess of hydroxide ions, yielding a basic solution.Strong acids also undergo hydrolysis.", "For example, dissolving sulfuric acid () in water is accompanied by hydrolysis to give hydronium and bisulfate, the sulfuric acid's conjugate base.", "For a more technical discussion of what occurs during such a hydrolysis, see Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory.===Esters and amides===Acid–base-catalysed hydrolyses are very common; one example is the hydrolysis of amides or esters.", "Their hydrolysis occurs when the nucleophile (a nucleus-seeking agent, e.g., water or hydroxyl ion) attacks the carbon of the carbonyl group of the ester or amide.", "In an aqueous base, hydroxyl ions are better nucleophiles than polar molecules such as water.", "In acids, the carbonyl group becomes protonated, and this leads to a much easier nucleophilic attack.", "The products for both hydrolyses are compounds with carboxylic acid groups.Perhaps the oldest commercially practiced example of ester hydrolysis is saponification (formation of soap).", "It is the hydrolysis of a triglyceride (fat) with an aqueous base such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH).", "During the process, glycerol is formed, and the fatty acids react with the base, converting them to salts.", "These salts are called soaps, commonly used in households.In addition, in living systems, most biochemical reactions (including ATP hydrolysis) take place during the catalysis of enzymes.", "The catalytic action of enzymes allows the hydrolysis of proteins, fats, oils, and carbohydrates.", "As an example, one may consider proteases (enzymes that aid digestion by causing hydrolysis of peptide bonds in proteins).", "They catalyze the hydrolysis of interior peptide bonds in peptide chains, as opposed to exopeptidases (another class of enzymes, that catalyze the hydrolysis of terminal peptide bonds, liberating one free amino acid at a time).However, proteases do not catalyze the hydrolysis of all kinds of proteins.", "Their action is stereo-selective: Only proteins with a certain tertiary structure are targeted as some kind of orienting force is needed to place the amide group in the proper position for catalysis.", "The necessary contacts between an enzyme and its substrates (proteins) are created because the enzyme folds in such a way as to form a crevice into which the substrate fits; the crevice also contains the catalytic groups.", "Therefore, proteins that do not fit into the crevice will not undergo hydrolysis.", "This specificity preserves the integrity of other proteins such as hormones, and therefore the biological system continues to function normally.Mechanism for acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of an amide.Upon hydrolysis, an amide converts into a carboxylic acid and an amine or ammonia (which in the presence of acid are immediately converted to ammonium salts).", "One of the two oxygen groups on the carboxylic acid are derived from a water molecule and the amine (or ammonia) gains the hydrogen ion.", "The hydrolysis of peptides gives amino acids.Many polyamide polymers such as nylon 6,6 hydrolyze in the presence of strong acids.", "The process leads to depolymerization.", "For this reason nylon products fail by fracturing when exposed to small amounts of acidic water.", "Polyesters are also susceptible to similar polymer degradation reactions.", "The problem is known as environmental stress cracking.===ATP===Hydrolysis is related to energy metabolism and storage.", "All living cells require a continual supply of energy for two main purposes: the biosynthesis of micro and macromolecules, and the active transport of ions and molecules across cell membranes.", "The energy derived from the oxidation of nutrients is not used directly but, by means of a complex and long sequence of reactions, it is channeled into a special energy-storage molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP).", "The ATP molecule contains pyrophosphate linkages (bonds formed when two phosphate units are combined) that release energy when needed.", "ATP can undergo hydrolysis in two ways: Firstly, the removal of terminal phosphate to form adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate, with the reaction:: ATP + H2O -> ADP + P_{i}Secondly, the removal of a terminal diphosphate to yield adenosine monophosphate (AMP) and pyrophosphate.", "The latter usually undergoes further cleavage into its two constituent phosphates.", "This results in biosynthesis reactions, which usually occur in chains, that can be driven in the direction of synthesis when the phosphate bonds have undergone hydrolysis.===Polysaccharides===Sucrose.", "The glycoside bond is represented by the central oxygen atom, which holds the two monosaccharide units together.Monosaccharides can be linked together by glycosidic bonds, which can be cleaved by hydrolysis.", "Two, three, several or many monosaccharides thus linked form disaccharides, trisaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides, respectively.", "Enzymes that hydrolyze glycosidic bonds are called \"glycoside hydrolases\" or \"glycosidases\".The best-known disaccharide is sucrose (table sugar).", "Hydrolysis of sucrose yields glucose and fructose.", "Invertase is a sucrase used industrially for the hydrolysis of sucrose to so-called invert sugar.", "Lactase is essential for digestive hydrolysis of lactose in milk; many adult humans do not produce lactase and cannot digest the lactose in milk.The hydrolysis of polysaccharides to soluble sugars can be recognized as saccharification.", "Malt made from barley is used as a source of β-amylase to break down starch into the disaccharide maltose, which can be used by yeast to produce beer.", "Other amylase enzymes may convert starch to glucose or to oligosaccharides.", "Cellulose is first hydrolyzed to cellobiose by cellulase and then cellobiose is further hydrolyzed to glucose by beta-glucosidase.", "Ruminants such as cows are able to hydrolyze cellulose into cellobiose and then glucose because of symbiotic bacteria that produce cellulases.===DNA===Hydrolysis of DNA occurs at a significant rate in vivo.", "For example, it is estimated that in each human cell 2,000 to 10,000 DNA purine bases turn over every day due to hydrolytic depurination, and that this is largely counteracted by specific rapid DNA repair processes.", "Hydrolytic DNA damages that fail to be accurately repaired may contribute to carcinogenesis and ageing.===Metal aqua ions===Metal ions are Lewis acids, and in aqueous solution they form metal aquo complexes of the general formula .", "The aqua ions undergo hydrolysis, to a greater or lesser extent.", "The first hydrolysis step is given generically as:M(H2O)_\\mathit{n}^{\\mathit{m}+}{} + H2O M(H2O)_{\\mathit{n}-1}(OH)^{(\\mathit{m}-1){}+}{} + H3O+Thus the aqua cations behave as acids in terms of Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory.", "This effect is easily explained by considering the inductive effect of the positively charged metal ion, which weakens the bond of an attached water molecule, making the liberation of a proton relatively easy.The dissociation constant, pKa, for this reaction is more or less linearly related to the charge-to-size ratio of the metal ion.", "Ions with low charges, such as are very weak acids with almost imperceptible hydrolysis.", "Large divalent ions such as , , and have a pKa of 6 or more and would not normally be classed as acids, but small divalent ions such as undergo extensive hydrolysis.", "Trivalent ions like and are weak acids whose pKa is comparable to that of acetic acid.", "Solutions of salts such as or in water are noticeably acidic; the hydrolysis can be suppressed by adding an acid such as nitric acid, making the solution more acidic.Hydrolysis may proceed beyond the first step, often with the formation of polynuclear species via the process of olation.", "Some \"exotic\" species such as are well characterized.", "Hydrolysis tends to proceed as pH rises leading, in many cases, to the precipitation of a hydroxide such as or .", "These substances, major constituents of bauxite, are known as laterites and are formed by leaching from rocks of most of the ions other than aluminium and iron and subsequent hydrolysis of the remaining aluminium and iron.===Mechanism strategies===Acetals, imines, and enamines can be converted back into ketones by treatment with excess water under acid-catalyzed conditions: ; ; ." ], [ "Catalysis", "===Acidic hydrolysis===Acid catalysis can be applied to hydrolyses.", "For example, in the conversion of cellulose or starch to glucose.", "For the case of ester hydrolysis and amides, it can be defined as an acid catalyzed nucleophilic acyl substitution reaction.", "Carboxylic acids can be produced from acid hydrolysis of esters.Acids catalyze hydrolysis of nitriles to amides.", "Acid hydrolysis ''does not'' usually refer to the acid catalyzed addition of the elements of water to double or triple bonds by electrophilic addition as may originate from a hydration reaction.", "Acid hydrolysis is used to prepare monosaccharide with the help of mineral acids but formic acid and trifluoroacetic acid have been used.Acid hydrolysis can be utilized in the pretreatment of cellulosic material, so as to cut the interchain linkages in hemicellulose and cellulose.===Alkaline hydrolysis===Alkaline hydrolysis usually refers to types of nucleophilic substitution reactions in which the attacking nucleophile is a hydroxide ion.", "The best known type is saponification: cleaving esters into carboxylate salts and alcohols.", "In ester hydrolysis and amide hydrolysis the hydroxide ion nucleophile attacks the carbonyl carbon in a nucleophilic acyl substitution reaction.", "This mechanism is supported by isotope labeling experiments.", "For example, when ethyl propionate with an oxygen-18 labeled ethoxy group is treated with sodium hydroxide (NaOH), the oxygen-18 is completely absent from the sodium propionate product and is found exclusively in the ethanol formed.563pxThe reaction is often used to solubilize solid organic matter.", "Chemical drain cleaners take advantage of this method to dissolve hair and fat in pipes.", "The reaction is also used to dispose of human and other animal remains as an alternative to traditional burial or cremation." ], [ "See also", "* Adenosine triphosphate* Alkaline hydrolysis (body disposal)* Catabolism* Condensation reaction* Dehydration reaction* Hydrolysis constant* Inhibitor protein* Polymer degradation* Proteolysis* Saponification* Sol–gel polymerisation* Solvolysis* Thermal hydrolysis" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Hydroxy group" ], [ "Introduction", "Representation of an organic compound hydroxy group, where R represents a hydrocarbon or other organic moiety, the red and grey spheres represent oxygen and hydrogen atoms respectively, and the rod-like connections between these, covalent chemical bonds.In chemistry, a '''hydroxy''' or '''hydroxyl group''' is a functional group with the chemical formula and composed of one oxygen atom covalently bonded to one hydrogen atom.", "In organic chemistry, alcohols and carboxylic acids contain one or more hydroxy groups.", "Both the negatively charged anion , called hydroxide, and the neutral radical , known as the hydroxyl radical, consist of an unbonded hydroxy group.According to IUPAC definitions, the term ''hydroxyl'' refers to the hydroxyl radical () only, while the functional group is called a ''hydroxy group''." ], [ "Properties", "Sulfuric acid contains two hydroxy groups.Water, alcohols, carboxylic acids, and many other hydroxy-containing compounds can be readily deprotonated due to a large difference between the electronegativity of oxygen (3.5) and that of hydrogen (2.1).", "Hydroxy-containing compounds engage in intermolecular hydrogen bonding increasing the electrostatic attraction between molecules and thus to higher boiling and melting points than found for compounds that lack this functional group.", "Organic compounds, which are often poorly soluble in water, become water-soluble when they contain two or more hydroxy groups, as illustrated by sugars and amino acid." ], [ "Occurrence", "The hydroxy group is pervasive in chemistry and biochemistry.", "Many inorganic compounds contain hydroxyl groups, including sulfuric acid, the chemical compound produced on the largest scale industrially.Hydroxy groups participate in the dehydration reactions that link simple biological molecules into long chains.", "The joining of a fatty acid to glycerol to form a triacylglycerol removes the −OH from the carboxy end of the fatty acid.", "The joining of two aldehyde sugars to form a disaccharide removes the −OH from the carboxy group at the aldehyde end of one sugar.", "The creation of a peptide bond to link two amino acids to make a protein removes the −OH from the carboxy group of one amino acid." ], [ "Hydroxyl radical", "Hydroxyl radicals are highly reactive and undergo chemical reactions that make them short-lived.", "When biological systems are exposed to hydroxyl radicals, they can cause damage to cells, including those in humans, where they can react with DNA, lipids, and proteins." ], [ "Planetary observations", "===Airglow of the Earth===The Earth's night sky is illuminated by diffuse light, called airglow, that is produced by radiative transitions of atoms and molecules.", "Among the most intense such features observed in the Earth's night sky is a group of infrared transitions at wavelengths between 700 nanometers and 900 nanometers.", "In 1950, Aden Meinel showed that these were transitions of the hydroxyl molecule, OH.===Surface of the Moon===In 2009, India's Chandrayaan-1 satellite and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Cassini spacecraft and Deep Impact probe each detected evidence of water by evidence of hydroxyl fragments on the Moon.", "As reported by Richard Kerr, \"A spectrometer the Moon Mineralogy Mapper, also known as \"M3\" detected an infrared absorption at a wavelength of 3.0 micrometers that only water or hydroxyl—a hydrogen and an oxygen bound together—could have created.\"", "NASA also reported in 2009 that the LCROSS probe revealed an ultraviolet emission spectrum consistent with hydroxyl presence.On 26 October 2020, NASA reported definitive evidence of water on the sunlit surface of the Moon, in the vicinity of the crater Clavius (crater), obtained by the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA).", "The SOFIA Faint Object infrared Camera for the SOFIA Telescope (FORCAST) detected emission bands at a wavelength of 6.1 micrometers that are present in water but not in hydroxyl.", "The abundance of water on the Moon's surface was inferred to be equivalent to the contents of a 12-ounce bottle of water per cubic meter of lunar soil.The Chang'e 5 probe, which landed on the Moon on 1 December 2020, carried a mineralogical spectrometer that could measure infrared reflectance spectra of lunar rock and regolith.", "The reflectance spectrum of a rock sample at a wavelength of 2.85 micrometers indicated localized water/hydroxyl concentrations as high as 180 parts per million.===Atmosphere of Venus===The Venus Express orbiter collected Venus science data from April 2006 until December 2014.In 2008, Piccioni, ''et al.''", "reported measurements of night-side airglow emission in the atmosphere of Venus made with the Visible and Infrared Thermal Imaging Spectrometer (VIRTIS) on Venus Express.", "They attributed emission bands in wavelength ranges of 1.40 - 1.49 micrometers and 2.6 - 3.14  micrometers to vibrational transitions of OH.", "This was the first evidence for OH in the atmosphere of any planet other than Earth's.===Atmosphere of Mars===In 2013, OH near-infrared spectra were observed in the night glow in the polar winter atmosphere of Mars by use of the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM).===Exoplanets===In 2021, evidence for OH in the dayside atmosphere of the exoplanet WASP-33b was found in its emission spectrum at wavelengths between 1 and 2 micrometers.", "Evidence for OH in the atmosphere of exoplanet WASP-76b was subsequently found.", "Both WASP-33b and WASP-76b are ultra-hot Jupiters and it is likely that any water in their atmospheres is present as dissociated ions." ], [ "See also", "* Hydronium* Ion* Oxide* Hydroxylation" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further", "*" ], [ "External links" ] ]
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[ [ "Warm-blooded" ], [ "Introduction", "Thermographic image: a snake is shown eating a warm-blooded mouse'''Warm-blooded''' is an informal term referring to animal species whose bodies maintain a temperature higher than that of their environment.", "In particular, homeothermic species (including birds and mammals) maintain a stable body temperature by regulating metabolic processes.", "Other species have various degrees of thermoregulation.As there are more than two categories of temperature control utilized by animals, the terms ''warm-blooded'' and ''cold-blooded'' have been deprecated in the scientific field." ], [ "Terminology", "In general, warm-bloodedness refers to three separate categories of thermoregulation.", "*'''Endothermy''' is the ability of some creatures to control their body temperatures through internal means such as muscle shivering or increasing their metabolism.", "The opposite of endothermy is ectothermy.", "*'''Homeothermy''' maintains a stable internal body temperature regardless of external influence and temperatures.", "The stable internal temperature is often higher than the immediate environment.", "The opposite is poikilothermy.", "The only known living homeotherms are mammals and birds, as well as one lizard, the Argentine black and white tegu.", "Some extinct reptiles such as ichthyosaurs, pterosaurs, plesiosaurs and some non-avian dinosaurs are believed to have been homeotherms.", "*'''Tachymetabolism''' maintains a high \"resting\" metabolism.", "In essence, tachymetabolic creatures are \"on\" all the time.", "Though their resting metabolism is still many times slower than their active metabolism, the difference is often not as large as that seen in bradymetabolic creatures.", "Tachymetabolic creatures have greater difficulty dealing with a scarcity of food." ], [ "Varieties of thermoregulation", "A significant proportion of creatures commonly referred to as \"warm-blooded,\" like birds and mammals, exhibit all three of these categories (i.e., they are endothermic, homeothermic, ''and'' tachymetabolic).", "However, over the past three decades, investigations in the field of animal thermophysiology have unveiled numerous species within these two groups that do not meet all these criteria.", "For instance, many bats and small birds become poikilothermic and bradymetabolic during sleep (or, in nocturnal species, during the day).", "For such creatures, the term ''heterothermy'' was introduced.Further examinations of animals traditionally classified as cold-blooded have revealed that most creatures manifest varying combinations of the three aforementioned terms, along with their counterparts (ectothermy, poikilothermy, and bradymetabolism), thus creating a broad spectrum of body temperature types.", "Some fish have warm-blooded characteristics, such as the opah.", "Swordfish and some sharks have circulatory mechanisms that keep their brains and eyes above ambient temperatures and thus increase their ability to detect and react to prey.", "Tunas and some sharks have similar mechanisms in their muscles, improving their stamina when swimming at high speed." ], [ "Heat generation", "Body heat is generated by metabolism.", "This relates to the chemical reaction in cells that break down glucose into water and carbon dioxide, thereby producing adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a high-energy compound used to power other cellular processes.", "Muscle contraction is one such metabolic process generating heat energy, and additional heat results from friction as blood circulates through the vascular system.All organisms metabolize food and other inputs, but some make better use of the output than others.", "Like all energy conversions, metabolism is rather inefficient, and around 60% of the available energy is converted to heat rather than to ATP.", "In most organisms, this heat dissipates into the surroundings.", "However, endothermic homeotherms (generally referred to as \"warm-blooded\" animals) not only produce more heat but also possess superior means of retaining and regulating it compared to other animals.", "They exhibit a higher basal metabolic rate and can further increase their metabolic rate during strenuous activity.", "They usually have well-developed insulation in order to retain body heat: fur and blubber in the case of mammals and feathers in birds.", "When this insulation is insufficient to maintain body temperature, they may resort to shivering—rapid muscle contractions that quickly use up ATP, thus stimulating cellular metabolism to replace it and consequently produce more heat.", "Additionally, almost all eutherian mammals have brown adipose tissue whose mitochondria are capable of non-shivering thermogenesis.", "This process involves the direct dissipation of the mitochondrial gradient as heat via an uncoupling protein, thereby \"uncoupling\" the gradient from its usual function of driving ATP production via ATP synthase.In warm environments, these animals employ evaporative cooling to shed excess heat, either through sweating (some mammals) or by panting (many mammals and all birds)—mechanisms generally absent in poikilotherms." ], [ "Defense against fungi", "It has been hypothesized that warm-bloodedness evolved in mammals and birds as a defense against fungal infections.", "Very few fungi can survive the body temperatures of warm-blooded animals.", "By comparison, insects, reptiles, and amphibians are plagued by fungal infections.", "Warm-blooded animals have a defense against pathogens contracted from the environment, since environmental pathogens are not adapted to their higher internal temperature." ], [ "See also", "* * Mesotherm* Thermogenic plant" ], [ "References", "'''Footnotes''''''Citations'''" ], [ "External links", "* What is Warm Blooded??", "* The Reptipage: What is cold-blooded?" ] ]
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[ [ "Hephaestus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hephaestus''' (; eight spellings; ) is the Greek god of artisans, blacksmiths, carpenters, craftsmen, fire, metallurgy, metalworking, sculpture and volcanoes.", "Hephaestus's Roman counterpart is Vulcan.", "In Greek mythology, Hephaestus was either the son of Zeus and Hera or he was Hera's parthenogenous child.", "He was cast off Mount Olympus by his mother Hera because of his lameness, the result of a congenital impairment; or in another account, by Zeus for protecting Hera from his advances (in which case his lameness would have been the result of his fall rather than the reason for it).As a smithing god, Hephaestus made all the weapons of the gods in Olympus.", "He served as the blacksmith of the gods, and was worshipped in the manufacturing and industrial centres of Greece, particularly Athens.", "The cult of Hephaestus was based in Lemnos.", "Hephaestus's symbols are a smith's hammer, anvil, and a pair of tongs." ], [ "Etymology", "Hephaestus is probably associated with the Linear B (Mycenaean Greek) inscription , ''A-pa-i-ti-jo'', found at Knossos.", "The inscription indirectly attests his worship at that time because it is believed that it reads the theophoric name ''(H)āpʰaistios'', or ''Hāphaistion''.", "The Greek theonym ''Hēphaistos'' is most likely of Pre-Greek origin, as the form without ''-i-'' (Attic ''Hēphastos'') shows a typical Pre-Greek variation and points to an original ''sy''." ], [ "Epithets", "Hephaestus is given many epithets.", "The meaning of each epithet is:* '''Amphigyḗeis''' often translated as \"the lame one\"; literally \"lame on both sides\" vel sim.", "()* '''Kyllopodíōn''' \"club-footed\" or \"of dragging feet\" ()* '''Khalkeús''' \"coppersmith\" ()* '''Klytotékhnēs''' \"renowned artificer\" ()* '''Polýmētis''' \"shrewd, crafty\" or \"of many devices\" ()* '''Aitnaîos''' \"Aetnaean\" (), owing to his workshop being supposedly located below Mount Aetna.", "*'''Polýphrōn''' \"ingenious, inventive\" (Πολύφρων)*'''Agaklytós''' \"very famous, glorious\" (Ἀγακλυτός)*'''Aithalóeis theós''' \"sooty god\" (Αἰθαλόεις θεός)" ], [ "Mythology", "=== Craft of Hephaestus ===Vulcan Presenting the Arms of Achilles to Thetis'' by Peter Paul Rubens.", "''Thetis Receiving the Weapons of Achilles from Hephaestus'' by Anthony van Dyck (1630-1632)Hephaestus had his own palace on Olympus, containing his workshop with anvil and twenty bellows that worked at his bidding.", "Hephaestus crafted much of the magnificent equipment of the gods, and almost any finely wrought metalwork imbued with powers that appears in Greek myth is said to have been forged by Hephaestus.", "He designed Hermes' winged helmet and sandals, the Aegis breastplate, Aphrodite's famed girdle, Agamemnon's staff of office, Achilles' armour, Diomedes' cuirass, Heracles' bronze clappers, Helios' chariot, the shoulder of Pelops, and Eros's bow and arrows.", "In later accounts, Hephaestus worked with the help of the Cyclopes—among them his assistants in the forge, Brontes, Steropes and Arges.He gave to the blinded Orion his apprentice Cedalion as a guide.", "In some versions of the myth, Prometheus stole the fire that he gave to man from Hephaestus's forge.", "Hephaestus also created the gift that the gods gave to man, the woman Pandora and her pithos.", "Being a skilled blacksmith, Hephaestus created all the thrones in the Palace of Olympus.=== Automatons ===According to Homer, Hephaestus built automatons of metal to work for him or others.", "This included tripods with golden wheels, able to move at his wish in and out the assembly hall of the celestials; and servant \"handmaidens wrought of gold in the semblance of living maids\", in them was \"understanding in their hearts, and speech and strength\", gift of the gods.", "They moved to support Hephaestus while walking.", "And he put golden and silver lions and dogs at the entrance of the palace of Alkinoos in such a way that they could bite the invaders, guard dogs that didn't age nor perish.", "A similar golden dog (''Κυων Χρυσεος'') was set by Rhea to guard the infant Zeus and his nurse, the goat Amaltheia, on the island of Krete.", "Later Tantalus was said to have stolen the automata when it guarded Zeus' temple, or to have persuaded Pandareos to steal it for him.", "Later texts attempt to replace the automaton with the idea that the golden dog was actually Rhea, transformed in that way by Hephaestus.=== Parentage ===* According to Homer (Iliad, I 571-577), Hera is mentioned as the mother of Hephaestus but there is not sufficient evidence to say that Zeus was his father (although he refers to him in such way).", "* According to Homer (Odyssey, VIII 306), there is not sufficient evidence to say that Zeus was the father of Hephaestus (although he refers to him in such way).", "Hera is not mentioned as the mother.", "* According to Hesiod (Theogony, 927-928), Hera gave birth to Hephaestus on her own as revenge for Zeus giving birth to Athena without her (Zeus lay with Metis).", "* According to Pseudo-Apollodorus (Bibliotheca, 1.3.6), Hera gave birth to Hephaestus alone.", "Pseudo-Apollodorus also relates that, according to Homer, Hephaestus is one of the children of Zeus and Hera (consciously contradicting Hesiod and Homer).", "* Several later texts follow Hesiod's account, including Hyginus and the preface to ''Fabulae''.In the account of Attic vase painters, Hephaestus was present at the birth of Athena and wields the axe with which he split Zeus' head to free her.", "In the latter account, Hephaestus is there represented as older than Athena, so the mythology of Hephaestus is inconsistent in this respect.===Fall from Olympus===In one branch of Greek mythology, Hera ejected Hephaestus from the heavens because of his congenital impairment.", "He fell into the ocean and was raised by Thetis (mother of Achilles and one of the 50 Nereids) and the Oceanid Eurynome.In another account, Hephaestus, attempting to rescue his mother from Zeus' advances, was flung down from the heavens by Zeus.", "He fell for an entire day and landed on the island of Lemnos, where he was cared for and taught to be a master craftsman by the Sintians – an ancient tribe native to that island.", "Later writers describe his physical disability as the consequence of his second fall, while Homer makes him disabled from his birth.=== Return to Olympus ===Hephaestus was one of the Olympians to have returned to Olympus after being exiled.In an archaic story, Hephaestus gained revenge against Hera for rejecting him by making her a magical golden throne, which, when she sat on it, did not allow her to stand up again.", "The other gods begged Hephaestus to return to Olympus to let her go, but he refused, saying \"I have no mother\".The Doric Temple of Hephaestus, Agora of AthensIt was Ares who undertook the task of fetching Hephaestus at first, but he was threatened by the fire god with torches.", "At last, Dionysus, the god of wine, fetched him, intoxicated him with wine, and took the subdued smith back to Olympus on the back of a mule accompanied by revelers – a scene that sometimes appears on painted pottery of Attica and of Corinth.", "In the painted scenes, the padded dancers and phallic figures of the Dionysan throng leading the mule show that the procession was a part of the dithyrambic celebrations that were the forerunners of the satyr plays of fifth century Athens.According to Hyginus, Zeus promised anything to Hephaestus in order to free Hera, and he asked for the hand of Athena in marriage (urged by Poseidon who was hostile toward her), leading to his attempted rape of her.", "In another version, he demanded to be married to Aphrodite in order to release Hera, and his mother fulfilled the request.The theme of the ''return of Hephaestus'', popular among the Attic vase-painters whose wares were favored among the Etruscans, may have introduced this theme to Etruria.", "In the vase-painters' portrayal of the procession, Hephaestus was mounted on a mule or a horse, with Dionysus holding the bridle and carrying Hephaestus' tools (including a double-headed axe).The traveller Pausanias reported seeing a painting in the temple of Dionysus in Athens, which had been built in the 5th century but may have been decorated at any time before the 2nd century CE.", "When Pausanias saw it, he said:=== Hephaestus and Aphrodite ===Mars and Venus Surprised by Vulcan'' by Alexandre Charles Guillemot (1827)Though married to Hephaestus, Aphrodite had an affair with Ares, the god of war.", "Eventually, Hephaestus discovered Aphrodite's affair through Helios, the all-seeing Sun, and planned a trap during one of their trysts.", "While Aphrodite and Ares lay together in bed, Hephaestus ensnared them in an unbreakable chain-link net so small as to be invisible and dragged them to Mount Olympus to shame them in front of the other gods for retribution.The gods laughed at the sight of these naked lovers, and Poseidon persuaded Hephaestus to free them in return for a guarantee that Ares would pay the adulterer's fine or that he would pay it himself.", "Hephaestus states in ''The Odyssey'' that he would return Aphrodite to her father and demand back his bride price.", "The Emily Wilson translation depicts Hephaestus demanding/imploring Zeus before Poseidon offers, however, leading the reader to assume Zeus did not give back the \"price\" Hephaestus paid for his daughter and was thus why Poseidon intervened.", "Some versions of the myth state that Zeus did not return the dowry, and in fact Aphrodite \"simply charmed her way back again into her husband’s good graces.\"", "In the ''Iliad'', Hephaestus is presented as divorced from Aphrodite, and now married to the Grace Aglaea.", "In the ''Theogony'', Aglaea is presented as Hephaestus' mate with no apparent mention of any marriage to Aphrodite.In a much later interpolated detail, Ares put the young soldier Alectryon, by their door to warn them of Helios's arrival as he suspected that Helios would tell Hephaestus of Aphrodite's infidelity if the two were discovered, but Alectryon fell asleep on guard duty.", "Helios discovered the two and alerted Hephaestus, as Ares in rage turned Alectryon into a rooster, which always crows at dawn when the sun is about to rise announcing its arrival.The Thebans told that the union of Ares and Aphrodite produced Harmonia.", "However, of the union of Hephaestus with Aphrodite, there was no issue unless Virgil was serious when he said that Eros was their child.", "Later authors explain this statement by saying that Eros was sired by Ares but passed off to Hephaestus as his own son.", "Because Harmonia was conceived during Aphrodite's marriage to Hephaestus, for revenge, on Harmonia's wedding day to Cadmus Hephaestus gifted her with a finely worked but cursed necklace that brought immense suffering to her descendants, culminating with the story of Oedipus.Hephaestus was somehow connected with the archaic, pre-Greek Phrygian and Thracian mystery cult of the Kabeiroi, who were also called the ''Hephaistoi'', \"the Hephaestus-men\", in Lemnos.", "One of the three Lemnian tribes also called themselves Hephaestion and claimed direct descent from the god.=== Hephaestus and Athena ===Hephaestus is to the male gods as Athena is to the female, for he gives skill to mortal artists and was believed to have taught men the arts alongside Athena.", "At Athens, they had temples and festivals in common.", "Both were believed to have great healing powers, and Lemnian earth (terra Lemnia) from the spot on which Hephaestus had fallen was believed to cure madness, the bites of snakes, and haemorrhage; and priests of Hephaestus knew how to cure wounds inflicted by snakes.He was represented in the temple of Athena Chalcioecus (Athena of the Bronze House) at Sparta, in the act of delivering his mother; on the chest of Cypselus, giving Achilles's armor to Thetis; and at Athens there was the famous statue of Hephaestus by Alcamenes, in which his physical disability was only subtly portrayed.", "He had almost \"no cults except in Athens\" and was possibly seen as a more approachable god to the city which shared her namesake.", "The Greeks frequently placed miniature statues of Hephaestus near their hearths, and these figures are the oldest of all his representations.", "During the best period of Grecian art he was represented as a vigorous man with a beard, and is characterized by his hammer or some other crafting tool, his oval cap, and the chiton.Athena is sometimes thought to be the \"soulmate\" of Hephaestus.", "Nonetheless, he \"seeks impetuously and passionately to make love to Athena: at the moment of climax she pushes him aside, and his semen falls to the earth where it impregnates Gaia.", "\"=== Volcano god ===Some state that his origin myth was that of a \"daemon of fire coming up from the earth\"—that he was also associated with gas \"which takes fire and burns and is considered by many people to be divine\" and that only later was a volcano considered Hephaestus's smithy.Hephaestus was associated by Greek colonists in southern Italy with the volcano gods Adranus (of Mount Etna) and Vulcanus of the Lipari islands.", "The first-century sage Apollonius of Tyana is said to have observed, \"there are many other mountains all over the earth that are on fire, and yet we should never be done with it if we assigned to them giants and gods like Hephaestus\".Nevertheless, Hephaestus’ domain over fire goes back to Homer’s ''Iliad'', where he uses flames to dry the waters of Scamandrus river and force its homonym deity, who was attacking Achilles, to retreat.=== Other mythology ===In the Trojan war, Hephaestus sided with the Greeks, but was also worshiped by the Trojans and saved one of their men from being killed by Diomedes.", "Hephaestus' favourite place in the mortal world was the island of Lemnos, where he liked to dwell among the Sintians, but he also frequented other volcanic islands such as Lipari, Hiera, Imbros and Sicily, which were called his abodes or workshops.Hephaestus fought against the Giants and killed Mimas by throwing molten iron at him.", "He also fought another Giant, Aristaeus, but he fled.", "During the battle Hephaestus fell down exhausted, and was picked up by Helios in his chariot.", "As a gift of gratitude, Hephaestus forged four ever-flowing fountains and fire-breathing bulls for Helios' son Aeëtes.The epithets and surnames by which Hephaestus is known by the poets generally allude to his skill in the plastic arts or to his figure or disability.", "The Greeks frequently placed miniature statues of Hephaestus near their hearths, and these figures are the oldest of all his representations.At the marriage of Peleus and Thetis he gave a knife as a wedding present.===Lovers, others and children===According to most versions, Hephaestus's consort is Aphrodite, who is unfaithful to Hephaestus with a number of gods and mortals, including Ares.", "However, in Book XVIII of Homer's ''Iliad'', the consort of Hephaestus is Charis (\"the grace\") or Aglaia (\"the glorious\") – the youngest of the Graces, as Hesiod calls her.", "''Athena Scorning the Advances of Hephaestus'' by Paris Bordone (between c. 1555 and c. 1560) Károly Kerényi notes that \"charis\" also means \"the delightfulness of art\" and supposes that Aphrodite is viewed as a work of art, speculating that Aphrodite could also have been called Charis as an alternative name, for in the Odyssey Homer suddenly makes her his wife.In Athens, there is a Temple of Hephaestus, the ''Hephaesteum'' (miscalled the \"Theseum\") near the agora.", "An Athenian founding myth tells that the city's patron goddess, Athena, refused a union with Hephaestus.", "Pseudo-Apollodorus records an archaic legend, which claims that Hephaestus once attempted to rape Athena, but she pushed him away, causing him to ejaculate on her thigh.", "Athena wiped the semen off using a tuft of wool, which she tossed into the dust, impregnating Gaia and causing her to give birth to Erichthonius, whom Athena adopted as her own child.", "The Roman mythographer Hyginus records a similar story in which Hephaestus demanded Zeus to let him marry Athena since he was the one who had smashed open Zeus's skull, allowing Athena to be born.", "Zeus agreed to this and Hephaestus and Athena were married, but, when Hephaestus was about to consummate the union, Athena vanished from the bridal bed, causing him to ejaculate on the floor, thus impregnating Gaia with Erichthonius.On the island of Lemnos, Hephaestus' consort was the sea nymph Cabeiro, by whom he was the father of two metalworking gods named the Cabeiri.", "In Sicily, his consort was the nymph Aetna, and his sons were two gods of Sicilian geysers called Palici.", "With Thalia, Hephaestus was sometimes considered the father of the Palici.Hephaestus fathered several children with mortals and immortals alike.", "One of those children was the robber Periphetes.OffspringMothersEucleia, Euthenia, Eupheme, PhilophrosyneAglaeaErichthoniusGaiaThe PaliciAetnaThe Cabeiri, The Cabeirian nymphsCabeiroPeriphetesAnticleaArdalus, Cercyon, Olenus, Palaemonius, Argonauts, Philottus, Pylius who cured Philoctetes at Lemnos, Spinter''Unknown''In addition, the Romans claim their equivalent god, Vulcan, to have produced the following children:# Cacus (Cacus was mentioned also as a child of Hephaestus)# Caeculus" ], [ "Symbolism", "Hephaestus and 2 assistants work on the arms for Achilles, the shield held up by Hephaestus and one of his assistants shows the mirror image of Thetis, sitting and watching the scene.", "Fresco from Pompeii.Hephaestus was sometimes portrayed as a vigorous man with a beard and was characterized by his hammer or some other crafting tool, his oval cap, and the chiton.Hephaestus is described in mythological sources as \"lame\" (), and \"halting\" ().He was depicted with curved feet, an impairment he had either from birth or as a result of his fall from Olympus.", "In vase paintings, Hephaestus is sometimes shown bent over his anvil, hard at work on a metal creation, and sometimes his feet are curved back-to-front: ''Hephaistos amphigyēeis''.", "He walked with the aid of a stick.", "The Argonaut Palaimonius, \"son of Hephaestus\" (i.e.", "a bronze-smith) also had a mobility impairment.Other \"sons of Hephaestus\" were the Cabeiri on the island of Samothrace, who were identified with the crab (''karkinos'') by the lexicographer Hesychius.", "The adjective ''karkinopous'' (\"crab-footed\") signified \"lame\", according to Detienne and Vernant.", "The Cabeiri were also physically disabled.In some myths, Hephaestus built himself a \"wheeled chair\" or chariot with which to move around, thus helping support his mobility while demonstrating his skill to the other gods.", "In the ''Iliad'' 18.371, it is stated that Hephaestus built twenty bronze wheeled tripods to assist him in moving around.Hephaestus's appearance and physical disability are taken by some to represent peripheral neuropathy and skin cancer resulting from arsenicosis caused by arsenic exposure from metalworking.", "Bronze Age smiths added arsenic to copper to produce harder arsenical bronze, especially during periods of tin scarcity.", "Many Bronze Age smiths would have suffered from chronic arsenic poisoning as a result of their livelihood.", "Consequently, the mythic image of the disabled smith is widespread.", "As Hephaestus was an iron-age smith, not a bronze-age smith, the connection is one from ancient folk memory." ], [ "Comparative mythology", "Parallels in other mythological systems for Hephaestus's symbolism include:* The Ugarit craftsman-god Kothar-wa-Khasis, who is identified from afar by his distinctive walk – possibly suggesting that he limps.", "* As Herodotus was given to understand, the Egyptian craftsman-god Ptah was a dwarf god and is often depicted naked.", "* In Norse mythology, Weyland the Smith was a physically disabled bronzeworker.", "* In Hinduism the artificer god Tvastr fills a similar role, albeit more positively portrayed.", "* The Ossetian god Kurdalagon may share a similar origin." ], [ "Worship", "Solinus wrote that the Lycians dedicated a city to Hephaestus and called it Hephaestia.The Hephaestia in Lemnos was named after the god.In addition, the whole island of Lemnos was sacred to Hephaestus.Pausanias wrote that the Lycians in Patara had a bronze bowl in their temple of Apollo, saying that Telephus dedicated it and Hephaestus made it.Pausanias also wrote that the village of Olympia in Elis contained an altar to the river Alpheios, next to which was an altar to Hephaestus sometimes referred to as the altar of \"Warlike Zeus.", "\"The island Thermessa, between Lipari and Sicily was also called Hiera of Hephaestus (ἱερὰ Ἡφαίστου), meaning sacred place of Hephaestus in Greek." ], [ "Namesakes", "Pliny the Elder wrote that at Corycus there was a stone which was called Hephaestitis or Hephaestus stone.", "According to Pliny, the stone was red and was reflecting images like a mirror, and when boiling water poured over it cooled immediately or alternatively when it placed in the sun it immediately set fire to a parched substance.The minor planet 2212 Hephaistos discovered in 1978 by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Chernykh was named in Hephaestus' honour." ], [ "Genealogy" ], [ "See also", "* Family tree of the Greek gods* Hephaestus in popular culture" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "=== Ancient ===* Homer, ''The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes''.", "Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Homer; ''The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes''.", "Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Hesiod, ''Theogony'', in ''The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White'', Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Evelyn-White, Hugh, ''The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White''.", "Homeric Hymns.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard * Apollonius of Rhodes, ''Argonautica''; with an English translation by R. C. Seaton.", "William Heinemann, 1912.", "* Apollodorus, ''Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S.", "in 2 Volumes.''", "Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Pausanias, ''Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S.", "Jones, Litt.D., and H.A.", "Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes.''", "Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Strabo, ''The Geography of Strabo.''", "Edition by H.L.", "Jones.", "Cambridge, Mass.", ": Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Ovid, ''Ovid's Fasti: With an English translation by Sir James George Frazer'', London: W. Heinemann LTD; Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1959.Internet Archive.", "* Hyginus, Gaius Julius, ''The Myths of Hyginus''.", "Edited and translated by Mary A.", "Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960.=== Modern ===** * Slater, Philip Elliot (1968), ''The Glory of Hera: Greek Mythology and the Greek Family'', Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, .", "Google books.", "* Stein, Murray, ''Soul: Treatment and Recovery: The selected works of Murray Stein'', Routledge, 2015..* Strabo, ''Geography'', translated by Horace Leonard Jones; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. (1924).", "LacusCurtis, Online version at the Perseus Digital Library, Books 6–14." ], [ "External links", "* Theoi Project, Hephaestus in classical literature and art* Greek Mythology Link, Hephaestus summary of the myths of Hephaestus* The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (images of Hephaestus)" ] ]
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[ [ "Herman Charles Bosman" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Herman Charles Bosman''' (3 February 1905 – 14 October 1951) is widely regarded as South Africa's greatest short-story writer.", "He studied the works of Edgar Allan Poe and Mark Twain and developed a style emphasizing the use of satire.", "His English-language works utilize primarily Afrikaner characters and highlight the many contradictions in Afrikaner society during the first half of the twentieth century." ], [ "Early life", "Bosman was born at Kuils River, near Cape Town, in the Cape Colony, to an Afrikaner family.", "He was raised with English as well as Afrikaans.", "While Bosman was still young, his family travelled frequently, he spent a short time at Potchefstroom College which would later become Potchefstroom High School for Boys, he later moved to Johannesburg where he went to school at Jeppe High School for Boys in Kensington.", "While there he contributed to the school magazine.", "When Bosman was sixteen, he started writing short stories for the national Sunday newspaper (the ''Sunday Times'').", "He attended the Johannesburg College of Education (which in 2002 was incorporated into the University of the Witwatersrand) and submitted various pieces to student literary competitions." ], [ "Career and adult life", "After graduation, Bosman accepted a teaching position in the Groot Marico district in an Afrikaans-language school.", "The area provided the backdrop for his best-known short stories, the ''Oom Schalk Lourens'' series (featuring an older character named Oom Schalk Lourens) and the ''Voorkamer'' sketches.Over the June school holidays in 1926, Bosman visited his family in Johannesburg.", "During an argument, he shot and killed his stepbrother.", "Bosman was sentenced to death for this crime and was sent to death row at the Pretoria Central Prison.", "His sentence was later reduced to ten years with hard labour.", "In 1930, Bosman was released on parole after serving half his sentence.", "His prison experiences formed the basis for his semi-autobiographical book, ''Cold Stone Jug''.Bosman then started his own printing-press company and was part of a literary set in Johannesburg, associating with poets, journalists and writers, including Aegidius Jean Blignaut.", "He toured overseas for nine years, spending most of his time in London.", "The short stories that he wrote during this period formed the basis for another of his best-known books, ''Mafeking Road''.", "At the start of the Second World War, he returned to South Africa and worked as a journalist.", "During this time he translated the ''Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam'' into Afrikaans.Bosman lamented the fact that Johannesburg neglected its heritage.", "In ''The Standard Theatre'' he complained that the city's residents:\"will pull down the Standard Theatre like they have pulled down all the old buildings, theatres, gin-palaces, dosshouses, temples, shops, arcades, cafes and joints that were intimately associated with the mining-camp days of Johannesburg.", "Because I know Johannesburg.", "And I am satisfied that there is no other city in the world that is so anxious to shake off the memories of its early origins.", "\"Bosman's second wife was Ella Manson.", "The couple were renowned for their bohemian lifestyle and parties, which featured witty conversation and usually ended well after midnight.From 1948 to his death in 1951, Bosman was employed as proof editor at ''The Sunday Express''.", "In addition, he was contracted to write a weekly Voorkamer story for ''The Forum'' magazine.His last wife was Helena Lake (née Stegmann).", "After a housewarming party in October 1951, Bosman experienced severe chest pains and was taken to Edenvale Hospital.", "On admission, he was asked for his birthplace.", "He replied, \"Born Kuilsrivier – Died Edenvale Hospital.\"", "He was discharged and collapsed at home a few hours later.", "Bosman died as he was being rushed to hospital.", "He is buried in Westpark Cemetery in Westdene under a triangular headstone that reads \"Die Skrywer, The Writer, Herman Charles Bosman, b 3.2.1905, d 14.10.1951.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "After his death, the rights to his works were auctioned.", "They were purchased by his last wife, Helena, and upon her death, the rights were passed to her son, who retains them.", "In 1960, however, Helena sold some of his documents and 123 of his water colours and pencil sketches to the Harry Ransom Center in Texas.Only three of his books were published during his lifetime: ''Mafeking Road'' published by Dassie, and ''Jacaranda in the Night'' and ''Cold Stone Jug'' published by APB.", "''Mafeking Road'' has never been out of print since its publication in 1947.His biography was written several times by Valerie Rosenberg.", "Her first effort was called ''Sunflower to the Sun'', followed by ''Herman Charles Bosman, a Pictorial Biography'', and most recently by ''Herman Charles Bosman: Between the Lines''.", "The last of these contains much new research and deals in detail with aspects of Bosman's life and parentage that were previously considered taboo.Because many of his stories were originally published in long-forgotten magazines and journals, there are a number of anthologies by different collators each containing a different selection.", "His original books have also been published many times by different publishers.The Herman Charles Bosman Literary Society meets annually for readings, performances and discussions of his works." ], [ "Books", ":''Some of the ISBNs and publishers below may not be for the original edition.", "''* ''Mafeking Road & Other Stories'' (1947), Human & Rousseau, Archipelago Books (2008)* ''Rubaijat van Omar Khajjam'' (1948), Colin Reed-McDonald* ''Cold Stone Jug'' (1949), Human & Rousseau* ''Veld-trails and Pavements'' (1949), with Carel Bredell, Afrikaanse Pers-Boekhandel* ''Cask of Jerepigo'' (1957), Central News Agency* ''Unto Dust'' (1963), edited by Lionel Abrahams, Anthony Blond* ''Bosman at his Best: a choice of stories and sketches'' (1965) edited by Lionel Abrahams Human & Rousseau* ''Bosman's Johannesburg'' (1986) edited by Stephen Gray Human & Rousseau* ''Ramoutsa Road'' (1987) Ad.", "Donker* ''A Bekkersdal Marathon'' (1971), Human & Rousseau* ''The Earth is Waiting'' (1974)* ''Willemsdorp'' (1977), Human & Rousseau* ''Almost Forgotten Stories'' (1979) H. Timmins* ''My Friend Herman Charles Bosman'' 1980 Perskor.", "author: Aegidius Jean Blignaut* ''Dead End Road'' 1980 AD.Donker.", "author: Aegidius Jean Blignaut* ''Selected Stories'' (1980), edited by Stephen Gray, Human & Rousseau* ''The Collected Works of Herman Charles Bosman'' (1981), edited by Lionel Abrahams, Jonathan Ball* ''The Bosman I like'' (1981), edited by Patrick Mynhardt, Human & Rousseau* ''Death Hath Eloquence'' (1981), edited by Aegidius Jean Blignaut, Christelike Uitgewersmaatskappy* ''Uncollected Essays'' (1981), Timmins* ''The Illustrated Bosman'' (1985), Jonathan Ball* ''Makapan's Cave and other stories'' (1987), edited by Stephen Gray, Penguin Books.", "* ''A Bosman Treasury'' (1991), edited by Ian Lusted, Human & Rousseau* ''Jurie Steyn's Post Office'' (1991), Human & Rousseau* ''Herman Charles Bosman : the prose juvenilia'' (1998), collected and introduced by M. C. Andersen, University of South Africa* ''Idle Talk : voorkamer stories'' (1999), edited by Craig MacKenzie, Human & Rousseau* ''Old Transvaal Stories'' (2000), edited by Craig MacKenzie, Human & Rousseau* ''The Rooinek and Other Boer War Stories'' (2000), edited by Craig MacKenzie, Human & Rousseau* ''Jacaranda in the Night'' (2000), Human & Rousseau* ''Best of Bosman'' (2001), edited by Stephen Gray and Craig MacKenzie, Human & Rousseau* ''Seed-Time and Harvest, and Other Stories'' (2001), edited by Craig MacKenzie, Human & Rousseau* ''Verborge Skatte: Herman Charles Bosman in/on Afrikaans'' (2001), collected by Leon de Kock, Human & Rousseau" ], [ "Plays", "* ''Cold Stone Jug'' (1982) adapted by Barney Simon from the play by Stephen Gray Human & Rousseau" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* The Herman Charles Bosman Literary Society* City of Johannesburg Bosman page* Snyman, Salomé.", "\"Willemsdorp by Herman Charles Bosman: the small-town locale as fictional vehicle for commentary on social and moral issues in the South African historical context.\"", "Tydskrif vir letterkunde 49.2 (2012): 60–71." ] ]
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[ [ "Hungarian" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hungarian''' may refer to:* Hungary, a country in Central Europe* Kingdom of Hungary, state of Hungary, existing between 1000 and 1946* Hungarians/Magyars, ethnic groups in Hungary* Hungarian algorithm, a polynomial time algorithm for solving the assignment problem* Hungarian language, a Finno-Ugric language spoken in Hungary and all neighbouring countries* Hungarian notation, a naming convention in computer programming* Hungarian cuisine, the cuisine of Hungary and the Hungarians" ], [ "See also", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Howitzer" ], [ "Introduction", "Firing of an M114 155 mm howitzer by the 90th Field Artillery Battalion, US 24th Infantry Division, during the Korean WarThe '''howitzer''' () is an artillery weapon that falls between a cannon and a mortar.", "With their long-range capabilities, howitzers can be used to great effect in a battery formation with other artillery pieces, such as long-barreled guns, mortars, and rocket artillery." ], [ "Etymology", "The English word ''howitzer'' comes from the Czech word , from , 'crowd', and is in turn a borrowing from the Middle High German word or (modern German ), meaning 'crowd, throng', plus the Czech nominal suffix .", ", sometimes in the compound , also designated a pike square formation in German.In the Hussite Wars of the 1420s and 1430s, the Hussites used short-barreled cannons to fire at short distances into crowds of infantry, or into charging heavy cavalry, to make horses shy away.", "The word was rendered into German as in the earliest attested use in a document dating from 1440; later German renderings include and, eventually , from which derive the Scandinavian , Polish and Serbo-Croatian , Estonian , Finnish , Russian (), Ukrainian (), Italian , Spanish , Portuguese , French , Romanian and the Dutch word , which led to the English word ''howitzer''.Since World War I, the word ''howitzer'' has been changing to describe artillery pieces that previously would have belonged to the category of gun-howitzers – relatively long barrels and high muzzle velocities combined with multiple propelling charges and high maximum elevations.", "This is particularly true in the armed forces of the United States, where gun-howitzers have been officially described as howitzers since World War II.", "Because of this practice, the word howitzer is used in some armies as a generic term for any kind of artillery piece that is designed to attack targets using indirect fire.", "Thus, artillery pieces that bear little resemblance to howitzers of earlier eras are now described as howitzers, although the British call them guns.The British had a further method of nomenclature.", "In the 18th century, they adopted projectile weight for guns replacing an older naming system (such as ''culverin'', ''saker'', etc.)", "that had developed in the late 15th century.", "Mortars had been categorized by calibre in inches in the 17th century, and this was duplicated with howitzers.U.S.", "military doctrine defines howitzers as any cannon artillery capable of both high-angle fire (45° to 90° elevation) and low-angle fire (0° to 45° elevation); guns are defined as being only capable of low-angle fire (0° to 45° elevation); and mortars are defined as being only capable of high-angle fire (45° to 90° elevation)." ], [ "History", "=== Early modern period ===The first artillery identified as howitzers developed in the late 16th century as a medium-trajectory weapon between that of the flat trajectory (direct fire) of cannon and the high trajectory (indirect fire) of mortars.", "Originally intended for use in siege warfare, they were particularly useful for delivering cast iron shells filled with gunpowder or incendiary materials into the interior of fortifications.", "In contrast to contemporaneous mortars, which were fired at a fixed angle and were entirely dependent on adjustments to the size of propellant charges to vary range, howitzers could be fired at a wide variety of angles.", "Thus, while howitzer gunnery was more complicated than the technique of employing mortars, the howitzer was an inherently more flexible weapon that could fire its projectiles along a wide range of trajectories.Mountain howitzer firingIn the middle of the 18th century, a number of European armies began to introduce howitzers that were mobile enough to accompany armies in the field.", "Though usually fired at the relatively high angles of fire used by contemporary siege howitzers, these field howitzers were rarely defined by this capability.", "Rather, as the field guns of the day were usually restricted to inert projectiles (which relied entirely on momentum for their destructive effects), the field howitzers of the 18th century were chiefly valued for their ability to fire explosive shells.", "Many, for the sake of simplicity and rapidity of fire, dispensed with adjustable propellant charges.The Abus gun was an early form of howitzer in the Ottoman Empire.", "In 1758, the Russian Empire introduced a specific type of howitzer (or rather gun-howitzer), with a conical chamber, called a licorne, which remained in service for the next 100 years.", "In the mid-19th century, some armies attempted to simplify their artillery parks by introducing smoothbore artillery pieces that were designed to fire both explosive projectiles and cannonballs, thereby replacing both field howitzers and field guns.", "The most famous of these \"gun-howitzers\" was the Napoleon 12-pounder, a weapon of French design that was extensively used in the American Civil War.12-pound Napoleon at the Colorado State CapitolNineteenth-century 12-pounder (5 kg) mountain howitzer displayed by the National Park Service at Fort Laramie in Wyoming, United StatesIn 1859, the armies of Europe (including those that had recently adopted gun-howitzers) began to rearm field batteries with rifled field guns.", "These field pieces used cylindrical projectiles that, while smaller in caliber than the spherical shells of smoothbore field howitzers, could carry a comparable charge of gunpowder.", "Moreover, their greater range let them create many of the same effects (such as firing over low walls) that previously required the sharply curved trajectories of smoothbore field howitzers.", "Because of this, military authorities saw no point in obtaining rifled field howitzers to replace their smoothbore counterparts but instead used rifled field guns to replace both guns and howitzers.In siege warfare, the introduction of rifling had the opposite effect.", "In the 1860s, artillery officers discovered that rifled siege howitzers (substantially larger than field howitzers) were a more efficient means of destroying walls (particularly walls protected by certain kinds of intervening obstacles) than smoothbore siege guns or siege mortars.", "Thus, at the same time armies were taking howitzers of one sort out of their field batteries, they were introducing howitzers of another sort into their siege trains and fortresses.", "The lightest of these weapons (later known as \"light siege howitzers\") had calibers around 150 mm and fired shells that weighed between 40 and 50 kilograms.", "The heaviest (later called \"medium siege howitzers\") had calibers between 200 mm and 220 mm and fired shells that weighed about 100 kilograms (220 pounds).Battle of Manila, 1899During the 1880s, a third type of siege howitzer was added to inventories of a number of European armies.", "With calibers that ranged between 240 mm and 270 mm and shells that weighed more than 150 kilograms, these soon came to be known as \"heavy siege howitzers\".", "A good example of a weapon of this class is provided by the 9.45-inch (240 mm) weapon that the British Army purchased from the Skoda works in 1899.=== 20th century ===In the early 20th century, the introduction of howitzers that were significantly larger than the heavy siege howitzers of the day made necessary the creation of a fourth category, that of \"super-heavy siege howitzers\".", "Weapons of this category include the famous Big Bertha of the German Army and the 15-inch (381 mm) howitzer of the British Royal Marine Artillery.", "These large howitzers were transported mechanically rather than by teams of horses.", "They were transported as several loads and had to be assembled at their firing position.These field howitzers introduced at the end of the 19th century could fire shells with high trajectories giving a steep angle of descent and, as a result, could strike targets that were protected by intervening obstacles.", "They could also fire shells that were about twice as large as shells fired by guns of the same size.", "Thus, while a 75 mm field gun that weighed one ton or so was limited to shells that weigh around 8 kg, a 105 mm howitzer of the same weight could fire 15 kg shells.", "This is a matter of fundamental mechanics affecting the stability and hence the weight of the carriage.As heavy field howitzers and light siege howitzers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries used ammunition of the same size and types, there was a marked tendency for the two types to merge.", "At first, this was largely a matter of the same basic weapon being employed on two different mountings.", "Later, as on-carriage recoil-absorbing systems eliminated many of the advantages that siege platforms had enjoyed over field carriages, the same combination of barrel assembly, recoil mechanism and carriage was used in both roles.By the early 20th century, the differences between guns and howitzers were relative, not absolute, and generally recognized as follows:* Guns – higher velocity and longer range, single charge propellant, maximum elevation generally less than 45 degrees.", "* Howitzers – lower velocity and shorter range, multi-charge propellant, maximum elevation typically more than 45 degrees.The onset of trench warfare after the first few months of the World War I greatly increased the demand for howitzers that gave a steep angle of descent, which were better suited than guns to the task of striking targets in a vertical plane (such as trenches), with large amounts of explosive and considerably less barrel wear.", "The German army was well equipped with howitzers, having far more at the beginning of the war than France.Many howitzers introduced in the course of World War I had longer barrels than pre-war howitzers.", "The standard German light field howitzer at the start of the war (the 10.5 cm leichte Feldhaubitze 98/09) had a barrel that was 16 calibers long, but the light field howitzer adopted by the German Army in 1916 (105 mm leichte Feldhaubitze 16) had a barrel that was 22 calibers long.", "At the same time, new models of field gun introduced during that conflict, such as the 77 mm field gun adopted by the German Army in 1916 (7,7 cm Feldkanone 16) were often provided with carriages that allowed firing at comparatively high angles, and adjustable propellant cartridges.In the years after World War I, the tendency of guns and howitzers to acquire each other's characteristics led to the renaissance of the concept of the gun-howitzer.", "This was a product of technical advances such as the French invention of autofrettage just before World War I, which led to stronger and lighter barrels, the use of cut-off gear to control recoil length depending on firing elevation angle, and the invention of muzzle brakes to reduce recoil forces.", "Like the gun-howitzers of the 19th century, those of the 20th century replaced both guns and howitzers.", "Thus, the 25-pounder \"gun-howitzer\" of the British Army replaced both the 18-pounder field gun and the 4.5-inch howitzer.During World War II, the military doctrine of Soviet deep battle called for extensive use of heavy artillery to hold the formal line of front.", "Soviet doctrine was remarkably different from the German doctrine of Blitzkrieg and called for a far more extensive use of artillery.", "As a result, howitzers saw most of the action on the Eastern front.", "Most of the howitzers produced by the USSR at the time were not self-propelled.", "Notable examples of Soviet howitzers include the M-10, M-30 and D-1.Since World War II, most of the artillery pieces adopted by armies for attacking targets on land have combined the traditional characteristics of guns and howitzers – high muzzle velocity, long barrels, long range, multiple charges and maximum elevation angles greater than 45 degrees.", "The term \"gun-howitzer\" is sometimes used for these (e.g., in Russia); many nations use \"howitzer\", while the UK (and most members of The Commonwealth of Nations) calls them \"guns\", for example Gun, 105 mm, Field, L118." ], [ "Types", "* A self-propelled howitzer is mounted on a tracked or wheeled motor vehicle.", "In many cases, it is protected by some sort of armor so that it superficially resembles a tank.", "This armor is designed primarily to protect the crew from shrapnel and small arms fire, not anti-armor weapons.", "* A pack howitzer is a relatively light howitzer that is designed to be easily broken down into several pieces, each of which is small enough to be carried by mule or pack-horse.", "* A mountain howitzer is a relatively light howitzer designed for use in mountainous terrain.", "Most, but not all, mountain howitzers are also pack howitzers.", "* A siege howitzer is a howitzer that is designed to be fired from a mounting on a fixed platform of some sort.", "* A field howitzer is a howitzer that is mobile enough to accompany a field army on campaign.", "It is invariably provided with a wheeled carriage of some sort." ], [ "Gallery", "Museu da FEB em Belo Horizonte - Foto antiga.jpg|Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil38 cm siege howitzer Austria Hungary 1916.jpg|38 cm siege howitzer, Austria Hungary 1916, in the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum, Vienna155fire.jpg|U.S.", "M198 gun-howitzerDutch Panzerhaubitz fires in Afghanistan.jpg|Dutch Panzerhaubitze 2000 firing105mm-Kroop-HowitzerBG-WWI.jpg|German 10.5 cm leFH 18/40 howitzer, monument at the Battle of Turtucaia25 pounder firing a blank.ogv|Demonstration of a British 25-pounder firingM109BREECH.JPG|Breech of a U.S. M109 self-propelled gun-howitzer" ], [ "See also", "* * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* French Artillery of the Napoleonic Wars" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hummer" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hummer''' (stylized in all caps) is a brand of pickups and SUVs first marketed in 1992 when AM General began selling a civilian version of the M998 Humvee.", "Although discontinued in 2010, Hummer returned as a model under GMC in 2020.In 1998, General Motors (GM) purchased the brand name from AM General and marketed three vehicles: the original Hummer H1, based on the military Humvee, as well as the new H2 and H3 models that were based on smaller, civilian-market GM platforms.By 2008, Hummer's viability in the economic downturn was questioned.", "Rather than being transferred to the Motors Liquidation Company as part of the GM bankruptcy in 2009, the brand was retained by GM, to investigate its sale.", "No final deal was made, and in 2010, Hummer dealerships began shutting down.The nameplate returned to the marketplace for the 2022 model year, not as a separate make brand but as electric pickup truck and SUV models sold under the GMC brand as the \"GMC Hummer EV\".", "The pre-production versions of the EV began November 2021 after a $2.2 billion investment to build a variety of all-electric vehicles in GM's Detroit-Hamtramck assembly plant." ], [ "History", "===Origin===AM General had planned to sell a civilian version of its Humvee as far back as the late 1980s.", "Having the same structure and most mechanical components, the civilian Hummers were finished in automotive gloss paint, adding passenger car enhancements such as air conditioning, sound insulation, upgraded upholstery, stereo systems, wood trim, and convenience packages.", "The civilian model began in part because of the persistence of Arnold Schwarzenegger, who saw an Army convoy while filming ''Kindergarten Cop'' in Oregon and began to campaign and lobby for a civilian version to be available on the market.In 1992, AM General began selling a civilian version of the M998 Humvee vehicle to the public under the brand name \"Hummer\".", "The first two Hummer H1s to be sold were purchased by Schwarzenegger.alt=From left: Hummer H3, H1, and H2|From left: Hummer H3, H1, and H2 ===GM purchase===In December 1999, AM General sold the brand name to General Motors but continued to manufacture the vehicles.", "GM was responsible for the marketing and distribution of all civilian Hummers produced by AM General.", "Shortly thereafter, GM introduced two of its own design models, the H2 and H3, and renamed the original vehicle H1.AM General continued to build the H1 until it was discontinued in 2006 and was contracted by GM to produce the H2.The H3 was built in Shreveport, LA, alongside the Chevrolet Colorado and GMC Canyon pickups, with which it shared the GMT-355 platform (modified and designated GMT-345).", "Hummer dealership buildings featured an oversized half Quonset Hut style roof, themed to the Hummer brand's military origins.By 2006, the Hummer began to be exported and sold through importers and distributors in 33 countries.", "On October 10, 2006, GM began producing the Hummer H3 at its Port Elizabeth plant in South Africa for international markets.", "The Hummers built there at first were only left-hand drive, but right-hand drive versions were added and exported to Australia and other markets.The H2 was also assembled in Kaliningrad, Russia, by Avtotor, starting in 2006 and ending in 2009.The plant produced a few hundred vehicles annually, and its output was limited to local consumption with five dealers in Russia.On June 3, 2008, one day prior to GM's annual shareholder meeting, Rick Wagoner, GM's CEO at that time, said the brand was being reviewed and would possibly be sold, have the production line completely redesigned, or be discontinued.", "This was due to the decreasing demand for large SUVs as a result of higher oil prices.", "Almost immediately after the announcement, a pair of Indian automakers, including Mahindra & Mahindra, expressed interest in purchasing all or part of Hummer.In April 2009, GM President Fritz Henderson stated several interested parties had approached GM regarding the Hummer business.===Failed sale and shutdown===On June 1, 2009, as a part of the General Motors bankruptcy announcement, the company revealed that the Hummer brand would be discontinued.", "However, the following day GM announced that instead it had reached a deal to sell the brand to an undisclosed buyer.", "After GM announced that same day that the sale was to an undisclosed Chinese company, CNN and the New York Times identified the buyer of the Hummer truck unit as China-based Sichuan Tengzhong Heavy Industrial Machinery Company Ltd. Later that day, Sichuan Tengzhong itself announced the deal on their own website.On January 6, 2010, GM CEO Ed Whitacre said he hoped to close the deal with Tengzhong by the end of that month.", "On February 1, 2010, it was announced that Sichuan and General Motors had agreed to extend the deadline until the end of February as Sichuan tried to get approval by the Chinese government.", "It was also revealed that the price tag of the Hummer brand was $150 million.Later, on February 24, 2010, GM announced the Tengzhong deal had collapsed and the Hummer brand would soon shut down.", "There were reports that Sichuan Tengzhong might pursue the purchase of the Hummer brand from GM by purchasing it privately through the company's new J&A Tengzhong Fund SPC, a private equity investment fund owned by an offshore entity that was recruiting private investors to buy into its acquisition plan.", "The financial markets posed problems for established borrowers and even more for Tengzhong, a little-known company from western China, at the same time as the potential value of the Hummer brand continued to decline, given high fuel prices and weak consumer demand.The company announced it was willing to consider offers for all or part of the assets.", "American company Raser Technologies along with several others expressed interest in buying the company.", "However, on April 7, 2010, this attempt failed as well, and General Motors officially said it was shutting down the Hummer SUV brand and offering rich rebates in a bid to move the remaining 2,200 vehicles.After filling a rental-car fleet order, the last Hummer H3 rolled off the line at Shreveport on May 24, 2010.===Revival===GMC Hummer EV pickup truckIn mid-2019, rumors began to circulate that General Motors was considering reviving the Hummer nameplate in 2021, as the market for off-road vehicles was reaching historic levels of sales.", "GM President Mark Ruess was asked about the possible return in the summer of 2019 and said, \"I love Hummer.", "I don't know.", "We're looking at everything.\"", "Credibility to the earlier reporting began to solidify after the conclusion of the 2019 General Motors strike, as contract negotiations led to the commitment by GM of saving its Detroit-Hamtramck facility from closing by investing in and retooling it to build future electric trucks and SUVs; the products were to be built on GM's upcoming \"BT1\" electric truck platform.", "GM's own documentation listed three brands as receiving products from the BT1 architecture: Cadillac (presumably an electric Cadillac Escalade), Chevrolet (Silverado EV), and a third unknown brand referred to as the \"M-Brand.", "\"Industry insiders claimed they had sources saying that the \"M-Brand\" was a Hummer, because a revival of the brand with established name recognition would help reduce marketing costs.", "The Hummer revival on the BT1 platform was known internally as \"Project O,\" potentially named after former Chief Camaro Engineer Al Oppenheiser (the man responsible for the return of the Camaro in 2010), who was moved from Camaro development to overseeing an EV program.", "Oppenheiser later confirmed this himself.", "By November 2019, media reports all but confirmed that Hummer would return with two electric models, a truck and an SUV, sometime in 2021.On November 21, 2019, General Motors CEO Mary Barra confirmed that GM would be releasing an electric pickup truck in the fall of 2021, but did not name the brand under which it would be built.The new Hummer line is not a standalone brand, as it was before General Motors filed for bankruptcy, but a model within GM's GMC brand.On January 30, 2020, GM released a series of short videos revealing the return of Hummers in the form of electric SUV and truck models marketed under the GMC brand.", "A 30-second Super Bowl ad featured NBA superstar LeBron James.", "The vehicle was to be revealed on May 20, 2020, but the date was later pushed back to October 20, 2020.The Hummer EV SUT was officially revealed on October 20, 2020, during the 2020 World Series.", "The Hummer EV SUV was unveiled during the NCAA Tournament Final Four on April 3, 2021.There will be several versions and models under GM brand GMC, with initially only the most expensive \"Edition 1\" four-door pickup available, followed by other models and later as an SUV." ], [ "Models", "===Hummer H1===The first vehicle in the Hummer range was the Hummer H1, based on the Humvee.", "Released for the civilian market in 1992, this vehicle was designed by American Motors' AM General subsidiary to meet U.S. Military specifications that were issued in 1979.By 1982, Renault (which was partially owned by the French government) took controlling interest in AMC, and the AM General division was sold in 1983 to Ling-Temco-Vought (LTV), because US regulations barred ownership of defense contractors by foreign governments.", "American Motors itself was acquired by Chrysler in 1987.Production of H1 civilian versions continued throughout 2006.===Hummer H2===The Hummer H2 was the second vehicle in the Hummer range built in the AM General facility under contract from General Motors from 2002 to 2009.There were two variations: The H2 SUV and H2 SUT.===Hummer H3===The H3 and H3T pickup truck were the smallest of the Hummer models and were based on the GMT355 platform shared with the Chevrolet Colorado and GMC Canyon compact pickup trucks.", "The H3 line was produced from 2005 to 2010 by General Motors.File:2002-09-11-Marbella-22.jpg|Hummer H1File:Hummer H2 front 20070928.jpg|Hummer H2File:Hummer-H3.JPG|Hummer H3" ], [ "Concept vehicles", "===Hummer HX===The Hummer HX was developed in 2008 as an open-air, two-door off-road concept car, smaller than other Hummer models.===Plug-in hybrid===Raser Technologies (formerly of Utah) was to use technology similar to that of the Chevrolet Volt.", "The company unveiled the prototype to the 2009 Society of Automotive Engineers World Congress in Detroit.", "The E-REV (Extended-Range Electric Vehicle) powertrain technology was claimed to power the vehicle for up to on its battery, and then a small 4-cylinder internal combustion engine would start to generate more electricity." ], [ "Racing", "Team Hummer Racing was created in 1993.Led by off-road racer Rod Hall, Team Hummer competed in the stock classes of both BitD and SCORE, with specialized racing shock absorbers, tires, and other modifications, along with mandatory safety equipment.", "Team Hummer stock-class H3 was driven by Hall who finished first in class with the H3 in the 2005 Baja 1000.Team Hummer earned 11 production-class wins at the Baja 1000.A highly modified, two-wheel drive Hummer was raced by Robby Gordon in 2006 (did not finish), 2007 (8th place), 2009 (3rd place), 2010 (8th place), 2011 (did not finish), 2012 (disqualified), and 2013 (14th place) Dakar Rally." ], [ "Stretch limousines", "Hummer modified into a limousineThe Hummer H2 has been stretched by third-party companies into a variety of limousine versions.", "The Hummer H2 was cut behind the cab, and the chassis was extended to create a passenger section for 14, 16, or even 22 passengers." ], [ "Production", "*AM General Hummer H1 Assembly Plant, Mishawaka, Indiana – opened in 1984 to build HMMWV (HUMVEE) and began production of the H1 in 1992.Production ceased 2006, but HMMWV production continues.", "*AM General Hummer H2 Assembly Plant, Mishawaka, Indiana – opened 2002.H2 production ended 2009.Plant sold to SF Motors, maker of electric vehicles, in 2017.", "*General Motors South Africa Struandale Assembly Plant, Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape, South Africa – built in 1996, expanded to to build H3 models.", "H3 production ended 2009.", "*General Motors Shreveport Operations, Shreveport, Louisiana – in 2005, to accommodate the production of the H3, an additional was added to plant built by GM in 1981.In July 2009, GM had shut down Hummer production of the H3, but the automaker had a special fleet order from Avis Rent a Car System.", "*Avtotor Kaliningrad, Russia – licensed version of H2 starting from 2006 and production ended in 2009." ], [ "Criticisms", "Criticism of Hummers mirrors the criticism of SUVs in general, but to a higher degree.", "Specific criticisms of Hummers include:;Size:Hummers (specifically the H1 and H2) are significantly bigger than other SUVs, which can cause problems parking, driving, and fitting in a garage.", "Their large size may also pose a serious threat to smaller vehicles and pedestrians.", ";Poor fuel economy:Even compared to other heavy passenger vehicles, Hummers without the diesel engine options have very poor fuel economy.", "Because the H2 is built to the over-8500-lb GVW, its fuel economy is neither published by the U.S. EPA nor counted toward Corporate Average Fuel Economy.", "For example, H2 in one engine configuration averages an estimated on the highway and in the city.", "It has a curb weight of around .", ";Safety:Crash data for Hummers is less complete than for other SUVs.", "As a Class 3 truck, the Hummer is exempt from many United States Department of Transportation safety regulations.", "The H1 lacks standard safety features, including child safety locks, child seat tethers, side airbags, and stability control.", "Large blind spots make parking difficult and possibly dangerous.", ";Drivers:A one-year study, conducted by a firm that provides statistical information to insurance companies, found that drivers of Hummer H2 and H3s receive about five times as many traffic tickets as the national average for all vehicles (standardized based on the number of violations per 100,000 miles driven)." ], [ "Licensing", "GM is active in licensing the Hummer.", "Various companies have licensed the Hummer trademarks for use on colognes, flashlights, bicycles, shoes, coats, hats, laptops, toys, clothing, CD players, video games and other items.", "An electric quadricycle badged as a Hummer was produced in the UK." ], [ "See also", "*GMC Hummer EV*Humvee*List of defunct United States automobile manufacturers*VLF Automotive#HUMVEE C-Series" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official website*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Humvee" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle''' ('''HMMWV'''; colloquial: '''Humvee''') is a family of light, four-wheel drive, military trucks and utility vehicles produced by AM General.", "It has largely supplanted the roles previously performed by the original jeep, and others such as the Vietnam War-era M151 Jeep, the M561 \"Gama Goat\", their M718A1 and M792 ambulance versions, the Commercial Utility Cargo Vehicle, and other light trucks.", "Primarily used by the United States military, it is also used by numerous other countries and organizations and even in civilian adaptations.", "The Humvee saw widespread use in the Gulf War of 1991, where it navigated the desert terrain; this usage helped to inspire civilian Hummer versions.", "The vehicle's original unarmored design was later seen to be inadequate, and was found to be particularly vulnerable to improvised explosive devices in the Iraq War.", "The U.S. hastily up-armored select models and replaced front-line units with the MRAP.", "The U.S. military sought to replace the vehicle in front-line service under the Joint Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV) program.", "In 2015 the Oshkosh L-ATV was selected for production." ], [ "History", "Since the World War II Willys MB reconnaissance truck was used for mass-deployment and became known as the \"jeep\", the United States military had continued to rely heavily on jeeps as general utility vehicles and as a mass-transport for soldiers in small groups.", "Although the U.S. Army had let Ford redesign the jeep from the ground up during the 1950s, and the resulting M151 jeep incorporated significant innovations, it firmly adhered to the original concept: a very compact, light enough to manhandle, low profile vehicle, with a folding windshield, that a layman could barely distinguish from the preceding Willys jeeps.", "The jeeps were shorter than a Volkswagen Beetle and weighed just over one metric ton, seating three to four, with an payload.", "During and after the war, the very light, -ton jeeps were complemented by the -ton Dodge WC and Korean War Dodge M37 models.By the mid-1960s, the U.S. military felt a need to reevaluate their aging light vehicle fleet.", "For starters, from the mid-1960s, the U.S. Army had tried to modernize, through replacing the larger, purpose-built Dodge M37s by militarized, \"commercial off the shelf\" (COTS) 4×4 trucks — initially the M715 Jeep trucks, succeeded in the later 1970s by several \"CUCV\" adapted commercial pickup series, but these did not satisfy newer requirements either.", "What was wanted was a truly versatile light military truck, that could replace multiple outdated vehicles.", "When becoming aware of the U.S. Army's desire for a versatile new light weapons carrier/reconnaissance vehicle, as early as 1969 FMC Corporation started development on their XR311 prototype and offered it for testing in 1970.At least a dozen of these were built for testing under the ''High Mobility Combat Vehicle'', or HMCV program, initially much more as an enhanced capability successor to the M151 jeep, than as a general-purpose vehicle.", "In 1977, Lamborghini developed the Cheetah model in an attempt to meet the Army contract specifications.Humvee interiorIn 1979, the U.S. Army drafted final specifications for a High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV), which was to replace all the tactical vehicles in the 1/4-ton to 5/4-ton range, namely the M151 quarter-ton jeeps, M561 Gama Goats, and the CUCVs, as one uniform \"jack-of-all-trades\" light tactical vehicle series, to better perform the roles of the impractically mixed fleet of outdated existing vehicles.", "The specification called for excellent on and off-road performance, the ability to carry a large payload, and improved survivability against indirect fire.", "Compared to the jeep, it was larger and had a much wider track, with a ground clearance, double that of most sport-utility vehicles.", "The new truck was to climb a 60 percent incline and traverse a 40 percent slope.", "The air intake was to be mounted flush on top of the right fender (or to be raised on a stovepipe to roof level) to ford of water and electronics waterproofed to drive through of water were specified.", "The radiator was to be mounted high, sloping over the engine on a forward-hinged hood.Out of 61 companies that showed interest, only three submitted prototypes.", "In July 1979, AM General, a subsidiary of American Motors Corporation, began preliminary design work.", "Less than a year later, the prototype was in testing.", "Chrysler Defense and Teledyne Continental also produced competing designs.", "In June 1981, the Army awarded AM General a contract for the development of several more prototype vehicles to be delivered to the government for another series of tests.", "The original M998 A0 series had a curb weight of , a payload of , a V8 diesel engine and 6.3 L gasoline, and a three-speed automatic transmission.The three companies were chosen to design and build eleven HMMWV prototypes; the vehicles were subjected to over 600,000 miles in trials which included off-road courses in desert and arctic conditions.", "AM General was awarded an initial contract in 1983 for 2,334 vehicles, the first batch of a five-year contract that would see 55,000 vehicles delivered to the U.S. military, including 39,000 vehicles for the Army; 72,000 vehicles had been delivered to the U.S. and foreign customers by the Persian Gulf War of 1991, and 100,000 had been delivered by the Humvee's 10th anniversary in 1995.Ft.", "Lewis, Washington, and the 2nd Battalion, 47th Infantry, 9th Infantry Division was the testing unit to employ HMMWV in the new concept of a motorized division.", "Yakima Training Center in Yakima, Washington, was the main testing grounds for HMMWVs from 1985 through December 1991, when the motorized concept was abandoned and the division inactivated.===Use in combat===HMMWVs first saw combat in Operation Just Cause, the U.S. invasion of Panama in 1989.The HMMWV was designed primarily for personnel and light cargo transport behind front lines, not as a front line fighting vehicle.", "Like the previous jeep, the basic HMMWV has no armor or protection against chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear threats.", "Nevertheless, losses were relatively low in conventional operations, such as the Gulf War.", "Vehicles and crews suffered considerable damage and losses during the Battle of Mogadishu in 1993 because of the nature of urban engagement.", "However, the chassis survivability allowed the majority of those crews to return to safety, though the HMMWV was never designed to offer protection against intense small arms fire, much less machine guns and rocket-propelled grenades.", "With the rise of asymmetric warfare and low-intensity conflicts, the HMMWV was pressed into service in urban combat roles for which it was not originally intended.After Operation Restore Hope in Somalia, the military recognized a need for a more protected HMMWV and AM General developed the M1114, an armored HMMWV to withstand small arms fire.", "The M1114 has been in production since 1996, seeing limited use in the Balkans before deployment to the Middle East.", "This design is superior to the M998 with a larger, more powerful turbocharged engine, air conditioning, and a strengthened suspension system.", "More importantly, it boasts a fully armored passenger area protected by hardened steel and bullet-resistant glass.", "With the increase in direct attacks and asymmetric warfare in Iraq, AM General diverted the majority of its manufacturing power to producing these vehicles.Humvees were sent into Afghanistan following the September 11 attacks, where they proved invaluable during initial operations.", "In the early years before IEDs became prevalent, the vehicle was liked by troops for its ability to access rough, mountainous terrain.", "Some soldiers would remove features from Humvees, including what little armor it had and sometimes even entire doors, to make them lighter and more maneuverable for off-road conditions and to increase visibility.", "With the onset of the Iraq War, Humvees proved very vulnerable to IEDs; in the first four months of 2006, 67 U.S. troops died in Humvees.", "To increase protection, the U.S. military hastily added armor kits to the vehicles.", "Although this somewhat improved survivability, bolting on armor made the Humvee an \"ungainly beast\", increasing weight and putting a strain on the chassis, which led to unreliability.", "Armored doors that weighed hundreds of pounds were difficult for troops to open, and the newly armored turret made Humvees top-heavy and increased the danger of rollovers.", "The U.S. Marine Corps decided to start replacing Humvees in combat with Mine-Resistant, Ambush-Protected (MRAP) vehicles in 2007, and the U.S. Army stated that the vehicle was \"no longer feasible for combat\" in 2012.However, Humvees have also been used by Taliban insurgents for suicide bombings against the Afghan National Security Forces in the country.The HMMWV has become the vehicular backbone of U.S. forces around the world.", "Over 10,000 HMMWVs were employed by coalition forces during the Iraq War.", "The Humvee has been described as a vehicle with \"the right capability for its era\": designed to provide payload mobility in protected (safe) areas.", "However, deploying the vehicle to conflict zones where it was exposed to a full spectrum of threat which it was neither designed to operate, or be survivable in, led to adding protection at the cost of mobility and payload.On 22 April 2022, Pentagon Press Secretary John F. Kirby described a package of military equipment being transported to Ukraine to assist in its war with Russia, including \"100 armored Humvee vehicles\".", "An additional 50 were promised on 19 August 2022, and were delivered at an unknown date.", "A number of Humvees were used in the assault on the Russian oblast of Belgorod on 22 May 2023.Ukraine first received Humvees from the U.S. in 2001, and they were used by them in peacekeeping operations in Kosovo that same year.===Modifications===U.S.", "Marine Corps M1123 HMMWV in 2004, equipped with a bolt-on MAK armor kit.In December 2004, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld came under criticism from U.S. troops and their families for not providing better-equipped HMMWVs.", "Rumsfeld pointed out that, before the war, armor kits were produced only in small numbers per year.", "As the role of American forces in Iraq changed from fighting the Iraqi Army to suppressing the insurgency, more armor kits were being manufactured, though perhaps not as fast as production facilities were capable.", "Even more advanced kits were also being developed.", "While these kits are much more effective against all types of attacks, they weigh from and have some of the same drawbacks as the improvised armor.", "Unlike similar-sized civilian cargo and tow trucks, which typically have dual rear wheels to reduce sway, the HMMWV has single rear wheels because of its independent rear suspension coupled with the body design.Most up-armored HMMWVs hold up well against lateral attacks when the blast is distributed in all different directions but offer little protection from a mine blast below the truck, such as buried IEDs and land mines.", "Explosively formed penetrators (EFPs) can also defeat the armor kits, causing casualties.At the Bridgeport, California Mountain Warfare Training Center in March 1997, a test HMMWV drives through the snow, equipped with Mattracks treads.The armor kits fielded include the Armor Survivability Kit (ASK), FRAG 5, FRAG 6, as well as upgrade kits to the M1151.The ASK was the first fielded in October 2003, adding about to the weight of the vehicle.", "Armor Holdings fielded an even lighter kit, adding only to the vehicle's weight.", "The Marine Armor Kit (MAK), fielded in January 2005, offers more protection than the M1114 but also increases weight.", "The FRAG 5 offered even more protection but was still inadequate to stop EFP attacks.", "The FRAG 6 kit is designed to do just that, however its increased protection adds over the vehicle over the FRAG 5 kit, and the width is increased by .", "The doors may also require a mechanical assist device to open and close.A HMMWV equipped with SLAMRAAM surface-to-air missiles, on display at the Paris Air Show in June 2007.Another drawback of the up-armored HMMWVs occurs during an accident or attack, when the heavily armored doors tend to jam shut, trapping the troops inside.", "As a result, the U.S. Army Aviation and Missile Research, Development, and Engineering Center developed the Humvee Crew Extraction D-ring in 2006.The D-ring hooks on the door of the HMMWV so that another vehicle can rip the door off with a tow strap, chain, or cable to free the troops inside.", "The D-ring was later recognized as one of the top 10 greatest Army inventions of 2006.In addition, Vehicle Emergency Escape (VEE) windows, developed by BAE Systems, were fielded for use on the M1114 up-armored HMMWV, with 1,000 kits ordered.Soldiers of 3rd BCT/ 25th ID, use an M153 CROWS atop an M1115A1 HMMWV at the Battle Area Complex, Schofield Barracks, Hawaii, 2017.The soldier manning the exposed crew-served weapon on top of the vehicle is extremely vulnerable.", "In response, many HMMWVs have been fitted with basic gun shields or turrets, as was the case with M113 APCs after they were first deployed in Vietnam.", "The U.S. military is currently evaluating a new form of protection, developed by BAE Systems as well as systems designed by the Army, which are already in theater.", "The new gunner's seat is protected by high steel plates with bullet-proof glass windows.", "Additionally, some HMMWVs have been fitted with a remotely operated CROWS weapon station, which slaves the machine gun to controls in the back seat so it can be fired without exposing the crew.", "The Boomerang anti-sniper system was also fielded by some HMMWVs in Iraq to immediately give troops the location of insurgents firing on them.Another weakness for the HMMWV has proven to be its size, which limited its deployment in Afghanistan because it is too wide for the smallest roads and too large for many forms of air transport compared to jeeps or Land Rover-sized vehicles (which are, respectively, 24 and 15 inches narrower).", "This size also limits the ability of the vehicle to be manhandled out of situations.===Alternatives===The Army purchased a purpose-built armored car, the M1117 Armored Security Vehicle also known as an armored personnel carrying vehicle (APC), in limited numbers for use by the United States Army Military Police Corps.", "In 2007, the Marine Corps announced an intention to replace all HMMWVs in Iraq with MRAPs because of high loss rates and issued contracts for the purchase of several thousand of these vehicles, which include the International MaxxPro, the BAE OMC RG-31, the BAE RG-33 and Caiman, and the Force Protection Cougar, which were deployed primarily for mine clearing duties.", "Heavier models of infantry mobility vehicles (IMV) can also be used for patrol vehicles.", "The MaxxPro Line has been shown to have the highest rate of vehicle rollover accidents because of its very high center of gravity and immense weight.===Replacement and future===The Humvee replacement process undertaken by the U.S. military focused on interim replacement with MRAPs and long-term replacement with the Joint Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV).", "The HMMWV has evolved several times since its introduction and was used in tactical roles for which it was never originally intended.", "The military pursued several initiatives to replace it, both in the short and long terms.", "The short-term replacement efforts utilized commercial off-the-shelf vehicles as part of the Mine Resistant Ambush Protected (MRAP) program.", "These vehicles were procured to replace Humvees in combat theaters.", "The long-term replacement for the Humvee is the JLTV which is designed from the ground up.", "The Future Tactical Truck System (FTTS) program was initiated to analyze potential requirements for a Humvee replacement.", "Various prototype vehicles such as the MillenWorks Light Utility Vehicle, and the ULTRA AP have been constructed as part of these efforts.", "The JLTV contract was awarded to Oshkosh in August 2015.The U.S. Marine Corps issued a request for proposals in 2013 for its Humvee sustainment modification initiative to upgrade 6,700 expanded capacity vehicles (ECVs).", "The Marines plan to field the JLTV but do not have enough funding to completely replace all Humvees, so they decided to continue sustaining their fleet.", "Key areas of improvement include upgrades to the suspension to reduce the amount of force transferred to the chassis, upgrading the engine and transmission for better fuel efficiency, enhancements to the cooling system to prevent overheating, a central tire inflation system to improve off-road mobility and ride quality, and increased underbody survivability.", "Testing of upgraded Humvees was to occur in 2014, with production and installation occurring from 2015 through 2018.Older A2 series Humvees make up half the current fleet, and 4,000 are to be disposed of through foreign military sales and transfers.", "By 2017, the Marines' light tactical vehicle fleet is to consist of 3,500 A2 series Humvees, 9,500 ECV Humvees, and 5,000 JLTVs, with 18,000 vehicles in total.", "Humvees in service with the Marine Corps will be upgraded through 2030.The Marines shelved the Humvee modernization effort in March 2015 because of budget cuts.Several companies are offering modifications to maintain the remaining U.S. military Humvee fleets.", "Oshkosh Corporation is offering Humvee upgrades to the Marine Corps in addition to its JLTV offering, which are modular and scalable to provide varying levels of capabilities at a range of prices that can be provided individually or as complete packages.", "Their approach is centered around the TAK-4 independent suspension system, which delivers greater offroad profile capability, improved ride quality, an increase in maximum speed, greater whole-vehicle durability, and restored payload capacity and ground clearance.", "Northrop Grumman developed a new chassis and power train for the Humvee that would combine the mobility and payload capabilities of original vehicle variants while maintaining the protection levels of up-armored versions.", "The cost to upgrade one Humvee with Northrop Grumman's features is $145,000.Textron has offered another Humvee upgrade option called the Survivable Combat Tactical Vehicle (SCTV) that restores mobility and survivability over armored Humvee levels.", "Although the SCTV costs more at $200,000 per vehicle, the company claims it can restore the Humvee for operational use, combining Humvee-level mobility and transportability with MRAP-level underbody protection as a transitional solution until the JLTV is introduced in significant numbers.One suggested future role for the Humvee is as an autonomous unmanned ground vehicle (UGV).", "If converted to a UGV, the vehicle could serve as a mobile scout vehicle with armor features removed to enhance mobility and terrain accessibility, since there would be no occupants needed to protect.", "Because there will still be tens of thousands of Humvees in the U.S. inventory after the JLTV enters service, it could be a low-cost way to build an unmanned combat vehicle fleet.", "Autonomy features would allow the Humvees to drive themselves and one soldier to control a \"swarm\" of several vehicles.Although the Army plans to buy 49,100 JLTVs and the Marine Corps 5,500, they are not a one-for-one replacement for the Humvee, and both services will still be left operating large fleets.", "For the Marines, 69 JLTVs will replace the 74 Humvees in all active infantry battalions to cover its expeditionary forces.", "The Marine JLTV order is planned to be completed by 2022, leaving the remainder of the Corps' 13,000-strong Humvee force scattered around support organizations while soft-skinned Humvees will provide support behind the forward-deployed Marine Expeditionary Unit.", "The Army does not plan to replace Humvees in the Army National Guard and is considering options on how many of its 120,000 vehicles will be replaced, sustained, or modernized.", "Even if half of the force is replaced by JLTVs, the entire planned order will not be complete until 2040.If upgrades are chosen for the remaining Humvees, the cost would likely have to not exceed $100,000 per vehicle.", "The Humvee is expected to remain in U.S. military service until at least 2050.Ambulance variants of the Humvee will especially remain in active use, as the JLTV could not be modified to serve as one due to weight issues." ], [ "Design features", "U.S. Air Force airman in Southwest Asia stands in the ring mount of a FRAG 6-reinforced HMMWV, 2010The Humvee seats four people with an available fully enclosed aluminum cabin with a vertical windshield.", "It has all-wheel drive with an independent suspension and helical gear-reduction hubs similar to portal axles which attach towards the top rather than the center of each wheel to allow the drivetrain shafts to be raised for ground clearance.", "The body is mounted on a narrow steel frame with boxed rails and five cross members for rigidity.", "The rails act as sliders to protect the drivetrain which is nestled between and above the rails.", "Raising the drivetrain into the cabin area and lowering the seats into the frame creates a chest-high transmission hump which separates passengers on each side and lowers the overall center of gravity compared to most trucks where the body and passengers are above the frame.The vehicle has double wishbone suspension with portal gear hubs on all 4 wheels and inboard disc brakes.", "The brake discs are not mounted at the wheels, as on conventional cars, but are inboard of the half-shafts, attached outboard of the differentials.", "The front and rear differentials are Torsen type, and the center differential is of the lockable type.", "Torque-biasing differentials allows forward movement as long as at least one wheel has traction.", "It runs on specialized 37 × 12.5 radial tires with low-profile runflat devices.", "Newer HMMWV versions can be equipped with a central tire inflation system (CTIS) kit in the field.", "While it is optimized for off-road mobility, it can achieve at maximum weight with a top speed of .HMMWVs are well suited for airmobile operations as they are transportable by C-130 or larger combat transports, droppable by parachute, and can be sling-loaded from helicopters, though there are smaller vehicles such as the Growler which were designed to fit into smaller craft such as the V-22.In combat conditions, the HMMWV can be delivered by the Low Altitude Parachute Extraction System which pulls the vehicle out of the open rear ramp just above the ground without the aircraft having to land.Humvee fordingThere are at least 17 variants of the HMMWV in service with the U.S. military.", "HMMWVs serve as cargo/troop carriers, automatic weapons platforms, ambulances (four litter patients or eight ambulatory patients), M220 TOW missile carriers, M119 howitzer prime movers, M1097 Avenger Pedestal Mounted Stinger platforms, MRQ-12 direct air support vehicles, S250 shelter carriers, and other roles.", "The HMMWV is capable of fording 2.5 ft (76 cm) normally, or 5 ft (1.5 m) with the deep-water fording kits installed.A U.S. Army HMMWV firing a BGM-71 TOW missile.Optional equipment includes a winch (maximum load capacity and supplemental armor.", "The M1025/M1026 and M1043/M1044 armament carriers provide mounting and firing capabilities for the M134 Minigun, the Mk 19 grenade launcher, the M2 heavy machine gun, the GAU-19A/B gatling gun, the M240G/B machine gun and M249 LMG.The M1114 \"up-armored\" HMMWV, introduced in 1996, also features a similar weapons mount.", "In addition, some M1114 and M1116 up-armored and M1117 Armored Security Vehicle models feature a Common Remotely Operated Weapon Station (CROWS), which allows the gunner to operate from inside the vehicle, and/or the Boomerang anti-sniper detection system.", "Recent improvements have also led to the development of the M1151 model, which quickly rendered the previous models obsolete.", "By replacing the M1114, M1116, and earlier armored HMMWV types with a single model, the U.S. Army hopes to lower maintenance costs.The latest iteration of the Humvee series can be seen in the M1151A1 and later up-armored A1-versions.", "It has a stronger suspension and larger 6.5 liter turbo-diesel engine to accommodate the weight of up to of additional armor.", "The armor protection can be installed or taken off depending on the operating environment, so the vehicles can move more efficiently without armor when there is no threat of attack.", "There is some underbody armor that moderately protects against mines and roadside bombs.", "Other improvements include Vehicle Emergency Escape (VEE) windows that can be quickly removed so troops inside can escape in the event of a rollover, jammed door, or the vehicle catching fire, and a blast chimney that vents the force of a bomb blast upwards and away from the occupants.", "The M1151A1 has a crew of four, can carry of payload, and can tow a load.", "On roads, it has a top speed of and a range of ." ], [ "Variants", "M998 registered as a historical vehicle in WarendorfHMMWV with a Phoenix satellite communications dish===Major HMMWV A0/A1/A2 versions===''With the introduction of the A1 series the number of models was reduced, with further designation revisions when the A2 series was introduced''.Red Cross.", "*M56/M56A1 Coyote Smoke Generator Carrier (mounted on an HMMWV; not a Type Classified HMMWV)*M707 Knight (replaced, originally mounted on an M1025A2 HMMWV; not a Type Classified HMMWV)*M966/M966A1 TOW Missile Carrier, basic armor, without a winch*M996 Mini-ambulance, two-litter, hardtop (type classified but not produced)*M997/M977A1/M977A2 Maxi-ambulance, four-litter, basic armor*M998/M998A1 Cargo/Troop Carrier without a winch*M998 HMMWV Avenger (mounted on an HMMWV; not a Type Classified HMMWV)*M1025/M1025A1 Armament Carrier, basic armor, without a winch*M1025A2 Armament/TOW Missile Carrier, basic armor*M1026/M1026A1 Armament Carrier, basic armor, with winch*M1035/M1035A1/M1035A2 Soft top Ambulance, two-litter*M1036 TOW Missile Carrier, basic armor, with winch*M1037 Shelter Carrier, without a winch*M1037 Shelter Carrier MSE*M1038/M1038A1 Cargo/troop Carrier with winch*M1042 Shelter Carrier, with winch*M1043/M1043A1 Armament Carrier, supplemental armor, without a winch*M1043A2 Armament Carrier, supplemental armor*M1044/M1044A1 Armament Carrier, supplemental armor, with winch*M1045/M1045A1 TOW Missile Carrier, supplemental armor, without a winch*M1045A2 TOW Missile Carrier, supplemental armor*M1046/M1046A1 TOW Missile Carrier, supplemental armor, with winch*M1069 Tractor for M119 105-mm GunU.S.", "Navy SEALs and GMV-N*M1097/M1097A1 Heavy Hummer Variant (HHV)*M1097A2 base platform*M1097A2 Cargo/Troop Carrier/Prime Mover (replacing the M998A1)*M1097A2 Shelter Carrier*M1097 Heavy HMMWV Avenger (mounted on an HMMWV; not a Type Classified HMMWV)* Packhorse – Attachment to convert an M1097 to tractor version for semi-trailers*XM1109 Up-Armored Heavy Hummer Variant (UA-HHV) (replaced by M1114)*M1123 Troop/cargo (U.S. Marines specific M1097A2)Advanced up-armored HMMWV including armored gun turret*Active Denial System (mounted on an HMMWV)*Ground Mobility Vehicle (GMV) — USSOCOM Special Ops variants — initially based on the M1025; later GMV models based on the M1113 chassis.", "Another model, based on the M1165 HMMWV can be fitted with armor kits to create an 'up-armored' GMV with additional armor plating and an optional ballistic shield around the top gunner's turret.", ":Variants are: GMV-S (Army Special Forces), GMV-R (75th Ranger Regiment), GMV-N (Navy SEALs), GMV-T/GMV-SD/GMV-ST - AFSOC variants, and the GMV-M (Marine Corps MARSOC) variant.", "*IMETS (mounted on an HMMWV; not a Type Classified HMMWV)*ZEUS-HLONS (mounted on an HMMWV; not a Type Classified HMMWV)*Scorpion – Single unit version, fitted with 2B9 Vasilek 82 mm automatic mortar.", "This is a heavy chassis HMMWV developed in 2004 by engineers at the U.S. Army's Picatinny Arsenal.", "The mortar itself can fire on single shots or automatic using 4 round clips.", "The range for direct fire is 1,000m and the indirect fire is 4,000m.", "It is also intended to provide another means of destroying roadside bombs but at a safer standoff range.", "Only one has been produced.===M1113 Expanded Capacity Vehicle (ECV)===Under contract to the US Army, AM General developed the M1113 Expanded Capacity Vehicle (ECV).", "The M1097A2 is the basis for the Expanded Capacity Vehicle (ECV).", "The ECV provided the payload capacity allowing for larger and heavier communications shelters, improved armor protection level for scouts, military police, security police, and explosive ordnance disposal platforms.An M1114 with a Kevlar Wrapped Turret returns from a Combat Logistics Patrol (CLP) mission to CAMP AdderIn late 1995, the production of the M1114 based on the improved ECV chassis began.", "The M1114 meets Army requirements for a scout, military police, and explosive ordnance disposal vehicle with improved ballistic protection levels.", "The M1114 provides protection against 7.62 mm armor-piercing projectiles, 155 mm artillery air bursts and anti-tank mine blasts.In June 1996, the U.S. Army purchased an initial 390 M1114s for operations in Bosnia.", "The U.S. Air Force has several M1114 vehicles that differ in detail from the U.S. Army model.", "Under the designation M1116, the type was specifically designed and tailored to the needs of the U.S. Air Force.", "The M1116 features an expanded cargo area, armored housing for the turret gunner, and increased interior heating and air conditioning system.", "The M1114 and M1116 received armor at O'Gara-Hess & Eisenhardt Armoring Company of Fairfield, Ohio.", "The M1145 offers the protection of the M1114 and M1116 for Air Force Air Support Operations Squadrons (ASOS).", "Designed to protect Forward Air Controllers, modifications include perimeter ballistic protection, overhead burst protection, IED protection, mine blast protection, and 'white glass' transparent armor.", "Before the introduction of the latest armored HMMWV variants, and between 1993 and June 2006, Armor Holdings produced more than 17,500 armored HMMWVs (more than 14,000 between 2003 and 2007), all but about 160 of the earliest models were M1114, with smaller numbers of M1116 and M1045.These extended capacity HMMWVs can drive over an vertical wall and carry a payload.M1165A1, Aviation Nation 2014 US Air Show - Nellis AFB, Las Vegas*M1113 Shelter Carrier - base for special operations vehicles and communications shelter carriers*M1114 Up-Armored Armament Carrier*M1115 TOW Carrier (no evidence of fielding)*M1116 U.S. Air Force Up-Armored Armament Carrier*M1121 TOW Carrier*M1145 U.S. Air Force FAC*M1151 Enhanced Armament Carrier (Up-Armored Capable)*M1152 Enhanced Troop/Cargo/Shelter Carrier (Up-Armored Capable)*M1165 Up-Armored HMMWV*M1167 Up-Armored TOW CarrierAn M1113 Humvee chassis-mounted XM1124 Hybrid-Electric diesel-series hybrid-powered HMMWV, September 2009*Composite HMMWV – A prototype developed by TPI Composites of Rhode Island and AM General.", "The purpose of the concept vehicle is to reduce the vehicle's weight so that it may more easily carry an up armor kit.", "TPI's all-composite HMMWV saves approximately when compared to a current steel and aluminum HMMWV.", "*A prototype XM1124 Hybrid-Electric Humvee on an M1113 Humvee chassis powered by a diesel-series hybrid featuring an all-electric drive train has been developed by RDECOM/TARDEC.", "The vehicle has a full-electric range for silent operations.", "It may have less emissions, save fuel in the battlefield, and can increase the survival rate in emergencies such as if one of the engines is destroyed or fails.", "*NXT 360 Humvee - This variant is available as an independent vehicle or upgrades for the M1100 Humvee series since June 2018.===International versions===A Dongfeng Mengshi (lit.", "\"Eastwind Warrior\") EQ2050 (licensed-built of the HMMWV) at China's People's Revolution Military Museum in August 2007, during the 'Our Troops towards the Sky' exhibition.Greek Army M1114GR HMMWV with the ability to mount a 9M133 Kornet on top, April 2007.Polish Army M1043A2 HMMWV, July 2005.", "* Bulgaria – Bulgarian HMMWVs have been fitted with PKS general-purpose machine guns.", "Bulgaria usually replaces Western machine guns on its vehicles to simplify maintenance, since the country is an active producer of Russian weapons.", "* China - EQ2050/SQF2040 – See also Humvee clone manufacturing in China.", "Early generations of the vehicle are license-built Hummer H1, while later generations of the vehicles are of indigenous design.", "The licensed-built version rely on imported U.S.-made parts, including the chassis, gearbox, and diesel engine, while it gradually increase the percentage of indigenous-made content on the vehicles recently since China's People's Liberation Army is unlikely to accept any equipment that relies largely on foreign-made parts.", "* Egypt – AOI equips HMMWVs with anti-armor weaponry, including TOW, Milan, or HOT missiles.", "* Georgia – Georgian HMMWVs have been fitted with PK general-purpose machine guns.", "* Greece – Greek HMMWVs, built entirely by ELVO in Greece, are equipped to fire the Russian 9M133 Kornet ATGM.", "They have a storage room for 10 missiles.", "Another version, the M1115GR, is equipped with the HK GMG 40.Israel's Plasan has developed armored versions of the HMMWV, assembled by ELVO in Greece as the M1114GR, M1115GR and M1118GR.", "ELVO also produced the Ambulance version, a SOF version, and an engineering version of the HMMWV for the Hellenic Army.", "* Israel – Plasan has also designed and supplied an HMMWV armored protection kit for the Portuguese Army, and a different version assembled by Automotive Industries in Nazareth for the Israel Defense Forces.", "* Mexico – The Dirección General de Industria Militar (DGIM), the Mexican Army's prime wholly owned military manufacturer, builds the HMMWV under license in Mexico after a small number of US-built Humvees proved to be reliable within the Mexican Army.", "Mexican HMMWVs are similar to the US-built models but are slightly longer.", "They feature a standard selective shift automatic transmission connected to a Mercedes Benz diesel engine and an anti-spalling layer in the passenger cabin.", "Many are equipped with bulletproof windows and a layer of armor unique to these Mexican HMMWVs.", "In 2010, Mexico displayed a wagon variant with a second gun hatch to cover the rear of the vehicle.", "This version also featured a more powerful V12 engine and civilian road wheels to increase top speed capabilities in urban areas.Ukrainian Army M1167A1 HMMWV, rehearsal for the Independence Day military parade in Kyiv, 2018.", "* Poland – Polish Land Forces operate 222 HMMWVs (5 unknown variants are operated by Polish Special Forces).", "Over 200 are used by the 18th Airborne Battalion which is a part of the 6th Airborne Brigade.", "The used variants are designated as follows: Tumak-2 – M1043A2, Tumak-3 – M1025A2, Tumak-4 – M1097A2, Tumak-5 – M1045A2, Tumak-6 – M1097A2 (variant used for transport of special containers), Tumak-7 – M1035A2.All vehicles are modified to meet Polish road regulations and are equipped with Polish communication devices.", "140 HMMWVs are equipped with a Fonet digital internal communication device.", "120 Tumak-2s and Tumak-3s have a rotatable mount which can be fitted with either the UKM-2000P 7.62  mm general-purpose machine gun or the NSW-B 12.7 mm heavy machine gun.", "Tumak-5s are used by anti-tank subunits and are armed with a dismountable Spike missile.", "Additionally Polish forces of ISAF operate 120 HMMWVs on loan from the U.S.", "forces.", "* Switzerland – Early MOWAG Eagle light armored vehicles utilized the HMMWV chassis, although the latest uses a Duro III chassis.", "The Eagle is an NBC-tight, air-conditioned, and armor-protected vehicle.", "It is in service and available in several configurations with varying levels of armor protection.", "The Eagle can be fitted with a wide assortment of armaments.", "* Turkey – Otokar Cobra – is a wheeled armoured vehicle developed by Turkish firm Otokar which uses some mechanical components, sub-systems and some parts of the HMMWV.===Survivable Combat Tactical Vehicle===Marine Corps inspected SCTV Humvee, 2010Textron's Survivable Combat Tactical Vehicle (SCTV) is a protective capsule that can increase Humvee survivability to MRAP levels while significantly improving mobility.", "The modifications come in five kits, but all five need to be installed before the vehicle can be properly called an SCTV.", "The vehicle features a monocoque V-shaped hull and angled sides to help deflect rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs) with scalable levels of protection.", "It has greater engine power, replacing the 6.5-liter diesel engine with a Cummins 6.7-liter diesel and Allison 6-speed transmission, as well as a stronger suspension, improved brakes, higher ground clearance, and new onboard instrumentation.", "Fuel capacity is increased from and the battery and fuel cells are moved from under the rear seat to the rear of the vehicle.", "Also included are a powerful air conditioner and heating system, run-flat tires, a thermal guard liner under the roof, sharp edges removed from inside the cabin, blast attenuating seats, and a folding gunner's turret allowing rapid deployment from a cargo aircraft or shipboard below deck.", "Although heavier than the Humvee, the SCTV is half the weight and costs $150,000 less than a comparably survivable MRAP.", "The basic version is a four-passenger armament carrier, but it can be configured as a nine-passenger troop carrier, air-defense vehicle, flatbed cargo truck, or field ambulance depending on the type of Humvee it is converted from.Work began on the SCTV in 2008 in anticipation of U.S. military upgrades, but it was shelved once they made the JLTV a priority.", "Textron then focused on selling the SCTV upgrade package to up to 25 countries operating the global fleet, a potential market of up to 10,000 vehicles.", "The upgrade can enhance the survivability of previously soft-skinned versions, sometimes sold by the U.S. as Excess Defense Articles, while costing and weighing less than a comparable MRAP.", "By 2015, Colombia had installed the SCTV into three Humvees for testing, and Ukraine had shown interest in upgrading their old-model Humvees recently supplied by the U.S. Ukraine ordered three SCTVs in February 2016." ], [ "Operators", "HMMWV operator map: dark blue shows original HMMWV operatorsU.S.", "Marine Corps HMMWVs in the Philippines deliver food packs after Typhoon Ketsana, 2009.A HMMWV firing an AGM-114 Hellfire missile.U.S.", "Marines pushing an M1114 HMMWV during a 'Humvee Push' competition, in 2016.Humvee maintenance with engine exposed by Czech Army in AfghanistanA Spanish Navy Marines M-966 equipped with BGM-71 TOW anti-tank missile.The Mars Institute's Moon-1 HMMWV Rover waits for C-130 airlift at Cambridge Bay, Canada in 2009.Bahraini Army in the 2010s* – 248 on order, gifted by US.", "* – +100 for the Algerian Special Forces and the Parachute Commando Regiments M1097A2/M1116/M1097A2/HISAR/K-TaCS.", "* - 400+ in the Argentine Armed Forces.", "* – 100+ HMMWV use by Azerbaijani army and peacekeeping force.", "* – 10 HMMWV use by Armenian peacekeeping force.", "* – Vehicles sold under the U.S. Foreign Military Sales program.", "* * – 25 in 2010 and 44 donated by the U.S. in 2017.30 in 2021, 99 in total.", "* – 52 vehicles, 50 are the up-armored M1114 variant, and two are ambulances.", "* – Small numbers (M1113 and M1117) in use by Joint Task Force 2 (JTF-2) and Special Operations Regiment (CSOR).", "Used in Afghanistan.", "* – Vehicles sold under the U.S. Foreign Military Sales program.", "* 565 in the Chilean Army and 100 in Chilean Marine Corps.", "* : 800 vehicles* - 112 vehicles.", "* – Mainly used by the 601st Special Forces Group.", "* - 102 vehicles.", "* – 30 vehicles.", "* – Vehicles sold under the U.S. Foreign Military Sales program.", "They have seen combat in the 1990s during the FRUD rebellion.", "* * * * - 681 vehicles ≈276 built in Greece by ELVO with designations M1114GR to M1119GR.", "* – Vehicles procured via the U.S. Foreign Military Sales program.", "* – During the Iraq War, stockpiled U.S. military HMMWVs were given to the Iraqi Army, Iraqi Security Forces.", "The Iraqi military has more than 10,000+ Humvees.", "Some of these have been captured by the Islamic State in 2014.Most of them were recaptured by the Iraq Armed Forces as well as other regional actors after IS defeat in 2017.While the remainder were lost through combat.", "** − 1500+ Humvee aided by the United States.", "5,150 In total.", "* * * – Several vehicles in use by security forces.", "* – 200+ vehicles* – Vehicles sold via the U.S. Foreign Military Sales program.", "* * – 1,300+ vehicles* Libya – 200 donated by the U.S. Army in July 2013.", "* – 200 vehicles* – 10 to 90, modified at Eurokompozit, armed with PK 7.62 x 54R heavy MG* – Morocco has 4000+ vehicles in the Royal Moroccan Army, some of them are fitted with BGM-71 TOW ATGM.", "* – 90 vehicles* – Vehicles sold via the U.S. Foreign Military Sales program.", "3,000 vehicles in service.", "* * – Borrowed U.S. vehicles in Afghanistan were modified by New Zealand Special Air Service and replaced by Pinzgauer.", "The Army used a small number of U.S. either free/leased vehicles in Afghanistan until 2013.", "* - In use as a Missile Support Platform for the Norwegian Advanced Surface-to-Air Missile System (NASAMS).", "* Oman – Vehicles sold via the U.S. Foreign Military Sales program.", "* - 30+ donated to Taiwan in 2016.", "* – 34 vehicles (12 M-1151A1 deployed in Haiti as part of the UN peacekeeping contingent, 22 M-1165A1 Special Ops operated by the 19th Commando Battalion).", "There is possibly an upcoming purchase of 100 additional vehicles.", "* – 300+ vehicles* * – 47 vehicles used by Portuguese Army and 3 by the Portuguese Air Force.", "* – 322 of M1113/M1114/M1165/M1151 variants* – Vehicles were sold to Saudi Arabia by the U.S. under the Foreign Military Sales program.", "* – 23 vehicles donated by the U.S. seen in action as recently as 2017.", "* – 123 vehicles, used only by the Infantería de Marina.", "The Spanish Army, the Spanish Air Force and the Spanish National Police use the URO VAMTAC, a similar vehicle, produced in Spain.", "* – 106 vehicles with additional procurement of 42 (Army); 30 vehicles (Gendarmery).", "* – Slovak Armed Forces used 6 vehicles in Iraq.", "* – Slovenian Armed Forces use as patrol vehicle.", "* – Vehicles sold by the U.S. under the Foreign Military Sales program.", "* – One example obtained for evaluation by army in 1989.", "* Syria – Captured from ISIS** Syrian National Army***Hamza Division* – 9,000+ vehicles including vehicles sold via the U.S. Foreign Military Sales program.", "* - An unknown number of M1152A1 HMMWV \"Gun trucks\" were obtained by the Tajik Border Guards from fleeing ANA soldiers after the Taliban reestablished itself.", "* – sold by the U.S. under the Foreign Military Sales program.", "* : Royal Thai Army (M998, M1038A1, M1097A1, M1037, M1042, M1025, M1026A1, M966, M997, M997A2)* – 52 vehicles donated by the U.S. in May 2015 and some sold via the U.S. Foreign Military Sales program.", "* – 342 vehicles (since 2001) of М1097А2/М1114/М998/M1152/М1116/M1025/HMMWV variants.", "Out of all vehicles around 110 are at the 95th Airmobile Brigade, 10 vehicles were donated to the Polish–Ukrainian Peace Force Battalion (POLUKRBAT).", "Reports say that after the Battle of Debaltseve insurgents were seen driving around in 'Humvee-like' vehicle.", "\"Hundreds\" of vehicles were pledged to be donated to Ukraine due to the Russian invasion in 2022.Over 200 vehicles were sent to Ukraine in October 2022.138 more to be delivered by the United States in 2023.", "* – 230,000 (US Army and US Marine Corps) Some used by various law enforcement agencies purchased through civilian sales.", "* * * – M1123 and M1151 variants===Former user===* : The former Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ordered 3,334 more in 2010 and 2011 for its National Police, National Army and other military.", "950 M1114 vehicles delivered to the army by November 2012.Others were taken by surviving Afghan troops who joined up with the National Resistance Front.===Non-state actors===A Humvee captured by the Taliban in 2021* Islamic State – 2,300 (captured)* Kataib Hezbollah* Syrian Democratic Forces: Equipped with at least 20 Humvees from 2017 with further details not revealed.", "** People's Defense Units* : An unknown number, estimated in the hundreds, were captured by the Taliban from the Afghan army.", "An unknown number, estimated in the hundreds, were captured by the Taliban in their 2021 offensive, and have been in use by the new government's Islamic Emirate Army.===Civilian sales===In December 2014, the Department of Defense began auctioning off some 4,000 used Humvees to the public.", "While some have been transferred to domestic law enforcement agencies, this is the first time the military vehicles have been made available for civilian ownership.", "The idea is to sell them with starting bids at $10,000 each, rather than simply scrapping them as a way to save money and repurpose them.", "M998, M998A1, M1038, and M1038A1 model Humvees are available, which are out of U.S. service and lack armor.", "AM General has been opposed to the resale of military Humvees to the general public, primarily because surplus government vehicles would have cut into sales related to the civilian Hummer model, whose production ended in 2010.The first sales from auction occurred on 17 December 2014 for 25 of the Humvees.", "Bids ranged from $21,500 for a 1989 M1038 to $41,000 for a 1994 AM General M998A1.The average bid was around $30,000 and the sale of the 25 vehicles netted $744,000 total.", "GovPlanet has since taken over the contract and sells Humvees at its weekly online auctions.====HUMVEE C-Series====In 2017, it was announced that AM General signed a contract with VLF Automotive to build a new civilian version of the HMMWV for sale outside of the US.", "The initial contract calls for up to 100 a year to be built and sold overseas to places such as China, Europe, Middle East, and Australia.", "These are essentially updated Hummer H1s, but cannot use the Hummer-brand owned by General Motors.", "These vehicles have not been approved for sale in the US due to safety or emission standards." ], [ "Replicas", "Hawkeye 105mm Mobile Weapon System in Camp Grayling, 25 July 2019Kits have been produced for the general market to turn a sedan into a Humvee lookalike.", "An alternative is to buy a preconstructed (or \"turnkey\") model.", "Various kits exist, but one of the more well known is the Volkswagen Beetle-based \"Wombat\".", "This was previously named \"HummBug\", until the threat of a lawsuit from General Motors forced changes to the name and the grille design to make it look less like the real thing.", "It can be purchased/built for about US$18,000; this puts it considerably cheaper than the actual HMMWV ($56,000), or Hummer.In Australia, a Gold Coast-based company called Rhino Buggies produces replicas of the Hummer H1 based on the Nissan Patrol 4WD vehicle for around A$30,000.In the U.S., four companies offered Hummer-look-alike body kits that can be mated to GM full-size trucks and Suburban chassis and, in some cases, Ford, Dodge, and even Cadillac applications.", "Some models are; Urban Gorilla from Urban Manufacturing, Endeavor SB400 and SB4x400 from Forever Off-Road, the Jurassic Truck Corporation T-Rex, and the Bummer from Tatonka Products An additional company offers plans so for chassis building.", "The kits range from two-door fiberglass models to steel tube and sheet metal constructions." ], [ "Similar vehicles", "* Agrale Marruá – Brazil* BJ2022 – Chinese military vehicle, currently in service* Dongfeng EQ2050 – Chinese military vehicle* FMC XR311 – an early prototype, as the successor to the M151 jeep, that led to the HMMWV* Mohafiz ASV - HIT made Armoured security vehicle of Pakistani origin.", "* GAZ Tigr – Russian military vehicle, currently in service* Hawkei – Australian military vehicle* Iveco LMV – Italian military vehicle* Komatsu LAV – Japanese military vehicle* Lamborghini Cheetah, an Italian prototype contender for the original HMMWV contract.", "Forerunner of the \"Rambo Lambo\" Lamborghini LM002.", "* TATA LSV (Light Specialist Vehicle) – a new vehicle by Tata Motors of India.", "* Mahindra Marksman, Mahindra Rakshak and Mahindra Armored Light Specialist Vehicle – vehicles manufactured by Mahindra in India for operating in similar roles like the HUMVEE.", "* Kia KLTV - South Korean light tactical vehicle* Marine Multi-purpose Vehicle (MMPV) – Philippines* MOWAG Eagle – Swiss military vehicle* Otokar Cobra – Turkish light armored vehicle with HMMWV parts* Oshkosh L-ATV – U.S. military vehicle* Pindad Maung – Indonesian military vehicle* Predator SOV* SPECTRE light vehicle – U.S. light air-portable utility/special forces-type vehicle proposed as a possible HMMWV replacement.", "* T-98 Kombat – Russian civilian SUV* Tarpan Honker – Polish military vehicle* Tiuna – Venezuelan military vehicle* Toyota Mega Cruiser – Japanese military vehicle in service with the Japan Self Defense Forces.", "AKA \"Koukidousha\" or \"\".", "* URO VAMTAC – Spanish four-wheel tactical military vehicle by UROVESA* VECTOR - Dutch tactical military vehicle* VLEGA Gaucho – Argentinian-Brazilian military vehicle* Weststar GK-M1 – Malaysian military light vehicle* Kozak – Ukrainian military vehicle" ], [ "See also", "*List of \"M\" series military vehicles.", "* Hummer H1, H2, and H3.The H1 is a civilian derivative of the HMMWV, while the H2 and H3 are based on regular GM truck chassis and styled after it.", "* Humvee clone manufacturing in China*Interim Fast Attack Vehicle*Interceptor ASV*Sandstorm, an HMMWV modified into an autonomous vehicle." ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* *" ], [ "External links", "* Army fact file* AM General HMMWV page * HMMWV Manuals* HUMVEE C-Series brochure" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "History of science" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''history of science''' covers the development of science from ancient times to the present.", "It encompasses all three major branches of science: natural, social, and formal.", "Protoscience, early sciences, and natural philosophies such as alchemy and astrology during the Bronze Age, Iron Age, classical antiquity, and the Middle Ages declined during the early modern period after the establishment of formal disciplines of science in the Age of Enlightenment.Science's earliest roots can be traced to Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia around 3000 to 1200 BCE.", "These civilizations' contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine influenced later Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity, wherein formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the physical world based on natural causes.", "After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, knowledge of Greek conceptions of the world deteriorated in Latin-speaking Western Europe during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of the Middle Ages, but continued to thrive in the Greek-speaking Eastern Roman (or Byzantine) Empire.", "Aided by translations of Greek texts, the Hellenistic worldview was preserved and absorbed into the Arabic-speaking Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age.", "The recovery and assimilation of Greek works and Islamic inquiries into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived the learning of natural philosophy in the West.", "Traditions of early science were also developed in ancient India and separately in ancient China, the Chinese model having influenced Vietnam, Korea and Japan before Western exploration.", "Among the Pre-Columbian peoples of Mesoamerica, the Zapotec civilization established their first known traditions of astronomy and mathematics for producing calendars, followed by other civilizations such as the Maya.Natural philosophy was transformed during the Scientific Revolution in 16th- to 17th-century Europe, as new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions.", "The New Science that emerged was more mechanistic in its worldview, more integrated with mathematics, and more reliable and open as its knowledge was based on a newly defined scientific method.", "More \"revolutions\" in subsequent centuries soon followed.", "The chemical revolution of the 18th century, for instance, introduced new quantitative methods and measurements for chemistry.", "In the 19th century, new perspectives regarding the conservation of energy, age of Earth, and evolution came into focus.", "And in the 20th century, new discoveries in genetics and physics laid the foundations for new sub disciplines such as molecular biology and particle physics.", "Moreover, industrial and military concerns as well as the increasing complexity of new research endeavors ushered in the era of \"big science,\" particularly after World War II." ], [ "Approaches to history of science", "The nature of the history of science is a topic of debate (as is, by implication, the definition of science itself).", "The history of science is often seen as a linear story of progressbut historians have come to see the story as more complex.Alfred Edward Taylor has characterised lean periods in the advance of scientific discovery as \"periodical bankruptcies of science\".Science is a human activity, and scientific contributions have come from people from a wide range of different backgrounds and cultures.", "Historians of science increasingly see their field as part of a global history of exchange, conflict and collaboration.The relationship between science and religion has been variously characterized in terms of \"conflict\", \"harmony\", \"complexity\", and \"mutual independence\", among others.", "Events in Europe such as the Galileo affair of the early-17th century - associated with the scientific revolution and the Age of Enlightenment - led scholars such as John William Draper to postulate () a conflict thesis, suggesting that religion and science have been in conflict methodologically, factually and politically throughout history.", "The \"conflict thesis\" has since lost favor among the majority of contemporary scientists and historians of science.", "However, some contemporary philosophers and scientists, such as Richard Dawkins, still subscribe to this thesis.Historians have emphasized that trust is necessary for agreement on claims about nature.", "In this light, the 1660 establishment of the Royal Society and its code of experiment – trustworthy because witnessed by its members – has become an important chapter in the historiography of science.", "Many people in modern history (typically women and persons of color) were excluded from elite scientific communities and characterized by the science establishment as inferior.", "Historians in the 1980s and 1990s described the structural barriers to participation and began to recover the contributions of overlooked individuals.", "Historians have also investigated the mundane practices of science such as fieldwork and specimen collection, correspondence, drawing, record-keeping, and the use of laboratory and field equipment." ], [ "Prehistoric times", "In prehistoric times, knowledge and technique were passed from generation to generation in an oral tradition.", "For instance, the domestication of maize for agriculture has been dated to about 9,000 years ago in southern Mexico, before the development of writing systems.", "Similarly, archaeological evidence indicates the development of astronomical knowledge in preliterate societies.The oral tradition of preliterate societies had several features, the first of which was its fluidity.", "New information was constantly absorbed and adjusted to new circumstances or community needs.", "There were no archives or reports.", "This fluidity was closely related to the practical need to explain and justify a present state of affairs.", "Another feature was the tendency to describe the universe as just sky and earth, with a potential underworld.", "They were also prone to identify causes with beginnings, thereby providing a historical origin with an explanation.", "There was also a reliance on a \"medicine man\" or \"wise woman\" for healing, knowledge of divine or demonic causes of diseases, and in more extreme cases, for rituals such as exorcism, divination, songs, and incantations.", "Finally, there was an inclination to unquestioningly accept explanations that might be deemed implausible in more modern times while at the same time not being aware that such credulous behaviors could have posed problems.The development of writing enabled humans to store and communicate knowledge across generations with much greater accuracy.", "Its invention was a prerequisite for the development of philosophy and later science in ancient times.", "Moreover, the extent to which philosophy and science would flourish in ancient times depended on the efficiency of a writing system (e.g., use of alphabets)." ], [ "Earliest roots in the Ancient Near East", "The earliest roots of science can be traced to the Ancient Near East, in particular Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia in around 3000 to 1200 BCE.===Ancient Egypt=======Number system and geometry====Starting in around 3000 BCE, the ancient Egyptians developed a numbering system that was decimal in character and had oriented their knowledge of geometry to solving practical problems such as those of surveyors and builders.", "Their development of geometry was itself a necessary development of surveying to preserve the layout and ownership of farmland, which was flooded annually by the Nile river.", "The 3-4-5 right triangle and other rules of geometry were used to build rectilinear structures, and the post and lintel architecture of Egypt.====Disease and healing====The Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE) from ancient Egypt Egypt was also a center of alchemy research for much of the Mediterranean.", "Based on the medical papyri written in the 2500–1200 BCE, the ancient Egyptians believed that disease was mainly caused by the invasion of bodies by evil forces or spirits.", "Thus, in addition to using medicines, their healing therapies included prayer, incantation, and ritual.", "The Ebers Papyrus, written in around 1600 BCE, contains medical recipes for treating diseases related to the eyes, mouth, skin, internal organs, and extremities, as well as abscesses, wounds, burns, ulcers, swollen glands, tumors, headaches, and even bad breath.", "The Edwin Smith papyrus, written at about the same time, contains a surgical manual for treating wounds, fractures, and dislocations.", "The Egyptians believed that the effectiveness of their medicines depended on the preparation and administration under appropriate rituals.", "Medical historians believe that ancient Egyptian pharmacology, for example, was largely ineffective.", "Both the Ebers and Edwin Smith papyri applied the following components to the treatment of disease: examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis, which display strong parallels to the basic empirical method of science and, according to G.E.R.", "Lloyd, played a significant role in the development of this methodology.====Calendar====The ancient Egyptians even developed an official calendar that contained twelve months, thirty days each, and five days at the end of the year.", "Unlike the Babylonian calendar or the ones used in Greek city-states at the time, the official Egyptian calendar was much simpler as it was fixed and did not take lunar and solar cycles into consideration.===Mesopotamia===Mari in what is now SyriaThe ancient Mesopotamians had extensive knowledge about the chemical properties of clay, sand, metal ore, bitumen, stone, and other natural materials, and applied this knowledge to practical use in manufacturing pottery, faience, glass, soap, metals, lime plaster, and waterproofing.", "Metallurgy required knowledge about the properties of metals.", "Nonetheless, the Mesopotamians seem to have had little interest in gathering information about the natural world for the mere sake of gathering information and were far more interested in studying the manner in which the gods had ordered the universe.", "Biology of non-human organisms was generally only written about in the context of mainstream academic disciplines.", "Animal physiology was studied extensively for the purpose of divination; the anatomy of the liver, which was seen as an important organ in haruspicy, was studied in particularly intensive detail.", "Animal behavior was also studied for divinatory purposes.", "Most information about the training and domestication of animals was probably transmitted orally without being written down, but one text dealing with the training of horses has survived.====Mesopotamian medicine====The ancient Mesopotamians had no distinction between \"rational science\" and magic.", "When a person became ill, doctors prescribed magical formulas to be recited as well as medicinal treatments.", "The earliest medical prescriptions appear in Sumerian during the Third Dynasty of Ur ( 2112 BCE – 2004 BCE).", "The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the ''Diagnostic Handbook'' written by the ''ummânū'', or chief scholar, Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa, during the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (1069–1046 BCE).", "In East Semitic cultures, the main medicinal authority was a kind of exorcist-healer known as an ''āšipu''.", "The profession was generally passed down from father to son and was held in extremely high regard.", "Of less frequent recourse was another kind of healer known as an ''asu'', who corresponds more closely to a modern physician and treated physical symptoms using primarily folk remedies composed of various herbs, animal products, and minerals, as well as potions, enemas, and ointments or poultices.", "These physicians, who could be either male or female, also dressed wounds, set limbs, and performed simple surgeries.", "The ancient Mesopotamians also practiced prophylaxis and took measures to prevent the spread of disease.====Astronomy and celestial divination====Star list with distance information, Uruk (Iraq), 320-150 BCE, the list gives each constellation, the number of stars and the distance information to the next constellation in ellsIn Babylonian astronomy, records of the motions of the stars, planets, and the moon are left on thousands of clay tablets created by scribes.", "Even today, astronomical periods identified by Mesopotamian proto-scientists are still widely used in Western calendars such as the solar year and the lunar month.", "Using this data, they developed mathematical methods to compute the changing length of daylight in the course of the year, predict the appearances and disappearances of the Moon and planets, and eclipses of the Sun and Moon.", "Only a few astronomers' names are known, such as that of Kidinnu, a Chaldean astronomer and mathematician.", "Kiddinu's value for the solar year is in use for today's calendars.", "Babylonian astronomy was \"the first and highly successful attempt at giving a refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena.\"", "According to the historian A. Aaboe, \"all subsequent varieties of scientific astronomy, in the Hellenistic world, in India, in Islam, and in the West—if not indeed all subsequent endeavour in the exact sciences—depend upon Babylonian astronomy in decisive and fundamental ways.", "\"To the Babylonians and other Near Eastern cultures, messages from the gods or omens were concealed in all natural phenomena that could be deciphered and interpreted by those who are adept.", "Hence, it was believed that the gods could speak through all terrestrial objects (e.g., animal entrails, dreams, malformed births, or even the color of a dog urinating on a person) and celestial phenomena.", "Moreover, Babylonian astrology was inseparable from Babylonian astronomy.====Mathematics====The Mesopotamian cuneiform tablet Plimpton 322, dating to the eighteenth-century BCE, records a number of Pythagorean triplets (3,4,5) (5,12,13) ..., hinting that the ancient Mesopotamians might have been aware of the Pythagorean theorem over a millennium before Pythagoras." ], [ "Ancient and medieval South Asia and East Asia", "Mathematical achievements from Mesopotamia had some influence on the development of mathematics in India, and there were confirmed transmissions of mathematical ideas between India and China, which were bidirectional.", "Nevertheless, the mathematical and scientific achievements in India and particularly in China occurred largely independently from those of Europe and the confirmed early influences that these two civilizations had on the development of science in Europe in the pre-modern era were indirect, with Mesopotamia and later the Islamic World acting as intermediaries.", "The arrival of modern science, which grew out of the Scientific Revolution, in India and China and the greater Asian region in general can be traced to the scientific activities of Jesuit missionaries who were interested in studying the region's flora and fauna during the 16th to 17th century.===India===Ancient India was an early leader in metallurgy, as evidenced by the wrought-iron Pillar of Delhi.====Indian astronomy and mathematics====The earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appear with the Indus Valley Civilisation (c. 4th millennium BCE ~ c. 3rd millennium BCE).", "The people of this civilization made bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, which is favorable for the stability of a brick structure.", "They also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy.", "They designed a ruler—the ''Mohenjo-daro ruler''—whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimetres) was divided into ten equal parts.", "Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length.Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476–550), in his ''Aryabhatiya'' (499) introduced the sine function in trigonometry and the number 0 mathematics.", "In 628 CE, Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction.", "He also lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu–Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world.", "Arabic translations of the two astronomers' texts were soon available in the Islamic world, introducing what would become Arabic numerals to the Islamic world by the 9th century.", "During the 14th–16th centuries, the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics made significant advances in astronomy and especially mathematics, including fields such as trigonometry and analysis.", "In particular, Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered the \"founder of mathematical analysis\".In the ''Tantrasangraha'' treatise, Nilakantha Somayaji's updated the Aryabhatan model for the interior planets, Mercury, and Venus and the equation that he specified for the center of these planets was more accurate than the ones in European or Islamic astronomy until the time of Johannes Kepler in the 17th century.The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the Vedas, religious literature of India.", "According to Sarma (2008): \"One finds in the Rigveda intelligent speculations about the genesis of the universe from nonexistence, the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting earth, and the year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary month.\".", "The first 12 chapters of the ''Siddhanta Shiromani'', written by Bhāskara in the 12th century, cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon.", "The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigonometric calculations based on it.====Grammar====Some of the earliest linguistic activities can be found in Iron Age India (1st millennium BCE) with the analysis of Sanskrit for the purpose of the correct recitation and interpretation of Vedic texts.", "The most notable grammarian of Sanskrit was (c. 520–460 BCE), whose grammar formulates close to 4,000 rules for Sanskrit.", "Inherent in his analytic approach are the concepts of the phoneme, the morpheme and the root.", "The Tolkāppiyam text, composed in the early centuries of the common era, is a comprehensive text on Tamil grammar, which includes sutras on orthography, phonology, etymology, morphology, semantics, prosody, sentence structure and the significance of context in language.====Medicine====Findings from Neolithic graveyards in what is now Pakistan show evidence of proto-dentistry among an early farming culture.", "The ancient text Suśrutasamhitā of Suśruta describes procedures on various forms of surgery, including rhinoplasty, the repair of torn ear lobes, perineal lithotomy, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures.====Politics and state====An ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy by Kautilya and ,Trautmann 1971:5 \"the very last verse of the work...is the unique instance of the personal name rather than the ''gotra'' name in the ''Arthaśāstra''.", "who are traditionally identified with (c. 350–283 BCE).", "In this treatise, the behaviors and relationships of the people, the King, the State, the Government Superintendents, Courtiers, Enemies, Invaders, and Corporations are analyzed and documented.", "Roger Boesche describes the ''Arthaśāstra'' as \"a book of political realism, a book analyzing how the political world does work and not very often stating how it ought to work, a book that frequently discloses to a king what calculating and sometimes brutal measures he must carry out to preserve the state and the common good.", "\"===China===Liu Hui's survey of a sea island from the ''Haidao Suanjing'', 3rd century AD====Chinese mathematics====From the earliest the Chinese used a positional decimal system on counting boards in order to calculate.", "To express 10, a single rod is placed in the second box from the right.", "The spoken language uses a similar system to English: e.g.", "four thousand two hundred and seven.", "No symbol was used for zero.", "By the 1st century BCE, negative numbers and decimal fractions were in use and ''The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art'' included methods for extracting higher order roots by Horner's method and solving linear equations and by Pythagoras' theorem.", "Cubic equations were solved in the Tang dynasty and solutions of equations of order higher than 3 appeared in print in 1245 CE by Ch'in Chiu-shao.", "Pascal's triangle for binomial coefficients was described around 1100 by Jia Xian.Although the first attempts at an axiomatization of geometry appear in the Mohist canon in 330 BCE, Liu Hui developed algebraic methods in geometry in the 3rd century CE and also calculated pi to 5 significant figures.", "In 480, Zu Chongzhi improved this by discovering the ratio which remained the most accurate value for 1200 years.====Astronomical observations====One of the star maps from Su Song's ''Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao'' published in 1092, featuring a cylindrical projection similar to Mercator, and the corrected position of the pole star thanks to Shen Kuo's astronomical observations.Astronomical observations from China constitute the longest continuous sequence from any civilization and include records of sunspots (112 records from 364 BCE), supernovas (1054), lunar and solar eclipses.", "By the 12th century, they could reasonably accurately make predictions of eclipses, but the knowledge of this was lost during the Ming dynasty, so that the Jesuit Matteo Ricci gained much favor in 1601 by his predictions.", "By 635 Chinese astronomers had observed that the tails of comets always point away from the sun.From antiquity, the Chinese used an equatorial system for describing the skies and a star map from 940 was drawn using a cylindrical (Mercator) projection.", "The use of an armillary sphere is recorded from the 4th century BCE and a sphere permanently mounted in equatorial axis from 52 BCE.", "In 125 CE Zhang Heng used water power to rotate the sphere in real time.", "This included rings for the meridian and ecliptic.", "By 1270 they had incorporated the principles of the Arab torquetum.In the Song Empire (960–1279) of Imperial China, Chinese scholar-officials unearthed, studied, and cataloged ancient artifacts.====Inventions====A modern replica of Han dynasty polymath scientist Zhang Heng's seismometer of 132 CETo better prepare for calamities, Zhang Heng invented a seismometer in 132 CE which provided instant alert to authorities in the capital Luoyang that an earthquake had occurred in a location indicated by a specific cardinal or ordinal direction.", "Although no tremors could be felt in the capital when Zhang told the court that an earthquake had just occurred in the northwest, a message came soon afterwards that an earthquake had indeed struck northwest of Luoyang (in what is now modern Gansu).", "Zhang called his device the 'instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the movements of the Earth' (Houfeng didong yi 候风地动仪), so-named because he and others thought that earthquakes were most likely caused by the enormous compression of trapped air.There are many notable contributors to early Chinese disciplines, inventions, and practices throughout the ages.", "One of the best examples would be the medieval Song Chinese Shen Kuo (1031–1095), a polymath and statesman who was the first to describe the magnetic-needle compass used for navigation, discovered the concept of true north, improved the design of the astronomical gnomon, armillary sphere, sight tube, and clepsydra, and described the use of drydocks to repair boats.", "After observing the natural process of the inundation of silt and the find of marine fossils in the Taihang Mountains (hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean), Shen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or geomorphology.", "He also adopted a theory of gradual climate change in regions over time, after observing petrified bamboo found underground at Yan'an, Shaanxi province.", "If not for Shen Kuo's writing, the architectural works of Yu Hao would be little known, along with the inventor of movable type printing, Bi Sheng (990–1051).", "Shen's contemporary Su Song (1020–1101) was also a brilliant polymath, an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of star maps, wrote a treatise related to botany, zoology, mineralogy, and metallurgy, and had erected a large astronomical clocktower in Kaifeng city in 1088.To operate the crowning armillary sphere, his clocktower featured an escapement mechanism and the world's oldest known use of an endless power-transmitting chain drive.The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries \"learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe.", "Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture.\"", "Western academic thought on the history of Chinese technology and science was galvanized by the work of Joseph Needham and the Needham Research Institute.", "Among the technological accomplishments of China were, according to the British scholar Needham, the water-powered celestial globe (Zhang Heng), dry docks, sliding calipers, the double-action piston pump, the blast furnace, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the winnowing machine, gunpowder, the raised-relief map, toilet paper, the efficient harness, along with contributions in logic, astronomy, medicine, and other fields.However, cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into \"modern science\".", "According to Needham, it may have been the religious and philosophical framework of Chinese intellectuals which made them unable to accept the ideas of laws of nature:" ], [ "Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica", "Detail showing columns of glyphs from a portion of the 2nd century CE La Mojarra Stela 1 (found near La Mojarra, Veracruz, Mexico); the left column gives a Long Count calendar date of 8.5.16.9.7, or 156 CE.", "The other columns visible are glyphs from the Epi-Olmec script.During the Middle Formative Period (c. 900 BCE – c. 300 BCE) of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, the Zapotec civilization, heavily influenced by the Olmec civilization, established the first known full writing system of the region (possibly predated by the Olmec Cascajal Block), as well as the first known astronomical calendar in Mesoamerica.", "Following a period of initial urban development in the Preclassical period, the Classic Maya civilization (c. 250 CE – c. 900 CE) built on the shared heritage of the Olmecs by developing the most sophisticated systems of writing, astronomy, calendrical science, and mathematics among Mesoamerican peoples.", "The Maya developed a positional numeral system with a base of 20 that included the use of zero for constructing their calendars.", "Maya writing, which was developed by 200 BCE, widespread by 100 BCE, and rooted in Olmec and Zapotec scripts, contains easily discernible calendar dates in the form of logographs representing numbers, coefficients, and calendar periods amounting to 20 days and even 20 years for tracking social, religious, political, and economic events in 360-day years." ], [ "Classical antiquity and Greco-Roman science", "The contributions of the Ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians in the areas of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine had entered and shaped Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity, whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the physical world based on natural causes.", "Inquiries were also aimed at such practical goals such as establishing a reliable calendar or determining how to cure a variety of illnesses.", "The ancient people who were considered the first ''scientists'' may have thought of themselves as ''natural philosophers'', as practitioners of a skilled profession (for example, physicians), or as followers of a religious tradition (for example, temple healers).===Pre-socratics===The earliest Greek philosophers, known as the pre-Socratics, provided competing answers to the question found in the myths of their neighbors: \"How did the ordered cosmos in which we live come to be?\"", "The pre-Socratic philosopher Thales (640–546 BCE) of Miletus, identified by later authors such as Aristotle as the first of the Ionian philosophers, postulated non-supernatural explanations for natural phenomena.", "For example, that land floats on water and that earthquakes are caused by the agitation of the water upon which the land floats, rather than the god Poseidon.", "Thales' student Pythagoras of Samos founded the Pythagorean school, which investigated mathematics for its own sake, and was the first to postulate that the Earth is spherical in shape.", "Leucippus (5th century BCE) introduced atomism, the theory that all matter is made of indivisible, imperishable units called atoms.", "This was greatly expanded on by his pupil Democritus and later Epicurus.===Natural philosophy===Plato's Academy.", "1st century mosaic from PompeiiPlato and Aristotle produced the first systematic discussions of natural philosophy, which did much to shape later investigations of nature.", "Their development of deductive reasoning was of particular importance and usefulness to later scientific inquiry.", "Plato founded the Platonic Academy in 387 BCE, whose motto was \"Let none unversed in geometry enter here,\" and also turned out many notable philosophers.", "Plato's student Aristotle introduced empiricism and the notion that universal truths can be arrived at via observation and induction, thereby laying the foundations of the scientific method.", "Aristotle also produced many biological writings that were empirical in nature, focusing on biological causation and the diversity of life.", "He made countless observations of nature, especially the habits and attributes of plants and animals on Lesbos, classified more than 540 animal species, and dissected at least 50.Aristotle's writings profoundly influenced subsequent Islamic and European scholarship, though they were eventually superseded in the Scientific Revolution.Aristotle also contributed to theories of the elements and the cosmos.", "He believed that the celestial bodies (such as the planets and the Sun) had something called an unmoved mover that put the celestial bodies in motion.", "Aristotle tried to explain everything through mathematics and physics, but sometimes explained things such as the motion of celestial bodies through a higher power such as God.", "Aristotle did not have the technological advancements that would have explained the motion of celestial bodies.", "In addition, Aristotle had many views on the elements.", "He believed that everything was derived of the elements earth, water, air, fire, and lastly the Aether.", "The Aether was a celestial element, and therefore made up the matter of the celestial bodies.", "The elements of earth, water, air and fire were derived of a combination of two of the characteristics of hot, wet, cold, and dry, and all had their inevitable place and motion.", "The motion of these elements begins with earth being the closest to \"the Earth,\" then water, air, fire, and finally Aether.", "In addition to the makeup of all things, Aristotle came up with theories as to why things did not return to their natural motion.", "He understood that water sits above earth, air above water, and fire above air in their natural state.", "He explained that although all elements must return to their natural state, the human body and other living things have a constraint on the elements – thus not allowing the elements making one who they are to return to their natural state.The important legacy of this period included substantial advances in factual knowledge, especially in anatomy, zoology, botany, mineralogy, geography, mathematics and astronomy; an awareness of the importance of certain scientific problems, especially those related to the problem of change and its causes; and a recognition of the methodological importance of applying mathematics to natural phenomena and of undertaking empirical research.", "In the Hellenistic age scholars frequently employed the principles developed in earlier Greek thought: the application of mathematics and deliberate empirical research, in their scientific investigations.", "Thus, clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers, to medieval Muslim philosophers and scientists, to the European Renaissance and Enlightenment, to the secular sciences of the modern day.Neither reason nor inquiry began with the Ancient Greeks, but the Socratic method did, along with the idea of Forms, give great advances in geometry, logic, and the natural sciences.", "According to Benjamin Farrington, former professor of Classics at Swansea University::\"Men were weighing for thousands of years before Archimedes worked out the laws of equilibrium; they must have had practical and intuitional knowledge of the principals involved.", "What Archimedes did was to sort out the theoretical implications of this practical knowledge and present the resulting body of knowledge as a logically coherent system.", "\"and again::\"With astonishment we find ourselves on the threshold of modern science.", "Nor should it be supposed that by some trick of translation the extracts have been given an air of modernity.", "Far from it.", "The vocabulary of these writings and their style are the source from which our own vocabulary and style have been derived.", "\"===Greek astronomy=== Schematic of the Antikythera mechanism (150–100 BCE).The astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first known person to propose a heliocentric model of the Solar System, while the geographer Eratosthenes accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth.", "Hipparchus (c. 190 – c. 120 BCE) produced the first systematic star catalog.", "The level of achievement in Hellenistic astronomy and engineering is impressively shown by the Antikythera mechanism (150–100 BCE), an analog computer for calculating the position of planets.", "Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when mechanical astronomical clocks appeared in Europe.===Hellenistic medicine===There was not a defined societal structure for healthcare during the age of Hippocrates.", "At that time, society was not organized and knowledgeable as people still relied on pure religious reasoning to explain illnesses.", "Hippocrates introduced the first healthcare system based on science and clinical protocols.", "Hippocrates' theories about physics and medicine helped pave the way in creating an organized medical structure for society.", "In medicine, Hippocrates (c. 460 BC – c. 370 BCE) and his followers were the first to describe many diseases and medical conditions and developed the Hippocratic Oath for physicians, still relevant and in use today.", "Hippocrates' ideas are expressed in The Hippocratic Corpus.", "The collection notes descriptions of medical philosophies and how disease and lifestyle choices reflect on the physical body.", "Hippocrates influenced a Westernized, professional relationship among physician and patient.", "Hippocrates is also known as \"the Father of Medicine\".Herophilos (335–280 BCE) was the first to base his conclusions on dissection of the human body and to describe the nervous system.", "Galen (129 – c. 200 CE) performed many audacious operations—including brain and eye surgeries— that were not tried again for almost two millennia.===Greek mathematics===One of the oldest surviving fragments of Euclid's ''Elements'', found at Oxyrhynchus and dated to c. 100 CE.Archimedes used the method of exhaustion to approximate the value of π.In Hellenistic Egypt, the mathematician Euclid laid down the foundations of mathematical rigor and introduced the concepts of definition, axiom, theorem and proof still in use today in his ''Elements'', considered the most influential textbook ever written.", "Archimedes, considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time, is credited with using the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of pi.", "He is also known in physics for laying the foundations of hydrostatics, statics, and the explanation of the principle of the lever.===Other developments===Theophrastus wrote some of the earliest descriptions of plants and animals, establishing the first taxonomy and looking at minerals in terms of their properties, such as hardness.", "Pliny the Elder produced one of the largest encyclopedias of the natural world in 77 CE, and was a successor to Theophrastus.", "For example, he accurately describes the octahedral shape of the diamond and noted that diamond dust is used by engravers to cut and polish other gems owing to its great hardness.", "His recognition of the importance of crystal shape is a precursor to modern crystallography, while notes on other minerals presages mineralogy.", "He recognizes other minerals have characteristic crystal shapes, but in one example, confuses the crystal habit with the work of lapidaries.", "Pliny was the first to show amber was a resin from pine trees, because of trapped insects within them.The development of archaeology has its roots in history and with those who were interested in the past, such as kings and queens who wanted to show past glories of their respective nations.", "The 5th-century-BCE Greek historian Herodotus was the first scholar to systematically study the past and perhaps the first to examine artifacts.===Greek scholarship under Roman rule===During the rule of Rome, famous historians such as Polybius, Livy and Plutarch documented the rise of the Roman Republic, and the organization and histories of other nations, while statesmen like Julius Caesar, Cicero, and others provided examples of the politics of the republic and Rome's empire and wars.", "The study of politics during this age was oriented toward understanding history, understanding methods of governing, and describing the operation of governments.The Roman conquest of Greece did not diminish learning and culture in the Greek provinces.", "On the contrary, the appreciation of Greek achievements in literature, philosophy, politics, and the arts by Rome's upper class coincided with the increased prosperity of the Roman Empire.", "Greek settlements had existed in Italy for centuries and the ability to read and speak Greek was not uncommon in Italian cities such as Rome.", "Moreover, the settlement of Greek scholars in Rome, whether voluntarily or as slaves, gave Romans access to teachers of Greek literature and philosophy.", "Conversely, young Roman scholars also studied abroad in Greece and upon their return to Rome, were able to convey Greek achievements to their Latin leadership.", "And despite the translation of a few Greek texts into Latin, Roman scholars who aspired to the highest level did so using the Greek language.", "The Roman statesman and philosopher Cicero (106 – 43 BCE) was a prime example.", "He had studied under Greek teachers in Rome and then in Athens and Rhodes.", "He mastered considerable portions of Greek philosophy, wrote Latin treatises on several topics, and even wrote Greek commentaries of Plato's ''Timaeus'' as well as a Latin translation of it, which has not survived.In the beginning, support for scholarship in Greek knowledge was almost entirely funded by the Roman upper class.", "There were all sorts of arrangements, ranging from a talented scholar being attached to a wealthy household to owning educated Greek-speaking slaves.", "In exchange, scholars who succeeded at the highest level had an obligation to provide advice or intellectual companionship to their Roman benefactors, or to even take care of their libraries.", "The less fortunate or accomplished ones would teach their children or perform menial tasks.", "The level of detail and sophistication of Greek knowledge was adjusted to suit the interests of their Roman patrons.", "That meant popularizing Greek knowledge by presenting information that were of practical value such as medicine or logic (for courts and politics) but excluding subtle details of Greek metaphysics and epistemology.", "Beyond the basics, the Romans did not value natural philosophy and considered it an amusement for leisure time.Commentaries and encyclopedias were the means by which Greek knowledge was popularized for Roman audiences.", "The Greek scholar Posidonius (c. 135-c. 51 BCE), a native of Syria, wrote prolifically on history, geography, moral philosophy, and natural philosophy.", "He greatly influenced Latin writers such as Marcus Terentius Varro (116-27 BCE), who wrote the encyclopedia ''Nine Books of Disciplines'', which covered nine arts: grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, musical theory, medicine, and architecture.", "The ''Disciplines'' became a model for subsequent Roman encyclopedias and Varro's nine liberal arts were considered suitable education for a Roman gentleman.", "The first seven of Varro's nine arts would later define the seven liberal arts of medieval schools.", "The pinnacle of the popularization movement was the Roman scholar Pliny the Elder (23/24–79 CE), a native of northern Italy, who wrote several books on the history of Rome and grammar.", "His most famous work was his voluminous ''Natural History''.After the death of the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius in 180 CE, the favorable conditions for scholarship and learning in the Roman Empire were upended by political unrest, civil war, urban decay, and looming economic crisis.", "In around 250 CE, barbarians began attacking and invading the Roman frontiers.", "These combined events led to a general decline in political and economic conditions.", "The living standards of the Roman upper class was severely impacted, and their loss of leisure diminished scholarly pursuits.", "Moreover, during the 3rd and 4th centuries CE, the Roman Empire was administratively divided into two halves: Greek East and Latin West.", "These administrative divisions weakened the intellectual contact between the two regions.", "Eventually, both halves went their separate ways, with the Greek East becoming the Byzantine Empire.", "Christianity was also steadily expanding during this time and soon became a major patron of education in the Latin West.", "Initially, the Christian church adopted some of the reasoning tools of Greek philosophy in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE to defend its faith against sophisticated opponents.", "Nevertheless, Greek philosophy received a mixed reception from leaders and adherents of the Christian faith.", "Some such as Tertullian (c. 155-c. 230 CE) were vehemently opposed to philosophy, denouncing it as heretic.", "Others such as Augustine of Hippo (354-430 CE) were ambivalent and defended Greek philosophy and science as the best ways to understand the natural world and therefore treated it as a handmaiden (or servant) of religion.", "Education in the West began its gradual decline, along with the rest of Western Roman Empire, due to invasions by Germanic tribes, civil unrest, and economic collapse.", "Contact with the classical tradition was lost in specific regions such as Roman Britain and northern Gaul but continued to exist in Rome, northern Italy, southern Gaul, Spain, and North Africa." ], [ "Middle Ages{{anchor|Science in the Middle Ages}}", "In the Middle Ages, the classical learning continued in three major linguistic cultures and civilizations: Greek (the Byzantine Empire), Arabic (the Islamic world), and Latin (Western Europe).===Byzantine Empire===The frontispiece of the Vienna Dioscurides, which shows a set of seven famous physicians====Preservation of Greek heritage====The fall of the Western Roman Empire led to a deterioration of the classical tradition in the western part (or Latin West) of Europe in the 400s.", "In contrast, the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire resisted the barbarian attacks and preserved and improved the learning.While the Byzantine Empire still held learning centers such as Constantinople, Alexandria and Antioch, Western Europe's knowledge was concentrated in monasteries until the development of medieval universities in the 12th centuries.", "The curriculum of monastic schools included the study of the few available ancient texts and of new works on practical subjects like medicine and timekeeping.In the sixth century in the Byzantine Empire, Isidore of Miletus compiled Archimedes' mathematical works in the Archimedes Palimpsest, where all Archimedes' mathematical contributions were collected and studied.John Philoponus, another Byzantine scholar, was the first to question Aristotle's teaching of physics, introducing the theory of impetus.", "The theory of impetus was an auxiliary or secondary theory of Aristotelian dynamics, put forth initially to explain projectile motion against gravity.", "It is the intellectual precursor to the concepts of inertia, momentum and acceleration in classical mechanics.", "The works of John Philoponus inspired Galileo Galilei ten centuries later.====Collapse====During the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, a number of Greek scholars fled to North Italy in which they fueled the era later commonly known as the \"Renaissance\" as they brought with them a great deal of classical learning including an understanding of botany, medicine, and zoology.", "Byzantium also gave the West important inputs: John Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian physics, and the works of Dioscorides.===Islamic world=== 15th-century manuscript of Avicenna's ''The Canon of Medicine''.This was the period (8th–14th century CE) of the Islamic Golden Age where commerce thrived, and new ideas and technologies emerged such as the importation of papermaking from China, which made the copying of manuscripts inexpensive.====Translations and Hellenization====The eastward transmission of Greek heritage to Western Asia was a slow and gradual process that spanned over a thousand years, beginning with the Asian conquests of Alexander the Great in 335 BCE to the founding of Islam in the 7th century CE.", "The birth and expansion of Islam during the 7th century was quickly followed by its Hellenization.", "Knowledge of Greek conceptions of the world was preserved and absorbed into Islamic theology, law, culture, and commerce, which were aided by the translations of traditional Greek texts and some Syriac intermediary sources into Arabic during the 8th–9th century.====Education and scholarly pursuits====Süleymaniye MosqueMadrasas were centers for many different religious and scientific studies and were the culmination of different institutions such as mosques based around religious studies, housing for out-of-town visitors, and finally educational institutions focused on the natural sciences.", "Unlike Western universities, students at a madrasa would learn from one specific teacher, who would issue a certificate at the completion of their studies called an Ijazah.", "An Ijazah differs from a western university degree in many ways one being that it is issued by a single person rather than an institution, and another being that it is not an individual degree declaring adequate knowledge over broad subjects, but rather a license to teach and pass on a very specific set of texts.", "Women were also allowed to attend madrasas, as both students and teachers, something not seen in high western education until the 1800s.", "Madrasas were more than just academic centers.", "The Suleymaniye Mosque, for example, was one of the earliest and most well-known madrasas, which was built by Suleiman the Magnificent in the 16th century The Suleymaniye Mosque was home to a hospital and medical college, a kitchen, and children's school, as well as serving as a temporary home for travelers.Higher education at a madrasa (or college) was focused on Islamic law and religious science and students had to engage in self-study for everything else.", "And despite the occasional theological backlash, many Islamic scholars of science were able to conduct their work in relatively tolerant urban centers (e.g., Baghdad and Cairo) and were protected by powerful patrons.", "They could also travel freely and exchange ideas as there were no political barriers within the unified Islamic state.", "Islamic science during this time was primarily focused on the correction, extension, articulation, and application of Greek ideas to new problems.====Advancements in mathematics====Most of the achievements by Islamic scholars during this period were in mathematics.", "Arabic mathematics was a direct descendant of Greek and Indian mathematics.", "For instance, what is now known as Arabic numerals originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians made several key refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation.", "Mathematicians such as Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (c. 780–850) gave his name to the concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from ''al-jabr'', the beginning of the title of one of his publications.", "Islamic trigonometry continued from the works of Ptolemy's ''Almagest'' and Indian ''Siddhanta'', from which they added trigonometric functions, drew up tables, and applied trignometry to spheres and planes.", "Many of their engineers, instruments makers, and surveyors contributed books in applied mathematics.", "It was in astronomy where Islamic mathematicians made their greatest contributions.", "Al-Battani (c. 858–929) improved the measurements of Hipparchus, preserved in the translation of Ptolemy's ''Hè Megalè Syntaxis'' (''The great treatise'') translated as ''Almagest''.", "Al-Battani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis.", "Corrections were made to Ptolemy's geocentric model by al-Battani, Ibn al-Haytham, Averroes and the Maragha astronomers such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir.Scholars with geometric skills made significant improvements to the earlier classical texts on light and sight by Euclid, Aristotle, and Ptolemy.", "The earliest surviving Arabic treatises were written in the 9th century by Abū Ishāq al-Kindī, Qustā ibn Lūqā, and (in fragmentary form) Ahmad ibn Isā.", "Later in the 11th century, Ibn al-Haytham (known as Alhazen in the West), a mathematician and astronomer, synthesized a new theory of vision based on the works of his predecessors.", "His new theory included a complete system of geometrical optics, which was set in great detail in his ''Book of Optics''.", "His book was translated into Latin and was relied upon as a principal source on the science of optics in Europe until the 17th century.====Institutionalization of medicine====The medical sciences were prominently cultivated in the Islamic world.", "The works of Greek medical theories, especially those of Galen, were translated into Arabic and there was an outpouring of medical texts by Islamic physicians, which were aimed at organizing, elaborating, and disseminating classical medical knowledge.", "Medical specialties started to emerge, such as those involved in the treatment of eye diseases such as cataracts.", "Ibn Sina (known as Avicenna in the West, c. 980–1037) was a prolific Persian medical encyclopedist wrote extensively on medicine, with his two most notable works in medicine being the ''Kitāb al-shifāʾ'' (\"Book of Healing\") and The Canon of Medicine, both of which were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe well into the 17th century.", "Amongst his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, and the introduction of clinical pharmacology.", "Institutionalization of medicine was another important achievement in the Islamic world.", "Although hospitals as an institution for the sick emerged in the Byzantium empire, the model of institutionalized medicine for all social classes was extensive in the Islamic empire and was scattered throughout.", "In addition to treating patients, physicians could teach apprentice physicians, as well write and do research.", "The discovery of the pulmonary transit of blood in the human body by Ibn al-Nafis occurred in a hospital setting.====Decline====Islamic science began its decline in the 12th–13th century, before the Renaissance in Europe, due in part to the Christian reconquest of Spain and the Mongol conquests in the East in the 11th–13th century.", "The Mongols sacked Baghdad, capital of the Abbasid caliphate, in 1258, which ended the Abbasid empire.", "Nevertheless, many of the conquerors became patrons of the sciences.", "Hulagu Khan, for example, who led the siege of Baghdad, became a patron of the Maragheh observatory.", "Islamic astronomy continued to flourish into the 16th century.===Western Europe===Statue of Roger Bacon at the Oxford University Museum of Natural HistoryBy the eleventh century, most of Europe had become Christian; stronger monarchies emerged; borders were restored; technological developments and agricultural innovations were made, increasing the food supply and population.", "Classical Greek texts were translated from Arabic and Greek into Latin, stimulating scientific discussion in Western Europe.In classical antiquity, Greek and Roman taboos had meant that dissection was usually banned, but in the Middle Ages medical teachers and students at Bologna began to open human bodies, and Mondino de Luzzi (–1326) produced the first known anatomy textbook based on human dissection.As a result of the Pax Mongolica, Europeans, such as Marco Polo, began to venture further and further east.", "The written accounts of Polo and his fellow travelers inspired other Western European maritime explorers to search for a direct sea route to Asia, ultimately leading to the Age of Discovery.Technological advances were also made, such as the early flight of Eilmer of Malmesbury (who had studied mathematics in 11th-century England), and the metallurgical achievements of the Cistercian blast furnace at Laskill.====Medieval universities====An intellectual revitalization of Western Europe started with the birth of medieval universities in the 12th century.", "These urban institutions grew from the informal scholarly activities of learned friars who visited monasteries, consulted libraries, and conversed with other fellow scholars.", "A friar who became well-known would attract a following of disciples, giving rise to a brotherhood of scholars (or ''collegium'' in Latin).", "A ''collegium'' might travel to a town or request a monastery to host them.", "However, if the number of scholars within a ''collegium'' grew too large, they would opt to settle in a town instead.", "As the number of ''collegia'' within a town grew, the ''collegia'' might request that their king grant them a charter that would convert them into a ''universitas''.", "Many universities were chartered during this period, with the first in Bologna in 1088, followed by Paris in 1150, Oxford in 1167, and Cambridge in 1231.The granting of a charter meant that the medieval universities were partially sovereign and independent from local authorities.", "Their independence allowed them to conduct themselves and judge their own members based on their own rules.", "Furthermore, as initially religious institutions, their faculties and students were protected from capital punishment (e.g., gallows).", "Such independence was a matter of custom, which could, in principle, be revoked by their respective rulers if they felt threatened.", "Discussions of various subjects or claims at these medieval institutions, no matter how controversial, were done in a formalized way so as to declare such discussions as being within the bounds of a university and therefore protected by the privileges of that institution's sovereignty.", "A claim could be described as ''ex cathedra'' (literally \"from the chair\", used within the context of teaching) or ''ex hypothesi'' (by hypothesis).", "This meant that the discussions were presented as purely an intellectual exercise that did not require those involved to commit themselves to the truth of a claim or to proselytize.", "Modern academic concepts and practices such as academic freedom or freedom of inquiry are remnants of these medieval privileges that were tolerated in the past.The curriculum of these medieval institutions centered on the seven liberal arts, which were aimed at providing beginning students with the skills for reasoning and scholarly language.", "Students would begin their studies starting with the first three liberal arts or ''Trivium'' (grammar, rhetoric, and logic) followed by the next four liberal arts or ''Quadrivium'' (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music).", "Those who completed these requirements and received their ''baccalaureate'' (or Bachelor of Arts) had the option to join the higher faculty (law, medicine, or theology), which would confer an LLD for a lawyer, an MD for a physician, or ThD for a theologian.", "Students who chose to remain in the lower faculty (arts) could work towards a ''Magister'' (or Master's) degree and would study three philosophies: metaphysics, ethics, and natural philosophy.", "Latin translations of Aristotle's works such as (''On the Soul'') and the commentaries on them were required readings.", "As time passed, the lower faculty was allowed to confer its own doctoral degree called the PhD.", "Many of the Masters were drawn to encyclopedias and had used them as textbooks.", "But these scholars yearned for the complete original texts of the Ancient Greek philosophers, mathematicians, and physicians such as Aristotle, Euclid, and Galen, which were not available to them at the time.", "These Ancient Greek texts were to be found in the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic World.====Translations of Greek and Arabic sources====Contact with the Byzantine Empire, and with the Islamic world during the Reconquista and the Crusades, allowed Latin Europe access to scientific Greek and Arabic texts, including the works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Isidore of Miletus, John Philoponus, Jābir ibn Hayyān, al-Khwarizmi, Alhazen, Avicenna, and Averroes.", "European scholars had access to the translation programs of Raymond of Toledo, who sponsored the 12th century Toledo School of Translators from Arabic to Latin.", "Later translators like Michael Scotus would learn Arabic in order to study these texts directly.", "The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities.", "In fact, European university put many works about the natural world and the study of nature at the center of its curriculum, with the result that the \"medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and descendent.", "\"At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries.", "By then, the natural philosophy in these texts began to be extended by scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus.", "Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his ''Opus Majus''.", "Pierre Duhem's thesis is that Stephen Tempier – the Bishop of Paris – Condemnation of 1277 led to the study of medieval science as a serious discipline, \"but no one in the field any longer endorses his view that modern science started in 1277\".", "However, many scholars agree with Duhem's view that the mid-late Middle Ages saw important scientific developments.====Medieval science====The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work, largely within the framework of scholastic commentaries on Aristotle's scientific writings.", "William of Ockham emphasized the principle of parsimony: natural philosophers should not postulate unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a distinct thing but is only the moving object and an intermediary \"sensible species\" is not needed to transmit an image of an object to the eye.", "Scholars such as Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme started to reinterpret elements of Aristotle's mechanics.", "In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of inertia.", "The Oxford Calculators began to mathematically analyze the kinematics of motion, making this analysis without considering the causes of motion.In 1348, the Black Death and other disasters sealed a sudden end to philosophic and scientific development.", "Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was stimulated by the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, when many Byzantine scholars sought refuge in the West.", "Meanwhile, the introduction of printing was to have great effect on European society.", "The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed ideas such as algebra to propagate more rapidly.", "These developments paved the way for the Scientific Revolution, where scientific inquiry, halted at the start of the Black Death, resumed." ], [ "Renaissance", "===Revival of learning===The renewal of learning in Europe began with 12th century Scholasticism.", "The Northern Renaissance showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristotelian natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine).", "Thus modern science in Europe was resumed in a period of great upheaval: the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation; the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus; the Fall of Constantinople; but also the re-discovery of Aristotle during the Scholastic period presaged large social and political changes.", "Thus, a suitable environment was created in which it became possible to question scientific doctrine, in much the same way that Martin Luther and John Calvin questioned religious doctrine.", "The works of Ptolemy (astronomy) and Galen (medicine) were found not always to match everyday observations.", "Work by Vesalius on human cadavers found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy.The discovery of Cristallo contributed to the advancement of science in the period as well with its appearance out of Venice around 1450.The new glass allowed for better spectacles and eventually to the inventions of the telescope and microscope.Theophrastus' work on rocks, ''Peri lithōn'', remained authoritative for millennia: its interpretation of fossils was not overturned until after the Scientific Revolution.During the Italian Renaissance, Niccolò Machiavelli established the emphasis of modern political science on direct empirical observation of political institutions and actors.", "Later, the expansion of the scientific paradigm during the Enlightenment further pushed the study of politics beyond normative determinations.", "In particular, the study of statistics, to study the subjects of the state, has been applied to polling and voting.In archaeology, the 15th and 16th centuries saw the rise of antiquarians in Renaissance Europe who were interested in the collection of artifacts.===Scientific Revolution and birth of New Science===Galileo Galilei, father of modern science.The early modern period is seen as a flowering of the European Renaissance.", "There was a willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers.", "This resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific Revolution, which led to the emergence of a New Science that was more mechanistic in its worldview, more integrated with mathematics, and more reliable and open as its knowledge was based on a newly defined scientific method.", "The Scientific Revolution is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and classical physics, and is traditionally held to have begun in 1543, when the books ''De humani corporis fabrica'' (''On the Workings of the Human Body'') by Andreas Vesalius, and also ''De Revolutionibus'', by the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, were first printed.", "The period culminated with the publication of the ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica'' in 1687 by Isaac Newton, representative of the unprecedented growth of scientific publications throughout Europe.Other significant scientific advances were made during this time by Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, Edmond Halley, William Harvey, Pierre Fermat, Robert Hooke, Christiaan Huygens, Tycho Brahe, Marin Mersenne, Gottfried Leibniz, Isaac Newton, and Blaise Pascal.", "In philosophy, major contributions were made by Francis Bacon, Sir Thomas Browne, René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Pierre Gassendi, Robert Boyle, and Thomas Hobbes.", "Christiaan Huygens derived the centripetal and centrifugal forces and was the first to transfer mathematical inquiry to describe unobservable physical phenomena.", "William Gilbert did some of the earliest experiments with electricity and magnetism, establishing that the Earth itself is magnetic.====Heliocentrism====The heliocentric astronomical model of the universe was refined by Nicolaus Copernicus.", "Copernicus proposed the idea that the Earth and all heavenly spheres, containing the planets and other objects in the cosmos, rotated around the Sun.", "His heliocentric model also proposed that all stars were fixed and did not rotate on an axis, nor in any motion at all.", "His theory proposed the yearly rotation of the Earth and the other heavenly spheres around the Sun and was able to calculate the distances of planets using deferents and epicycles.", "Although these calculations were not completely accurate, Copernicus was able to understand the distance order of each heavenly sphere.", "The Copernican heliocentric system was a revival of the hypotheses of Aristarchus of Samos and Seleucus of Seleucia.", "Aristarchus of Samos did propose that the Earth rotated around the Sun but did not mention anything about the other heavenly spheres' order, motion, or rotation.", "Seleucus of Seleucia also proposed the rotation of the Earth around the Sun but did not mention anything about the other heavenly spheres.", "In addition, Seleucus of Seleucia understood that the Moon rotated around the Earth and could be used to explain the tides of the oceans, thus further proving his understanding of the heliocentric idea.====Newly defined scientific method====The scientific method was also better developed as the modern way of thinking emphasized experimentation and reason over traditional considerations.", "Galileo (\"''Father of Modern Physics''\") also made use of experiments to validate physical theories, a key element of the scientific method." ], [ "Age of Enlightenment", "===Continuation of Scientific Revolution===The Scientific Revolution continued into the Age of Enlightenment, which accelerated the development of modern science.====Planets and orbits====The heliocentric model revived by Nicolaus Copernicus was followed by the model of planetary motion given by Johannes Kepler in the early 17th century, which proposed that the planets follow elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse.====Calculus and Newtonian mechanics==== Isaac Newton initiated classical mechanics in physics.In 1687, Isaac Newton published the ''Principia Mathematica'', detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: Newton's laws of motion, which led to classical mechanics; and Newton's law of universal gravitation, which describes the fundamental force of gravity.====Emergence of chemistry====A decisive moment came when \"chemistry\" was distinguished from alchemy by Robert Boyle in his work ''The Sceptical Chymist'', in 1661; although the alchemical tradition continued for some time after his work.", "Other important steps included the gravimetric experimental practices of medical chemists like William Cullen, Joseph Black, Torbern Bergman and Pierre Macquer and through the work of Antoine Lavoisier (\"father of modern chemistry\") on oxygen and the law of conservation of mass, which refuted phlogiston theory.", "Modern chemistry emerged from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries through the material practices and theories promoted by alchemy, medicine, manufacturing and mining.====Circulatory system====William Harvey published ''De Motu Cordis'' in 1628, which revealed his conclusions based on his extensive studies of vertebrate circulatory systems.", "He identified the central role of the heart, arteries, and veins in producing blood movement in a circuit, and failed to find any confirmation of Galen's pre-existing notions of heating and cooling functions.", "The history of early modern biology and medicine is often told through the search for the seat of the soul.", "Galen in his descriptions of his foundational work in medicine presents the distinctions between arteries, veins, and nerves using the vocabulary of the soul.====Scientific societies and journals====A critical innovation was the creation of permanent scientific societies and their scholarly journals, which dramatically sped the diffusion of new ideas.", "Typical was the founding of the Royal Society in London in 1660 and its journal in 1665 the Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society, the first scientific journal in English.", "1665 also saw the first journal in French, the Journal des ''sçavans''.", "Science drawing on the works of Newton, Descartes, Pascal and Leibniz, science was on a path to modern mathematics, physics and technology by the time of the generation of Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717–1783).", "Denis Diderot's ''Encyclopédie'', published between 1751 and 1772 brought this new understanding to a wider audience.", "The impact of this process was not limited to science and technology, but affected philosophy (Immanuel Kant, David Hume), religion (the increasingly significant impact of science upon religion), and society and politics in general (Adam Smith, Voltaire).====Developments in geology====Geology did not undergo systematic restructuring during the Scientific Revolution but instead existed as a cloud of isolated, disconnected ideas about rocks, minerals, and landforms long before it became a coherent science.", "Robert Hooke formulated a theory of earthquakes, and Nicholas Steno developed the theory of superposition and argued that fossils were the remains of once-living creatures.", "Beginning with Thomas Burnet's ''Sacred Theory of the Earth'' in 1681, natural philosophers began to explore the idea that the Earth had changed over time.", "Burnet and his contemporaries interpreted Earth's past in terms of events described in the Bible, but their work laid the intellectual foundations for secular interpretations of Earth history.===Post-Scientific Revolution=======Bioelectricity====During the late 18th century, researchers such as Hugh Williamson and John Walsh experimented on the effects of electricity on the human body.", "Further studies by Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta established the electrical nature of what Volta called galvanism.====Developments in geology====1812 skeletal and muscular reconstruction of ''Anoplotherium commune'' by Georges Cuvier based on fossil remains from the Paris BasinModern geology, like modern chemistry, gradually evolved during the 18th and early 19th centuries.", "Benoît de Maillet and the Comte de Buffon saw the Earth as much older than the 6,000 years envisioned by biblical scholars.", "Jean-Étienne Guettard and Nicolas Desmarest hiked central France and recorded their observations on some of the first geological maps.", "Aided by chemical experimentation, naturalists such as Scotland's John Walker, Sweden's Torbern Bergman, and Germany's Abraham Werner created comprehensive classification systems for rocks and minerals—a collective achievement that transformed geology into a cutting edge field by the end of the eighteenth century.", "These early geologists also proposed a generalized interpretations of Earth history that led James Hutton, Georges Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart, following in the steps of Steno, to argue that layers of rock could be dated by the fossils they contained: a principle first applied to the geology of the Paris Basin.", "The use of index fossils became a powerful tool for making geological maps, because it allowed geologists to correlate the rocks in one locality with those of similar age in other, distant localities.====Birth of modern economics====Adam Smith wrote ''The Wealth of Nations'', the first modern work of economicsThe basis for classical economics forms Adam Smith's ''An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations'', published in 1776.Smith criticized mercantilism, advocating a system of free trade with division of labour.", "He postulated an \"invisible hand\" that regulated economic systems made up of actors guided only by self-interest.", "The \"invisible hand\" mentioned in a lost page in the middle of a chapter in the middle of the \"Wealth of Nations\", 1776, advances as Smith's central message.====Social science====Anthropology can best be understood as an outgrowth of the Age of Enlightenment.", "It was during this period that Europeans attempted systematically to study human behavior.", "Traditions of jurisprudence, history, philology and sociology developed during this time and informed the development of the social sciences of which anthropology was a part." ], [ "19th century", "The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession.", "William Whewell had coined the term ''scientist'' in 1833, which soon replaced the older term ''natural philosopher''.===Developments in physics=== Alessandro Volta demonstrates the first electrical cell to Napoleon in 1801.In physics, the behavior of electricity and magnetism was studied by Giovanni Aldini, Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm, and others.", "The experiments, theories and discoveries of Michael Faraday, Andre-Marie Ampere, James Clerk Maxwell, and their contemporaries led to the unification of the two phenomena into a single theory of electromagnetism as described by Maxwell's equations.", "Thermodynamics led to an understanding of heat and the notion of energy being defined.===Discovery of Neptune===In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered.", "Advances in astronomy and in optical systems in the 19th century resulted in the first observation of an asteroid (1 Ceres) in 1801, and the discovery of Neptune in 1846.===Developments in mathematics===In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of hypercomplex numbers.", "Karl Weierstrass and others carried out the arithmetization of analysis for functions of real and complex variables.", "It also saw rise to new progress in geometry beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years.", "The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation.", "But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators of electrical science.", "Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about such as electric power, electrical telegraphy, the telephone, and radio.===Developments in chemistry=== Dmitri MendeleevIn chemistry, Dmitri Mendeleev, following the atomic theory of John Dalton, created the first periodic table of elements.", "Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry – and of new kinds of radiation.", "The theory that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest constituents of matter that cannot be broken down without losing the basic chemical and physical properties of that matter, was provided by John Dalton in 1803, although the question took a hundred years to settle as proven.", "Dalton also formulated the law of mass relationships.", "In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev composed his periodic table of elements on the basis of Dalton's discoveries.", "The synthesis of urea by Friedrich Wöhler opened a new research field, organic chemistry, and by the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to synthesize hundreds of organic compounds.", "The later part of the 19th century saw the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals, after the exhaustion of the oil supply from whaling.", "By the 20th century, systematic production of refined materials provided a ready supply of products which provided not only energy, but also synthetic materials for clothing, medicine, and everyday disposable resources.", "Application of the techniques of organic chemistry to living organisms resulted in physiological chemistry, the precursor to biochemistry.===Age of the Earth===Over the first half of the 19th century, geologists such as Charles Lyell, Adam Sedgwick, and Roderick Murchison applied the new technique to rocks throughout Europe and eastern North America, setting the stage for more detailed, government-funded mapping projects in later decades.", "Midway through the 19th century, the focus of geology shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand ''how'' the surface of the Earth had changed.", "The first comprehensive theories of mountain building were proposed during this period, as were the first modern theories of earthquakes and volcanoes.", "Louis Agassiz and others established the reality of continent-covering ice ages, and \"fluvialists\" like Andrew Crombie Ramsay argued that river valleys were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them.", "After the discovery of radioactivity, radiometric dating methods were developed, starting in the 20th century.", "Alfred Wegener's theory of \"continental drift\" was widely dismissed when he proposed it in the 1910s, but new data gathered in the 1950s and 1960s led to the theory of plate tectonics, which provided a plausible mechanism for it.", "Plate tectonics also provided a unified explanation for a wide range of seemingly unrelated geological phenomena.", "Since the 1960s it has served as the unifying principle in geology.===Evolution and inheritance===In mid-July 1837 Charles Darwin started his \"B\" notebook on the ''Transmutation of Species'', and on page 36 wrote \"I think\" above his first evolutionary tree.Perhaps the most prominent, controversial, and far-reaching theory in all of science has been the theory of evolution by natural selection, which was independently formulated by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace.", "It was described in detail in Darwin's book ''The Origin of Species'', which was published in 1859.In it, Darwin proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes over long periods of time.", "The theory of evolution in its current form affects almost all areas of biology.", "Implications of evolution on fields outside of pure science have led to both opposition and support from different parts of society, and profoundly influenced the popular understanding of \"man's place in the universe\".", "Separately, Gregor Mendel formulated in the principles of inheritance in 1866, which became the basis of modern genetics.===Germ theory===Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the germ theory of disease.", "Following this, Louis Pasteur made the first vaccine against rabies, and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the asymmetry of crystals.", "In 1847, Hungarian physician Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis dramatically reduced the occurrence of puerperal fever by simply requiring physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in childbirth.", "This discovery predated the germ theory of disease.", "However, Semmelweis' findings were not appreciated by his contemporaries and handwashing came into use only with discoveries by British surgeon Joseph Lister, who in 1865 proved the principles of antisepsis.", "Lister's work was based on the important findings by French biologist Louis Pasteur.", "Pasteur was able to link microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing medicine.", "He also devised one of the most important methods in preventive medicine, when in 1880 he produced a vaccine against rabies.", "Pasteur invented the process of pasteurization, to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods.===Schools of economics===Karl Marx developed an alternative economic theory, called Marxian economics.", "Marxian economics is based on the labor theory of value and assumes the value of good to be based on the amount of labor required to produce it.", "Under this axiom, capitalism was based on employers not paying the full value of workers labor to create profit.", "The Austrian School responded to Marxian economics by viewing entrepreneurship as driving force of economic development.", "This replaced the labor theory of value by a system of supply and demand.===Founding of psychology===Psychology as a scientific enterprise that was independent from philosophy began in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research (in Leipzig).", "Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in memory studies), Ivan Pavlov (who discovered classical conditioning), William James, and Sigmund Freud.", "Freud's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in scientific psychology.===Modern sociology===Modern sociology emerged in the early 19th century as the academic response to the modernization of the world.", "Among many early sociologists (e.g., Émile Durkheim), the aim of sociology was in structuralism, understanding the cohesion of social groups, and developing an \"antidote\" to social disintegration.", "Max Weber was concerned with the modernization of society through the concept of rationalization, which he believed would trap individuals in an \"iron cage\" of rational thought.", "Some sociologists, including Georg Simmel and W. E. B.", "Du Bois, used more microsociological, qualitative analyses.", "This microlevel approach played an important role in American sociology, with the theories of George Herbert Mead and his student Herbert Blumer resulting in the creation of the symbolic interactionism approach to sociology.", "In particular, just Auguste Comte, illustrated with his work the transition from a theological to a metaphysical stage and, from this, to a positive stage.", "Comte took care of the classification of the sciences as well as a transit of humanity towards a situation of progress attributable to a re-examination of nature according to the affirmation of 'sociality' as the basis of the scientifically interpreted society.===Romanticism===The Romantic Movement of the early 19th century reshaped science by opening up new pursuits unexpected in the classical approaches of the Enlightenment.", "The decline of Romanticism occurred because a new movement, Positivism, began to take hold of the ideals of the intellectuals after 1840 and lasted until about 1880.At the same time, the romantic reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers such as Johann Gottfried Herder and later Wilhelm Dilthey whose work formed the basis for the culture concept which is central to the discipline.", "Traditionally, much of the history of the subject was based on colonial encounters between Western Europe and the rest of the world, and much of 18th- and 19th-century anthropology is now classed as scientific racism.", "During the late 19th century, battles over the \"study of man\" took place between those of an \"anthropological\" persuasion (relying on anthropometrical techniques) and those of an \"ethnological\" persuasion (looking at cultures and traditions), and these distinctions became part of the later divide between physical anthropology and cultural anthropology, the latter ushered in by the students of Franz Boas." ], [ "20th century", "Science advanced dramatically during the 20th century.", "There were new and radical developments in the physical and life sciences, building on the progress from the 19th century.===Theory of relativity and quantum mechanics===Einstein's official portrait after receiving the 1921 Nobel Prize in PhysicsThe beginning of the 20th century brought the start of a revolution in physics.", "The long-held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances.", "Beginning in 1900, Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr and others developed quantum theories to explain various anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels.", "Not only did quantum mechanics show that the laws of motion did not hold on small scales, but the theory of general relativity, proposed by Einstein in 1915, showed that the fixed background of spacetime, on which both Newtonian mechanics and special relativity depended, could not exist.", "In 1925, Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger formulated quantum mechanics, which explained the preceding quantum theories.", "Currently, general relativity and quantum mechanics are inconsistent with each other, and efforts are underway to unify the two.===Big Bang===The observation by Edwin Hubble in 1929 that the speed at which galaxies recede positively correlates with their distance, led to the understanding that the universe is expanding, and the formulation of the Big Bang theory by Georges Lemaître.", "George Gamow, Ralph Alpher, and Robert Herman had calculated that there should be evidence for a Big Bang in the background temperature of the universe.", "In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discovered a 3 Kelvin background hiss in their Bell Labs radiotelescope (the Holmdel Horn Antenna), which was evidence for this hypothesis, and formed the basis for a number of results that helped determine the age of the universe.===Big science=== The atomic bomb ushered in \"Big Science\" in physics.In 1938 Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered nuclear fission with radiochemical methods, and in 1939 Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch wrote the first theoretical interpretation of the fission process, which was later improved by Niels Bohr and John A. Wheeler.", "Further developments took place during World War II, which led to the practical application of radar and the development and use of the atomic bomb.", "Around this time, Chien-Shiung Wu was recruited by the Manhattan Project to help develop a process for separating uranium metal into U-235 and U-238 isotopes by Gaseous diffusion.", "She was an expert experimentalist in beta decay and weak interaction physics.", "Wu designed an experiment (see Wu experiment) that enabled theoretical physicists Tsung-Dao Lee and Chen-Ning Yang to disprove the law of parity experimentally, winning them a Nobel Prize in 1957.Though the process had begun with the invention of the cyclotron by Ernest O. Lawrence in the 1930s, physics in the postwar period entered into a phase of what historians have called \"Big Science\", requiring massive machines, budgets, and laboratories in order to test their theories and move into new frontiers.", "The primary patron of physics became state governments, who recognized that the support of \"basic\" research could often lead to technologies useful to both military and industrial applications.===Advances in genetics===Watson and Crick used many aluminium templates like this one, which is the single base Adenine (A), to build a physical model of DNA in 1953.In the early 20th century, the study of heredity became a major investigation after the rediscovery in 1900 of the laws of inheritance developed by Mendel.", "The 20th century also saw the integration of physics and chemistry, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom.", "Linus Pauling's book on ''The Nature of the Chemical Bond'' used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce bond angles in ever-more complicated molecules.", "Pauling's work culminated in the physical modelling of DNA, ''the secret of life'' (in the words of Francis Crick, 1953).", "In the same year, the Miller–Urey experiment demonstrated in a simulation of primordial processes, that basic constituents of proteins, simple amino acids, could themselves be built up from simpler molecules, kickstarting decades of research into the chemical origins of life.", "By 1953, James D. Watson and Francis Crick clarified the basic structure of DNA, the genetic material for expressing life in all its forms, building on the work of Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin, suggested that the structure of DNA was a double helix.", "In their famous paper \"Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids\" In the late 20th century, the possibilities of genetic engineering became practical for the first time, and a massive international effort began in 1990 to map out an entire human genome (the Human Genome Project).", "The discipline of ecology typically traces its origin to the synthesis of Darwinian evolution and Humboldtian biogeography, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.", "Equally important in the rise of ecology, however, were microbiology and soil science—particularly the cycle of life concept, prominent in the work Louis Pasteur and Ferdinand Cohn.", "The word ''ecology'' was coined by Ernst Haeckel, whose particularly holistic view of nature in general (and Darwin's theory in particular) was important in the spread of ecological thinking.", "The field of ecosystem ecology emerged in the Atomic Age with the use of radioisotopes to visualize food webs and by the 1970s ecosystem ecology deeply influenced global environmental management.===Space exploration===In 1925, Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin determined that stars were composed mostly of hydrogen and helium.", "She was dissuaded by astronomer Henry Norris Russell from publishing this finding in her PhD thesis because of the widely held belief that stars had the same composition as the Earth.", "However, four years later, in 1929, Henry Norris Russell came to the same conclusion through different reasoning and the discovery was eventually accepted.In 1987, supernova SN 1987A was observed by astronomers on Earth both visually, and in a triumph for neutrino astronomy, by the solar neutrino detectors at Kamiokande.", "But the solar neutrino flux was a fraction of its theoretically expected value.", "This discrepancy forced a change in some values in the standard model for particle physics.===Neuroscience as a distinct discipline===The understanding of neurons and the nervous system became increasingly precise and molecular during the 20th century.", "For example, in 1952, Alan Lloyd Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley presented a mathematical model for transmission of electrical signals in neurons of the giant axon of a squid, which they called \"action potentials\", and how they are initiated and propagated, known as the Hodgkin–Huxley model.", "In 1961–1962, Richard FitzHugh and J. Nagumo simplified Hodgkin–Huxley, in what is called the FitzHugh–Nagumo model.", "In 1962, Bernard Katz modeled neurotransmission across the space between neurons known as synapses.", "Beginning in 1966, Eric Kandel and collaborators examined biochemical changes in neurons associated with learning and memory storage in ''Aplysia''.", "In 1981 Catherine Morris and Harold Lecar combined these models in the Morris–Lecar model.", "Such increasingly quantitative work gave rise to numerous biological neuron models and models of neural computation.", "Neuroscience began to be recognized as a distinct academic discipline in its own right.", "Eric Kandel and collaborators have cited David Rioch, Francis O. Schmitt, and Stephen Kuffler as having played critical roles in establishing the field.===Plate tectonics===Alfred Wegener in Greenland in the winter of 1912–13.He is most remembered as the originator of continental drift hypothesis by suggesting in 1912 that the continents are slowly drifting around the Earth.Geologists' embrace of plate tectonics became part of a broadening of the field from a study of rocks into a study of the Earth as a planet.", "Other elements of this transformation include: geophysical studies of the interior of the Earth, the grouping of geology with meteorology and oceanography as one of the \"earth sciences\", and comparisons of Earth and the solar system's other rocky planets.===Applications===In terms of applications, a massive number of new technologies were developed in the 20th century.", "Technologies such as electricity, the incandescent light bulb, the automobile and the phonograph, first developed at the end of the 19th century, were perfected and universally deployed.", "The first car was introduced by Karl Benz in 1885.The first airplane flight occurred in 1903, and by the end of the century airliners flew thousands of miles in a matter of hours.", "The development of the radio, television and computers caused massive changes in the dissemination of information.", "Advances in biology also led to large increases in food production, as well as the elimination of diseases such as polio by Dr. Jonas Salk.", "Gene mapping and gene sequencing, invented by Drs.", "Mark Skolnik and Walter Gilbert, respectively, are the two technologies that made the Human Genome Project feasible.", "Computer science, built upon a foundation of theoretical linguistics, discrete mathematics, and electrical engineering, studies the nature and limits of computation.", "Subfields include computability, computational complexity, database design, computer networking, artificial intelligence, and the design of computer hardware.", "One area in which advances in computing have contributed to more general scientific development is by facilitating large-scale archiving of scientific data.", "Contemporary computer science typically distinguishes itself by emphasizing mathematical 'theory' in contrast to the practical emphasis of software engineering.Einstein's paper \"On the Quantum Theory of Radiation\" outlined the principles of the stimulated emission of photons.", "This led to the invention of the Laser (light amplification by the stimulated emission of radiation) and the optical amplifier which ushered in the Information Age.", "It is optical amplification that allows fiber optic networks to transmit the massive capacity of the Internet.Based on wireless transmission of electromagnetic radiation and global networks of cellular operation, the mobile phone became a primary means to access the internet.===Developments in political science and economics===In political science during the 20th century, the study of ideology, behaviouralism and international relations led to a multitude of 'pol-sci' subdisciplines including rational choice theory, voting theory, game theory (also used in economics), psephology, political geography/geopolitics, political anthropology/political psychology/political sociology, political economy, policy analysis, public administration, comparative political analysis and peace studies/conflict analysis.", "In economics, John Maynard Keynes prompted a division between microeconomics and macroeconomics in the 1920s.", "Under Keynesian economics macroeconomic trends can overwhelm economic choices made by individuals.", "Governments should promote aggregate demand for goods as a means to encourage economic expansion.", "Following World War II, Milton Friedman created the concept of monetarism.", "Monetarism focuses on using the supply and demand of money as a method for controlling economic activity.", "In the 1970s, monetarism has adapted into supply-side economics which advocates reducing taxes as a means to increase the amount of money available for economic expansion.", "Other modern schools of economic thought are New Classical economics and New Keynesian economics.", "New Classical economics was developed in the 1970s, emphasizing solid microeconomics as the basis for macroeconomic growth.", "New Keynesian economics was created partially in response to New Classical economics.", "It shows how imperfect competition and market rigidities, means monetary policy has real effects, and enables analysis of different policies.===Developments in psychology, sociology, and anthropology===Psychology in the 20th century saw a rejection of Freud's theories as being too unscientific, and a reaction against Edward Titchener's atomistic approach of the mind.", "This led to the formulation of behaviorism by John B. Watson, which was popularized by B.F. Skinner.", "Behaviorism proposed epistemologically limiting psychological study to overt behavior, since that could be reliably measured.", "Scientific knowledge of the \"mind\" was considered too metaphysical, hence impossible to achieve.", "The final decades of the 20th century have seen the rise of cognitive science, which considers the mind as once again a subject for investigation, using the tools of psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, and neurobiology.", "New methods of visualizing the activity of the brain, such as PET scans and CAT scans, began to exert their influence as well, leading some researchers to investigate the mind by investigating the brain, rather than cognition.", "These new forms of investigation assume that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as artificial intelligence.", "Evolutionary theory was applied to behavior and introduced to anthropology and psychology, through the works of cultural anthropologist Napoleon Chagnon.", "Physical anthropology would become biological anthropology, incorporating elements of evolutionary biology.American sociology in the 1940s and 1950s was dominated largely by Talcott Parsons, who argued that aspects of society that promoted structural integration were therefore \"functional\".", "This structural functionalism approach was questioned in the 1960s, when sociologists came to see this approach as merely a justification for inequalities present in the status quo.", "In reaction, conflict theory was developed, which was based in part on the philosophies of Karl Marx.", "Conflict theorists saw society as an arena in which different groups compete for control over resources.", "Symbolic interactionism also came to be regarded as central to sociological thinking.", "Erving Goffman saw social interactions as a stage performance, with individuals preparing \"backstage\" and attempting to control their audience through impression management.", "While these theories are currently prominent in sociological thought, other approaches exist, including feminist theory, post-structuralism, rational choice theory, and postmodernism.In the mid-20th century, much of the methodologies of earlier anthropological and ethnographical study were reevaluated with an eye towards research ethics, while at the same time the scope of investigation has broadened far beyond the traditional study of \"primitive cultures\"." ], [ "21st century", "One possible signature of a Higgs boson from a simulated proton–proton collision.", "It decays almost immediately into two jets of hadrons and two electrons, visible as lines.===Higgs boson===On July 4, 2012, physicists working at CERN's Large Hadron Collider announced that they had discovered a new subatomic particle greatly resembling the Higgs boson, a potential key to an understanding of why elementary particles have mass and indeed to the existence of diversity and life in the universe.", "For now, some physicists are calling it a \"Higgslike\" particle.", "Peter Higgs was one of six physicists, working in three independent groups, who, in 1964, invented the notion of the Higgs field (\"cosmic molasses\"), along with Tom Kibble, Carl Hagen, Gerald Guralnik, François Englert and Robert Brout." ], [ "See also", "* 2020s in science and technology* History and philosophy of science** Philosophy of science* History of measurement* History of astronomy* History of biology* History of chemistry* History of Earth science* History of physics* History of the social sciences* History of technology* History of scholarship** Science studies* History of science policy* List of experiments* List of Nobel laureates* List of scientists* List of years in science* Multiple discovery* Science tourism* Sociology of the history of science* Timelines of science** Timeline of scientific discoveries** Timeline of scientific experiments** Timeline of the history of the scientific method" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Agar, Jon (2012) ''Science in the Twentieth Century and Beyond'', Polity Press.", ".", "* Agassi, Joseph (2007) ''Science and Its History: A Reassessment of the Historiography of Science'' (Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 253) Springer.", ".", "* * Bowler, Peter J.", "(1993) ''The Norton History of the Environmental Sciences''.", "* Brock, W.H.", "(1993) ''The Norton History of Chemistry''.", "* Bronowski, J.", "(1951) ''The Common Sense of Science'' Heinemann.", ".)", "(Includes a description of the history of science in England.", ")* Byers, Nina and Gary Williams, ed.", "(2006) ''Out of the Shadows: Contributions of Twentieth-Century Women to Physics'', Cambridge University Press * Herzenberg, Caroline L. (1986).", "''Women Scientists from Antiquity to the Present'' Locust Hill Press * * Kumar, Deepak (2006).", "''Science and the Raj: A Study of British India'', 2nd edition.", "Oxford University Press.", "* Lakatos, Imre (1978).", "''History of Science and its Rational Reconstructions'' published in ''The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes: Philosophical Papers Volume 1''.", "Cambridge University Press* Levere, Trevor Harvey.", "(2001) ''Transforming Matter: A History of Chemistry from Alchemy to the Buckyball''* * Lipphardt, Veronika/Ludwig, Daniel, ''Knowledge Transfer and Science Transfer'', EGO – European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: March 8, 2020 ( pdf).", "* Margolis, Howard (2002).", "''It Started with Copernicus''.", "McGraw-Hill.", "* Mayr, Ernst.", "(1985).", "''The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance''.", "* North, John.", "(1995).", "''The Norton History of Astronomy and Cosmology''.", "* Nye, Mary Jo, ed.", "(2002).", "''The Cambridge History of Science, Volume 5: The Modern Physical and Mathematical Sciences''* Park, Katharine, and Lorraine Daston, eds.", "(2006) ''The Cambridge History of Science, Volume 3: Early Modern Science''* Porter, Roy, ed.", "(2003).", "''The Cambridge History of Science, Volume 4: The Eighteenth Century''* Rousseau, George and Roy Porter, eds.", "1980).", "''The Ferment of Knowledge: Studies in the Historiography of Science'' Cambridge University Press.", "* Slotten, Hugh Richard, ed.", "(2014) ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the History of American Science, Medicine, and Technology''." ], [ "External links", "* 'What is the History of Science', British Academy* British Society for the History of Science* * The CNRS History of Science and Technology Research Center in Paris (France) * Henry Smith Williams, ''History of Science'', Vols 1–4, online text* Digital Archives of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)* Digital facsimiles of books from the History of Science Collection, Linda Hall Library Digital Collections* Division of History of Science and Technology of the International Union of History and Philosophy of Science* Giants of Science (website of the Institute of National Remembrance)* History of Science Digital Collection: Utah State University – Contains primary sources by such major figures in the history of scientific inquiry as Otto Brunfels, Charles Darwin, Erasmus Darwin, Carolus Linnaeus Antony van Leeuwenhoek, Jan Swammerdam, James Sowerby, Andreas Vesalius, and others.", "* History of Science Society (\"HSS\") * Inter-Divisional Teaching Commission (IDTC) of the International Union for the History and Philosophy of Science (IUHPS) * International Academy of the History of Science* International History, Philosophy and Science Teaching Group* IsisCB Explore: History of Science Index An open access discovery tool* Museo Galileo – Institute and Museum of the History of Science in Florence, Italy* National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Archives* The official site of the Nobel Foundation.", "Features biographies and info on Nobel laureates* The Royal Society, trailblazing science from 1650 to date * The Vega Science Trust Free to view videos of scientists including Feynman, Perutz, Rotblat, Born and many Nobel Laureates." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hydrogen peroxide" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hydrogen peroxide''' is a chemical compound with the formula .", "In its pure form, it is a very pale blue liquid that is slightly more viscous than water.", "It is used as an oxidizer, bleaching agent, and antiseptic, usually as a dilute solution (3%–6% by weight) in water for consumer use, and in higher concentrations for industrial use.", "Concentrated hydrogen peroxide, or \"high-test peroxide\", decomposes explosively when heated and has been used both as a monopropellant and an oxidizer in rocketry.Hydrogen peroxide is a reactive oxygen species and the simplest peroxide, a compound having an oxygen–oxygen single bond.", "It decomposes slowly into water and elemental oxygen when exposed to light, and rapidly in the presence of organic or reactive compounds.", "It is typically stored with a stabilizer in a weakly acidic solution in an opaque bottle.", "Hydrogen peroxide is found in biological systems including the human body.", "Enzymes that use or decompose hydrogen peroxide are classified as peroxidases." ], [ "Properties", "The boiling point of has been extrapolated as being , approximately higher than water.", "In practice, hydrogen peroxide will undergo potentially explosive thermal decomposition if heated to this temperature.", "It may be safely distilled at lower temperatures under reduced pressure.Hydrogen peroxide forms stable adducts with urea (Hydrogen peroxide - urea), sodium carbonate (sodium percarbonate) and other compounds.", "An acid-base adduct with triphenylphosphine oxide is a useful \"carrier\" for in some reactions.===Structure===Hydrogen peroxide () is a nonplanar molecule with (twisted) C2 symmetry; this was first shown by Paul-Antoine Giguère in 1950 using infrared spectroscopy.", "Although the O−O bond is a single bond, the molecule has a relatively high rotational barrier of 386 cm−1 (4.62 kJ/mol) for rotation between enantiomers via the ''trans'' configuration, and 2460 cm−1 (29.4 kJ/mol) via the ''cis'' configuration.", "These barriers are proposed to be due to repulsion between the lone pairs of the adjacent oxygen atoms and dipolar effects between the two O–H bonds.", "For comparison, the rotational barrier for ethane is 1040 cm−1 (12.4 kJ/mol).The approximately 100° dihedral angle between the two O–H bonds makes the molecule chiral.", "It is the smallest and simplest molecule to exhibit enantiomerism.", "It has been proposed that the enantiospecific interactions of one rather than the other may have led to amplification of one enantiomeric form of ribonucleic acids and therefore an origin of homochirality in an RNA world.The molecular structures of gaseous and crystalline are significantly different.", "This difference is attributed to the effects of hydrogen bonding, which is absent in the gaseous state.", "Crystals of are tetragonal with the space group ''D'' or ''P''41212.===Aqueous solutions===In aqueous solutions, hydrogen peroxide forms a eutectic mixture, exhibiting freezing-point depression down as low as -56 °C; pure water has a freezing point of 0 °C and pure hydrogen peroxide of -0.43 °C.", "The boiling point of the same mixtures is also depressed in relation with the mean of both boiling points (125.1 °C).", "It occurs at 114 °C.", "This boiling point is 14 °C greater than that of pure water and 36.2 °C less than that of pure hydrogen peroxide.Phase diagram of and water: Area above blue line is liquid.", "Dotted lines separate solid–liquid phases from solid–solid phases.+ Density of aqueous solution of (w/w) Density(g/cm3) Temp.", "(°C) 3% 1.0095 15 27% 1.10 20 35% 1.13 20 50% 1.20 20 70% 1.29 20 75% 1.33 20 96% 1.42 20 98% 1.43 20 100% 1.45 20Hydrogen peroxide is most commonly available as a solution in water.", "For consumers, it is usually available from pharmacies at 3 and 6 wt% concentrations.", "The concentrations are sometimes described in terms of the volume of oxygen gas generated; one milliliter of a 20-volume solution generates twenty milliliters of oxygen gas when completely decomposed.", "For laboratory use, 30 wt% solutions are most common.", "Commercial grades from 70% to 98% are also available, but due to the potential of solutions of more than 68% hydrogen peroxide to be converted entirely to steam and oxygen (with the temperature of the steam increasing as the concentration increases above 68%) these grades are potentially far more hazardous and require special care in dedicated storage areas.", "Buyers must typically allow inspection by commercial manufacturers.===Comparison with analogues===Hydrogen peroxide has several structural analogues with bonding arrangements (water also shown for comparison).", "It has the highest (theoretical) boiling point of this series (X = O, S, N, P).", "Its melting point is also fairly high, being comparable to that of hydrazine and water, with only hydroxylamine crystallising significantly more readily, indicative of particularly strong hydrogen bonding.", "Diphosphane and hydrogen disulfide exhibit only weak hydrogen bonding and have little chemical similarity to hydrogen peroxide.", "Structurally, the analogues all adopt similar skewed structures, due to repulsion between adjacent lone pairs.+ Properties of and its analoguesValues marked * are extrapolated Name Formula Molar mass(g/mol) Meltingpoint (°C) Boilingpoint (°C) Water HOH 18.02 0.00 99.98 Hydrogen peroxide HOOH 34.01 −0.43 150.2* Hydrogen disulfide HSSH 66.15 −89.6 70.7 Hydrazine H2NNH2 32.05 2 114 Hydroxylamine NH2OH 33.03 33 58* Diphosphane H2PPH2 65.98 −99 63.5*" ], [ "Natural occurrence", "Hydrogen peroxide is produced by various biological processes mediated by enzymes.Hydrogen peroxide has been detected in surface water, in groundwater, and in the atmosphere.", "It forms upon illumination of water.", "Sea water contains 0.5 to 14 μg/L of hydrogen peroxide, and freshwater contains 1 to 30 μg/L.", "Concentrations in air are about 0.4 to 4 μg/m3, varying over several orders of magnitude depending in conditions such as season, altitude, daylight and water vapor content.", "In rural nighttime air it is less than 0.014 μg/m3, and in moderate photochemical smog it is 14 to 42 μg/m3.The amount of hydrogen peroxide in biological systems can be assayed using a fluorometric assay." ], [ "Discovery", "Alexander von Humboldt is sometimes said to have been the first to report the first synthetic peroxide, barium peroxide, in 1799 as a by-product of his attempts to decompose air, although this is disputed due to von Humboldt's ambiguous wording.", "Nineteen years later Louis Jacques Thénard recognized that this compound could be used for the preparation of a previously unknown compound, which he described as (\"oxygenated water\") – subsequently known as hydrogen peroxide.An improved version of Thénard's process used hydrochloric acid, followed by addition of sulfuric acid to precipitate the barium sulfate byproduct.", "This process was used from the end of the 19th century until the middle of the 20th century.The bleaching effect of peroxides and their salts on natural dyes had been known since Thénard's experiments in the 1820s, but early attempts of industrial production of peroxides failed.", "The first plant producing hydrogen peroxide was built in 1873 in Berlin.", "The discovery of the synthesis of hydrogen peroxide by electrolysis with sulfuric acid introduced the more efficient electrochemical method.", "It was first commercialized in 1908 in Weißenstein, Carinthia, Austria.", "The anthraquinone process, which is still used, was developed during the 1930s by the German chemical manufacturer IG Farben in Ludwigshafen.", "The increased demand and improvements in the synthesis methods resulted in the rise of the annual production of hydrogen peroxide from 35,000 tonnes in 1950, to over 100,000 tonnes in 1960, to 300,000 tonnes by 1970; by 1998 it reached 2.7 million tonnes.Early attempts failed to produce neat hydrogen peroxide.", "Anhydrous hydrogen peroxide was first obtained by vacuum distillation.Determination of the molecular structure of hydrogen peroxide proved to be very difficult.", "In 1892, the Italian physical chemist Giacomo Carrara (1864–1925) determined its molecular mass by freezing-point depression, which confirmed that its molecular formula is .Carrara's findings were confirmed by: W. R. Orndorff and John White (1893) \"The molecular weight of hydrogen peroxide and of benzoyl peroxide,\" ''American Chemical Journal'', '''15''' : 347–356.seemed to be just as possible as the modern structure, and as late as in the middle of the 20th century at least half a dozen hypothetical isomeric variants of two main options seemed to be consistent with the available evidence.", "In 1934, the English mathematical physicist William Penney and the Scottish physicist Gordon Sutherland proposed a molecular structure for hydrogen peroxide that was very similar to the presently accepted one." ], [ "Production", "Catalytic cycle for the anthraquinone process to produce hydrogen peroxide: an anthraquinone (right) is reduced using hydrogen to produce the corresponding anthrahydroquinone (left).", "This is oxidized using oxygen to produce hydrogen peroxide and recover anthraquinone.In 1994, world production of was around 1.9 million tonnes and grew to 2.2 million in 2006, most of which was at a concentration of 70% or less.", "In that year, bulk 30% sold for around 0.54 USD/kg, equivalent to US$1.50/kg (US$0.68/lb) on a \"100% basis\".Today, hydrogen peroxide is manufactured almost exclusively by the anthraquinone process, which was originally developed by BASF in 1939.It begins with the reduction of an anthraquinone (such as 2-ethylanthraquinone or the 2-amyl derivative) to the corresponding anthrahydroquinone, typically by hydrogenation on a palladium catalyst.", "In the presence of oxygen, the anthrahydroquinone then undergoes autoxidation: the labile hydrogen atoms of the hydroxy groups transfer to the oxygen molecule, to give hydrogen peroxide and regenerating the anthraquinone.", "Most commercial processes achieve oxidation by bubbling compressed air through a solution of the anthrahydroquinone, with the hydrogen peroxide then extracted from the solution and the anthraquinone recycled back for successive cycles of hydrogenation and oxidation.The net reaction for the anthraquinone-catalyzed process is ::The economics of the process depend heavily on effective recycling of the extraction solvents, the hydrogenation catalyst and the expensive quinone.ISO tank container for hydrogen peroxide transportationA tank car designed for transporting hydrogen peroxide by rail===Historical methods===Hydrogen peroxide was once prepared industrially by hydrolysis of ammonium persulfate:: was itself obtained by the electrolysis of a solution of ammonium bisulfate () in sulfuric acid.===Other routes===Small amounts are formed by electrolysis, photochemistry, and electric arc, and related methods.A commercially viable route for hydrogen peroxide via the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen favours production of water but can be stopped at the peroxide stage.", "One economic obstacle has been that direct processes give a dilute solution uneconomic for transportation.", "None of these has yet reached a point where it can be used for industrial-scale synthesis." ], [ "Reactions", "===Acid-base===Hydrogen peroxide is about 1000x stronger acid than water.", ": pK = 11.65===Disproportionation===Hydrogen peroxide disproportionates to form water and oxygen with a Δ''H''o of –2884.5 kJ/kg and a ΔS of 70.5 J/(mol·K)::2 H2O2 -> 2 H2O + O2The rate of decomposition increases with rise in temperature, concentration, and pH.", "is unstable under alkaline conditions.", "Decomposition is catalysed by various redox-active ions or compounds, including most transition metals and their compounds (e.g.", "manganese dioxide (), silver, and platinum).===Oxidation reactions===The redox properties of hydrogen peroxide depend on pH.", "In acidic solutions, is a powerful oxidizer.Oxidizingreagent Reducedproduct Oxidationpotential(V) HF3.0 2.1 1.8 1.7 HClO1.5 1.4Sulfite () is oxidized to sulfate ().===Reduction reactions===Under alkaline conditions, hydrogen peroxide is a reductant.", "When acts as a reducing agent, oxygen gas is also produced.", "For example, hydrogen peroxide will reduce sodium hypochlorite and potassium permanganate, which is a convenient method for preparing oxygen in the laboratory:::The oxygen produced from hydrogen peroxide and sodium hypochlorite is in the singlet state.Although usually a reductant, alkaline hydrogen peroxide converts Mn(II) to the dioxide::In a related reaction, potassium permanganate is reduced to by ''acidic'' ::===Organic reactions===Hydrogen peroxide is frequently used as an oxidizing agent.", "Illustrative is oxidation of thioethers to sulfoxides::Ph-S-CH3 + H2O2 -> Ph-S(O)-CH3 + H2OAlkaline hydrogen peroxide is used for epoxidation of electron-deficient alkenes such as acrylic acid derivatives, and for the oxidation of alkylboranes to alcohols, the second step of hydroboration-oxidation.", "It is also the principal reagent in the Dakin oxidation process.===Precursor to other peroxide compounds===Hydrogen peroxide is a weak acid, forming hydroperoxide or peroxide salts with many metals.It also converts metal oxides into the corresponding peroxides.", "For example, upon treatment with hydrogen peroxide, chromic acid ( and ) forms a blue peroxide ." ], [ "Biochemistry", "Ascaridole===Production===The aerobic oxidation of glucose in the presence of the enzyme glucose oxidase produces hydrogen peroxide.", "The conversion affords gluconolactone::Superoxide dismutases (SOD)s are enzymes that promote the disproportionation of superoxide into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide.", ":2 O2- + 2 H+ -> O2 + H2O2:2 H2O2 -> O2 + 2 H2OPeroxisomes are organelles found in virtually all eukaryotic cells.", "They are involved in the catabolism of very long chain fatty acids, branched chain fatty acids, D-amino acids, polyamines, and biosynthesis of plasmalogens, ether phospholipids, which are found in mammalian brains and lungs.", "They produce hydrogen peroxide in s process catalyzed by flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD):: R-CH2-CH2-CO-SCoA + O2 ->\\ce{FAD} R-CH=CH-CO-SCoA + H2O2Hydrogen peroxide arises by the degradation of adenosine monophosphate, which yields hypoxanthine.", "Hypoxanthine is then oxidatively catabolized first to xanthine and then to uric acid, and the reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme xanthine oxidase:Australian bombardier beetleThe degradation of guanosine monophosphate yields xanthine as an intermediate product which is then converted in the same way to uric acid with the formation of hydrogen peroxide.===Consumption===Catalase, another peroxisomal enzyme, uses this to oxidize other substrates, including phenols, formic acid, formaldehyde, and alcohol, by means of a peroxidation reaction::H2O2 + R'H2 -> R' + 2 H2Othus eliminating the poisonous hydrogen peroxide in the process.This reaction is important in liver and kidney cells, where the peroxisomes neutralize various toxic substances that enter the blood.", "Some of the ethanol humans drink is oxidized to acetaldehyde in this way.", "In addition, when excess accumulates in the cell, catalase converts it to through this reaction:: Glutathione peroxidase, a selenoenzyme, also catalyzes the disproportionation of hydrogen peroxide.===Fenton reaction===The reaction of and hydrogen peroxide is the basis of the Fenton reaction, which generates hydroxyl radicals, which are of significance in biology::The fenton reaction explains the toxicity of hydrogen peroxides because the hydroxyl radicals rapidly and irreversibly oxidize all organic compounds including proteins, membrane lipids, and DNA.", "Hydrogen peroxide is a significant source of oxidative DNA damage in living cells.", "DNA damage includes formation of 8-Oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine among many other altered bases, as well as strand breaks, inter-strand crosslinks, and deoxyribose damage.", "By interacting with Cl¯ hydrogen peroxide also lead to chlorinated DNA bases.", "Hydroxyl radicals readily damage vital cellular components, especially those of the mitochondria.", "The compound is a major factor implicated in the free-radical theory of aging, based on its ready conversion into a hydroxyl radical.===Function===Eggs of sea urchin, shortly after fertilization by a sperm, produce hydrogen peroxide.", "It is then converted to hydroxyl radicals (HO•), which initiate radical polymerization, which surrounds the eggs with a protective layer of polymer.The bombardier beetle combine hydroquinone and hydrogen peroxide, leading to a violent exothermic chemical reaction to produce boiling, foul-smelling liquid partially becomes a gas (flash evaporation) and is expelled through an outlet valve with a loud popping sound.As a proposed signaling molecule, hydrogen peroxide may regulate of a wide variety of biological processes.At least one study has also tried to link hydrogen peroxide production to cancer." ], [ "Uses", "===Bleaching===About 60% of the world's production of hydrogen peroxide is used for pulp- and paper-bleaching.", "The second major industrial application is the manufacture of sodium percarbonate and sodium perborate, which are used as mild bleaches in laundry detergents.", "A representative conversion is::Sodium percarbonate, which is an adduct of sodium carbonate and hydrogen peroxide, is the active ingredient in such laundry products as OxiClean and Tide laundry detergent.", "When dissolved in water, it releases hydrogen peroxide and sodium carbonate.", "By themselves these bleaching agents are only effective at wash temperatures of or above and so, often are used in conjunction with bleach activators, which facilitate cleaning at lower temperatures.Hydrogen peroxide has also been used as a flour bleaching agent and a tooth and bone whitening agent.===Production of organic peroxy compounds===It is used in the production of various organic peroxides with dibenzoyl peroxide being a high volume example.", "Peroxy acids, such as peracetic acid and meta-chloroperoxybenzoic acid also are produced using hydrogen peroxide.", "Hydrogen peroxide has been used for creating organic peroxide-based explosives, such as acetone peroxide.", "It is used as an initiator in polymerizations.", "Hydrogen peroxide reacts with certain di-esters, such as phenyl oxalate ester (cyalume), to produce chemiluminescence; this application is most commonly encountered in the form of glow sticks.===Production of inorganic peroxides===The reaction with borax leads to sodium perborate, a bleach used in laundry detergents::Na2B4O7 + 4 H2O2 + 2 NaOH -> 2 Na2B2O4(OH)4 + H2O===Sewage treatment===Hydrogen peroxide is used in certain waste-water treatment processes to remove organic impurities.", "In advanced oxidation processing, the Fenton reaction gives the highly reactive hydroxyl radical (•OH).", "This degrades organic compounds, including those that are ordinarily robust, such as aromatic or halogenated compounds.", "It can also oxidize sulfur-based compounds present in the waste; which is beneficial as it generally reduces their odour.===Disinfectant===Hydrogen peroxide may be used for the sterilization of various surfaces, including surgical tools, and may be deployed as a vapour (VHP) for room sterilization.", "demonstrates broad-spectrum efficacy against viruses, bacteria, yeasts, and bacterial spores.", "In general, greater activity is seen against Gram-positive than Gram-negative bacteria; however, the presence of catalase or other peroxidases in these organisms may increase tolerance in the presence of lower concentrations.", "Lower levels of concentration (3%) will work against most spores; higher concentrations (7 to 30%) and longer contact times will improve sporicidal activity.Hydrogen peroxide is seen as an environmentally safe alternative to chlorine-based bleaches, as it degrades to form oxygen and water and it is generally recognized as safe as an antimicrobial agent by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).===Propellant===Rocket-belt hydrogen-peroxide propulsion system used in a jet packHigh-concentration is referred to as \"high-test peroxide\" (HTP).", "It can be used either as a monopropellant (not mixed with fuel) or as the oxidizer component of a bipropellant rocket.", "Use as a monopropellant takes advantage of the decomposition of 70–98% concentration hydrogen peroxide into steam and oxygen.", "The propellant is pumped into a reaction chamber, where a catalyst, usually a silver or platinum screen, triggers decomposition, producing steam at over , which is expelled through a nozzle, generating thrust.", "monopropellant produces a maximal specific impulse (''I''sp) of 161 s (1.6 kN·s/kg).", "Peroxide was the first major monopropellant adopted for use in rocket applications.", "Hydrazine eventually replaced hydrogen-peroxide monopropellant thruster applications primarily because of a 25% increase in the vacuum specific impulse.", "Hydrazine (toxic) and hydrogen peroxide (less-toxic ACGIH TLV 0.01 and 1 ppm respectively) are the only two monopropellants (other than cold gases) to have been widely adopted and utilized for propulsion and power applications.", "The Bell Rocket Belt, reaction control systems for X-1, X-15, Centaur, Mercury, Little Joe, as well as the turbo-pump gas generators for X-1, X-15, Jupiter, Redstone and Viking used hydrogen peroxide as a monopropellant.", "The RD-107 engines (used from 1957 to present) in the R-7 series of rockets decompose hydrogen peroxide to power the turbopumps.In bipropellant applications, is decomposed to oxidize a burning fuel.", "Specific impulses as high as 350 s (3.5 kN·s/kg) can be achieved, depending on the fuel.", "Peroxide used as an oxidizer gives a somewhat lower ''I''sp than liquid oxygen, but is dense, storable, non-cryogenic and can be more easily used to drive gas turbines to give high pressures using an efficient ''closed cycle''.", "It may also be used for regenerative cooling of rocket engines.", "Peroxide was used very successfully as an oxidizer in World War II German rocket motors (e.g.", "T-Stoff, containing oxyquinoline stabilizer, for both the Walter HWK 109-500 ''Starthilfe'' RATO externally podded monopropellant booster system, and for the Walter HWK 109-509 rocket motor series used for the Me 163B), most often used with C-Stoff in a self-igniting hypergolic combination, and for the low-cost British Black Knight and Black Arrow launchers.", "Presently, HTP is used on ILR-33 AMBER and Nucleus suborbital rockets.In the 1940s and 1950s, the Hellmuth Walter KG–conceived turbine used hydrogen peroxide for use in submarines while submerged; it was found to be too noisy and require too much maintenance compared to diesel-electric power systems.", "Some torpedoes used hydrogen peroxide as oxidizer or propellant.", "Operator error in the use of hydrogen-peroxide torpedoes was named as possible causes for the sinking of HMS ''Sidon'' and the Russian submarine ''Kursk''.", "SAAB Underwater Systems is manufacturing the Torpedo 2000.This torpedo, used by the Swedish Navy, is powered by a piston engine propelled by HTP as an oxidizer and kerosene as a fuel in a bipropellant system.===Household use===Contact lenses soaking in a 3% hydrogen peroxide-based solution.", "The case includes a catalytic disc which neutralises the hydrogen peroxide over time.Hydrogen peroxide has various domestic uses, primarily as a cleaning and disinfecting agent.", ";Hair bleachingDiluted (between 1.9% and 12%) mixed with aqueous ammonia has been used to bleach human hair.", "The chemical's bleaching property lends its name to the phrase \"peroxide blonde\".Hydrogen peroxide is also used for tooth whitening.", "It may be found in most whitening toothpastes.", "Hydrogen peroxide has shown positive results involving teeth lightness and chroma shade parameters.", "It works by oxidizing colored pigments onto the enamel where the shade of the tooth may become lighter.", "Hydrogen peroxide may be mixed with baking soda and salt to make a homemade toothpaste.", ";Removal of blood stainsHydrogen peroxide reacts with blood as a bleaching agent, and so if a blood stain is fresh, or not too old, liberal application of hydrogen peroxide, if necessary in more than single application, will bleach the stain fully out.", "After about two minutes of the application, the blood should be firmly blotted out.", ";Acne treatmentHydrogen peroxide may be used to treat acne, although benzoyl peroxide is a more common treatment.", ";Oral cleaning agentThe use of dilute hydrogen peroxide as a oral cleansing agent has been reviewed academically to determine its usefulness in treating gingivitis and plaque.", "Although there is a positive effect when compared with a placebo, it was concluded that chlorhexidine is a much more effective treatment.===Niche uses===Chemiluminescence of cyalume, as found in a glow stick;HorticultureSome horticulturists and users of hydroponics advocate the use of weak hydrogen peroxide solution in watering solutions.", "Its spontaneous decomposition releases oxygen that enhances a plant's root development and helps to treat root rot (cellular root death due to lack of oxygen) and a variety of other pests.For general watering concentrations around 0.1% is in use and this can be increased up to one percent for anti-fungal actions.", "Tests show that plant foliage can safely tolerate concentrations up to 3%.", ";FishkeepingHydrogen peroxide is used in aquaculture for controlling mortality caused by various microbes.", "In 2019, the U.S. FDA approved it for control of ''Saprolegniasis'' in all coldwater finfish and all fingerling and adult coolwater and warmwater finfish, for control of external columnaris disease in warm-water finfish, and for control of ''Gyrodactylus'' spp.", "in freshwater-reared salmonids.", "Laboratory tests conducted by fish culturists have demonstrated that common household hydrogen peroxide may be used safely to provide oxygen for small fish.", "The hydrogen peroxide releases oxygen by decomposition when it is exposed to catalysts such as manganese dioxide.", ";Removing yellowing from aged plasticsHydrogen peroxide may be used in combination with a UV-light source to remove yellowing from white or light grey acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastics to partially or fully restore the original color.", "In the retrocomputing scene, this process is commonly referred to as retrobright." ], [ "Safety", "Skin shortly after exposure to 35% Regulations vary, but low concentrations, such as 5%, are widely available and legal to buy for medical use.", "Most over-the-counter peroxide solutions are not suitable for ingestion.", "Higher concentrations may be considered hazardous and typically are accompanied by a safety data sheet (SDS).", "In high concentrations, hydrogen peroxide is an aggressive oxidizer and will corrode many materials, including human skin.", "In the presence of a reducing agent, high concentrations of will react violently.While concentrations up to 35% produce only \"white\" oxygen bubbles in the skin (and some biting pain) that disappear with the blood within 30–45 minutes, concentrations of 98% dissolve paper.", "However, concentrations as low as 3% can be dangerous for the eye because of oxygen evolution within the eye.High-concentration hydrogen peroxide streams, typically above 40%, should be considered hazardous due to concentrated hydrogen peroxide's meeting the definition of a DOT oxidizer according to U.S. regulations, if released into the environment.", "The EPA Reportable Quantity (RQ) for D001 hazardous wastes is , or approximately , of concentrated hydrogen peroxide.Hydrogen peroxide should be stored in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area and away from any flammable or combustible substances.", "It should be stored in a container composed of non-reactive materials such as stainless steel or glass (other materials including some plastics and aluminium alloys may also be suitable).", "Because it breaks down quickly when exposed to light, it should be stored in an opaque container, and pharmaceutical formulations typically come in brown bottles that block light.Hydrogen peroxide, either in pure or diluted form, may pose several risks, the main one being that it forms explosive mixtures upon contact with organic compounds.", "Distillation of hydrogen peroxide at normal pressures is highly dangerous.", "It is also corrosive, especially when concentrated, but even domestic-strength solutions may cause irritation to the eyes, mucous membranes, and skin.", "Swallowing hydrogen peroxide solutions is particularly dangerous, as decomposition in the stomach releases large quantities of gas (ten times the volume of a 3% solution), leading to internal bloating.", "Inhaling over 10% can cause severe pulmonary irritation.With a significant vapour pressure (1.2 kPa at 50 °C), hydrogen-peroxide vapour is potentially hazardous.", "According to U.S. NIOSH, the immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) limit is only 75 ppm.", "The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has established a permissible exposure limit of 1.0 ppm calculated as an 8-hour time-weighted average (29 CFR 1910.1000, Table Z-1).", "Hydrogen peroxide also has been classified by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) as a \"known animal carcinogen, with unknown relevance on humans\".", "For workplaces where there is a risk of exposure to the hazardous concentrations of the vapours, continuous monitors for hydrogen peroxide should be used.", "Information on the hazards of hydrogen peroxide is available from OSHA and from the ATSDR.===Wound healing===Historically, hydrogen peroxide was used for disinfecting wounds, partly because of its low cost and prompt availability compared to other antiseptics.There is conflicting evidence on hydrogen peroxide's effect on wound healing.", "Some research finds benefit, while other research find delays and healing inhibition.", "Its use for home treatment of wounds is generally not recommended.1.5–3% hydrogen peroxide is used as a disinfectant in dentistry, especially in endodotic treatments together with hypochlorite and chlorhexidin and 1–1.5% is also useful for treatment of inflammation of third molars (wisdom teeth).===Use in alternative medicine===Practitioners of alternative medicine have advocated the use of hydrogen peroxide for various conditions, including emphysema, influenza, AIDS, and in particular cancer.", "There is no evidence of effectiveness and in some cases it has proved fatal.Both the effectiveness and safety of hydrogen peroxide therapy is scientifically questionable.", "Hydrogen peroxide is produced by the immune system, but in a carefully controlled manner.", "Cells called phagocytes engulf pathogens and then use hydrogen peroxide to destroy them.", "The peroxide is toxic to both the cell and the pathogen and so is kept within a special compartment, called a phagosome.", "Free hydrogen peroxide will damage any tissue it encounters via oxidative stress, a process that also has been proposed as a cause of cancer.Claims that hydrogen peroxide therapy increases cellular levels of oxygen have not been supported.", "The quantities administered would be expected to provide very little additional oxygen compared to that available from normal respiration.", "It is also difficult to raise the level of oxygen around cancer cells within a tumour, as the blood supply tends to be poor, a situation known as tumor hypoxia.Large oral doses of hydrogen peroxide at a 3% concentration may cause irritation and blistering to the mouth, throat, and abdomen as well as abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhea.", "Ingestion of hydrogen peroxide at concentrations of 35% or higher has been implicated as the cause of numerous gas embolism events resulting in hospitalisation.", "In these cases, hyperbaric oxygen therapy was used to treat the embolisms.Intravenous injection of hydrogen peroxide has been linked to several deaths.The American Cancer Society states that \"there is no scientific evidence that hydrogen peroxide is a safe, effective, or useful cancer treatment.\"", "Furthermore, the therapy is not approved by the U.S. FDA.===Historical incidents===* On 16 July 1934, in Kummersdorf, Germany, a propellant tank containing an experimental monopropellant mixture consisting of hydrogen peroxide and ethanol exploded during a test, killing three people.", "* During the Second World War, doctors in German concentration camps experimented with the use of hydrogen peroxide injections in the killing of human subjects.", "* In December 1943, the pilot Josef Pöhs died after being exposed to the T-Stoff of his Messerschmitt Me 163.", "* In June 1955, Royal Navy submarine HMS ''Sidon'' sank after leaking high-test peroxide in a torpedo caused it to explode in its tube, killing twelve crew members; a member of the rescue party also succumbed.", "* In April 1992, an explosion occurred at the hydrogen peroxide plant at Jarrie in France, due to technical failure of the computerised control system and resulting in one fatality and wide destruction of the plant.", "* Several people received minor injuries after a hydrogen peroxide spill on board a Northwest Airlines flight from Orlando, Florida to Memphis, Tennessee on 28 October 1998.", "* The Russian submarine K-141 ''Kursk'' sailed to perform an exercise of firing dummy torpedoes at the ''Pyotr Velikiy'', a ''Kirov''-class battlecruiser.", "On 12 August 2000, at 11:28 local time (07:28 UTC), there was an explosion while preparing to fire the torpedoes.", "The only credible report to date is that this was due to the failure and explosion of one of the ''Kursk'''s hydrogen peroxide-fueled torpedoes.", "It is believed that HTP, a form of highly concentrated hydrogen peroxide used as propellant for the torpedo, seeped through its container, damaged either by rust or in the loading procedure on land where an incident involving one of the torpedoes accidentally touching ground went unreported.", "The vessel was lost with all hands.", "* On 15 August 2010, a spill of about of cleaning fluid occurred on the 54th floor of 1515 Broadway, in Times Square, New York City.", "The spill, which a spokesperson for the New York City Fire Department said was of hydrogen peroxide, shut down Broadway between West 42nd and West 48th streets as fire engines responded to the hazmat situation.", "There were no reported injuries." ], [ "See also", "* FOX reagent, used to measure levels of hydrogen peroxide in biological systems* Hydrogen chalcogenide* Retrobright, a process using hydrogen peroxide to restore yellowed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene plastic* Bis(trimethylsilyl) peroxide, an aprotic substitute" ], [ "References", "'''Bibliography'''* * A great description of properties & chemistry of .", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* Hydrogen Peroxide at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)* Material Safety Data Sheet* ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry FAQ* International Chemical Safety Card 0164* NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards* Process flow sheet of Hydrogen Peroxide Production by anthrahydroquinone autoxidation* Hydrogen Peroxide Handbook by Rocketdyne* IR spectroscopic study J. Phys.", "Chem.", "* Bleaching action of Hydrogen peroxide at YouTube" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Hesychasm" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hesychasm''' () is a contemplative monastic tradition in the Eastern Christian traditions of the Eastern Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church in which stillness (''hēsychia'') is sought through uninterrupted Jesus prayer.", "While rooted in early Christian monasticism, it took its definitive form in the 14th century at Mount Athos." ], [ "Etymology", "Hesychasm ( ) derives from the word ''hesychia'' ( ), meaning \"stillness, rest, quiet, silence\" and ''hesychazo'' ( ) \"to keep stillness\"." ], [ "Origins and development", "Metropolitan Kallistos Ware, a scholar of Eastern Orthodox theology, distinguishes five distinct usages of the term \"hesychasm\":# \"solitary life\", a sense, equivalent to \"eremitical life\", in which the term is used since the 4th century;# \"the practice of inner prayer, aiming at union with God on a level beyond images, concepts and language\"; # \"the quest for such union through the Jesus Prayer\";# \"a particular psychosomatic technique in combination with the Jesus Prayer\", use of which technique can be traced back at least to the 13th century;# \"the theology of St. Gregory Palamas\", on which see Palamism.===Early Christian monasticism=======Solitary ascetic life====Christian monasticism started with the legalisation of Christianity in the 4th century.", "The term ''hesychast'' is used sparingly in Christian ascetical writings emanating from Egypt from the 4th century on, although the writings of Evagrius and the ''Sayings of the Desert Fathers'' do attest to it.", "In Egypt, the terms more often used are ''anchoretism'' (Gr.", ", \"withdrawal, retreat\"), and ''anchorite'' (Gr.", ", \"one who withdraws or retreats, i.e.", "a hermit\").The term ''hesychast'' was used in the 6th century in Palestine in the ''Lives'' of Cyril of Scythopolis.", "Many of the hesychasts Cyril describes were his own contemporaries; several of the saints about whom Cyril was writing, especially Euthymios and Savas, were in fact from Cappadocia.", "The laws ''(novellae)'' of the emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565) treat ''hesychast'' and ''anchorite'' as synonyms, making them interchangeable terms.====Inner prayer====The practice of inner prayer, which aims at \"inward stillness or silence of the heart,\" dates back to at least the 4th century.", "Evagrius Ponticus (345–399), John Climacus (St. John of Sinai)(6th-7th century), Maximus the Confessor (c. 580–662), and Symeon the New Theologian (949–1022) are representatives of this hesychast spirituality.", "John Climacus, in his influential ''Ladder of Divine Ascent'', describes several stages of contemplative or hesychast practice, culminating in ''agape''.The earliest reference to the Jesus prayer is in Diadochos of Photiki (c. 450); Evagrius, Maximus, nor Symeon refer to the Jesus prayer.", "Saint John Cassian (c. 360–435), who transmitted Evagrius Pontikos' ascetical teachings to the West, forming the basis of much of the spirituality of the Order of Saint Benedict and the subsequent western mystical tradition, presents as the formula used in Egypt for repetitive prayer \"O God, make speed to save me: O Lord, make haste to help me.", "\"===Addition of psychosomatic techniques===St.", "Nicephorus the Hesychast (13th century), a Roman Catholic who converted to the Eastern Orthodox faith and became a monk at Mount Athos, advised monks to bend their heads toward the chest, \"attach the prayer to their breathing\" while controlling the rhythm of their breath, and \"to fix their eyes during prayer on the 'middle of the body',\" concentrating the mind within the heart in order to practice ''nepsis'' (watchfulness).", "While this is the earliest attestation of psychosomatic techniques in hesychast prayer, according to Kallistos Ware \"its origins may well be far more ancient,\" influenced by the Sufi practice of ''dhikr'', \" the memory and invocation of the name of God,\" which in turn may have been influenced by Yoga practices from India, though it's also possible that Sufis were influenced by early Christian monasticism.In the early 14th century, Gregory Sinaita (1260s–1346) learned a form of disciplined mental prayer from Arsenius of Crete, rooted in the tradition of John Climacus.", "In 1310, he went to Mount Athos, where he remained until 1335 as a monk at the Skete of Magoula near Philotheou Monastery, introducing hesychast practice there.", "The terms ''Hesychasm'' and ''Hesychast'' were used by the monks on Mount Athos to refer to the practice and to the practitioner of a method of mental ascesis that involves the use of the Jesus Prayer assisted by certain psychophysical techniques.===Hesychast controversy and Palamism===Gregory PalamasAbout the year 1337, hesychasm attracted the attention of Barlaam of Seminara, a Calabrian monk who at that time held the office of abbot in the Monastery of St Saviour in Constantinople and who visited Mount Athos.", "Mount Athos was then at the height of its fame and influence, under the reign of Andronicus III Palaeologus and under the leadership of the ''Protos'' Symeon.", "On Mount Athos, Barlaam encountered hesychasts and heard descriptions of their practices, also reading the writings of the teacher in hesychasm of St Gregory Palamas, himself an Athonite monk.", "Trained in Western Scholastic theology, Barlaam was scandalized by hesychasm and began to combat it both orally and in his writings.", "As a private teacher of theology in the Western Scholastic mode, Barlaam propounded a more intellectual and propositional approach to the knowledge of God than the hesychasts taught.Barlaam took exception to the doctrine entertained by the hesychasts as to the nature of the light, the experience of which was said to be the goal of hesychast practice, regarding it as heretical and blasphemous.", "It was maintained by the hesychasts to be of divine origin and to be identical to the light which had been manifested to Jesus' disciples on Mount Tabor at the Transfiguration.", "This Barlaam held to be polytheistic, inasmuch as it postulated two eternal substances, a visible and an invisible God.On the hesychast side, the controversy was taken up by St Gregory Palamas, afterwards Archbishop of Thessalonica, who was asked by his fellow monks on Mt Athos to defend hesychasm from the attacks of Barlaam.", "St Gregory himself was well-educated in Greek philosophy.", "St Gregory defended hesychasm in the 1340s at three different synods in Constantinople, and he also wrote a number of works in its defense.In these works, St Gregory Palamas uses a distinction, already found in the 4th century in the works of the Cappadocian Fathers, between the energies or operations (Gr.", "''energeiai)'' of God and the essence of God.", "St Gregory taught that the energies or operations of God were uncreated.", "He taught that the essence of God can never be known by his creature even in the next life, but that his uncreated energies or operations can be known both in this life and in the next, and convey to the hesychast in this life and to the righteous in the next life a true spiritual knowledge of God.", "In Palamite theology, it is the uncreated energies of God that illumine the hesychast who has been vouchsafed an experience of the uncreated light.In 1341, the dispute came before a synod held at Constantinople and presided over by the Emperor Andronicus III; the synod, taking into account the regard in which the writings of the pseudo-Dionysius were held, condemned Barlaam, who recanted and returned to Calabria, afterwards becoming a bishop in the Catholic Church.One of Barlaam's friends, Gregory Akindynos, who originally was also a friend of St Gregory Palamas, took up the controversy, which also played a role in the civil war between the supporters of John Cantacuzenus and John V Palaiologos.", "Three other synods on the subject were held, at the second of which the followers of Barlaam gained a brief victory.", "But in 1351 at a synod under the presidency of the Emperor John VI Cantacuzenus, hesychast doctrine was established as the doctrine of the Orthodox Church.===Introduction in Russia===St Paisius Velichkovsky and his disciples made the practice known in Russia and Romania, although hesychasm was already previously known in Russia, as is attested by St Seraphim of Sarov's independent practice of it." ], [ "Practice", "===Acquiring inner stillness===The hesychast interprets Jesus's injunction in the Gospel of Matthew to \"go into your closet to pray\" to mean that one should ignore the senses and withdraw inward.", "Saint John of Sinai writes:===Stages in hesychast practice===''Theosis'' is obtained by engaging in contemplative prayer resulting from the cultivation of watchfulness (Gk: ''nepsis'').", "According to the standard ascetic formulation of this process, there are three stages:* ''Katharsis'' () or purification,* ''Theoria'' () or illumination, and* ''Theosis'' () or deification (also referred to as union with God).====''Katharsis'' (ascese/purification)====Sobriety contributes to this mental ascesis that rejects tempting thoughts; it puts a great emphasis on focus and attention.", "The hesychast is to pay extreme attention to the consciousness of his inner world and to the words of the Jesus Prayer, not letting his mind wander in any way at all.", "While he maintains his practice of the Jesus Prayer, which becomes automatic and continues twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week, the hesychast cultivates ''nepsis'', watchful attention, to reject tempting thoughts (the \"thieves\") that come to the hesychast as he watches in sober attention in his hermitage.", "St. John of Sinai describes hesychast practice as follows:The hesychast is to attach Eros (), that is, \"yearning\", to his practice of sobriety so as to overcome the temptation to acedia (sloth).", "He is also to use an extremely directed and controlled anger against the tempting thoughts, although to obliterate them entirely he is to invoke Jesus Christ via the Jesus Prayer.Much of the literature of hesychasm is occupied with the psychological analysis of such tempting thoughts (e.g.", "St. Mark the Ascetic).", "This psychological analysis owes much to the ascetical works of Evagrius Pontikos, with its doctrine of the eight passions.====''Theoria'' (illumination)====The primary task of the hesychast is to engage in mental ascesis.", "The hesychast is to bring his mind (Gr.", "''nous)'' into his heart so as to practise both the Jesus Prayer and sobriety with his mind in his heart.", "In solitude and retirement, the hesychast repeats the Jesus Prayer, ''\"Lord Jesus Christ, son of God, have mercy on me, the sinner.\"''", "The hesychast prays the Jesus Prayer 'with the heart'with meaning, with intent, \"for real\" (see ontic).", "He never treats the Jesus Prayer as a string of syllables whose \"surface\" or overt verbal meaning is secondary or unimportant.", "He considers bare repetition of the Jesus Prayer as a mere string of syllables, perhaps with a \"mystical\" inner meaning beyond the overt verbal meaning, to be worthless or even dangerous.", "This emphasis on the actual, real invocation of Jesus Christ mirrors an Eastern understanding of mantra in that physical action/voice and meaning are utterly inseparable.The descent of the mind into the heart is not taken literally by the practitioners of hesychasm, but is considered metaphorically.", "Some of the psychophysical techniques described in the texts are to assist the descent of the mind into the heart at those times that only with difficulty it descends on its own.The goal at this stage is a practice of the Jesus Prayer with the mind in the heart, which practice is free of images (see ''Pros Theodoulon'').", "By the exercise of sobriety (the mental ascesis against tempting thoughts), the hesychast arrives at a continual practice of the Jesus Prayer with his mind in his heart and where his consciousness is no longer encumbered by the spontaneous inception of images: his mind has a certain stillness and emptiness that is punctuated only by the eternal repetition of the Jesus Prayer.This stage is called the ''guard of the mind''.", "This is a very advanced stage of ascetical and spiritual practice, and attempting to accomplish this prematurely, especially with psychophysical techniques, can cause very serious spiritual and emotional harm to the would-be hesychast.", "St. Theophan the Recluse once remarked that bodily postures and breathing techniques were virtually forbidden in his youth, since, instead of gaining the Spirit of God, people succeeded only \"in ruining their lungs.", "\"The guard of the mind is the practical goal of the hesychast.", "It is the condition in which he remains as a matter of course throughout his day, every day until he dies.There is a very great emphasis on humility in the practice of the Jesus Prayer, great cautions being given in the texts about the disaster that will befall the would-be hesychast if he proceeds in pride, arrogance or conceit.", "It is also assumed in the hesychast texts that the hesychast is a member of the Orthodox Church in good standing.====''Theosis'' (deification)====Theosis is from the guard of the mind that he is raised to contemplation by the grace of God.The hesychast usually experiences the contemplation of God as light, the \"uncreated light\" of the theology of St. Gregory Palamas.", "The hesychast, when he has by the mercy of God been granted such an experience, does not remain in that experience for a very long time (there are exceptionssee for example the ''Life'' of St. Savas the Fool for Christ (14th century), written by St. Philotheos Kokkinos (14th century)), but he returns \"to earth\" and continues to practise the guard of the mind.The uncreated light that the hesychast experiences is identified with the Holy Spirit.", "Experiences of the uncreated light are allied to the 'acquisition of the Holy Spirit'.", "Notable accounts of encounters with the Holy Spirit in this fashion are found in St. Symeon the New Theologian's account of the illumination of \"George\" (considered a pseudonym of St. Symeon himself); in the \"conversation with Motovilov\" in the ''Life'' of St. Seraphim of Sarov (1759–1833); and, more recently, in the reminiscences of Elder Porphyrios (Bairaktaris) of Kafsokalivia (''Wounded by Love'' pp.", "27–31).===''Prelest''===Orthodox tradition warns against seeking ecstasy as an end in itself.", "Hesychasm is a traditional complex of ascetical practices embedded in the doctrine and practice of the Orthodox Church and intended to purify the member of the Orthodox Church and to make him ready for an encounter with God that comes to him when and if God wants, through God's grace.", "The goal is to acquire, through purification and grace, the Holy Spirit and salvation.", "Any ecstatic states or other unusual phenomena which may occur in the course of hesychast practice are considered secondary and unimportant, even quite dangerous.", "Moreover, seeking after unusual \"spiritual\" experiences can itself cause great harm, ruining the soul and the mind of the seeker.", "Such a seeking after \"spiritual\" experiences can lead to ''spiritual delusion'' (Ru.", "''prelest,'' Gr.", "''plani)''the antonym of sobrietyin which a person believes himself or herself to be a saint, has hallucinations in which he or she \"sees\" angels, Christ, etc.", "This state of spiritual delusion is in a superficial, egotistical way pleasurable, but can lead to madness and suicide, and, according to the hesychast fathers, makes salvation impossible.===Liturgy and sacraments===Hesychasts fully participate in the liturgical and sacramental life of the Orthodox Church, including the daily cycle of liturgical prayer of the Divine Office and the Divine Liturgy.", "However, hesychasts who are living as hermits might have a very rare attendance at the Divine Liturgy (see the life of Saint Seraphim of Sarov) and might not recite the Divine Office except by means of the Jesus Prayer (attested practice on Mt Athos).", "In general, the hesychast restricts his external activities for the sake of his hesychastic practice." ], [ "Texts", "Books used by hesychasts include the ''Philokalia'', a collection of texts on prayer and solitary mental ascesis written from the 4th to the 15th centuries, which exists in a number of independent redactions; the ''Ladder of Divine Ascent;'' the collected works of St. Symeon the New Theologian (949–1022); and the works of St. Isaac the Syrian (7th century), as they were selected and translated into Greek at the Monastery of St. Savas near Jerusalem about the 10th century." ], [ "Oriental Orthodox views of hesychasm", "=== Coptic Orthodox ===Some clerics are \"wary of the hesychastic practices of the Jesus Prayer that developed later in the Eastern churches\".Fr.", "Matta el-Meskeen, a Coptic Orthodox clergyman, commented that hesychasm rid the concept of unceasing prayer from its simplicity, shifting \"its ascetical position as a humbling practice by itself to a mystical position, with programs, stipulations, technical and mechanical bases, degrees, objectives, results\".In 2016 His holiness Metropolitan Bishoy of Damietta, head of theology department in the institute of Coptic studies and secretary of the Coptic Orthodox Church Synod from 1985 until 2012 criticized the god essence-energy distraction and refused Palamism." ], [ "Western views of hesychasm", "Western theologians have tended to reject the idea that the distinction between essence and energies is real rather than, albeit with a foundation in reality, notional (in the mind).", "In their view, affirming an ontological essence-energies distinction in God contradicted the teaching of the First Council of Nicaea on divine unity.", "Adrian Fortescue, writing in the ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' (1909), claimed that \"the real distinction between God's essence and operation remains one more principle, though it is rarely insisted on now, in which the Orthodox differ from Catholics.\"", "According to Fortescue, the Scholastic theory that God is pure actuality prevented Palamism from having much influence in the West, and it was from Western Scholasticism that hesychasm's philosophical opponents in the East borrowed their weapons.In some instances these theologians equated hesychasm with quietism, an 18th century mystical revival codemned by the Catholic Church, perhaps because \"quietism\" is the literal translation of \"hesychasm\".", "However, according to Kallistos Ware, \"To translate 'hesychasm' as 'quietism,' while perhaps etymologically defensible, is historically and theologically misleading.\"", "Ware asserts that \"the distinctive tenets of the 17th-century Western quietists is not characteristic of Greek hesychasm.", "\"The Catholic Church has never expressed any condemnation of Palamism, and uses in its liturgy readings from the work of Nicholas Kabasilas, a supporter of Palamas in the controversy that took place in the East.", "Its Liturgy of the Hours includes extracts from Kabasilas's ''Life in Christ'' on Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday of the Fifth Week of Easter in Year II of the two-year cycle for the Office of Readings.The later 20th century saw a remarkable change in the attitude of Catholic theologians to Palamas, a \"rehabilitation\" of him that has led to increasing parts of the Western Church considering him a saint, even if uncanonized.", "Some Western scholars have argued that there is no conflict between Palamas's teaching and Catholic thought.", "According to Kallistos Ware, some Western theologians, both Catholic and Anglican, see the theology of Palamas as introducing an inadmissible division within God; however, others have incorporated his theology into their own thinking." ], [ "See also", "* Barlaam of Calabria* Caloyers* Centering Prayer* Dhikr* Eastern Catholic Churches* Eastern Orthodoxy* Henosis* Hesychia* Imiaslavie* Japa* Jesus Prayer* Lojong* Mantra* Maranatha* Meditation* Mysticism* ''Philokalia''* Poustinia* Prayer* Pratyahara* Quiet time* Quietism* Tabor Light* ''The Way of a Pilgrim''* Theoria* Theosis" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * ;Web-sources" ], [ "Further reading", ";Early monasticism* ''The ''Philokalia''.", "* ''The Ladder of Divine Ascent''.", "* ''The Ascetical Homilies of Isaac the Syrian''.", "* Works of St Symeon the New Theologian.", "* ''Coenobitical Institutions'' and ''Conferences'' of St John Cassian.", ";19th-20th century* ''The Way of the Pilgrim''* ''St Silouan the Athonite''.", "(Contains an introduction by Archimandrite Sophrony (Sakharov), immediate disciple of St Silouan, together with the meditations of St Silouan (1866–1938).", ")* Works of Archimandrite Sophrony (Sakharov) (1896–1993).", "* ''Elder Joseph the Hesychast''.", "(Life of a very influential Hesychast on Mt Athos who died in 1959.", ")* ''Monastic Wisdom.", "The Letters of Elder Joseph the Hesychast''.", "* ''Wounded by Love.", "The Life and the Wisdom of Elder Porphyrios''.", "(Reminiscences and reflections of Elder Porphyrios (1906–1991) of Mt Athos.", ")* Works by Elder Paisios (1924–1994) of Mount Athos.", "(A very well known Athonite Elder and Hesychast.", ")* ''Elder Ephraim of Katounakia''.", "Translated by Tessy Vassiliadou-Christodoulou.", "(Life and teachings of Elder Ephraim (1912–1998) of Katounakia, Mt Athos, a disciple of Elder Joseph the Hesychast.", ")* ''Hieromonachos Charalampos Dionusiates, O didaskalos tes noeras proseuches (Hieromonk Charalambos of the Monastery of Dionysiou, The Teacher of Mental Prayer)''.", "(Life and teachings of Elder Charalambos (1910–2001), sometime Abbot of the Monastery of Dionysiou, Mt Athos, and a disciple of Elder Joseph the Hesychast.", "In Greek, available in English.", ")* Works of Archimandrite Aimilianos (1934–2019) of the Monastery of Simonos Petra, Mt Athos, especially Volumes I and II.", "* ''Counsels from the Holy Mountain.", "Selected from the Lessons and Homilies of Elder Ephraim''.", "(Archimandrite Ephraim of the Monastery of St Anthony, Florence, Arizona.", "Formerly Abbot of the Monastery of Philotheou on Mt Athos, and a disciple of Elder Joseph the Hesychast.", "Not to be confused with Elder Ephraim of Katounakia.", "); Secondary* ''Hesychasm: an annotated bibliography'', Sergey S. Horujy, Moscow 2004.", "* * ''Paths to the Heart: Sufism and the Christian East'', edited by James Cutsinger" ], [ "External links", "* \"Hesychasm\", ''Encyclopædia Britannica''* The Origins of the Jesus Prayer, Kalistos Ware* The Jesus Prayer, Orthodox Church in America* Hesychasm in Orthodox Christian Tradition , St. Andrew Greek Orthodox Church* The Neptic and Hesychastic Character of Orthodox Athonite Monasticism, Archimandrite Georgios, the Holy Monastery of St. Gregorios" ] ]
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